KEMiwos PROCEEDINGS EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PACIFIC SCIENCE ASSOCIATION 1953 VOLUME III. OCEANOGRAPHY Published by the NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE PHILIPPINES NIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES’. QUEZON CITY, PHILIPPINES A ite 1957 Given in Loving Memory of Raymond Braislin Montgomery Scientist, R/V Atlantis maiden voyage 2 July - 26 August, 1931 AK KK KK KK Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Physical Oceanographer 1940-1949 Non-Resident Statf 1950-1960 Visiting Committee 1962-1963 Corporation Member 1970-1980 KKK KKK Faculty, New York University 1940-1944 Faculty, Brown University 1949-1954 Faculty, Johns Hopkins University 1954-1961 © Professor of Oceanography, Johns Hopkins University 1961-1975 ¢ bebePOO TOEO O i Denar’ pees PARE as ‘Nil BAY CAN ee heal HOUMA PE ny ae At } yoni ann i ; TECH Cs ae i i Dy X bits DS a PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS OF THE PACIFIC SCIENCE ASSOCIATION © — Held at the University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City / 16th to 28th November 1953 6 = UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE PHILIPPINES AND THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES VOLUME III OCEANOGRAPHY fo NATIONAL ee HReGERCHL OF THE PHILIPPINES nace te a THE PHILIPPINES QUEZON CITY, PHILIPPINES 1957 EigutTH PaAciric SCIENCE CONGRESS FourTH FAR-EASTERN PREHISTORY CONGRESS COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION AND DOCUMENTATION Chairman: Dean PATROCINIO VALENZUELA Co-Chairman: Prof. GABRIEL A. BERNARDO Dr. Jose P. BANTUG Prof. H. OTLEY BEYER Mr. PAUL BIERSTEIN Dr. JesusA A. CONCHA Mr. Haroitp CONKLIN Mrs. ARACELI P. GAFFUD Mrs. Pirar A. HALLAZGO Prof. Socorro P. Dr. ArcHre Hess Mrs. Luz B. LARDIZABAL Mr. E. ArsENIoO MANUEL Mrs. Rosario MENDOZA Dr. GILBERT S. PEREZ Mr. RaMON SAMANIEGO Mr. JosE ‘TEVEs VILLA i ae lige een uh ees CONTENTS VeLUME Jil OCEANOGRAPHY Resolutions Adopted in the Eighth Pacific Science Congress Concerning OCeanoomap ly aascreber wh Matree mentor eaten steel repent ey cance er. seatat ci aeal seeee Minas Report of the Standing Committee on Oceanography of the Pacific. By Thomas G. Thompson and John P. Tully. Part I. General Statements and Recommendations ............. Part II. A Summary of Pacific Oceanography, 1949-1953 ...... Part III. Reports on Activities of Specific Countries on Research OrraniZation sens) o:c)cl2ds POU Relay AS UET tats aU sc: ee, mE DIVISIONAL DISCUSSIONS: PROBLEMS IN THE DEVELOP- MENT OF METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY TN EGE ae A CHG Ceo, ocerparepe eatery episye ss Lies SYMPOSIUM ON EXPLOITATION AND UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS FROM THE SEA HSEOCCeCIN Se SM mEt eee oe Wek! ee mabe Sy EEE Se ee Ey i ibiologicaleOceanosraphy. By Wi. Aur Clemens) ja. 5.5.6s,- 2 o2eens shen. A New Approach to the Study of Marine Resources—the California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations. By Robert C. Miller Nourishment of Central Pacific Stocks of Tuna by the Equatorial Cir- culationa system sBy Oscars Hs Setter: iti. e alse ee Development and Conservation of the Tuna Fisheries of the Pacific. By Milner B. Schaefer Recent Studies on Tunas and Marlins in Japan. By Hiroshi Nakamura and Yoshio Hiyama 0. 0'9%0 0) ORONO 0 DOGS OPO" oO 0 DiS 6) 9o°0 Gioo%D Of O10 OO. b O00 onoO o/t s)he le) (oko) jelelelielie fel esialie) (sie eek eiie}iahie) a) leleife"\s)ehiene) ejeheils| efullceve levee Are the World-wide Declines in Sardine Catches Related? By John C. Marr and James E. Bohlke The Products of the Sea and Their Exploitation and Utilization in Pa- kistan. By M. R. Khan Some Factors Bearing on the Utilization of Marine Products of the West Coast of Canada. By Neal M. Carter Fabrication, Definition et Reglementation de la Sauce de Poisson -Viet- namienne “Nuoc-Mam.” Par J. Guillerm et A. Vialard-Goudou .. Studies on Agar-Agar in Japan. By T. Yanagawa and K. Tanii .... A Report on the Studies Made in Japan on Pearl Culture. By Yoshiichi ole: ishe hey el aiie) ole) eve ehelie/aoyieileljie’ isi keh a, ehejie! ee) 0 jeletieei-e! felte 00000 0000 O00 66 30 0’ Os0o 090 6-5 050.5 dlolo.o Oe c.O ono IVEAGS UT gy ctees es cspae OO seep. halt, orale ieeeeaaes cece eed re eae atorcke Fundamental Studies on the Fish Lamp. By N. Y. Kawamoto ...... Coaction in Lamp-Communities. By Hiroshi Maeda ................. The Hake Fisheries off the West Coast of Chile. By Erik M. Poulsen PAGE 115 116 121 126 131 149 165 183 189 200 208 215 225 229 234 241 Report on the Algae of the Chilean Seas. By Hector Etcheverry-Daza The Hisheries of ‘Chile:) By B: s4#:Osonio-Mafallls)..02... .see eee Preliminary List of Chilean Fishes and their Vernacular Names. By Fernando ‘de *Bueny 3... Suen ae ee eit ee eles eras uc. « Merutonaiore Edible Shellfish of the Chilean Coast. By Francisco Reveros-Zuniga .. Notes on the Commercially Important Fishes of Chile. By Parmenio Be SVATIOZ. CS) 2 larreerataoe snes Soo Sea ee a ia, a fae oA Tle rR ee RU Oceanographical and Fisheries Research in India. By N. K. Panikkar Oceanography and Fisheries. By G. L. Kesteven ................... Factors in the Utilization of Canada’s Pacific Marine Resources. By J. Tu: Hart: parte se oacc ast aoe. AS es BO Poisonous Fishes and their Relationship to Marine Food Resources in the Pacific: Area. ) By, Bruce |W... Halstead) ccen eee eet Some Aspects of Fisheries Problems in the South Pacific Area. By A. He SORE KHOOMN Sette cP eee teen crm ance cel eta Smt eusnc tars Nace meet ance enon SYMPOSIUM ON MARINE PROVINCES IN THE INDO-PACIFIC REGION Awardees ot. the WINTIS COL Subvyentionsas ss eae eee ee en PTOCCECIMES: se oic eyes eiove ale eearel ay seo or cual cities Sea aneiiy eikewals els elt nee Re cine actin aa The Nature and Evolution of the Hawaiian Inshore Fish Fauna. By: Wilhlam A. Gosline. 3. acces cccctm mee copa natal oy age pn ane crates eee ee rae Marine Provinces of the Indo-West Pacific. By A. W. B. Powell . An Outline of the Distribution of Pacific Deep-Sea Animals. By Anton Bers Bruun’. & ois sccyecs ke lece lib ells oa) ae toyhe «Sau seen ey ae SRNR 5 RI Deep-Water Biological Provinces of the Indo-Pacific. By Rolf L. Bolin Some Outlines of Plankton Concentration in the Eastern and Tropical Pacific. aby ~Martin yw. Johnson jc.0- ear soe lee ei eae Distributional Provinces of Marine Bryozoa in the Indo-Pacific Region. By, Yaichiro; Okadavandy Shizuo Mawatan, 43532 9.ere ee oe The Distribution of Polychaetes within the Indo-Pacific. By G. A. Knox A New Approach to the Distribution of Fishes in the Indo-West Pacific Area... By. Leonard :P. ‘Schultz. choc. coin eee es oe ee The Zoogeographical Distribution of the Indo-Pacific Littoral Holo- thurioidea.. By Jose S..Domantay hae. are. eee cere ate tele cher Distribution of Marine Fishes in South East Asian Waters. By J. D. FY. \WHardenberg tiny ..f) 3% tees. eh, SASS 2 eR RR ORES eet An Analysis of the Pelagic Bird Faunas of the Indo-Pacific Oceans. By/-Dauke Serventy flac) let. My iat Sh Sa, WAR eksoots clon, Se wee Some Distribution Patterns Represented by the Marine Algae of Nha- trane BayisVaetnam. 7 By Ea ValesDawsoml.rie is -liirsto eee Some Problems on Marine Biogeographical Micro-Provinces Surrounding Japan. By Tadasige Habe, Tokubei Kuroda, and Denzaburo Miyadi li PAGE 246 253 266 280 287 294 303 314 321 301 337 338 347 359 365 373 379 391 403 413 417 457 461 489 493° The Marine Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands in Relation to Molluscan Faunas in South West Pacific. By R. K. Dell .................. The Geographical Variation of Early Embryenic Processes in Marine Eggs. By Alexander Wolsky .......+2- 22.6 esecee sees teenies SYMPOSIUM ON GENERAL CIRCULATION IN THE PACIFIC IPYVOCECOINES) o.48 Sa eee ts oes et oa hi oh) CE clots ensers A Theoretical Study on the General Circulation of the Pacific Ocean. By LO IBGE ey ae tes op oe PAC O MOS me coo sno mae PHnaeo AIbO pao moe A Contribution to the Theory of Upwelling and Coastal Currents. IRy Joy IehiCe keen gash ooloamhd oma bocnb soo gag moms s Mods 6 con 6.55 Surface Waters Off the Canadian Pacific Coast. By J. P. Tully and eae Ati DOC 25 |e oe coe Soul ee RRA De OREN Oh MER. aE Ae Circulation Near the Washington Coast. By Clifford A. Barnes and Robert aGasPaquetten. actarevs coeur aes mooteeperetrret a att oar U.S. Navy Contributions to the Study of Pacific Circulation. By John Lyman On the Variation of the Kuroshio Near the Japan Islands. By D. Shoji andy. pSuddeda «45 mone enmrkie Al. Sede. Es aall. Shad) 8 PAE Sedimentation in the Deep Sea. By Hans Pettersson ................ Some Characteristics of Sea Water Structure. By John P. Tully .. On the Circulation in the North Pacific in Relation, to Pelagic Fish- Cesar yo Vier elaintal key WIGAN ar recca tosis cscs ie hve peiemenees sue a oe oes The Topography of the Sea Surface in the Region of the Philippines. By Herbert W. Graham Recent Oceanographic Exploration in the North and Equatorial Pacific Ocean | Ve VWiaEVenbiss NVOOSbERTR ASIF eS « sche ods cs aus had aed on Basin Waters of South California. (Abstract) By K. O. Emery .... An Oceanographic Model of Puget Sound. By Clifford A. Barnes, Johnet tincolngand. MaurticesRattray voice ase Funes Onis ene Daily Seawater Observations on the Pacific Coast of Canada. By H. Ain’ -L IOUS EPR iS Bite ie Oreo ae oc ecics CHR Ret Oe Ree CRE near grin en ek ee A Study of Local Variability in Marine Sediments. By Richard G. Bader Secular Variation of the Annual Mean Sea Level Along the Japanese Coasts. IBy Wilememiaeneny OKRA G Oho ogg mee cia to De mee > Comer Submarine Canyon Investigations. (Title only) By Francis P. Shepard Surface Temperature and Salinity in the Southwest Pacific Ocean. (CAlbarrpmce)) | 1Byy ID Wile (GeneaeIe ohooh bu choo coomod ou dado an adgicoS Secular Trends at East Australian Coastal Stations: 1942-1952. By ID) Ap TRG yo) a ores eum aot erie ea ee eee eee Rae cme Coren ERO cero o.ccn chai o-cbo'o. Recent Developments in Tidal and Tidal Current Measurements. Con- imibution trom the U.S. Coast and Geodetic) Survey ..-2-5-..:.....- On the Minimum Oxygen Layer in the North Pacific Ocean. By Takeo TREAT ONO ena cea te eee Ole orcear aot Fi sieiin sal atone oh ooo carck arocio Gini Ren ERO A Study on the Property of the Coastal Water Around Hachijo Islands. By Yasuo Miyake, Y. Sugiura and K. Kameda On the Oceanographical Conditions of the Sea near the Fixed Point, 153°E, 39°N, in the North Pacific Ocean. By M. Nakano, M. Koi- zumi and J. Fukuoka elivjcele:lehteieltetiotiaWel « (0) ofiee) e eniehiel ©) eloleniel cle el(e/> els, teg.w ties (oatiol =tslke Distribution of Copper and Zine in Sea Water. By Yoshimi Morita .. Abnormal Summers in the Peruvian Coastal Current. By Erwin Schweigger S} elllaftel'e! «| eiiel ie veh ene Jeliehienisfielohejle)ie) iejve ulielielte’ 0° 0) Te)ie)\e. = 1a) =) eee! ef el lejsa) (ole ene) when arae, Quantitative Determination of Tungsten and Molybdenum in Sea Water. By Masayoshi Ishibashi, Tsunebobu Shigematsu and Yasuharu Na- kagawa ‘ei iv,-s! (otto! ie) sinless) \e: 0) cel 9] /e: e' \e) ejlevielie] lo}eiie) elie! fee oli) ofjeleiveisel/ecalle jeje) J /6)e),") lia; omen ilomememe A Study on Temperature and Salinity of the Surrounding Waters of Taiwan. By Chu Tsu-Yao Cee SC eC ee On the Fluctuation of the Kurosiwo and the Oyasiwo. By T. Nan’niti A Report on the Oceanographical Observations in the Antarctic Ocean Carried Out on Board the Japanese Whaling Fleet During the Years 1946-1952. (Abstract) By Masao Hanzawa and Takeo A LSiG Tcl cb kok: Waeey x apes CN Ue gir WY ts inate or a’ Sey Ey eae ep rd er me PRIA ME 41S ALANA 16 (0,0 A New Japanese G. E. K. By Suda, Kuroda-Masao, D. Shoji and Sawa- yanagi-Fumiwo ee fel fej ce te) ferte;le\te) ee) ©) (efiejjej le «lo. feuje (e eisel ieee te: jalie .efie,1@! ase) ie) 1ei1e) oe) (0/16! (e!n0)/1 8110), @) PAGE [Note: The other papers in Oceanography and those of Zoology are included in Volume III A.] lv OCEANOGRAPHY Organizing Chairman: Dr. D. V. VitLapotip, Director, Bureau of Fisheries, Manila. Secretary: Mr. ‘TEoporo G. Mecta, Bureau of Fisheries, Manila.* RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED IN THE EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CONCERNING OCEANOGRAPHY STANDING COMMITTEES 5. That the Standing Committees on Meteorology of the Pacific, Oceanography of the Pacific, Pacific Entomology, Pacific Conservation, Museums in Pacific Research, Soil and Land Classification in the Pacific Area, Forest Resources of the Pacific Area, Crop Improvement in the Pacific Area, Animal Improvement in the Pacific Area, aearopology and Social Sciences in the Pacific be continued. JOINT DIVISIONAL RESOLUTIONS I. Geology, Oceanography and Meteorology The Congress notes the efforts now being made to provide for the establishment of an international geophysical institute in the Hawaiian Islands as a center for the investigation of problems related to the chem- istry, physics and mathematics of the earth, sea and atmosphere and their roles in Pacific environmental relationships. The Congress believes that an institute in the sense envisaged would greatly improve the opportunities for investigation of important geophysical problems. DIVISIONAL RESOLUTIONS Oceanography 1. ‘The Congress notes with interest that the oceanographers attend- ing the Eighth Pacific Science Congress propose to establish an Oceano- graphic Institute of the Pacific. * Present address: Bureau of Agricultural Extension, DANR, Manila. 1 2 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 2. ‘The Congress strongly supports the proposal, recently examined by the special UNESCO meeting of consultants on oceanography, to create a legally constituted inter-governmental organization for oceano- graphic research in the Indo-Pacific region. 3. The Congress urges member countries (a) to exert every means to develop research programs upon which may be based sound policies for increased development and wise use of marine resources, (b) to de- velop the fullest international cooperation in the management of marine resources so that they may be maintained permanently. 4. The Congress draws attention to the following types of ocean- ographic study which can be maintained at a small cost, and whose re- sults when correlated with other available data can provide large re- turns: (a) Daily observations of surface sea water temperature and sa- linity which can be made at light-stations, and by commercial shipping lines. “The work may be extended to daily observations of the nutrient and respiratory elements, and the state of the sea. (b) Study of specific organisms of academic or economic interest in the locality. There are many species which have been taxonomically described, but whose life history, habits and economic value are unknown. 5. The Congress commends the excellent research work of the Bu- reau of Fisheries of the Philippines and respectfully suggests to the Gov- ernment of the Republic of the Philippines that it explore the possibili- ties of establishing further oceanographic and fish culture research through the provision of extended facilities. REPORT OF THE STANDING COMMITTEE ON OCEANOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC Prepared by THomas G. THOMPSON,! Chairman; and Joun P. TuLty,? Secretary PART I GENERAL STATEMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The greatest impetus given to the science of oceanography in the past few years, other than man’s unquenchable thirst for new knowl- edge, has been the desire to increase the food resources of the world which have their origin in the sea. Prior to World War II only a rela- tively few countries were concerned with the study of oceanography, even though all of the Pacific Science Congresses have continually stressed the importance of exploring and exploiting the seas as a source of food, in order to feed rapidly growing and sometimes hungry popu- lations. The necessity for looking to the sea, which covers about seventy per cent of the surface of the earth, as a source for additional food is now being realized by many political leaders, and other far-seeing individuals in many countries. For the Pacific area this has been espe- cially significant since the 7th Pacific Science Congress. Stressed also is the importance of collaboration for research, conservation and the free exchange of scientific information. The seas may be searched far and wide, shallow and deep to find the habitats of the fish. This is the historical method. Fish are where you find them. ‘This method is not very efficient for the fish are here today and somewhere else tomorrow. If dependence is to be made upon the fisheries for an assured food supply, the optimum conditions for each particular fishery must be known as well as when and where such conditions will occur. The adaption of proper and economical fishing methods for the different fisheries in various areas must receive detailed attention and study, al- though the metheds of the commercial fisheries are not in the realm of oceanography. The oceanographer reasons that the fish will seek those parts of the sea where the food of the fish is most plentiful, where optimum 1 Professor of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle 5, Washington, U.S.A. * Oceanographer in Charge, Pacific Oceanographic Group, Nanaimo, B.C., Canada. 9 >) 4 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS conditions of fertility occur for production of such food, and where the climate of the sea is most suitable. In other words, the oceanog- rapher must provide information as to the nature and extent of the best pastures and the most desirable sea climate. With such oceano- graphic information, expressed in the form of charts, the commercial fisherman can function economically and efficiently. This oceano- graphic method is in sharp contrast to the so-called historical or hunting method. As an example of the oceanographic method, it is deemed desirable to outline its application to recent tuna investigations. ‘The tuna prefer ocean waters where the temperatures are higher than 15°C. and the salinity is greater than 32°/,.. The tuna also require a plentiful supply of smaller fish on which to feed. ‘These small fish are plankton feeders and are found in regions of upwelling near the continental coasts, or around islands, or in some of the ocean currents. These regions of upwelling supply the necessary nutrient material which is essential to plankton growth. Tuna are found in the broad tropical belt of the ocean and can be expected to migrate into some parts of the temperate regions during the summer months. The search for tuna is narrowed to salubrious climates which are well stocked with plankton feeders. Thus the assumption may be made that if the conditions suitable for plankton are known in the warmer seas, there tuna will be found. Hence the oceanographic conditions of the plankton are studied in order to find the tuna. In this oceanographic approach some progress has been made. It is known that the basic focds are the respiratory elements, oxygen and carbon dioxide and the various nutrient salts such as nitrates, phos- phates, silicates, etc. ; The respiratory elements are plentiful everywhere in the upper 100 meters of the ocean, but the nutrients are often depleted, except in the regions of upwelling, where they are replenished from the cool depths. Physical oceanographic studies indicate that such regions occur along the coast lines, and around the islands. Here the phyto-plankton is plentiful, and provides food for the zooplankton, which in turn feeds the small fishes on which the tuna feed. Evidently tuna should occur in the warm waters on the lee side of coasts and in the vicinity of up- welling in the equatorial currents. ‘This has been found to be generally true. However, they also occur in many parts of the open ocean where plankton and the plankton feeders are sparse, and so the simple theory of the food chain is not the only explanation of the fishery. Recently it has been learned that great concentrations of plankton exist in the cold water below the thermocline, over all the known seas. This plankton layer is deepest in the tropics and shallowest in the arctic REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 5 and antarctic and it sinks by day and rises at night. This deep plank- ton layer contains many sizable forms of euphausiids and small fishes, and it is suspected that some of the tuna feed there. If the plankton rise above the thermocline into the warm layers, it would be invading the habitat of the tuna, and they could feed on it. If the plankton rose only to the thermocline, but not through it, it is possible that the tuna would find it. They could make forays into the colder waters, and return to the upper warm waters between feedings. But if the plankton is always well below the thermocline it may be doubtful if the tuna would find it. Oceanographic data should designate the areas where the deep plankton rise to or through the thermocline. Echo sounders reveal the depths at which the plankton layer exists and also indicate the possible presence of tuna. New types of gear for deep fishing need to be devel- oped or some method devised for luring the fish within the range of existing gear. This is the oceanographic method. ‘Yo learn the requirements of the fish; to determine when, where, and how these occur; and then to seek the fish in the most likely places, at most suitable times, and where necessary develop methods of detection and fishing. ‘The last steps are simple, when the biology and oceanography are complete, as shown by the investigations of the Conseil Permanent pour l|’Exploration de la Mer, in the North Sea. This reasoning would be sufficient if extensive knowledge of the plankton were known as well as many details concerning the properties and characteristics of the waters. For most of the Pacific this knowl- edge is very incomplete. One is confronted with the threefold task of exploring the ocean for tuna, solving the living habits of plankton and charting the properties and characteristics of the water masses. During the span of the Pacific Science Association, since 1924, the Pacific Ocean has been explored. Many oceanographic expeditions have defined the water masses, charted the currents, recognized the properties of the water, and studied the fish and the plankton. The major water masses, the principal currents, and the generally productive and unpro- ductive areas are known. However, detailed knowledge is very meager. The cycles of temperature, salinity, and productivity, the variations in currents, the migration routes and fluctuations of the fisheries are the present concern. Research in oceanography is expensive. It requires expensive ships, expensive equipment, highly-trained personnel and a large operational investment. ‘The specialized agencies of the United Nations have real- ized this and the Food and Agriculture Organization has during the past five years sponsored the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, an associa- 6 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS . tion of 16 member governments of South and East Asia, while UNESCO has, besides providing substantial grants-in-aid to enable plankton work- ers to attend the forthcoming Symposium to be held in connection with the 5th IPFC meeting in Bangkok, convened, jointly with FAO, the meeting of consultants held immediately prior to this Congress to study the feasibility of promoting a co-operative international oceanographic project for the Indo-Pacific region. It will therefore be seen that there is a tendency for a banding together by many countries of the Pacific area for the study of the sea. Nations that have been dependent solely upon their land resources are now studying their fisheries and exploring their seas, while those nations that have pioneered in oceanographic research have increased their efforts many fold. At the first meetings of the Pacific Science Association in New Zea- land, the report of the chairman of the Standing Committee on Oceanog- raphy consisted largely of a review of the principal advances that had been made in instrumentation. ‘The countries of the Pacific were be- ginning to recover from devastating war and the universities and gov- ernmental research agencies were still in the process of readjustment or reorganization. Compared to the present situation little could be said at that time about research accomplishments or planned programs of research. In most countries oceanography is undertaken by the senior govern- ment, in the Fisheries or the equivalent department, with close coopera- tion of the navy, and the hydrographic and meteorological services. In practically every case the work is directed by a National Committee representing the services, the allocation of effort, resources and _per- sonnel. ‘The outstanding exception is the United States, where oceano- graphic efforts are divided amongst a number of independent agencies, with the universities now tending to play the major role. One of the important resolutions of the 7th Congress was one urging the establishment of centers for oceanographic education and research in the Pacific area. At the present time such institutions exist in Canada, Hawaii, Japan, and the United States, with full university connection, where contact with experts of all the sciences which can be applied to the study of the sea is possible, and where full library facilities are available. At these universities are oceanographic institu- tions or academic departments of oceanography. ‘These centers are pro- viding the initiative, inspiration and encouragement necessary to develop young men for the task of advancing oceanographic knowledge. This trend toward the establishment of oceanographic centers in universities is evidenced in other countries of the Pacific area. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY th The greatest deterrent to the development of oceanography at present is the lack of trained personnel. With the growth of the cen- ters of oceanography the problem of personnel will gradually be solved. All the peoples of the Pacific are dependent upon the sea, yet the average person is wholly ignorant of this medium. ‘There should be established in the schools and universities of the several nations elemen- tary courses dealing with oceanography. Such courses would be purely of an informative and cultural nature and presented in order to give a general knowledge of the oceans and the many organisms contained therein to the occasional student so that he would be inspired to resume further studies in one of the fields of oceanography. Since the war many feliowships have been made available which enable students to study in countries other than their own. Experience to date indicates that these fellowships create potentialities for better international understanding than any other system yet devised. ‘This Congress should go on record as urging the establishment of further fellowships, particularly in the several phases of oceanography. A standing committee of the Pacific Science Association usually con- sists of six to ten members. ‘The chairman is appointed by the President of the association and has the power tc act and name the members of his committee. He works in cooperation with the chairman of the local organizing committee in the preparation of programs and plans for a forthcoming Pacific Science Congress and with the secretariat on other matters. This general plan of operation has many desirable features. In forming the Standing Committee on Oceanography there are many factors to be considered, chief among which are to secure a proper representation of the various specialities in oceanography and a saatis- factory geographic distribution of the members. In selecting the mem- bership of the committee the chairman has sought the advice of many colleagues. He has received suggestions from representatives of govern- mental organizations, and some oceanographers, eager to further the advances of oceanography, have volunteered their services. Sometime ago the chairman saw the advisability of sub-dividing the committee in order to insure a better specialization of geographic representation. The Standing Committee on Oceanography at present consists of 32 members, which includes the chairman, the secretary and three sub- committees of ten members each. The subcommittees cover the fields of physical oceanography, oceanic biology and the fisheries, and each subcommittee is headed by a chairman. As the result of experience in forming the present committee, cor- respondence with several members of the committee and with oceanog- raphers not affiliated with it, the chairman and the secretary have 8 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS become convinced of the desirability of forming an oceanographic so- ciety of the Pacific. It is suggested that such a society be part of the Pacific Science Association and its meetings would be an integral part of a Pacific Science Congress. ‘The officers and executive committee of such a society, elected by popular vote of the membership, would func- tion for the association in much the same manner as the present stand- ing committee. “Through membership in such a society every oceanog- rapher would have a voice and the privilege of active participation. The present standing committee may be criticized as being more or less of a closed system. More than twice the numbers now comprising the Standing Committee were recommended for or volunteered for member- ship. Then again there are a number of young men just beginning their careers in oceanography who would undoubtedly profit by affilia- tion with such an organization. This would also be true of oceano- graphers who are citizens of nations where scientists are relatively few. Such a society could sponsor a much needed oceanographic publication for the entire Pacific area, provided funds could be obtained, in which oceanographers could publish the results of their finding. Here also would appear information of current activities, periodic abstracts of out- standing articles published elsewhere and a current bibliography. It is recommended that such an organization be considered by this Congress. The 7th Pacific Science Congress meeting in Auckland and Christ- church, had a marked catalytic effect on oceanographic research in New Zealand, and those who came from afar to attend the Congress learned much from their New Zealand colleagues. It was an education to have seen this delightful country and to have been received so generously by its charming people. It is hoped that the oceanographers of the Philippines will receive a similar stimulus and those that have come from afar will be inspired by seeing the Philippines and meeting with the citizens of the country which has played a major role in recent his- tory. It seems fitting for the chairman and the secretary of the Standing Committee on Oceanography to express their appreciation for the excel- lent cooperation received from all members of the committee. It has been a real pleasure working with Dr. D. V. Villadolid, chairman of the local organizing committee on oceanography and also chairman of the subcommittee on fisheries. Through his untiring efforts an excel- lent program has been organized and it promises to surpass even those of previous congresses. ‘To Dr. Villadolid and his associates the Stand- ing Committee expresses its profound thanks and appreciation for their many efforts. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 9 PART II A SUMMARY OF PACIFIC OCEANOGRAPHY, 1949-1953 Prepared by Tuomas G. THompson, Chairman; and JouN P. TuLty, Secretary An attempt will be made to summarize briefly some of the activities and results of oceanographic research since 1949 as reported by the mem- bers of the Standing Committee. This summary will be augmented, in some cases, by more detailed reports outlining the programs and accom- plishments of a specific country or research organization, and are given as Part III of this report. However, much of the important research that has been conducted will be presented to the congress in the sympo- sia that have been organized under the direction of members of the Standing Committee on Oceanography, and the Philippines Organizing Committee. AUSTRALIA The hydrological cycles in the sea around Australia have been stu- died, the surface and water masses in the Tasman Sea have been identi- fied, and the oceanography of some Australian estuaries have been re- lated to the productivity of oysters. Regular observations between Aus- tralia and Antarctica, and at Macquarie and Heard Islands, have been made. A source of deep, very saline water has been found by the Dis- covery Expedition in the ‘Tasman Sea, which appears to move eastward counter to the circumpolar drift. A number of oceanographic cruises to 100 miles of the southwest coast were taken in the Fisheries Research Vessel ““Warren’’ to examine the properties of the water. The R.R.V. Discovery II examined the properties along the five lines of the southern coast. Surface observations are being secured fortnightly from Australia to New Zealand by the regular passenger ship 1.S.M.V. Wanganella. ‘The temperature and salinity characteristics of the surface Tasman Sea water masses have been determined, and their seasonal variation in position will be followed in the future, particularly as they affect coast- al waters. A contribution to the knowledge of estuarine hydrology has been conducted by D. J. Rockford and the work is being continued by de- tailed dynamic and productivity studies of selected estuaries. This re- search is primarily directed toward oyster production. The Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition has main- tained physical and biological research stations at Macquarie and Heard 10 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Islands since 1948. Hydrological and biological programs have been carried out, and oceanographic observations have been made between Australia and the Islands, each year, by the relief vessels. “The Expedi- tion is to be extended to the Antarctic mainland in the Australian sector. The biological oceanographic studies have been concerned with de- veloping the unutilized or little utilized aquatic organisms. This includes the discovery of the stocks, fishing tests, life histories, and identification of tuna, clupeoids, carangids, and archibenthic fishes, as well as help surveys. The Division of Fisheries of the Commonwealth Scientific and In- dustrial Research Organization carries out a research program in Hy- drology and Planktology at its Cronulla headquarters, and at five field stations. “This work includes sampling at various coastal stations in eastern and western Australia, which has revealed the hydrological cycles at various latitudes, and a long term trend in the properties and produc- tivity in Eastern Australian waters. In the fisheries, studies have been made of stock identification, life histories, natural fluctuation, and effects of fishing. ‘These fisheries in- clude barracuda, salmon, humpback whale, western crayfish, sea mullet, scallop, school shark, tiger flathead, white bait, and other indigenous fishes. Considerable work has also been done on the acclimatization and culture of rock, pearl and Japanese oysters, the introduction of fresh- water trout, and the enrichment of inland waters. Estuarine ecology has received some attention with a view to increasing fish production. No institution in Australia gives special training in oceanography, but the Department of Zoology in a few Universities gives lectures on marine organisms and ecology; and there are small research projects on marine animals for post graduate students. CANADA A series of surveys has been undertaken for about 500 miles of the coast to examine the currents and the properties of the water to a depth of 1000 metres. This area of British Columbia is where the North Paci- fic drift divides, part flowing north to form the Alaska gyral and part south to form the California current. Coupled with the Marine Life Research Surveys off the coast of the United States, this work provides for the first time a realistic picture of the detail of this great divergence which has been recognized for a long time. The currents are weak (less than 10 miles per day) and mostly eddies. The salinity structure is definite and appears to be permanent. There is an upper zone of low salinity water to about 100 metres depth, a deep zone of greater salinity, separated by a boundary or transition REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 11 layer of ten to 100 metres thickness. In late winter the temperature stratification is similar to the salinity. When the surface waters are heated in the spring a warm layer is formed which gradually deepens and becomes more marked as the season advances. When autumn cool- ing occurs the warm layer loses heat, but continues to deepen until it coincides with the salicline in late winter. This area is being continual- ly monitored by regular bathythermograph observations from the weather ship on Station Peter. The principal interest is in the coastal waters and the many bays, sounds, inlets and straits which are the dominant feature of the Pacific coast. ‘The area is divided into natural regions. Each region 1s sur- veyed at frequent intervals throughout a year or more, uatil the prop- erties of the water and the mechanisms of circulation, and their sea- sonal variations are revealed. These are then related to daily observa- tions of surface sea water temperature, weather and run-off that are be- ing made concurrently around the coasts. These daily observations then serve as continuing indices of the oceanographic conditions. Both the oceanographic conditions and the daily observations have been success- fully related to some of the fisheries. The prediction and control of industrial and domestic pollution in coastal areas had become a major oceanographic concern. As new indus- tries are established their effect on fisheries is forecast and the disposal of sewage adjusted to avoid harmful pollution. This work is under the direction of the Joint Committee on Ocea- nography in Canada, which all government departments interested in the sea, pool their requirements and resources. The Committee directs the work of a group on the Atlantic Coast and another group on the Pacific Coast, in physical and chemical oceanography. The Fisheries Re- search Board of Canada operates five stations studying fisheries and two stations studying the utilization of marine products. In addition there are a number of National and International Groups conducting ocean- ographic and fisheries research in particular areas, and on particular problems. The charting of coastal waters and forecasting of tides and tidal currents is done by the Hydrographic Service. The Institute of Oceanography at the University of British Colum- bia is the only place where Oceanography is formally recognized, al- though a number of universities conduct sea researches. The Institute offers post-graduate courses in the application of the various sciences in the sea leading to advanced degrees in those sciences. Publication is provided in the Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada, and a manuscript series from each oceanographic group and the Institute of Oceanography. 12 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CHINA In spite of tremendous difficulties there are some observations of sea water temperature, and some fisheries studies being made. ‘There are plans to establish a research center for fisheries and oceanography which will unite all the work. DENMARK The Galathea Expedition fished in the bottoms of the Kermadec, Solomon, Banda, Java and Philippine deeps and found a variety of ani- mals and live bacterial cultures right down to 10,000 metres depth. Tem- perature and salinity samples were also taken, and production of organic matter was studied by means of Carbon 14. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS This organization sponsored the creation of the Indo-Pacific Fish- eries Council. It is evident that oceanographic research in the tropical regions of Asia has been scanty. The lack of knowledge in the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans is one of the largest gaps in the scientific exploration of the earth. ‘The Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council has under- taken to promote the exploration and utilization of the fisheries of this region by member governments. Oceanography is an essential feature of the program. Australia, India, Indonesia, Japan, New Caledonia and the Philippines have conducted oceanographic programs in their own coastal waters. The Galathea Expedition from Denmark explored some of the waters of the Indian and Western Pacific waters, particularly the great depths. However, it seems that no organization is ready to under- take the over-all sustained exploration and research which is required to exploit the potential food supplies in these seas. The Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council proposes that all the countries in the area coordinate their efforts and pool their results so that each may profit from the work of all. A meeting which some of you attended was held a few days ago to discuss this project. If such a plan can be put into effect, it may well equal the excellent work of the Conseil Permanent pour I’Exploration de la Mer, and add materially to the food resources of southeastern Asia. The growing interest in oceanographic research by the countries of the south and southwest Pacific and the activities of the Indo-Pacific region seem most promising. GREAT BRITAIN Trom October, 1951, to January, 1952, the Royal Research Ship Dis- covery II made oceanographic surveys between Australia and Antarctica. The primary object of this work was to fill in the gaps left by the pre- REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 13 war survey of the Discovery Committee. “The properties of the water and the plankton were observed. It appears that there may be a source of deep, very saline water in the Tasman Sea moving eastward, counter to the circumpolar drift. In 1950, H.M.S. Challenger made an extended cruise across the Pacific Ocean. Echo soundings, temperatures, and water samples were taken to 3500 meters depth. The bottom morphology and submarine geology were studied by samplers and seismic methods. Magnetic obser- vations, plankton hauls and bird observations were also made. HAWAII The Department of Zoology in the University of Hawaii maintains a biological station from which studies of the surrounding seas are con- ducted. These are particularly concerned with the occurrences and catching of white bait. Recent researches have shown that tuna are attracted and induced to school by certain extracts of tuna and other fish. [his is a major discovery which may well revolutionize the fishing techniques. HONGKONG A Fisheries Research Unit has been set up within the precincts of the University of Hongkong. Financed from Colonial Development and Welfare Research funds, the Unit is housed in the Northeast Science Building. Such also contains the Departments of Biology and Physics. The Fisheries Research Unit is staffed by a Director, a Chief Scien- tific Officer, and three Assistant Scientific Officers. A steel-hulled modi- fied timber on the diesel power is under construction as a research ves- sel and will be launched under the name of “Alister Hardy” on 27 No- vember 1953. The research programme of the Unit is in course of formulation, and researches on (i) the biology of three of the most important com- mercial species of fish, (ii) the biology and pond cultivation of grey mullet, (iii) the methods and organization of freshwater fish culture, and (iv) the occurrence and distribution of freshwater and reservoir algae have been initiated. These will be supplemented by a preliminary oceanographic programme as soon as the research vessel has been com- mended. INDIA While not one of the Pacific nations, oceanographic investigations in India will be of importance in the immediate future because of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council. Until recently, very little attention has been given to oceanographic investigations. The Government of India 14 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS constituted the Central Board of Geophysics early in 1949, and a special committee on oceanography functions under this board. Oceanographic studies have been initiated in the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station and by the Indian Meteorological Department. Investigations of the latter deal particularly with turbulence and microseismic waves. Continuous tidal stations are maintained by the Indian Survey. The In- dian Navy has conducted researches on underwater sound and the ver- tical thermal structure of the sea. The teaching of oceanography is carried on at Andhra University where physical oceanography is given in the Geophysics Department, marine geology and marine zoology in the respective Departments of Geology and Zoology. INDONESIA In 1948 an oceanographer, Mr. C. Ph. Veen, was attached to the Laboratory for Investigation of the Sea at Djakarta. As there were no sufficient instruments available at that time and as there was no vessel available, only surface salinities were taken into consideration. This was done with the help of lighthouses, taking daily samples, and with the help of merchant ships. These merchant vessels take a sample of sea water every month, wherever they may be. Gradually this service grew and nowadays there are about 125 ships concerned in the work, bringing in 42000 samples of water yearly to the Laboratory. “Iwo Dutch and one Danish shipping companies are involved. In the beginning only Indonesia waters were considered but later it became clear that for a thorough understanding of what was happen- ing with the currents during the different monsoons, an extension proved to be unavoidable. So nowadays samples are collected even in the Indian Ocean to the South and West of Indonesia and beyond the Torres Strait in the East and to the northwest in the China Sea up to Formosa. Out of all the data collected, monthly charts of salinities were mapped and three monthly means were drawn up for the full West and East Monsoon and for the times between. This was published up to 1951 in the periodical OSR NEWS and a second publication was made wherein all data of Schott, the Snellius and other sources were taken into consideration. ‘This too was published in the OSR NEWS. In 1952 a research vessel, the “Samudra,” was put into commission, given to Indonesia by the FOA administration of the United States, meant chiefly for the use of fisheries exploration but fully equipped for oceanographic research. _ It is too early now to give results. The biologist devoted some time to the work of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, an international council sponsored by the FAO. Most REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 15 of the time was devoted to teaching and to training young Indonesians out of college, who wished to become assistant marine biologists. ‘The result proved to be heartening. JAPAN This island nation with its dense population is actually dependent upon the sea for its existence. It is not surprising, therefore, that the science of oceanography has received more encouragement to develop here than in any other country of the Pacific area. Courses are offered in the various phases of oceanography in many universities and much fundamental, basic research has been conducted by professors in these institutions. Japan has approached oceanography from the standpoint of fish- eries, meteorology, and hydrography, and all investigations and observa- tions have been coordinated by a Marine Research Council. All fish- erjes resources are receiving intensive study. The Meteorological Ser- vice makes numerous daily records of the sea water temperatures. The Hydrographic Office and Maritime Safety Agency is concerned with the charting of the seas and coasts, the tides, tidal currents, and tsunamis. The considerable resources of each agency are available to the others through the coordination council. There are eight Fisheries Research Institutions, the Hydrographic office, and five principal Meteorological observatories, and at least ten research ships. Each department has a series of journals which provide for publication of data, researches, and studies. In addition to these observing and applied research groups, the theoretical aspects are studied in the Geographical Institute, and in se- veral universities. “The Oceanographical Society of Japan provides a meeting place for the scientists and publishes a technical quarterly jour- nal. | Japanese oceanographers are studying the behaviour of the north flowing warm Kuroshio and the south flowing cold Oyashio, which are the dominant currents among the ocean currents. The advance of the Kuroshio in the summer, its retreat in winter, and its meandering are complementary to the Oyashio’s. A similar balance of currents occurs in the Sea of Japan, but with different emphasis on the cold and warm water masses. This cold water on the Pacific side may be invaded by warm water through Tsugaru Straits. These circulations are dominated by seasons and winds, and the coastal regions are modified by tides. Oceanographers are describing the character and behaviour of these water masses, which are of major concern to the fisheries and climate of Japan. 16 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS In coastal waters the tides, tidal currents, waves and tsunamis are being studied so that they may be forecast for the safety of vessels and coastal populations. ‘The physical and chemical properties of the waters and their fluctuation with season, weather, and state of the sea, are important to fisheries and are being studied in all areas. The total of this work is enormous. The Japanese have given much attention to the development of methods, equipment, and material for oceanographic research. Standard sea water comparable to Copenhagen water is being produced. Revers- ing thermometers are being manufactured, and many new instruments. have been designed such as recording current meters, wave recorders and computers, bathythermographs, and a bathysphere. MALAYA Le Mare and Tham, in Malaya, have made a statistical analysis of the relation of physical and chemical factors with the quantity of trap- caught fish. ‘They considered wind, rainfall, temperature, salinity phos- phate and plankton pigment in relation to the catch of anchovy, sprat, dorab and Spanish mackerel in the Singapore Straits, and solved a re- gression equation for the independent variables. With this they pre- dicted the monthly catch through 1948 and 1949 within twenty percent. Admittedly their situation is particularly suited to these analyses, but they are, nevertheless, to be congratulated in solving this direct re- lation; and their methods may well be extended to similar fisheries else- where. This is an instance where one of the ultimate objects of oceanog- raphy has been accomplished. NEW CALEDONIA The Laboratoire Oceanographique de I’Institut Francais Oceani- que (The Oceanographic Laboratory of the French Ocean Institute) is undertaking a large fisheries research program, with financial aid of the South Pacific Commission. The Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle of Paris has sent Pro- fessor Ranson to Tahiti to study the production of pearls and shell, and to determine the best methods of exploitation. He has introduced mo- dern methods of oyster culture with encouraging results. NEW ZEALAND Prior to the 7th Pacific Science Congress, there was little organized oceanographic research, although a number of individuals were actively engaged in various studies. Recently an intensive hydrographic sur- vey program, which also includes regular observations of waves and of REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 17 the properties of coastal waters, was undertaken. In 1950 the New Zea- land National Committee on Oceanography was formed as an advisory body to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. It has oper- ated in effecting liaison, sponsoring research projects and in advising the New Zealand government on oceanographic matters. In the field of physical oceanography, arrangements were made for the preparation of a bathymetric chart of adjacent seas, for the collection of continuous echo sounding profiles, particularly on voyages between New Zealand and Australia and outlying islands. Cooperation was given to several extensive expeditions working in the Antarctic and South Pacific areas. Many programs in oceanic biology have been inaugurated by several of the universities. PACIFIC OCEAN FISHERIES INVESTIGATION An extensive series of investigations is in progress dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological properties of waters of the Cen- tral Equatorial Pacific along with experimental fisheries operations. This is an effort to evaluate the situations in which fish, particularly tuna, are present or absent. They have described the water structure of the north and south equatorial currents, and the counter-currents be- tween them; have found a subsurface counter-current and a mid-ocean region of upwelling with high phosphates and much plankton. On the basis of these encouraging reports their work is being intensified. Much data has been collected in Hawaiian waters but has not yet been analyzed. PHILIPPINES From 1947 to 1950 oceanographic investigations were made in the Sulu and Celebes Seas by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States under the Philippine Fishery Program. During that period 526 hydrographic stations were occupied. Observations made at each station included temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, phosphate, nitrate, hy- drogen ion, and silicate. The observations extended generally to a depth of 2000 meters and in some cases to a depth of 4000 meters. The waters surveyed included the Celebes Sea, the Sulu Sea, all of the smaller seas of the Philippines, the nearby waters of the South China Sea, and the waters of the Pacific east of the Philippines to a distance of about 300 miles from shore. Most of the areas were surveyed twice; once during the northeast mensoon and once during the southwest mon- soon. Following the termination of this operation in June, 1950, the U.S. Agency turned over a small ship and some oceanographic gear to the Bureau of Fisheries of the Philippines. 18 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Monthly surveys of selected areas have been made throughout a year or more to determine the cycles of oceanographic conditions and their relation to wind, weather, and season. Daily observations of sea water temperature and salinity are made at three shore stations. Water and air temperatures are collected by ocean shipping. SOUTH AMERICA For the vast oceanic areas in the eastern Pacific, off the coasts of South and Central America, organized programs of research have been exceedingly limited. However, in the past several years the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has done much to ini- tiate and stimulate investigations in oceanography and particularly in fisheries. The first part of an atlas of the coastal current of Peru and a series of monthly maps of the Peruvian littoral with indications of the average sea-surface temperature, air temperature, barometric pressure, wind direc- tion and force for the years 1946 to 1951, have just been published. The Guano Company has installed a central department of oceanography and ichthyology in their main office in Lima, from which three biological stations are administered. One station deals with the behaviour of oceanic birds, another is concerned primarily with plankton studies and the third with the biology of the anchovy. The Peruvian Navy as well as the Guano Company has cooperated with recent oceanographic expe- ditions in the eastern Pacific operated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and by Yale University. Educational work in Oceanog- raphy is just beginning. The Geographic Institute of the University of San Marcos recently gave a series of lectures on oceanography. The attendance in these lectures has been primarily graduates of the univer- sity who are teachers in the Peruvian public schools. Pure oceanographic research has not been conducted to any extent by Chilean investigators, the tendency being to study the sea as the habitat of organisms of commercial value. However, considerable basic data have been collected by the Chilean Navy and by merchant ships. Two biological stations, one operated by the University of Chile at Montemar and the other by the University of Concepcion in south cen- tral Chile, give promise of undertaking oceanographic research in the immediate future, due to the activities of representatives of the Food and Agriculture Organization and the Chilean Navy. The Food and Agriculture Organization and the Centre of Scientific Cooperation of UNESCO for Latin America are studying ways and means of organizing an international network of marine laboratories in Latin America. Laboratories on the Pacific coast will stress investigations of REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 19 the Humboldt and El Nino Currents. The cold Humboidt Current as well as the warm countercurrent of El Nino has a strong effect in the distribution of fishery resources as well as the climate of western South America. A regional fisheries council is being organized for South Amer- ica, and attention is being given to the establishment of centers for the training of personnel to engage in fisheries and oceanographic investi- gations. THAILAND Oceanographic work is just beginning. Tidal observations are being made, sea water temperatures and salinities are being observed, and a fisheries research laboratory is being established. Trained per- sonnel are required to lead this work. The Hydrographic Service of the Navy has a division of oceanog- raphy which is mainly concerned with the preparation of Annual pre- diction of tides and tidal currents in the Gulf of Thailand. Some salinity data has been collected near the mouth of the river at irregular intervals during the past two years. The Department of Fisheries established a Marine Station at Bai Be Rayong in 1953. ‘The program has not yet been established. It is hoped that the Hydrographic Service and the Department of Fisheries will co-operate in the collection of temperature and salinity data in the Gulf of Thailand, especially in the areas of the river mouths. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Programs in oceanography are carried out more or less independent- ly by services of the federal government, by organizations or bureaus of the several states, and by some universities. The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey is occupied primarily with the charting of coastal areas, tidal studies, and investigations of tidal and nontidal currents. The Fish and Wildlife Service is concerned with oceanography in relation to fisheries and have conducted a large number of investigations in Alaska, Hawaii, the Trust Territories of the Pacific and off the Pacific coast of the United States. Numerous projects of the U. S. Navy are in progress and much fundamental re- search is sponsored by the Office of Naval Research through grants to universities. Planning of oceanographic studies is made by the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy and this organization serves as a general clearing house for much oceanographic information. The U. S. Coast Guard has cooperated in furthering various studies. ‘The National Academy of Science and the National Research Council have done much to stimulate oceanography in the United States. 20 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Two international commissions, the International Halibut Com- mission and the International Salmon Commission, both established by treaty between the United States and Canada effectively operate in the conservation and studies of these two fisheries. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the California Academy of Sciences, Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, the California Fish and Game Commission, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanogra- phy of the University of California, have sponsored the Marine Research Committee. Working with three ships and a large staff this project has observed the currents, the properties of the water, and the marine organisms within a limit of 300 miles off the California coast in connec- tion with studies dealing with the life history and habits of the Cali- fornia sardine. These investigations have also contributed materially to the blue fin tuna. it The Scripps Institution of Oceanography, located at La Jolla, a part of the University of California, offers a series of graduate courses in practically all of the branches of oceanography. ‘This institution, since the last Congress, has conducted several extensive exploratory expe- ditions over much of the Pacific area. In California attention has been given to coastal wind phenomenon, the nature and extent of upwelling, studies of waves, beach erosion, submarine canyons, sea mounts and the various oceanic fisheries. The University of Washington with its laboratories in Seattle and at Friday Harbor now offers undergraduate training in oceanography in addition to extensive graduate work. ‘The research activities are primarily concerned with the oceanography of the coastal waters of the State of Washington, and the oceanography of numerous straits, sounds and estuaries. ‘There is considerable cooperation between the Depart- ment of Oceanography and the School of Fisheries. Because of the great industrial development and increasing popula- tion, the United States is faced with problems arising from the pollu- tion of coastal waters. Methods of predicting pollution and of utilizing local sea currents to effectively remove such pollution have been devised. In general, the United States is examining all phases of oceanog- raphy in their own coastal waters with particular emphasis on the mechanisms of currents, and waves and their variation with season and weather, as well as their relation to fisheries. Detailed studies of the bottom topography, submarine geology, properties of the water, and general oceanographic processes have been conducted. In addition, many transocean expeditions have been and are being made to all parts of the world to increase the knowledge of structure, properties of the water, currents, depths, bottom material and marine organisms. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 21 The results of all of this work are available in special publications from the various institutions, State and Federal publications, and the journals of the learned societies. A series of investigations on fish poisoning and poisonous fishes of the tropical Pacific have been in progress at the School of Tropical Medicine at Loma Linda, California. These studies emphasize the necessity of toxic fishes and the nature of ichthyosarcotoxins. Lack of such knowledge tends to hamper the economic development of the shore fisheries of the tropical Pacific. VIET-NAM The 1949-53 period has been marked by a slowing of activities as related to the constitutional modification arising from the transfer. of the Institute to Viet-Nam, and with the strife in the Territory. An increase in activities started in 1952-53, and a more marked increase is expected in 1954. ‘The Institute presently has two labora- tory chiefs. There will be four in 1954. “Temporary foreign researchers are also requested for the laboratory. The work presented during the period was more particularly di- rected toward the investigation of the flora and fauna of Viet-Nam. A science Museum for this fauna containing actually 30,000 specimens or 3,000 species has been established. Study of the fisheries has also been overtaken, most particularly in the field of the technical knowl- edge of fishing gear at Viet-Nam. The results of the work have been the subject of more than 20 pub- lications of varying importance, appearing either in the publications of the Oceanographic Institute of Nhatrang or in foreign publications. WESTERN SAMOA The observatory of Apia is under the control of the Department of Industrial and Scientific Research, New Zealand. Investigations are undertaken in meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, seismology, and in more general fields such as tidal predictions. As far as oceanography is concerned the Observatory records the heights and times of tides and the daily sea temperature and density. ‘These results are forwarded to the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. ‘The Observatory is also under- taking some experimental work on a solar still for the New Zealand Reparation Estates in Samoa. eo eee ee ow 22 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PART III REPORTS ON ACTIVITIES OF SPECIFIC COUNTRIES ON RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN AUSTRALIA SINCE 1949 By H. ‘THOMPSON 1. Research Programmes in Progress In each of the Australian Universities small research projects on marine animals are being undertaken by post graduate students in the various Departments of Zoology. “These are not to be regarded as por- tions of an integrated programme of oceanographical research. Each of the six state Departments of Fisheries is concerned mainly with the ad- ministration of Fisheries Acts, but each undertakes some biological re- search on particular fisheries problems. The Division of Fisheries of Commonwealth Scientific and Indus- trial Research Organization at its headquarters, the Marine Biological Laboratory, Cronulla and at five field stations in various parts of Aus- tralia carries out a research programme in the following sections: (1) Oceanography including Hydrology and Planktology, (2) Biology in- cluding studies of fish, crustacea, shellfish, and whales, (3) Microbiology, (4) Underwater fouling of ships and structures. 2. Division of Fisheries, C.S.I.R.O. P. O. Box 21, Cronulla, N.S.W. 3. No institution gives specific training in oceanography though the Department of Zoology of each University gives lectures on marine or- ganisms and ecology. 4. Australia as a member government of United Nations F.A.O. has maintained a close link with the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council. Repre- sentatives have been sent to each of the meetings of the Council and at the 3rd and 4th meetings the Australian delegate was Chairman of Tech- nical Committee I. 5. Summary of research results of C.S.I.R.O. Division of Fisheries. i) Oceanography Oceanic studies. F. R. V. “Warren” has carried out a number of oceanographical cruises in S.W. Australian waters. S°/,, O,, Inorganic P, Organic P, and Nitrate N. The results of these surveys are given in volume 3 of Oceanographical Station Lists. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 23 R. R. V. “Discovery II” in 1950-51 worked 300-mile section lines, are off Sydney, Eden, Pt. Culver, Albany, and Rottnest Island. The data are not yet published but certain results are given in a paper entitled “A Comparison of the Hydrological conditions off the Eastern and West- ern coasts of Australia.” (I.P.F.C. Section II Proc. Madras meeting.) Through the courtesy of her owners, the T.S.M.V. “Wanganella” is now collecting surface salinity and temperature observations on her regular fortnightly cruises from Sydney to New Zealand. The salinity temperature characteristics of the surface Tasman Sea water masses have now been determined and their seasonal variation in position, particularly as they affect coastal waters, will be followed in the future. il) Coastal Studies The monthly sampling at various coastal stations in Eastern and Western Australia has been continued. ) 43=27) blew also seni died the optical significance of the transparency measured by Secchi’s disc. He concludes that the transparency of sea water should be defined as the depth at which we cannot distinguish the difference in colors of the disc with the surrounding water, in addition to the difference of il- lumination (OM, 4, 1950, 129-136). He also pointed out that the ex- tinction coefficient is a constant peculiar to sea water, independent of the altitude of the sun and amount of clouds. He determined the re- lation between extinction coefficient and wave length of light and ob- tained a standard value of extinction coefficient for each of Forel’s scales of color of the sea. He divided the extinction coefficient of sea water into the absorption and scattering coefficients. According to his observations with a photometer of photoronic cell type, scattering coef- ficient occupies only 10% of the extinction coefficient. This fact re- quested him to assume the existence of a colored substance in sea water. He determined the relation of transparency and extinction coefficient and showed that the formula at Atkins and Poole only holds for small value of transparency. This conclusion agrees with observations very closely (KJ, 4, 1952, 268-324). K. Hishida also made a photometer of the photoronic type and found that the submarine illumination has much to do with the hydrography (MMOR, 2, 1951, 21). A theory of transparency of sea water was propounded also by T. Nan’niti, who derived a theoretical relation between transparency and hydrographic factors (MGP, 3, 1953, 195-201). Annual variation and correlation between color of the sea, trans- parency and the plankton volume were studied by M. Koizumi. He found that there are two maxima in the color and transparency of the sea, that is, in summer and winter and two minima in spring and fall, and that this variation reflects the seasonal change of plankton volume which reaches a maximum in spring and a secondary maximum in the fall. From this result a simple formula was obtained between them (JOSJ, 8, 1952, 79-83). Sea Ice The intense studies on the sea ice in the areas around Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan, have been made by K. Fukutomi and his colleagues, K. Kusunoki, T. Tabata, T. Kashima, M. Saito, U. Kudo, and others. They are published in the Japanese language in 18 papers entitled “Studies on Sea Ice” during the period 1949-52 (TK, 3-9, 1950-52). Kusunoki compiled a bibliography of Sea Ice in Japan and made a list of references dated from 1892 to 1950 (JSSI, 13, 1952). REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 51 Fukutomi made extensive studies on the formation and growth of the ice crystals in sea ice, salinity and physical measurement of strength, microscopic inspection of the structure of sea ice, prediction and the growth of ice in the central part of the Okhotsk Sea. He also found that there is a turbulent layer of about 40 m. thick on the surface of the Okhotsk Sea. He established a theory of formation and growth of sea ice and applied it to this area and could predict when the ice is formed in this area, and how it grows. He also tried to estimate by simple empirical formulas the dates at which the air temperature over the sea reaches the freezing point of sea water. He made an extensive survey of ice along the north coasts of Hokkaido Island and discussed how the temperature distribution varies with the cycle of the atmo- spheric temperature, and compared the result with theory. He mea- sured the temperature and salinity im situ, and concluded that off the northern coast of Hokkaido there exists a supercooling in the sea wa- ter just below the lower surface of the ice. Fukutomi, Kusunoki, and Tabata examined the wind drift of ice and recognized the influence of the Earth’s rotation showing a deviation from the direction of the wind. They made experiments with a floating block of ice in a narrow sea and applied the result on the ice drift off the northern coast of Hokkaido. ‘They also discussed theoretically how the stationary motion of ice occurs when the surface of the sea is partially covered and com- pared the result with those obtained by Nansen in the Arctic Sea dur- ing the drift of the “Fram” in 1893-96. Fukutomi and Kusunoki also published a theory on the formation and structure of ice ridges. Fuku- tomi, Saito and Kudo measured various physical properties and struc- ture of the sea ice by photographic methods. Fukutomi gave a theory for the approximate estimates of the thickness of sea ice in relation to the average air temperature, and its annual range. Tabata tried a pre- diction of the data at which a last tract of drift-ice can be seen in the southern Okhotsk Sea coast of Hokkaido (TK, 3-9, 1950). Hydrography The hydrography of the East China Sea was discussed by M. Uda and he made clear the seasonal variation of water temperature, salinity and meteorological factors in the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, and showed that the fluctuation of the Kuroshio at the margin of the continental shelf controls the intensity of the Tsushima Current. (Re- port of the Seikaiku Regional Fisheries Laboratory, 1950). He also dis- cussed the hydrographic fluctuations in the Japan Sea (Japan Sea Re- gional Fisheries Laboratory Report, 1952). Hydrography in the Japan Sea during the spring and summer, 1949, has been reported by I. Yamanaka (JOSJ, 6, 1951; 1953, in press). 52 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Hydrography of the northwestern part of Hokkaido in 1949 was reported by K. Fukutomi and others (A Survey of Deep Sea Fish in Northern Part of Japan Sea, 1950), of the region south of the Kurile Islands and the southern part of Okhotsk Sea, by T. Tabata (TK, 10, 1952), of the northern and middle Okhotsk Sea in summer, 1942, by K. Kajiura (JOSJ, 5, 1949, 19-27), of the area off the Tohoku district by J. Fukuoka and T. Yusa (OM, AOS Ze D1): Of the Kuroshio Current, we have several important works. T. Ichiye discussed the hydrography in the Kuroshio area in February and May, giving a theoretical explanation on the meander of this current, the abnormal pattern off Shionomisaki by making use of jet stream theory. He also made use of Rossby’s theory of momentum concentra- tion in concluding that the great cold water mass off the Shionomisaki consists of the water upwelled from deeper layers (KH, 2, 1951). He and K. Tanioka also determined the distribution of chemical elements on isentropic surfaces and discussed the effect of horizontal Austausch at different points in the stream axis on TS-curves (PRO, 1950). The Central Meteorological Observatory, Tokyo, has carried out hydrographic observations regularly in Sagami Bay in 1951 and 1952 and at the weather station (39°N, 153°E) and others (M. Koizumi, KH, 1, 1950; Koizumi and J. Masuzawa, KH, 2, 1952; Koizumi and O. Asaoka, KH, 1, 1950; Koizumi, KH, 2, 1952, T. Nan’niti, OM, 3, 1951, 27-48; M. Hanzawa, OM, 4, 1952; ROWJ, 1, 1953). Hydrographic observations were also carried out on the Antarctic whaling grounds in the winter months 1950-51 by a fleet of Japanese whalers. About 30 stations were occupied and the results analyzed (M. Hanzawa, K. Kobayashi, K. Yoshida, and R. Marumo, OM, 3, 1951). Hydrography of the two straits of Isaka-wan, the Akashi-seto and Yuraseto, after heavy rain accompanying typhoon, was discussed by T. Ichiye (PRO, 1949), Ariake Sea and the inland sea in western Kyushu, by Nagasaki Marine Observatory in the summers of 1951 and 1952 to make clear the Kuroshio and the Tsushima Currents in this region. Hydro- graphic structure in the Tsushima Current area was discussed by T. Tsujita with special reference to its fisheries importance. (Report of the Committee on the Hydrographic Investigations in the Western Part of the Japan Sea, 1952). T. Shinomura and M. Koizumi discussed the hydrography along the section from Tori-Sima (Bonin Group) to off Sanriku District (KH, 2, 1950, 55-74). The hydrography of the Kumihama Bay, a small inlet facing the Japan Sea, was discussed by K. Hishida (OM, 2, 1950, 67). The annual variation of sea water temperature in Kii Suido was discussed in detail by T. Ichiye. He showed the possibility of the fore- REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY da casting hydrographic conditions in this area (KH, 2, 1951). M. Nagai discussed the annual variation of sea water temperature and salinity and made several detailed statistical analysis and stressed that their fluctuations due to advocation are very important in forecasting these elements (KJ, 4, 1953). In 1950 T. Ichiye treated the meandering pattern in the isotherms observed on the surface along the polar front as the horizontal inter- nal waves formed along the boundaries between warm and cold water. (US, 28, 1950). M. Uda also discussed the characteristic feature of the yearly va- riation of coastal water temperature and pointed out the advance and lag of the seasons peculiar to each year. His conclusion was that it is most important to carry out the hydrographic observations during the winter months as frequently as possible (US, 30, 1952, 5-7). A survey of the fisheries in relation to hydrographic fluctuation was also dis- cussed by Uda in 1952 (TUFY, 38, 1952, 363-389). Classification of the types of the annual variations of water tem- perature was made by T. Ichiye. He mentioned three types: seas or lakes, bay in which tidal currents are strong, and open sea, with several important discussions (KMOM, 10, 1952). M. Hanzawa mentions some examples of an abrupt change in hy- drographic conditions from his experiences in the observations on board the weather ships. He points out that the advection due to wind effect is responsible for these changes (OM, 4, 1952). J. Masuzawa gives some examples showing that a typhoon some- times acts as a motive for the hydrographic changes in the area close to their tracks (KH, 1, 1950, 118-123). Method of forecasting the hydrographic conditions off Sanriku coast based on the isentropic analysis, was reported by Fukuoka (KH, 950; 30): Forecasting sea surface temperature in the southwestern part of the Japan Sea was attempted by K. Hishida (KH, 2, 1951). The relation between the coastal and offshore water temperature and other hydrographic elements was analyzed by K. Hishida (MMOR, Zoot OM, 2; 1950). Ocean Currents In 1950, J. Fukuoka made an analysis of the Oyashio Current flow- ing south in the area to the NE of Japan. He analyzed the TS-curves from various stations in the Okhotsk Sea and western North Pacific Ocean, and noticed that the Oyashio water and Kuroshio water can be found in some latitudes close together, their boundary always oscillat- 54 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ing northward and southward. From this motion he could determine the velocity of the Oyashio Current (KH, 1, 1950, 10). He also made another attempt to compare the TS-curves of the sea water at various stations and could determine the effect of winds in producing the drift current stations, and could determine the effect of winds in producing drift current (OM, 1951, 97). He also determined the extent of the Oyashio Under Current, which is recognized below the warm water of the Kuroshio (JOSJ, 6, 1951, 202). TI. Nan’niti made an attempt to know the year-to-year variation of the Kuroshio and the Oyashio. He says that the Kuroshio was stronger in 1948 and warmer in 1949, and both of these currents were stronger in the period from the spring to the early summer of 1950 (MGP, 2, 1951, 102-111). He also made an at- tempt to compare the curl of wind stress to the intensity of the Kuro- shio. These two quantity must be proportional according to the Mod- ern theories of the drift currents (JOSJ, 8, 1952, 23-29). A very intensive survey of the flowing patterns of the Kuroshio was reported by M. Uda. He describes the fluctuation of the main axis of the Kuroshio and its margins. ‘The maximum speed and the width of the currents were determined based on the dynamic computations carried out during the period 1934 through 1943. He also explains the abnormal phase of the Kuroshio flowing in a loop to the south of Japan as the effect of the monsoon which was very strong in the winter of 1934-35 in addition to the strengthening of the intermediate water formed as the extension of the Oyashio after it dives below the warm water of the Kuroshio. He also explains the occurrence, development of this abnormal phase of the Kuroshio and its recovery to normal phase, use being made of the past materials (JOSJ, 8, 1951, 181-189). He discussed the variation of the currents in the Japan Sea, Yellow Sea, and East China Sea and showed that the Tsushima Current begins at the 200 m isobath along the margin of the continental shelf of the cir- culation in the East China Sea (ROWJ, 1, 28-35). Recently Uda de- scribed the result of oceanographic observations in the adjacent seas of Hachijo Island in relation to the fisheries (ROWJ, 1, 1953). Currents in the Japan Sea in the spring and summer, 1949, was de- scribed by I. Yamanka, stress being especially laid on the meander of the Tsushima Current which is a branch of the Kuroshio entering this area (JOSJ, 3, 1951, 143). K. Kusunoki described the speed of the currents in the Japan Sea close to the west coast of Hokkaido, northern- most island, and discussed its yearly variation, its periodic cycles and its relation to the fisheries and ice in the Okhotsk Sea (JOSJ, 6, 1951, 133-142). REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 55 As to the possible origin of the Oyashio we have the discussion of N. Watanabe, who found that the most part of the Oyashio originates in the water of the Okhotsk Sea and very little amount of the Bering water is considered to take part in the origin of this cold current (JOSJ, 7a, NS) A very intensive water mass analysis of the Oyashio Current was made by Yukimasa Saito (JIPOCU, 3, 1952, 79-140). Water Mass Analysis It is a very important problem in oceanography to separate differ- ent water masses and to establish the boundaries between them. Still we have not had yet any reasonable method for them. M. Nagai has succeeded in classifying into 7 blocks the system of water masses in the East China Sea stochastically, numbering the 18x 9 water types having Sallam nyar29 on 29/50) agp 25730959 and mtemperatune l2s 50 lke lO, - 05 BOSE, (NK, ©, Mella BeSol))y T. Ichiye used monthly TS-diagram for determining the intensity of monthly mass exchange between the coastal and ocean waters. He showed how the ocean water penetrates into the bay due to the dif- fusion by eddies. He also discussed the general types of the TS-dia- gram in the transient region between the ocean and coastal water (KMOM, 10, 1952). Recently Michio Miyasaki has been considering the use of T-O,- diagram in addition to TS-diagram. By doing this, he could classify the so-called deep water in the Japan Sea into a number of water masses. He could point out the existence of several important water types in the deep layers of the Japan Sea (HFLB, 7, 1953, 1-65). The intermediate waters of low salinity in the regions south and northeast of Japan have been discussed by J. Masuzawa in their rela- tion to Kuroshio waters. He pointed out the intense turbulence both in horizontal and vertical directions and determined the horizontal dif- fusivity at 106-108 c.g.s. on the isentropic surface (t-26.6-26.8), (OM, 2, W@BOF INGE 2) WS, Balle, Pee). Y. Miyake considers that the boron in sea water behaves as a very good indicator for the water masses and recommends the ratio B/Cl as a useful tool in the water mass analysis (US, 30, 1952, 14-18). Ykimasa Saito published a very detailed water mass analysis for the northern seas of Japan, stress being laid on the research on the Cyashio. He could explain the significance of TS-diagram in exactly the same way as W. B. Stockman tried in 1947 (JIPOCU, 3, 1952, 79-140). : 56 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Diffusion In 1949 T. Ichiye treated the Brownian movement of a particle of water produced by a stochastic extraneous force in a field of Coriolis forces, and determined the dependence of eddy diffusivity upon the latitude. He compared this theoretical result with the horizontal dif- fusivity determined from the distribution of conservative concentrations in the ocean currents, and showed how the horizontal eddy diffusivity could be determined from the drift of R.V. “Deutschland” in the Ant- arctic Ocean (OM, 1, 1949). In 1950 Ichiye considered a statistical theory of turbulent diffu- sion, discussing the diffusion from an origin by a process similar to Brownian motion, and could explain the so-called scale effect postula- ted by Lewis F. Richardson (KMOM, 8, 1950). He also made some re- marks on Richardson’s neighbor diffusion equation (OM, 2, 1950). He applied this theory to the diffusion of water masses in the oceans and gave a qualitative explanation on the variation of the horizontal Aus- tausch coefficient in the ocean currents by developing the spectral theo- ry of turbulence in case where irregular extraneous forces are in action (OM, 3, 1951). Yasukazu Saito solved the problem of diffusion of sa- linity in a horizontal current field, both horizontal and vertical mixing being taken into account (TUFJ, 38, 1952, 182-191). T. Nan’niti determined the horizontal and vertical eddy diffusi- vity using Montgomery’s method from the actual distribution of salin- ity. He obtained horizontal and vertical coefficients to be 107 and 101 respectively (OM, 3, 1951). From the salinity distribution on the core sheet of the Subarctic Intermediate water near Japan, J. Masuzawa ob- tained horizontal eddy diffusivity to be 10%-108 c.gs. (KH, 2, 1951-52). E. Inoue concluded this quantity has a value 10'° c.g.s., a value much larger than previously known (KS, 28, 1950, 420-424). In 1950 Ichiye treated the annual variation of the heat contents at several stations in Osaka Bay as a horizontal diffusion by tidal cur- rents (KMOM, 8, 1950). In 1952 Ichiye discussed the relation between the O, minimum layer and the motionless layer in case where both horizontal and verti- cal diffusions occur, and showed theoretically how the depth of O, mi- nimum layer varies as the distance from the source increases when there is biological dissipation. He determined the schematic distribution of oxygen in the sea when the processes of dissipation, supply and diffu- sion are going on simultaneously (US, 29, 1952). On September 17, 1952, a new submarine volcano was observed erupting from the Pacific floor south of Japan. ‘This submarine erup- tion ejected a great deal of pumice stones afloat on the sea surface, REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 57 expanding by diffusion in all directions. From the distribution of pu- mice stones, M. Hanzawa derived an approximate value of eddy dif fusivity to be 4.8 x 10°-4.3 x 107 c.g.s. (OM, 4, 1953). Theories of Wind-Driven Ocean Circulation According to the recent theories of the oceanic circulation, the main source of energy supply to the major current of the ocean is the semi-permanent wind system over the oceans. During the period 1949- 53, very active research has been done on this subject. T. Ichiye has long engaged in the dynamical research on ocean-cur- rents since 1949 (OM, 1, 1949). In 1950 he discussed the wind-driven currents produced by circular wind system. In this computation he retained the inertia terms and applied the result to the motion of wa- ter produced by a typhoon. He showed that an upwelling must occur in deeper levels (OM, 2, 1950). He also discussed the wind-driven ocean circulation in an ocean taking into account the effect of horizontal mixing. His computation is nearly similar to that of Munk (OM, 2, 1950). He also discussed the equation of ocean current involving the inertia terms and solved it for a zonal flow in an asymptotic expansion. By this theory he could show the occurrence of a counter current on the right side of the current looking downstream (KMOM, 8, 1950). The same year, Masamori Miyazaki computed the coefficients of horizontal and vertical mixing on both sides of a current of uniform velocity by Gebelain’s method and obtained the distribution of ve- locity across the current. He thus concluded that the occurrence of a counter current can be determined by vertical distribution of current velocity (OM, 2, 1950, 53-58). The same year, Miyazaki published a theory of wind-produced zonal current in an ocean completely covering the earth, taking into account the effect of both horizontal and vertical mixing. He could prove that the deviation of current system from wind system decreases, and the subsidence of current with depth in- creases by the presence of horizontal mixing (KMOM, 8, 1950, 41-43). He gave an expression for the coefficient of lateral mixing for a station- ary state and the decaying stage without supply of energy from outside (OM, 2, 1950, 113-116). : In 1951 Ichiye published two papers on the variation of oceanic circulation. In order to explain the double periodicity found by C. O’D Iselin for the Gulf Strea, he discussed successfully the variation of oceanic circulation accompanying the periodic variation of zonal wind system (OM, 3, 1951). He also computed annual variation of the mass and heat transports in five sections across the Kuroshio and described the mechanism of these changes to the density currents due to the phase 58 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS lags between the temperature cycles of coastal and offshore waters (OM, Syl oN): In 1951 Hidaka published the result of a computation of the gen- eral circulation of the Pacific Ocean. ‘This is a modification of Munk’s theory, the only differences being the use of spherical coordinates in- stead of Munk’s rectangular, and the assumption of two types of wind system—zonal and anticyclonic. He obtained practically the same re- sult as Munk’s, except a better agreement than Munk’s of total mass transport with the actual value 65 million tons per second obtained by Sverdrup from Japanese observations. It must, however, be borne in mind that the exact value of total mass transport is very hard to deter- mine, the recent observations by Japanese giving about 20-40 million tons per second (J. Masuzawa, KH, 2, 1951) according to the seasons of the year. This value is far smaller than that of Sverdrup and agrees with Munk’s theoretical result pretty well. In 1952 Masamori Miyazaki published a new theory of the wind- driven circulation and could explain the counter-current observed be- tween the Gulf Stream and the American continent by assuming a zone of smaller value of the coefficient of lateral eddy viscosity close to the coast. [his counter-current has been observed from a long time ago and many authors have failed to explain except Rossby, who could solve it by taking into account the effect of inertia terms (OM, 4, 1952). Yasukazu Saito made a very elaborate mathematical analysis on the theory of ocean currents driven by winds in an isotropic ocean taking into account the mixing in all directions. He used the velocity itself for solving the problems (KS, 28, 1950, 25-61; TUFJ, 38, 1951, 87-179). Recently Hidaka solved a three-dimensional theory of ocean cur- rents, thus making it possible to discuss the vertical structure of wind- driven current. The most outstanding conclusion is that the motion of water is much more intense than is expected in layers far below than the depth of frictional influence defined by Ekman (in press). As to the fluctuation of oceanic circulation caused by the wind fluctuation, Ichiye made an attempt to determine the curl of the wind stress in each 5° square over the Pacific from actual observations. Fur- ther he could determine the annual variation of the horizontal mixing coefficient on the basis of the spectral theory of turbulence, and dis- cussed the variation of circulation equalitatively (OM, 4, 1952). In 1952 K. Kajiura used the idea of Sverdrup and Reid in comput- ing the current velocities in the upper layers of the eastern portion of the equatorial Pacific on the assumption that the initial forces and the lateral friction are negligible. He divided the motion into two parts, that is, the pure drift currents and the relative currents, and showed REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 59 that the result agrees satisfactorily with the observations near the equa- tor. In this region the relative current is much stronger than the pure drift current, while the meridional components of currents are negli- gibly small compared with the EW-components (JOSJ, 8, 1952, 15-22). The dependence upon the bottom friction of sea surface slope in- duced by wind is discussed theoretically by Ichiye. He determined the vertical structure of drift currents and compared it with actual obser- vations. He also obtained the drift current when Rossby’s expression for the vertical mixing coefficient is used (KMOM, 10, 1952). Recently K. Yoshida treated successfully the problem of circula- tion in the upper mixed layer in the equatorial region of the North Pacific Ocean by solving the steady state equations involving terms of Coriolis forces, pressure gradient, and horizontal as well as vertical mix- ing (Hoshida, Han-lee Mao, and Paul L. Horro, in press). The most part of the theories described above is obtained on the assumption that the inertia terms in the dynamical equations are neg- ligibly small compared with the remaining terms. ‘The significance of these terms in dynamical oceanography was discussed by Hidaka and M. Miyoshi (GN, 2, 1949). A similar discussion was made by Ichiye, who concluded that these terms cannot be neglected when the curl of the wind stress is large, and estimated their magnitude (OM, 2, 1950). The simplification of the theory of the wind-driven ocean current will be approached by assuming a zonal ocean and a planetary wind system so that both winds and currents are independent of longitude. Theories were worked out by Hidaka and his collaborators K. Takano and M. Tsuchiya (GN, 3, 1950; GM, 23, 1952, 487-495; JMR, in press). A very important question in dynamical oceanography is how and in what proportions the energy of wind is imparted to raising waves and producing currents. This problem was discussed by K. Yoshida (JOSJ, 7, 1951) and Ichiye (OM, 4, 1952). In 1952 K. Kajiura discussed on the currents and the accumula- tion of water produced by winds in the water consisting of two layers of different densities. He assumed that the eddy viscosity is negligible along the boundary of two layers and showed that the shape of the boundary surface agrees very closely with observations (JOSJ, 8, 1952, 67-71). Upwelling and Coastal Currents Recently K. Hidaka propounded a hydrodynamical theory of up- welling. He assumed an infinitely long straight coast and constant latitude, and discussed the upwelling to be produced as the effect of wind blowing in a belt of a certain width from the coast. He took the 60 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Coriolis forces and horizontal and vertical mixing into account. For the values of mixing coefficients generally accepted, the velocity of upwell- ing was computed at about 80 meters per month for the wind speed 5-6 m/s and the latitude 30°N, thus coinciding closely with observa- tions and former estimates. He also showed that the most intense up- welling will occur when the wind makes an angle 21-5° with the coast line in an offshore direction. ‘The horizontal motion involved in this circulation can be considered to form a part of the coastal or long- shore currents much debated recently (Technical Report, Department of Oceanography, Texas A. & M., 1953). In 1950 ‘T. Ichiye, discussing the wind-driven currents produced by a circular wind system, could show that the upwelling must take place in deeper layers even in an open ocean (OM, 2, 1950). Yukimasa Saito published a simple method of computing the ver- tical velocity of water from the displacement of isophonals. ‘This meth- od will be very useful when the distribution of density is given at a certain interval of time. He applied his method to the upwelling off Southern California and obtained the velocity of upwelling 2.55 m/day or about 80 m/month (JIPOCU, 2, B, 1951, 1-4). Tides and Tidal Currents N. Okamoto, Masamori Miyazaki, and H. Yoshizawa succeeded in obtaining four principal components of tidal currents from fortnightly observations in June, 1951, by Ono’s recording current meter working on the No. 2 Buoy in the Osaka Harbor (KH, 2, 1952, 29-34). Masamori Miyazaki obtained the tidal harmonic constants for Kobe and Sumoto by the Tidal Institute Method of A. T. Doodson (KH, 2, LOD 2a 24): Z. Yasui and S. Ishiguro published an intensive survey and descrip- tion of the tidal currents in Hirado Channel near Nagasaki. ‘They made a model experiment at the same time and could explain observed results very satisfactorily (NMOR, 3, 190). H. Akamatsu made a very intensive survey of the tidal and nontidal currents around the Goto Islands to the northwest of Kyushu (KK, 4, 1950, 65-72). K. Hishida made a survey of currents, tidal or nontidal, close to the coasts of the Japan Sea and showed that a marked vertical variation is noticed in them, which may be explained as due to winds and bottom topography (MCAKU, 62, 1952). Ichiye reports the observations of tidal currents and waves in Osa- ka Bay, the Harima Nada, Kii Suido (PRO, 1949; US, 28, 1950; KH, 2, 1951; Report on the Investigations of the Beach Erosion in the south- eastern part of Osaka Bay, 1). REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 61 Adventional variation of temperature and salinity due to tidal cur- rents was discussed by T. Ichiye (OM, 4, 1952). He also treated the modification of wave form when a long wave propagates through a channel of varying sections. He applied his theory to the Akashi Seto, a channel connecting Osaka Bay to another basin situated to the west, and computed the permeability of the waves when two eave trains meet in this channel (KMOM, 9, 1951). A new development in the discussion of the tidal currents in the Straits of Shimonoseki separating Honshu and Kyushu, two major is- lands of Japan, was made by Mashito, Nakano. He also pointed out a comment about its prediction (GJ, 58, 1949, 213-216). Seiches and Secondary Undulations of Tides On the occasion of cyclonic storms attacking our islands we fre- quently notice oscillations of period 1-3 minutes accompanying the tidal oscillations on mareograms. This phenomenon, now called “surf beats,” has been long known in Japan. M. Nakano reports a remark- able series of such undulations which accompanied the storm of 1-5 April 1936, and observed on the mareograms of tidal stations along the Japanese coasts. Nakano gives a very intensive examination of this phe- nomenon (OM, 1, 1949, 13-32). T. Ichiye treated theoretically the oscillations which will be caused by a sudden impulse of wind exerted on the sea surface and obtained the relation between the shape of the bay, time variation of the stress and the amplitude. He pointed out that an impulsive stress is more effective on producing seiches (JOSJ, 6, 1950). Sea Level In 1951 S. Yamaguti showed that the monthly mean sea-level cor- rected for astronomical, meteorological, and oceanographical effects, can be fairly used for discussion of the vertical displacement of the earth’s crust and sometimes may be used in place of precise levelling (GSB, 2, 1950). Waves Studies of waves have been made partly in connection with some practical applications. Forecasting of waves and swells has been needed for the safety of ships, for protection of coasts and harbors, and in connection with various problems of coastal engineering. ‘These fore- casting and practical studies have mainly been carried out by the staff of the Hydrographic Office, Central Meteorological Observatory, and a number of branch organizations (M. Nakano, S. Unoki, and K. Yuge, OM, 5, 1953; H. Arakawa and K. Suda, MWR, 81, 1953; M. Uda, GM, 62 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 23, 1952; Yoshida, Kajiura and Hidaka, ROWJ, 1, 1953; K. Sato, HB, 16, 1950; HB, 25, 1951; Miyazaki, KS, 28, 1950; I. Kimura, CKH, 1, 1949; H. Yamada, FE, 5, 1949; T. Ichiye, KH, 2, 1951; H. Hikada et al., KH, 1, 1949). To locate and track the storm or typhoon over the ocean, studies of microseisms in relation to the ocean waves have been con- tinued in the Earthquake Research Institute and in the Central Meteor- ological Observatory. (F. Kishinoue, ERIB, 29, 1951, 277-282.) Studies of beach erosion problems have been made with particular activities, under the cooperation of various research groups. Experimental stu- dies of surf in a model tank which were made by T. Hamada have made an important contribution to this field. (Transportation Tech- nical Research Institute, Report No. 2, 1951, 1-165.) Theoretical studies of wind waves have been made by K. Yoshida. He pointed out the importance of the process concerning the mutual exchange of momentum between ocean waves and ocean currents (K. Yoshida, JOSJ, 7, 1951, 99-104). He suggested that energy transmitted from wind to water goes partly into waves and partly into currents, and furthermore, energy is transferred from shorter waves to longer waves and also from waves to currents, mainly due to semi-irregular breaking of waves. Based on a physical consideration, he derived an equation to find an energy portion required to increase wave height and wave velocity respectively, and therefrom an equation of wave growth which slightly differs from Sverdrup-Munk’s (K. Yoshida, GN, 4, 1951). Energy distribution in wave spectra, which results from his theory of energy transfer from shorter waves to longer waves, was compared with actual wave data (K. Yoshida, JOSJ, 7, 1951, 49-54). Based on nonlinear equations of waves with continuous spectrum, he suggested that the frequent occurrence of waves of several minutes’ period, surf beats, may be ascribed to the general structure of the ocean wave spectrum (K. Yoshida, GN, 3, 1950). Periods of surf beats are estimated approxi- 2 mately from an original spectrum; T = =<. where T denotes a period of A energy maximum, and AT is the range of periods of wave components with a significant amount of energy. M. Nakano published a paper in 1949, Yoshida attempted to find a modification of swell in shallow wa- ter, where a bottom slope is not gentle enough to allow an ordinary refraction diagram approximation to be valid (K. Yoshida, GN, 3, 1950). However, available wave records have not been sufficient to prove and support these theories so far. An electrical recorder of waves was devised by S. Ishiguro, a very able hydrographic mechanician. He constructed several types of wave recorders and an apparatus for the stroboscopic analysis for preparing the wave spectrum (S. Ishiguro, OM, 1, 1949; KK, 3, 1949; KK, 4, REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 63 1950; K. Sato, HB, 15, 1949). Wave recorders of pressure type have been installed at severa! parts of our coasts, and especially continuous records at Yogashima Island have been analyzed by the staff of the Oceanographic Section of the Central Meteorological Observatory (M. Nakano, S. Unoki and Y. Kuge, OM, 5, 1953, in press). The accumu- lation of such data as well as activities of the staff may afford a pro- mise of progress in forecasting. One of the most successful and interest- ing results from the wave recorders installed by this staff is that a re- corder at Hachijo Island recorded long sea waves (tsunamis) produced by an eruption of a submarine volcano in September of 1952, and that S. Unoki and M. Nakano could explain the observed change of period and district beat phenomena by solving the wave problem of Cauchy- Poisson type (S. Unoki and M. Nakano, OM, 4, 1952; OM, 5, 1953). This record at the station 130 km. distant from the volcano showed that the period decreases gradually with the lapse of time, from 95 sec, to 30 sec., and also showed distinct beat pattern. A stereophotogram- metric study of the surface was atempted by K. Sato, who was lost on board the wrecked vessel at the eruption of the Myojin volcano. In 1951 and 1952, Masamori Miyazaki published papers on math- ematical studies of surf and breakers in water of constant slope (Masa- mori Miyazaki, OM, 3, 1951; OM, 4, 1952). He also discussed the wind stress over the wavy sea surface mathematically (OM, 3, 1951). A prob- lem of “tidal race’ was taken up by Miyazaki in 1949 and by T. Ichiye neo ei(ichive; OM; 1929; Miyazaki, OM, 1, 1949). K. Hidaka published two papers of surface waves in 1951. He proposed a very simple explanation as to why the group velocity is equal to the velocity with which we can follow the waves without change of wavelength (K. Hidaka, JOSJ, 7, 1951). Hidaka and A. Nakano calculated the sur- face profile of high waves from Stokes’ equation by means of numeri- cal calculations instead of successive approximation procedures (Hi- daka and A. Nakano, JOSJ, 7, 1951). Storm Tides Ariake Sea, which is a shallow water in the island studded part in western Kyushu, has a big productivity. “This area is much frequented by typhoons. A computation was made by K. Terada as to how high the storm tides accompanying the passage of typhoons would be. A theory for such a phenomenon had been established by several persons immediately after the “Muroto” Typhoon which caused serious dam- age in the heart of Japan by a heavy storm tide in 1934. Masamori Miyazaki is one of those who recently solved the problem of storm tides caused by a travelling storm in an infinite and semi-infinite seas (OM, 4, 1952, 1-12). 64 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The storm tides caused by a heavy typhoon which attacked Japan in September, 1950, were also examined by Masamori Miyazaki in 1951. The storm tide-height amounted to about 125 cm. along the Kyushu coast facing the Inland Sea. He also analyzed the data obtained during the passage of the typhoon “Muroto” (1934) and the typhoon “Jane” (1950), which went across Osaka Bay, and made some additional explanation of the seiches with periods 310 minutes and 70 minutes which were observed during the passage (KH, 2, 1951). The storm tide caused by the typhoon “Jane” was also discussed by K. Hishida and T. Wakabahashi and was reported to have amounted to a height of 60-70 cm. (KH, 1, 1950, 185). A series of dynamical studies was made by S. Unoki during the period 1950-51 on the effect of atmospheric pressure change on the va- riation of sea level. He found that the sea level always responds to the variation of the atmospheric pressure after a lag of time. ‘This lag is found to increase with the period of the atmospheric pressure variation, velocity of travelling surface pressure disturbance and the latitude, and decreases with the depth of the sea. These observed facts were shown to agree with the theory pretty well (OM, 2, 1950, 1-15). He also made an attempt to improve the Colding formula for estimating the eleva- tion of the sea level caused by stationary winds. He studied the effect of the fetch, variation of depth and the gradient of wind velocity on the variation of sea level (OM, 3, 1951, 1-16). He further pointed out that the lag between the wind and the sea level variations is usually small when only the wind direction varies, but the phase-difference is large when the wind force varies, being closely related with the lati- tude, the angle between the wind and coast line, and the rate of varia- tion of wind velocity. But the most important conclusion he obtained is that the elevation of sea surface is considerably larger when the wind direction rotates counter-clockwise than when it does clockwise, even when the absolute value of wind velocity and the rate of variation of wind direction remains the same. ‘This means that larger elevation of the sea surface occurs when a cyclonic storm passes northward across the west side of a bay, than when it passes through the eastern portion (OM, 3, 1951, 53-63). In 1952, K. Kajiura made a study of the currents and the accumu- lation of water caused by winds in a lake whose water consists of two layers of different densities. [The computed profile of the boundary layer agrees with the observation satisfactorily (JOSJ, 8, 1952, 67-71). A series of remarkable papers was published by H. Yamada on the effect of a travelling disturbance on the motion of water in an enclosed or a semi-open sea. After a tedious computation, he could show the REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 65 detail of water movement accompanying the passage of storm across these basins (FE, 6, 1950, 22-33). Tsunamis The coastal areas of Japan have frequently been attacked by the storm waves (surges, or Takashio) caused by typhoon and also by tsu- namis caused by submarine earthquakes. To protect the coastal areas from damages due to such high waters, a number of studies has been made on these problems. A series of theoretical research was published in the years preced- ing 1950 by R. Takahashi. In 1951, he published a very intensive work on the amount of energy of tsunami waves arriving per unit length of segment along the Pacific coasts of the Japanese islands per century. This research is very useful to anticipate the possible damages by tsu- nami attacking our islands in future, providing the seismic activities remain unaltered for the time being (ERIB, 29, 1951, 76-96). T. Ichiye has published another series of papers on tsunami. In 1949, he made a model experiment of the tsunami waves entering Osaka Bay from the Pacific Ocean and studied the patterns and characteristics of the oscillations peculiar to several portions of this bay around which are located many important industrial and commercial cities in the heart of Japan. He also attempted to take the effect of viscosity into consideration (KS, 26, 1949). Afterward he propounded a theory of tsunami and discussed the re- flection and penetration of tsunami waves as they pass into the shelf taking into account the interrelation between the length and period of tsunami waves and the depth and bottom slope of the shelf, and ob- tained a correction to Green’s law of change in amplitude. He also suc- ceeded in computing the reflectivity and permeability of tsunami which attacked Osaka Bay just mentioned from several directions of the Pa- cific. He also took into account the effect of viscosity on the shelf (KS, 27, 1949; OM, 2, 1950). He also established a theory of tsunami caused by a travelling disturbance on the bottom. ‘This theory of tsu- nami produced by a moving source is very helpful in treating the ob- served waves of tsunami. He first computed the tsunami waves when the submarine dislocation moves in a direction and showed that there occurs in a train of waves if the velocity of source is smaller than that of long waves, and a solitary wave is produced when the source moves faster than the long wave (KMOM, 8, 1950). Next, he treated the case where a circular elevation or depression is moving on the bottom. The patterns of oscillations remain the same except that the wave height decreases as the reciprocal of the square of the distance (KMOM, Y), US): 66 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS It has been a common sense that the tsunami wave becomes highest at the head of a bay. But, according to the observed data of the San- riku Tsunami, March 4, 1952, this was proved not to be necessarily the case. ‘To explain this fact, Ichiye assumed a frictional resistance on the bottom of the bay head and had the conclusion that the amplitude be- comes a maximum at the middle portion of the bay (KMOM, 10, 1952). Although these papers are very excellent, it might be more advis- able now to have a tsunami recorder and to analyze the records more in detail. D. Shimozuru and T. Akima found tsunami waves of long period, about 80 minutes, superposed on shorter period waves of tsu- namis in the tidal record of December 21, 1946, by means of mechanical law-pass filter of torsion pendulum type. The investigation of the phase of the long period waves appears to indicate that they are due to the reflection from Guam Island (ERIB, 30, 1952, 223-230). The accounts on the Sanriku Tsunami, March 4, 1952, have been published by several authorities including the Earthquake Research In- stitute and Geophysical Institute, Tokyo University, and the Central Meteorological Observatory, and others. In the Geophysical Institute, Tokyo University, an expedition was issued for the investigation and the report on tsunami waves and its patterns was published by K. Yoshi- da, K. Kajiura, and H. Miyoshi (JOSJ, 8, 1953). An importance of the reflection of tsunami waves by continental slope was pointed out in this report. In the case of this tsunami, a warning system was success- ful. Various problems having been discussed concerning the propaga- tion of tsunami waves (T. Ichiye, US, 26, 1949; T. Ikano, CKH, 2, 1950; S. Homma, KS, 28, 1950; T. Rikitake, ERIB, 29, 1951), interesting is an application of diffraction problem to tsunamis which was made by K. Hidaka and S. Hikozaka concerning a distribution of wave-height on the coasts of Kausi Island in the case of the Hawaiian tsunami of 1946 (JO, 5, 1949). Similar discussion was also made by S. Homma (GM, 21, 1950). Contributions were also made by model experiments of tsunami which S. Ogiwara, and T. Okita attempted (CKH, 2, 1950; SRTH, 2, 1950). ' It should also be mentioned that records of the sea shock on Au- gust 10, 1949, were obtained by S. Takagi, using a seismograph installed on board an anchored ship (US, 27, 1950). Another important work is a theoretical discussion of flood waves by S. Yayami, the importance of lateral mixing being introduced (Disaster Prevention Res. Ins. Bully 9): Marine Meteorology In 1950, Arakawa made a statistical survey of the visibility in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean using the data observed by the Japanese REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 67 Navy during the period of ten years beginning September, 1923. He found that the visibility is excellent in low latitudes almost all the year round. In high latitudes, poor visibility predominates, especially in the summer months. In the Far East the Summer Monsoon is directed from south to north, so the conditions will be favorable for advec- tion fogs. In the colder half of the year, the obscuring snow in the rear of winter cyclones on the northern sailing routes reduces visibility as a rule (MGP, 1, 1950, 58-66). Based on the materials from the same sources, he and ‘Tsutsumi also discussed the seasonal changes of daily frequency of squalls in the same area. He concluded that the frequency of squalls is drastically large in the Equatorial belt east of Longitude 125°E and south of Latitude 10°N, where the rainfall is heaviest in the Pacific as mentioned by G. Schott in 1938 (MGP, 1, 1951, 296-301). ; In 1951, Hokodate Marine Observatory carried out the observations of fogs around his northernmost island very close the polar front and confirmed many of former conclusions on this phenomenon, together with the fact that there are very few of the short period components in the turbulence when the fog is very dense and the lapse rate of tem- perature is small close to the sea surface (KJ, 4, 1952, 81-120). A statistical study was made by M. Hanzawa and T. Inous on the influence of the variation of sea surface temperature and pressure on the growth of rice crop (KH, 2, 1952). Instruments and Methods In 1950 K. Ono of the Japanese Hydrographic Office, Tokyo, de- signed an electric shelf recording current meter. This instrument has undergone several improvements and has been used in several areas around the Japanese Islands with success. Another design with a photo- electric cell tube is also published by T. Nan’niti though we have not heard of its widespread use (MGP, 3, and 4, 1953, 286-294). In 1950 Nan’niti designed a lazy thermometer and tried a theore- tical consideration on its time lag. S. Agari made a design to measure the deep water temperature on — deck by the use of an electrically controlled distant deep-sea reversing thermometer. This consisted of a thin carbon thread sealed in a glass tube. The electric resistance is measured by platinum electrodes at- tached on this carbon thread. He made tests with both protected and non-protected reversing thermometers (KJ, 8, 1953). Shizuo Ishiguro is a very good designer and constructor of oceano- graphic instruments. He designed a sea wave height recorder taking advantage of the buoyancy of a cylindrical buoy placed in the water (KK 19507), 45-09): 68 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS He also made an electric recorder for sea wave pressure. The trans- ducer of pressure gauge is of a variable mutual induction type using about a 100 cycle/sec. constant audit frequency. ‘The recording appara- tus consists of six parts: a carrier wave oscillator, a modulator combined with the pressure gauge, an amplifier and detector, an automatic cali- brating suit, a direct inking oscillograph and an electrical power supply, all kept in four portable cases. ‘This apparatus can measure the wave pressure from 0 up to 50 ton/m? with an accuracy of 2 to 3% in pres- sure and 1/20 sec. in the period of pressure pulsation. Actual obser- vations with this instrument proved successful. He made several im- provements (OM, I, 1949, 135-141; KK, 1, 1948, 2, 1949). Besides the wave recorder, Ishiguro devised an experimental analy- sis method for the forced oscillation of water in a lake or sea. The first method is to take movie pictures of the sea surface illuminated by a nearly horizontal beam. He also replaced the oscillating water in a basin by a combination system of electric impedance, the solution being shown in a cathode oscillograph (KK, 4, 1950, 59-84). Ishiguro applied the techniques of photogrammetry in order to measure the progressive phenomena on the sea surface such as tide waves, and wind waves and swell (KK, 4, 1950, 35-39). He also devised a drawing instrument or graphic computer to ana- lyze an irregular wave-form, or to combine different wave patterns, an optical direction recorder for tidal currents and an electric-contact-type speed recorder for submarine currents (KK, 4, 1950, 18-20, 21-23). Un- fortunately these instruments have not yet been constructed because of his illness. A nomograph diagram for the temperature correction of a non- protected reversing thermometer is given by Y. ‘Takenouti and T. Kato (KEE 1, 1950), 53-56): The technique of determining the ocean currents by measuring angle and direction of maximum inclination of the sounding wire was studied by K. Fukutomi (CKH, 1, 1951). The relation between the wind and the surface drift was discussed by K. Hishida (JOSJ, 6, 1950). In 1952 T. Abe made a different model of bathythermograph (KH, Zr lGb2) 289-296). An undersea observation chamber ‘“‘Kuroshio” was constructed in Japan and operated by N. Inoue, T. Sasaki and R. Oaki. ‘This in- strument, very similar to the bathysphere used by W. Beebe and Otis Burton in the United States of America was constructed in 1951. This project is financed by the Yomiuri Shinbun, one of the biggest news- paper companies in Japan, the Japanese Government, and others. ‘This was used in the summers of 1951 and 1952 with success. (Journ. Scient. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 69 Res. Ins. 46, 1952; ROWYJ, 1, 1953, 52-62; N. Suzuki and K. Kato, Bull. Fac. Fish. Hokkaido Univ. 4, in press.) The production of deep-sea reversing thermometers, both protected and non-protected, has greatly increased recently. Nearly two hundred of them have been exported to the United States and many other coun- tries of the world. S. Watanabe and S. Yoshino are two of the outstand- ing makers. Submarine Geology In 1950 K. Hishida made an investigation on the sand drift in Ta- kahania Harbor in the Japan Sea coast of Japan (KH, 1, 1950, 193). T’. Ichiye published a series of papers on the beach erosion along the southeastern coast of Osaka Bay. He propounded a theory of beach erosion and suggested that the intense beach erosion is accompanied by converging currents (US, 26, 1951; Reports on the Investigations of Beach Erosion in the Southeastern Part of the Osaka Wan, 1951, 1952). Hiroshi Niino is carrying on a very extensive geological survey in several areas in the adjacent seas of Japan by boats belonging to the Tokyo Fisheries University. His surveys are regarded to be very im- portant from the standpoint of locating the fields of coal, oil and natural gas. ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations are used in the text for expressing names of the publications: CREW rs sescasse Chikyubuturigaki Kenkyu Hokoku, Hokkaido Universi- ty, Sapporo. ; Jae NS3) Beso coe Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute, Tokyo University, Tokyo. TMB Aone cals Reports of the Research Institute for Fluid Engineer- ing, Kyushu University, Fukuoka. GU iris, sive ceceers Journal of Geography, Tokyo. GMs 5 ctspeee rors Geophysical Magazine, Central Meteorological Observa- tory, Tokyo. GIN Bag he Seeley Geophysical Notes, Geophysical Institute, Tokyo Uni- versity. GSBieyn tees Bulletin of the Geographic Survey Institute, Tokyo. fo Ben ee OEE Hydrographic Bulletin (Suiro Yoho), Japanese Hydro- graphic Office, Tokyo. Be ec Bulletin of Hokkaido Regional Fisheries Research La- boratory, Yoichi, Hokkaido. JCSBR ee Bulletin of Chemical Society of Japan, Tokyo. JIPOCU_... Journal of the Institute of Polytechnics, Osaka City University, Osaka. SIME scvastotercts Journal of Marine Research. SOM re eaeatc Journal of Oceanography. 70 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS JOST ee eer: Journal of the Oceanographical Society of Japan, Tokyo. USS OM seoencoe Journal of the Japanese Society of Snow and Ice, Tokyo. i RET kus anes Chuo Kishodai Kenkyo Jiho (Journal of Meteorological Research), Central Meteorological Observatory, Tokyo. Kee ee Oe Kaiyo Hokoku (The Oceanographical Report of Central Meteorological Observatory, Tokyo). KK te ae Kaiyo to Kisho (Oceanography and Meteorology), Na- gasaki Marine Observatory, Nagasaki. KMOM_..... Memoirs of the Kobe Marine Observatory, Kobe. KGS AGh have revyetoce Kisho Shushi (Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan), Tokyo. MCAKU.... Memoirs of the College of Agriculture, Kyoto Univer- sity, Kyoto. MGR Mice crete Papers in Meteorology and Geophysics, Institute of Meteorology, Tokyo. MMOR ..... Maizuru Marine Observatory Report. WNWARS gg 6 DOOD Monthly Weather Review, Washington, D.C. NMOR ...... Nagasaki Marine Observatory Report. OME iuctreuaitrters Oceanographical Magazine, Central Meteorological Ob- servatory, Tokyo. TPR OM irareleterers’s Papers and Report in Oceanography, Kobe Marine Ob- servatory, Kobe. OMIA Basgoc Records of Oceanographic Works in Japan, Japan Science Council, Tokyo. 4 CR eae Teion Kagaku (Low Temperature Science), a publica- tion in Japanese, edited by the Low Temperature Insti- tute, Hokkaido University, Sapporo. ARON OA eas ores Journal of the Tokyo Fisheries University, Tokyo. IS Reha ee Umi to Sora (Sea and Sky), published by the Marine Metecrological Society, Kobe Marine Observatory, Kobe. SR ce. Science Reports of the Tohoku University. OCEANOGRAPHY IN MALAYA THE ANALYSIS OF THE MARINE ECoO-SYSTEM AS A BASIS FOR PREDICTION OF FisH AVAILABILITY IN MALAYAN SEAS. By D. W. LE Mare Sea fishing is essentially the exploitation of a natural resource by the capture of a portion of wild stocks from an uncontrolled en- vironment. The success of the operations depends on an intimate knowledge of the nature and habits of these stocks. Normally, experi- enced fishermen have a fairly good idea as to where and when to ex- REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 71 pect different species of fish. Very often, however, much time is wasted in searching for the fish and from time to time there have been reports from various parts of the world of unusually small catches or even of complete failure of certain fisheries. On the other hand there are o¢- casions when catches are normally poor. ‘The fishermen are unable to explain these phenomena so that, from the point of view of financiers, the fishing industry is generally considered to be inherently hazardous and does not attract finance so readily as other enterprises. ‘There are, of course, other factors but this element of uncertainty in fish produc- tion is the largest factor which retards the expansion of the fishing in- dustry on sound economic lines. It is clear, therefore, that for the fish- ing industry to operate on an economic basis the fishermen must be supplied with, inter alia, information as to where and when each spe- cies or group of species of fish is available for fishing operations. This is a task which should be given the highest priority in fishery investi- gations as until it is known where, when and at what depth each spe- cies of fish is available it is not possible to decide where to study the nature of the bottom, the sea currents and the meteorological condi- tions in which the fishing operations have to be carried out effectively without a knowledge of all these factors. The need for reliable predic- tion systems have been felt in different parts of the world and many have been elaborated. The use of indicator organisms for the Herring fishery in the North Sea is an example. It is of special importance in the underdeveloped areas to know when and where to go, so that the production of food for the world’s growing population may be in- creased with a minimal waste of effort. In Malaya, however, the catches of many of the tears in use at the present moment consist of mixed fish and it has been found that while these fish show a certain amount of food preference, they are mostly plankton feeders and readily feed on other organisms if the food pre- ferred are not available. Details of the results of the investigations on the food and feeding habits of the fishes in Singapore Straits are given in a paper by Tham Ah Kow (1950). There is evidence also that there is a close correlation between wind and catches of certain species of fish such as Stolephorus spp. This is not surprising in view of the fact that the currents in Malayan seas are largely monsoon currents. From the experience gained in the study of the fisheries of Malaya over the years, it would appear also that rainfall and salinity variations as well as variations in plankton play some part in the variation in availability of fish. In view of these considerations, it was decided that a concurrent study of the physical, chemical and biological factors as related to the - 72 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS availability of fish should be made by the Research section of the Ma- layan Fisheries Department. For this purpose it was decided to con- centrate all observations in Singapore Straits since, besides other consi- derations, one of the main gears used in this area is the fixed fish trap known as the Kelong. The important features of this method of fish- ing are: (1) in Singapore Straits its fishing intensity is practically con- stant; (2) the fish in Singapore Straits are brought on to the long leads of these traps by the tides and all fish lured into these traps are caught by means of fine meshed lift nets; and (3) reliable records of the catch- es of these stakes are easily obtainable. A detailed description of this gear is given by Le Mare and Tham (1947). Observations on the fol- lowing factors were made at regular fortnightly intervals during two full years: (1) sea water temperature, (2) salinity, (3) phosphate ccn- tent, (4) phytoplankton, and (5) copepod numbers. Full details of the methods used in the measurement of these factors are given in a paper by Tham Ah Kow (1953). It should be stated, however, that in the case of phytoplankton the estimation of pigment content by Harvey’s method as well as total counts were carried out. Data on wind-force and rainfall for the period of the investigations were supplied by the Malayan Meteorological Service. In an attempt to study the effect of each of these factors on the availability of fish the data so obtained were subjected to correlation analysis by means of partial correlation. As the data are based on fortnightly samples, they constitute time series and it is possible that in each of these time series the value of the variable at one period of time may influence its value in a succeeding period. In such cases the use of partial correlation as an analytical tool would not be valid. How- ever, according to Bartlett (1953) there should be no objection to the use of partial correlation as a preliminary measure. If the partial cor- relation coefficients are quite insignificant, there does not seem much point in considering them any further. If the correlation coefficients appear significant, then the terms of each of the series should be tested for independence and if found to be independent the partial correla- tion coefficients may be accepted as valid. This procedure has been adopted. Where the terms of both series correlated are not indepen- dent then the method of Fisher (1948) for series correlation is applied to remove the effect of time. The results obtained by this correlation analysis are shown in Figure I. The main elements of the fish population in Singapore Straits are Stolephorus spp. (anchovy), Clupea spp. (sprat), Chirocentrus spp. (do- rab) and Scomberomorus spp. (Spanish mackerel). They are inter- 73 REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY I qunyIy ENVOIMINDIS ATIVOILSILVLS ATAVAONAd — — — — — — ‘LNVOIMINDIS ATIVOILSILVLS | ‘dd$ SAdLNGQ0uIHO | ALINITVS ee ets. = SSeS | TIVAINIVd |—-———| aLVHdSOHd | qTaOLVEGdWaL | | | AHOWOTANIM | | ‘ddS SAUOWONTANOOS ce aa ee | - SdIHSNOILLVIGYYALNI ‘ddS SNUYOHdATOLS LNALNOO LNAWSId NOLANV'IdOLAH | 74. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS related in that both Scomberomorus spp. and Chirocentrus spp. feed voraciously on Clupea spp. and Stolephorus spp. These latter groups, in turn, feed on zooplankton (especially copepods) and phytoplankton. The physical and chemical elements of the environment play an im- portant part in determining the availability of plankton as well as the various elements of the fish populations. It is clear, therefore, that the various elements of the marine eco-system in Singapore Straits are very closely integrated. In an attempt to study further the close relationship between the fish population on the one hand and the environmental conditions, viz: rainfall, windforce, temperature, salinity, phosphate, phytoplankton and copepods, on the other, the method of multiple regression is used. The multiple regression equation obtained may be expressed as fol- lows:— Xi, = — 49,903 — 395.61100 X, — 1.77415 X, — 1,105.75115 X, 511269182990) Xow 10:47 90a abo r7 Xen where X,, = the monthly total catch of three kelongs in pounds, 14 X, = total rainfall in inches for that month, X, = total wind speed in metres per second for that month, X, == average temperature of the sea water in °C for that month, X, = average salinity in °/,, for that month, X, = average number of phytoplankton cells and/or chains of cells per cubic metre for that month, X, = average number of copepods per cubic metre for that month. On testing the significance of the multiple correlation by working out the value of “z’ it is found to be 0.87977 whilst the 0.1% point is 0.8657. ‘The multiple correlation is therefore clearly significant. The adjusted multiple correlation coefficient squared is R? = 0.5566. The standard error of estimate S is = 2316 Ibs. This is 14.44°% of the mean monthly total catch for the two years under study. The total catch for each month for the two years 1948 and 1949 has been calculated and compared with the corresponding actual total] monthly catches in Table I. In the above regression equation it is assumed that all the relationships are linear. If it were further re- fined statistically by taking into account the curvilinear nature of some of the relationships a much closer estimate would, in all probability, be obtainable. The results of the multiple regression shows that if predictions of the independent variates could be made with accuracy a prediction system of sufficient accuracy for catches in Singapore Straits is within reach. It would appear also from these results that, in the exploration of new grounds, an intensive study of the marine eco-sys- tem should yield a comprehensive picture of the habits and migration of the fish stocks in a comparatively short time. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 75 It is believed that this is the first time that a prediction system for availability of fish has been developed, which shows the present de- gree of accuracy when tested over a period of 24 months. TABLE I COMPARISON OF ACTUAL TOTAL CATCH AND CALCULATED TOTAL CATCH YEAR 1948 CALCULATED ACTUAL Cat. X 100 DIFFERENCE ToTAL CATCH ToTAL CATCH ACTUAL AcT.-CAL. LBs. January 6,428 7,029 91.45% + 601 February 15,799 17,153 92.11% +1,854 March A Dil 18,439 83.63 % + 8,018 April MTB 17,520 101.24% a AY May 18,793 15,546 120.88% amOsea June 17,967 17,618 101.98% = Gy) July 14,809 11,270 131.40% TT Oye) August 15,655 17,364 90.16% +-1,709 September 16,768 16,589 101.08% = ee) October 20,917 20,586 101.86% =F Bl November 17,483 20,585 84.93% +3,102 December 12,504 13,125 95.27% + 621 YEAR 1949 January 12,224 11,249 108.66% me | 5) February 16,323 12,381 131.83% ao oe March 17,983 19,821 93.07% +1,338 April 19,184 18,552 103.41% = Oey May 17,809 18,445 96.55% + 636 June 16,261 16,070 101.19% am 9 July 14,956 17,192 86.99% + 2,236 August 18,501 21,765 85.00% +3,264 September 16,387 14,329 114.36% 2,008 October 15,163 O22, 96.44% DS) November ~ 15,360 12,608 121.83 % enon December 14,217 14,394 98.77 % + 177 REFERENCES BARTLETT, M. S. 1935. “Some Aspects of the Time-Correlation Problem.” Journ. Royal Statistical Soc. Vol. 98, p. 586. FisHer, R. A. 1948. “Statistical Methods for Research Workers.” Tenth Edition. Oliver & Boyd. London. Le Mars, D. W. and THAM, AH Kow. 1947. “The Kelong Fishing Method.” Fishery Conference convened by the United Kingdom Special Commis- sioner for Southeast Asia at Singapore. Paper No. 1 (Mimeo.) THamM, AH Kow. 1950. “A Preliminary Study of the Physical, Chemical and Biological Characteristics of Singapore Straits.” Colonial Fishery Publications. Vol. 1, No. 3, H. M. Stationery Office. London. 76 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS OCEANOGRAPHY IN NEW ZEALAND By A. W. B. Powe. and CG. A. FLEMING I. INTRODUCTION The years 1949 to 1953 have seen important advances in organiza- tion and performance of oceanographic work in New Zealand. A re- view of New Zealand oceanography presented in 1947 (Hefferd 1950, Trans. Roy. Soc. N. Z. 77(5): 212-21) indicates the state of research just prior to the 7th Pacific Science Congress. The stimulus provided by the activities of the Oceanography Section of the 7th Congress in New Zealand in 1949 has undoubtedly contributed to the advances made since that date, which are documented by the bibliography of New Zealand Oceanography 1949-53, compiled by the N.Z. Oceanogra- phic Committee and tabled with this report. In October, 1949, on the arrival of the naval survey vessels, H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan in New Zealand, her Commanding Officer, Com- mander J. M. Sharpey-Schaefer, R. N., offered to collect data and ma- terial for New Zealand scientists. To co-ordinate requests for data and distribution of material, an Interdepartmental Committee on Ocea- nography was formed, with representatives of Victoria University Col- lege, Dominion Museum, Marine Department, and Department of Scien- tific and Industrial Research. The Committee drew up a programme of sampling and observation, and supplied the ship with bottom sam- plers, containers, scientific log sheets, and arranged for analysis of wa- ter samples, distribution of collections, mechanical analysis and petro- logical examination of sediments, and perusal of echo-traces. In June, 1950, the Interdepartmental Committee pressed for the formation of a National Committee fully representative of the many New Zealand oceanographers attached to different institutions and departments, to act as a national body competent to speak for New Zealand in ocean- ographic matters. _ A further stimulus to oceanography in this country was provided by the opportunities afforded for some deep sea investigations arising out of the visits of three oceanographic vessels—R.R.S. Discovery II (1950-51), H.M.S. Challenger (1951), and the Danish Research Ship Galathea (1951-1952). The New Zealand National Committee on Oceanography (Secre- tary J. W. Brodie) was formed in September, 1950, as an advisory re- search committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, and has since operated in effecting liaison, sponsoring research pro- jects, and in advising the New Zealand Government on oceanographic REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 77 matters. In the field of physical oceanography, the committee through its physical sub-committee, arranged for preparation of a bathymetric map of New Zealand seas, for the collection of continuous echo sound- ing profiles by naval vessels in New Zealand seas, particularly on vo- yages between New Zealand, Australia, and the outlying islands, and for “collector tracings” of all surveys to be available for scientific use. Visiting expeditions (R.R.S. Discovery Il, H.M.S. Challenger, H.D.M.S. Galathea) co-operated by supplying the committee with physical data of local interest (soundings, temperatures, bottom samples, etc.). Also molluscan material was allocated to two local specialists for study and report. In general, the committee has effected liaison between New Zealand workers in oceanography by assembling news-sheets, library lists, and lists of vessels and equipment available for research work. II. PuysicaAL (C. A. FLEMING) Hydrographic Surveys by H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan Since her arrival in 1949, H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan has been engaged on hydrographic re-survey of New Zealand coasts. New charts have been prepared of Foveaux Strait, Cook Strait, Wellington, Bluff, Lyttelton, and Otago Harbours, Peterson Inlet, and the east coast between Banks Peninsula and Wellington. Echo sounding surveys have clearly de- lineated the position of the continental shelf-edge and have de- monstrated the presence of submarine canyons in Cook Strait and off the east coast of the South Island near Otago Peninsula, Banks Penin- sula, and the Marborough Coast. In 1950, Lieutenant Commander B. M. Bary, M.Sc., Ph.D., N.Z. Defence Scientific Corps, joined H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan as biologist, and the ship was equipped with a laboratory and oceanographic gear. Mr. T. M. Skerman, M.Sc., Oceanographic Ob- servatory, D.S.I.R., joined the ship when Lt. Commander Bary left to further his studies at the National Institute of Oceanography. In the course of hydrographic surveys, H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan under- takes routine observations of sea surface temperatures, obtains salinity samples, bathythermograph records, bottom samples (using a Worzel sampler supplied by Geological Survey) and plankton hauls. The re- sulting collections and data are distributed to New Zealand oceanogra- phers by the “Lachlan” sub-committee of the Oceanographic Commit- tee. Oceanographic Observatory, D.S.I.R. The Oceanographic Observatory, Wellington, was formed in 1949 and is now organized as a unit of the Geophysics Division of the De- partment of Scientific and Industrial Research for the study of hydro- logical conditions in the seas around New Zealand. The present staff 78 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS consists of three professional officers and two technicians. ‘The observ- atory suffered a severe loss by the death in March, 1953, of Mr. W. M. Jones, M.Sc., (N.Z.) B.A. (Oxon.), Director. In his contribution to the development of physical oceanography in New Zealand, Mr. Jones brought his long experience as a mathematical physicist in other fields of geophysics. An Admiralty wave recorder was installed at Greymouth, west coast of South Island, in 1950, and ocean wave records obtained during a three-month period. An examination of these records in conjunction with weather information showed that there was satisfactory agreement between the main features of meteorological situations and the resul- tant wave spectra, and some graphical methods were evolved for eval- uating the quantitative relations. The statistical relationships between the observed sea surface and its spectrum have been studied. Some re- sults have been published by Jessie K. A. Watters (1953, “Distribution of height in ocean waves.” N. Z. J. Sci. Tech. B 34: 408-22), and others will be published in a paper in preparation for the same journal by N. F. Barber, and R. A. Wooding (“Some statistical features of sea waves’). The sea surface temperatures obtained from 1949 to 1952 from merchant and naval ships and from surface recording thermographs in- stalled on trans-Tasman and other vessels have been plotted on month- ly charts as the basis for study of the surface hydrology of the south- west Pacific by D. M. Garner (who has submitted a short account of the results to this Congress). 1,600 salinity determinations, by the Do- minion Laboratory (Wellington), are used to supplement the tempera- ture data. The hurricane at Suva in January, 1952, produced a microseismic storm on the Milne Shaw seismograph, and the relations of the micro- seisms to the position and intensity of the hurricane have been exam- ined. Geophysics Division, D.SJI.R. Mr. J. W. Brodie has undertaken the filing and analysis of sound- ing records received from ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy and from other sources (including Discovery H, H.M.S. Challenger, and H.D.M.S. Galathea). An account of the sea floor west of New Zealand appears in N.Z. J. Sci. Tech. B 33 (5): 373-84, 1952. Contoured bathy- metric charts of Cook Strait, Bay of Plenty, and Wellington Harbour have been compiled and a description of a seamount rising from 1000 to 5000 fathoms, west of Waikato Heads, has been prepared. 12,000 drift cards have been obtained for release during 1953 in the south- west Pacific to determine current movements. REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 719 Echo sounding profiles across the New Zealand continental shelf are being accumulated for study. Many profiles show the shelf to be terraced. The resurvey of Cook Strait by H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan has shown that a submarine canyon drains southward from the relatively shallow (50-fathom) shelf of the western strait to depths in excess of 1,100 fathoms south of Cape Palliser. Shallow tributary channels cross- ing the shelf between Nelson and Taranaki bear no relation to the mouths of rivers. The resurvey has shown changes in the walls of the Cook Strait Canyon since the early surveys of last century. During 1950, D. J. Banwell and B. H. Olson measured electric potential differences between points on shore spaced 2-3 kilometres apart, considered due to tidal currents (Couper, 1953, Rep. 7th N.Z. Sci. Congr. 3). Previous measurements (e.g. by Barber) were made in the northern hemisphere. The results agreed fairly well with the theo- retical argument of Longuet-Higgins, given the opposite polarity of the earth’s field. New Zealand Geological Survey | Echo sounding and other bathymetric records were filed at the Geo- logical Survey from 1949 until 1952 when the Geophysics Division un- dertook their custody. The topography and sediment of Mernoo Bank, an oval elevation of the sea bottom rising from depths greater than 200 fathoms to 28 fathoms, 90 miles east of Canterbury, were described by Fleming and Reed (1951, N.Z. J. Sci. Tech. B 32 (6): 18-30) on the basis of an echo sounding survey by H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan, and serial magnetometer profile and sediment samples. The bank is interpreted as a tectonic dome, composed of late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic indurated sediment, sculp- tured by shallow radial submarine valleys. J. J. Reed has studied the grain-size, sorting, and mineralogy of sediments of the Sumner estuary, Canterbury (1951, N.Z. J. Scc. Tech. B33 (2): 129-37). From the Cha- tham Rise west of the Chatham Islands, R.R.S. Discovery II dredged coarse sediment at a depth of 170 fathoms containing pebbles of schist and of phosphatised Miocene globigerine limestone (Reed and Horni- brook, 1952, N.Z. J. Sct. Tech. B 34 (3): 173-88). Reed has prepared a sediment map of Cook Strait based cn mechanical analysis of 170 sam- ples, mostly collected with a Worzel sampler from H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan. Few samples had been obtained from the floor of the Cook Strait Can- yon, but the general pattern indicates that sediment is coarse near the canyon and fine on flat shelf areas distant from it. Calcite and siderite concretions, some of them fossiliferous, a foot or two in diameter, are regularly caught on fishing lines on the sides of the canyon and have been studied by C. A. Fleming. The concretions contain fossils pro- 80 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS bably of Pleistocene age and are bored by marine animals and support a vigorous epifauna. These facts suggest that an area of geologically young sediments is being destroyed by bottom scour on the sides of the Cook Strait Canyon, leaving the more resistant concretion on the sea bottom, where currents are sufficient (in depths of 100 to 120 fathoms) to prevent sediment accumulating. B. L. Wood and I. McKellar (Geological Survey, Invercargill) have begun a study of bottom topography and sediment in Foveaux Strait off the East Coast of Otago. A submarine lignite from Foveaux Strait has been shown by pollen analysis to be Plio-Pleistocene in age, and to represent a cool climate (Couper, N.Z. J. Sct. Tech. B 33 (3): 178-86). By arrangement with the Galathea Expedition authorities R. A. Couper is working on the spores and pollen grains in a sediment core obtained by H.D.M.S. Galathea in Milford Sound. Preliminary re- sults suggest that it may be possible to determine the rate of sedimenta- tion in the glacially over-deepened basin with the rock bar near the entrance to the sound owing to the appearance of pollen from intro- duced Cupressus trees at the top of the core. Some further information on the White Island Trench, described by Fleming at the 7th Pacific Science Congress (1953, Proc. 7th Pacific Sct. Congr. 3:210-12), is now available as the result of echo sounding and a gravimetric survey. The trench, which is interpreted as the submarine continuation of the Rangitaiki Graben, has now been traced north eastward into the Bay of Plenty to depths in excess of 1300 fath- oms, and additional work has shown that a parallel depression runs seaward on its west side, defining the ridge on which stands the White Island volcano. Gravity surveys of the Bay of Plenty have shown that the landward part of the trench is an area of negative anomaly, with a maximum difference of 50 milligals between the trench and the up- lifted blocks which bound it on either side. Neither the gravity profiles, nor the echo traces are evidence that the depression has particularly steep walls, although these have been mapped geologically as faulty. The bottom relief offshore corresponds in detail with the gravity pro- file along the coast. III. BrotocicaL (A. W. B. Powe Lt) A considerable amount of work that may be classified under the heading of biological oceanography is at present in progress at the several University Colleges, Museums and other scientific institutions in this country and an outline of the nature and scope of this work follows: REPORT ON OCEANOGRAPHY 81 Although many of the titles in the Oceanographic Committee’s bibliography and many of the topics included in my list work in pro- gress suggest specialized zoological and botanical scope rather than oceanographic, it should be conceded that New Zealand is a young country and that the systematics and biology of many groups are still inadequately known. All such papers collectively will eventually form an indispensable background for future biological oceanographic investigation. Published Biological Work The published papers are representative of most phyla but mol- luscan and algal studies predominate with 33 titles for the former and 16 for the latter. Protozoa. ‘Two papers by B. N. Bary on Sea-water discoloration. Portfera. One paper, The Kirk Collection of Sponges, by H. B. Fell. Coelenterata. ‘Two papers on Ctenophores from Cook Strait by P. M. Ralph and C. Kabery and The Actinaria of New Zealand by G. Parry, which includes a check-list of recorded and new species. Echinoderma. Five papers by H. B. Fell: “The Constitution and Relations of the New Zealand Echinoderm Fauna,” “Echinoderms from Southern New Zealand,” “The Occurrence of Australian Echinoids in New Zealand Waters,” and several papers on littoral and deep-sea ophi- uroids. Also a paper on Holothuria by W. H. Dawbin. Polyzoa. A monograph of Tertiary Cheilostomata by D. A. Brown and two papers by G. H. Uttley contain many references to the syste- matics and distribution of recent species. Mollusca. ‘Thirty-three papers by C. Borland, R. K. Dell, C. A. Fleming, J. E. Morton, R. M. Cassie, Rapson, and A. W. B. Powell. In addition to systematics there are papers on life-histories, feeding mechanisms, animal communities of the sea bottom, population stu- dies, biogeographic provinces, bipolarity and the dispersal of southern high latitude species. Crustacea. ‘Three papers on the Spiny Crayfish (Jasus lalandi) by C. A. Bradstock, two on brachyura by L. R. Richardson, one on new species of Scyllarus and Ctenocheles by A. W. B. Powell, and one on Am- phipoda by D. E. Hurley. N. de B. Hornibrook has described ‘“‘A new Family of Living Ostracoda with Resemblances to some Palaeozoic Bey- richiidae” and has published a monograph ‘Tertiary and Recent Ma- rine Ostracoda of New Zealand, their Origin, Affinities and Distribu- tion,” including a systematic revision of the Cytheriidae. Protochordata. Eight papers on New Zealand Ascidians by B. Brewin. 82 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Pisces. Five papers by J. A. F. Garrick, J. M. Moreland, W. J. Phillips, and L. R. Richardson. Mammalia. Southern Ocean Seals, two papers by E. G. Turbott and the “Elephant Seals of Campbell Island” by J. H. Sorensen. The algal papers deal with systematics, ecology, zonation and al- gal provinces. The authors are M. P. Ambler, J. A. Carnahan, V. J. Chapman, R. F. de Berg, U. V. Dellow, and V. W. Lindauer. Biological Work in Progress in New Zealand FISHERIES BRANCH, MARINE DEPARTMENT, WELLINGTON. Survey of Snapper (Pagrosomus auratus) spawning grounds in the Hauraki Gulf, Auckland, to log the distribution and density of eggs and larvae. Routine trawls in the Hauraki Gulf to record the seasonal varia- tion in the composition of fish stocks. Investigation of the spawning areas for Tarakihi (Dactylopagrus macropterus) in the Gisborne-East Cape area. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, WELLINGTON. The Zoology Department is encouraging students to specialize in the systematics of groups. In recent years students of the Department have investigated Amphipoda, Cephalopoda, Macrozooplankton and Os- tracoda. Staff members are at present working on Coelenterata, Hiru- dinea, Crustacea Brachyura, Echinodermata and Pisces. Cee > reer ease Pere = f= ep) fe — els 2m ro) mw 9 SqnLiiv1 ANOD AIG re) <: sec tee eee’ > > > eee D> —> fe) S > ; c A = | \ Xs Be ee ce a Jee / | uw (2) ° ° ° Zz =m oO mw Sgn Liiva ANOS | \ ‘\ ™ aaa Va f ral wamacd) WEST WIND zm b mw SONLILV1 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 144 7 Ayn NOURISHMENT OF CENTRAL PACIFIC STOCKS OF TUNA 145 ‘HUGH M SMITH _GRUISE {1 O LONGLINE STATIONS @ HYDROGRAPHIC STATIONS POS [SOx FIGURE 5 146 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PEP IC ere? te (lo 0? (es? ey? (Ki? (ei DEPTH( METERS) (B) LONGLINE DRIFT S = wwWvdw Fs = (C) ZOOPLANKTON m = ° Oo Se > —_ = (D) YELLOWFIN CATCH NUMBER/ 100 HOOKS 0 I Sr Racine er tle (Gy nlenrec Se .40n Or Genres Gem Sel Ocul toa lea Saul Sem S——LATITUDE ——N FIGURE 6 [20 SOF 4 OSS OP GOmli(O2 a SO> lizOe |6O2 5 15025 1402 a 13028 1202s aIO2 100% 9025. B02 148 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Via KI fF MW«W GG mole («CWC G ¢W OOOI/ IN 120° 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° [807 N02 602s 1502 140° 130° 120° 110° 1002 90° = 80°| FIGURE 8 DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF THE TUNA FISHERIES OF THE PACIFIC By MILner B. SCHAEFER Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California, U.S.A. In recent years, it has often been pointed out that in order to keep up with the food demands of a growing population, man must turn to the sea as a major source of protein food. In point of fact, the utilization of the food resources of the sea has been increasing at a rapid rate for some decades. With the development of steam propul- sion for fishing craft late in the last century, followed by the develop- ment of diesel engines, the sea fisheries have expanded rapidly in scope and intensity of fishing. At the same time, improved techniques of preserving and transporting fish have broadened the market for the catches. ‘This expansion of the fisheries has been most rapid, of course, in those seafaring nations whose technological development is most advanced (Canada, the United States and Japan in the case of the Pacific Ocean). Other nations, however, have also participated in the development, and there is, at present, considerable time and money being expended by various agencies to assist the nations with little development of fisheries to expand them by the application of modern technological advances imported from other areas, or by the forced evolution of their indigenous methods. Because of problems of preservation of the catch, as well as econo- mic factors, the fisheries closest to the ports of landing tend always to be most heavily exploited. Furthermore, the hazardous nature of sea- faring, with the consequent need for larger and more costly craft to exploit distant oceanic fishing areas, favors the development of the in- shore fisheries. In consequence, many of the demersal and inshore fish populations are now fully or nearly fully exploited. The Pacific sal- mon fisheries, for example, are certainly not capable of any increase in catch, except as better management may increase somewhat the effi- ciency of utilization of the populations of these species. “The Eastern Pacific halibut stocks are controlled by scientific management, having been overfished in the 1920’s and 1930’s. The formerly large fisheries for sardines have declined both on the western and eastern sides of the Pacific. ‘There is some question as to how much of the decline of the 149 150 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS sardine catch is due to fishing, and how much is to be attributed to changes in the oceanic environment; but there seems to be no question that the populations of this species have no possibility of supporting a much greater catch than has been attained in the past. The herring fisheries of the North Pacific, on both sides of the ocean, seem to be rather fully exploited. The great Japanese trawl fisheries of the East China Sea and adjacent areas have been so heavily fished that they are now subject to regulation to curtail the intensity of fishing. Certainly there are yet demersal and inshore fish stocks that are little utilized, such as the hake and pollock of the Northeastern Pacific. In the main, however, the new frontier of commercial fishing is the exploitation of the oceanic fishes of the high seas. The potential food production from fisheries of the high seas is doubtless very large. The cost of harvesting this crop is, however, also large. Under present economic circumstances, therefore, development of high sea fisheries is confined to those species which occur in high local concentration and have a relatively high unit value, so that the catch per unit of fishing effort has sufficient value to offset the high cost of production. Few pelagic oceanic organisms meet these requirements at the present time. The whales are, of course, an outstanding example. Among the fishes, the tunas support one of the few major fisheries of the high seas in the Pacific. The several species of tunas aggregate in sizable schools, occur in relatively large concentrations in certain areas of the sea, and command a high market price. ‘They have, therefore, become the object of increasingly extensive and intensive fisheries. TUNA FISHERIES OF THE PACIFIC Five kinds of tunas are the objects of important commercial fish- eries in the Pacific. ‘They are: Albacore—Thunnus germo Yellowfin—Neothunnus macropterus Skipjack—Katsuwonus pelamts Bigeye—Parathunnus sibi Bluefin—Thunnus thynnus, T. orientalis, T. maccoyt Several other species support fisheries of a local nature and of minor importance, including Kishinoella tonggol, the northern bluefin of Australia, and the several species of Euthynnus. The bonitos, genus Sarda, which support important fisheries, are not usually considered tunas in the strict sense. The fisheries for tunas in the Pacific have developed rapidly dur- ing the last three decades, and at present are among the most valuable fisheries of this ocean. In the United States, the tunas rank first in DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES 151 total value of all categories of fish products. In Japan, they are of major importance both for domestic use and for export. They support an important industry in Peru, and are of growing importance in Aus- tralia. It is, perhaps, most convenient to consider the development and present status of the fisheries by species. Albacore The albacore (Thunnus germo) occurs in commercial quantities in temperate waters of both northern and southern hemispheres. Tuna fishing in the Eastern Pacific had its inception in the first decade of this century in Southern California, where albacore occur during the summer and fall months in inshore surface waters, where they may be captured by trolled lures or by pole and line, using live bait for chum. Small craft, fishing only a few miles from shore, supplied the infant canning industry. Since the fishing depended on the seasonal occur- rence in inshore water of an oceanic, migratory fish, availability was notably erratic from year to year. By 1925, however, the fishery pro- duced 22 million pounds of albacore. In 1926 the albacore failed to appear in appreciable numbers, and the landings dropped to two-and- a-half million pounds. They continued scarce for a decade in waters of California and Baja California covered by the tuna fleet. The er- ratic and seasonal occurrence of albacore led the fishermen tv turn to the tropical tunas, the yellowfin and skipjack, which range north to California during the summer, and to extend their operations south- ward, first off the Mexican coast and later farther south, in order to extend the season of fishing and to find greater concentrations of these species. The failure of the albacore fishery in 1926 gave tremendous impetus to the development of the fishery for tropical species, which will be discussed further below. In 1936, albacore began to appear again in greater numbers in California inshore waters, and have since continued to support an im- portant amount of fishing. In 1937, fishermen off Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia discovered that albacore occurred there, too, in the summer at some little distance offshore, and began to fish for them. They have continued to do so since. The present albacore fishery of the Eastern Pacific extends from Baja California to British Columbia, being pursued only during the summer and fall months when the fish appear in surface schools in waters not far from shore, and can be captured by trolling lures or by pole and line using live-bait chum. Some fishing is done as far as 150 miles from the coast, but most of it is done within a much narrower range. Albacore are known, from observations of research vessels, to occur a good deal further offshore than they are now fished. Because 152 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS of the dependence of the fishery on the seasonal, inshore occurrence of the fish, which varies a good deal from year to year, probably in re- sponse to variations in oceanographic factors, the success of the fishery varies widely, the variability increasing as one goes north. Present magnitude of the fishery is indicated by the statistics for 1950, when 73 million pounds were landed, 62 million of these in California. On the western side of the Pacific, tuna fishing is much oldei. Fish- ing for tunas in the waters adjacent to Japan has been engaged in by fishermen of that nation since ancient times. Not until the introduction of motorized fishing vessels in the first decade of the present century, however, did the fishery begin to assume any large proportion, so that the development of the modern fishery is contemporary with that of the Eastern Pacific. The ‘summer’ albacore fishery, in the adjacent seas of Japan, is similar to the fishery in the Eastern Pacific. It depends on schools of fish which appear in inshore waters about April or May, reach their greatest abundance in about June, and disappear in the late summer or fall. Albacore, and other tunas as well, are also fished in Japan in sub- surface waters by means of floating long-lines. “Ine long-line fishery for albacore has, as a result of explorations by Japanese research vessels, been extended eastward to the longitude of the Hawaiian Islands. The long-line fishery has its greatest success during the winter months and appears, according to Uda and Tokunaga (1937), to be most pro- ductive in the region of the North Pacific convergence near latitude 30°N. Albacore is not a preferred species for domestic consumption in Japan, but finds a ready market in the United States. Therefore, much of the catch is exported either as canned tuna, or as frozen tuna which is canned in the United States. The Japanese albacore catch in 1950 amounted .to 65 million pounds, and was nearly double that amount oy ey Small quantities of large albacore are captured on long-lines by the local fishery in the Hawaiian Islands, incidental to fishing for yel- lowfin and bigeye tuna. Small commercial quantities are fished off Chile and southern Peru. The albacore fisheries of the Pacific appear to be capable of con- siderable expansion, both by development of fisheries in the southern hemisphere, which are now little exploited, and by further offshore development of the North Pacific fisheries. Exploration of the offshore distribution of albacore in the Northeastern Pacific is planned to be undertaken during the coming winter by agencies of the U. S. Govern- DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES 153 ment and the State of California, so development of an offshore fishery in this area may not be far distant. Bluefin These are tunas of temperate waters, occurring in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Commercial fisheries are conducted for them off California, Japan and southern Australia (Sydney to Tasmania). The bluefin tunas of these three regions are probably distinct species (Thunnus orientalis of Japanese waters, T. thynnus in the Eastern Pacific, and T. maccoyi in the Australian area), according to morpho- logical data of Godsil and Holmberg (1950), although some taxono- mists, for example Fraser-Brunner (1950), place them all in a single cosmopolitan species. In any event, it seems quite certain that the three groups being fished in the Pacific are quite distinct from one another. The bluefin of California waters is taken commercially only by purse seines. ‘The fishery is normally confined to the summer months, June to September, with best fishing in July and August when the schools of fish appear near the surface in waters not far from shore. The supply is erratic from year to year, and average total production is small, and highly variable, between 3 million and 22 million pounds in various years of the past decade. The Japanese fishery for bluefimn tuna is also pursued mainly in oceanic waters within a hundred miles or so of land, by means of nets, traps, and long-lines. A considerable catch is made with nets and traps close to the shore in certain regions. Some bluefin are, however, taken by long-lines, incidental to fishing for ether species, on the high seas many hundreds of miles from land. Available statistics on bluefin tuna landings in Japan indicate that there, also, the production is erratic, varying irregularly between 2 million and 52 million pounds in various years from 1936 to 1951. The Australian representative of the bluefin tuna, unlike that of the California fishery, bites readily on both trolled lures and live bait. According to Serventy (1941) these are small, immature fish ranging from 6 to 35 pounds in weight. The fishery is conducted by small ves- sels during the summer months in inshore waters. Presumably the larger, adult fish occur elsewhere. Until 1951, fishing was done by trol- ling only. In that year a live-bait vessel conducted fishing trials with some success, and in 1952 and 1953 a small fishery has been prosecuted using the live-bait, pole and line technique. It appears that the Australian fishery, which now produces only a few hundred tons per year, is capable of considerable expansion. Prospects for increased production in other areas are not possible to 154 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS estimate at this time, in the absence of adequate information on the distribution and biology of fish involved. Yellawfin The yellowfin tuna (Neothunnus macropierus) is a tropical species occurring everywhere in Pacific equatorial waters between approx- imately, the surface isotherms of 18°C. It is the object of a large fishery on both sides of the Pacific Ocean and in the Central Pacific westward of the International Date Line. Considerable stocks, not now exploited, are known to exist in the eastern equatorial Pacific between the International Date Line and the presently fished seas adjacent to the American West Coast. As noted previously, the fishery for the tropical tunas began in California shortly after the initiation of fishing for albacore. The sea- sonal and erratic nature of the albacore fishery led the fishermen and canners to turn to the tropical yellowfin and skipjack tunas. The fishery began as a seasonal one in waters of Southern California and Northern Baja California, but the fishermen soon learned that by going farther south yellowfin and skipjack could be taken during a greater part of the year, more regularly, and in greater abundance. ‘This stimulated the building of large vessels which could stay at sea longer and range further from port. The failure of the albacore fishery in 1926 gave strong impetus to the expansion of the tropical tuna fishery. By 1930 vessels were fishing regularly far down the Mexican coast, and beginning to venture even farther south. As the vessels ventured further into the tropics on longer voyages, problems of preserving the catch multiplied. During the 1930's ex- periments were made with mechanical refrigeration, and finally brine freezing of the fish was developed. At the same time, the vessels evolved into large craft of the high seas capable of operating thousands of miles from home on long voyages. By 1938 vessels from California ports were operating over the entire area from Southern California to Ecuador, and offshore over 200 miles. ‘The outbreak of World War II curtailed sharply the long range fishing, because many of the larger vessels were converted to military duty and various restrictions were placed on the operations of the remaining vessels. With the cessation of hostilities, however, the fleet again grew rapidly and prosecuted the fishing even more vigorously. The long range fishery has been extended to northern Peru, and provides now an even greater share of the catch than before the war. This fishery by United States vessels produces by far the major part, over 90%, of the catch of yellowfin, as well as of skipjack, tuna taken in the Eastern Pacific. Small local fisheries developed during DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES 155 the 1920’s and 1930’s in Mexico and Costa Rica. During the war, with ' the increased demand for tuna in the United States, a local fishery was started in Peru for yellowfin and skipjack tunas, and this continues to be an important part of the Peruvian fishing industry, greatly exceeded in production, however, by the fishery for bonito. Recently a small local fishery has been initiated in Ecuador. The growth of the production of yellowfin tuna from the Eastern Pacific is illustrated in Figure 1, in which the production of skipjack is also depicted. These two tropical tunas are taken in the same waters on the same voyages. The very rapid postwar growth of the fishery is evident from this chart. There is evidence that the production of yel- lowfin is no longer increasing, but the upward trend of skipjack produc- tion is being maintained. Over 75% of the yellowfin and skipjack tunas taken in the Eastern Pacific are captured by means of pole and line, live bait being employed to chum the tunas to the vessel and to induce them to strike the lures. Bait fishes are several species of small fishes, mostly of the families Clu- peidae and Engraulidae, captured in the territorial waters of the several countries bordering on the Eastern Pacific. “The remainder of the catch is made by means of purse seines. “These methods capture only the surface-schooling component of the population. No commercial fishery has been developed for the large, old yellowfin tuna, analogous to the Japanese and Hawaiian long-line fisheries. A parallel, but geographically even more extensive, development of the yellowfin tuna fishery has taken place in the Western Pacific Ocean. Yellowfin tuna occur during the summer months in Japanese home waters, and for many years have been fished there by nets, long- lines, and pole and line, but did not contribute an important share of the tuna catch until the southward expansion of the 1930’s. Surveys by government vessels and commercial companies, about 1931, discovered that yellowfin tuna and bigeye tuna (Parathunnus sibi) are distributed throughout the tropical southwest Pacific, and can be taken commercially in sub-surface waters of the high seas by means of long-lines. This led to the initiation of a commercial fishery which was, of course, very soon terminated by World War II. Immediately following the war, the Japanese fishery expanded back into this area as rapidly as permitted by the Occupation authorities. ‘This fishery is still expanding, and at the present time operates throughout the tropical western Pacific as far east as the Phoenix Islands and south to the Coral Sea, Arafura Sea and Banda Sea. This long-line fishery captures, in addition to yellowfin tuna, quantities of bigeye tuna, spearfishes, and sharks. The tunas captured by this means are mostly very large fish, a good deal larger than those taken at the surface. Available recent 156 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS records of the Japauese fishery indicate that it is annually producing about 30 million pounds of yellowfin tuna and a similar quantity of bigeye tuna, with the catch increasing year by year. Fishing of surface schooling yellowfin tuna is not extensive in the western Pacific. During the 1930’s the Japanese developed a moderately large fishery for surface-schooling skipjack in the Caroline, Marshall, and Marianas Islands, employing the live-bait technique. Small quanti- ties of yellowfin were taken incidentally. ‘This fishery depended, of course, on supplies of live bait which are not extensive in the Mandated Islands (now the Pacific Trust Territories), and which have not been available to Japanese fishermen since the war. Except for local sub- sistence fishing by islanders of the ‘Trust Territories, and some fishing, mostly by means of traps, in the Philippines, the tuna fishery of the western tropical Pacific is almost exclusively a long-line fishery at the present time. There is also a small fishery for yellowfin tuna and bigeye tuna in the immediate vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands. During the summer months, skipjack tuna are taken by live-bait techniques from surface schools, and a few yellowfin are taken incidentally. The main catch of yellowfin, however, is made by long-lines, which capture large sub- surface tunas, averaging over 100 pounds each. The catch is almost entirely marketed for local consumption as fresh fish, and, hence, the volume is limited by the local market. The catch is about two million pounds a year, two-thirds of it being yellowfin and one-third bigeye. Research by the Pacific Oceanic Fishery Investigations of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, during the past three years, has demonstrated that large concentrations of sub-surface yellowfin and bigeye tunas are to be found in equatorial waters of the Central and Eastern Pacific, east of the present Japanese fishery. Greatest concentrations occur between the equator and the southern boundary of the counter-equa- torial current, being associated with a zone of current convergence in those latitudes. Sizable surface schools have also been observed in the vicinity of the Line Islands and Phoenix Islands. It has also been dem- onstrated by various commercial explorations that surface-schooling yel- lowfin occur in some numbers in the Marquesas, Societies, and Tuamo- tus. These stocks of yellowfin are at present not fished commercially. It would appear that the yellowfin tuna production from the Pacific Ocean will continue to increase, both by expansion to presently unfished areas and by further increase in production from some regions now being fished. Bigeye The bigeye tuna, Parathunnus sibi, is fished in the same regions as the yellowfin tuna, and by the same gear. It constitutes an important DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES 157 part of the long-line catches, as noted above. Occurrence in surface schools is less frequent, so that this species is an incidental and insig- nificant part of the catch where surface fishing, using live bait or by purse seines, is the means of production. In the Eastern Pacific fishery along the coasts of the Americas, the few bigeye captured are included with the yellowfin in the catch statis- tics. “The exact percentage of bigeye included is not known, but exam- ination of landings on a sampling basis indicates it is not large, probably not over 2 or 3 per cent. Skipjack As indicated above (pp. 154-155) the skipjack, Katsuwonus pelamis, occurs in surface schools in the region of the Eastern Pacific fishery in the same general localities as the yellowfin. It occurs sometimes in pure schools and sometimes in mixed schools with yellowfin of similar size. It is fished both by live bait and by purse seine, just as is the yellowfin. The development of the fishery for yellowfin and skipjack in the Eastern Pacific has already been described. The growth of the skipjack catch is shown with that for yellowfin in Figure 1. Although both species have been fished since the initiation of the fishery, yellowfin has been the preferred species, commanding a higher price and being somewhat easier to preserve, particularly before the days of brine freezing. In consequence, the expansion to distant areas during the 1930’s was directed primarily at the yellowfin tuna. The postwar growth of the fishery has, on the other hand, depended on skipjack to an increasing extent. It appears that with the increasing exploitation of the yellowfin stock of the Eastern Pacific, and the inevitable accompanying decrease in catch per unit of effort, the fleet has turned increasingly to skipjack, the catch of which has, in recent years, risen a good deal in relation to that of yellowfin. Skipjack is the most important species in the Japanese tuna fishery, the landings at the present time being over 200 million pounds per year. This species of tuna has been an important article in the Japanese diet since ancient times, but its capture was confined to coastal waters unul introduction of powered fishing vessels early in this century. The off- shore fishery grew rapidly thereafter, encompassing not only Japanese home waters, but regions to the south to well below the equator, and eastward through the Mandated Islands. The fish are captured almost exclusively by pole and line, using live bait for chum. Negligible quantities are taken incidentally by long-lines. Purse seining is reported to have been tried experimentally in recent years. During the 1930's, skipjack fishing in the Caroline, Marshall, and Marianas Islands was rapidly developed, in spite of scarcity of live bait 158 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS in those areas, through combined activities of government agencies and commercial companies, until in 1937 a peak production was ‘obtained amounting to 40 thousand metric tons. ‘The advent of the war, of course, terminated this fishery. At present it is inactive except for local fishing by islanders on a subsistence basis. A small fishery for skipjack occurs during the summer months in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands, producing, on the average, about 9 million pounds per year. ‘The limiting factor here is the great scar- city of live bait which is required for the capture of skipjack. Essentially unexploited regions in which skipjack are known to occur in commercial quantities include all of Oceania and the seas to the north of New Zealand, the Coral Sea, and the Arafura and Banda Seas. In addition to problems of transportation and marketing, the scarcity of live bait in part of this area deters the development of fisheries there. POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT From the foregoing very brief review of the Pacific tuna fisheries, it is evident that the several species are very unevenly exploited in dif- ferent parts of their range. Certain regions support rather intensive fisheries, while no fishing at all is done in others. With the demand for tuna increasing year by year, utilization of presently unexploited and underexploited tuna stocks may be expected to follow in due course, as their exploitation becomes profitable, either as a result of increased demand, and consequently increased price, or as a result of lower harvesting costs due to improved or novel fishing methods. Certainly the potential annual harvest from the Pacific tuna fisheries is a good deal larger than that being taken at the present time. PROBLEMS OF CONSERVATION Since the tuna resources throughout much of the Pacific Ocean are obviously not being exploited to anywhere near their maximum yield, problems of maintaining the supply through management are, from the broad viewpoint, of secondary importance at the moment, and the in- terests of most tuna researchers have, consequently, been centered on problems connected with expansion and development of the fisheries. The tuna stocks are not unlimited, however, and the rapid growth of the fisheries will inevitably bring forth in the not too distant future the necessity of conservation of the stocks to produce maximum yields. The fishery for the tropical tunas of the Eastern Pacific is already sufficiently intense and some of the nations having interests in that fishery have be- come concerned about the possibility of the approach of overfishing. DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES 159 Intensive fishing of a tuna species in one part of a large geograph- ical area, while it is unfished in other parts, can scarcely result in over- fishing if the species consists of a single large population migrating freely throughout the area. It may happen, however, that there are a number of sub-populations, so that the fishery is bearing very heavily on one or more of these while leaving the others untouched. {n the latter case, the sub-populations being fished may easily be overfished while the others remain untouched. Like much else concerning the biology and life history of the tunas, the degree of distinctness of the tuna populations of the several regions of the Pacific is imperfectly known. For the yellowfin tuna, it has been fairly well demonstrated by morphometric studies by Godsil and Green- hood (1951), Schaefer (1952) and Royce (1953) that the yellowfin tuna of the Eastern Pacific are distinct from those of other parts of the Pacific. Royce’s work shows that there are also further distinctions be- tween populations in other regions of the Pacific. For the albacore, on the other hand, morphometric comparisons of fish from the eastern and western north Pacific have, so far, failed to show significant differences, and the recent recovery off Japan of a specimen tagged off California tends to indicate that the North Pacific albacore may be a single large population. Respecting skipjack, work in progress by the author in- dicates that the skipjack of the region of the Eastern Pacific fishery are probably morphometrically different from those of Oceania. This work has, however, not been completed. So far as the tropical yellowfin and skipjack tunas of the Eastern Pacific are concerned, then, there is evi- dence to support the belief that they are distinct from those of the other regions of the Pacific, so that a very intense fishery could reach the point of overfishing. The very rapid growth of the Eastern Pacific fishery for these species, and the very incomplete knowledge of their biology, ecology, and life history, has caused concern that the fishery could become over- developed, with consequent overfishing of the tuna stocks of this area. Since most of the tuna catch is made by means of live bait, there has also been concern lest the populations of bait fish be overfished with disastrous effects on the yield of tuna. ‘This situation, obviously, re- quires that scientific investigations be conducted, in order to provide an adequate foundation of knowledge of the biology and ecology of the fishes concerned, and of the effect on them of the increasingly in- tense fishery. Although our knowledge of the ways of life of the tunas is small, certain things we do know. We know that they are creatures of the open sea, inhabiting the reaches of the ocean beyond the territorial 160 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS limits of any nation. ‘They spawn in the open sea far from land, the juvenile stages require no littoral nursery grounds, and the adults are completely oceanic in their foraging. Such knowledge of their move- ments and aggregations as we have, indicates that they are oriented to the water masses and currents of the ocean rather than to any geo- graphical feature per se. The fisheries which harvest them are, for the most part, completely oceanic; nearly all of the catch is made well out- side the territorial limits of any nation. THE INTER-AMERICAN TROPICAL —TUNA COMMISSION Under accepted concepts of freedom of the seas, and free access to the resources thereof, the tunas are truly an international resource, and their scientific investigation and conservation is an international prob- lem. Being cognizant of the need for adequate knowledge of the re- source on which the tropical tuna fishery is based, the governments of the United States of America and the Republic of Costa Rica in 1950 entered into a Convention establishing an Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission having as its objectives gathering and interpretation of factual information to facilitate maintaining the populations of yellow- fin and skipjack tunas, and of other fishes taken by tuna fishing vessels in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, at a level which will permit maximum sustained catches year after year. The Convention provides for the subsequent adherence of any other nations having a mutual interest in these fish populations. The Commission employed a scientific staff and initiated its in- vestigations in January 1951. Headquarters are maintained at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, with which the Commission’s staff works in close co-operation. A regional office at Puntarenas, Costa Rica, has also been established for the study of the biology and ecology of bait fishes. The scientists of the Commission have a unique opportunity to study the dynamics of an important commercial fishery during the period of its growth and development. Fortunately, suitable statistical and other records have been maintained to measure the changes in catch and abundance of the tunas during the period of greatest growth and development of the fishery from 1931 to the present time. ‘This is an unusual and most fortunate situation. Most often in the past, little interest has been evinced in the investigation of commercial marine fisheries, particularly those of an international character, until the fishery has become so intense that economic distress of the industry has demanded remedial measures. ‘This has most often been so long after the period of underfishing that suitable biological statistics for the DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES 161 period of early development of the fishery are fragmentary or unobtain- able. In the case of the tropical tunas, we have, then, a unique op- portunity for the study of the dynamics of a large, oceanic fishery, the results of which will be of far-reaching value not only to the welfare of the tuna fisheries, but to the knowledge of the dynamics of com- mercial fisheries in general. The investigations of the Commission have, so far, centered on the compilation and analysis of the records of the fishery in order to derive quantitative measurements of changes in the fish population in re- sponse to changes in intensity of fishing and catch, both currently and historically. For the adequate interpretation of such data, there is, of course, required considerable knowledge of the life histories and biology of the species concerned, and a fair start has been made on obtaining this. Knowledge of the relation of the behavior of the tunas to the spatial and temporal changes in the oceanic environment is also essen- tial to understanding of their population dynamics. Investigation of these matters is a costly line of research, requiring work at sea with large, expensive vessels. “The budget of the Commission has been in- adequate as yet to do as much in this direction as is desired, but, with the assistance of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the California State Fisheries Laboratory, and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a good deal of work in this direction has been gotten underway. Most of the investigations of the Commission are yet unready for announcement of results. Intermediate studies along some lines of re- search are, however, nearing completion and will be published in the near future. Scientific contributions of the Commission will be pub- lished in a series of Bulletins. Staff members also publish minor papers in standard journals. Annual progress of investigations is reported on to the member governments and to the public by means of publication of a series of Annual Reports. LITERATURE CITED FRASER-BRUNNER, A. 1950. The fishes of the family Scombridae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 12, vol. iii, pp. 131-163. GopsiIL, H. C.and E. K. HoLMBerc 1950. A comparison of the bluefin tunas, genus Thunnus, from New England, Australia, and California. Calif. Div. of Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. no. 77, 55 pp. GopsIL, H. C. and E. C. GREENHOOD 1951. A comparison of populations of yellowfin tuna, Neothunnus macropterus from the eastern and central Pacific. Calif. Div. of Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. no. 82, 32 pp. KISHINOUYE, K. 1923. Contribution to the comparative study of the so-called scombroid fishes. Jowr. Coll. Agriculture, Imp. Univ. Tokyo, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 293-475. 162 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Royce, W. F. 1953. Preliminary report on a comparison of the stocks of yellowfin tuna. Proceedings, Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council. (in press) ScHAEFER, M. B. 1952. Comparison of yellowfin tuna of Hawaiian waters and of the American West Coast. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish. Bull., vol. 52, pp. 353-378. SERVENTY, D. L. 1941. The Australian tunas. Australia, Coun. Set. Ind. Res., Pamphlet no. 104, 40 pp. Upa, M. and E. ToKUNAGA 1987. Fishing of Germo germo (Lacepede) in relation to the hydrography in the north Pacific waters. Bull. Imp. Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 295-3800. 163 DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION OF TUNA FISHERIES YVAA ‘ZGGT-SI6E ‘Oyloed [Rordo.y, Uleyseq oyy Wory seuny youfdrys pue uyMolfad Jo yoyeQ—T ‘dr ru 2S, OS, 8b, 9b, bb, 2b, Ob, BE, IE, HE, SE, OF, BZ, 92, Hz, 22, 02, BIBI NISMO1N13SA O OS = 001 = i Oo za Og oO nN 00z2 Cc za Oo WN OSz OO¢ OS RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN By Hirosur NAKAMURA! and YosHIo HiyAMa 2 Because the tunas and marlins fisheries are important in this coun- try, numerous works have been produced by our biologists over a long period of time, but here we shall describe some recent achievement of our biologists as regards these fishes. (1) Taxonomy Only a few amendments and additions have been made since Kishi- nouye (1923) reviewed the fishes of Thunnidae. Jordan and Evermann (1926) established gen. Kishinoella for Neothunnus rarus Kishinouye and added Neothunnus itosibi. Nakamura (1939) thought the latter had no difference from N. macropterus, and Serventy (1941) thought the former was a synonym of K. tonggol. Kamohara (1940) changed the name of the Japanese bluefin tuna to Thunnus thunnus Linn. and that of the albacore to G. alalunga. About Xiphiiformes, since Nakamura (1937) reviewed Istiophoridae and Xiphiidae of the West part of the Pacific, Hirasaka and Nakamura (1947) made a few amendments and additions. They established gen. Kajtkia for Makaira mitsukurii Jordan & Snyder, added K. formosana and established gen. Marlina for Makaira marlina Jordan & Hill, and added Eumakaira nigra N.g. n.sp. (2) DiIsTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION As most of the fishes are caught by the long line in this country, the method of tagging is quite difficult though so many efforts have been made. Now the tagging method for the pole and line fishing is under investigation with the cooperation of both authors. Therefore, our knowledge on the migration of these fishes is merely based on the seasonal change of the fishing grounds, about which so many data have piled up already. On the other hand, since Kishinouye (1923), so many biologists like Kimura (1941-1949), Uda (1935-52), and Aikawa (1933) have discussed the oceanographic conditions of the hab- itation of these stenothermal fish species from various points of view. Recently Nakamura worked out the distribution of these fish kinds by 1 Nankai Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory, Kochi, Japan. 2 Fisheries Institute, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University, Japan. 165 166 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the recent twenty-year records of Japanese Tuna fleet activities. His work was done mainly to see geographical distribution as regards the density of fish in fishing grounds throughout the seasons. To measure the density of fish, he used the number of certain species of fish caught by one hundred hooks in a long line by the records brought by com- mercial boats, which is a sort of average catch, catch per amount of fish- ing effort. Many maps showing the density distribution of each fish species for each month of each year and of the average of the past twenty years have been prepared for printing. Here a part of it is in- troduced as an example. Thunnus orientalis. Though Kishinouye (1923) thought the southern limit of the distribution would be 30°N, Nakamura (1936, ’38, °43, ’49, 51) reported the existence of fishing ground from March to June in the Northeastern part of the South China Sea, North from 15°N in the East of Luzon, and near Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands. Nakamura also thought that the fish in the East of Luzon would be in- dependent from the fish that appear near Tanegashima (130°E, 30°N) from March to December, judging from their size composition and sexual maturity. Beside these, Shimada (1951) reported the occurrence of this species in the equatorial area from June to September, and Jor- dan & Evermann (1926) reported its occurrence in Hawaii and in the U.S. Pacific coast. The northern limit reported by Isahaya (1935) is near 50°N in Karafuto. The amount of catch of this species by the Japanese fleet was near to nothing in 1940, but has been much better since 1950. Germo germo. Uda and Tokunaga (1937) thought the fish caught by the Japanese fleet can be divided into three groups: a small-sized group in coastal waters off Honshu, a medium-sized group in the grounds further off shore, and a large-sized group found further East from the former. Each ot the three groups migrates clockwise, and intermingle at the point near 155°E, 40°N, having its southern limit in subtropical convergence. From the data Nakamura compiled, he thought that al- though it is evident that the bigger size of fish is found in the more eastern grounds, it is hard to separate the group as the change is so continuous, and it might be caused by the economical size selection of fishing by the commercial boats. The fishing ground usually goes South during the fishing season at a speed of 2-6 miles per day, and in March it arrives at the Southern extremity, that is, subtropical convergence, and it goes back to somewhat North in April. ‘The size of the fish in the front line of this southward migration is usually bigger than that at the tail, which is found somewhere North from the former. South from the subtropical convergence to the equator, a large-sized group is found, RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN 167 though the density is thin. This is supposed to be the spawning group which came from the North, but this is not confirmed by accurate evi- dence. One somewhat distinct group of large-sized fish usually goes south- westward from October to February in a thick density, at 135°E, 12- 25°N; but the relation with other groups is still not clear. Parathunnus mebachi. The previous works on the migration of this fish discuss mainly the oceanographic conditions of the fishing grounds, but Nakamura, by his density distribution maps, found the following facts. The two separate fishing grounds exist in this area. The one at about 40°N in the Northwest Pacific in September is stretched along the latitude line to the date line eastward, and then goes down South, like G. germo; but the speed is slower than that, so this fishing ground is always located at the North of the front of that. Another group of fishing grounds exists all year round at 8 to 12°N, a contact line of equatorial countercurrent and North equatorial cur- rent. These are not homogeneously stretched as a line, but form some isolated groups within them. He still has no definite idea on the rela- tionship between the two. Besides these, a fishing ground appears in 20-25°N during a certain season. ‘The relationship of this to others is unknown. Kamimura (not printed) recognized the phenomenon that the modes in size-frequency curve differ every other year in the North- west Pacific. Neothunnus macropterus. Past works are concerned mainly with the oceanographic conditions of habitation, especially the temperature of the water. However, Nakamura by his density distribution maps cbserved the following facts. ‘The size of fish is generally smaller in the coastal area of Japan and gets larger in the grounds offshore to the Fast. A remarkable change of size composition is also recognized ac- cording to latitude in the same longitude in the same season, and the border lines of this change are at 3-4°N and 7-8°N, which, he thinks, are caused by the influence of the South equatorial current, the equa- torial countercurrent, and the North equatorial current. Also, he thinks that the different fish groups would come in and out by the influence of the monsoon in the seas which are surrounded by land or islands such as South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Celebes Sea, the Banda Sea and others. The same fact would be supposed to exist at the coastal waters off Timor, the Small Sundas and other equatorial areas in the Pacific. Before Nakamura’s work it was believed that most condensed grounds are in the equatorial countercurrent, but he thinks it would be somewhere South from the contacting area of the equatorial counter- current and the South equatorial current. 168 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Hiyama wants to add, seeing Nakamura’s distribution maps, that this species has less tendency of southward migration shown in the fore- going two species, and that the thick distribution is found in the area more influenced by the coast, or by the existence of islands or lands. Hiyama and colleagues are now working on the morphometry of the above-mentioned four species after the method used by U.S. biologists, but it is still too early to report the results. Neothunnus rarus. As the catch by the Japanese fleet is not enough to indicate the distribution and migration, the only fact that Nakamura can see is that this species is distributed in the area near the Indo- Australian Archipelago, with its northern limit at the Ryukyu Islands. Istiophoridae. Tetrapturus angustirostris has remarkable oceanic character in general and is thinly distributed in the tropical and sub- tropical area. A thick fishing ground appears usually off the east coast ef Formosa from November to January. Istiophorus orientalis has wide distribution in the West Pacific, having a rather coastal character. ‘The center of the distribution is thought to be in the Indo-Australian Archipelago, and its northern limit is in the North polar front. From May to August a thick fishing ground appears near the Philippines and Formosa. Kajikia mitsukuriz has more oceanic character than the former, and has also a wide dis- tribution extending to the North Pacific, with its center at subtropical convergence. ‘The dense fishing grounds appear at 30-40°N in autumn, and moves south in October. And from March to June the dense group of the grounds appears in 20-30°N. After K. mitsuwkurit went down south, fishing grounds in 30-40°N are occupied by X7phias gladius. The distribution of K. formosana is not yet well known. Eumakaira nigra has a remarkable oceanic character, distributed in tropical and subtropical area. ‘This species has its distribution range south of that of K. mitsukuri. ‘This shows a northward migration from May to July, with its northern limit at subtropical convergence, and reaches to 20-26°N zone nearly one month later than K. mitsukuri. ‘The female of this species is always bigger than the male. The latter rarely exceeds 100 kgm. in weight, so the size composition of the catch should be con- sidered based upon the sex ratio of it. Marlina marlina is confined within the coastal area of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, as already indicated. ‘This also has a size difference between the sexes, the male rarely exceeding 120 kgm. Xzphias gladius is thought to have world- wide distribution, but in the Northwest Pacific the dense distribution is recognized by Nakamura at the North from subtropical convergence beyond 43°N. In August a good fishing ground is usually formed in 150-155°E, 40-43°N, which moves south thereafter, just like Germo RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN 169 germo, down to the east of Bonin Island in March, and fades away. Nakamura and others (1951) think that the spawning ground of this fish would be in the South from subiropical convergence, because they found sc many juveniles of this in this area. (3) SPAWNING HABIT In general, Nakamura thinks these oceanic fishes have a long spawn- ing season, sometimes almost all year round, and have their spawning grounds widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical, and sometimes even in temperate zones in the Pacific, based upon the recent data of collection of eggs and juveniles of these fish kinds, done inten- sively by Japanese research vessels. Regarding the spawning grounds of Katsuwonus pelamis, many biologists, such as Schaefer & Marr (1948), Shimada (1951), and Wade (1950, 1951) reported juveniles from various parts in the Pacific. Yabe (unpublished) got ten indi- viduals of 5 to 10 mm. long juveniles of this species from the collection of our research vessels during 1947 to 1952 from near Ryukyu, off Hon- shu and in Micronesia in April to September. Suda (unpublished) found large numbers of juveniles from stomach contents of tunas and marlins caught from various parts of the Pacific, and found evidence that the smaller (5 to 20 mm. long) juveniles are obtained from the area south from subtropical convergence, and the larger ones (over 20 mm. long) were found in the area to the north. About Thunnus ori- entalis, Kishinouye (1923) thought that this would spawn in June and July in the area off Honshu, but later Kawana (1935) reported its spawning in the Japan Sea, and Nakamura (1938, 1939) found the ripened ovarium in the fish caught near the Philippines from the middle of April through the middle of May. About Germo germo, Watanabe (1939) reported that he obtained the ripened ovarium in the fish caught near Midway Island, and Schaefer (1948) and Brock (1943) got some idea on this matter. The data obtained by Japanese research boats are now under investigation. About Parathunnus mebachi, Shimada (1951) - found ripened ova in the fish caught from the area 143-160°E, 1-10°N from June to September, and thought that the spawning season might continue later than this period. Recently biologists on board the re- search boat of Nankai Regional Fisheries Laboratory succeeded in the artificial fertilization of this fish in the equatorial region. About N. macropterus, Nakamura (1939, ’43, ’49, °51) reported that he found ripened ova in the fishes caught in the South China Sea from March to May. Wade (1950) thought the season near the Philippines was from May to August, and afterwards he obtained the juveniles (9.4—37.5 mm. long) and could assure both the locality and the season. Shimada 170 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS (1951) found spent fishes in the area 150-200 miles northwest off Ka- pingamarangi Island at the beginning of August. Schaefer (1948) and Schaefer & Marr (1948) found juveniles in Central America from January to May. About N. rarus we have nothing to add to Delsman & Hardenberg (1934) and Serventy (1942). About Tetrapterus angustirostris, Nakamura (1937, °38) found ripened ova in the fish caught east of Formosa and thought this would spawn in November and December in this area. About Istiophorus orientalis, Nakamura (1932) reported in December the ripened ovarium in the fish caught from Molucca Strait. And later he (1938, ’42, ’43) also found ripened ova and juveniles and witnessed the spawning be- haviour near Hainan Island, near Formosa and east of Luzon Island from April to September. Near Japan so many juveniles were found since Uchida (1937). Also, recently Nakamura and his stafi obtained so many juveniles from tropical areas such as Micronesia from June to September. However, they have some difficulty identifying these as this species, because the difference from E. nigra is not assured in juve- niles yet, and the latter species matures and grows abundant in the area in this season. About Kajikia mitsukuri, Nakamura found ripened ovarium as usual from April to May near Formosa, and thought that this also spawns in the same season around Bonin Island. Recently Nakamura and his staff found ripened ovaria in the fishes caught from the equatorial area from June to September. About Eumakaira nigra, Nakamura (1938, ’42, ’49) found ripened ovaria of fish caught east of Luzon Island, and thought this would spawn from April to August near Luzon and Formosa. Recently he and his staff found another spawning ground near Bonin Island in the same season, and in the equatorial area of the Pacific they also found grown-up fishes from June to October. About the above-mentioned four species Nakamura (1944) found the seasonal change of both size composition and sex ratio, which changes remarkably after the spawning season. The juveniles of Xiphias gladius in the Atlantic Ocean have been reported already. About that in the Pacific, Yabe (1951), Nakamura and others (1951) reported 11-35 mm.- long young, and there were plenty of larger young found in the stomach contents of tunas and marlins. (4) AcE AND GROWTH The age determination of these groups of fishes has been made by counting the number of rings in the centrum of the vertebrae. Aikawa (1937) reported the growth of K. pelamis by this method and size composition of the catch. Afterwards Aikawa and Kato (1938) worked on the growth of G. germo, N. macropterus and T. orientalis by the RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN 171 same method. Ban (1941), Higashi (1941), Ikebe (1939, ’40, ’41) re- ported the growth of K. pelamis, N. macropterus, P. mebachi, G. germo by the method of size composition of the catch. Kimura (1932, ’35) worked on the same problem about T. orientalis and N. macropterus, by the seasonal change of size of catch in the Izu Region. Recently Moore (1951) reported that of N. macropterus near Hawaii. ‘The growth rates obtained by these workers have big differences from each other. For example, about that of N. macropterus a big difference exists between Aikawa & Kato, Kimura and Moore. ‘To examine the numerous samples to get the accurate age composition of population, instead of size composition, the centrum reading method is inconven- ient. So now the scale reading method is going to be established by Hiyama, as the scale samples can be collected easily from numerous specimens before the fish is dissected. It is already affirmed by him that the ring in the scale is formed once a year during a certain long season. It will be published in the near future, and now the age determination by this method is going on to get the age composition of the catch. (5) Frepinc Hasir Many reports have already been published on the stomach contents of these fishes, but many of them are fragmental and not enough to see the relationship between foods and migration. Nakamura (1936) noticed the difference of the stomach content of N. macropterus in the Celebes Sea between the fish caught during the Northeast wind season and that caught during the Southwest wind season, and by this. he guessed the seasonal change of the fauna in this region. Suyehiro (1936) reported the stomach contents of K. pelamis and he also (1938) re- ported that of N. macropterus, P. sibi, and T. orientalis. A group of biologists with us are now working systematically on the stomach contents of these fishes, but the results are not ready for publication. In general, these carnivorous oceanic fishes have less tendency to be selective as to food, as so many various fishes may be found in their stomachs, sometimes including the garbage of vegetables thrown out from boats. Marlins are generally taking larger fish having greater swimming power than tunas. And the latter, though variation accord- ing to species is shown, generally has a tendency of a plankton feeder in any degree, and it is most conspicuous at G. germo. With reference to fishing, the reason why some school of tunas would not take the bait was investigated by Suyehiro (1938) and others. LITERATURE CITED AIKAWA, H., 1933. Fishery conditions on the Pacific coast for skipjack, tuna, and sauries. Proc. Sci. Fish. Assoc., vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 354-869. (Jap.) 172 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ArkAwa, H., 1937. Notes on the schools of bonito along the Pacific Coast of Japan. Bull. Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 18-21. (Jap.) —_———. and M. Karo, 1938. Age determination of fish. 1. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 79-88. (Jap.) BAN, Y., 1941. Search for southern tuna fishing grounds. South Sea Fish., vol. 7, No. 9, pp. 10-21. (Jap.) Brock, V. E., 1943. Contribution to the biology of the albacore (Germo alalunga) of the Oregon Coast and other parts of the North Pacific. Stanford Ichth. Buli., vol 2, No. 6, pp. 199-248. DELSMAN, H. C. and J. G. F. HARDENBURG, 1934. De Indische zeevischen en zeevischerij. Biblio. Nederland. Ind. Nat. Ver., No. 6, pp. 330-343. GopsIL, H. C., 1948. A preliminary population study of the yellowfin tuna and the albacore. California Div. Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. No. 70, 90 pp. -- 1949. A progress report on the tuna investigations. California Fish and Game, vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 5-9. and E. C. GREENHOOD, 1951. A comparison of the population of yellowfin tuna, Neothunnus macropterus, from the eastern and Central Pacific. California Div. Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. No. 82. HicasHl, H., 1941. Utilization of fishery by-products from the South Sea. (10). South Sea Fish., vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 36-438. (Jap.) IKEBE, K., 1939. On the age of yellowfin tuna taken in Palau waters. South Sea Fish News, vol. 3, No. 10, pp. 4-8. (Jap.) , 1940a. Age and measurements of tunas in Palau waters. Ibid., vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 2-4. (Jap.) , 1940b. Measurement of yellowfin tuna taken south of the Mar- shall Islands. Tbid., vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 2-5. (Jap.) , 1940c. Measurement of albacore and yellowfin tuna taken in Saipan waters. Ibid., vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 68-67. (Jap.) , 1941a. Measurement of yellowfin tuna from the Equatorial] Coun- ter Current area. Ibid., vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 5-13. (Jap.) , 1941b. A contribution to the study of tuna spawning grounds. Ibid., vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 9-12. (Jap.) JORDAN, D. S. and B. W. EvERMANN, 1926. A review of the giant mackerel- like fishes, tunnies, spearfishes and swordfishes. Occ. Paper California Acad. Sci. XII. and J. O. SNYDER, 1901. Description of nine new species of fishes contained in Museum of Japan. Jour. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, XV., po. 801-311. HrIrASAKA, K. and H. NAKAMURA, 1947. On the Formosa spear-fishes. Bull. Oceanogr. Taiwan, No. 8, pp. 9-24. ISAHAYA, T., 1986. On the bluefin tuna in the adjacent waters of Karafuto. Hokkaido Suishi Jumpo. (Jap.) KANAWA, T., 1935. Bluefin tuna spawns in the Japan Sea. Swisan Kenkyu- shi. 380, pp. 284-286. (Jap.) KAMOHARA, T., 1940. Fauna Nipponica, vol. XV, Fas. II, No. V. (Jap.) KimurA, K., 1932. Growth curves of bluefin tuna and yellowfin tuna based on the catches near Shigedera, on the west coast of Prov. Idu. Bull. Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-4. (Jap.) RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN 173 KimurA, K., 1935. Statistical analysis of the catch by deddle nets, along the coast of Suruga Bay. Rec. Oceanogr. Works, vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-36. (Jap.) , 1941. Skipjack fishing. Fish. Technol. Lect. Ser., No. 4, 36 pp. —-—————., 1942a. Tuna and spearfish fishing conditions. JIbid., No. 5, 122 pp. (Jap.) , 1942b. Oceanic resources: Offshore fisheries. Sci. Sea, vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 142-147. (Jap.) , 1949. Atlas of skipjack fishing grounds, with data on the al- bacore grounds. Kuroshio-shobo. Tokyo. KISHINOUYE, K., 1919. The larval and juvenile stages of the Plecostei. Proc. Sci. Fish. Assoc., vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 49-53. (Jap.) , 19238. Contribution to the comparative study of the so-called scombroid fishes. Jour. Coll. Agri., Imp. Univ. Tokyo, vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 293-475. Moors, H. L., 1951. Estimation of age and growth of yellowfin tuna (Neo- thunnus macropterus) in Hawaiian waters by size frequencies. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Fish. Bull. 65, pp. 133-149. NAKAMURA, H. 1932. On the ripe ovarian ova of the sailfish (Istiophorus orientalis). Zool. Mag., vol. 44, pp. 272-283. (Jap.) , 1935. On the intersexuality of the skipjack (Katsuwonus pe- lamis.) Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa., vol. 25, No. 141, pp. 197-198. (Jap.) , 1936. On the feeding habit of yellowfin tuna (Neothunnus ma- cropterus) from the Celebes Sea. Ibid., vol. 28, No. 148, pp. 1-8. (Jap.) , 1938. Preliminary report on the habits of the black tuna (Thun- nus orientalis). Zool. Mag., vol. 50, No. 5, pp. 279-281. (Jap.) , 1939a. Notes on the differences between Neothunnus macropte- rus and Neothunnus itosibi. Formosan Fish. Mag. No. 288, pp. 27-32. (Jap.) , 1939b. Report on the investigation of Thunnidae from Formosan waters. Formosa Gov.-Gen. Fish. Exp. Sta. Publ. No. 18, pp. 1-15. (Jap.) , 1943. Tunas and marlins. Sci. Sea., vol. 8, No. 10, pp. 445-459. (Jap.) , 1949. Tunas and tuna fishing. Takeuchi-shobo, Tokyo. (Jap.) , 1951. A review of the tuna fishing ground based on past in- vestigations. Rept. Nankai Regional Fisheries Research Lab. No. 1, (With appendix charts). (Jap.) , Studies on the fishes of the family Istiophoridae, in the adjacent Seas of Formosa. (Jap.) 1. 1987a. Habits of the fishes of the family Istiophoridae in the Seas of Formosa. Especially on Furai-kajiki (Tetrapturus angustirostris) Zool. Mag., vol. 49, pp. 233-238. 2. 1937b. Report on the investigation of marlins and swordfishes from Formosan Waters. Rept. Formosan Gov.-Gen. Fish. Exp. Sta. No. 105-84 pp: 3. 1938. On the spawning habit of Kuro-kajiki (Wakaira mazara). Zool. Mag., vol. 50. 4. 1940. On the spawning habit of the sailfish (Istiophorus orientalis). Tbid., vol. 52. 174 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 5. 1941. On the body temperature of some fishes of the family Thunni- dae and Istiophoridae. Proc. Sci. Fish. Assoc., vol. 8, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 256-268. 6. 1942. Habits of the marlins observed in the adjacent seas of For- mosa. Ibid., vol. 8. 7, 1944a. Sexual differences of the sizes of the fishes of the family Istiophoridae. Nat. Hist. Formosa., vol. 35, Aug. 8. 1944b. Seasonal differences of the sizes of the fishes of the family Istiophoridae. a. Kurokajiki Makaira mazara. Ibid., vol. 35, Oct. 9. 1944c. Seasonal differences of the sizes of the fishes of the family Istiophoridae. b. Shirokajiki Makaira marlina. c. Other marlins. Jbid., vol. 35, Dec. NAKAMURA, H. and others, 1951. Note on the life history of the swordfish Xiphias gladius. Jap. Jour. Ichth., vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 264-271. (Jap.) ScHAEFER, M. B., 1948a. Morphometric characteristics and relative growth of yellowfin tuna (Neothunnus macropterus) from Central America. Pacific Sci., vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 114-120. , 1948b. Size composition of catches of yellowfin tuna (Neothun- nus macropterus) from Central America, and their significance in the determination of growth, age and shoaling habits. U.S. Fish and Wild- life Serv. Fish. Bull., vol. 51, No. 44, pp. 197-220. , 1948e. Spawning of Pacific tunas and its implications to the welfare of the Pacific tuna fisheries. Trans. 13th North Amer. Wildlife Conf., pp. 366-371. —-——— and J. C. Marr, 1948a. Spawning of yellowfin tuna (Neothun- nus macropterus) and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) in the Pacific Ocean off Central America with description of juveniles. Jbid., vol. 51, No. 44, pp. 187-195. SERVENTY, D. L., 1941. The Australian tunas. Couneil Sci. Indust. Res., Australia, Pamphlet No. 104, pp. 1-48. , 1942. Notes on the economics of the northern tuna (Kishinoella tonggol). Jour. Council Sci. and Indust. Res. Australia, vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 94-100. SHIMAD, B. M., 195la. Juvenile oceanic skipjack from the Phoenix Islands. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Fish. Bull. 64, pp. 129-131. ---__—__—.,, 1948b. Contribution to the biology of tunas from the Western Equatorial Pacific. Jbid., Fish. Bull. 62, pp. 111-119. Supa, A., 1953. Juvenile skipjack from the stomach contents of tunas and marlins. (not issued) (Jap.) SUYEHIRO, Y., 1936. The reason why the bonito does not take baits. Fish. Invest. (Suppl. Rpt.) Imp. Fish. Expt. Sta., No. 3, Paper No. 31, pp. 14-16. (Jap.) , 1938. The study of finding the reason why the bonito does not take to the angling-baits. Jour. Imp. Fish. Expt. Sta., No. 9, Paper No. 69, pp. 87-101. (Jap.) TAUCHI, M., 1940a. On the stock of Thunnus orientalis (T. & S.). Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 183-185. (Jap.) , 1940b. On the stock of Neothunnus macropterus (T. & S.). Ibid., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 136-188. (Jap.) RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN 175 TaucHI, M., 1940c. On the stock of Germo germo (Lacepede). I[bid., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 139-141. (Jap.) , 1941. On the stock of Huthynnus vagans (L.). Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 11, Nos. 5 and 6, pp. 179-183. (Jap.) Upa, M., 1935a. On the estimation of favourable temperature for longline fishing of tunny. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 61-65. (Jap.) , 1935b. The result of simultaneous oceanographical investigations in the North Pacific Ocean adjacent to Japan made in August 1933. Jour. Imp. Fish. Expt. Sta., No. 6, Paper No. 48, pp. 1-180. (Jap.) , 1936. Locality of fishing center and shoals of “katuo” Euthyn- nus vagans (Lesson) correlated with the contact zone of cold and warm currents. Bull. Jap. Soe. Sci. Fish., vol. 4, No. 6, pp. 385-390. (Jap.) , 1938. Correlation of the catch of “katuo” in the waters adjacent to Japan. Ibid., vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 75-78. (Jap.) , 1939. On the characteristics of the frequency curve for the catch of “katuo” Euthynnus vagans (Lesson) referred to the water temperature. JIbid., vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 169-172. (Jap.) , 1940b. A note on the fisheries condition of “katuo” as a function of several oceanographic factors. Ibid., vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 145-148. (Jap.) , 1940c. On the recent anomalous hydrographical conditions of the Kuroshio in the south waters off Japan proper in relation to fisheries. Jour. Imp. Fish. Expt. Sta., No. 10, Paper No. 74, pp. 231-278. (Jap.) , The body-temperature and the bodily feature of “katuo” and “samma.” Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 231-236. (Jap.) , 1952. On the relation between the variation of the important fisheries condition and the oceanographical condition in the adjacent waters of Japan. Jour. Tokyo Univ. Fish., vol. 38, No. 3. and E. ToKUNAGA, 1937. Fishing of Germo germo in relation to the Hydrography in the North Pacific waters. Bull. Jap. Sec. Sev. Fish., vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 295-300. (Jap.) Ucuipa, K., 1937. Kagaku (Science), vol. 7, pp. 540-546, 591-595. (Jap.) WADE, C. C., 1950. Juvenile forms of Neothunnus macropterus, Katsuwonus pelamis and Euthynnus yaito from Philippine seas. U.S. Fish and Wild- life Serv., Fish. Bull. No. 58, pp. 395-404. -——_———, 1951. Larvae of tuna and tuna-like fishes from Philippine waters. Ibid., Fish. Bull. 57, pp. 445-485. YaABE, H., 1951. Juvenile swordfish, Xiphias gladius. Jap. Jour. Ichth., vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 260-263. (Jap.) rie aa Bt Liv a eee) Tay meter \ Geil eae ous ate : mY, 1 ay . ’ ; h ae ah i f ee . rite ; 7 4 ‘ 4 ‘e H " “t ’ Lice ; Hees Tee Pe ‘oy a DE Lain ne i ri als Vin Gaeta tie Rae ' ha he oni a Ww ’ o a f M y n k a . , > ASO ee ov Wier * AK Z jee Bg a ta ‘s ri es Be ™ cong ae y . 29! Sil ae ; ux bs iy od sar : CM eee eG ee sind oe a I vf a Si ; { Oh Vy waa ge a) ig Ligh) - _ Lay r TS, WEA: sat V'< da ane ie Liss : hg ; yy 156, 2 AR 1 ren, ; RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN 177 ee LEE Co = = ae = * a cnet es eg emt 178 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS an co pet eye eee IG Oe seteaperouae: egepees ee 8 eae pee AGC ie Bh pera 8 ih Fas LAB OH PA tae IS CET ae Res Weane —& RECENT STUDIES ON TUNAS AND MARLINS IN JAPAN lg) 180 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 4 RS a: 181 LEAD SEER OT pare rrr tics pares yr eas ae nt = prea wie ee eee FSS Soe teay, ss) eee tics Be ig eee Z << Ay x > Va — op) a 4 fata} aH = a a < wm = Z =) isa Zz oe) wy e _ =) =) i= c2 Bi 4 & S os EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 182 ARE THE WORLD-WIDE DECLINES IN SARDINE CATCHES RELATED?:* By Joun C. Marr and James E. BOHLKE South Pacific Fishery Investigations, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 450-B Jordan Hall, Stanford, California, U.S.A. Large fluctuations in the catches of marine fishes, especially pelagic species, have long been known and may, in a sense, be considered to have given the original and major impetus to the birth and growth of the science of fishery biology. Indeed, such fluctuations have been observed to occur in so many different species and areas that one might suppose them to be a characteristic feature of the great fisheries. It is significant, however, that fishery biologists are not in general agreement as to the causes of these fluctuations. Recently there have been major declines in the catches of some of the sardines; declines which have caused great economic hardship and have, at least in one instance, resulted in a greatly expanded research effort (Anonymous, 1950). We refer especially to the Japanese land- ings of Sardinops melanosticta, the North American landings of S. caeru- lea, and the Portuguese landings of Sardina pilchardus. ‘These landings are shown in Figure 1. The North American data include landings in Canada and the United States. Relatively small landings made in Mexico are also in- cluded since 1940. It has been demonstrated (Schaefer, Sette and Marr, 1951) that from the inception of the fishery until 1942, the growth of the fishery, as shown by the annual catches, followed a logistic curve characteristic of the growth of many industries. Some of the deviations about the curve are clearly related to economic conditions; the eco- nomic depression of the early 1930's, for example, is reflected in the reduced catches during that period. From 1934 until 1944 the annual catch fluctuated around an average of about 550,000 metric tons. Fol- lowing 1944 the catches have declined, in some seasons catastrophically so, but with a short-lived partial recovery in 1949 and 1950. The basic causes of this decline have not been completely elucidated, but the major immediate causes include a series of smaller than average year- classes and a probable shift in the distribution or migratory behavior of the fish; the relation of an intensive fishery to these factors has not * Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 183 184 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS been determined to the satisfaction of all concerned (California Marine Research Committee, in press). The Japanese data include only the landings made in the Japanese islands; they do not include landings in continental Asia. In some years the latter were as large or larger than the Japanese landings. In addition, it is not certain that the data include all Japanese landings, nor that they refer entirely to the sardine. Nevertheless, and on a big- ger scale, the curve of annual catches in the Japanese fishery is remark- ably similar to that of the North American fishery. The peak catch was obtained in the same year, but the decline started about two years earlier. In 1951 there was a partial recovery. The Portuguese data include only the landings made in poral Obviously this fishery has never attained the magnitude of the other two. Properly, this curve should include the catches of Sardina pilchar- dus landed in all European and North African countries, but these data are not available to us at the moment. The Portuguese landings are therefore used as an example of the northeastern Atlantic sardine catch- es. There is a peak, although not a pronounced one, in the Portuguese catches occurring at about the same time as in the other two fisheries. There is a decline occurring slightly later than in the North American fishery. We understand that more recent seasons have shown a recovery of the Portuguese fishery, but have thus far been unable to secure exact data. : These same catch data are also shown in Figure 2, but here, for each fishery, the catch in each year has been expressed as a percentage of the largest annual catch made in that fishery during the period re- ported. This shows the relative fluctuations in the three fisheries with- out respect to their absolute magnitudes. ‘The similarities already men- tioned are even more strikingly shown in this figure, especially the rela- tive magnitudes of the declines in catches and their close relation in time, even though not simultaneous. It is often inferred that when the catch of a particular species be- comes less, the absolute size of the population is also reduced. This is not necessarily true and it should be remembered that the data just presented refer only to catches. The relation of these catches to the size of the populations from which they were drawn is not known. The reasons for a major decline in catch in any fishery must be found among one or more of the following: (1) a decrease in the amount of fishing effort expended per unit of time; (2) an increase in the rate of natural mortality; (3) a decrease in the rate of recruitment (i.e., a decrease in year-class size); or (4) a decrease in the availability of the fish to the fishery, through a change in behavior or distribution. WORLD-WIDE DECLINES IN SARDINE CATCHES 185 For the three sardine fisheries mentioned, we may safely rule out (1) as a cause of the decline in the catches (barring war-caused interruptions in fishing); one or more of the other three must be responsible. In order to examine the possibility of the other causes being oper- ative, various types of information are needed. In the case of natural mortality rates, some estimates have been made, but they are not very precise. In addition, for sardines, or practically any marine fish for that matter, we have only general ideas about the various sources of natural mortality and practically no ideas about how they operate. In any case, they are not subject to modification by man, except as fishing mortality may replace natural mortality. Variations in rate of recruitment are probably one of the two major causes of fluctuations in catch (the other being variations in availabil- ity). Here again, we have only general ideas about the natural causes of variation in year-class size and how these causes operate. So far as all present evidence goes, such variations are natural. However, in theory at least, the size of the spawning stock could influence the size of the resulting year-classes. If the theory holds, Man could control year-class size by controlling stock size, but this remains to be demonstrated in practice. Data on relative year-class sizes as they appear in the catches are of record, at least for the North American sardine fishery. What we need, however, are data on year-class sizes as they exist in the popu- lation. Variations in the availability of fish to the fishery are, as indicated, a major cause of fluctuations in catch. Accurate availability data are extremely difficult to obtain and, in general, availability phenomena are among the least understood in the field of fishery biology. For most marine fisheries, however, it is difficult to see how they could be any- thing but natural and not subject to control by Man. So, the problem of the causes of these declines falls into two major divisions: (1) What are the effects of Man’s activities and how do these operate, and (2) What are the effects of natural phenomena and how do these operate? Solution of these two sets of problems will require not only additional observation, but also the development and testing of theory. Returning to our original question, if the declines in catches of sardines were caused solely by Man, then the declines are indeed re- lated. Such a relationship is not within the province of the fishery bi- ologist, although the mechanics of its operation obviously must be. On the other hand, if the declines are natural ones, how could they be related? Such relationship could only be through a pandemic, which has greatly increased the rate of natural mortality and for which, inci- dentally, there is not much evidence, or, through some rather world- 186 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS wide meteorological or oceanographic change. The latter possibility has, in fact, already been suggested by Nair and Chidambaram (1951) and by Uda (1952). With the data at hand, it is not possible now to answer the ques- tion posed by our title. Before the answer is attained, some, at least, of the problems need to be more clearly formulated; data need to be assembled, some of which are published in relatively obscure sources or are not published at all; plans need to be laid and implemented; and, finally, means must be found to promote greater exchange of ob- servations and ideas among fishery biologists and oceanographers who face these common problems. All of these objectives might be best attained through the medium of international conferences. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous, 1950. Research projects examine fluctuating sardine popula- tions. FAO, Fish. Bull., vol. III, no. 3, pp. 56-8. California Marine Research Committee. In Press. Progress Report, 1 July 1952 to 30 June 1953. Narr, R. VEDAPPAN and K. CHIDAMBARAM. 1951. A review of the Indian oil sardine fishery. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, vol. XVII, no. 1, pp. 71- 85, 2 figs. SCHAEFER, MILNER B., Oscar E. SETTE, and JOHN C. Marr. 1951. Growth of the Pacific Coast pilchard fishery to 1942. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Res. Rept. 29, 31 pp., 6 figs. UpA, MICHITAKA. 1952. On the relation between the variation of the im- portant fisheries conditions and the oceanographical conditions in the adjacent waters of Japan 1. Jour. Tokyo Univ. Fish., vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 363-389, 11 figs. THOUSANDS OF METRIC TONS WORLD-WIDE DECLINES IN SARDINE CATCHES 187 1,600 1.500 1,400} 1,300 } 1,200} 1,100 / \ babel 900 800 700 1 660 ‘ 500 1 4350 ry PMA fs 300 } hea Wy 100 Sy SR eV | ! kine fas l 19iD (915 i920 [225 1939 1935 1940 1945 1950 Fic. 1.—Total sardine catches for the United States (- ), Japan (----- ), and Portugal (— ). Data obtained from the following sources: United States-Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 34, no. 2, p. 83 (1948) and unpub- lished information; Japan-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery Leaflet 279, p. 83 (1948), and from personal communication from Dr. N. Nakai of the Tokai Regional Fish. Res. Lab.; Portugal-Bull. Stat., Cons. Perm. Inucern. VExplor. Mer, and unpublished information. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 188 “UOIYB.LepIsuod tapun polled oy} SUlInp Usyey Yo}eO [enuUUR 4seysIY oY} JO sosequoderd se ‘A.roysy yovo oF possardxs ‘(——-—) |[esnjz10g pue ‘(----- ) weder ‘(——-) 507839 poeqrugQ ey} Fo seya}e0 ouIpreg—z ‘DI ~ oséi Sv6l Ov6i Seél O¢eél S26 O26) Si61 O16! 02 og Ov Os 109 OL {08 06 oo} THE PRODUCTS OF THE SEA AND THEIR EXPLOITATION AND UTILIZATION IN PAKISTAN By M. R. KHAN Central Fisheries Department Government of Pakistan, Karachi, Pakistan A comprehensive study of the Sea as a store-house of immense mineral, vegetable, and animal wealth is beyond the scope of the pre- sent paper. Only those products of the sea which are important from the fisheries point of view and which occur in the waters off the coast of Pakistan will be considered. The demand for protein food in Pakistan is far in excess of the present supply. Availability of grazing grounds and fodder imposes limitations on the increased production of livestock in the country. Faced with the problem of short protein food supply, Pakistan has turned particular attention to her aquatic protein food resources. Fish has a pronounced dietetic importance in Pakistan. During 1952 consumption of fish in Pakistan stood at 295.2 million pounds, of which 242.8 million pounds were consumed in East Pakistan. Rice and fish constitute the staple food of the population in East Pakistan and no less than 90% of the people consume fish as a regular item of diet. In West Pakistan consumption of fish is low except along the coast and the riverine tracts. Annual per capita consumption of fish in Pakistan has been estimated at 6.4 pounds. In East Pakistan in certain localities where the supply is plentiful the per annual capita consumption may be quite high. Economically the importance of fishery to Pakistan is considerable. It is estimated that there are over 200,000 fishermen families in the country and as many as 800,000 subsist by fishing. In East Pakistan alone there are 160,000 fishermen families and over 650,000 make a living out of fishing. These figures include fishermen engaged in fresh water fisheries. Furthermore, the economy of Pakistan is basically agrarian. It is desirable that the country’s agriculture be supplemented by a well-organized fisheries industry. THE RESOURCES Pakistan has a total of 700 miles of coast line, 500 miles in West Pakistan and 200 miles in East Pakistan. The coast of West Pakistan is bounded by 23°-40’N to 25°-30’N latitudes and 61°-40’E to 68°-10’E 189 190 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS longitudes. The coast of East Pakistan lies between 20°-50’N to 22°- 5O’N latitudes and 89°-00’E to 92°-20’E longitudes. The coast of West Pakistan falls into two distinct divisions: the Mekran coast and the Sind coast. The Mekran coast extends over a length of 350 miles from Hub River, about 20 miles West of Karachi, to Gwatar Bay on the Iranian Border. The coast has a number of bays and is interrupted by two breakwaters. ‘The most important breakwater on this coast known as Miani Hor lies about 60 miles West of Karachi. It is approx- imately 40 miles long and at places 10 miles broad. There are no peren- nial rivers on the coast; all the rivers and streams remain dry except for a few days of occasional rain brought in by the southwest mon- soons during summer and northeast cyclones during winter. The total rainfall on the coast is less than 3 inches a year. Hills, some of which rise up to 3500 feet, are bleak and barren, and run parallel to the coast sloping steeply into the sea. The Sind coast extends from Karachi to Sir Creek over a length of 180 miles, and is marked by a network of creeks which extend to a considerable distance inland. ‘These creeks have been formed by the Indus and other rivers as they change course from time to time. Hills are noticeably absent on this coast. The coast of East Pakistan is broken by the mouths of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and numerous other rivers. “The 200-mile-long coast is plain except for a fringe of hills on the southeast. These hills are a continuation of the northeastern wing of the Himalayan ranges. Beyond the territorial limits of Pakistan lie the waters of the Bay of Bengal in the east and the waters of the Arabian Sea in the west. The floor of the Bay slopes slowly from the shores and the 100-fathom line lies 100 miles from the coast. “The bottom topography is smooth except for a submarine canyon directed southward from the mouth of Pusur river. The ocean bottom is covered with thick layers of terrig- enous ooze. ‘The salinity, turbidity and other physical, chemical and biological features of the waters of the Bay are greatly influenced by the heavy discharge of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and other rivers. The wind movement and revolution of the earth give a rotary move- ment to the waters of the Bay. In contrast to the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea is open and its waters are subject to influences of the South-East current, of current movements originating in the Mozambique channel and the rotary move- ment in the Arabian Sea. ‘These movements undoubtedly influence the physical, chemical and biological properties of waters of the Ara- bian Sea. ‘The discharge of the Indus also exerts pronounced influence on the character of the water in that part of the Arabian Sea which PRODUCTS OF THE SEA—EXPLOITATION AND UTILIZATION 191 lies off the Indus estuary. The continental shelf area of the Arabian Sea is restricted. It is about 100 miles only off the Indus estuary and shrinks to about 30 miles off the Mekran Coast. The edge of the con- tinental shelf lying at the 100-fathom line falls steeply into deep water. A submarine canyon cuts the shelf opposite the Indus estuary. The area adjacent to this is subject to a considerable amount of silting. Fauna: The fauna and flora of these waters are fairly known from a systematic point of view. Schools of ‘Sczaena, Tuna, Polynemus and Pristtipoma’ have been observed to be present in seasonal pattern on the surface of the off-shore waters. In mid-waters ‘Cybium and Elas- mobranchs’ are present, whilst the fauna of the bottom waters com- prise ‘Synaptura, Cynoglossus, Lutianus, and Elasmobranchs’. The in- shore fauna which are endemic and which share some elements of the off-shore, brackish, and fresh-water fauna, consist of stocks of ‘Mugzl, Sillago, Chrysophrys, Gerres and Lutianus’ in addition to a very sub- stantial fauna of ‘Penaeidae.’ The brackish water areas which are ex- tensive, totalling about 7,500 square miles, include a vast network of waterways which are inhabited by a varied fauna of ‘Mullets, Perches, Herrings’ and an extensive stock of oysters. “The brackish water con- ditions which penetrate the main river course influence to a great extent the up-stream ascent of the very important fish Hilsa or Palla—‘Hilsa ilisha’. Beyond the faunistic lists, knowledge of the resources is seriously limited. Whilst the general distribution of a few of the more important species is known, the precise distribution of these, and the variation of the limits of distribution from season to season, is not known. Little information is available on the life history in terms of spawning sea- sons and habits, feeding habits, and migratory movements of these species. There is no record of any estimate having been attempted, of the natural abundance of any species of the area. Certain species are known to be more abundant than others; at least, greater catches are taken by the fishermen. But whether these catches approach or exceed the proper limits which the natural stocks can sustain, is not known. ‘THE INDUSTRY The primary phase of the fishing industry consists of the following major divisions: (1) Capture operations in the off-shore waters, (2) Capture operations in the brackish waters and open waterways of the Gangetic and Indus delta and (3) Culture operations in the estuarine areas. 192 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Culture operations in East Pakistan chiefly take place in the estua- rine areas. ‘The operations which concentrate on mullets, perches and prawns are simple and involve basically the construction and main- tenance of bunds, the control of water movement and, where necessary, some feeding. It is estimated that over 20,000 persons are engaged in these culture operations. Fishing by capture operations is carried out in surface, middle, and bottom waters. ‘These operations at present are confined at 8-10 miles from the shore and the 10-fathom line. While these operations are thus confined they are also restricted in their along-shore extent. The fishermen do not carry any navigational equipments nor do they have any knowledge of the science of navigation. It is impossible for them to go beyond the visibility of the shore. 5 Fishing Season: During the months of June to August the south- west monsoons are in full swing and there are heavy swells in the sea making it impossible for any fishing operations to be conducted in the open sea. Limited fishing is carried out in the protected waters of the estuarine areas. ‘Throughout the rest of the year fishing is conducted with varying degrees of intensity in all waters. Fishermen: The number of fishermen engaged in marine fishing in Pakistan has been estimated at 85,000. In addition to active fisher- men there are those concerned in handling and transport, processing and preservation, the middlemen and merchants, and market operatives. The fishermen live in important port towns and in isolated villages along the coast. During seasons for particular fisheries, temporary col- onies may also be set up. ‘The villages are built on the sandy and un- protected beaches; the huts and tenements are made of mangrove and bamboo sticks, and weed mats. Fishing is essentially a whole-time occupation for the majority of the fishing group. During the monsoons when no fishing can be con- ducted in the disturbed sea, the fishermen engage themselves in making and mending nets and repairing boats and fishing in protected waters. The fishermen are generally illiterate and unskilled. Their knowl- edge of the behaviour of fish, of the weather, currents, bottom and of the operation of crafts and gears is seriously limited. ‘They are also very much impoverished; their annual money income is probably, on the average, 400-500 rupees (125-150 U.S. dollars) per head. Crafts and Gears: The crafts are plank-built, wind-driven vessels ranging from 15—60 feet in length and 14 to 50 tons in capacity. They are not decked in and provide no living accommodation even in the larger crafts. “The storage of fish is provided merely by wooden boxes and holds without any ice or refrigeration. Smaller crafts carry crew PRODUCTS OF THE SEA—EXPLOITATION AND UTILIZATION 193 of three to four and operate on single day journeys. Larger crafts carry from eight to ten persons and stay at sea for four to five days. Sometimes larger vessels stay away from ports for longer periods. In such cases the catch is salted on board and the vessels move every third or fourth day to convenient spots on the shore for drying the salted fish. In addition to the local operations with country crafts, the Gov- ernment’s experimental trawler ‘ALA’ has been operating in the waters off the coast of West Pakistan. ‘ALA’ is 80 feet long and has a gross tonnage of 81.24. She has a steel hull, and a Ruston diesel engine of 150 B.H.P. The fish hold is refrigerated and has a capacity of 30 tons. The trawler employs a Peter Carey trawl, 75 feet long. The operations of the trawler has not extended beyond the 30-fathom line. The Trawler has made a number of trips. The results so far have not been encouraging. Although the tropical waters are known not to be rich in bottom fauna, the possibilities of trawling in these waters cannot be ascertained until after exhaustive surveys. “The operations of ‘ALA’ are limited both in seasonal and geographical co-ordinates for the purpose of any conclusions. The gears commonly employed in Pakistan are (1) fixed or stake nets, (2) boat seines, (3) beach seines, (4) drift and gill nets, (5) cast nets, (6) traps and weirs, and (7) hooks and lines. Non-searching type of a gear, e.g. stake nets, drift and gill nets, are numerically predom- inant and their total catch is more than that of the searching gear. Of the latter group, the boat seines are most important. These nets catch sardines, herrings, drums, croakers and threadfins, depending on size and mesh. The nets are prepared by hand, using mostly cotton, occasionally hemp, and nylon whenever it is available. Net preservation practices consist of their treatment with lime and occasionally with extracts of some indigenous barks. The crafts and gears are not mechanized. ‘This severely restricts the fishing operations in their range along seasonal and geographical co-ordinates. Capital: A reliable estimate of capital invested in the primary industry is not available yet. Preliminary figures place it anywhere from 10-12 million rupees (3—4 million U.S. dollars). Of this nearly 55 per- cent is invested in crafts and the rest is invested in gears and as recur- ring expenditure. Capital in Pakistan is noted for its shyness; on the other hand, the manipulations of the middlemen place impediments to the flow of fresh capital in the fisheries industry. Economics and organisation: The number of owner-operators who work alone as single units is negligible. Some outfits are operated by 194 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the crew; the owner of the outfit generally has a share in the operations, even if only their supervision. The people who operate the gear do so cn a share basis. As is usual elsewhere, the boat and gear used in share fishing, count equally with the operatives in drawing a share. In some cases of sharing of earnings the owner makes advances to the crew and undertakes some responsibility for food, either providing it against shares, or guaranteeing the necessary credit. Under such circumstances an arrangement is made by which the fish must be sold to the owner or his agent. Quite frequently the crew are employed on wage basis. Such crew are provided with gear and are completely ‘found.’ In East Pakistan the owners of boats and gears engage their agents to assemble parties, of up to 200 or more, of fishermen, curers and others; the workers of the party are engaged on wage basis whilst the agents are contracted to take the catch to the owners, of boats and gears, to sell on an agreed basis. ‘The owners supply food and advance money. Amount of Production: Annual production is estimated to be in the order of 100,000 tons, wet landed weight of fish. The bulk of this is landed in East Pakistan. Wide variations in the catch exist in dif- ferent localities, seasons, and in species. Variations of this kind are characteristic of the fishery and have considerable effects on it in every way. The catch in East Pakistan is composed of 30% Clupeoids, 25% Crustaceans, 15% Bombay ducks and Hairtails, 7% Elasmobranchs, and 11°% miscellaneous fish. In West Pakistan the catch consists of 25.5% of Elasmobranchs, 18.5% Perches, 18.0% Crustaceans, 11.5% Mackerels, 10.5% Clupeoids, and 16% miscellaneous fish. In addition there are 3-5 thousand dozens of oysters and clams produced each year. In the absence of any reliable data regarding production by units of time, of area, the number of crafts and gear, the number of men who fish, it is not possible to measure accurately the total amount of effort and catch per unit effort. SECONDARY INDUSTRY The secondary phase of the industry leaves much to be desired. The equipment for handling, transport, marketing and distribution are inadequate and inefficient, this being especially true of ice-making equipment. Processing methods are also not satisfactory and yield prod- ucts of inferior quality. Estimates of production passing through various channels of dis- posal are extremely variable. It is held that of the total production in West Pakistan approximately one third is handled and consumed fresh PRODUCTS OF THE SEA—EXPLOITATION AND UTILIZATION 195 and two thirds processed. In East Pakistan roughly 80 per cent is con- sumed fresh. The products of processing are cured fish, cured prawns, fish fertilizer, fish meal, shark fins, isinglass and liver oil. Handling and Transport: Of the fresh fish the greater proportion is handled with primitive apparatus and without any means of pre- servation. The catch generally must suffer the exigencies of inefficient transport, careless handling and inadequate use of ice. Transport facilities are varied and primitive. Use is made of head- loads, bicycles, animal carts and some motor transport. Some use is also made of water transport. In estuarine areas salt is used if the fish is to travel more than 50 miles. The fish rarely arrives at the market and less often reaches the consumer in good condition. Processing: Fish is commonly processed by (1) sun-drying, (2) salting, (3) salting and sun-drying, and (4) smoking. Salting and sub- sequent sun-drying is most extensively used in West Pakistan whilst in East Pakistan sun-drying and wet-salting are equally important. Smok- ing, which is of minor importance, is employed only in East Pakistan. Fertilizers are produced by sun-drying the fish or fish offals and subse- quently crushing them. Shark livers are heated in pans by direct fire except in the case of a small quantity of medicinal liver oil produced in East Pakistan by the Provincial Directorate of Fisheries. The curing yards are inefficient. “They provide no elevated plat- form for dressing fish and most of all, supply of running water in these curing yards is tetally absent. Brining tanks where available are built- in and cannot be drained out. Fish are dried on bare ground or on woven mats. Wooden racks are uncommon. The smoking kiln is an open pit where local wood or sawdust is allowed to smoulder. No care is taken in the choice of wood or in regulating the rate of burning. Salt employed for curing is mixed with sand and mud and contains high amounts of sulphates, calcium, and magnesium. The finished product is generally of poor quality. Unsatisfactory colour and texture, off-flavour and signs of rancidity are noticeable in the cured fish. Considerable damage is caused to the product dur- ing storage as the product is left under inadequate and unsatisfactory storage conditions for long periods. Marketing and Distribution: Fish supplies are accumulated at various collection centres. These centres do not have established market places, nor are they hygienic or efficient in any sense of these words; many of the operations take place on bare ground. In general, the ‘fish market’ consists of little more than some space and perhaps a few benches allotted in the general market for the selling of fish. In Karachi, 196 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS however, a cement floored building is used as a wholesale market. This building does not have sufficient space for handling the total landing nor is it supplied with running water. The fisherman delivers his catch at the point of landing to an agent who may auction it on his behalf to wholesalers, retailers and fish curers or may buy it from the fishermen where financial arrangement exists between the agent and fishermen. The wholesalers in turn sell the fish to the retailers who sell it to the consumers. ‘The fish curers mainly export their products. The agent who first receives the fish from the fishermen is the individual who provides finance to the fisher- men. Apart from the collection of sales tax under certain circumstances the Government takes no part whatsoever in this marketing process at any stage. Trade: Although there is an overall deficit in the country, in re- stricted areas there is a surplus in fish supply which is particularly due to inadequate facilities of handling and transport. Pakistan exports some of this localised surplus. During 1952 over 10,000 tons of fresh fish were exported to India. The main bulk of it consisted of fresh- water fish and came from East Pakistan. The total export of processed fish stood at 9,635 tons. In addition, during the same year Pakistan ex- ported over 2,000 tons of fish fertilizers, 160 tons of shark fins and fish maws. As against the export, 460 tons of processed fish, 520 tons of fish oils and 173,500 pounds of vitaminous fish oils are shown as having been imported during 1952. The total value of the export trade during 1952 stood at 12,300,000 rupees (3.2 million U.S. dollars) whilst that of the import trade during the same year stood at 1,527,000 rupees (500,000 U.S. dollars) . Socio-Economics: “The economic problems of fishermen in Pakistan concern his methods of production, purchase of domestic and production requirements, provision of credit, and the sale of his produce. The craft and gear and other equipment which the fisherman uses are primitive, inefficient and wasteful though effective in their own way. The middle- men to whom, in many cases, the catch is sold in advance, generally, supply the fishermen with his domestic and production requirements, and with other credit accommodation that he may need. He is compelled more often than not by circumstances of trade to buy dear and sell cheap and thus the fisherman sinks irretrievably into debts. Belonging to an economically and socially backward community, ignorant and unedu- cated, he has generally neither the will nor the means of organising himself for self-emancipation. Although the fishermen are impoverished and illiterate, these de- ficiencies of wealth and education may not be presumed to apply to PRODUCTS OF THE SEA—EXPLOITATION AND UTILIZATION 197 their technical qualifications. The Pakistani fishermen are competent, skilled sailors, proficient in the use of their traditional equipment. There seems to be no reason to doubt that these men at least will be capable of learning the use of new equipment and the operation of new craft. The fishermen are unable to attempt on their own behalf develop- ment of their equipment and operations. This situation may be attri- buted to the combined effects of the improvidence of the fishermen, the inefficiency of the equipments, and the manipulation of the middlemen. Certain external influences, such as the demand for fish and the purchas- ing power of the consuming public, also have a bearing on the situation. There exist considerable differences of taste among people in different parts of the country; coupled with this is the inadequate marketing system, which would seem to make the demand for fish uncertain and weak. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The status of fisheries in Pakistan is low. The resources are capable of yielding a much greater supply of fish than they do at present. The procurement of that increase will require in some cases the introduction of new methods and in others an intensification and improvement of existing methods. Such changes in methods imply comparable changes in the craft and gear, and in certain cases will require adjustment of fishermen. Undoubtedly these changes will demand substantial re- orientation of the secondary phase of the industry in order that it may be capable of handling the increased supply and giving a better quality of service. Increased production, adequate distribution and disposal of the produce are the chief tasks in the development of Pakistan fisheries. Extension of the fishing grounds, improvement and increased employ- ment of gear, and mechanization of the craft will enhatice production. Construction of markets at important fish landing centres, provision of sufficient ice and cold storage, railway refrigerated cars and trucks, and of various processing facilities will ensure proper distribution and dis- posal of the produce. Well-organised central and provincial Fisheries Departments are formulating schemes for the development of the fisheries resources of the country. As a member Pakistan has received help in this task from the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. A thorough survey of the resources has been undertaken in the waters off the coast of Karachi where already a number of good fishing grounds have been located. A scheme for the construction of a fish harbour at Karachi has been approved by the Government of Pakistan. This har- 198 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS bour is intended to provide all modern facilities for berthing of fishing boats, modern curing and other processing facilities for fish and fish products, ice and cold storage, and wholesale marketing of marine fish. Similar schemes for mechanisation of craft and gear, refrigerated trans- port, refrigerated markets and processing plants in other parts of the country are in their final form. Private enterprise is also stepping forward, although rather slowly. A fish meal plant will go into production within the next month or two; another plant for freezing shrimps is expected to start operation before the end of 1953; and keen interest is being displayed by several concerns in the possibilities of fishing with mechanised craft and gear, of canning fish, particularly of shrimps, and producing vitaminous shark liver oil. Implementation of the proposed development measures in fisheries will, no doubt, require considerable capital investment. On the other hand, the economic condition of the fishermen does not make it possible for them to invest in the development of the industry. Except a minor fraction, the capital so far invested has come from Government account and from the Colombo Plan and the U.S. Technical Co-operation funds. Recently Sweden has also offered some aid. Although pilot scale development plans may seem advisable at present some well-integrated overall policy will induce expeditions and increased flow of private capital into the fisheries industry. Effective efforts should be made to improve the economic condition of the fishermen so that they may them- selves be in a position to invest in the development of the industry. In this respect the fishermen should be organized into cooperative societies. These societies should provide credits and link credits with purchase of necessities of the industry and of life on the one hand and the sale of the produce on the other. Viewed in the general context of the economic and nutritional problems of Pakistan, and of the world food situation, the need for the development of fisheries in Pakistan cannot be over-emphasised. The development plans should be co-ordinated and integrated into an over- all policy so that the development of the industry may serve the interests of the producers, the middlemen and the consumers alike. BIBLIOGRAPHY AHMED, M. Hilsa Fisheries in Sind. Agri. Pak., Vol. III, No. 1 & 2, 1952. KESTEVEN, G. L. Report on the Fisheries of Pakistan, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of Pakistan, Karachi, 1950. and S. W. Linc. Report on the Fisheries of East Pakistan. (Ms.) 1951. EXPLOITATIONAND UTILIZATION 199 PRODUCTS OF THE SEA KHAN, M. R. A case for Pakistan Fisheries. Econ. Comm., Vol. I, No. 8, 1952. Synthetic Vitamin A and the Future of Fish Liver Oil Industry, particularly in Pakistan. lAg7ri. Pak., Vol. IV, No. 1, 1953. Possibilities of Fish Meal Industry in Pakistan. (Ms.) 1952. and M. AHMED. Report on the Baluchistan Marine Fisheries. (Ms.) 1952. QuRESHI, M. R. Prospects of Marine Fisheries of West Pakistan. Bull. Kar. Geog. Soc., Vol. II, 1950. Marine Fisheries of Pakistan with a view on Trawling. Proc. I.P.F.C., April, 1950. Fishes of Mekran Coast. Agri. Pak., Vol. II, No. 4, 1952. and M. AHMED. Fish Trade in Pakistan. Agri. Pak., Vol. III, No. 3, 1952. SOME FACTORS BEARING ON THE UTILIZATION OF MARINE PRODUCTS OF THE WEST COAST OF CANADA By NEAL M. CarTER Pacific Fisheries Experimental Station Fisheries Research Board of Canada Vancouver, B.C., Canada Fish and shellfish have been a food of man from prehistoric times. Remains of fish bones and marine shells exist in the débris of Pleistocene period European cave dwellers, and the kitchen middens of Recent period Indians of the coast of British Columbia are composed principally of clam shells with a few fish bones. Because of the ease with which they can be secured, shellfish probably attracted prehistoric man’s at- tention before he recognized their edibility. Perhaps his first taste of fish followed seeing some animal or bird devouring a fish it had caught; seeking more of this delicate food, no doubt his first efforts at ‘‘fishing”’ consisted of picking up dead or stranded fish in shallow streams, on the beach, or in tidal pools. Soon (maybe a thousand years later) his grow- ing inventiveness developed the first true fishing methods. One of the earliest must have been the placing of a barrier of stones, stakes or branches in a shallow stream, or a circlet of rocks on a tidal beach in imitation of natural tidal pools. “The writer has seen such artificial tidal pools, constructed in modern times, still in use by the native British Columbia Indians not more than a hundred miles up the coast from Vancouver. ‘The chronology of the invention of such fixed barriers, in relation to the invention of transportable fishing gear, is lost in pre- historic antiquity. Examples of fish spears have been found in prehis- toric caves; nets and lines may have been used contemporarily but owing to their more perishable nature traces of them have vanished. Pictorial records of fishing nets antedate those of fish spears, and it is known that the spear, net, line, and rod flourished synchronously as early as the XUth Egyptian Dynasty. ‘The earliest picture of angling and hand lining is dated at about 2000 B.C. Once adequate methods of capturing fish for food became developed, it 1s interesting to note the very great esteem accorded to fish as an article of commerce and diet in early historical times. ‘The Bible alone con- tains some 80 references to fishing, fishermen, fish and other aquatic products, though curiously enough in no instance is any kind of fish 200 UTILIZATION OF MARINE PRODUCTS OF CANADA 201 mentioned by name. It has been facetiously suggested that there had not yet been time after the Flood to assign, names to the fishes, for because of the very nature of that catastrophe there was no neces- sity to make provision for the fishes when cataloging “every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort . . . male and female” as they entered the Ark. In the Indian legend of the Flood it was a fish, not a Deity, that gave warning of the coming deluge; a fish, not a dove returning with an olive leaf, signaled the recession of the waters and drew the ark-like vessel to rest on a northern mountain. Among the many records of the popularity of fish the Bible ac- count of the miracle of the loaves and fishes is well known. Fish played an important role in the food of the early Egyptians; King Rameses III was in the habit of presenting many thousands of fish to the temples for the benefit of the priests’ employees and the populace, and Rameses IV maintained “officers of the Court Fishermen” whose duty it was to provide large quantities of fish for the monarch, his entourage and servy- ants. Carefully mummified fish bearing a royal cartouche have been found, symbolizing the esteem bestowed upon them. ‘The Egyptian city Latopolis was named in honour of the fish Lates niloticus. But it was in the heyday of the Greeks and Romans that fishes really came into their own as luxuries. Seas and rivers were exploited far and wide for their delicacies. Mullet, sturgeon and turbot commanded fabulous prices for the epicurian table. Pliny records that although mullet weighing under two pounds were plentiful and cheap, a large one was worth 8000 nummi (about $300), the value of nine bulls. ‘The Greek come- dians lamented that fish cost their weight in money, as was the case also in Rome. Martial upbraided a glutton who sold a slave for about $50 to purchase a dinner, then complained of its lack of variety because near- ly all the money was spent for one mullet. At a Greek Attic feast, thirty-two kinds of fish were served; at a banquet given by the Roman emperor Vitellius in honour of his brother no less than 2000 choice fishes were served. A treatise of ten volumes on recipes for new dishes, attributed to Apicius, describes many sauces for fish, one of which calls for twenty-five ingredients. Some Roman nobles varied the custom of taking a cognomen from the name of a victorious battle by assuming a name derived from their favorite fish, e.g., Licinius Muraena, Sergius Aurata. Among the Greeks, Diogenes the Cynic died from the eager haste with which he devoured a raw polypus, and Philoxenus the Poet after dressing, cooking, and eating all but the head of a 36-inch polypus was warned by his physician that he had but six hours to live. Much later, King Henry I of England died from overindulging in his favourite dish of lampreys, a primitive fish at present much despised in Canada 202 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and the United States because of its current depredations on the com- mercial fishes of the Great Lakes. What precautions were taken in these early days to maintain the delectable qualities of freshly caught fishery products? History tells us that much of the fish was net cured in any way, and the need for keep- ing fish cool was already appreciated. Nehemiah, Governor of Judaea, complained in the Biblical book of his name about the sale of food- stuffs in Jerusalem on the Sabbath, including fish brought by the men of Tyre from the shores of the Mediterranean some 35 miles away; he caused the gates of Jerusalem to be closed to such commerce over the Sabbath, but later it was allowed that a special gate, called the “fish gate’ should remain open so that fish could be sold before it would spoil. In Greece, runners were sent up the slopes of 8060-foot Mt. Par- nassus to collect snow for preserving fresh oysters for banquets in near- by Athens. The Romans constructed huge vivaria or fish ponds in which to keep fish alive during warm weather until required for the table. Lucius Philippus had a tunnel pierced through a mountain in order to bring cool sea water to his vivarium; Hortensius Varro placed more importance on the coolness of the water in his vivarium than on the coolness of a draught of water for a fevered friend. Archimedes is credited with planning the construction of a large live-well, made of planks lined with lead, in the bow of one of the large vessels plying between Egypt and Sicily for the corn trade and carrying live fish in this well in which the salt water was constantly renewed by hand pump- ing. In early Egypt fish for the fresh trade were usually dressed on the boat and quickly dispatched to market. By New Testament times fresh fish were roasted, baked, or boiled; eggs were sometimes combined with the boiled type. But what of the fish that could not be transported fresh to market? The Egyptians were familiar with the process of split- ting and salting then drying in the sun, and such salted fish, as well as pickled fish, were exported in baskets or barrels certainly as far as Palestine. ‘Turning now from ancient times in the Old World to more modern times in the West Coast of Canada, the native Indians of this coast prior to the coming of the white man had developed not only their clam fishery attested by the huge clam shell middens already mentioned, but also a considerable adeptness in catching fish, particularly salmon and eulachons. ‘To preserve these fish for use out of season, salmon were cleaned, split, and subjected to a combined drying and smoking process in crude smoke houses; because the salmon ascends rivers to spawn hundreds of miles inland, many Interior tribes had access to this fish, though it lacked fat by the time it reached distant spawning beds. UTILIZATION OF MARINE PRODUCTS OF CANADA 203 Eulachons, a small, marine, smelt-like fish taken principally only in the river estuaries, were hung from the head on large vertical racks for open-air drying and when dried were so oily that they could be ignited and used as candles. Probably the earliest fishery by-product industry in what is now British Columbia arose from the craving of both Coastal and Interior natives for fish oil as a cooking fat and as a protective or ceremonial lotion for the skin and hair. The fish were allowed to under- go some decomposition to partially free the oil and were then boiled in wooden tanks, the liberated oil was floated and skimmed off and stored in animal skins or (after congealing) in closely woven jar-shaped bas- kets. Trade in this oil with Interior tribes developed the well-trodden “grease trails’ over the lowest mountain passes and through the most. suitable valleys into direct routes that would be a credit to a modern road engineer. These native fishing and preservation methods still per- sist on some parts of the coast, though the modern Indian has been known to visit an Interior cousin via his own automobile or a com- mercial airline, taking a token of eulachon grease either upon or with him, to the olfactory discomfort of any white passengers. With the settlement of Canada’s west coast by the white man, fol- lowed in 1858 by the establishment of the Colony (now Province) of British Columbia, a much greater exploitation of the coast’s fishery resources began. Commercial salting of Fraser River salmon com- menced as early as 1829 and by 1835 some 3500 barrels were being ex- ported annually, principally to the Hawaiian Islands; salmon canning on the Fraser River began in 1870; fisheries for herring, trout, sturgeon, halibut, flatfish, dogfish, eulachon, seals and porpoises were reported by 1875. It is not the purpose of this paper to summarize the subsequent growth of British Columbia’s fisheries or to describe the nature of the raw materials and the many processing methods used to turn these into finished products and by-products for local consumption, trade with the rest of Canada, or export. Government fisheries statistics commenced in 1876 are available for such purposes. Suffice it to state that the marketed value of British Columbia’s fisheries in 1911 was $13,677,125, and in 1951 was $85,500,000, while the marketed values of the whole of Canada’s fisheries for the same years were $34,667,872 and $200,125,000. British Columbia therefore contributes a very substantial portion to the total fisheries production of Canada, which exports more fish than it imports because it produces more fish than its population desires for their own consumption. ‘The 13.7 pounds per capita per annum (1951) consumption of fish by Canadians is quite low in comparison with that of most other countries, even some not so richly endowed with fisheries of their own. 204 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS British Columbian and other Canadian fisheries, if encouraged by an increased desire on the part of Canadians to eat more fish per capita per annum, could meet this incentive and still continue to supply Canada’s export markets with the kinds of Canadian fish products which the peoples of some other countries appear to appreciate more than do Canadians themselves. Why is there this lack of incentive of Canadians to appreciate and eat their own fish to a greater extent? Apart from economic considerations such as the living standards of certain classes of Canada’s population, and the present still-increasing costs of labour and materials that contribute to the retail cost not only of fish products but of other foods as well, some of the reasons for Canada’s low fish consumption are: (a) Living standards, including those for food, are relatively high; a great variety of raw and processed foods are available for competing with fish from the standpoint of the Canadian’s purse and palate. Fish must be of high quality that will enjoy the confidence of the consumer before it will compete more successfully with other foods, particularly other animal products such as meat, fowl, and dairy products. (b) Unfortunately, some past experiences of the Canadian adult generation with quality of fish products, particularly fresh and frozen, have not been too happy, and these impressions have been heightened by reminiscences of the previous generation concerning still unhappier experiences. Even in present-day Canadian and American popular literature including comic strips and cartoons, one sees the expression “something fishy about that” as synonymous with an undesirable state of affairs. “To draw a red herring across a trail” is still used figuratively to express the original literal idea that a somewhat rancid salted herring would effectively baffle bloodhounds tracking a scent. A cartoon or comic strip character carrying a parcel of fish (usually with wavy lines representing odour arising from it) almost always encounters some em- barrassing situation, often resulting in the fish eventually reposing in a garbage can. Such allusions do not enhance the public’s desire for fish. Unlike the enthusiasm of the ancients already mentioned, reference to fish is practically never used in America in a euphemistic sense. Meat, on the other hand, is frequently used in a laudatory and even euphem- istic manner, e.g., “the meat of a subject” for the essence or truth of the subject; the word “meat” for the edible portion of even a vegetable product, such as “nut meats.” Fish flesh is very seldom referred to as “meat.” (c) Fishery products in Canada, with the exception of canned salmon, canned herring and dry salt herring from British Columbia, and a few other products of the fisheries from the Central and Atlantic UTILIZATION OF MARINE PRODUCTS OF CANADA 205 Coast, are not subject to Federal Government inspection. Provincial sanitary regulations for fish processing plants apply in most Provinces, but do not always cover the products themselves. Voluntary inspection control is exercised by many processing firms, much to their credit, but unfortunately not by all to the same degree. This has an adverse bear- ing on the desirable confidence of the consumer of fishery products, mentioned under (a) above. On the other hand, meat products in Canada are processed under careful Federal Government control, and milk products receive considerable Federal or Provincial attention. (d) Because of the bounteousness of many fishery harvests, not only in British Columbia but in other parts of Canada, there is an un- fortunate tendency in times of glut to handle the raw product and its processing in a careless manner suggestive of the handling of cordwood, coal, or some other non-perishable material despite the fact that tish and shellfish flesh is more perishable than that of meat or fowl, which re- ceives more careful attention. It is true that in times of extreme glut some of the raw material is diverted to manufacture of products such as fish meal and oil not intended for human consumption. However, there is ample advice available from technological sources to show the way towards better handling of fishery products during every stage from the time of catch to display for the ultimate consumer. Not all of this advice has been heeded. (e) No matter how good may be the quality of a fishery product, particularly raw, fresh or frozen fish, there exists a certain aversion on the part of many ultimate consumers to the odours and other unpleasant- nesses of preparing the product for the table. Many housewives complain of the odour of cooking fish, and families may enjoy fish cooked in a restaurant more than they would at home, in order to avoid this in- convenience. However, most people do not eat in a restaurant as often as at home. This aversion to the odours of cooking fish may be a matter of opinion influenced by hearsay, for many families cheerfully accept the somewhat faecal odour of cooking cauliflower. (f) Some people just do not like fish. Vegetarians are included in this group. To offset some of the above reasons for lack of appreciation of fish in Canada, it must be stated that while Canada has lagged somewhat behind some countries, particularly certain Scandinavian countries, in rigorous control over the quality of its fisheries products for both home consumption and export, it is well ahead of many other countries in this respect. Fisheries technological stations were instituted by the Biological Board of Canada (now the Fisheries Research Board ot Canada) at Halifax on the Atlantic coast in 1925, at Prince Rupert on 206 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the Pacific coast in 1926 (later moved to Vancouver in 1942), and on the Gaspé coast of Quebec in 1936. These stations, with the assistance of the Federal Department of Fisheries and the collaboration of Canadian fish processers, have gone far in the investigation of the basic principles underlying the utilizations of fishery products, and the applications of these principles. The writer would draw attention, however, to the fact that not only some of the principles known to the Ancients, but also those developed through modern scientific research directed towards the handling and processing of fishery products in many countries, are sometimes over- looked or find delayed and slow application in the very countries where the principles were or are being evolved. Mention has been made of the opening of a fish gate on the Sabbath to allow fish to be sold in Jerusalem before it might spoil on further holding; in this so-called enlightened age there are still cases where fresh fish are held over for later sale to the detriment of its quality because of man’s cupidity, where a hint from the cited solution might improve matters. ‘The ex- ample of the Athenians in securing snow from Mt. Parnassus to preserve the delicacy of their oysters frequently is forgotten when fresh fishery products are transported long distances or held for considerable lengths of time without benefit of the crushed or “snow” ice now so readily available at many fishing ports. A publication only a month ago from the fisheries technological station with which the writer is connected described some experiments dealing with the transportation of freshly caught salmon in a tank of chilled sea water aboard the fishing vessel; already numerous inquiries have been received from Canada and several other countries for further details, yet it is merely an application of the cited invention of Archimedes in providing a tank of sea water on board a Roman vessel, and also almost a repetition of experiments car- ried out by another station of this Fisheries Research Board of Canada and published as a public Bulletin in 1931. Other instances could be cited to illustrate the lack of application of known beneficial principles, freely published and readily available, but often forgotten, that could be used to good advantage in the hand- ling and processing of fishery products from the West Coast of Canada, the rest of Canada, and elsewhere. But until more attention is paid to the condition and perishable nature of many such products, careless handling, gluts of raw materials, or undue haste in processing to fill a rush order will continue to give rise to instances of dissatisfied cus- tomers who will think twice before again buying a similar product. As for the odours from the household cooking of fish, even high quality fish products certainly can give rise to characteristic odours, but a a UTILIZATION OF MARINE PRODUCTS OF CANADA 207 these should be considered just as normal as those from the cooking of meats, fowl, or certain vegetables. It is unfortunate that fish of slightly inferior quality causes cooking odours disproportionately more objection- able than those from a correspondingly inferior quality of most other food products. Means are known for mitigating the cooking odours from fish; among the simplest is dipping the fish or fish flesh in a dilute solution of lemon juice, or its counterpart of harmless citric or tartaric acid, just before cooking. Such flavour as may be imparted by the juice or the acids is practically indistinguishable from that imparted in the common procedure of squeezing a slice of lemon over the cooked fish. In conclusion, it should be stated that despite what has been im- plied above concerning sometime deficiencies of quality and home con- sumption of Canadian fisheries food products, the West Coast of Cana- da’s fisheries industries are well to the fore in the disposal of their waste materials not intended for human food. Good use of these materials is made in the manufacture of by-products. Descriptions of the process- ing, nature, and potentialities of these by-products have been given from time to time in publications from technological laboratories of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada and elsewhere, and current re-- search is promptly reported. Among recent commercially developed by-products now receiving considerable attention are fish and whale solubles resulting from the press liquor recovered from the manufacture of oil and meal, and liquid or semi-liquid digests made by acid, alkali. or enzymic action on whole fish or fish processing scrap. Both the above products are finding application in animal feeding and agricultural. fertilizer fields. FABRICATION, DEFINITION ET REGLEMENTATION DE LA SAUCE DE POISSON VIETNAMIENNE “NUOC-MAM” Par J. GUILLERM et A. VIALARD-GOUDOU Laboratoire du Nuoc-mam a& UInstitut Pasteur de Saigon, Vietnam Les diverses populations d’Extréme-Orient, de I’Inde au Japon trou- vent dans le riz la base de leur nourriture habituelle. Leur ration ali- mentaire peu sapide est complétée par des sauces azotces et salées qui en relévent le gotit et enrichissent les préparations culinaires. Certaines régions utilisent l’azote emprunté au regne végetal, lé- gumineuse comme le soja (Japon, Chine), d’autres l’azote d'origine animale des poissons ou crustacées (Cambodge, Indonésie, Laos, Philip- pines, Siam, Vietnam). Le nuoc-mam du Vietnam qui nous intéresse ici, comme le patis des Philippines (Avery, 1950), représente une préparation liquide qui se différencie par son nom méme qui veut dire “eau de mam’? des pre- parations pateuses dites “mam” qui sont a peu prés similaires au prahoc cambodgien, au padec laotien, au bagoong philippin, au trasi malais. Le nuoc-mam, véritable denrée alimentaire nationale est préparé en de nombreux centres saumuriers le long des cdtes du Vietnam depuis Vile de Phu-Quoéc au Sud jusqu’a Cat-Hai au Nord. Les grands centres de production sont ceux de I’ile de Phu-Quéc et surtout de la province du Binh-Thuan avec son cheflieu de Phan- Thiet. En 1944, derniere année de statistique normale la production était de 75 millions de litres. I] y aurait d’y ajouter le nuoc-mam fabriqué avec du poisson d’eau douce le long des rivieres du Sud-Vietnam et dont la production aug- mente de jour en jour. En 1914, sur la demande de I|’administration, Rosé de |’Institut Pas- teur de Saigon commenca l'étude scientifique du nuoc-mam. Le 21 décembre 1916, les autorités administratives adoptant les con- clusions de Rosé prenait le premier arrété qui donnait une définition légale du nouc-mam et permettait de lutter contre la fraude. Depuis l'industrie du nuoc-mam a fait l’objet de plus de 25 publica- tions de toute une série de travailleurs de l'Institut Pasteur de Saigon. 1 Cette expression peut se traduire plus librement par jus de poisson fermentc¢. 208 SAUCE DE POISSON VIETNAMIENNE ‘“‘NUOC-MAM” 209 FABRICATION Du Nuoc-Mam La fabrication du nuoc-mam minutieusement décrite par Rosé (1918 a et b) exige des cuves, du poisson et du sel marin. En voici un résumé d’aprés cet auteur. Poissons.—Une grande variété de poissons sert a la préparation du nuoc-mam, les plus petits sont les plus employés car leur lyse est plus rapide. Les principales especes péchées et identifiées par l'Institut Océano- graphique du Vietnam sont suivant Chabanaud (1924) et Chevey (1931). Ca nuc Decapterus russelli-Carangidés. Ca moi Dorosoma nasus et D. chacurda-Dorosomatinés-Clupeidés. Ca lam Spratelloides delicatulus-Dussumierinés-Clupeidés. Ca lep Divers Septipinna et Engraulis-Engraulinés-Clupeidés. Ca com Divers Stolephorus Engraulinés-Clupeidés. Ca tap poissons de différentes espéces. En dehors du Ca moi qui fournit une quantité appréciable d’huile, le Ca nuc et le Ca com sont les poissons de choix du saumurier. Sel.La qualité du sel est importante. Le sel le plus propre a la fabrication est le sel marin sec sans aucune matiére étrangére. Le sel fin n’est pas a recommander. Le produit fourni par le monopole des Douanes et Régies renferme environ 25 p. 100 d’humidité et de sels étrangers ol. dominent les sels de magnésium. Technique saumuriére.—La fabrication du nuoc-mam se fait sui- vant les mémes principes dans tout le Vietnam. Seuls varient quelques tours de main propres a chaque saumurier et qui déterminent le fumet, lee cru: Cette fabrication peut se diviser en: a) Mise en cuve du poisson et du sel. Les cuves sont en général des récipients en bois (parfois en terre cuite) de forme cylindrique au tronc conique dont le volume varie entre 200 et 4000 litres. Elles sont munies a la base d’un robinet dont lentrée est protégée par un filtre. On y place le poisson frais non €vis- céré et le sel en couches alternées a raison de deux, trois ou quatre paniers de poisson pour un de sel. b) Courte macération de trois jours environ qui fournit un premier jus rougeatre appelé nuoc-bdi.? Le nuoc-b6i est soutiré, placé dans des jarres ouvertes a l’air pendant un nombre de jours variable, puis replacé en entier ou par moitié sur la cuve. L’autre moitié, parfois réservée sert pour les lessivages. Apreés 2 Boi: rejeter. Nuoc-boi: eau rejetée: jus non utilisable. 210 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS extraction du nuoc-bdi, la partie supérieure de la cuve est recouverte d’une couche épaisse de feuilles de latanier qu’on maintient solidement pressée a l’aide de traverses en bois fixées par des coins. c) Soutirage du nuoc-nhut (premier jus). La cuve ainsi mise en pression est laissée au repos pendant deux A six mois, robinet fermé suivant le poisson, le taux de sel, un premier soutirage donne un liquide de qualité supérieure riche en azote, de caracteres organoleptiques tres appréciés. C’est le nuoc-nhut que l’on vend en partie mais dont la plus grande part est le plus souvent utilisé pour couper les eaux de lessivage ou pour rendre marchand les produits trop pauvres en azote des derniers épuisements. d) Soutirage du nuoc-mam. Le contenu de la cuve alors épuisé par lixiviation donne le nuoc- mam. Cette opération s’effectue a l’aide de liquides de macération provenant de cuves plus anciennes, puis a l’eau salée a 25 p. 100 environ, elle est renouvelée plusieurs fois et fournit des produits de moins en moins riches en azote solubilisé. Lorsque l'épuisement est terminé, cette opération dure parfois plusieurs mois, le liquide de soutirage peu coloré est trop pauvre et on le laisse dans la cuve pour servir ultérieurement aux lessivages de nouvelles cuves. Le résidu resté dans la cuve, constitué par le poisson épuisé est dénommé Xac mam. Ii est utilisé tel quel comme engrais. Toutes ces opérations ont leur raison d’étre, que les recherches de laboratoire de Guillerm (1930) ont permis de mettre en évidence. La teneur moyenne en azote des diverses espéces de poissons servant a la fabrication du nuoc-mam varie entre 2,28 a 3,58 p. 100 du poisson frais. Le rendement en nuoc-mam d’une cuve est conditionné par la qua- lité et la quantité du poisson qu’on y met, il est couramment de 70 p- 100. Le fabricant ne pourra extraire de sa cuve plus d’azote qu'il en a mis. Le nombre de paniers de poissons peut servir de base au rendement et C'est ce qui se passe en réalite. Essai d’industrialisation. A part quelques sociétés vietnamiennes et chinoises, la fabrication du nuoc-mam constitue au Vietnam une industrie surtout familiale. Diverses tentatives de développement de la production par I’installa- tion d’usines disposant de moyens matériels modernes ont échoué, car la technique de fabrication généralement suivie consistait 4 exploiter divers brevets utilisant l’autoprotéolyse du poisson en milieu aseptique ou antiseptique. SAUCE DE POISSON VIETNAMIENNE ‘“‘NUOC-MAM” Vaal C’est une erreur fondamentale car |’autolyse seule de la chair de poisson n’aboutit pas au nuoc-mam. Les caractéres organoleptiques qui font apprécier ce produit par les consommateurs odeur, saveur, sont exclusivement dus a une fermentation microbienne, anaérobie stricte comme l’ont montré Boez et Guillerm (1930). DEFINITION ET CARACTERES DU Nuoc-Mam Le nuoc-mam est donc le produit résultant de la lyse de poissons avec fermentations limitées par la présence de sel marin. Au point de vue scientifique c’est le résultat de la protéolyse du poisson frais dans une solution concentrée de sel marin protéolyse réa- lisée par les diastases des organes digestifs et par une série de germes ana€érobies. En méme temps que la molécule protidique se transforme en acides aminés, il prend naissance toute une scrie de corps provenant de la dégradation qui donnent au nucc-mam son ardme spécial et ses pro- priétés apéritives et digestives tant prisées des Vietnamiens. (Vialard- Goudou 1953). Le nuoc-mam résultant d’actions biologiques complexes est un pro- duit a caractéres variables tout comme le vin. Les stades de la fabrication montrent en effet l’intervention de divers facteurs. Ainsi s'il n’y a pas assez de sels, l’action des bactéries deviendra putréfiante avec augmentation de l’ammoniaque formée, s'il y en a trop, la protéolyse sera retardée. Un lessivage trop abondant donnera des produits pauvres en azote utilisable et de faible valeur alimentaire. Un soutirage trop rapide donnera un nuoc-mam qui se conservera mal par insuffisance de désintégration des protides. Cependant un bon nuoc-mam représente certains caractéres qui ne varient que dans des limites bien déterminées. Quelle que soit la durée de la fabrication il n’est pas posible de dépasser la proportion de 75 a 77 d’azote dosable par la méthode au formol de Sérensen pour 100 d’azote total. Si la teneur en azote formol est inférieure a 50 p. 100 le nuoc-mam obtenu est instable; la moitié au plus de l’azote formol peut étre sous forme ammoniacale: un taux plus élevé d’azote ammoniacal indique une désamination des acides aminés avec altération du produit. La différence entre l’azote total et l’azote ammoniacal donne I’azote organique; la différence entre l’azote formol et l’azote ammoniacal donne l’azote des acides aminés. En outre un certain taux de sel, 25 p. 100 en moyenne, est nécessaire pour assurer la conservation du nuoc- mam. 212 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS REGLEMENTATION DU Nuoc-MAM Nous citerons simplement le dernier arrété du 17 novembre 1943 qui reprend l’essentiel de l’arrété du 21 décembre 1916. Voici les cing premiers articles qui nous intéressent directement: Article premier.—En Indochine, il est interdit de fabriquer, d’ex- poser, de mettre en vente et de vendre, sous la dénomination de nuoc- mam ou de nuoc-nhut ou des termes synonymes, tout produit autre que celui obtenu par les usages courants et loyaux de la technique saumu- riere traditionnelle annamite. La dénomination de nuoc-nhut est réservée aux premiers jus des cuves, dont la fraction liquide est exclusivement constituée par l’eau de constitution du poisson. La dénomination de nuoc-mam deésigne les produits obtenus par la dilution du nuoc-nhut ou par |’épuisement des cuves a l'eau salée. Ces produits doivent répondre aux conditions exigées par les articles suivants. Art. 2._Les nuoc-nhut et nuocmam constitués par la dissolution de la chair de poisson a un certain degré de désintégration sont des solutions limpides sans dép6t appréciable, d’odeur et de saveur sui-gén- éris, suffisamment salées pour ne présenter aucun indice de putréfaction. Art. 3.—Les qualités substantielles du nuoc-nhut et du nuoc-mam dépendent: 1°) de leur richesse en poisson; 2°) du degré de désintégration de la chair du poisson; 3°) de leur valeur alimentaire. La richesse du poisson est donnée par la teneur en azote total exprimée en gramme par litre. Le degré de désintégration de la chair du poisson s’exprime par la teneur en azote formol qui doit étre comprise entre 50 et 77 p. 100 de l’azote total. La valeur alimentaire ou teneur en principes utiles exige que le taux d’azote ammoniacal ne dépasse pas la moitié de |’azote formol. Le nuoc-nhut et le nuoc-mam fabriqués et mis en vente devront répondre aux caractéristiques suivantes: Pour le nuoc-nhut: INES MORN Sola hob bob0 5 olawod ase 18 g. par litre au moins. LNAHTS: WOT GS Sob boo sou Soe de T 50 a 77 p. 100 de J’azote total. AZOLE vaImmoniaCaley | vers. el: 50 p. 100 au plus de Il’azote formol. Pour le nuoc-mam: AZOLE MLO Callig Paar naturel sve epee nnn cron is 15 g. par litre au moins. ENZO LE PLOTINO Mate torso tn tein rerelary. 50 a 77 p. 100 de l’azote formol. Azote ammoniacal vere ee 50 p. 100 au plus de l’azote formol. SAUCE DE POISSON VIETNAMIENNE “NUOC-MAM” 213 Tout nuoc-nhut ou nuocmam dont le taux d’azote ammoniacal atteint ou dépasse 75 p. 100 de l’azote formol est considéré comme cor- rompu. Art. 4.—Est autorisé: l’addition du sucre caramélisé ou non, mélas- se, miel, thinh ou riz grillé dans les cuves de préparation. Art. 5.—Sont interdits et considérés comme manoeuvres illicites: a) la mise en cuve de poisson en mauvais état de conservation; b) V’enrichissement des eaux de lessivage ou des nuoc-nhut et nuoc- mam par toute matiere azotée autre que celle provement des cuves; c) lusage d’eaux de lessivage ammoniacales ou putrides; d) Vusage des antiseptiques, des produits chimiques, des matieres colorantes. Cet arrété supprime le privilege des nuoc-mam du Nord-Vietnam qui pouvaient contenir seulement trois grammes d’azote total par litre et établit ainsi une législation unique pour 1|’Indochine. Peu apres, l’arrété du 29 mars 1944 fixa une période de transition de deux ans pour la teneur en azote total, soit: 1] g. pour le Cambodge, la Cochinchine et les provinces du Binh- Thuan, Khanh-Hoa, Haut-Donnai et Lang-Biang. 3 g. pour les autres centres de production. Par décision du Gouvernement du Vietnam cette période de transi- tion dure encore. | RESUME Pour permettre l’absorption d’une alimentation a base de riz, tous les peuples de ]’Extréme-Orient l’additionne de sauces condiments salées a base de matiéres protidiques fermentées (soja ou poisson). Au Vietnam, c’est la sauce de poisson “nuoc-mam’’ trés voisine du “patis’” des Philippines et dont la production annuelle en 1944 fut de 75 millions de litres qui remplit ce réle. Apres un bref exposé de la technique de fabrication les auteurs rappellent que ce sont les travaux des chercheurs de I’Institut Pasteur de Saigon exposés dans plus de 25 publications depuis 1918 qui ont permis de fournir la définition et de fixer les caractéres d’un bon nuoc- mam. Ils terminent en donnant la derniére reglementation qui peut intéresser les pays, comme les Philippines, ot l’on consomme des pro- duits analogues au nuoc-mam. BIBLIOGRAPHIE Avery, A. C. (1950)—Fish processing handbook for the Philippines. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Research Report No. 26, pp. 24-27. Borez, L. et GuILLeRM, J. (1930)—Le facteur microbien dans la fabrication de la saumure indochinoise (nuoc-mam). C, R. Ac. Sci. 19¢, 534, 214 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CHABANAUD, P. (1924)—Inventaire de la faune ichtyologique de l’Indochine —lére liste. Bull. Econom. Indoch., fascicule VI, No. 169, 561. CHEvEY, P. (1931)—Inventaire de la faune ichtyologique de l’Indochine— 2eme liste. Publication Inst. Océanogr.. Indochine—19é note. GUILLERM, J. (1930)—L’explication scientifique d’un phénoméne empirique: la production du nuoc-mam. Transactions of the 8th. Congress of the F.E.A.T.M. Bangkok, 1, 122. Ross, E. (1918a)—Recherche sur la fabrication et la composition chimique du nuoc-mam. Bull. Econom. Indochine 1918, 129, 155. Rosg, E. (1918b)—Le nuoc-mam du Nord, composition chimique et fabrication. Bull. Econom. Indochine 1918, 132, 955. VIALARD-GoubOoU, A. (1953)—Etude chimique, bactériologique et valeur ali- mentaire de la sauce de poisson vietnamienne nuoc-mam. Proceedings of the Eighth Pacific Science Congress (sous presse). STUDIES ON AGAR-AGAR IN JAPAN * By T. YANaGAWA? and K. Tani? INTRODUCTION Agar-agar, a kind of carbohydrate contained in red algae belonging to Gelidium species, is one of the celebrated local products of Japan, manufactured by a special process which was developed in this country nearly 300 years ago. Numerous investigations have been made from the point of view of both applied and pure science. We believe it advisable to commence with a brief description of the customary method of manufacturing agar-agar in Japan(l). The cleaned algae is first extracted with boiling water faintly acidified with sulphuric acid, and by natural cooling of the extracted filtrate, agar- agar hydrosol can be coagulated as a gel (1-2%). After it is cut pro- perly it is placed outdoors in winter, so that the night cold freezes it, while during the day the warmth gradually thaws the frozen ice into water, which flows away. The last step is to dry it in the open air until the product is obtained in a final dry form. Chemical changes in the course of preparation have been investigated by Araki (2). The above-mentioned process takes more than half a month and since it depends to a great extent on natural weather conditions, it must be considered unsatisfactory. In order to remove this drawback, several new methods have recently been devised, such as mechanical freezing or the application of heat from hot springs. ‘The main problems to be solved are how to produce economically and efficiently a good quality product by mechanical means and how to produce agar-agar from Gracilaria confervoides by chemical treatment. I. PROPAGATION OF SEAWEEDS USED FOR AGAR-AGAR Efforts have been made to promote the propagation of the seaweeds which are used as the raw material of agar-agar. For instance, the reefs were cleaned with simple implements so as to improve the production capacity of the growing areas and the growing areas were extended by submerging rocks and stones on the sea-bottom. Except in a few cases, * By courtesy of the Japanese Government, a Member Government of IPFC. 1Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan. : : : 2 Northeast Sea Regional Fisheries Research Institute, Shiogama City, Japan. 215 216 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS however, these methods have not always been effective and further work must be carried out. The seasons for spore formation and liberation have been studied by many authors. In Gelidiwm Amansii the tetra-spores begin to be shed late in spring when the temperature of the sea water rises to 21°- 22°C., and the carpospores at temperatures of 24°-25°C. (3) (5). In Gelidium fastigiatum both spores begin to be shed at about 20°C. (4). The liberation of the matured spores occurs almost every afternoon during the season. Sometimes about 100 spores per liter were founded in the sea water near a Gelidium field. ‘The spores fix themselves on the rock surface after having lain in contact with it for about ten minutes (5). The germination of spores and their later development into young plants have been reported on by Ueda and Katada (6) (11). According to their reports, some of them rise up erectly to form an upright bush, while others form creeping stolons which afterwards emit new upright buds. The temperature ranges for normal germination were experiment- ally estimated at 10°-30°C. (optimum 25°—26°C.) in Gelidium Aman- sit. (7) and at 10°-25°C. (optimum 16°C.) in Gelidium subfastigia- tum (4). Low salinity (<1.020) delays the growth of primary rhizoids. Colors of the prevailing light seem to have some effect on the growth of the germ lings of Gelidium. In the northern part of Japan negative correlation was found be- tween the yields of Gelidium and the sea water temperature in winter, and Gelidium was not found in the sea where the minimum temperature fell below 2°C. (4). Okamura (8),, Ueda (9), and Ueda-Katada(6) obtained some data for the growth of Gelidium Amansii in the southern part of Japan. The plants are perennial. They grow very slowly in autumn, but ra- pidly in winter and spring, reaching lengths of about 10 cm. in the first year, about 18 cm. in the following year and more than 20 cm. in the third year. ‘The annual yield amounts at a maximum to about 3 Kg. wet weight per square meter. Okamura (8) found that small pieces of Gelidium plants regenerate rhizoids and continue to grow on a new substratum. The researches on the relationship between Gelidiwm and other algae and animals living in association on the Gelidiwm field may be important, but the work on this subject is still incomplete. The young plants are damaged by being covered by algae such as various species STUDIES ON AGAR-AGAR IN JAPAN PANT ( of Corallinaceae (10) and Helposiphonia(11). Some Gastropoda were found to feed on them(11). Research is now being carried out in co- operation with phycologists on the ecological relationship between Geli- dium and Corallinaceae. Some trials to “cultivate” these algae have been made. Kinoshita and Hirobe (12) were successful in seeding the spores of Gracilaria confervoides on an experimental scale. Fujimori hung the Gelidium plants on hemp-palm rope from a bamboo buoy in a calm inlet. He found that the plant grew twice as much in weight every month of the late winter as it had in the preceding month (S. Suto). IJ. THE RELATION BETWEEN JELLY-STRENGYH AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF AGAR-SUBSTANCES Generally speaking, mucilages of red algae (geloses) are ester-sul- phates of galactan, but there are in fact various kinds. After studying each gelose for each kind of red algae, the following results have been obtained: The more sulphuric acid is combined in it the weaker is the jelly-strength obtained, and vice versa. Sulphuric acid content va- ries widely from | to 259% (13). There are two kinds of sulphuric acid combined, one of which remains in the ash when the geloses are burnt while the other does not. Sulphuric acids are combined in geloses by two types, one of which is R-SO,-R’ and the other R-SO,-M (R being polysaccharide and M metal). Analysing geloses of many kinds of red- algae, and representing the results on a graph having a mel-ratio of hexose/total SO, as its ordinate and that of total SO,/SO, in ash as its abscissa, we get a line nearly parallel to the ordinate for geloses of all red-algae which have sufficiently strong jelly-strength to be utilized as material for agar-agar, and similarly we get a line parallel to the abs- cissa for geloses of red algae having little jelly-strength and which are utilized for stiffening textiles. At the same time, geloses of these kinds of red algae which have a weaker jelly-strength are found to be repre- sented by a line located intermediately between the two above-men- tioned lines (13). Moreover, when gelose (SO, ca. 9%) of a kind of Gracilaria confervoides, represented by the intermediate line, is treated with dilute alkali solution, a part of the sulphuric acid is easily sepa- rated, resulting in an increase of jelly-strength. “Those which have 9% sulphuric acid are very weak in jelly-strength, but when the sulphuric acid content is finally reduced to 2% (comparable with that of agar- agar), jelly-strength increases remarkably so as to be comparable with that of agar-agar (14). It is also reported (15) that the addition of 218 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CaCl, during alkali-treatment favors jelly-strength. Taking advantage of this, attempts have recently been made to manufacture agar- aga from cheaper material, e.g., Gracilaria confervoides. III. RHEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF AGAR-HYDROSOL AND GEL a) Visco-elasticity of agar-hydrogel(16):—The experimental pro- cedure adopted was that used by Schwedoff (1889), Hatschek and Jane (1926), and Poole (1926), the apparatus being composed of two concen- tric cylinders, the intervening gap being filled with gel and the inner cylinder being suspended by a tortion wire. When the top of the tor- tion wire is twisted, the rigidity G of the gel is determined; the elastic equilibrium is attained immediately, and the viscous flow commences, so that the inner cylinder is observed to move gradually. Experimental results obtained are as follows. Elastic deformation is Hookeian in the range of strain studied (shear rate 0.1—0.6), and ri- gidity G markedly increases with the increase of concentration: G(dyne/em.2) 2.1X10-1 4.8x10-1 1.27 1.46X10 3.7102 Cone. (%) 0.039 0.053 0.062 0.12 0.28 Viscous flow is anomalous; it increases along with the increase of shear strain, namely with the increase of deflection of the inner cylinder. The visco-elastic behaviour of agar-gel is described by the three-element mechanical model. b) Thermo-elastic property of agar-hydrosol (17):—Aqueous solu- tion of agar, gelatin, pectin, etc. or benzene solution of some metallic soaps make elastic jellies. The principal characteristic of these gel states is shape-durability and high elasticity in spite of a relatively high con- tent of solvent. The thermo-elastic property of agar-hydrogel was studied according to Meyer and Ferri’s scheme (1935) for determining the elasticity of rubber. ‘Thus, both the energy contribution and the entropy contri- bution to elasticity can be discussed from the stress-temperature curve under a constant strain. The experimental device was the same as has been mentioned in the previous section (a). Experimental results show that the elastic force gradually decreases with increase of temperature. This means that the elastic force of gel is concerned with the increase of internal energy and also with that of entropy by deformation; this situation is similar to the behaviour of metals and crystals. The nature of the high elasticity of gel seems to be somewhat dif- ferent from that of rubber elasticity, which is chiefly attributed to the STUDIES ON AGAR-AGAR IN JAPAN 219 decrease of entropy by deformation. The agar molecule is considered to be a galactan chain accompanied by sulphate radicals here and there. A lattice-like configuration of these poly-electrolyte chains in water might be the internal structure of the gel state. c) Viscosity of much diluted agar-hydrosol (18) :—The gel-forming property of agar is so strong that even a 0.04% solution distinctly ex- hibits elasticity as has been described in (a), and anomalous viscosity is observed in these concentrations. Accordingly it is necessary to ex- periment with much diluted (under 0.04%) systems in order to test the purely viscous behaviour of the solution. Measurements were made by the ordinary methods using Ostwald’s visco-meter in the concentration range 0.01—0.04%, and ésp./c (specific viscosity divided by concentration) were plotted against concentration. ésp./c decreases with the decrease of concentration, passes through the minimum, and then increases again with further decreases of con- centration, and if a strong electrolyte such as KC] is added to the solu- tion, ésp./c decreases eventually with the decrease of concentration. This behaviour is the same as that of other poly-electrolyte solutions. Intrinsic viscosity defined as [é] = [ésp./c]c — 0 is concerned with the extension of the molecule in the solution. And from the evaluation of the intrinsic viscosity of agar-hydrosol, it is supposed that this poly- electrolyte has a much stretched non-spherical configuration in water; [€] of agar-hydrosol is much larger than that of the ordinary random- coil non-polar polymers. ITV. ORGANIC-CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON AGAR-AGAR Araki has investigated the chemical constitution of agar-agar. He isolated D, L-galactose and L-galactose (19) and reported on acetylated agar, heterogeneous composition, and percentage compositions (20) of agar-agar. lL-galactose from methylated agar has been confirmed (21). 2,4,6-trymethyl-D-galactose, 2,4-dimethyl-3, 6-anhydromethy]-L-galacto- side, 2-methyl-3, 6-anhydro-L-galactose dimethylacetal and pentamethy]- D-galactosido-3, 6-anhydro-methyl-L-galactoside have been isolated from methylated agar (22). 3,6-anhydro-galactose has been synthesized (23) and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose has also been isolated from agar-agar (24) as its dimethylacetal by methanolysis of agar-agar and as its diethylmer- captal by mercaptolysis, from which 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose has been separated in free state. Again isolation and chemical constitution of agarobiose and isoagarobiose have been studied (25). A new disaccha- ride C,.H,,O,, has been obtained by hydrolysing agar-agar with IN 220 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS H,SO, for an hour and has been named Agarobiose by one of the au- thors. ‘The same substance was subsequently obtained from agar-agar as its dimethylacetal by partial methanolysis and as its diethylmercaptal by partial mercaptolysis, from which free agarobiose has been isolated respectively by the separation of methyl alcohol and ethylmercaptan. It reduces Fehling’s solution and gives q-methyl-D-galactoside and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose dimethylacetal by methanolysis with 2% HCI- CH,OH. By preliminary treatment with 0.5% HC1-CH,OH and fur- ther methylation with Purdie’s reagents, agarobiose gives hexamethyl- agarobiose dimethylacetal (b.p. 155-6° /0.052 mm., [a], — 11° [H,O]). When this methylated derivative is left in IN H,SO, at ordinary temperature for 182 hours, it is changed to hexamethyl agarobiose, C,,H,,0, (OCH;),, .[a], — 44° (H,O). As hexamethyl-agarobiose dimethylacetal gives 2,3,4,6-tetramethy]l- methyl-D-galactoside and 2,5-dimethyl-3,6-anhydro-L-galactose dimethyl- acetal by methanolysis with 2% HCI-CH,OH, it can be concluded that the hexamethyl-agarobiose dimethylacetal is 4-2,3,4,6-tetra-methyl-D-ga- lactoside< 1,5>-2,5-dimethy1-3,6-anhydro-L-galactose dimethylacetal. Fur- ther, from the fact that the specific rotatory power of the acetal is small, it can be assumed that the sugar is a #-galactoside. ‘Therefore, the chemical constitution of agarobiose is illustrated by Figure A: CHO + as i HO-C-H H-C-OH BO | H-C—— HO-C-H O Eoin HO-C-H ee a9 | HO_ 62H "| H | — CH.OH Fic. A.—Agarobiose The constitution of agar-agar together with the mechanism of the formation of 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose in marine algae was discussed (26). Taking into consideration the isolation of 2,4,6-trimethyl-D-galactose and 2-methyl-3,6-anhydro-L-galactose from the methylated agar by hydro- lysis as well as the isolation of agarobiose from agar-agar by partial hy- STUDIES ON AGAR-AGAR IN JAPAN 221 drolysis, it may be possible to conclude the existence of the above linkage (Fig. B), in the molecule of agar-agar (26): / O i CH CH HO-C-H H-C-OH ) | Bo | Hee O ——C-H O | | H-Gsl] 00 / HO-C-H ee | io H-C H.C CH.OH Fic. B Further it must be mentioned that the partial methanolysis product of agar gives about 50° of agarobiose dimethylacetal. The above-mentioned experimental results cannot be explained by the formula proposed by Jones and Peat (1941), showing that nine re- sidues of D-galacto-pyranose are combined mutually by 1,3-glycosidic linkage and at reducing end of D-galactose residue joins L-galactose-6- sulphate or 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose through 1,4-linkage, but rather it may be explained better by the assumption that in the molecule of agar, agarobiose units are repeated. Comparative studies on the chemical constituents of agarous sub- stance of Gelidium Amansii, Campylaephora Hypnaeoides, Acanthopel- tis Japonica, and Gelidium subcostatum have been reported. REFERENCES 1) YANAGAWA, T. Kanten (Agar-agar), Book (Japanese), 352 pages (1942). 2) ARAKI, C. J. Chem. Soc. Japan; 58, 1085 (1937). 3) TAKAYAMA, K. J. Fish. Scv.; 34, 211 (1989). 4) KINOSHITA, T. (1950). 5) Suto, S. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.; 15, 671 (1950). 6) Uspa, S. and M. Katana. Ibid.; 11, 175 (1948). 7) KatTapA, M. IJbid.; 15, 359 (1949). 8) Okamura, K. J. Imp. Fish. Inst.; 18, (3), (1921). 9) Uspa, S. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.; 5, 183 (1986). 10) TAKAMATSU, M. Trans. Res. Inst. Nat. Resources; 6, 55 (1944). 11) Uspa, S. and M. Katana. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.; 15, 354 (1949). 222 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 12) Kinosuita, T. and T. Hirose. Monthly Rep. Hokkaido Fish. Inst.; 3, (%), 27 (1946). 18) YanaGAwa, T. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.; 17, 305 (1952). Doshisha Eng. Review; 1, 53 (1951). 14) YANAGAWA, T. Bull. Osaka Ind. Res. Inst.; 17, (6), (19386): Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.; 6, 274 (1938): Ibid.; 10, 237 (1942). 15) FuNaAKI, K. and Others. Ibid.; 16, 401, 419 (1951) : Ibzd.; 18, 245 (1952). 16) NakaGcawa, T. J. Chem. Soc., Japan; 72, 390 (1951). 17) NaxaGcawa, T. Ibid.; 72, 518 (1951). 18) Nakacawa, T. Ibid.; 72, 625 (1951). 19) ARAxr, C. Ibid.; 58, 958 (1987): 59, 424 (1988). 20) Araxi, C. Ibid.; 58, 1838 (1937): 58, 1351 (1937). 21) Araki, C., Y. HASHI and K. ARAI. Ibid.; 62, 845 (1941). 22) Araki, C. Ibid.; 58, 1862 (1937): 59, 304 (1938): 61, 775 (1940): 62, 733 (1941). 23) ARAKI, C. and K. Arar. I[bid.; 61, 503 (1940). 24) ARAKI, C. I[bid.; 65, 725 (1944). 25) Araki, C. Ibid.; 65, 533, 627 (1944): Unpublished. 26) ARAKI, C. Memo. Kyoto Tech. Univ.; 2, B, 17 (1958): Coll. Treatises Commemoration 45th. Anniv., Kyoto Tech. Coll.; 76 (1948). 27) ARAKI, C. Ibid.; 89 (1948). iw) iw) (Se) STUDIES ON AGAR-AGAR IN JAPAN Mol ratio nO o) 15 10 : (18) xK (19 (ai,)(12)(15)" (12) (8) (26) : 2 4 6 8 Mol ratio ty yy, of s ss CURA ii Oa Ae 1 (uy Oat Dion B AC th 4 A REPORT ON THE STUDIES MADE IN JAPAN ON PEARL CULTURE By YosuiicH1 MaTsul Nippon Institute for Scientific Research on Pearis Kyoto, Japan The culture of pearls in Japan dates from 1893 when K. Mikimoto first produced by culture blister pearls from Pinctada martensii (Diin- ker). Then in 1904, T. Mise first succeeded in cultivating spherical pearls. He was followed by T. Nishikawa and K. Mikimoto, but it was not until 1915 that M. Fujita organized Nishikawa’s method on an industrial basis and brought the products to the market. In 1938, the total production at 289 culture grounds reached a peak of 560 ke. per annum. After this the production slumped and the number of culture grounds was also reduced to 106, which were even closed en- tirely at one time. However, the recovery starting from 1948 was spectacular, and in 1952, the number of culture grounds exceeded 1200 with a total output of 400 kg. a year. The fresh-water culture of pearls has also been continued since it was successfully experimented on Hy- riopsis schlegelt (Martens) in 1924, and now has an output of about 4 kg. a year. Until recently the method of pearl culture had been veiled under the protection of a patent. But the increasing demand after 1946 made it imperative to reorganize the industry on a scientific basis. Thus the Nippon Culture: Pearl Co., Ltd., which is the organization of Japanese pearl culturists, established a laboratory to carry on basic studies on pearl and its culture, in close cooperation with Kyoto University. The laboratory afterwards became independent and was reorganized into its present form. At present there is a project conceived by the Government for setting up the National Research Institute so as to meet the marked increase of the numbers of both the culturists and the scientific workers. The most important task in the study of pearl culture is to find out the process in which a pearl is formed. ‘The Japanese pear! cul- turists, having developed a high art, seem to have accomplished this task. But it is plain, if you observe how pearls are formed under natural circumstances, that while they found out a method of trans- planting pearl secretion tissue, they have not yet clarified the whole 225 226 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS process of pearl formation. K. Isowa tried an experiment on Pinctada martensit and obtained a number of seed pearls by giving chemical or physical stimuli to its aductor muscle and anterior retructor muscle, and patented his method. Y. Matsui, working with Isowa, supposed that a substance similar in function to a hormone was first formed by the stimulus of a wound, and this hormone-like substance in its turn caused abnormal propagation and functional reverses of the epithelial cells in the mantle. On this hypothesis, he made various experiments with fruitful results. As a result of his histological studies of the mantle tissues of Pinctada martensii and Hyriopsis schlegeli, Y. Ojima identi- fied four kinds of secretory cells, but after testing the calcium contents in the tissue, he concluded that these did not make the glands spe- cialized for secreting calcium. Ojima and T. Watanabe are now en- gaged in the study of the structure and the process of formation of the pearl sac. I. Kawakami transplanted the mantle tissue of Pinctada martensw: in the gonad tissue, and saw the outer epidermis propagate and complete the formation of pearl sacs in fifteen days, while other tissues degenerated. He also reported his studies on the regeneration of the mantle. With regard to the formation of pearls, the important question that the scientists must answer is: What is the mechanism of the cal- cium deposition as well as of the shell formation? Our recent efforts have been directed to discovering a new explanation to answer this question. Y. Matsui, S. Tanaka and Y. Uchida are now carrying on experi- ments on the calcium deposition in Pinctada martensi and Hyriopsis schlegeli, using the isotope Ca,;. When the animal was kept in water containing Ca,,, the Ca,, absorbed in the internal organs, with the exception of the liver, reached a maximum at the fifteenth hour and no change was observed at the thirtieth hour. In the mantle, the maxi- mum was reached at the sixteenth hour and a reduction was observed at the thirtieth hour. In the shell and the pearl, the presence of Ca,, was noted at the fourth hour. When Ca,; was injected in the body of the mollusc, it was diffused in the internal organs in 1—2 hours and began to be excreted out of the body at the fourth hour. While the shell is mainly composed of calcium carbonate, it also contains a cer- tain amount of conchiolin, which is an organic matter. Many points as to the attributes of the conchiolin are yet unknown. S. Tanaka and H. Hatano have undertaken a biochemical study of the conchiolin, which has led them to discover that the conchiolins in both the shell and the pearl are of the same composition and that proline, oxyproline and sulphur contained amino acid are found in either of the two, STUDIES MADE IN JAPAN ON PEARL CULTURE 227 while halogen contained amino acid as gorgonin and spongin, are absent. Y. Matsui, M. Takanami and T. Hirota measured the amounts of amino acids in normal and baroque pearls in a microbiological assay and found that while there was no difference in the amounts of acidic amino acids between the two pearls, there were significant variances in the basic amino acids: namely, in the normal pearl layer, glycine registered 21.9%, against 9.8% and leucine 16.4% against 11.3%; and in the abnormal layer of baroque pearls, histidine registered 4.7% against 0.5%, arginine 8.3% against 4.9%, lysine 7.4% against 1.7%, threonine 1.9% against 0%, etc. D. K. Ikenaga, who modified and em- ployed Clark’s method, manometrically ascertained that there was a variation in the activities of carbonic anhydrase in Pinctada martensii, corresponding to the specific organs and age of the animal and the seasons of the year. T. Tsuji demonstrated by a histochemical study that while carbonic anhydrase was almost absent in the epithelium on the inside and at the top of the mantle, it was found in abundance in the epithelium contiguous to the shell. He is also carrying on a study on the distribution of nucleic acid. Y. Ojima and Ikenaga, who have undertaken a histochemical study of the alkaline phosphatase in the mantle and the pearl sac of Hyriopsis schlegeli, have discovered that it is distributed in a remarkable amount in the epithelium at the top of the mantle and that while it is found neither in the mucus glands at the side of the mantle adjacent to the shell nor in the epithelial cells of the pearl sac, a considerable amount of it is present in that part of the tissue which has been injured by the insertion of a pearl nucleus. Physiological and ecological studies of pearl oysters are also being carried on with great animation, as these can be directly applied to the culture of pearls. Examples are S. Mori’s study in the respiratory physiology and daily rhythmic activities of Pinctada martensi, 1. Hon- jo’s study concerning their reaction to light, N. Kawamoto’s study of the artificial spawning in ordinary and diluted sea water, H. Koba- yashi’s and J. Matsui’s experiments with various degrees of the salinity and temperature of sea water and other environmental conditions, and the studies taken up by S. Kobayashi and the staff of the Mie Prefec- tural Fisheries Experimental Station on the generation and larva of Pinctada martensii. C. Ashikaga, S. Tanaka, H. Hatano and others have made a number of reports on their studies of the chemical com- position and its variation according to the seasons of the year. Researches into the water, the bottom of the Pearl Culture ground and the plankton are proceeding under the collaboration of Y. ‘Toyo- hara, J. Yamaji, M. Motojima, M. Morishima, Y. Inoue and others. 228 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Earnest hopes are attached to these researches in view of the degrading tendency of the qualities of the products due to the recent increase in the number of pearl culture grounds. An important aspect of the art of pearl culture is concerned with the scientific evaluation of the quality of a pearl. For this, it is in- dispensable to clarify the essential properties of pearls through physical and chemical approaches. Y. Uchida and M. Ueda made clear the interrelation between the stratiform makeup of the pearl and its irridescence. ‘IT. Watanabe is engaged in a research into the interrela- tion between the color and the thickness of a pearl layer and also into the crystallization of the substance. Y. Matsui and T. Hirota have reported that there is a marked difference in the crystalline form be- tween the normal and the baroque pearls. Y. Uchida discovered by spectroanalysis that there were remarkable differences in the mineral contents among pearls with different colors. T. Kosaki’s report has disclosed that a pearl contains 16-66 ,/100g of porphyrin and 5-70 ,./100g of metalloporphyrin, varying with the color. Recently our laboratory has been made the center of the studies devoted to the discovery of the conditions on which to evaluate the qualities of pearls scientifically. With the help of Hardy’s self-record- ing spectrophotometer, T. Fukuda and his collaborators examined pearls with various colors and lusters, and have proved the possibilities of classifying them according to their substantial colors. ‘They have also demonstrated that they can calculate the thickness of the pearl layer by rating the surface color which is formed by the interference of a reflexion. Besides these studies, various other approaches are now be- ing tried to test the pearl as a jewel. FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES ON THE FISH LAMP By N. Y. KAwAMoTo Faculty of Fisheries, Prefectural University of Mie, Tsu Mie Prefecture, Japan It is a well-known fact that animals react to light, positively or negatively. Phototaxis of protozoa such as Paramecium and Euglena has been studied by many investigators, and reaction of the earthworm to light is also a well-known fact. Especially for insects, most efficient lamps were recently discovered by means of studying complex factors between visibility of retina of their eyes and their behavior. Fish lamps have been used in every country in the world since ancient times to increase efficiency of fishing. In Japan, the torch-light has been used since olden times for collecting the fishes. Nowadays, electric fish lamps are employed by almost all fishermen in our country. However, maximum efficiencies could not be expected because of un- reliable theories about fish lamps. Dr. M. Tauchi (1926) and Dr. T- Sasaki (1950) studied the effects of fish lamps upon fish shoals in the sea, but the studies of the two investigators were chiefly on the side of physics, and biological aspects were not fully considered. Therefore, the fundamental reason for the method of using fish lamps was not yet clear. Since 1947 the writer has studied, with co-investigators, the re- lation between fish behaviour and fish lamps, using methods of physiol- ogy and experimental zoology. For these experiments, many kinds of young marine fishes were used and their reaction against various kinds of light in the dark room was determined. Studies were made of the behaviour of adult horse-mackerel in a rectangular net which was set down off the coast of the sea in front of the Ichthyological Research Institute, Shimoda, Izu peninsula, Japan. EXPERIMENTS In the laboratory, the writer adopted a lusterless, black, round wooden tank, which was 100 cm. in diameter and 25 cm. in depth; and the tank was divided radially into eight compartments, which were open to each other at the center. The tank was filled with water to a depth of 20 cm. and a color filter, was placed over a light window of each compartment and 60-Watt Mazda electric bulbs were set 20 cm. 229 \ 230 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS above each of them. In order to make the illumination for the colored lights equal to 50 lux on every water surface of the eight compartments, some sheets of white paper were piled up over these filters for adjusting the light. The color filters were arranged in two ways, one in the order of wave length and the other at random in order that the fish might not become familiar with the color arrangements. We observed the rates of frequencies of the time of entrance of the fishes into each compartment of various lights, and compared the rates with the relative energies which were calculated by the transpar- encies of the filters, sensibilities of selen photometer and radiant ener- gies of the lamp, and judged their phototaxis tendencies. By this meth- od, we got considerable experimental results and will show the ab- stract of these as follows: One of my co-workers, Dr. Osaki, studied the relation between the phototaxis and the aggregation of young marine fishes, because, in a biological phenomenon, the aggregation frequently comes into ques- tion. Some investigators who have studied on the fish aggregation, have probably made the assumption that apparent gatherings are real ag- gregations. Nevertheless, it is possible that two fishes actually form an aggregation even when they are so apart from each other that they may be considered as a group. ‘Therefore, it is next to impossible to con- clude from the appearance whether a gathering is an aggregation or not. In our studies on the phototaxis of fish, it is necessary to conduct re- search on how aggregation affects the phenomenon and what difference exists between the phototaxis of the individual fish and that of the ag- gregated fish. The shape of the curves of fish gathering rate varied in accordance with the number of fishes employed and wave lengths in the experiments, but, at any rate, fishes are constantly forming various types of aggregation, the shapes of gathering rates of each individual were at random, while those of two or more numbers of fish in an aquarium coincided with each other and maximum values of these appeared at the range of green and blue colors in common fishes (Dr. H. Ozaki). The types of phototaxis of fish were found to be divided into two. One was the greatest fish-gathering rates in the range of wave lengths of green and blue as were seen in Oplegnathus, Monacanthus, Cybium, Spheroides and Sphyraena, while the other was quite contrary as in Anguilla (M. ‘Vakeda). The product of radiant energy of light of certain wave length and the visibility of eyes to that light was called ‘Spectral luminosity” for the same wave length; and when the spectral luminosity was calculated by using the human visibility curve with the maximum displaced suit- ably as a substitute for the true visibility curve of eyes of fish, it turned FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES ON THE FISH LAMP 231 out that the ratio of the fish gathering rates for the two lights was pro- portional to the ratio of the spectral luminosities of the two lights. Moreover from the ratio of spectral luminosity to radiant energy, the “visual efficiency” was calculated, and in the case of Spheroides rubripes, green light showed the largest visual efficiency, that of blue light was next to green, and that of red light was smallest. Though radiant energy of red light was 22 times as much as that of green light, its visual efficiency was no more than 1/62 of that of green light (J. Konishi). Studies on the influence of repeated experiments on the aggrega- tion of fish to a fish lamp were carried out; the young Girella punctata, which was repeatedly made at intervals of ten minutes, made clear that the influence of a preceding experiment was held over to the suc- ceeding one, while in the experiment of young Scomberomorus nipho- nius made at intervals of 30 minutes, no such influence was seen, and the fish gathering rates of Scomberomorus, Oplegnathus and Monacan- thus under the stationary light attained maximum in a definite time, and then became stabilized at this maximum value (H. Kobayashi). The experiment of turning on and off at any intervals two lamps which were situated inside the water tank (3 m. in length, 64 cm. in width, 40 cm. in depth) was done. Aplocheilus latipes (fresh water fish) and Girella punctata showed the greatest gathering rates to the lamps, which had the most appropriate intensities for them when two lamps were turned on and off. However, the gathering rates, as a whole, decreased little by little in proportion to shortening of the interval (T. Niki). The gathering rates of Spheroides and Mugil show almost the same tendencies of sectional distribution as the type U in the limited length of water tank (3 m. in length, 25 cm. in width and depth) and the light source set at the end of it, used in this experiment, the type U of the curve of sectional distribution of fish in the tank is divided into two meanings; and those are positive gathering rate which decrease expo- nentially in proportion to the distance from the light, and negative gathering rate which, on the other hand, increase exponentially to the opposite side of the light. The value of the light intensity at which fish gathering rates are highest was 55 lux in Spheroides; both in the day and in the night, the values were 15 lux in the night and 87 lux in the day in Mugil (S. Nagata). The present writer further studied with K. Uno on the influence of the moonlight on the gathering rates to the fish lamp as follows: The relation between the moonlight and the fish lamp upon the gathering rates of fishes has been studied in the laboratory and in the 232 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS open sea, as no experimental studies had been carried out, although such relations were commonly discussed. Laboratory experiment: In a black colored tank, 1 m. in diameter, 20 cm. in water depth, a 20W electric bulb was set so as to throw its light horizontally in the water, on one side of the tank called F-light, after fish lamp and the other one, called M-light, which compared to the moonlight was at- tached 2 meters above the water surface. The light showed 0.068 lux on that surface as the light intensity of the full moon on the surface of the sea was measured from 0.06 to 0.07 lux. Under these equipments, the gathering rate of fish to the F-light was calculated for fifteen minutes at water temperature of 13°—14°C in the dark room. From the experiments of the gathering rates of fishes to the F-light under varying intensity of the M-light in different species of fish, it was found that the gathering rates of Girella punctata had almost the same in either one light or two lights, while those of Pempheris japonica were more considerably decreased in the two lights than in one. And the result of the experiment on Spheroides niphoblse coincided with that of Pempheris in spite of change in the intensities of the M- light. It was observed that the gathering rates of fishes decreased in the field of F-light according to the increase of intensity of the M-light; and the rate increased in the field of green color of the F-light and decreased in the red of it. From the experiments above mentioned, the relation between the gathering rates of fish and spectral luminosities which were calculated from the product of the relative radiant energies in place of the light intensities and relative visibilities for light of the same wave lengths, (Kawamoto and Konishi, 1952) will be shown as the following equa- tion: where Ga and Gb are the values of rates of fish gathered under the F- light and the M-light except in the field of the former respectively, and Ha and Hb are the spectral luminosities under the fields of the two lamps. Open sea experiment: A rectangular net of 20 m. x 6 m. x 3 m. was let down off the coast’ about 200 meters from the shore near our Ichthyological Laboratory and ten horse-mackerels (Trachurus trachurus L.) about 16 cm. in body length and 30 gm. in body weight were set free in that net at the time of each experiment. FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES ON THE FISH LAMP 233 At one side of the net, a fish lamp which directed horizontally to- ward the other side was fixed one meter under the water from the sur- face and a 20W, 60W or 100W electric bulb was used as a light source of the fish lamp, and attached to it was a green glass filter 18 cm. in diameter which had a limit of transparency from 500 my to 570 my and maximum wave length of transparency of 530 mu. The weather was frequently stormy during the experiment, as this study had to be carried out from November to February in 1950-1951, and diificulties had often been experienced for observing the phenomena in the roughing sea. The water temperature measured from 14.0° to 15.5°C in these experiments. ‘The numbers of fish which gathered in the area of light field with- in three meters from the lamp were calculated as the rate of gathering for twenty minutes in every thirty seconds. In the dark night experiments, the gathering rate attained about 80% within the time of two minutes and 30 seconds after the light was switched on, and continued its rate at the light source of 20W of the fish lamp. The rate of gathering in the night of the moon age of 9.8 decreased to 77.8% as compared with the data of the rate of gathering in the dark night and, moreover, decreased to 21% at the moon age of 10.7. The rate became zero at the 11.8 moon age, and no reaction of fish to light was seen. As the light intensity of 11.8 moon age was almost equal to that of 18.0 moon age, it might be supposed that the fish would not show any reaction to the fish lamp in the period between those two ages. From these experiments, observation was made that the conditions of gathering rates of fish differed according to the kind of bulbs, 20W, 60W, or 100W respectively, and it was considered that the 20W electric bulb was most adequate in the limit of the size of this experimental net, since the rates of gathering became irregular in the light sources of 60W and 100W. It turned out clearly that the effect of the fish lamp was influenced by the moonlight from the results of experiments in the laboratory and in the open sea; however, the authors concluded that the efficiency of it might be kept in some limit by adjusting the strength of intensity of the fish lamp. But the relation of those intensities has not as yet been sufficiently studied, and it will be cleared in a later experiment. In the course of these studies, it was also understood that the ef- ficiency of the lamp was considerably influenced by facts such as the tidal current, direction of wind, and temperature of the sea water, etc.; and the relation of these factors to the lamp will be studied later as those must never be passed over. COACTION IN LAMP-COMMUNITIES By Hirosu1 MAEDA Shimonoseki College of Fisheries Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan Besides many investigations relating to the fish-gathering lamp on such items as the light source, condition of light in water, phototaxis of fishes and the methods of fishing, there is an interesting ecological article worked by Hardenberg (1935) on shoals assembling around the lamp. The effect of the fish-gathering lamp is nothing but merely a simple artificial change of the light, one of the physical environmental factors, to gather fishes. Thus, the mechanism of gathering fishes is con- sidered to be based primarily on the phototaxis of some animals. It is, however, quite uncertain whether the behaviors of animals in the natural environment, which appear as the results of complex inter- action of many factors, may accord or not with those observed in the laboratory under special experimental conditions, namely, only one in- dividual or one sort of fish is treated. It is reasonably expected that the coaction of fishes may be modified by light and that the existence of different sorts of animals may cause the phototaxis for some fishes. For instance, fishermen use “‘shirasu’’ (larval fish, particularly sardine or anchovy) or mysids as food for fishes to keep the shoal stable under the lamp; zoo- and phyto-plankton feeders, such as Engraulis and Sto- lephorus, are changed into pure zoo-plankton feeders under the lamp and take smaller planktonic crustaceans assembling around the lamp, and some fishes showing the negative phototaxis in experimental con- dition, many benthonic fishes and higher predators, may act photoposi- tively under the lamp where many prey animals are assembling. Thus, the coaction between fishes around the light under the natural condi- tion must be investigated at first, when we research the cause of the fluctuation found in caches by lamp method. ‘The effect of light upon fishes from the synecological point of view will be understood correctly solely when the interrelation of animals under the light is fully com- pared with that under the non-light condition. However, I can here refer only to the phenomenon observed under the lamp. In the following, I wish to give first the outline of coaction of lamp-communities taking the most complex case observed in Shira- hama (Wakayama-ken) as an example, and then show briefly some 234 COACTION IN LAMP-COMMUNITIES ASN) examples of more simple cases which are considered to lack some so- cial components. A. PREY AND PREDATORS COEXISTING WITH THE OBJECI FISHES. The observations were made in the area near Shirahama situated on the west coast of Kii peninsula and strongly influenced by a branch of the warm current “Kuroshio.” Animals assembling around the lamp are synecologically classified into the object, fishes, preys, and predators. Reviewing the data obtained during a series of investigations on food habits and behaviors of fishes around the lamp to find the niches of main fishes in lamp-communities, the lamp-animals are classified into the following five groups: 1) Prey animals: This group consists of Gammalid amphipods, megalopae, mysids and Engraulis of Shirasu stage, and represents the lowest class in the temporal communities formed artificially under the lamp. It contains no producer or smaller preys nourishing the animals mentioned above. Members of this group are eaten chiefly by the se- condary predators, although a part of them serves as the food of the primary predators. 2) Primary predators: This group consists of Stolephorus, En- graulis and Pempheris, of which the former two are said to be zoo- and phyto-plankton feeders in the natural environment, but are changed into pure zoo-plankton feeders under the light. Stomachs of the most examined individuals were, however, almost empty. 3) Secondary predators: ‘This group consists of medium- or large- sized zoo-plankton feeders, e.g. carangids and mackerels. “These mem- bers feed chiefly on the prey animals and occasionally on the primary predators. 4) Tertiary, quaternary and end predators: The primary and se- condary predators which form the chief object of the lamp fisheries are dispersed from the light by the emergence of tertiary and higher pre- dators. Consequently, fishermen hate their visits very much. Espe- cially the end predators, which occupy the highest position in the food- pyramid of the lamp-community, may be called the destroyers of the lamp-community, since the fishes disappear completely at the appear- ance of members of this group. The lower predators form compact shoals and move along the circular rout around the lamp, perhaps along the equi-luminous line, while predators of the higher degree usually visit the lamp in a single individual, move across the equi-luminous line and take food actively under the light. The tertiary predators are composed of squids and Sphyraena, the quaternary predators of Tri- chiurids. The end predators in shallower water are composed of Squa- lus, Coryphaena and Dolphinus, of which the latter two are much 236 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS rarer than the first, while those near the bottom are represented by Epinepherus and its allies. (5) Indifferent group: ‘This group consists of the fishes which have no significant relation to other animals on account of their meagre population, short staying time under the light, and the fact that they seldom eat or are eaten near the lamp. Some members of this group occupy the situation between the lamp fishes and those not assembling around the light; some others show enormously strong phototaxis, Crabs, Atherina, Cypserulus, Mugil, Euthynnus, Tylosu- rus, Teuthis and Ostracion are the main members of this group. The following four inclinations are deducible from the above-mentioned classification. 1. The size of a lower rank is, in general, smaller than that of the higher rank. The fishes of the younger stage belong to a rank lower than that of its full-grown stage. 2. The fishes of the lower rank take the food lower than that of the higher fishes. 3. The fishes of the lower food rank are controlled more strongly by the light. 4. The fish with a stronger dispersing influence on the community is placed in the higher rank. Generalizing these inclinations, we may be able to determine the niches of main lamp-animals as follows: (small planktons can not be assembled by the light in the streaming tide) — smaller planktonic crus- taceans (Oncaea venusta and Calanus) — larger planktonic crustaceans (megalopae, Gammalid amphipods and Siriella) — Engraulis of Shirasu stage — Stolephorus — Engraulis — (Clupeidae) — Pempheris — Carangi- dae — Sphyraena — squids — Trichiurus — Squalus Coryphaena — Dol- phinus. The lamp animals and those not assembling around the light can not be separated distinctly from each other, but they are connected completely by the existence of many fishes showing various degrees of tendencies to assembling around the light. The distance between these intermediate fishes and the lamp-animals may be determined by the ~ stability of the shoal, coaction to other animals and other behaviors of the former. ‘Thus, the primary predators assembling around the light and the fishes of the same rank not assembling near the lamp are continued which each other by a series of the following intermediate fishes — Atherina — Cypserulus — Mugil —; in the secondary predators the series is represented as — mackerel — Sarda — Euthynnus — (Kat- suwonus) —; and in the tertiary predators it is — Tylosurus —. Similar COACTION IN LAMP-COMMUNITIES 237 relations can be expected also in the benthonic fishes, although they can not be ascertained easily. If the above-mentioned relations are correct and of important eco- logical significance, there must be a lot of phenomena reflecting these relations distinctly. The social structure of the lamp community and the arrival order of various animals near the lamp may be accepted as good examples of these phenomena. When the lamp is lighted, many animals assemble one after an- other and after a certain time they attain a condition of equilibrium. At this time the animals occupy their situations horizontally, perhaps also vertically, from the nearest part of the lamp to the periphery ac- cording to the following orders (several actual examples are given be- low): — planktonic crustaceans — Engraulis of Shirasu stage — Engraulis of grown stages — Carangidae — Sphyraena (22h. 25 min. June 23, 1950), planktonic crustaceans — Engraulis of Shirasu stage — Pempheris — Ca- rangidae — squids — (lh. 00 min. Aug. 6, 1950), planktonic crustaceans — Stolephorus — Engraulis of grown stages — Pempheris — Carangidae — Sphyraena (2h. 40 min. Aug. 6, 1950), planktonic crustaceans — Engrau- lis of Shirasu stage — Stolephorus — Engraulis of grown stages — Sphy- raena (19h. 45 min. Aug. 11, 1950). The arrangement of the situation of the animals from the nearest part of the lamp to the periphery is quite parallel to the order mentioned previously. This arrangement is called the standard form, from which many modifications are derived by the dispersive activity of the higher predators. When higher predators are not so numerous or their predating activities are not so violent, the spatial relations of lamp-animals are not changed, except for the animals of the lowest rank of the community, which are unable to keep their positions and are driven away from the central part [Stolephorus — Carangidae — Sphyraena — benthonic fishes (vertically) or squids (ho- rizontally) (4h. 05 min. June 24, 1950), Engraulis of grown stage — Stole- phorus — benthonic fishes (vertically) or squids (horizontally) (4h. 10 min. Aug. 17, 1950), Stolephorus — Pempheris — Carangidae —- benthonic fishes (vertically) or squids (horizontally) (Oh. 00 min. Aug. 6, 1950), Carangidae — Sphyraena (vertically) or squids (horizontally) (23h. 05 min. Aug. 22, 1950)]. When the higher predators are numerous their predating activities become more violent, the spatial relations of ani- mals in the community are reversed; the central part is occupied by animals of higher ranks[ Tylosurus — Carangidae — Pempheris — Engra- ulis — squids (2h. 40 min. Aug. 23, 1950) and Tylosurus — Carangidae — Stolephorus (2h. 00 min. Aug. 24, 1950)]. Lastly comes the case when the predating is very violent. This time most animals are unable to ap- proach the light, the community consists merely of the predators and 238 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS some much weaker animals quite indifferent to the food habits of the predators [planktonic crustaceans — Tetraodontidae — Trichiurus (19h. 20 min. Sept. 17, 1950), planktonic crustaceans — Engraulis of Shirasu stage — Trichiurus (3h. 25 min. Sept. 18, 1950)]. During the observations I have also recorded the order of arrival of main lamp-animals near the lamp. ‘The order of animals, determined by the mode of frequency, is as follows: planktonic crustaceans — Engraulis of Shirasu stage — Atherina — Cypselurus — Engraulis — Pempheris — Stolephorus — Sphy- raena — squids — Carangidae — Trichiurus. Squids contain some small individuals which come to the light early and are considered to be- long to the prey group. The order of arrival of squids as solely the ter- tiary predators is much later. Although Sphyraena seems to come to the light earlier than carangids in the order determined by the mode of frequency: Sphyraena — squids -— Carangidae — Trichiurus, in actual cases it and Trichiurus assemble to the light last. Whenever they visited the light relatively earlier, no other animals could be expected under the lamp after their arrival. Actually there was no case, in that the carangid came to the light later than squids, Sphyraena and Trichiurus. From these facts the order of arrival near the light may be determined as follows: Carangidae — Sphyraena — squids — Trichiurus. Thus, the order of arrival near the light is quite parallel to the order of food rank and the spatial arrangement mentioned previously. Successional changes are strongly affected by the dispersing acti- vity and the order of arrival; those two facts are also related closely with the rank of animals in the lamp-community described previously. B. PREDATORS ABSENT. At Murotsu, about 35 miles west of Kobe, the gray rock cods (Sebastodes inermis) are gathered by scattered bait and angled up in the daytime. At night, the acetylene lamp is placed near the rock not far from the coast and the fishes gather around the lamp to eat the zoo- plankton and Shirasu assembling around the lamp. ‘Then fishermen angle for these fishes. In the latter case, it has been said that the more preys are assem- bled around the lamp the more fishes are caught. ‘The amount of conger leptocepharus in preys is considered one of the key factors. Ac- tually the stomach of the angled gray rock cod is filled with the zoo- plankton and fry which are considered to be assembled to the lamp. I have been told that the fishes hardly assemble in the daytime near the rock where the lamp is put at night, even if scattered baits are placed in the water. It is clear that the prey plays a significant role and there are no predators of the fishes in the present case. COACTION IN LAMP-COMMUNITIES 239 C. PREYS ABSENT. As I have asserted the significance of the prey of the object fishes so strongly that readers may feel a contradiction in the title of this paragraph, there is a case lacking the prey of the object fishes in the community. It must be understood, however, that the light is used in previous cases to gather fishes in places where no fish is found in swarms. In this case, however, the light is used to attract the fishes in places where fishes are found in swarms. In Harima nada, a part of the Inland sea west of Awazi Is., the shoals of Engraulis are easily recognized on winter nights by the glim- mering light brought about on the sea-surface by swimming Engraulis. Fishing boats pursue the shoals and go across them, when the lamps are lighted. ‘The fishes are scattered at first, but the shoals are soon reformed and keep the circular movement around the light. In this case, there is no influence of the lower ranks on the behavior of Engra- ulis, although there are some cases when the larger fishes such as yellow tails (Seriola quinqueradiata) appear and disperse the shoal formed around the lamp. It is not certain whether these higher predators are the fishes always swimming after the shoal before the lamp is lighted or fishes assembled after the lamp is lighted; although the former sup- position seems more reasonable than the latter from the observations of Fngraulis shoals in the day time. D. PREYS AND PREDATORS ABSENT. At Ejima, about 10 miles SSW from Murotsu, Engraulis shoals rest at night among the rocks near the coast. ‘These fishes assemble to the light when a light of relatively weak intensity moves slowly along the coast. In this case, the fishes assemble to the light so rapidly that no effect of preys can be considered. Also the influences of other fishes are not admitted, because the carangid and mackerel swim away to the outer sea and yellow tails can not approach near the coast. There are found some half-beaks (Hyporhamphus sajori) and flat-fishes (Paralichihys olivaccus) mixing in the Engraulis shoal caught among the fishes in this region by the light, but they are all of the indifferent group and scarcely have any influence upon the shoal of Engraulis. After many types of social structures of lamp-communities have been discussed, it may be concluded that the mechanism keeping the fishes near the light is based on the two factors, light and food-relations, though these two factors are unable to be treated separately. “There are some intermediate forms between the animals comprising prey ani- mals and primary predators, whose behaviors near the lamp are pri- marily regulated by light, and the animals comprising quaternary and end predators, whose behaviors near the lamp are regulated by the 240 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS preys. ‘These intermediate forms may be arranged as follows:—higher primary predators being regulated more strongly by light than by their preys—secondary predators being regulated by both factors almost equal- ly—tertiary predators being regulated mainly by their preys, though being affected also by light in some degree. ‘Thus the effect of the light differs considerably according to the situations of the object fishes in the ecosystem. The purse seining at Harima nada and the anchovy fisheries at Ejima are the extreme instances using the light to allure the fishes directly to the lamp by phototaxis; and the gray rock cod fisheries at Murotsu is an extreme example using the light to gather the preys of the object fishes. The coactions in lamp-communities are strongly affected by the fish fauna, habits of animals and the environmental relations in the area; consequently they may be accepted as the reproduction of the coactions of these ecological factors, which are regulating the cosmos of the area spatially and at all times, and in a short time in a limiting area. ‘Thus, the investigation of the lamp-communities seems appro- priate to recommend as one of the most convenient methods of observ- ing the coaction of animals in the natural condition in a certain area. THE HAKE FISHERIES OFF THE WEST COAST OF CHILE By Erik M. POULSEN International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries St. Andrews, N.B., Canada Since 1945 there has occurred a tremendous development of the hake fishery in the Pacific along the coast of Chile. The catch of 1945 totalled only 11,000 tons, whereas in 1951 it was 44,000 tons or four times as big. i This big increase was mainly achieved through a change in the methods of fishing. Whereas formerly hake fishery was only carried out by Chilean fishermen working from small boats with nets or hooks, in later years German fishing vessels have been called in carrying out a modern fishery with trawls in order that the increased demand for hake by the fish meal plants could be met. This intense trawl fishing, until then unknown in Chile, caused great concern not only among the Chilean fishermen, but also with the Chilean fishery authorities. Therefore, when I for half a year in 1951-52 worked as a fishery expert in Chile, for FAO and the Chilean Government, I was asked to pay special attention to the fishery for hake, Merluccius (Spanish Merluza or pescada) and especially to provide for an assessment of the stock of hake, to investigate if there were reasons for fear of overfishing. It was by then known that two species of hake occurred in Chilean waters, Merluccius gay: and M. australis. ‘Their areas of distribution were however not known, nor was it known if one only or both species were affected by the newly established trawl fishery. In the following the term “hake’’ is used for M. gay: whereas the M. australis is named “southern hake.” The two species are very much alike. However, it was found that the number of gill rakers on the lower arm of the first gill arch was different, varying in the hake between 14-17 and in the southern hake between 9-10. No overlapping in numbers was found. The experimental trawlings carried out showed that the hake was found only north of Corral and the southern hake only in the area south of Puerto Montt and in the southern archipelago. It is possible that a small overlapping of their areas occurs between Puerto Montt 241 GZ4Z, EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and Corral. Only the hake is affected by the present trawl fishery, which is carried out between Coquimbo in the north and Talcahuano in the south. Owing to the rocky nature of the Chilean continental shelf it is only in very small, minute areas of the large coastal region between Coquimbo and ‘Talcahuano that trawling could be carried out. This fact alone makes it rather improbable that overfishing could occur through the present trawl fishery. The hake was found from ca. 20 to ca. 150 m. depth and in greatest quantities between 50 and 150 m. In deeper waters deeper than 150 m., the trawl could not be operated. ‘The fact that the catch was far smaller between 125-150 m. than between 50 and 125 m. shows, however, that greater concentrations of hake at the bottom in deeper water can hardly be expected. The biological study of the hake carried out in connection with the experimental trawling showed the following main results: REPRODUCTION ‘The spawning season is very extended, lasting from the beginning of October to the end of April. The material further indicated that the long spawning season has two maxima, one bigger in October- January and a smaller in April-May. The length upon attaining maturity for the first time varies some- what from south to north. Fifty per cent were found mature in the southern area at a length of 37 cm, in the northern area already at 30 cm. ‘The males grow mature at a somewhat smaller size than the fe- males. GRowTH Owing to a great number of individuals with accessory rings in scales and otoliths, these gave only little help for the determination of growth. However, measurements of large numbers showed distinct peaks of the length curves and thus the length at the close of the first to fourth year could be determined as follows: 1 year old—l6cm 2 years old—27cm 3 years old—38cm 4 years old—47cm The growth of the females is only a little faster than that of the males, the 3-year old females being 3-4 cm bigger than the males. Fur- ther, the females grow to a far bigger size than the males, and probably live longer. No males bigger than 52 cm were found; females, however, HAKE FISHERIES OFF THE WEST COAST OF CHILE 243 were found rather frequently right up to sizes of 80 cm. It must in this connection be borne in mind that the investigation only covered part of the area of distribution, and that the difference in size between the sexes in the material caught may be due to a different pattern of migrations for the older year classes of each sex. Foop AND FEEDING HapsiTs According to the stomach contents, the hake is mainly feeding on plankton animals; sardines, anchovies and various crustaceans. True bottom animals, as worms and molluscs, were hardly ever found in the stomachs. In accordance with this feeding habit the hake undertakes diurnal vertical migrations following the same migrations of the food animals, shunning the upper layers of the sea during the day. This habit of feeding on macro-plankton makes it possible for the hake to live independent of the bottom. In this connection it is of in- terest that bigger concentrations of hake can only be found on the trawling grounds along the coast from September to May (in the spawn- ing season). ‘Taking the feeding habits into consideration it is well pos- sible that, apart from this period, the hake is living in the free water- layers either over the fishing grounds along the coast or farther sea- wards. REGIONAL DIsTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO SIZE It was the general opinion that in order to protect the young hake, trawling should be prohibited in shallow coastal waters, and in fact large areas of shallow water along the coast were closed to trawlfishing. However, the investigations showed beyond doubt that the younger and smaller individuals lived in deeper water; in the shallow coastal water only large and medium-sized individuals were found. Thus for the pro- tection of the growing hake, the prohibition of trawlfishing in shallow water was of no avail. MIGRATIONS For the assessment of stock and for an accurate determination of the probability of overfishing, a knowledge of the migrations is essential. The investigations showed the following pattern of migrations: As the smallest (youngest) bottom stages are found far away from the shore, it is probable that the larvae live over this deeper water. The scarcity of spawning and spent females in the catches on the coastal fishing grounds indicates that part of the spawning is likely to occur over deeper water. The first migration of the merluza is a drift of eggs 244 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS or larvae out to deeper water. The second migration is the return of the young individuals in the course of 2 or 3 years to the coastal waters. The third migration is a movement back again to deeper water for spawning. A fourth migration is the dispersal of the fish after spawning (observed through the trawlfishing). As the spawning shoals are made up of at least two or three groups, it is clear that these migrations occur annually. However, the fact that the biggest individuals (larger than 60 cm.) are more numerous in deeper than in shallow water, shows that the older merluzas do not return to shallower water. It is also quite possible that the fact that males are not found in the samples to a length of more than 52 cm is not due to the fact that the males do not attain a larger size, but is caused by an earlier cessation of the shoreward migra- tion than it is the case with the females. These two points leave open the possibility or probability, that there are concentrations of bigger merluza both male and female in deeper waters still not touched by fishery, forming a reserve from whose spawning activity recruitment of the merluza stock will continue without danger from the fishery. Finally we have the diurnal migrations of the merluza in search for food towards the bottom at dawn and away from the bottom at nightfall. As far as assessment of stock is concerned, the investigations under review have shown that the hake occur in great quantities off the Chi- lean coast from Coquimbo in the north to south of Talcahuano, and that only small patches of this vast region are touched by the trawl- fishing in its present state. Further, the study of the migration has shown (1) that for part of the year the hake is dispersed either in in- termediate water layers far from the bottom or farther seawards where it is not fished upon and (2) that part of the spawning occurs in off- coastal regions where no trawlfishing is carried out. These facts show that for the time being no danger of overfishing of the stock is present. The areas not fished upon and the concentrations of hake not touched by the fishery are so large that they constitute a big reserve of hake to be drawn upon for the recruitment of the stocks fished. However, as a considerable expanding of trawlfishing for hake can be expected in Chilean waters, and out of the consideration that “pre- vention is better than cure’”—and in question of conservation of fish stocks—far more easy than cure, it was recommended that certain mesh regulations should already now be introduced in order to protect the smaller and—from a commercial point of view—less valuable individuals. HAKE FISHERIES OFF THE WEST COAST OF CHILE 245 In order to protect the Chilean fishery conducted by smaller craft with nets and lines, it was further recommended that trawlfishing should be prohibited in certain coastal areas especially fished in by these smaller craft. The present ground trawlfishing for hake in Chilean waters is carried out only on the tiny patches of smooth bottom occurring in a few places over the whole area and at day time only when the sunlight causes the hake to concentrate at the bottom. The danger of overfish- ing of the hake through this fishery therefore hardly exists. A real danger to the hake stock can, however, be expected the mo- ment the modern midwater trawling is introduced in Chilean waters, making it possible for the fishing vessels to pursue the hake not only in the short periods when it is concentrated on the bottom but also dur- ing the diurnal migrations away from the bottom as well as during its seasonal migrations away from the coastal grounds, i.e. during the whole of its life. In order to meet such a danger in the right way, a thorough knowl- edge of the biology of the hake is an absolute necessity. The report on the investigations therefore also contained a plan for further re- searches aiming at such a complete knowledge to form the basis for the judgement of what regulations of the fishery should and must be introduced in order to conserve the stock and maintain the fishery at its highest possible level. REPORT ON THE ALGAE OF THE CHILEAN SEAS By Hecror ETCHEVERRY-DAZA Marine Biological Station University of Chile, Montemar, Chile The purpose of this brief report is to present a picture of the Chilean algae flora, quoting its characteristic species, particularly those which can be used as raw material or food. An ecological rather than a systematic approach has been followed. With regards to the commercially important algae the author has not gone into details about the techniques applied for their utilization. The Chilean algae flora extends along the western coast of South America, from Lat. 18°22’S. down to Cape Horn. Within the Chilean realm numerous islands are included. Important among them, because of their size, abundance of algae and available phycological literature are Juan Fernandez, Desventuradas (San Félix and San Ambrosio) and Easter Island. In addition the Chilean Antarctic Region, limited by the meridians 53° W. and 90° W. and the South Pole, should be con- sidered. The Chilean algae domain extends therefore from tropical la- titudes down to the South polar region. From Arica to Chiloé the biological and physico-chemical condi- tions (salinity, tides, temperature, light, physical nature of the sub- stratum) are approximately uniform. From Chiloé to Cape Horn exist numerous archipelagos, rocky coasts, waters with low salt content and the greatest tide difference in Chile (up to 10 m.). The Antarctic Region with high cliff characteristics, bottom de- posits, temperature, salinity, marine currents, tides, ice, penetrations of light, etc. have a particular and specific influence on the phycological flora, characterized by endemisms and the abundance of calcareous algae. This paper should deal only with the first two referred regions, in so much that the algae flora of the Antarctic has become well known since Foster, in 1829, collected in Graham’s Land the first algae of the region. The Marine Biological Station of the University of Chile, located at Montemar, have started a systematic and phytogeographic study of the algae of the Chilean territorial waters. In the last few years, some contributions on this subject, from the systematic and technical point 246 ALGAE OF THE CHILEAN SEAS 247 of view, have been published. Also the station has already assembled a well stocked collection including specimens from the Chilean main- land, its islands, and the Antarctic, as well as from various regions of other continents. The region from Arica to Cape Horn is a very rich one, both in genera and species. There is a littoral rocky zone, beaten by the constant and strong wave impact, with deep and shallow pools, and a sublittoral zone where the rocks are cliff-like and covered by a veritable belt of large-sized algae. The author does not attempt to make a systematic list of all the species, but will only refer to the most characteristic of the benthic Chlo- rophyceae, Phaeophyceae, and Rhodophyceae of the continental shelf. Among the species so far identified, some are cosmopolitan, and, in the northern zone, there are elements common to the Peruvian flora. The islands are characterized by their endemicity. Some of the large Phaeophyceae species are also found in the waters off South Africa and New Zealand. A. In the littoral zone we distinguish: 1. An upper littoral belt, characterized by algae resistant both to desiccation and to changes in salinity, particularly in the pools. MYXOPHYCEAE NOSTOCOCALES Lyngbya confervoides C. A. Ag., on the rocks of the upper littoral belt. CHLOROPHYCEAE ULOTRICALES Enteromorpha bulbosa (Suhr.) Kitz. E. compressa (L.) Grev. E. intestinalis (L.) Link. Eeyiinza. (e.) J. Ag: Ulva lactuca (L.) v. rigida (Ag.) Le Jolis. U. v. latissima D. C. CLADOPHORALES Chaetomorpha linum (Miller) Kutz. Ch. aerea (Dilwyn) Cladophora pacifica (Mont.) Kutz. C. incompta Hook. f. et Harv. C. subsimplex Kitz. Spongomorpha arcta (Dilw.) Kutz. 248 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PHAEOPHYCEAE ; PUNCTARIALES Scytosiphon lomentarius (Lyngby.) J. Ag. RHODOPHYCEAE BANGIALES Bangia fuscopurpurea (Dilw.) Lyngby. Porphyra columbina Mont. P. {. Kunthiana Hamel. 2. A middle littoral belt, peculiar to sheltered beaches in which there is an abundance of Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and some Chlo- rophyceae. CHLOROPAYCEAE SIPHONALES Codium dimorphum Svedelius; forming a deep green velvet on ver- tical cliffs. PHAEOPHYCEAE DICTYOTALES Padina Commersoni Bory. Glossophara Kunthi (C. A. Ag.) J. Ag. PUNCTARIALES Ilea fascia (Miill.) Fr. Colpomenia sinuosa (Roth.) Derb. et Sol. Endarachne Binghamiae J. Ag. Scytothamnus australis Hook. f. et Harv. Adenocystis utricularis (Bory) Skottsb. SPHACELARIALES Halopteris hordacea (Harv.) Sauv. A. funicularis (Mont.) Sauv. ECTOCARPALES Ectocarpus stliculosus (Dilw.) Lyngb. Pylaiella littoralis (L.) Kjellm. RHODOPHYCEAE GELIDIALES Gelidium crinale (Turn.) J. Ag. G. filicinum Bory. G. lingulatum J. Ag. NEMALIONALES Chaetangium variolosum (Mont.) J. Ag. CRYPTONEMIALES Grateloupia Cutleriae Binder Callophyllis variegata (Bory) Kitz. ALGAE OF THE CHILEAN SEAS 249 Corallina chilensis Decaisne. Hildebrantia Le Cannelliert Hariot. GIGARTINALES Schyzymenia Binderi. J. Ag. Plocamium pacificum Kylin. Tridaea laminarioides Bory. I. obovata Kitz. Gigartina Chamissoi (C. A. Ag.) J. Ag. G. Chauvini J. Ag. G. Lessonit (Bory) J. Ag. G. Teedit (Roth.) Lamour. Chondrus canaliculatus Grev. Gracilaria lemanaeformis (Bory) Wome se 4 Bosse. G. lichenoides (L.) Gmell. Ahnfeltia Durvillaet (Bory) J. Ag. Gymnogongrus furcellatus (C. Ag.) J. Ag. CERAMIALES Ceramium rubrum (Huds.) C. A. Ag. C. Doze: Hariot. Centroceras clavolatum (C. A. Ag.) Mont. Polystphonia alscissa Hook. f. et Harv. Laurencia chilensis D. T. Forti et Howe Heterosiphonia Berkeleyi Mont. RHODYMENIALES Dendrymenia flabellifolia (Bory Skottsb.) Rhodymenia corallina (Bory) 3. A. breakers belt, with large Phaeophyceae and some Rhodophy- ceae belonging to the genera Gelidium, Iridaea and Rhodymenia. Among the Phaeophyceae: Lessonia nigrescens Bory. Macrocystis integrifolia Bory, and Durvillaea antarctica (Cham.) Hariot. B. In the sublittoral zone there are areas covered by large sub- merged Phaeophyceae belonging to the genera Lessonia, Macrocystis and Durvillaea and of the deep water Rhodophyceae with species of Rho- dymenia, Iridaea, etc. PHAEOPHYCEAE FUCALES Durvillaea antarctica (Cham.) Hariot. D. Harveyi Hook. f. et Harv. 250 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS LAMINARIALES Lessonia flavicans Bory. L. nigrescens Bory. Macrocystis integrifolia Bory. M. pyrifera (L.) C. A. Ag. DESMARESTIALES Desmarestia herbacea (L.) Lamx. D. Rossii Hook. f. et Harv. D. Willit Reinsch. EDIBLE ALGAE Some algae of the Chilean coast have been utilized from olden times in the feeding of man and animals. In the first place, it must be mentioned, the Durvillaea antarctica fucaceae, whose area extends from Valparaiso to the Antarctic region, is a very large alga with a strong discoidal holdfast, short and strong, cylindrical stipe, prolonged in a palmated frond, wedge-shaped at the base and branched at the top. The people utilize the laminar part of the thallus and stipe, known by the name of Ulte, Huilte or Coyofe. This alga is rich in iodine, con- tains about 5.88 mg. per 100 grs. of dried algae. Under the name of Luche or Luchi the chlorophyceae, Ulva lac. tuca, and the rhodophyceae, Porphyra columbina, are consumed. ‘They have the common characteristics of the laminar shape of the thallus and the curly edges. Both are rich in glucids, iodine and vitamins. The rhodophyceae Iridaea laminarioides, commonly called Yapin, is used in Chiloé as pig fodder. Cattle fodder is prepared in the central zone of Chile from species of Macrocystis. In addition there are other species of marine algae susceptible of being utilized as human food or for fodder, belonging for example to the genera Rhodymenia and Gigartina, also utilized in other parts of the world. The Algazos, name given to the algae cast up by the sea, are used in Chiloé as fertilizer for potato crops. They include species of the gen- era Enteromorpha, Ulva, and Macrocystis. In the distant Easter Island, a Chilean possession, the natives eat the chlorophyceae, Ulva lactuca which they call Kiroke and also a species of Dictyopteris, a Phaeophyceae which they call Auke and consider de- licious. ALGAE OF THE CHILEAN SEAS 251 INDUSTRIAL ALGAE The Algae utilized for industrial purposes are members of the Rho- dophyceae and Phaeophyceae. Three years ago the industrial utilization of these species began for the production of phycocolloids, especially agar-agar. The species which have given best results belong to the genus Gelidium (G. lingulatum J. Ag. and G. filicinum Bory) ; they are found in southern Chile, from Antofagasta to Talcahuano under the tide line, in rocky places, where they are generally difficult to collect. Total yields vary between 11 and ZOE. Other Chilean agarophyte are: Gracilaria Greville, Gigartina Stockhouse, Ahnfeltia Fries, and Gymnogongrus Martius. Good production has been obtained with Gracilaria lemanaeformis found from the Peruvian coast to the Island of Chiloé. The Marine Biological Station of Montemar, with the purpose of cooperating in the industrial utilization of marine products, has inves- tigated the problems relative to the extraction of agar, from different species of agarophyta algae inhabiting the coast and their chemical composition. The agar extracted from the Chilean species as regards quality is equivalent to the best that can be imported; it is specially used in bac- teriology and in the production of food commodities. It is also ex- ported, principally to Argentina. The large Phaeophyceae of the Chilean coast, which correspond to the Laminaria of Europe, belong to the genera Lessonia, Durvillaea, and Macrocystis. ‘here is an incipient industry producing alginic acid, alkali-soluble ficocolloids, derived from poliuronic acid, at present in great demand for industrial, chemical and food purposes. The species tested in Montemar correspond to Macrocystis pyrifera, M. integrifolza, Lessonia nigrescens, and L. flavicans and Durvillaea antarctica. All these algae grow in the breakers belt and in the sublittoral zone. They are partly uncovered during the low tide, which makes their har- vesting easier, in spite of the rocky characteristics of the coast which prevents the use of mechanized techniques. The abundance in Chile of those species can only be compared to that of Canada, Scotland and South Africa. Along the coast there are numerous and large beds of Macrocystis, which ensure the possibility of intensive exploitation. The experiments carried out at the Montemar laboratory and at the Inveresk Institute (Scotland), by a number of the Station, give a 20 to 25% content of alginic acid for the mentioned species and very com- 252 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS mendable values for laminarin, manitol and fucoidin, all of which prod- ucts are beginning to be in demand in the market. The alginates industry disposes of abundant raw materials in Chile to serve as the basis for the preparation of a number of medical, chem- ical and food products. On a small scale Chondrus canaliculatus (Ag.) Grev. instead C. cris- pus is used for extraction of carragenin, and Macrocystis pyrifera, M. integrifolia and Lessonia flavicans are used to produce kelp meal. SELECTED LITERATURE CUBILLOS-Moya, R. El] Agar-agar chileno. Fev. Biol. Mar., Univ. Chile, V. e, Nos. 1-2, pp. 70-88. ETCHEVERRY-DAZA, H. 1951. Generos Algologicos chilenos. I. Genero Les- sonia Bory. 1825. Ibidem., V. e, Nos. 1-2, pp. 53-69. LLANA, A. 1948. Primera Expedicion Antartica chilena. Algas Marinas. Ibidem., V. 1, No. 1, pp. 19-31. 1948. Algas Industriales de Chile. IJbidem., V. 1, No. 2, pp. 124-131. SKOTTSBERG, C. 1941. Communities of algae in Subantarctic and Antarctic waters. Kgl. Svensk. Vetensk. Ak. Handl., V. 19, pp. 1-92. 1941. Marine algae Commuities of the Juan Fernandez Is- lands, with remarks on the comparison of the flora. In The Natural History of Juan Ferndndez and Easter Islands, V. 2, pp. 671-696. TAYLOR, WM. R. 1939. Algae collected by the “Hassler”, “Albatross” and Schmitt Expeditions. II. Marine Algae from Uruguay, Argentina, the Falkland Islands, and the Strait of Magallanes. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, V. 24 (1988), pp. 127-164. 1947. Algae collected by the “Hassler”, “Albatross” and Schmitt Expeditions. III. Marine Algae from Peru and Chile. Ibidem., V. 31, pp. 57-90. THE FISHERIES OF CHILE By B. F. Osorto-TAaFraLi Oficina Regional para Sudamerica Occidental Santiago de Chile, Chile INTRODUCTION The coast of Chile extends from the tropics to near the Antarctic region for a length (not including islands and channels in the far south) of about 2900 miles, along the Southeast Pacific. Chile is becoming aware of the wealth of her coastal waters. In- creased action is being taken to utilize these natural resources to com- plement the food intake of the population and also to develop national brands for the domestic markets to replace formerly imported com- modities and, in certain cases, for sale on the international market. As in other Latin American countries where rapid progress is be- ing made in the better utilization of their fishery resources, Chile is consistently showing an important increase in the output of its marine fisheries. From a total catch of about 30,600 metric tons in the pre- war years, the production rose to 118,300 tons, or by about 386 per cent, in 1952. This is due particularly to the meat shortage and also to the encouragement of the fishing industry by both Government agencies and private interests. Should the demand of the domestic market increase or new foreign markets be opened to Chilean fish and shellfish products, it is likely that a great deal of expansion could take place. Not only could fresh fish production be enlarged but processing would also become profitable for some valuable species. 1. NATURAL CONDITIONS Chile appears to possess all the natural advantages for the establish- ment of a very important fishing industry, perhaps the leading one in Latin America; a long and productive coast line, many valuable species ot fish, molluscs and crustaceans, and a sea-going population which has been engaged in fishing for many years. Favorable oceanographic conditions, particularly along the Hum- boldt current, are conducive to provision of varied marine species for commercial purposes, some of which are virtually unknown in most parts of the world. 254 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The marine fauna of the Chilean coastal waters fall into two major biogeographical provinces. ‘The northern section belongs to the tem- perate West South American or Peruvian-Chilean province, with its northern boundary at Agujas Point (Peru) and with its southern ex- treme in Chiloé Island, where the sub-Antarctic or Patagonian province begins. The narrowness of the continental shelf confines the productive trawl fishery to limited areas between Quintero and Chiloé I., but the pelagic or high sea fisheries, virtually untapped, constitute invaluable potential resources. Fish and shellfish are found in great abundance in Chilean waters and are so regularly available generally as to form a secure and sustained base for a greatly expanded one. Among the species represented are tuna (albacore and yellowfin), bonito, swordfish, sardines, herring and anchovies, cusk eel (the delicious “‘congrio’”’), mackerel, king crab, lob- ster, shrimp, oyster, etc. From these, products that are in constant de- mand in world markets may be derived. Some of the species mentioned —sardines and anchovies, e.g.—may be taken in mass production fishing at low cost for drying and salting to be marketed as a valuable food product which keeps well, is highly concentrated and can be easily dis- tributed. 2. LABOUR AND EQUIPMENT a) Fishermen. There are about 7500 men regularly engaged in fishing. The cen- sus of fishermen as of January 1950 gives 7229 fishermen operating all along the Chilean coast and 426 crewmen on fishing boats over 10 tons working for canneries; in the 1943 census the number of fishermen was given as 5517. In addition, the number of workmen in canneries and processing plants is 3816. In total, there are 11,471 men engaged in fishing and fish processing. In the Talcahuano region alone the number of the fishermen amounts to 2000. The fishermen of Chile appear to form a homogeneous group. The great majority of them are hard working, enterprising, and intelligent. Because of these qualities they are capable of mastering new techniques. With expert instruction there is no doubt at all that they may be relied upon to develop increasing productivity. Surveys indicate that the chief problem among fishermen is lack of means to purchase adequate craft and gear. The average income of fishermen ranges from 1000 to 2000 pesos monthly, but individually might vary from about 500 to 8000 pesos (official rate: 1 American dollar = 110 Chilean pesos). FISHERIES OF CHILE 255 It is evident that with so low an income many fishermen do not earn their livings and are forced to devote part of their time to other jobs. b) Craft. In December 1951, out of a total of 4338 fishing craft used, approx- imately 64 were engine driven vessels of medium size (10 to 200 gross tons, including 12 whale catchers), 917 motorized small craft (most of them with portable gasoline engines), and 3357 open boats with oar and sail, representing 77 per cent of the total fishing fleet were in operation. The census taken in 1943 recorded 385 motorized and 2554 non-motor- ized vessels. Almost all the present fishing fleet was built in Chilean yards from domestic materials and by local labor. Since the inception of the trawl fisheries in the early forties and the building of new processing plants, several large steel trawlers and some wooden purse seimers were im- ported, most of them from Belgium and Germany. ‘The local ship- yards have also been active in building new power-driven craft. Un- fortunately some of these large boats have been wrecked or lost at sea. Present types of boats appear to be adequate enough to supply the existent demand for fresh fish. However, due to the very low product- ivity per man and year of the small non-powered craft and the increased demand for raw material from the processing plants, both for canning and fish meal, if production costs are to be maintained at an adequate level, motorization of the fishing fleet is imperative and acquisition of larger and modern craft is necessary for fishing in distant grounds to supply fish varieties at lower price. Such boats could be built in Chilean shipyards if technical assistance is provided. ©). Gear: The amount of fishing gear in Chile has been estimated in 1945 as including approximately 600 units of longlines (“palangre” or “espinel’’) used almost exclusively for cusk eel (“congrio’”); about 400 gill nets (“amalladeras” or “trasmallo’”) of different types; about 1000 harpoons which account for practically the entire catch of swordfish; ring nets (‘“boliche”) for bonito, sardine and anchovy, numbering 120; beach seines (“chinchorros de playa”) of various types numbering about 250; otter trawl nets, exclusively used in the hake fishing; trolling lines for tuna fishing; lobster traps in Juan Fernandez Island; traps (‘“nasas’’) for crabs and shrimp, and about 200 diving outfits used in the shellfish fisheries. 256 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS While the longline is still of great importance for cusk eel, {lounder and croaker fishing, the otter trawl has become of increasing importance in the recent years, in the fishing of hake or whiting, taking about 65% of the total fish catch. Almost all the nets used in Chile are made from domestic materials and, although there is a lack of adequate fittings and cable, operations are fairly efficient. d) Investments. Chile’s fishing industry was evaluated in June 1947 as representing an investment of approximately 400 million pesos, distributed as follows: Million pesos Craft and gear 200 Processing plants 175 Fresh fish distributing and marketing facilities 10 Others 15 Total 400 It is probable that, on account of recent developments, particularly the severe inflation suffered by the country, the total investments in the industry are now 100% higher, that is around 800 million pesos. 3. PRODUCTION a) The Fishing Zones. Chile can be roughly divided in respect of her marine fisheries, into five zones, which from north to south are: North: Provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta North Central: Province of Coquimbo Central: Province of Valparaiso and San Antonio South Central: Province of ‘Talcahuano South: Provinces of Valdivia and Puerto Montt. The northern zone with Iquique, Antofagasta and ‘Taltal, is im- portant because of its pelagic fisheries which include such species as tuna, bonito, swordfish and pilchard, processed in the local canneries, the largest in the couniry. The north central zone supplies the immediate mainland as well as the Santiago Market with the highest priced varieties of fresh fish, viz: cusk eel (‘“congrios negro” and “colorado’”’), flounder, croaker, mackerel, etc. The central zone is the site of the large trawl fisheries centering in Valparaiso and San Antonio. Hake is the species exploited, with about 64 per cent of the catch going to fish meal plants. FISHERIES OF CHILE 257 The Talcahuano zone produces fresh fish, principally hake and cusk eel, with part of the catch sold locally and the balance being shipped by rail to Santiago; it also produces mackerel and sardine for local canneries. In the southern zone fishing is mostly of the subsistence type, but being the richest in shellfish, these provinces contain most of the plants. processing molluscs and crustaceans. b) The Catch. (As indicated by Table I) Fish landings have consistently increased since 1944. Figures for previous years, while showing an upward trend evidence some fluctua- tions. ‘Tie rather spectacular increase in the fish catch is due to the development of the trawl fisheries for hake, offshore along the central section of the country (areas Valparaiso—San Antonio, and Talcahuano). Shellfish landings manifest wider fluctuations than fish landings but there is also an apparent trend to rise during the past few years. TABLE I CHILE FISH AND SHELLFISH LANDINGS, 1931 To 1951 (In Metric Tons) YEAR FISH SHELLFISH TOTAL 1931 11,836 5,180 17,016 1932 14,204 8,982 23,186 1933 18,572 8,623 PAT USI) 1934 17,680 8,207 25,887 19385 21,104 7,676 28,780 1936 27,579 7,282 84,861 1937 28,778 7,909 36,687 1938 24,114 6,458 30,572 1939 28,912 7,642 36,0504 194 27,094 11,216 88,310 1941 29,017 8,363 37,380 1942 24,086 8,128 32,214 1943 80,999 9,549 40,548 1944 29,023 10,778 39,801 1945 32,623 14,401 47,024 1946 39,815 21,128 60,943 1947 45,6938 14,378 60,071 1948 47,396 17,328 64,724 1949 60,375 15,871 76,246 1950 69,337 17,529 86,866 1951 73,106 19,931 93,037 1952 94,370 23,916 118,286 Source: Direccién de Pesca y Caza, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, Chile. 258 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS In 1952, ten species (Table II) formed about 92 per cent of the total fish catch, with a single species, hake, accounting for more than 68 per cent of the total fish production. c) Disposal of the Catch. On the basis of the 1951 figures Table III has been prepared giving the utilization of the catch and for each item the weight of raw ma- terial and of the edible portion. The latter data are needed to estimate the per caput consumption. There is a great spread in production per capita, from the lowest, 3 kilos in the southern zone of Puerto Montt, to 20-22 kilos in the northern districts. It shows that the production in the middle zones is not large enough to satisfy the demand of its large urban areas. In spite of the commerce between the zones which should help to distribute fish caught more equally according to the population, there seems to be big differences in fish available for domestic consumption between the various zones. The largest export of fresh fish takes place from the Talcahuano zone, from which a large proportion of its production of fresh fish is shipped, mainly to Santiago. ‘This reduces quantities avail- able for local consumption in this big fishery zone considerably. An influencing factor when considering fresh fish available for the domestic market is the season of the year. aking the most important fish, Mer- luza is caught in only four months, from August to November, and 50% of Sierra in the four months from January to April. Since 50% of fish consumption is in fresh fish, it is obvious that, if consumption is to increase, consuming centres must have better storage and distribution facilities. The Commercial Fisheries in all Latin America, but particularly in Chile, are generally slow to improve products or to develop new techniques, to exploit untapped resources, correct wasteful fishing me- thods or to utilize their raw materials with economical possibility. “This backwardness is probably the consequence of the very diffused char- acter of the fishing industry, ordinarily comprising small individual enterprises widely scattered along extensive coast lines and involving great diversity of local fisheries based on notoriously unstable supply. 4. VALUE OF THE CATCH The value of the catch in 1952 as paid to the fishermen has been estimated at 589 million pesos; 432 million for fish and 157 million for shellfish. Consumers paid around 1250 million pesos for fresh fish and shellfish and about 750 million for processed fish, making a total value paid by the consumers of about 1.52 billion pesos. 259 FISHERIES OF CHILE ‘arty ‘orossu0g A YIUOUOdY dp oOrTeystuIY ‘ezEQ A BoSdg OP UOTIIAIIG 9Y} WOIl Bjep dIseg :d01n0g 0°00T OLE'F6 eS TVLOL TL VEL'9 ‘dds 10430 6°36 9€9°L8 IVLOLGNS ay eT vO? T 1qUow snp) BUIATOD Tayeory “OL PL Tre'L nhydanwu SNsINyoIvA T, jeine yoer 6 Dal T6S'T snunojpu sdouba)q oyeqoy yooug °g Ly LEV? xnbos sdourpsng SeCUIPIes preyoig *2 67 r09'P Unyw sazisIhy L BILLS Jetayovy, exVug “9 oS 988°0 SUSUOLLYD DAV OFLUO, oyuog = e : ‘dd lh A opeazojood ‘o1gs9u sOlisuo dds 8 a vs vOT'S S Snlazahuay) opezop PEtor : : o) slog ysno 2 &°89 67019 hob snioon).1a jl epeoseg O eZN{ 12] een CT HOLVOD TVLOL SNOL a 40 aavaKaonee SraLayy ZG6L NI SONIGNVT HSI. aMIHD Il ATa&ViL ‘260 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS TABLE III CHILE UTILIZATION OF THE CATCH IN 1951 (In Metric Tons) LANDINGS PERCENTAGE EDIBLE PoRTION Fish Fresh, whole 36,680 50.2 19,774 Fresh, filets 316 0.4 136 Dried Soll 0.5 88 Salted 35 0.1 5 Smokea 224 0.3 150 For meal 27,376 37.4 BRST Canned 8,188 Blea] 3,029 | Total 73,106 100.0 29,265 Shellfish Fresh 12,684 63.6 1,569 Canned 7,247 36.35 1,224 TOTAL 19,931 100.0 2,793 GRAND TOTAL 93,037 32,058 Source : Estimated from data coiected by the Direccién de Pesea y Caza, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, Chile. * Utilized in poultry and milk cow feeding. Exports were valued in 1951 at about 45 million; imports of fish commodities were 3 million, and imported supplies and materials for the industry (not including the value of the large trawl vessels brought to Chile) 2n additional 25 million. It is estimated that the foreign ex- change balance for the fishing industry is about 50 million pesos an- nually. 5. WHALING INDUSTRY Two Chilean companies engage in whaling. ‘The larger is the “Compania Industrial” with its principal offices in Valparaiso; the other, which is quite small, the “Compafiia Pesquera y Commercial de Macaya Hermanos”, is established in San Vicente, Talcahuano. The large firm has six whaling vessels and a shore station at Quin- tay, not far from Valparaiso. ‘The whaling operations of this company were begun during the last war to provide substitute materials for tal- low and other scarce fats in its manufacturing processes. In 1951, this company caught and processed 1096 whales (735 sperm whales, the balance being baleen whales, chiefly finback—Table 1V). FISHERIES OF CHILE 261 TABLE IV WHALES CAUGHT IN CHILE 1943 To 1951 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 YEAR soISHES EBLUEL FInNBACK HUMPBACK SER eae TOTAL 1948 1 iL 13 — 128 -— 143 1944 — 3 49 38 363 —- 418 1945 -— 41 65 el 366 —- 483 1946 ~- 11 238 5 340 1 595 1947 — 22 90 15 720 2 849 1948 — 85 289 5) 731 6 1,116 1949 — 18 209 3 680 — 991 1950 -—— 43 273 4 773 — 1,093 1951 — ta 279 3 735 2 1,096 1—Balaena australis 2.—Balaenoptera musculus 3.—Balaenoptera physalis 4.—_Megaptera nodosa 5.—Physeter macrocephalus 6.—Balaenoptera borealis Source: Direccidn de Pesca y Caza, Ministerio de Economia y Comercio, Chile. The baleen whales yielded 721 metric tons of oil and the sperm whales 2600 metric tons, a total oil production of 3321 metric tons for this company, whose whaling activities are an adjunct to its extensive and diversified soap and manufacturing activities. Over 90% of this concern’s Output is used in the manufacture of soaps, the remainder (baleen oil) goes into its production of margarine. The carcasses are used in the fish meal and bone meal manufacture. The smaller company owns a catcher which operates along the central and southern Chilean coast. ‘The 1949 production was 900 bar- rels (152.4 metric tons) of baleen whale oil and 2301 (84.8 metric tons) of sperm whale oil. When this firm at Talcahuano cannot sell its pro- duction to the Compania Industrial for hydrogenation and use in the latter firm’s soap factory, the Talcahuano firm sells its production to small soap factories located in the south of Chile. 6. PROCESSING INDUSTRIES Fish have been processed in Chile for many years, but on a limited scale. During the past fifteen years, however, considerable activity has taken place. In 1950, 56 fish processing industries with a capital of 350 million pesos were in operation. 262 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Refrigeration: Although a number of refrigeration plants exist, these generally lack modern machinery and employ sub-standard methods. The role of refrigeration in the fishing industry is not yet thoroughly understood. Ice, chiefly because of the present high prices, is little used by the fish- ing industry. ‘The proximity of the fish producing areas to the main markets does not seem to require the more expensive methods of pre- servation of fish, such as freezing. Salteries: Salting and drying of fish received considerable impetus during the last war, chiefly for export. Production costs have been high, and for this reason comparatively little salt fish is consumed in Chile. The so- called “bacalao de Juan Fernandez’ (actually a grouper) is one of several species which is salted and dried. In addition, small amounts of hake, shark, elephant fish and cusk eel are dried; tuna, herring, sar- dine and anchovy salted; and swordfish, snake mackerel, herring, sardine, anchovy hake and smelt smoked. In 1951 about 375 tons of fish were dried and salted, and 224 tons smoked. The resultant products were 90 and 5 tons respectively. Cannertes: Canning started in Chile around 1865. In 1946 there were some 20 canning plants having an approximate declared capital of 40 million Chilean pesos. By 1950 the number of fish canning concerns increased to 56 with an active capital of 350 million pesos. These canneries are scattered from Arica in the far north to the extreme south in Punta Arenas on the Strait of Magellan. The canneries are concentrated in the following areas: ‘Tarapaca—Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Talcahuano, Puerto Montt, Calbuco, and Punta Arenas. From the standpoint of production the Tarapaca—Antofagasta areas and the Talcahuano area are the major centres of canned fish production, processing respectively 6,700 and 17,900 tons of raw material. Exact statistics of Chile’s canned fish are not available, but the total figures give an idea of the steady rise in production. In 1936, around 1000 tons net of canned fish and shellfish were produced; 1951 fish pack, chiefly sardines, tuna and herring, amounted to a net weight of about 3425 metric tons. Pesquera Iquique, S.A., with fish-freezing plant, plenty of refrigerated storage and tuna and sardine canning, owns the most modern and best equipped fish plant in all Chile, located in Iquique. In addition, there are Sociedad Industrial Pesquera de Tarapaca (elaborating the renowned brand “Cavancha’’), with plants in Iquique and Taltal; Jorge Cerda’s plant “El Buen Gusto” in Arica; Sociedad Pesquera Industrial Pacifico, in Iquique; Compaiiia Industrial Pesquera and Mateo Zlatar’s plants, in Antofagasta; Industrias Pesqueras Guayacan in Co- quimbo; Sociedad Italo-Portuguesa “Sipol’? in Valparaiso; Jorge Sarquis’ Sociedad Pesquera “Qurbosa”’ Conservas y Productos Pesqueros S.A.; and Meekes and Saelzer in Taleahuano—San Vicente dre the largest fish canneries in the country, whose combined output exceeds 75% of the entire canned fish production. FISHERIES OF CHILE 263 Shellfish canning is centered in the southern zone. In 1951 twenty canneries were in operation, of which eleven are located at Calbuco Island; another five farther south and the balance in Punta Arenas. Six- teen canneries produced in that year 106,650 cases with an average of 6,660 cases per cannery, the largest output of a single cannery being 18,000 cases of finished product. A standard case of canned shellfish contains 48 cans of 240 grams net each. The net output amounted to 1225 metric tons. The present fish canning industry, with few exceptions, does not employ modern machinery for efficient production methods. Costs, therefore, are relatively high. Although buildings are usually good, equipment, layout, working space arrangements and labour saving de- vices are deficient. Machinery and other equipment, in general, are ob- solete. Among the problems confronted by the Chilean fish processing industry, in common with other Latin American countries, are the dif- ficulty of acquiring new equipment to replace obsolete machinery, the difficulty of obtaining foreign hard currency for cans, and the low standard of cans manufactured locally. In fact, containers are often made by the cannery and this practice has led to cans of sub-standard quality, a great divergence of sizes and added overhead expenses. It is obvious that the Chilean canning industry with modernization and expansion will be capable of producing a much greater pack at lower costs than those prevailing at present. Increased production is dependent on the amount of tin plate available and of export markets to absorb the output. The most logical and readily available markets are those of other Latin American countries, but this outlet has not yet been utilized. United States importers maintain that high cost of trans- portation and difficulties of shipping make the venture of importing Chilean canned fish to the United States almost unprofitable. Moreover, production costs are at present abnormally high and Chilean canners are not in a position to capture any significant part of the world’s market for commodities such as tuna and bonito. However, exports of canned fish and shellfish have risen from 112.4 metric tons in 1948 to 935.3 tons in 1951. It seems that the crustaceans and molluscs pack could find a good place in foreign markets. Fish meal: Annual production in two modern plants, one with a capacity of 10 tons per hour, located in San Antonio and several small or crude installations at the canneries, is estimated in 1951 at about 5,800 tons. The majority of the raw material used is hake obtained by trawling in the near fishing grounds. With a low oil content the hake is not 264 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS suitable for oil production. It appears that good possibilities exist for expansion of fish meal production both from wastes and from direct fishing. Nevertheless, the profitability of fish meal production in Chile by direct fishing remains to be seen. Cattle and poultry raising use almost all the domestic production of fish meal. Fish oil: Production of industrial fish oils in Chile is still very limited. Not more than 100 metric tons are estimated to be produced annually. How- ever, this output is subject to increase as oil extraction proceeds in the fish meal plants already in operation and the new ones under construc- tion. Vitamined oils: Assays of samples of fish liver from Chilean waters indicate that rich sources of vitamin “A” are available. Reported 1951 production, chiefly of low potency oils, was about 29,700 liters. Present output is in the neighborhood of 120 billion International Units, derived from about 275 tons of liver. Different species of shark and also tuna supplied the raw material. 7. FREsH WATER FisH The indigenous fish fauna of Chilean lakes and rivers is exception- ally poor, particularly regarding edible species. The once abundant smelt (pejerry — Basilichthys microlepidotus), native trout (trucha criolla — Percichthys trucha), and catfish (bagre de agus dulce — Nema- togenys inermis), as well as the small farionelas or peladillas (Haplochi- ton spp.), were overfished in the measure that human settlements ex- panded, with the result that, at present, these species are on the verge of extinction. Since 1905, the fisheries administration implemented an ambitious programme of restocking Chilean fresh waters with species such as the European salmon and trouts, the North American rainbow and steel head trouts and the Alaskan salmon. ‘These activities were continued for a number of years and, with the exception of the European and the North American salmons which acclimatization apparently failed, the other species were successfully established. In more recent years this planting with foreign species was expanded to new areas and other species, such as the valuable Argentinean smelt (Odonthestes bonar- iensis), were introduced. It is interesting to report that all these ac- climatized species grow in Chilean waters to a larger size than in the original countries. However, the utilization of these stocks is mainly for sportive purposes, FISHERIES OF CHILE 265 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ALARCAO, J. 1953. Present Status and Prospectives of the Fishery Industry in Latin America. F.A.O. Fisheries Division. 31 pp. mimeographed. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. HERNANDEZ-PoNCE, M. 1953. Informaciones Estadisticas sobre Pesca. Direc- cién de Pesca y Caza. pp. 57. Valparaiso, Chile. Howarp, G. V. and GopFREY, E. 1951. A Summary of the Information on the Fisheries and Fisheries Resources of Latin America. F.A.O. Fisheries Division. 262 pp. mimeographed. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Washington, D.C. LcoBELL, M. J. 1951. The Development of the Fishery Resources in Chile. Proc. U.N. Sci. Conf. on Conservation and Utilization of Resources. Vol. VII, Wildlife and Fish Resources. pp. 41-44. United Nations. Dept. of Econ. Aff., New York. . LOBBLL, M. J., et al. 1947. The Fisheries of Chile: Present Status and Future Possibilities. Report of the U.S. Fisheries Mission to Chile. 1207 pp. (typed), illustr. and appendixes. U.S. Dept. of Interam. Fish and Wild- life Service, Washington, D.C. MontTtT, M. 1949. La Pesca Industrial en Chile. 134 pp. Valparaiso, Chile. Myers, G. S. 1950. The Fish Fauna of the Pacific Ocean. Proc. 6th Pacific Set. Congr. Vol. 3. pp. 201-210. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif. OSsORIO-TAFALL, B. F. 1951. Better Utilization of Fishery Resources in Latin America. F'..A.O. Fisheries Bulletin. Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 3-25. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. . 1952. Report on the Fisheries of Chile. 51 pp. mimeographed. F.A.O. Regional Office for Western South America, Santiago, Chile. POULSEN, E. M. 1952. Report to the Government of Chile on Food Fishes of Chile. F.A.O. Report No. 45. pp. 72, illustr. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. PRELIMINARY LIST OF CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES By FERNANDO DE BUEN FAO Fisheries Expert Technical Assistance Program, Chile The author has devoted six months, as an FAO Fisheries expert, surveying fishery potentialities along the Chilean coast. While this survey has been concentrated on commercially important species, during the trips made aboard fishing boats, a number of interesting species were caught and identified. In this preliminary note some changes have been introduced re- garding the nomenclature and taxonomic status of the species recorded in Chilean waters. ‘This matter will be discussed in the author’s final report to FAO. On the basis of the existent recording literature and of my personal observations, a list has been compiled including all the species of fish, sensu latu, known to be resident in Chilean fresh water and coastal waters, and also those migrants that seasonally approach the littoral of the mainland, the off shore waters and the distant islands. The names marked with an asterisk refer to species identified by the writer. For the sake of simplification the following notations are used: N., C., and S. indicate respectively Northern, Central and Southern Sections of Chile. JF refers to Juan Fernandez Island. SFA to San Felix and San Ambrosio Islands. P to the Easter Island (Isla de Pascua). I MORDACIIDAE 1. Geotria australis Gray Lamprea, lamprea de bolsa. (C.S.) II EPTARETIDAE 2. Polistotrema polytrema (Girard) (C.S.) 3. Polistotrema decatrema (Regan) (C.S.) III MYXINIDAE 4. Myxine tridentiger Garman (C.S.) 5. Myxine affinis Giinther (S.) IV HEXANCHIDAE 6. Hexanchus griseus (Bonnaterre) Tiburon. (C.S.) 7. Heptranchias perlo (Bonnaterre) Tiburon. (C.) 266 CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES 267 V ISURIDAE 8. Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque (N.C.S.) 9. Lamna nasus (Bonnaterre) (C.S.) 10. Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus) Tiburon. (S.) VI CETORHINIDAE *11. Cetorhinus maximus (Gunner) . .» Tiburén gigante. (C.) VII ALOPIDAE 12. Alcpias vulpinus (Bonnaterre) Pez zorro. (N.C.S.) VIII SCYLIORHINIDAE 13. Cephaloscyllium ventricosum (Garman) (Chile). 14. Halaelurus bivius (Smith) Pintarroja. (C.S.) *15. Halaelurus chilensis (Guichenot) Pintarroja. (N.C.S.) IX TRIAENODONIDAE *16. Mustelus mento Cope Tollo. (N.C.S.JF) *17. Mustelus maculatus (Kner y Stein- dachner) Tollo. (N.) 18. Triaenodon nigricans Philippi (SFA) X EULAMIIDAE 19. Galeorhinus chilensis (Perez Canto) Cazon. (C.S.) * 20. Prionace glauca (Linnaeus) Azulejo. (N.C.S.) 21. Eulamia philippi Fowler (N.) 22. Eulamia robusta (Philippi) (N.S.) XI SPHYRNIDAE 23. Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus) Pez Martillo. (N.) XII SQUALIDAE 24. Scymnodon macracanthus (Regan) (S.) 25. Etmopterus paessleri Ldnnberg (S.) 26. Etmopterus granulosus (Ginther) (S.) 27. Squalus fernandezianus Guichenot Tollo. (C.S.JF) XIII SQUATINIDAE 28. Squatina armata (Philippi) (N.C.S.) XIV RHINOBATIDAE 29. Tarsistes philippi Jordan (N.C.S.) XV RAJIDAE 30. Raja flavirostris Philippi Raya. (N.C.S.) 31. Raja magellanica Steindachner Raya. (S.) 32. Raja brachyurops Fowler Raya. (S.) 33. Psammobatis scobina (Philippi) Pequén. (N.C.S.) 34. Psammobatis lima _ (Poeppig) Trucha de mar. (N.C.S.) XVI DASYATIDAE 35. Urotrygon chilensis (Giinther) (Chile) 36. Urobatis marmoratus (Philippi) (C.) 268 37. 38. 39. * 40. * Al, A2. * 43. * 44, * AD, * 46. * 47, 48, 49, 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS XVII MYLIOBATIDAE Aetobatus peruvianus (Garman) Aguila de mar. (N.) Rhinoptera chilensis (Philippi) Aguila de mar. (N.) XVIII MOBULIDAE Mobula tarapacana (Philippi) (N.) XIX TORPEDINIDAE Discopyge tschudu Heckel Templadera. (N.C.S.) : XX CALLORYNCHIDAE Callorhinchus callorhinchus (Linneaus) Peje Gallo. (N.C.S.) XXI CLUPEIDAE Clupea fueguensis Jenyns Sardina. (S.) Clupea bentincki Norman Sardina, sardina anchoa. (C.S.) Spratella nov. sp.? Sardina, sardina anchoa. (C.S.) Sardinops sagax sagax (Jenyns) Sardina espafiola. (N.C.) Ethmidium maculatum (Valenciennes) Machuelo, machete. (N.C.) XXII ENGRAULIDAE Engraulis ringens Jenyns Sardina, sardina bocona, anchoveta, chicora. (N.C.S.) XXIII APLOCHITONIDAE Aplochiton taeniatus Jenyns Peladilla. (S.) Aplochiton zebra Jenyns Peladilla. (S.) \Aplochiton marinus Eigenmann Peladilla. (S.) XXIV STOMIATIDAE Stomias atriventer Garman (Deep-sea). XXV IDIACANTHIDAE Indiacanthus niger Regan (Deep-sea). XXVI GONOSTOMIDAE Cyclothone signata Garman (Deep-sea). XXVIII MAUROLICIDAE Maurolicus mulleri (Gmelin) (Deep-sea). XXVIII GALAXIIDAE Brachygalaxias bullocki (Regan) Puye. (S.) Galaxias attenuatus (Jenyns) Puye. (S.) Galaxias gracillimus (Canestrini) Puye. (S.) Galaxias maculatus (Jenyns) Puye. (S.) Galaxias alpinus (Jenyns) Puye. (S.) Galaxias globiceps HEigenmann Puye. (S.) Galaxias platet Steindachner Puye. (S.) XXIX CHLOROPHTHALMIDAE Chlorophthalmus glacilis Giinther (JF) 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. Ute 78. Usb 80. 81. 82. 83. 84, 85. 86. 87. 88. 89, CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES 269 XXX MYCTOPHIDAE Myctophum affine (Liitken) Myctophum tenisoni Norman Rhinoscopelus cocco (Cocco) XXXI CHARACIDAE Cheirodon pisciculus Girard Cheirodon galusdae Eigenmann Cheirodon australe Eigenmann (Deep-sea). (Deep-sea). (Deep-sea). Pocha, pochita. (Fresh- water). Pocha, pochita. (Fresh- water). Pocha, pochita. (Fresh- water). XXXII DIPLOMYSTIDAE Diplomyste chilensis (Molina) XXXIII ARIIDAE Netuma barbus (Lacepede) XXXIV PYGIDIDAE Hatcheria maldonadoi Eigenmann Hatcheria bullocki Fowler Hatcheria macraei (Girard) Pygidium chiltoni Eigenmann Pygidium areolatum (Valenciennes) Pygidium maculatum (Valenciennes) Nematogenys inermis (Guichenot) XXXV LORICARIIDAE Ancistrus erinaceus (Valenciennes) XXXVI MURAENIDAE Muraena appendiculata (Guichenot) Gymnothorax porphyreus (Guichenot) Gymnothorax weineri Sauvage Gymnothorax chilensis (Giinther) Gymnothorax modestus (Kaup) Tollo, bagre de agua dulce. (Freshwater). Bagre marino. (S.) Bagre. (Freshwater). Bagre. (Freshwater). Bagre. (Freshwater). Bagre. (Freshwater). Bagrecito. (Freshwater). Bagre. (Freshwater). Bagre. (Freshwater). (Freshwater). Murena, culebra de mar. (C.) Murena, culebra de mar. (JF) Murena, colebra de mar. (Chile). Murena, colebra de mar. (Chile). Murena, colebra de mar. (C.) XXXVII OPHICHTHYIDAE Ophichthus ater Peters Ophichthus dicellurus (Richardson) Ophichthus remiger (Valenciennes) Ophichthus pacifict (Gunther) Ophichthus callaensis (Gtinther) XXXVIII CYEMIDAE Cyema atrum Giinther Anguila. (Chile). Anguila. (N.C.) Anguila. (C.) Anguila. (N.C.) Anguila. (N.C.) (JF) 270 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS XXXIX NOTACANTHIDAE 9). Gigliolia moseleyi Goode y Bean (Deep-sea). XL SCOMBERESOCIDAE * 91. Scomberesox equirostrum Le Sueur Agujilla, punto fijo. (C.JF) XLI HEMIRAMPHIDAE 92. Hemiramphus phurcatus Philippi Pez aguja. (P.) XLII EXOCOETIDAE 93. Hxocoetus volitans Linnaeus Pez volador. (N.) 94. Cypsilurus lineatus (Valenciennes) Pez volador. (JF) XLIII MURAENOLEPIDAE 95. Muraenolepsis orangiensis Vaillant Ss) 96. Muraenolepsis microps Lonnberg . (S.) XLIV GADIDAE 97. Saliota australis (Ginther) (S.) 98. Physiculus marginatus (Ginther) (S.) 99. Lotella fernandeziana Rendahl (JF) 100. Laemonema multiradiatum (Thompson) (Deep-sea). * 101. Merlucctus gayi (Guichenot) Pescada, merluza (C.S.) 102. Merluccius australis (Hutton) Pescada, merluza. (S.) 103. Macruronus magellanicus Loénnberg Merluza de cola. (S.) 104. Macruronus novae-zelandiae (Hector) Merluza de cola. (S.) XLV CORYPHAENOIDIDAE Granaderos 105. Coryphaenoides holotrachys (Giinther) (Deep-sea). 106. Coryphaenoides ariommus Gilbert y Thompson (Deep-sea). 107. Coryphaenoides ariommus (Giinther) (Deep-sea). 108. Celorhynchus fasciatus (Giinther) (Deep-sea). 109. Celorhynchus chilensis Gilbert y Thompson (Deep-sea). 110. Celorhynchus patagoniae Gilbert y Thompson (Deep-sea). 111. Macruroplus pudens (Gilbert y Thomp- son) (Deep-sea). XLVI MACRORHAMPHOSIDAE 112. Macrorhamphosus fernandezianus (Delfin) (JF) XLVII SYNGNATHIDAE 118. Syngnathus scicularis Jenyns Aguja de mar. (N.C.S.) 114. Syngnathus pelagicus Linnaeus Aguja aguja de mar. (S.) 115. Leptonotus blainvillianus (Eydoux Gervais) Aguja de mar. (C.S.) XLVIII CYPRINODONTIDAE 116. Orestias agassizi Valenciennes (N.Freshwater). Ie 118. iil 120. 121. 122. 123. 124, 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144, 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES XLIX TRACHIPTERIDAE Trachipterus altivelis Kner (C.S.) L TRACHICHTHYIDAE Trachichthys fernandezianus Gimnther LI MUGILIDAE Mugil cephalus Linnaeus Mugil curima Cuvier y Valenciennes LII ATHERINIDAE Notocheirus hubbsi Clark Basilichyhys australis FEigenmann Basilichyhys microlepidotus (Jenyns) Basilichyhys gracilis (Steindachner) Odontesthes mauleanum (Steindachner) Odontesthes wiebricht Eigenmann Odontesthes itatanum (Steindachner) Odontesthes brevianalis (Giinther) Odontesthes laticlavia (Valenciennes) Odontesthes smittt (Lahille) Odontesthes nigricans (Richardson) Odontesthes regia (Humboldt) LII SERRANIDAE Percichthys trucha (Valenciennes) Percichthys melanops Girard Percilla gillissi Girard Percila irwinit Eigenmann Acanthistius pictus (Tschudi) Gilbertia semicincta (Valenciennes) Hemelutjanus macropthalmos Tschudi Polyprion oxygeneios (Schneider) Paralabrax humeralis (Valenciennes) Paralabrax semifasciatus Prionodes huascartt (Steindachner) Diplectrum conceptione (Valenciennes) Caprodon longimanus (Gtnther) Hemanthias peruanus (Steindachner) Callanthias platei Steindachner (JF) Liza. (N.C.S.JF) 271 Liza. (N.) (C.) Pejerrey. (Freshwater). Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. Pejerrey. (Freshwater). (JF) (Freshwater). (Freshwater). (Freshwater). (Freshwater). (Freshwater). (S.) (S.) (N.C.S.) Trucha, perea trucha. (Freshwater). Trucha, perea trucha. (Freshwater). Carmelita. (Freshwater). Carmelita. (Freshwater). (N.C.) Cabrilla listada. (JF) Ojo de uva, papaniagua. (N.) Baealao. Cabrilla. (Chile) (S.JF) (JF) (Chile) (JF) LIV BRANCHIOSTEGIDAE Prolatilus jugularis (Valenciennes) Caulolatilus princeps (Jenyns) Blanquillo. (Chile) LV POMATOMIDAE Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnaeus) (C.) LVI RACHYCENTRIDAE Rachycentrodon canadum (Linnaeus) (JF) (JF, SFA) (N.C.S.JF) (N.C.S.) 272 152. 153. * 154, salop. 156. 157. 158. 159. * 160: 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. as 172. Beviios 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. UE 180. 181. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS LVII CARANGIDAE Seriola mazatlana (Steindachner) (JF) Seriola dorsalis (Gill) (N.) Neptomenus crassus Starks Conjinoba. (N.) Trachurus murphyi Nichols Jurel, furel. (N.C.S.JF) Caranx georgianus Valenciennes Palometa, pampanito. (JE) Parona signata (Jenyns) (S.) Lichia albacora Guichenot Albacora. (C.S.) Trachinotus paitensis Cuvier y Valen- ciennes (C.) LVIII LEPIDOTIDAE Lepidotus chilensis (Guichenot) (C.) LIX CORYPHAENIDAE Coryphaena hippurus Linnaeus Dorado. (N.) LX EMMELICHTHYIDAE Emmelichthys cyanescens (Guichenot)(C.) LXI SCIAENIDAE Cynoscion analis (Jenyns) Allanque. (N.C.) Sciaena gilberti Abbott Corvinilla. (N.C.S.) Sciaena deliciosa (Tschudi) Corvinilla. (N.) Sciaena fasciata (Tschudi) Corvinilla. (N.C.) Sciaena reedi (Gtinther) (JF) Sciaena imberbis (Giinther) (N.C.JF) Micropogon furniert (Desmarest) Corvina. (N.C.JF) Stellifer minor (Tschudi) Corvinilla. (N.C.) Menticirrhus ophiocephalus (Jenyns) Pichiguen. (N.JF) LXII POMADASYIDAE Pomadasys bipunctstus Kner (N) Isacia conceptionis (Cuvier) Cabinza. (C.N.) Cilus monti Delfin Corvina. (N.C.S.) Anisotremus scapularis (Tschudi) Sargo. (N.) LXIII SCORPIDAE Scorpis chilensis (Guichenot) Pampanito. (JF) LXIV GIRELLIDAE Girella albostriata Steindachner Jeringuilla. (JF) Girella foliciana Clark (SF) Doydimodon laevifrons (Tschudi) Baunco. (N.) LXV HISTIOPTERIDAE Pentaceros kneri Steindachner (S.) LXVI OPLEGNATHIDAE Oplegnathus insignis (Kner) Loro. (N.) * 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. ~ alee 190. il 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. S202: 208. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES 273 LXVII APLODACTYLIDAE Aplodactylus punctatus Valenciennes Aplodactylus vermiculatus Valencien- nes Aplodactylus guttatus Valenciennes Jerguilla. (C.N.) Jerguilla. (C.) Jerguilla. (JF) LXVIII POMACENTRIDAE Chromis crusma (Valenciennes) Castafieta, burrito, pampa- nito, frailecillo. (N.C.S.) Abudefduf saxatilis (Linnaeus) (N.) Nexilosus latifrons (Tschudi) Castaneta, pampanito. (N.) LXIX LABRIDAE Pimelometopon maculatus (Perez) Peje perro, vieja colorada. (N.C.S.) Pimelometopon darwini (Jenyns) Peje perro, pejeperro. (N.) Bodianus diplotaenia (Gill) (N.) Pseudolabrus gayi (Valenciennes) (JF) Graus nigra Philippi Vieja, vieja negra. (C.N.) Malapterus reticulatus Valenciennes Biya. (JF) LXX CHEILODACTYLIDAE Cheilodactylus gayi (Kner) Breca. (S.JF) Cheilodactylus variegatus (Valencien- nes) Pintadita, pintadilla. (N.C.) Cheilodactylus antoni (Valenciennes) Bilagai. (C.) Cheilodactylus bicornis (Steindachner) (JF) LXXI LATRIDAE Mendosoma lineata Guichenot Trompetero, trompero. (C.) Mendosoma caerulescens Guichenot Cabinza. (C.) Mendosoma fernandezianum Guichenot Cabinza. (C.) Latris hecateia Richardson (S.) LXXII MUGILOIDIDAE Mugziloides chilensis (Molina) Robalo, rollizo. (N.C.S.) Parapercis chilensis Norman (S.) LXXIII TRACHINIDAE Trachinus cornutus Valenciennes (N.) LXXIV BOVICTIDAE Bovictus chilensis Regan Torito. (C.S.JF) Cottoperca govio (Giinther) (S.) LXXV NOTOTHENIDAE Notothenia brevicauda Loénnberg (S.) Notothenia canina Smitt (S.) Notothenia cornucola Richardson (S.) Notothenia elegans Giinther (S.) Notothenia jordani Thompson (S.) Notothenia longipes Steindachner (S.) 274 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244, 245. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Notothenia macrocephala Giinther Notothenia microlepidota Hutton Notothenia sima Richardson Notothenia squamiceps Peters Notothenia tessellata Richardson Notothenia wiltoni Regan Dissostichus eleginoides Smitt Eleginops maclovinus (Valenciennes) Harpagifer bispinis (Schneider) LXXVI BLENNIDAE Salarias chilensis Clark Salarias viridis Valenciennes Salarias rubro-punctatus Valenciennes Salarias petersoni (Fowler) Salarias variolatus Valenciennes Scartichthys gigas (Steindachner) Scartichthys concolor (Philippi) Scartichthys modestus (Philippi) Scartichthys eques (Steindachner) LXXVII CLINIDAE (Jenyns) (Valencien- Auchenionchus crinitus Auchenionchus variolonis nes) ~ Calliclinus geni-guttatus nes) (Valencien- (Philippi) (Valenciennes) Valenciennes (Steindachner) Myxodes foncki Myxodes viridis Myxodes cristatus Lepisoma philippii Labrisomus microcirrhis (Valencien- nes) (Philippi) (Fowler) Labrisomus niger Labrisomus conventryi Labrisomus fernandezianus (Guiche- not) Labrisomus guttulatus (Valenciennes) (Valenciennes) (Jenyns) Petroscirtes biocellatus Petroscirtes fasciatus (C.S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) Robalo, robalito, robalo de piedra. (C.S.) (S.) (C.) Borracho, torito. Torito. (C.JF) Torito. (N.) (JF) Torito, borracho, suefo. (N.C.) Torito. Torito. Torito. (N.C.) (C.) (C.) (N.C.S.) Tramboyo. (N.) Tramboyo. (N.C.S.) Vieja, tomoyo, tramboyo. (C.S.) Doncella. (S.) Doncella. (N.C.S.) Doncella. (C.) Trombollo, tomoyo, vieja. (N.) Trombollo, tomoyo, vieja. (C.) (Chile) Trombollo, tomoyo, vieja. (C.) Tromobollo, tomoyo, vieja. (JF) Trombollo, tomoyo, vieja. (C.S.) Torito. Torito. (C.) (C.S.) LXXVIII CHAENNICHTHYIDAE Champsocephalus esox (Giinther) (S.) 246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253. 254. 250. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. * 262. * 263. * 264. 265. * 266. * 267. * 268. * 269. * 270. PMN 272. 1 Palle CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES LXXIX ZOARCIDAE Ophthalmolycus macrops (Gunther) Tlwocoetes finbriatus Jenyns Iluocoetes elongatus (Smitt) Austrolycus depressiceps (Regan) Austrolycus laticinctus (Berg) Phucocoetes latitans Jenyns Crossostomus chilensis (Regan) Crossostomus fasciatus (L6énnberg) Platea insignis Steindachner Maynea puncta (Jenyns) Maynea patagonica Cunningham Melanostigma gelatinosum Gtinther 275 (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) (S.) LXXX LYCODAPODIDAE Lycodapus australis Norman Gymnelis pictus (Giimnther) LXXXI BROTULIDAE Cataetryx messiert (Giinther) LXXXII OPHIDITIDAE (Schneider) (Guichenot) Genypterus blacodes Genypterus chilensis Genypterus maculatus (Tschudi) LXXXIII GEMPYLIDAE Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen) Thyrsitops lepidopodes (Cuvier) LXXXIV SCOMBRIDAE Pneumatophorus peruanus Jordan y Hubbe LXXXV THUNNIDAE Thunnus thynnus saliens Jordan y Evermann Germo alalunga (Bonnaterre) Neothunnus macropterus (Schlegel) Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus) LXXXVI CYBIIDAE Sarda chilensis (Cuvier) (S.) (S.) (S.) Abadejo. (S.) Congrio colorado, colorao. (N.C.S8.) Congrio negro, mono. (N.C.S.) (C.S.) (S.) Sierra. Sierra. Caballa. (N.C.) Cimarron. (C.) Attn, atin de aleta larga. (N.C.S.) Attn, atin de aleta amarilla. (N.) Cachurreta. (N.) Bonito o mono. (N.C.S.) LXXXVII ISTIOPHORIDAE Makaira audax (Philippi) LXXXVIII XIPHIIDAE Xiphias gladius Linnaeus Pez aguja. (N.C.S.) Albacore. (N.C.S.) 276 * 274. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. * 293. 294. Sebastodes oculatus EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS LXXXIX STROMATEIDAE Stromateus maculatus Cuvier y Va- lenciennes XC CENTROLOPHIDAE Palinurichthys caeruleus (Guichenot) Leirus peruanus (Steindachner) XCI NOMEIDAE Seriolella porosa Guichenot Seriolella violacea Guichenot eet XCII GOBIIDAE Gobius chiloensis Guichenot Gobiosoma ophiocephalum (Jenyns) Pampanito. (JF) Pampanito. (JF) (N.) Cojinoba, casinova, hachita. (N.C.S.) Cojinoba, casinova, hachita. (C.) (S.) (S.JF) XCIII SCORPAENIDAE (Cuvier) Sebastodes prognathus Tortonese Sebastodes darwinit (Cramer) Sebastodes chilensis Steindachner Helicolenus lengericht Norman Scorpaena thomsoni Ginther Scorpaena fernandeziana Steindachner Scorpaena histrio Jenyns XCIV TRIGLIDAE Cabrilla, cabrilla espamola. (N.C.S.) (C.) Cabrilla. (N.C.S.) Vieja colorada, cabrilla. (C.S.) (JF.) Peje diablo. (JF) Peje diablo. (JF) jPeje diablo. (JF) Trigla guttata Philippi (JF) Cheilidonichthys pictus (Ginther) (JF) XCV CONGRIOPODIDAE Congriopus peruvianus (Cuvier y Va- lenciennes) Agriopus hispidus (Jenyns) XCVI COTTIDAE Peje chancho, chanchito. (N.C.S.) Chanchito, peje chancho. (S.) (Including NORMANICHTHYIDAE) Normanichthys crokert Clark (C.S.) Mote, cochinilla. XCVII PSYCHROLUTIDAE (=NEOPHRYNICHTHYIDAE) Neophrynichthys marmoratus Gill (S.) XCVIII AGONIDAE . Agonopsis chiloensis (Jenyns) (C.S.) 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. 313. * 314. CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES 277 XCIX CICLOPTERIDAE (Including LIPARIDAE and LIPAROPIDAE) . Cyclopterichthys amissus Vaillant (S.) . Careproctus falklandica (Loénnberg) (S.) . Careproctus pallidus (Vaillart) (S.) C SCOPHTHAIMIDAE . Thysanopsetta nareri Giinther Lenguado. (S.) . Hippoglossina macrops Steindachner Lenguado. (C.S.) . Hippoglossina mystacium Ginsburg Lenguado. (S.) . Paralichthys adspersus (Steindachner) Lenguado. (N.C.JF) . Paralichthys fernandezianus Stein- dachner Lenguado. (JF) . Paralichthys patagonicus Jordan Lenguado. (S.) . Paralichthys hilgendorfi Steindachner Lenguado. (JF) . Paralichthys microps Giinther) Lenguado. (N.C.S.) . Paralichthys schmitti Ginsburg Lenguado. (JF) Paralichthys coeruleostica Steindach- ner Lenguado. (JF) CI ECHENEIDAE Remora remora (Linnaeus) Piloto, remora. (N.C.S.) CII DIODONTIDAE Diodon hystrix (Linnaeus) Erizo. (P.) CIII MOLIDAE Mola mola (Linnaeus) Peje luna, peje sol. (C.S.) CIV GOBIESOCIDAE Sicyases sanguineus Miller y Troschel Peje sapo. (C.N.JF.) Sicyogaster marmoratus (Jenyns) Peje sapo. (S.) CV BATRACHOIDIDAE Aphos porosus (Valenciennes) Peje bagre. (N.C.S.) For the preparation of this list of Chilean fishes, different papers were consulted, Guichenot’s in Gay, Philippi, Perez Canto, Delfin and others; but particularly we have been guided by Fowler’s catalogue, published in the years 1941 to 1943 in the “Revista Chilena de Historia Natural.” The families have been arranged according to Berg’s classi- fication (1940). The fresh water species have been checked with Eigen- 278 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS mann’s study published by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (Vol. XXII, Report I), modifying the generic denominaticns of the Atheri- nidae according to our own judgment. We have kept in mind for the north of Chile the similar fish fauna of Peru, as described in Hil- debrand’s paper (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 189, 1946), and for the Southern part of the country, Norman’s paper in the Discovery Reports (vol. XVI, 1937). During our assignment in Chile (15 February to 15 August 1953), we continued the work started by Dr. Erick M. Poulsen, FAO expert, who concentrated on the biology cf bottom fishes, especially the hake (two species of Merluccius). We have paid special attention to pelagic species, of seasonal abundance in the fishing grounds, including repre- sentatives of the Thunnidae, Cybiidae, Xiphiidae, Engraulidae and Clu- peidae. At the time of our survey, all the Thunnidae approached the Chi- lean coast in search of food, with their gonads inactive. Neothunnus macropterus, which appears off the coasts of the provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta comes in through oceanic waters, feeding then prin- cipally on pelagic crustaceans, and soon invades the green coastal waters in search of Engraulis; this fishery is the basis of a coming industry, and in years of abundance a catch of about 1,000 tons is obtained, al- though in poor years the catch diminishes to only 50 tons a year. Ger- mo alalunga, called Germo germo by some authors, is the tuna of cen- tral Chile, which in small groups can reach Talcahuano and is also frequent along the northern zone. It may be missing some years, but even with the present primitive fishing gear, up to 500 tons a year can be caught. Albacore is used for fresh fish consumption, either directly or frozen, or for canning. We had the opportunity to examine some specimens of what we have called Thunnus thynnus saliens in view of the small differences observed compared with Atlantic tuna. Its scarcity is due principally to the gear employed, which is the same used to catch albacore, and which do not stand the strain of very big specimens. The only Cybiidae of Chile, Sarda chilensis, with a catch of nearly 5,000 tons, approaches the north coast to spawn, generally in cold green water; in July specimens with very developed gonads are found. The swordfish, inhabitant of warm, blue, oceanic waters, is of great economic importance, as up to 2,000 tons per year can be caught off the northern coast. It appears also at times in the Valparaiso area reaching as far south as Talcahuano. We have only been able to find one Engraulidae in Chilean waters (Engraulis rengens), of which we studied more than 1,000 specimens. CHILEAN FISHES AND THEIR VERNACULAR NAMES 279 This anchovy is of great interest, not only from the industrial point of view, but also because it is the primary food supply of many species of fish. Thunnidae and Cybiidae in the northern coast feed on an- chovy. Its schools are prayed upon by other species of larger size and also by the guano birds (Pelecanus occidentalis thagus, sula variegata, Phalacrocorax bougainvilli) and marine mammals (Otaria byronia). It is also used for bait by the fishermen. Among the Clupeids the most important is the sardine, which we have called Sardinops sagax sagax, to separate it as a mere subspecies of the Sardinops sagax caerulea of California. The Chilean sardine is abundant in the northern coast, principally in the Antofagasta zone. EDIBLE SHELLFISH OF THE CHILEAN COAST By FRANCISCO RIVEROS-ZUNIGA Estacion de Biologica Marina de la Universidad de Chile Montemar, Chile In 20 years shellfish production of Chile has risen from 5,180 tons in 1931 to 19,931 tons in 1951, the largest increases being recorded in 1940 and 1946. The zones of Puerto Montt, Talcahuano, Valparaiso, and Antofagasta are the most important producing areas for edible crustaceans and molluscs. Puerto Montt produces almost 80% of all shellfish consumed in the country; 46°% of its local production is used for canning and in this form distributed all over the country. However, as exemplified by the CHORO (Choromytilus chorus Molina, 1782), the production of some species has steadily declined. In fact, its catch decreased during the period 1930-1943 from 3,237 to 1,651 tons. ‘This calls for the immediate adoption of conservation measures. On the other hand, from 1945 to 1951, the total production of OYSTERS (Ostrea chilensis Philippi, 1845) has mounted from 260 to 598 tons or more than double. This increase is due to enforced conservation prac- tices and to annual restocking of depleted beds. The most sought after species of shellfish, from the industrial point of view are: LANGOSTINOS (Plated lobsters), ALMEJAS (Clams), CALAMARES (Squids), CENTOLLAS (King crabs), CHOLGAS (Mus- sels), CHORITOS (Horse-mussels), ERIZOS (Sea urchins), TACAS (Hard clams), PICOS (Giant acorn-shells), PIURES (Edible sea-squirts), APANCORAS and CANGREJOS (Crabs), on which information will be given later on. In 1951 the amount of shellfish used for canning was 7,244,061 Kg. with a net yield, on an edible basis, of 1,223,921 Kg. The consumption of fresh shellfish during the same year reached a total of 12,684,405 Kg. with a net yield of 1,569,100 Kg. ECHINODERMATA Loxechinus albus (Molina, 1782). ERIZO COLORADO o ERIZO COMESTIBLE (Red or Edible Sea Urchin). Among the echinoderms of Chile the only one of commercial value and preferably consumed fresh. The gonads, commonly called lenguas de erizo (sea urchin tongues), are canned in oil, mostly in small plants located at the Island of Cal- buco. In addition, along the coast from Callao, Peru, to the Magel- 280 EDIBLE SHELLFISH OF THE CHILEAN COAST 281 lanic province, it is consumed fresh in great quantities wherever abun- dant. CRUSTACEA Lithodes antarcticus (Hombron et Jacquinot, 1853). CENTOLLA (King crab). A crustacean much sought after for processing due to the quality and good taste of its flesh. The catch during 1950 and 1951 has decreased considerably, being of 61 and 55 tons respectively, while in years of abundance (1946) it amounted to 126 tons. Its area of dis- tribution on the Chilean coast extends from Puerto Montt to the Strait of Magellan. It has also been found in the deep waters of the coast of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The fishing grounds in Chile are in the region of Calbuco, Quellén, Aysen, southern canals, and the Strait of Magellan; in the Republic of Argentina it is caught in Ushuaia, in the Beagle canal, but production in that country is lower than in Chile (43 tons in 1938), (Carcelles, 1946). It is fished in shallow waters during the season when it approaches the beaches. It is sold canned in oil, but its {fresh consumption is also considerable, though not recorded statistically (Schwabe, 1939 and 1941). Jasus lalendei frontalis (Milne Edwards, 1837). LANGOSTA DE JUAN FERNANDEZ (Spiny lobster) found in the Archipelago of Juan Fernandez and the Desventuradas Island (San Ambrosio and San Félix), (Holthuis, 1951). Because of its economic importance and the great domestic and foreign demand from Argentina, where it is also sent by air, unsuccessful attempts have been made to acclimatize this species in the Chilean mainland coast (Albert, 1898). Production registered be- tween 1945 and 1951 shows the lowest catch in 1946 (56 tons) and the highest in 1948 (106 tons). Balanus (Megabalanus) psittacus (Molina, 1782). PICO DE MAR or PICOROCO (Giant acorn-shell) in the region of Chiloé. Its wide area of distribution extends from Pascamayo (Peru!) to the Strait of Magellan. Principal processing centres are Calbuco and Puerto Montt. The most important crustacean for industrial purposes, canned “au naturel” and in oil, and also in great demand for fresh consumption. Its catch amounted in 1945 to 307 tons and increased in 1951 to 407 tons. LANGOSTINOS (Plated lobsters). This name is given in Chile to three species: Munida gregaria Leach, Plewroncodes monodon Milne Edwards, and Cervimunida johni Porter, 1903. They are canned in jelly, mostly in the Valparaiso zone. In 1951, 19 tons were processed. APANCORAS (Crabs). Statistics on shellfish production compiled by the Chilean Department of Fish and Game (Hernandez, 1953) in- clude under this item all species of JAIBAS (Crabs) consumed in Chile, 282 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS of which the most utilized are: Cancer polyodon Poeppig, 1836 and C. plebejus Poeppig, 1836 (JAIBA PELUDA); Homalaspis plana Milne Edwards, 1834 (JAIBA MORA or MORADA); Ovalipes punctatus De Haan, 1833 and Taliepus dentatus Milne Edwards, 1834 (PANCHOTE). The aggregate catch was over 300 tons between 1945 and 1949, but declined in 1949, to increase in 1951 to 623 tons. CAMARON DE MAR (Prawn), Rhynchocinetes typus Milne Ed- wards, 1837. Of wide distribution; found in Chile, Peru, New Zealand, and Indian Ocean. In Chile its production has decreased from 83 in 1947 to 16 tons in 1951, Valparaiso being one of the most important producing centres. ‘TUNICATA PIURE or PIVRE (Sea-squirt), Pyura chilensis Molina, 1782 (Van Name, 1945) of wide distribution, from the Peruvian port of Mollendo (17°S) in the North to Chiloé Is. (about 42°S). It lives in shallow waters and is caught mostly for fresh consumption. Some factories in Calbuco can it “au naturel.’ It is an irregular oval shaped tunicate growing in very close groups, each individual independent with its own cuticular test. Its test and internal organs are consumed fresh or smoked; industrial utilization is negligible. In 1948, 235 tons were caught, but production has considerably diminished and in 1951 was only 91 tons. MOoOLLUSCA CEPHALOPODA CALAMAR (Squid), Loligo gahi D’Orbigny, 1835. Small cepha- lopoda about 10 cm. long consumed canned in oil. Although its area of distribution is extensive, including the biogeographical Peruvian and Patagonian provinces of South America, it is only processed in Cal- buco with a net production of 1,111 Kg. in 1951. It is also used as fishing bait. ; PULPO (Octopus), Polypus fontaineanus D’Orbigny, 1835. In- habitant of the Chilean and Peruvian coasts; of a vivid red colour with granulated body surface. The maximum length observed is about 25 cms. Its arms are eaten, but it is not processed and is captured in small quantities. JIBIA (Cuttlefish), Dosidicus gigas D'Orbigny, 1835. Big nocturnal cephalopoda usually beached in great quantities at Ritoque, Refiaca, Constitucién and Talcahuano; utilized as fishing bait for cusk eel (Genypterus sp.). EDIBLE SHELLFISH OF THE CHILEAN COAST 283 GASTROPODA LOCO, Concholepas concholepas Brug. 1789. Gastropoda of eco- nomic importance attaining great size; 33 tons were utilized in 1951 and canned in three ways: in oil, special brand, and “au naturel.” It is hand picked in the intertidal zone or by divers with or without div- ing equipment. The principal fishing centres are Los Vilos, Quintero, Valparaiso and Puerto Montt. The mollusc’s powerful foot is consumed tenderized by beating together with salt or with sawdust before cook- ing. It is processed in the region of Calbuco and Puerto Montt. - Other gastropods of popular demand are: CARACOL GRANDE DE ESPUELA (Chorus), Chorus giganteus Less., 1829. Found originally in Concepcion; its area of distribution extends up to the bay of Valparaiso (Riveros-Zuniga, 1950) ; caught in traps baited with fish or crustacean wastes; eaten cooked; taste resem- bling that of Concholepas concholepas. CARACOLES (Top-shells). Under this name are consumed some edible species of the genera Tegula, such as 7. atre Less., 1830, the MELONHUE of the Chiloé zone; T. tridentata Potiez et Michaud, 1838; T. quadricostata Gray, 1838; Acanthina calcar Martyn (Unicorn-shell), 1784 and Turbo (Prisogaster) niger (Turbine-shell) Wood, 1828, known as LILIHUEN. Not processed, but sought after by the fishermen to be eaten cooked. Fissurella (Keyhole limpets). Abundant gastropods whose tasteful foot is frequently consumed fresh. Also called CHAPAS or CHAPES. ‘The most used species are F. maxima Sow., 1834; F. picta Lamk, 1822; F. crassa Lamk, 1822; F. limbata Sow., 1834; F. latemarginata Sow., 1834; (Riveros-Zuniga, 1951). Area of distribution generally very ex- tensive. Abundant in the intertidal zone on the bare rocks or on those covered by algae. Patella, Nacella, Scurria, Siphonaria (Limpets) are genera whose species are sought as food and called LAPAS, a name which is applied in general to mollusks with conical shell which adhere strongly to the rocks or other supports. Some species utilized are Patella magellanica Gmelin, 1791; Nacella clypeater Less., 1830; Scurria scurra Less., 1830; and Siphonaria (Liriola) lessoni Blainville, 1824. Thais chocolata Duclos, 1832, (Thais) is found from Paita in Peru, where it is called CARACOL, to Valparaiso. In Coquimbo and vicinity it is known as LOCATE or LOCA because of its resemblance in taste to the Concholepas concholepas. Fished by divers and very well liked. PIQUILHUE (Volutes) Adelomelon magellanicus Lamk, 1811 and A. ancilla Sow., 1786, are the species consumed in the region of Chiloé. 284 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS AMPHINEURA Chiton and Tonicia (Chitons) are genera of Polyplacophora with some species found in the market. In a number of Chilean ports they are sold under the name of COGOTES, but they find little acceptance. PELECYPODA From the industrial point of view, the following families are of importance, (by order of value): Mytilidae, Ostreidae, Mesodesmatidae, Veneridae and Pectenidae. Among the Mytzlidae the total volume of production in 1945 was 9,950 tons and 12,289 in 1951, the highest production being in 1946 with 15,082 tons. The catch of the most valuable species has diminished a great deal due to uncontrolled and extensive exploitation, leading to the extraction of very young specimens, to the evident danger of the conservation of the species. The fishing methods, which literally collect every specimen from the beds, have had a depleting effect shown in the disappearance of the beds nearest to the factories; therefore it has been necessary to search for them in more distant places. To the new genus Choromytilus (Soot-Ryen, 1952) belongs C. chorus (Molina, 1782) CHORO (Giant mussel) with area of distribu- tion from Pascamayo (Peru) to Orange Bay (Chile). Its uncontrolled exploitation continued for decades has caused depletion and there is urgent need of protecting the species. It is the biggest of the marine choros and is greatly esteemed from the nutritive point of view. It adheres to its supports through a strong byssus and has a big oval ob- long shell, bluish in colour, covered by a blackish periostracum. Mytilus ater Molina, 1782, Aulacomya magellanica Chemnitz, 1819 (Carcelles, 1942), and M. chilensis Hupé, 1854, are commonly called - CHOLGAS (Mussels). ‘The first has a smooth surface and is found from Manta (Ecuador) to Talcahuano; the second abundant in Magallanes but is found north up to Valparaiso, and the last along an extended area from Callao (Pert) to Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Is., and the coast off Buenos Aires. The total production of CHOLGAS is around 4,000 to 7,000 tons. They are usually consumed fresh or smoked. In 1951 canned production amounted to 2,900 tons, “au naturel,” special brand, and in oil. The Puerto Montt zone (Calbuco, Puerto Aguirre, Quellon, Aulén, San Rafael) industrializes the greatest quota of cholgas. M. chilensis, called CHILEAN or SOUTHERN MEJILLON, is caught in Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia and Strait of Magellan. Aulacomya ma- gellanica Chemnitz, is the GRAN MEJILLON OF MAGALLANES (Ma- gellanic large mussel) or CHORO or MEJILLON RAYADO. EDIBLE SHELLFISH OF THE CHILEAN COAST 285 Modiolus dayctiliformis Hupé, is characterized by its oblong shape, smoothed at the umbo and by the brownish green periostracum; the inside of the shell is nacreous tinged with violet. The CHORITO or QUILMAHUE (Horse-mussel) is found from Antofagasta to the Chiloé zone, but only consumed by fishermen. Brachydontes purpuratus Lamk, 1797 is the CHORITO MAICO (Purple horse-mussel) found along all the Chilean coast, Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Is., and Argentine coast up to Golfo Nuevo, also called MEJILLON DEL SUR or MEJILLON PURPURA. It is fished in all its area, but not for industrial purposes. Ostrea chilensis Philippi, 1845, the OSTRA CHILENA (Oyster) found in an extended area from the coast of California to the zone of Chiloé. It is the most demanded mollusk. Its exploitation has in- creased since 1945 from 260 tons to 598 tons in 1951, Ancud being the zone of greatest production. This production comes principally from artificially stocked beds and has been helped by timely restrictions. Pecten (Plagioctenum) purpuratus Lamk, 1819, OSTION is the Chilean scallop most in demand, with orbicular, convex shell, with 26 ribs and pinkish white colour. The adductor muscle has a delicious flavour and is preferably consumed fresh. In 1945, 65 tons, in 1950, 387 tons, and in 1951 only 262 tons were extracted. Chlamys patagonicus King, 1831, OSTION MAGALLANICO (Ma- gellanic scallop). Very common in the coasts of the Strait of Magellan and in the fjords up to Puerto Montt, but not of great economic value. Protothaca thaca Molina, 1782, TACA (Hard clam) is found from Ancon (Pert) to the Chonos Archipelago and is in demand because of its excellent taste to be consumed baked on embers or in soups or “curantos’” (primitive preparation of shellfish and algae, cooked in ground holes with hot stones). Production in 1950 and 1951 has amounted to 901 and 913 tons respectively. Mesodesma donacium Lamk, 1818, MACHA (Soft shell clam), is found from Chiloé to the Sechura Bay, in Peru. Maximum production amounted to 668 tons in 1951. Its white shell is covered by a straw yellow periostracum and of its ends the shortest is subtruncate and the widest, compressed and channelled. Obtained in great quantities in Las Ventanas of Quintero, Iloca, etc. Tagelus (Mesopleura) dombeyi Lamk, 1818, is one of the NAVA- JAS DE MAR (Razor-clams), found from Tumbes, Peru, to the Chiloé Is. Hinged with two inconspicuous cardinal teeth; consumed by the coastal people and frequently found in southern markets where its local name is QUIVI. 286 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Solen gaudichaudi Chemn, 1843, and Ensis macha Molina, 1782, are called NAVAJUELAS DE MAR (Razor-shells).. The first is found in a small area, from Valparaiso to Coquimbo, and the second, from Valparaiso to Magallanes up to the Atlantic coast, reaching the Gulf of San Matias (Carcelles, 1950). Both are sand species found at great depths and collected at low tide. Pholas (Thovana) chilensis Molina, 1782, commonly called COMES (Piddock) is found from the Gulf of Panama to the Chiloé Is. Con- sidered one of the best shellfish and known by its two anterior plates with anterior-central nuclei, a small and transversial middle plate and a long and narrow posterior plate. No lines in the third posterior of the shell. Mulinia bicolor Gray, 1837; M. edulis King, 1831, and M. byronen- sis Gray, 1838, species which because of their resemblance to the TACAS (Hard clams) are called TAQUILLAS (Small hard clams). ‘Their areas of distribution are extensive: M. edulis is found from Callao to the Strait of Magellan, M. byronensis from Salaverry (Peru) to the Strait of Magellan, M. bicolor from Copiapo to Valparaiso. (Some authors consider M. bicolor Gray synonymous with M. edulis). They are frequently found in the markets of a number of sea ports in Chile. REFERENCES ALBERT, F. 1898. La Langosta de Juan Fernandez y la Posibilidad de su Propagacién en la Costa Chilena. Rev. Chilena Hist. Nat., Ano II, No. 1, Pp. 5-11. Valparaiso, Chile. CARCELLES, A. 1942. Nota sobre el Mejillon Aulacomya magellanica Chem- nitz. Physis, Vol. XIX, Pp. 180-190, Buenos, Aires, Argentina. 1946. Mariscos de las Costas Argentinas. Argentina Austral., Afio XVIII, Nos. 186-187, Pp. 1-20. Buenos Aires, Argentina. HERNANDEZ, M. 1953. Informacioénes Estadisticas sobre Pesca. 57 Pp. Di- reccién de Pesca y Caza. Valparaiso, Chile. | HoLtTuHius, L. B. 1952. The Crustacean Decapoda Macrura of Chile. With Spanish Abstract. Report Lund Univ. Chiie Hap. 1948-1949. Vol. 5, 110 Pp. Lunds Univ. Handl., N. F. Bd. 62, No. 10. Lund. RiveRos-ZUNIGA, F. 1950. El Area de Distribucién de Chorus giganteus Less., 1829. fev. Biol. Mar. Univ. Chile. Vol. III, Nos. 1-2, Pp. 157-161. Val- paraiso, Chile. SCHWABE, G. H. 1939. Uber die Mariscofischerei von Siidchile. Monatsh. fo Fischerei, 7 Jg. N. F. Pp. 129-184. Hamburg, Germany. 1941. Aus dem siidchilenischen Kiistengebiet, XIII Uber Mariscos und Mariscofischerei. Zeitschr. f. Fischerei. Vol. XXXIX, No. 8, Pp. 313-347. Frankfurt a.d. Oder. Soot-RYEN, T. 1952. Choromytilus, a new genus in the Mytilidae. Rev. Soe. Malacol. Carlos de la Torre, Vol. VIII, No. 3, Pp. 121-122. Havana, Cuba. VAN NAME, W. G. 1945. The North and South American Ascidians. Bull. Amer, Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. 84, Pp. VIII + 476. New York, U.S.A. NOTES ON THE COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT IM(Sla0as) Ove Clsvouss By PARMENIO A. YANEZ University of Chile Marine Biological Station Montemar, Chile The fish fauna of the coast of Chile, which extends from the border of Peru (18°22’S) to Cape Horn (56°S), is constituted of coastal species typical of the Chilean district, generally understood to be the region between the latitudes of Valdivia (39°45’S) and Tocopilla (22°41’S). Among these species are also found northern and southern fishes from the Peruvian and Magellanic districts. Besides these species, other pelagic ones are also found which migrate to the south through the outer waters of the Coastal Current of Peru following, during their transgresses and regresses, the tropical and subtropical oceanic waters. The transgression of these waters, at a temperature and salinity of about 15° and 35%, respectively, starts approximately in October, reaches its maximum in February and its minimum in August, when they move away from the coast, between Yocopilla and the province of Cautin, a short distance north of Valdivia. At the time of the regression of the warm waters, the cold waters, with temperatures around 12°C, which during the summer do not sur- pass the latitude of the peninsula of Taitao (46°30’S), extend towards the north on a narrow coastal strip reaching as far as 32°S, a little north of the site of the Marine Biological Station of Montemar (Esta- cidn de Biologia Marina de Montemar), (32°51’24”S), located in the Bay of Valparaiso. The analysis of the observations made in the Marine Biological Station since 1947, shows that the surface temperature of the sea water fluctuated in February between 14° and 16°C; in August between 11° and 12°C, and in October, between 12° and 13°C. Occasionally there has been a maximum of 18°C in February and a minimum of around 9°C in August. Thanks to the indicated facts, the Marine Biological Station is located in the most favourable point of the Chilean coast regarding ichthyological observations. The majority of the species character- istic of the Magellanic and Peruvian districts reach the latitude of the Station in question. Of the 50 species of commercial importance considered below, only 7 were not caught in the neighbourhood of 287 288 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the Station, which is a small number compared with the 16 species missing in the waters of Talcahuano (36°44’S), and 12 in the waters of Antofagasta (23°38’S). The annual changes of temperature of the surface waters on the coast of Chile, besides determining the characteristics of the fish fauna and the migrations of many of the species of fish, also establish a typical annual cycle of plankton. Two distinct periods are found in the abund- ance of plankton; the rich Spring period, which extends until the be- ginning of Summer, and the poor Autumn period until the commence- ment of Winter. In July and August there are also two short periods of abundance and scarcity respectively (P. Yanez—Informacion preli- minar sobre el ciclo anual de plancton superficial en la Bahia de Val- paraiso (“Preliminary notes on the annual cycle of the surface plankton of the Bay of Valparaiso’), Rev. Biol. Mar. I, 1, pp. 57-59). Around one fifth of the 260 coastal and pelagic species (Selachit and Teleostomz), listed for the Chilean coast up to date (Henry W. Fowler—Fishes of Chile. Rev. Chilena de Hist. Nat. Santiago, Chile. 1943), are used as food by the inhabitants of the country. However, not more than twenty, in view of the volume of the catch and industrial value, are of real commercial importance. A list of the species of fish of commercial value follows. It is arranged systematically. Between brackets, following the sci- entific name, is given the common denomination of the species mostly utilized in the country, followed by the annual catch in tons, taken from Moises. Hernandez Ponce—Informacidones estadisticas sobre la Pesca (Statistical Information on the Fisheries) Valparaiso, Chile. 1953. CLASS PISCES SUB-CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII ORDER SQUALIFORMS Family Squalidae 1.—Squalus fernandinus Mol., 1782. Small size species found in the water off the island of Juan Fernandez and in the continental coast of Chile, from Valparaiso southwards. It has been extensively fished until recently because of its liver, which is very rich in vitamin oil. ORDER LAMNIFORMS Family Carcharidae 2.—Mustelus mento (Cope, 1877) (TOLLO; 800 tons) Species of medium size. Found from the Gulf of Arauco to Peru; mainly caught between Caldera and Coquimbo. It has excellent flesh, which is con- sumed fresh, dry, salted or smoked. COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT FISHES OF CHILE 289 ORDER CHIMAERIFORMS Family Callorhynchidae 3.—Callorhynchus callorhynchus (L.) (PEJEGALLO; 300 tons). Found along the whole coast. Its flesh is very much appreciated salted or smoked. SUB-CLASS TELEOSTOMI ORDER CLUPEIFORMS Sub-order CLUPEOIDEI Family Clupeidae 4.—Ethmidium maculatum (Val., 1847) (MACHUELO; 800 tons). It is the largest Chilean clupeid (length 35 cms.); it is caught from the Gulf of Arauco northwards and it is consumed smoked or canned. 5.—Clupea fuegensis (Jen., 1842), (sardina comun) 6.—Sardinops sagax (Jen., 1842), (cardina espanola) 7.—Engraulis ringens (Jen., 1842), (anchoa) The first species is found from Valparaiso southwards, and the others, from the Gulf of Arauco northwards. ‘Their catch amounts to 8000 tons annually, and they are mostly canned; however, they are also used for the manufacture of fish meal. ORDER GADIFORMS Family Gadidae 8.—Merluccius gayi (Guich., 1848), (PESCADA; 40,000 tons). Is the most important species for human consumption. Inhabits the waters from Caldera southwards; however, it is mainly caught between Valpa- raiso and Talcahuano for fresh fish consumption and manufacture of fish meal. ORDER PLEURONECTIFORMS Family Bathidae 9.—Paralichthys microps (Gthr., 1881). 10.—P. adspersus (Steind., 1867). 11.—Hippoglossina macrops (Steind., 1876). These species are commonly known by the name of LENGUADO; their meat is of good quality and is consumed fresh; however, their catch is only about 400 tons yearly. ORDER PERCIFORMS Sub-order PERCOIDEI Family Malacanthidae (=Latilidae) 12.—Prolatilus jugularis (Val., 1833), (BLANQUILLO; 400 tons). Inhabitant of the waters between Chiloé and Antofagasta. Consumed fresh, but it is not a very well liked fish. 290 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Family Carangidae 13.—Trachurus trachurus (L.), (JUREL; 600 tons). Pelagic, cos- mopolitan, tropical or sub-tropical; approaches the coast during the Summer, from Chiloé northwards, pursuing in large shoals, the sar- dines and anchovies. Family Pomadasyidae 14.-Cilus montti (Delfin, 1900), (CORVINA; 1000 tons). Found from Chiloé to Tarapaca; abundant mostly during Spring and Summer. 15.—Isacia conceptionis (Cuv., 1830), (CABINZA; 400 tons). From the Gulf of Arauco northwards; like the previous species, is more abundant in the Spring and Summer. 16.—Pomadasys schyvi (Steind., 1902), RONCADOR. 17.—Anisotremus scapularis (Tschudi, 1843), (SARGO). Family Sciaenidae 18.—Sciaena deliciosa (Vschudi, 1845), (AYANQUE),. These three later species come from Peru; they are caught from Antofagasta northwards, and are very popular. 19.—Menticirrhus ophicephalus (Jen., 1842), (PICHIGUEN). 20.—Micropogon furniert (Desm., 1823). These two species are caught in small quantities; are consumed fresh and are very much liked in their restricted area of distribution, which extends from Valparaiso to Chanaral. Family Labridae 21.—Pimelometopon maculatus (Perez-Canto, 1886), (PEJE-PER- RO). Gulf of Arauco to Iquique; consumed fresh. 22.—Pimelometopon darwinit (Jen., 1842), (MULATO). From An- tofagasta northwards. It is mostly caught in Tarapaca and is consumed fresh. 23.—Graus nigra (Philippi, 1887), (VIEJA). Very much esteemed for fresh consumption in its limited area of distribution, which extends from Coquimbo (30°S) to Colchagua (34°S). Family A plodactylidae 24.-Aplodactylus punctatus (Cuv. et Val. 1831), (JERGUILLA). Found in the area between the Gulf of Arauco and Peru. It is a fish about 35 cms. long, very little appreciated and consumed almost only by the fishermen. Family Cheilodactylidae 25.—Cheilodactylus variegatus (Cuv. et Val., 1835), (PINTADILLA). 26.—C. antonii (Val. 1833), (BILAGAY). Fish of medium size and bright colors, characteristic of the coastal water from Valparaiso COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT FISHES OF CHILE 291 northwards. ‘The fishermen like it in view of the good quality of its flesh; however, it is caught only in small quantities. Family Notothenidae 27.—Eleginops maclovinus (Val., 1830), (ROBALO; 2000 tons). Found from Tierra del Fuego to Valparaiso. Inhabits the waters along the beaches and enters in the river estuaries; it is the fish of Magellanic origin of greatest commercial value; abundant all year round in its original area, offering possibilities for canning. It is presently consumed fresh, salted and smoked. Sub-Order BLENNIOIDEI Family Clinidae 28.—Callichinus geniguttatus (Val., 1836), (TOMOLLO; 25 tons). Magellan to Antofagasta. It is of average size; inhabits shallow waters in rocky beaches; its flesh is of good quality and is consumed fresh. Family Mugiloididae 29.—Mugiloides chilensis (Mol., 1782), (ROLLIZO). Found from Magellan to Peru; grows up to 80 cms., and has a thick body and good quality flesh. 30.—Auchenionchus variolosus (Val., 1836), (TRAMBOLLO). Found from Tierra del Fuego to Iquique; very much alike the previous species in its aspect and quality. Sub-Order OPHIDIOIDEI Family Ophididae 31.—Genypterus chilensis (Guich., 1848), (CONGRIO COLORADO; 1500 tons). Found from Tierra del Fuego to Peru; it is the most liked fish in the central region of Chile; fished all year round and consumed fresh like the other following species. Inhabitant of rocky bottoms. 32.—G. blacodes (Schn., 1801), (CONGRIO NEGRO; 2000 tons). Found from Antofagasta to Tierra del Fuego; very much like the above species, but less appreciated as food. Its fishery has diminished in latter years. 33.-G. maculatus (Tschudi, 1846), (CONGRIO DORADO; 400 tons). It has been caught for six years only in a canyon of the continental shelf near Talcahuano. Sub-Order SCOMBROIDEI Family Gempylidae 34.—Thyrsites atun (Euphr., 1791). 35.—Thyrsitops leprdopodes (Cuv., 1830). 292 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS These two species are very much alike, and are known by the common name of SIERRA; they are pelagic fish which reach the coast in great quantities, from Coquimbo southwards during the Summer months. ‘They are of very good quality and are consumed fresh and smoked. Maintain a considerable fishery (5000 tons). Family Scombridae 36.—Thunnus macropterus (Schleg., 1850), (ATUN DE ALETA AMARILLA; 2000 tons). It is caught all year round from Tocopilla northwards, outside of the coastal current. It is tinned in the canneries of Iquique. 37.-Germo alalunga (Bonnat., 1788), (ATUN DE ALETA LARGA; 500 tons). From the tropical and sub-tropical Pacific it reaches, during the Summer months, the coasts of Valparaiso, where it is mostly consumed fresh. 38.—Katsuwonus pelamys (L.), (CACHURETA). It is found in the waters outside of the coastal current, from Huasco (28°27’S) north- wards, and it is caught in comparatively small quantities. 39.—Sarda chilensis (Cuv. et Val., 1851), (BONITO; 4000 tons). It is found in great quantities along the coasts of Antofagasta and Tara- paca, and is the fish which constitutes the basis of the canning industry of northern Chile. 40.—Pneumatophorus peruanus (Jordan and Hubbs, 1925), (CA- BALLA). It is of small size and it is abundant in the coast of Tarapaca where it is caught in large quantities. Family Xiphidae 41.—Xiphias gladius (L.), (PEZ ESPADA; 1000 tons). This is a cosmopolitan species of warm seas which is abundant in northern Chilean waters. It is mostly exported frozen to the United States of America. Sub-Order STROMATEOIDEI Family Stromateidae 42.—Stromateus maculatus (Cuv. et Val., 1833), (PAMPANITO). From Tierra del Fuego to Coquimbo. Small; it is caught in limited quantities and is liked by the fishermen. Family Nomeidae 43.—Seriolella porosa (Guich., 1848), (COJINOVA; 400 tons). From Magellan to Tarapaca; found gathered in small schools during the Summer pursuing the sardines. COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT FISHES OF CHILE 293 Sub-Order MUGILOIDEI Family Mugilidae 44.-Mugil cephalus (L.), (LISA; 100 tons). Lives in schools near the beaches, and enters the estuaries of the rivers of the central region, where it is sometimes found in extraordinary quantities. Family Atherinidae 45.—Austromenidia laticlavia (Val., 1835). 46.—A. regia (Humboldt, 1833). The numerous Chilean species of this family, known by the com- mon name of PEJERREYKES, constitute a systematic problem not yet solved. ‘They are found all over the Chilean coast as well as in fresh water. ‘They are very much appreciated and the annual catch is about 500 tons. ORDER GOBIESOCIFORMS Family Gobiesocidae 47.—Syciases sanguineus (Muller et Troschel, 1843). 48.—S. chilensis (Brisout de Barneville, 1846). 49.—Sycyogaster marmoratus (Jen., 1842). These three species live attached to the rocks in the breakers area, from Chiloé as far as Peru. ‘They are known by the common name of PEJE-SAPOS, and the fine flesh is very much appreciated. ORDER BATRACHOIDIFORMS Family Batrachoididae 50.—_Aphos porosus (Cuv. et Val., 1837), (BAGRE DE MAR). Reaches the coast to spawn in the fissures of the rocks near the inter- tidal zone, around the middle of Spring, and leave the coast by the end of the Summer. During this period it is caught in large quantities in its lurking places to the end of poles. Its flesh is of excellent quality, but it is very little known in the market. OCEANOGRAPHICAL AND FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA By N. K. PANIKKAR Central Marine Fisheries Research Station Mandapam, South India EARLIER WorK Although earlier investigations in Indian Seas were conducted by the British Naval Vessels from 1832 to 1862, serious attempts to study Indian waters were commenced only in 1872 with the inauguration of the Indian Marine Survey. The surgeon-naturalists attached to the survey ships were really the pioneers in marine studies of Indian waters. The Marine Survey was placed on a more permanent footing when the survey ship “INVESTIGATOR” was built during 1879 to 1880 and it is of interest to record that some of the apparatus used in this ship for work in Indian waters originally came from the gear used by H.M.S. “Challenger.” ‘The interest evinced in deep sea life by the Challenger Expedition was reflected in the special attention given to deep sea organisms of the Indian Ocean. Except for soundings and temperatures, the observations made were largely biological. SEWELL’S WorRK ON “INVESTIGATOR” In place of the “INVESTIGATOR I’, a new ship of the same name was built and commissioned in 1908 commencing a new phase in oceanographic work in Indian waters with special reference to the tem- perature and salinity distributions up to a depth of 500 fathoms initiated by Sewell, who joined the ship in 1910. ‘The work of Sewell on “INVESTIGATOR” continued till 1925 with the exception of a break of some years between 1914 and 1921 owing to World War I. Sewell’s work brought out the general picture of hydrological features of the ocean. In a series of contributions published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1925-35, the geography of the Andaman Basin, the nature of the sea bed and of the deep sea deposits of the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, the maritime meteorology of the Indian Seas, the tempera- ture and salinity of the coastal and deeper waters of the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, the topography of the Laccadive Sea and the coral formations in Indian waters were dealt with by Sewell. Additional oceanographic data were also obtained during this period from the re- sults of the German Deep Sea Expedition “VALDIVIA” (1898-99) and 294 OCEANOGRAPHICAL AND FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 295 the Danish Dana Expeditions (1920-22) and the Dutch Snellius Expedi- tion (1929), and to a smaller extent by traverses made by other survey ships. Joun Murray EXPEDITION The third phase in the progress of Indian Oceanography relates to the period covered by the John Murray Expedition to the Indian Ocean on the research vessel “MABAHISS” led by Sewell. The region especially chosen was the Arabian Sea, to the west of Maldive and Lac- cadive Archipelago, in continuation of the “INVESTIGATOR” work. The expedition was able to confirm some of the findings of the Dana on the submarine contours and it brought evidence of the presence of submarine ridges running parallel to the Rift Valley system. ‘The changes in the distribution of fauna in regions of the Arabian Sea were also clearly shown by the work of the John Murray Expedition, and a noteworthy discovery was made of the existence of large azoic areas off Arabia probably connected with petroleum formation. ‘The results ob- tained by the John Murray Expedition have been dealt with in various volumes which have already come out, but the principal findings have been dealt with by Sewell in various papers. FEATURES OF THE INDIAN OCEAN Our present knowledge of the Indian Ocean has been summarized by Schott (1935), Sewell (1937), and Sverdrup et al. (1950). The fact that oceanographic information relating to the Indian Ocean is imperfect has been often stressed and with more intensive work it is possible that some of the concepts now current may require modification. This is especially so for that part of the Indian Ocean south of the Equator. The Northern part of the ocean is broadly divided into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, each with further geographical sub-divisions. The topography of the Arabian Sea is characterized by the existence of a long series of submarine ranges, the Carlesberg Ridge beginning from the region of the island of Socotra and Gape Gardafui ’ and extending to the southeast along the Chagos Archipelago and fur- ther south to the Island of Rodriguez. To the southwest of the Carles- berg Ridge and lying parallel to it lies the Mascarane Bank covering the Islands of Seychelles and Mauritius together with a series of reefs. To the north, the Carlesberg Ridge is continued by a different forma- tion in the direction of Arabia and the Gulf of Oman; this ridge which is considered as the submarine continuation of the Kirthar Range of Sind is the Murray Ridge. The geology of these ridges and the sea floor require much further study before their origin could be established 296 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS with certainty. In the Bay of Bengal a north to south range, the Car- penter’s Ridge, which probably is of volcanic origin, is situated to the west of the Andaman-Nicobar chain of islands. ‘The mouths of the Indus in the Arabian Sea and the Ganga-Brahmaputra at the head of the Bay of Bengal have given rise to deep submarine gulleys (Indus Swatch and Swatch of no ground). ‘The presence of the submarine ridges and gulleys substantially influences the circulation in the North- ern Sector of the Indian Ocean. Further, there are widespread forma- tions of coral reefs of the fringing and atoll types throughout the area except on the two sides of the Indian peninsula, although reefs are prominent around southernmost India and Ceylon, the Andaman-Nico- bar group and the Laccadive-Maldive group. ‘The reasons for their ab- sence in most parts of the Indian Coast have not been satisfactorily explained, although it is usually attributed to estuarine influences and silting on the east coast of India and to the upwelling of colder waters on the west coast of India (Sewell, 1937). Hydrologically the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea present substantially different features and a careful study and interpretation of these differences might well explain the enormous disparity in fish production between the western and eastern coasts of India, the former contributing to more than two thirds of the total. The Bay of Bengal waters are generally less saline owing to the influence of the large rivers that empty into it. The eastern coast is also characterized by a well- developed estuarine fauna. On the other hand the salinity of the Arabian Sea waters is distinctly higher and the waters generally are of an oceanic character. Owing probably to the upwelling of deeper waters to the surface, the vertical mixing facilitated by the Carlesberg and Murray ridges and the turbulence resulting from strong S. W. Mon- soon winds, the Arabian Sea waters appear to be richer in nutrients having extensive areas of high productivity. It is noteworthy that shoals of plankton feeding fishes like the oil sardine of Malabar (Sardinella longiceps) and the Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) largely contribute to the west coast fisheries of India. Post War INTEREST IN FISHERIES AND OCEANOGRAPHY It may be said that the work carried out so far did not form part of any comprehensive programme for the investigation of Indian waters. Collection of further information has continued through the agency of survey ships and subsequent expeditions like that of the Discovery II and the Galathea. With the end of World War II, India, like many other nations of the world, was faced with problems of acute food short- age, and one of the subjects that received governmental attention was OCEANOGRAPHICAL AND FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 297 the development of marine fisheries. It is natural that in connection with fisheries programmes a considerable amount of interest was also evinced in the further pursuit of oceanographical studies as an aid to the proper exploitation of marine fishery resources. A very small part of biological and chemical studies as a necessary ancillary to the de- velopment of fishery investigations was initiated in 1948 when arrange- ments for the systematic collection of hydrological data at selected fishery centres were made. ‘These attempts to obtain hydrological data have been purely from the standpoint of fishery work and it cannot be said that they have been carried out in any systematic manner in the absence of a Fishery Research Vessel for regular cruising. It is well-known that the arrival and departure of shoals of fish in any definite area are largely governed by their movements connected with their feeding and spawning habits, which are most intimately related to the physical and chemical properties of the sea water in which the shoals are located. In the sea there are periodical fluctuations in the physico-chemical conditions which may be annual, seasonal or even diurnal; these fluctuations are the combined results of the action of various meteorological and hydrodynamical factors. In addition to these more or less normal variations there may also be abnormal variations caused by geophysical disturbances or by factors unknown to us at the present time. A very systematic approach to these various problems is necessary to obtain a correct picture of sea fisheries of the Indian coast, which are largely seasonal and some of which, like sardines, show large variations from year to year. Indian marine fisheries are largely seasonal in character and the causes governing the movements of shoaling fish and the reasons for the failure or shift of seasons of a given fishery are at present unknown. Similarly the fishing grounds have not been charted, though a beginning has been made in this direction for areas around Bombay. The area now exploited for sea fishing includes only the narrow coastal zone of five to six miles from the shore. Power vessels to exploit the off-shore fisheries have begun operations on a pilot scale in Bombay under the aegis of the Government of India and in Calcutta by the Government of West Bengal. In the not too distant future, it is expected that more vessels will be put into operation from different centres like Cochin, Madras and Visakhapatnam. ‘The work of exploration of off-shore fishery resources and the charting of fishing grounds is one which calls for help from oceanographical studies as data on movements and com- position of the water masses would be extremely useful. 298 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CENTRAL BOARD OF GEOPHYSICS The Government of India constituted the Central Board of Geo- physics in 1949 and an Oceanographical Committee of the Central Board of Geophysics reviews the problems of oceanographical studies in India from time to time with the ultimate object of setting up an Institute of Oceanography. ‘This probably marks the first attempt in the country to think in terms of oceanography as an independent sci- ence which needs pursuit for its own sake without being subservient to the applied aspects of Fisheries, Harbour development, Coastal ero- sion, ‘Tide Prediction, Survey and Navigation. It may be recalled that the Survey of India has for a long time been carrying out prediction of tides for thirty-nine ports from Aden to Singapore and it is also re- sponsible for the mean sea level determinations. Expansion of tidal work is also contemplated by the Survey of India by placing tide gauges at most of the important ports and carrying out corresponding meteoro- logical surveys with the help of the India Meteorological Department. EXTENT OF AVAILABLE DATA The information on oceanographical topics available in India would therefore comprise (1) Salinity and temperature distributions as recorded by previous expeditions and part of which work is being continued with reference to Fisheries by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station at Mandapam with the help of Fishery Naval and Merchant Vessels operating in Indian waters; (2) Data relating to tides, mean sea level and other physical aspects available with the Survey of India; and (3) Data on maritime meteorology available with the India Meteorological Department. An extremely useful compilation of sea temperature, currents and meteorological data has been published by the Netherlands Meteoro- logical Institute in the form of an Atlas in 1952. BEGINNINGS OF FISHERIES RESEARCH Early attempts relating to research on marine fisheries of India were directed to experimental trawling operations by ships belonging to the Madras, Bengal and Bombay Governments and the scientific work relating to the biology of the Oil Sardine of the Malabar Coast. The trawling operations were commercially unsuccessful and_ fishery work in most provinces suffered neglect during the periods of economic depression that followed the first World War. ‘The interest in the Sardine fishery of the west coast of India continued because of the disasters which this fishery suffered following the many successful years OCEANOGRAPHICAL AND FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 299 for Sardines which led to the production of sardine oil becoming an important industry. Owing to the inadequacy of staff, lack of sufficient funds to carry out investigations with thoroughness, and the position of Fisheries as a Provincial Subject creating administrative problems when a fishery extends to two or more states, these efforts often lacked continuity. The first decision to tackle the marine fisheries investigation on an All-India basis was taken by the Government of India with the starting of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station in 1947. CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES STATION This Central Institute was started in February 1947 for handling marine fisheries research on an All-India basis with temporary head- quarters in the Biological Laboratories of Madras University until the permanent headquarters at Mandapam were ready for occupation. Buildings originally put up as a Naval Hospital by the Defense Depart- ment during World War II were converted into laboratories and tem- porary residential accommodation for the staff. Subsequently an aqua- rium was built with facilities for keeping organisms alive in circulating sea water and fittings to the laboratories were carried out. In addition to the headquarters station, there is a subsidiary research station at Kozhikode to deal with the special fisheries problems of the West Coast of India, and research units at Karwar in the Bombay State to deal with the mackerel fishery, at Narakkal in Travancore-Cochin to deal with the prawn fisheries and prawn farming operations, at Madras for handling studies on edible Mollusca and at Bombay for carrying out investiga- tions on off-shore fisheries. In order to collect fishery data from the long coast-line of India, fishery survey assistants have been posted at twelve centres representative of the various divisions of the Indian coast-line extending from Kathiawar to West Bengal. The data gathered are analysed and computed at Headquarters, setting up for the first time a machinery for the collection of All-India marine fishery statistics. PROGRAMMES OF MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH The work of the institution is broadly divided into four categories, Fishery Survey, Fishery Biology, Marine Biology and General Physiol- ogy. Fishery Survey aims at assessing the marine fishery resources by computing fish landings and biological composition of catches to see if the marine fisheries in general are under- or over-utilized. Scientific study of exploratory work of the deep sea fishing vessels forms an essen- tial part of the survey programme. ‘The studies relating to Fishery Biology deal with the fish stocks, special habits, distribution, life-histo- ries and such aspects of fish life as have intimate bearing on fisheries 300 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS problems. The major fisheries of India like the Sardines, the Mackerel, the Sharks and other less known categories of fishes are all investigated in detail in an attempt to understand the causes governing their abun- dance, and the efficiency with which the fish are caught and utilized. Subsidiary fishery resources like the prawns, the oysters, clams, etc. are also receiving close attention. Sea weeds which occur in considerable abundance in the sea and form a valuable raw material for the produc- tion of agar and other industrial products, are being investigated in detail to determine the extent of the resources. The third important category of investigations come within the field of Marine Biology deal- ing with the factors connected with the abundance of smaller forms of plant and animal life which ultimately form the food ‘of fish. This is also correlated with studies on the chemistry of sea-water with a view to understanding seasonal changes in the occurrence of nutrient salts. Bacteriology of sea-water and fish products is also investigated with a view to arriving at enforceable standards in the handling of fish prod- ucts. The physiology of fish and other commercially important forms of marine life are studied with a view to selecting suitable types that would be ideal for large-scale culture in coastal areas which could be developed into marine fish farms. The institution maintains a good library and a reference collection. CORRELATION OF OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES In the above paragraphs some idea has been given of the ap- proach to oceanographical and marine fisheries studies in India. ‘There is need for a standing machinery to collect and integrate synoptic data on the hydrology and maritime meteorology of the waters that surround India. The emphasis so far received has been biological and although marine biological investigations on a considerable scale have been car- ried out at Visakhapatnam, Madras, Mandapam, Trivandrum, Calicut and Bombay, the full interpretation of these results has to await more intensive physical-chemical work. Preliminary chemical data on phos- phates, nitrates, nitrites and silicates are already available for Madras, Mandapam and Calicut and it is hoped to extend these further in the near future. The greatest drawback, however, lies in the fact that stu- dies have principally been carried out in inshore or neritic waters with few observations in the open sea. An attempt to obtain a clear picture of oceanographic conditions in relation to Fisheries has now been initiated by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station from Bom- bay utilizing the facilities of deep sea fishing vessels operating from that port and especially in view of the excellent results in trawling operations to the west of Kathiawar, which has now been found to be OCEANOGRAPHICAL AND FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 301 one of the richest fishing grounds in India. A new line of work to cor- relate fishery conditions with oceanography has been developed in the study of mud banks of the Malabar Coast where it has been established that the fine silt which settles soon after the southwest monsoon in the form of a submerged bank acts as a reservoir of nutrient salts, probably influencing the fisheries of that area. On the physical side, work has been started by the Indian Navy in the Port of Cochin. There is need for more detailed coastal surveys and accurate charts and maps for the entire Indian coast, and for this purpose the surveys which are being repeatedly carried out by the survey ships will, it is hoped, contribute a large amount of data. FUTURE PROSPECTS Oceanography is an infant science in India as compared with the status of the subject in the more advanced countries where work has been in progress for some years. Absence of adequate training facilities for physical oceanography at Universities and non-availability of suit- able research vessels for oceanic work constitute the major obstacles to progress, but there is every reason to think that these will be overcome. The Andhra University on the East Coast of India has already formed a Department of Geophysics, and has initiated some work on physical and biological oceanography at Visakhapatnam. A few Indian Re- search Scholars are being trained abroad on the subject. Research Vessels for oceanographic and fisheries work are likely to become avail- able under the Five-Year National Plan of the Government of India and substantial additions to equipment available for marine work are now being made at several centres of Research. These developments in a country situated in one of the least explored of oceans will be watched with interest by all students of Marine Science. REFERENCES EKMAN, 8S. 1953. Zoogeography of the Sea. Sidgwick & Jackson, London. GULATEE, B. L. 1952. Tidal work in India. Assoc. Oceanogr. Phys. Proc. Verb. No. 5, 178. JOHN MurrAy EXPEDITION. Various Scientific reports. KONINKLIJK NEDERLANDS METEOROLOGISCH INSTITUUT No. 185. 1950. Indian Ocean Oceanographic and Meteorological Data. PANIKKAR, N. K. 19538. Fisheries Research in India—Pt. I. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 50. ScHOTT, G. 1985. Geographie und Oceanographie des Indischen und Stillen Ozeans. Hamburg. SESHAPPA, G. 1953. Phosphate content of mud banks along the Malabar Coast. Nature, London, 171, 526-27. 302 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS SEWELL, R. B. 8. 1925-35. Geographic and Oceanographic Researches in In- dian waters. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal., Vol. 9. 1987. Oceans round India: in Outline of Field Sciences of India, Calcutta. 1953. Deep Sea Oceanographic Exploration in Indian Waters. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 50, 705-717. SVERDRUP, H. U., M. W. JoHNSoN and R. FLEMING. 1942. The Oceans, their Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Prentice Hall, New York. OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES By G. L. KESTEVEN Marine Fisheries Section Food and Agriculture Organization cf the United Nations Rome, Italy The contribution of oceanography to fisheries research (which means research in economic and technical fields as well as in biological fields) is to be understood only in terms of the applied character of fisheries science: an effort is made in the following paragraphs to ex- pound the implications of this statement. However, it is desired here to stress a principal consequence of this position, namely that it brings upon the fishery scientist an obligation to exercise a keen discrimina- tion, and to undertake a frequent scrutiny of his activities, to determine whether they will stand a test of their applicability to real fishery problems. 1. SoME DEFINITIONS The term Indo-Pacific is used in the sense in which it is employed by the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, namely, to signify the zoogeo- graphic area occupied by the warm-water marine fauna which is var- iously described as Indo-Pacific, Indo-West-Pacific (Ekman), and Indo- Australian (Weber and de Beaufort), the core of which is constituted by the Indonesian Archipelago. The term oceanography is taken to be the correlative of limnology and thus with that term to comprehend the whole of the scientific work bearing upon the hydrosphere with biological objective, or of biological use. ‘This definition derives au- thority from many works from among which perhaps that monumental, and already classical work “The Oceans’, by Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming, may be chosen for citation. The validity of regarding oceanog- raphy as correlative of limnology may be found in the comprehensive- ness of the latter, as set out in such standard periodicals as the Revue der Internationale Gesammte Hydrobiologie and also in the standard text by Welch, which uses that term as title. It is to be stipulated that we reject the restriction imposed upon the term by some workers who regard it as concerned only with physical and chemical features of the oceans, and even as especially the pre- occupation of naval research establishments. Whilst, of course, there can be no challenge of their right to choose this usage, their attention may 303 304 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS well be drawn to the confusion which they create, especially since they do not offer us any alternative correlative of limnology. Oceanography is used by us to signify the study of the oceans in respect of themselves as water masses and of the biota which inhabit them; if not qualified, as it is in expressions such as ‘fisheries biology’, it is a pure science with no limitations upon the range or detail of the subject matter of its enquiry. A qualifying term, such as “fishery”, signifies an orientation of the enquiries and a limitation of the field, and not a specialized extension; thus, fisheries oceanography is that in- vestigation of the physico-chemical and biotic properties of the oceans required by fishery science—it does not mean oceanography which has swallowed fisheries research! 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATION In a general way we may say that oceanography holds a relationship to fisheries corresponding to that which meteorology holds to agricul- ture. But we must go further and describe it also as the ‘soil-science’ of fisheries. “These two aspects were discussed by Tait, in his Auckland lectures, from the points of view of physical and chemical properties of the sea, respectively, in relation of fishes. “The more general, as well as more particular aspects of relations of aquatic organisms to the phys- ical and chemical factors of their environment, have been described in the new voluminous literature of ecology. In this paper I wish to make a plea, both for a special fisheries view of these relations and, at the same time, for further and more detailed investigations along what might be described as the classical approach to animal physiology and ecology. The programme of fishery biology traverses, in a general sense, six principal phases, a brief description of which I quote from a recent paper I presented to the General Fishery Council for the Mediterranean. “Firstly, if the area in which the biologist is working is virgin a survey must be made to determine the general characteristics of the area and of its fish stocks; the principal compositional features of the stocks must be described. For most of the present fishable areas informa- tion such as this has been accumulated in the course of fishing opera- tions and from work in marine biology; in such cases, a late starting programme in fishery biology must first collate all such information. ‘Secondly, the general features of the stocks of the species to be investigated must be determined. ‘The species must be correctly iden- tified, and the continuity and taxonomic homogeneity of these stocks must be examined. ‘This work may or may not require the refined ; OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES 305 taxonomic study known as racial investigations, but it is im any case a distribution study which must take reference to details in the bio- nomics of the species. “Thirdly, the bionomics of the species must be discovered, that is the general-life-history, ontogenology (embryology, growth, and geron- tology), including feeding habits, reproduction and migratory habits. “Fourthly, the composition of the stocks is to be determined and, if the stocks exist in separate units, this determination must be made for each separately. ‘This compositional study concerns the age, sex, size, and maturity and other groups of the population. “This analysis generally reveals a fluctuation from year to year in composition of the stocks. Frequently there is also considerable varia- tion from area to area and between distinct segments of the stock. This study should see, not only to describe the composition and its fluctua- tion, but also to discover the causes of these fluctuations and, if possible, to evolve a system of prediction of the appearance of the fluctuations. “Fifthly, following directly out of the fourth stage, there is to be a measurement of the properties of the population. ‘These properties are potentials for growth and reproductions, and viability as a comple- ment to the mortality which the stock sustains. In this stage there is affected a considerable concentration of information since not only are data on the bionomics and composition of the stocks to be reduced into expressions summarizing the consequence of these structural features, but there must also be a reference to physiological, physical and other data concerning the factors which determine the properties of the pop- ulation as a whole. This work should also aim at a prediction system. “Sixthly, the fishery biologist must then collaborate with the fishery economist and fishery technologist in applying the general theory of fishing to give mathematical expression to the relations between the properties of the population and the effect of fishing operations.” The essential feature of this programme is that it is concerned with populations: its purpose is to develop a detailed description of the population as a whole and of the response of the properties of the popu- lation to changes in its environment, including among such changes, of course, those in fishing intensity. The biologists’ responsibility in respect of these populations is one or the other of two kinds, which may be summed up in two questions: Firstly, what type of population and where? Secondly, of what abun- dance? ‘The first question belongs in the main to the exploratory stage, the second to the management stage. In a way, also, these questions correspond to the different enquiries concerning abundance; those which relate to the availability of the fish to fishing operations, and 306 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS those which relate to the real abundance of the stock; and these in turn are covered respectively by the first three and the last three of the stages listed above. 3. OCEANOGRAPHY AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF FISH In its broadest sense this is a question primarily of marine zoo- geography, but for the fishery biologist the enquiry must press far deeper, since, in point of fact, for each species of commercial impor- tance he seeks to establish the ontogenetic distribution patterns and, moreover, the seasonal, annual, and even secular modulations of these. The great oceanographic cruises, of the Challenger and of others, have since established the major features of our picture of marine zoogeo- graphy and yet withal there remains much to be done to enable us to evaluate unexploited areas and to be able to give fishermen the in- formation on which they might plan the development of fishing operations. The zoogeographic account of the distribution of marine faunas is in effect a generalized one referring to groups of species and to indi- vidual species which characterise the fauna and serve as indicators of identified conditions. The distribution patterns referred to in the zoo- geographic account indicate the broadest limits within which the faunas are observed to occur. The more restricted limits within which the various ontogenetic stages move are not of as great importance to zoogeography as they said their seasonal and other modulations are to fisheries. But the greater pattern and its component parts are both the grosser manifestation of the reaction of the individual organisms to the various elements of its environment at the behest of its own physiology. ‘The general adjust- ment of the organism to its medium in respect of its respiratory and osmo-regulatory requirements set the general limits within which it can move differences, in these requirements, between ontogenetic stages may, theoretically, give separate distributions to these stages. The nu- tritional requirements and peculiar needs in respect of reproductive habits, further complicate the picture as the organisms undertake feed- ing and reproduction migrations in search of the situations where the necessary conditions are satisfied. It is perhaps no misrepresentation to say that in the first part of this enquiry, the task is to describe the dis- tribution of the first and the conditions under which they are found, whilst, in the second part, the task is to find means of predicting where these conditions will be found—as a means to predicting where the fish will be. It must be stressed, however, that the accurate account of dis- tribution requires elucidation of the keenomics of the species. OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES 307 At this point we are concerned only with the types of fauna found in various situations, with the task of characterizing an area in respect of the composition of its fauna and, for situations whose fauna is known, with evolving means of predicting variations in the distribution of ele- ments of that fauna and of ontogenetic stages of those elements. The role of oceanography in this phase of the programme emerges very clearly; it must first furnish the description of the physical, chem- ical and biotic properties of the water masses and in this way it cor- responds to soil science coupled with climatology. Then, when the distribution patterns are revealed, the role of oceanography corresponds to that of meteorology in furnishing predictions as to the conditions which are likely to be found, and the task of the fishery biologist then is to predict the behavioral response of the fish stocks to such conditions. 4. OCEANOGRAPHY AND THE ABUNDANCE OF FIsH In this part of the programme we may consider three types of prob- lems having common basis. We are concerned with the natural abun- dance of fish in an area, a problem which has practical meaning only for unexploited areas, although a method of estimating potential natural abundance of an exploited stock might solve many of the problems concerning abundance under conditions of exploitation. Next we are concerned with the fluctuations in abundance which have manifested themselves in all exploited stocks, whatever the degree of exploitation. Finally, we are concerned with the special problem of the effect of fish- ing operations on the abundance of the stock. The measurements of natural abundance of stocks in virgin areas is a task of peculiar difficulty which demonstrates, perhaps more than anything else, the special character of the work of fisheries science and the abstruseness of its problems. A simple example will serve to indi- cate the nature of the problem and the difficulties. Somali fishermen have for many years been catching tunas off the Somali coast, and for some years a few small canneries have been processing this catch for export market. The canneries would like to expand their operations and therefore require to increase their catch of tuna; the question is: do substantial stocks of tuna, accessible to fishing craft operating from Somalia, inhabit the waters on the Arabian Sea east of Somalia, or, are the occurrences from which the fishermen have made their catch merely sporadic invasions from a principal area lying somewhat remotely from Somalia? This, it will be noted, is not a simple distribution question, for the tuna are well known to appear in these waters. It might be a question of ontogenetic distribution pattern and the determination of this possibility could lead to development of a system of prediction of 308 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the times and conditions under which these occurrences take place, and even of the fluctuations in relative numbers of fish appearing from time to time. But this would still be insufficient: the cannery operators need to have some indication of the level of abundance in order to be able to decide the amount of fishing equipment (craft and gear) which could be brought to bear on the stocks, and thence the amount of pro- cessing equipment which would be required to handle the catch. There are probably two broad avenues of approach to this prob- lem. One is by way of evaluation of the area in terms of basic pro- ductivity and measurement of food chains. This would be possible only for stocks endemic to the area and not to transients. The other approach is by way of special sampling which, in the case of pelagic stocks, may include aerial observation. It may be noted that in this field of work there is urgent need to elaborate and improve the methodology of searching and sampling, and that in such improved methods, even greater use must be made of reference to oceanographic factors as de- terminants of the behaviour of the fish. In the more general sense of the productivity of an area, the ocea- nographer must take a leading role, and the task of the fishery biologist is to develop the understanding of the nutrition of the economic species in order to be able to use the data on food availability. We now turn to the other two problems concerning abundance. The structure of the problem was symbolized by Russel, in his well- -known equation, which says that the difference in a stock of fish, be- tween one season and another, can be represented by the balance between. Growth + Reproduction and Natural Mortality + Fishing Mor- tality. We may take these four elements as the plan for our enquiry. Growth:—The growth of any individual may be taken to be the result of the operation of factors which may be considered in three groups—genetic, food supply, and the environmental factors affecting food procurement and the subsequent metabolism; between these arise interactions. In the past fishery biology has concerned itself chiefly with measuring and describing the ontogenetic manifestations of growth: it has made little analysis of growth itself as physiological process. ‘The initial approach made by fishery biology to growth has furnished a useful description of growth phenomena at what might be called their grosser level, and some attempt has been made to measure the relations between these phenomena on the one hand, and food availability and environmental conditions on the other. Whether much further progress can be made along this line before more detailed enquiry is made into the physiology of growth might be questioned, but both types of enquiry OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES 309 require much information from oceanography on the environment of the fish. The first information is that concerning food availability; the second is that concerning temperature, salinity, trace elements and biotic factors which influence the procurement of food it ingests. But the work of fishery biology has been concerned generally with estimates of aver- age growth in populations, and with this as a means of characterizing year-classes and the conditions prevailing from year to year. Recent work has carried the theory further to attempt to use those data on growth as a means of estimating the biomass production of the popula- tion as a whole. Such work will accomplish a practical effectiveness, however, only after the underlying physiology of nutrition and growth have been studied further, and this will mean, as in the study of nutri- tion and growth of domestic animals, that there must be controlled ex- periments in which both food supply and environmental factors are at least precisely measured if not actually controlled. In this field of enquiry, taking it to be the responsibility of fishery biology to measure the growth of the population, the contribution of oceanography is two fold: initially, in aiding the description and analysis of these systems; subsequently, in providing data for a prediction sys- tem. In the initial phase the contribution is of data on all factors which might directly or indirectly affect the nutrition and growth of the fish. In the prediction phase, the data would concern certain critical factors. Reproduction:—Although in the fishing theory equation this term refers essentially to recruitment into fishable stocks, the fishery biologist has some concern with the whole range of phenomena which lead to the reproductive act and those which lead from that act to recruitment. That is to say, there is a concern with sex ratios and fecundity, with length and age at first maturity, and (within each season) of the maturation of the gonads, with the spawning act itself (including fer- tilization), with embryonic development and hatching, with larval and post-larval development, and with growth and survival through these and the young-fish stages. Some workers consider that the only practi- cable approach to the problem of replenishment of the stock is by way of measurement of recruitment as it is taking place, or of the potential recruits shortly before they enter the fishery. Other workers contend that it is possible to enter more deeply into the system and to attempt some measurement of the series which connects spawners with recruits. Among these latter there are some who believe that, although in gen- eral the number of eggs produced at each spawning is always far in excess, in numbers, of the number of individuals which survive to be recruits to the fishery, so that little connection can be found between the number of eggs spawned and the subsequent recruitment, the brood 310 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS strength is, in the main, determined by one or more critical factors at certain critical points in the life of the brood. Efforts at demonstrating this hypothesis have aroused some controversy. However, it is unques- tionable that the sequence described above is closely dependent upon environmental conditions and that any understanding of it, let alone any measurement of it or formulation of a prediction system, must make demands upon oceanography. Natural Mortality:—This term is perhaps even more recalcitrant than the other two. We may argue, a priori, that mortality may be caused by predatism, parasitism, disease, lethal genetic characters, mal- nutrition, and physical factors such as temperature and salinity extremes, but there seems to be little prospect yet of measuring the result of operation of each of these factors separately, or, as an antecedent to that result, the intensity of each factor. Nevertheless, again we must look to oceanography to furnish the fishery biologist with some of the in- formation which he will require in this field. At the present stage natural mortality must be accepted as a sum arrived at after deducting measured fishing mortality from estimated total mortality. It might be possible to correlate variations in natural mortality with variations in environmental factors and thus to approach both analysis of the causes and prediction of intensity. Fishing Mortality:—In this field, oceanography has a small contribu- tion to make in respect of the influence of weather and sea conditions on the intensity of fishing operations and their efficiency, but we defer further consideration of this to Section 5 of this paper. Fluctuations in Abundance:—A great deal of work has been done in describing the fluctuations in abundance of exploited stocks and analys- ing these fluctuations in terms, chiefly, if variations in strength of brood- classes and in recruitment into fishable stocks. ‘This work can proceed at one or other of various levels: either with simple description of the fluctuations and elementary correlation with various environmental factors—a course which does not promise much reliability in its results; or with varying degrees of penetration of the analysis into the systems, with the conviction that if relationships are truly identified, and rela- tions usefully measured, prediction systems may be evolved with prac- tical and reliable value. Fishing Theory:—Perhaps the ultimate objective of fishery science in respect of fishing operations is to prepare, for each unit fishery, a description of the fish stocks and of the effect on them of the fishing operations in order to permit the design of a plan of management of the fishing operations which will ensure the best exploitation of the stocks. The description of each unit fishery will be along the lines of OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES 311 the Russel equation as discussed above, and the dependence of this work upon oceanographic inquiry is Clear. Best exploitation clearly means that which will give the best and most sustained yields, but in another way it may be signified by the term “fish husbandry’—a concept which has recently emerged in respect of marine stocks and which, at least, holds out a goal, even if we should be ready to find that the end-result might not be as precisely analogous to animal husbandry as our present speculative thinking imagines it. This touches upon the possibility that there might be other direct interven- tion in the stocks besides the fishing operations. Some speculative think- ing has turned to the possibility of intervening in some of the basic phenomena of the sea, and there has been experimentation in fertiliza- tion. The realization of artificial upwellings, or of control of the move- ments of marine stocks, will depend very largely on the work of the oceanographers. 5. OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHING OPERATIONS The dependence of fishing operations on weather and sea conditions needs no discussion, either in respect of the effect of environmental factors on the behaviour of the fish (which determines gear and method) or of the effect of weather and sea surface conditions on the craft. The pot to make here is that fishermen need more aid from the oceanog- raphers by way of predictions of these conditions. 6. DiscUSSION OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES There is really no need to make a case for recognition of the im- portance to a knowledge of any organism (or population of organisms) of data concerning its environment, and as oceanography is defined here, it is the science which will furnish the environmental data required by the fishery biologist. I do not believe that it can be denied that in fact fishery science can no more do without oceanography than agricultural science can do without meteorology. But, whereas oceanography per se has the entire marine hydrosphere as its field of enquiry, and the limits are set only by the interest of the worker and the funds, equip- ment and help available to him, fisheries oceanography is to be defined strictly according to the area of interest and the kind of problem pre- sented by the fishery biologist. It will be clearly seen from the preceding discussion that different types of oceanographic information are required in the different situa- tions found in fisheries. Different sets of elements are to be observed, with different patterns of observation station, and different intensities of observation at each station according to the nature of the fishery problems. In the determination of general limits of distribution of a a2 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS fauna, or a species, broad isotherms, isohalines and so forth are sufficient, but for more detailed description of distribution, a more precise measure- ment, with much narrower intervals between the iso-lines, is required. The point which must be made is that the oceanographic programme for fisheries should be carefully planned with a clear view of what is required by the biologist’s problem and of the use which he can make of the material and data which are collected. And perhaps it would not be dogmatic to say that where resources for oceanographic research are limited, these should be employed in those situations in which the need for oceanographic data can at once be formulated, rather than in broader fields from which the data may be expected to be of use at some unspecified time in the future. 7. OCEANOGRAPHIC REQUIREMENTS IN THE INDO-PACIFIC On the basis of the foregoing review, and making use of some of the criteria proposed for setting limits upon the oceanographic pro- gramme for fisheries, we may make a brief review of some of the urgent problems for oceanography in this region. In the first place it is as well to refer to the important problem of the basic productivity of tropical waters. This has now become a critical question, the solution of which would have considerable bearing on the planning of future development of fisheries. However, it is a long range problem which, at this stage, stands within the province of the oceanographer with his more general interest. Moreover, it is probable that further advances need to be made in perfecting the techniques for measurement of productivity and in marine biological research on food chains and the nutrition of marine organisms. Turning to immediate fishery problems, mention may first be made of the ‘major’ fisheries of the region, such as for the Rastrelliger spp. of the Indian and Malayan west coasts, of the Gulf of Siam and of In- donesia, the Sardinella longiceps in much the same areas, Stolephorus spp. also in similar areas, Sardinia sp. in Japanese waters, the reef stocks predominantly of Percomorph species, the Pseudosciaena spp. of the China Sea, the Flying fishes (Exocoetidia) of the Celebes and those for the Carangids and Scombroids, more especially within the various island groups. In respect of each of these fisheries the requirement is for oceanographic information bearing upon the distribution of the fish, and the related work concerning the bionomics of each species. In some cases the broad distribution limits are known and the present problem is to determine the distribution of ontogenetic stages and to develop prediction systems; Rastrelliger in the Gulf of Siam, Sardinia in Jap- anese waters, and Pseudosciaena in the China Sea are in this situation. OCEANOGRAPHY AND FISHERIES 313 In other cases the situation calls for a more general exploration of dis- tribution and analysis of compositions; this is especially true of the reef stocks. In all of these cases there is need of estimates of level of abun- dance, in none of them, except perhaps the Japanese sardine, does the present knowledge of the stocks warrant the mounting of oceanographic programmes appropriate to a true population analysis as described above. The ioregoing instances are all of well established fisheries which stand in need of improvement in the knowledge of the biology of the resources. Of different status are two other broad classes of resources: the pelagic stocks of the high seas, and the demersal stocks of certain continental shelf areas. ‘The latter include the continental shelf of the Indo-Pakistan west coast, of the Bay of Bengal, or the deeper waters of the Gulfs of Siam and Tonkin, of the South China Sea, and of the Java and Arufura seas. Although there has been some exploration of these areas, and in some cases (e.g. off the Saurasthra coast) some sys- tematic fishing, the knowledge of the areas is generally patchy and in- complete; as soon as the development plans of the fishery industries of the adjacent countries warrant, there should be systematic exploration and survey of these areas, and this work should include the taking of appropriate oceanographic observations. Similarly, in the case of the pelagic stocks, survey work must be undertaken at some time and must include oceanographic observations. As a final note, I may say that, whatever my remarks above, I do not underestimate the difficulty which confronts a worker, or a director of a programme, in determining the limits of the work and the relevance of different avenues of enquiry which open up as an enquiry develops. One can only say that this must be left to the perspicacity and honesty of the worker. One cannot deny the desirability of general oceano- graphic enquiry, any more than the urgency of particular enquiries, demanded by economic necessity, can be ignored. FACTORS IN THE UTILIZATION OF CANADA'S PACIFIC MARINE RESOURCES By J. L. Harr Pacifie Biological Station Nanaimo, B. C., Canada In a simple society men use their hands or simple tools to take fish for their own immediate food needs. In an industrialized society com- plicated machines are used to catch and prepare fish for shipment and exchange for other commodities. In any region the extent and char- acter of the departure from the simple situation depend upon (1) the qualities and habits of the fish species available, (2) the geography and meteorology of the region, (3) the technological aptitude of the fisher- men, and (4) the economic condition of the inhabitants. These factors are also an influence in the attitude of peoples toward resource utiliza- tion. ‘Their application to the fishing industry of the Pacific coast of Canada is discussed in this account. FisH Usep Five species of salmon of the genus Oncorhynchus provide more than half the total value of the Pacific fishery in Canada. The fish are fat, preserved well by canning, freezing or salting, and are in general high demand. They differ substantially in life history but all are ana- dromous, and all attain most of their growth in salt water. On their spawning migration in summer and autumn all pass through the inlets and channels of the coast in large and readily captured schools. Thus, on its spawning migration each species is susceptible to easy depletion or even extermination by fishing. Human activities add to the natural hazards of the freshwater life of these fish: dams obstruct rivers; irriga- tion requirements divert water; impoundments “drown” spawning grounds; communities and industries pollute streams; logging and agri- culture result in silted spawning grounds or changes in stream flow. ‘The second ranking fishery on the Canadian Pacific Coast is for herring (Clupea pallasi). Most of the catch is reduced and shipped to the markets of the world as oil and meal. Adult and adolescent herring for the most part spend their summers feeding offshore on the con- tinental shelf. In autumn and winter they form dense schools and ap- proach the coast as a preliminary to spawning in shallow water and on the beaches in March. The migrating aggregations are very vulnerable 314 UTILIZATION OF CANADA’S PACIFIC MARINE RESOURCES 315 to large scale capture. ‘This suggests that intensive fishing operations could cause depletion. As it is beyond reasonable dispute that salmon can be depleted by unrestricted exploitation, it is assumed that herring can also be depleted by unrestricted fishing on pre-spawning popula- tions. This assumption is the subject of critical scientific examination. Of a dozen or so commercial species of groundfish the halibut is the most important. It freezes well and is shipped frozen to the markets of the continent. The fishery is principally by long-line in Hecate Strait (between the Queen Charlotte Islands and the islands along the mainland coast) and on the offshore banks of the continental shelf. It is administered by an International Commisssion (Canada and the United States) on the premise that at low or moderate levels of abun- dance, increased fishing effort produces less fish. ‘The sable fish or black- cod (Anoplopoma), so highly prized for smoking, is taken on the same gear in deep water. The remaining groundfishes—flatfishes (Pleuwro- nectidae), gray cod (Gadus macrocephalus), rock fishes (Sebastodes), lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus)—yield excellent fillets for the fresh or frozen trade on local or distant markets. They are taken principally by trawls on banks of intermediate depth (15-100 fathoms) at times when concentrations make for fast and hence profitable fishing. The only truly oceanic fishery to attract Canadian fishermen is the troll fishery for albacore. ‘The fish is canned as premium tuna for Canadian consumption or exported frozen. Fishing may be as close as six miles from shore but typically is offshore by 40 miles or considerably more. The fishery is very erratic in occurrence and yield. ‘There is in it an element of sport which appeals to many fishermen. A small but effective shore-based whaling operation uses half a dozen or more species of whales. The products (meal, solubles, oil, and meat for fur farms) are sold on the world’s market. The promised re- wards of the whaling industry are the only ones which have yet seemed sufficient to justify deploying valuable capital equipment in organized offshore projects. Canadian whalers work up to 150 miles off shore— much farther than other company-operated vessels. GEOGRAPHY AND METEOROLOGY OF THE AREA The coast of British Columbia has many islands and inlets. Race Rocks at the south end of Vancouver Island and Stewart at the north end of the Portland Canal are less than 600 miles apart in a straight line, but 16,900 miles of coast line intervene. The irregularities in the shore line provide numerous good harbours where small craft can wait out perilous weather or conditions which make fishing impossible. Al- though there are many good harbours there are few or no permanent 316 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS residents on them. The shore in many places is rough and inhospitable and the surrounding terrain is so rugged as to make access by land dif- ficult or non-existent. In consequence fishing communities are few and widely separated and those with rail or road connections are even fewer. Tidal change is moderate (12 to 26 feet maximum change at various places). Tidal currents in the passages and inlets are, however, strong. In a few places they make navigation hazardous and in others they are too swift to be stemmed by small craft. They must be given thorough consideration for efficient navigation on the coasts. The prevailing winds are moderate to strong with occasional calms and gales. Sudden high winds are not common. In deep water, seas are seldom dangerous to properly loaded seaworthy vessels. However, in the shallow waters of Hecate Strait or in situations where the wind opposes strong tidal currents, steep waves develop which can be dan- gerous to small craft. "TECHNOLOGICAL POSITION The fishing industry of Western Canada has made use of the tech- nological knowledge of the Western Hemisphere. It has been applied both to processing and to capture. The principal method of process- ing is canning. ‘To it are applied the special techniques of machine cleaning of fish; and of filling, capping, exhausting, sealing, and retort- ing of cans. The fish reduction industry uses presses and centrifuges especially adapted to its purposes and special evaporators for concentrating solu- bles in the press liquor. General plant construction and arrangement take advantage of new power sources and engineering methods. The installations for the frozen fish trade apply principles of refri- geration engineering as developed by scientists of the Fisheries Research Board. Similarly, the application of newly developed principles to smoke house construction has improved control of the process to the point where the operation is largely freed of dependence on uncon- trolled conditions. The greatest single contribution of technology to catching is the development of compact, dependable, and economical power units to propel vessels and to operate deck equipment. More recent develop- ments of great general usefulness are the radio telephone which facil- itates concentration of the fleet on large bodies of fish and with shore headquarters or processing plants; and the echo sounder, which makes navigation more certain, allows troll and trawl fishermen to follow the contours of the bottom, and reveals the presence of deep schools of fish. General developments of more recent application are radar, which UTILIZATION OF CANADA’S PACIFIC MARINE RESOURCES 317 facilitates prompt return to harbours in fog or dark, and the range finder and Loran for general assistance in offshore navigation. The machines mentioned above were developed for other purposes and later adapted to fishing vessels. “There are special developments, too. Prominent are power driven drums on the sterns of small boats for easily setting out and picking up gill nets (or handling long lines), larger drums for handling salmon purse seines, power driven gurdies for handling trolling lines, the older long line gurdies of the halibut boats, and stabilizers for trollers and other smaller craft. These are the pro- ducts of the ingenuity and enterprise of fishermen. Other ideas are constantly being tested and rejected or modified. All increase the ef- ficiency of fishing or reduce the physical labour of fishing and, in so doing, shift the emphasis for success in fishing from physical strength and hardihood to ingenuity and technical skill. A_ variety of factors contributes to the rapid development of ef- ficient fishing methods. ‘The army of fishermen is not a stable one: it is always receiving recruits from (and losing deserters to) other indus- tries—logging, farming, construction—so that new ideas, some practical, some naive, are continually being tried, with the good ones being adapted and applied to local conditions. Furthermore, Western Ca- nadian fishermen are recruited from a variety of the great fishing centres of the world so that methods successful in other places are available for trial under local conditions. In general, there is ample opportunity to try and apply new fishing methods within existing regulations. When successful ones are developed, the educational standard is high enough to facilitate the ready dissemination of information through trade and technical journals. ‘The organization of the industry is at once strong enough and adaptable enough to bring promptly into general use all really useful developments. ECONOMIC POSITION The fishing industry of Western Canada is centred on a favoured section of a favoured continent. The inhabitants of British Columbia have no urgent need of fish as a protein food. Rather, they use the choicer varieties occasionally as a change from meat. In general the processed products of the fishing fleets are shipped to the markets of the continent and the world to provide exchange for the foods and manu- factured goods which go toward maintaining a high standard of material welfare. APPLICATION The low local demand for untreated fish and the wages for labour expected by fishermen require that most of the fish be processed in one 318 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS way or another. In general this can be done most cheaply in the few large centres of population having good transportation facilities. A few specialized communities relying entirely on fishing products have been located at places convenient to the fishing grounds. ‘Technological advances are improving established processing methods and developing new ones. The Canadian fishing industry depends upon exports, and in con- sequence is in an assured competitive position only in cases where there are advantages in fish availability or in some other way. There is little incentive to organize costly offshore operations (such as for tuna) in competition with exploiters from other nations. The vessels used must be large enough to deliver paying fares to fishing ports or buying stations which are rarely as much as a day’s run from the fishing grounds. They must be large enough to continue fish- ing in moderate weather in order to complete paying loads, but they need not ride out severe gales as safe harbours are always within reach of the fishing grounds. ‘The boats must, of course, be large enough to handle effectively the gear in use and to accommodate the necessary fishing aids. ‘The tendency is accordingly toward the use of craft of medium size. Boats used in the marine fisheries are customarily 35 to 85 feet long depending on the gear used and the places and seasons of operation. Salmon gill net boats used in the inlets and river estuaries are smaller and lighter in construction. Because the economic situation puts the emphasis on financial re- turn rather than on efficient use of the whole resource, the fish utilized are those commanding the highest prices or those whose habits make it convenient to capture them in very large numbers. Only such species can produce sufficient return to allow the fishing profession to compete successfully for the time of potential fishermen. However, for these species more fishermen are attracted to the fishery than are necessary to take all the fish which can safely be removed from the reproducing stock. As the most important fisheries in Western Canada are for ana- dromous fishes which are liable to depletion by over-fishing, regulations have been introduced to assure each year an adequate number of spawners. These regulations limit fishing or define the gear. In general, the resource has been fully used for years. Consequently, each tech- nological advance in fishing efficiency must be matched by regulations reducing the effectiveness of the gear. A paradoxical situation is pro- duced but such seems inevitable in view of the biological facts and the accepted policy not to refuse fishing privileges to any citizen. UTILIZATION OF CANADA’S PACIFIC MARINE RESOURCES 319 Regulations prevent fishing much above tidal influence or, at smaller streams, near the river mouths at all. Such regulations and the fishermen’s desire fer comfort and efficiency have, during recent years, promoted the use of gasoline-driven boats, replacing rowboats and sail- boats. Still more recently competition for fish has led to the use of larger and faster boats so that the fish can be met and caught as they approach the meuths of the rivers. There results an economic balance between the efficiency resulting from access to all of the fish as they approach the fishing grounds and the inefficiency arising from using better equipment than is necessary to do the work. The situation has been encouraged by the increasing market price for fish. When prices fall the point of economic balance may shift so that the use of expen- sive equipment may become unprofitable. Adjustment is likely to prove very awkward. RESEARCH ATTITUDE The fisheries resources of Western Canada are the subject of mod- erately intense research. Research on the wholly marine species (except herring) adapts traditional approaches to the local species and prevail- ing conditions. As a basis for assuring maximum sustained utilization, information is sought on such matters as migrations, population limits, the factors controlling abundance through year-class variation, factors influencing catchability by modifying shoaling habits, rates of growth, and intensity of the fishery. ‘he objectives and approaches for herring are complicated by the herring’s inshore spawning in the intertidal zone and the consequent conviction that the species is subject to economic extinction by overfishing. Full scale experiments to test the effective- ness of protective regulations aré in progress. Most research effort is devoted to salmon. ‘The anadromous habit makes salmon extremely vulnerable to fishing. The determination and provision of the number of spawners required to perpetuate the re- source without withholding an unnecessary surplus from the fishery, are major problems whose difficulty is increased by the variations in re- productive success which occur from year to year under natural condi- tions in the freshwater habitats of salmon. The parts played by droughts, freshets and frost in suppressing salmon populations are under investiga- tion. Such information is needed beth for the determination of the pro- portion of the runs which should be used by the fishery and for the prediction of variations in the abundance of available fish so that the industry may avoid economic loss through unnecessary surplus of fish on the spawning grounds. 320 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The special hazards which are faced by anadromous fish as a re- suit of human activities have been mentioned previously. Perhaps the most serious interference with natural conditions is produced by hydro- electric developments which intrude impassable barriers to upriver sal- mon, pass practically all of the water through their turbines, and create great new lakes in their storage reservoirs. Much effort is being put on studies of methods to guide upstream and downstream migrating sal- 10n past obstructions. Culturing in coastal lakes or special nursery areas may prove necessary and the conditions controlling survival are being studied with that in mind. As hydro-electric power is in increas- ing demand, there is a great sense of urgency in the researches which seek means for preventing the destruction of the salmon fisheries. POISONOUS FISHES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO MARINE FOOD RESOURCES IN THE PACIFIC AREA * By Bruce W. HALSTEAD School of Tropical and Preventive Medicine College of Medical Evangelists Loma Linda, California, U.S.A. INTRODUCTION Recent declines in fish catches in certain regions in the Pacific have stimulated scientific organizations to investigate ways and means of developing latent fishery resources. Other fishing grounds are being explored, and the addition of new fish species to the consumers’ menu is being considered. The decline in catches becomes even more serious when considered in the light of increasing human population through- out the world. ‘This increase is estimated to be progressing at the rate of 1 to 1.25 percent per annum, or in terms of numbers, about 25 million people a year. Unfortunately, the population increase has not been matched by the production of food stuffs. Many of the southern Asiatic countries, which prior to World War II were exporters of food stuffs, have since become importers. Increases in population, decreased food production resulting from political and military upheaval, and the general decline in fish catches have all contributed toward making protein food stuffs a subject of con- cern. It is not unusual, therefore, that economists should focus their attention on the almost untapped protein food reserves of the sea. How- ever, the development of the shore fisheries of the tropical Pacific will present important problems regarding the edibility of certain fish species which fisheries and public health organizations must not ignore. ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF POISONOUS FISHES The economic significance of poisonous fishes can probably be more readily appreciated by reviewing a few instances which have occurred in the tropical Pacific within the last ten years. According to Mr. P. F. D. Palmer,! who has managed the Fanning Island Plantations Limited (Line Islands) and has been a resident of the island since 1936, poi- * This investigation was supported by a research grant from the Division of Research Grants and Fellowships of the National Institute of Health, Public Health Service, Bethesda, Maryland, supported in part by the United States Air Force under contract No. AF 18(600)— 451, monitored by Research Secretariat, U.S.A.F., School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph Field, Texas, o21 322 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS sonous fishes (exclusive of puffers) were unknown prior to World War II. Fishes of all types were commonly eaten and supplied to the native workers for their main source of protein. Between February 1946 and April 1947 there were 95 cases of fish poisoning amongst the population of 224 people on the island. A clinical account of these outbreaks has been published by Ross.? Palmer further states that from 1946 to 1950 there were “hundreds” of cases of poisoning resulting from the very same species of fishes which they had formerly eaten without ill effect. The problem finally reached the point where feeding their native per- sonnel became critical. Fortunately most of the pelagic species, mullet and some of the lagoon fishes remained edible. Within the last year or two the situation seems to be improving and some of the species have been placed on the edible list again. A report received from Dr. Vernon Brock, Director, Division of Fish and Game, Board of Agriculture and Forestry of the Territory of Hawai,’ indicated that more than 60 tons of red snapper (Lutjanus spp.), ulua (Caranx spp.) and miscellaneous reef fishes were shipped to the Honolulu fish markets during the years 1930 to 1937. During this time not a single outbreak of fish poisoning was known to occur as a result of eating these fishes. Since the year 1944 scores of outbreaks have resulted from eating Line Island fishes. Some of these outbreaks have been reported by Lee and Pang.‘ As a direct result of these epidemic unfavorable publicity has de- veloped regarding Line Island fishes. Species such as red snapper (Lut- janus gibbus, L. vaigiensis, L. bohar), manini (Acanthurus triostegus), grouper (Epinephelus spp.), seabass (Variola loutt), ulua (Caranx spp.) and others, are no longer permitted to be imported from the Line Islands and sold in the Territory of Hawai. A situation such as this results in both fishermen and consumers refusing to have anything to do with fishes coming from a poisonous fish zone. During the period September 1950 to July 1953, field studies were conducted by our organization in the Phoenix, Line, Hawaiian, Maria- nas, Eastern and Western Carolines, Johnston, Okinawa, Japan, Gala- pagos, Cocos, La Plata Islands, the Gulf of California and Panama Bay. Studies thus far indicate that the poisonous fish population of the trop- ical Pacific is much larger than was formerly believed. ‘Toxic species have been found to occur in the Pacific from the Galapagos Islands to the Philippines and Okinawa, and from Midway to the Society Islands. The survey at Canton demonstrated that about 27 percent of the reef fishes were toxic. The survey at Johnston Island indicated that about 75 percent of the species tested were poisonous. Once an area has estab- lished a reputation it is very difficult to change public opinion. As POISONOUS FISHES 323 new fishing grounds are entered and the spectrum of food fishes broadened, public acceptance will be one of the factors determining the success of the venture. A few epidemics can have disastrous effects in a struggling industry, resulting in enormous financial losses and wanton waste of valuable fisheries resources. With the present trends in world population and food supply we can ill afford waste of any food resource and particularly those supplying protein. RESULTS OF SURVEY STUDIES The following report is based upon the field investigation pre- viously mentioned. ‘Table I consists of a compilation of families of fishes which have been incriminated in human intoxications, animal feeding and inoculation tests. This tabulation was made from 574 case histories and technical reports. Cases resulting from ordinary bacterial food intoxications were not included. In addition, approximately an- other five hundred reports were received that were concerned with more general aspects of poisonous marine organisms. Many persons have the erroneous idea that poisonous fishes are restricted to “trash fishes’, those species which would be generally un- acceptable as food for humans, but such is not the case. Perusal of Table I will reveal that the phylogenetic spread is remarkably broad. Families marked with an asterisk indicate those groups which are gen- erally considered to be of commercial importance by various Pacific peoples. Some of the families listed are fresh-water, European, Asiatic or American, but the bulk are Pacific marine fishes. The list obviously fails to consider a number of important factors, viz., geographical lo- cality, ecological biotope, maturity of the fish, and season of the year. Hence, because a family is listed in this table it does not mean that any or all of the members of that family are poisonous throughout their geographic range. The problem of recognizing a poisonous plectognath is a relatively simple one, since most of the members of this order adhere to a fairly consistent morphological pattern. Numerous toxicological surveys and case reports by Japanese, Australian and American scientists clearly in- dicate that most plectognaths are to be regarded with suspicion until proven otherwise.* However, the identification of poisonous non-plec- tognath fishes presents some very real problems because of a number of unique factors, viz.: (1) Apparently, under the proper environmental *In Japan and many of the other Oriental nations poisonous puffers are routinely eaten and considered a delicacy. The fishes are prepared in a special manner in order to remove the poison and thus make them safe for human consumption. However, in spite of these pre- cautions, the Japanese Government reports more than 125 deaths a year resulting from the eating of these fishes. During the 1l-year period from 1927 to 1937 puffer poisoning accounted for 44 percent of the total food poisonings in Japan and was listed as their greatest single eause of fatal food intoxication. 324 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS conditions, any fish-like vertebrate is capable of developing (concentrat- ing or metabolizing—which?) ichthyosarcotoxins which can be lethal to man. (2) Poisonous fishes are widely distributed throughout the torrid zone, and some species are known to occur in temperate and arctic waters. (3) A fish that is a valuable commercial species in one area may be poisonous to humans in another locality. Hence, conclusions derived from an epidemiological survey in one area may have little or no bearing upon the incidence or identification of poisonous fishes else- where. Distances of even a few miles may entirely alter the epidemiolog- ical picture. (4) The problem is not a static one. Fish species which were once edible and commercially valuable species have within the last ten years become poisonous. The situation which has occurred at Line, Johnston and Midway Islands may be cited as classical examples. There are no valid statistical data whether the over-all incidence of fish poisoning is probably on the increase. (5) There is no correlation be- tween the incidence of toxicity and season of the year in most species. Instances of intoxication commonly occur throughout every season of the year. (6) There is no simple field test whereby a toxic fish can be dis- tinguished from an edible one. A poisonous fish appears in form and action no different than a non-toxic fish. The question of why a fish becomes poisonous is a difficult one to answer. Numerous theories have been propounded, but few of them harmonize with the field observations. The reader is referred to the works of Gudger,® Hiyama * and Halstead * for a more complete review of these theories. ‘There is no single explanation that will satisfy the entire picture. Recent studies indicate that ichthyosarcotoxins evolve from a num- ber of different sources and through the interplay of a variety of phy- siological processes. Hence the term ‘ichthyosarcotoxism’ is an all-em- bracing one in which are included a number of different and distinct clinical entities. This is indicated by the symptomatology of humans resulting, for example,* from the European barbel (Barbus barbus [Linnaeus]), the Pacific puffer (Arothron hispidus [Linnaeus]), the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus [Bloch and Schneider]) , the bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus [Linnaeus]), the moray eel (Gym- nothorax flavimarginatus [Ruppell]), and red snapper (Lutjanus vai- giensis [Quoy and Gaimard]), are quite distinct. Nothing is known re- garding the origin of the poisons found in fresh-water fishes, such as the barbel, nor in sharks. The histamine-like poisons found in scombroid fishes (tuna, bonito, mackerel, etc.) are believed to be tissue break- down products, possibly the result of bacterial action. Such fishes as the * The fishes listed are representative cf various groups of poisonous fishes which are capable of producing different types of intoxications. POISONOUS FISHES 3825 puffer, moray eel and red snapper are believed to become poisonous because of their eating habits. The acquisition of poisonous properties by a fish is thought to be derived as a result of herbivorous fishes feeding on poisonous marine algae. Carnivorous fishes would become poisonous by feeding on poi- sonous herbivores. Controlled laboratory feeding studies have demon- strated that at least one species, Leptocottus armatus Girard, the Cal- ifornia staghorn sculpin, has the ability to feed on poisonous fish flesh and harbor the poison in various tissues of its body with no apparent alteration in its behavior. Studies are now in progress on this particular phase of the program and will be reported at a later date. This food chain theory has been presented in greater detail in our “Survey of the poisonous fishes of the Phoenix Islands.” * Ichthyosarcotoxism in man is frequently confused with various types of bacterial food intoxications. True fish poisoning is in no way related to putrefactive processes, hence the state of freshness of the fish has no bearing on the production nor the potency of the poison.* ‘The chemical nature of these poisons, exclusive of puffer poison, are un- known. Some fish poisons appear to. exert a variety of physiological effects which represent the combined action of the different compo- nents. Many of the symptoms resemble those produced by such com- pounds as aconitine, muscarine and curare. Many of the scombroid (tuna-like) fishes produce rather violent histamine-like reactions, which appear to be dependent on the freshness of the fish. On the other hand some of the skipjacks contain neurotoxins which are frequently present in freshly caught specimens. Japanese scientists have studied tetraodon toxin or puffer toxin in great detail. Tetraodon toxin has been assigned the provisiona! formula of C,,H,,NO,,. It has been isolated as a white hygroscopic powder soluble in water and insoluble in the ordinary organic solvents. It is neither a protein, an alkaloid, nor a protamine. ‘The exact chemical nature and relationship of other ichthyosarcotoxins have not been stu- died to date. All fish poisons, however, are water soluble and relatively heat stable. Ordinary cooking procedures do not destroy or appreciably alter the potency of the poison. CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS Since the Pacific Science Congress is primarily concerned with Pacific research, the discussion of the clinical aspects of ichthyosarco- toxism is limited to the four clinical types of ichthyosarcotoxism com- monly recorded for the Pacific area. * The only exception to this statement is in the case of scombroid poisoning which results from eating inadequately preserved fishes. However, the symptoms are quite different from ordinary. types of bacterial food poisoning. 326 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ]. Tetraodon (Puffer) poisoning: The causative organism is a puffer, one of the members of the suborder Tetraodontoidea. The symptoms commonly noted are in time frequency numbness of the lips, tongue, tips of fingers and toes, which usually develops within 30 minutes after the ingestion of the toxin. This is followed by nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness and extreme weakness. Power of speech becomes impaired and dyspnea is marked. Within two hours as a rule, the patient suffers complete paralysis with muscles relaxed, body limp, and inability to speak although conscious. Just prior to death the patient lapses into unconsciousness. Death generally occurs in severe cases with- in 1 to 24 hours as a result of respiratory paralysis. Mortality rate is estimated to be about 60 per cent. Prognosis is considered to be good if the patient survives the first 24 hours. 2. Gymnothorax (Moray eel) poisoning: ‘The causative source is a member of the genus Gymnothorax. Symptoms of tingling and numb- ness about the lips, tongue, hands and feet usually develop within 20 minutes to 7 or 8 hours after ingestion of the toxin. Nausea, vomiting, laryngeal spasm, aphonia, excessive mucus production, foaming at the mouth, injection of the conjunctiva, paralysis of the respiratory muscles, motor incoordination, violent clonic and tonic convulsions, abnormal deep and superficial reflexes and coma follow in rapid sequence. The mortality rate is estimated to be about 10 per cent. 3. Ciguatera: Numerous species of marine fishes are capable of causing this type of poisoning. Tingling followed by numbness usually develops almost immediately or within a period of 30 hours after in- gestion of the toxin. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain are present in about 75 per cent of the cases. Joint aches, malaise, chills, fever, prostration, headache, profuse sweating, pruritus, metallic taste, generalized motor incoordination, muscular weakness, and myalgia are common. Sensory disturbances are present in most cases, hot objects are interpreted as feeling cold and cold objects as hot or like “electric shock” in typical complaints. Convulsions and severe paralyses are less common. ‘The mortality rate is comparatively low, estimated to be about 2 to 3 per cent, and recovery from severe intoxication is very slow, some- times taking weeks or months to recover completely from the weakness and myalgia. 4. Scombroid poisoning: Members of the genera Euthynnus and Katsuwonus are common offenders. In rare instances these fishes may produce symptoms typical of the ciguatera type of fish poisoning, but more frequently the clinical characteristics are typical of a violent his- tamin-like reaction. It is the only form of ichthyosarcotoxism known in which inadequate preservation or freshness of the fish appears to be POISONOUS FISHES 327 a factor in the production of the poison. The symptoms generally de- velop within a few minutes after ingesting the fish and consist of nausea, vomiting, redness and flushing of the face, engorgement of the soft tis- sues of the eyes, swelling and cyanosis of the lips, tongue and gums, giant urticaria, severe itching, headache and respiratory distress. ‘The victim usually recovers within eight to twelve hours. ‘The few bacte- riological analyses of the fish flesh for human pathogens have been nega- tive. Moreover, the toxin appears to be water soluble and is not de- stroyed by ordinary cooking procedures. The problem of scombroid poisoning has been discussed in greater detail elsewhere.° “TREATMENT There is no known specific antidote at the present time. An at- tack of fish poisoning does not impart immunity. ‘The treatment is purely symptomatic. Gastric lavage and catharsis should be instituted at the earliest possible time. Intravenous 10 per cent calcium gluconate in many instances has given prompt relief while in others it has been ineffective. Victims suffering from moray eel poisoning appear to be particularly susceptible to violent convulsions and may present dif- ficult nursing problems. Since the convulsions are precipitated by noise, rest, quiet and sedation are essential. Paraldehyde and drop ether have been reported to be the drugs of choice in controlling the convulsions. Coramine or one of the other respiratory stimulants are advisable in cases of respiratory depression. Excessive mucus production in the buccal cavity is treated by aspiration and constant turning of the patient. Atropine has been found to make the mucus more viscid and difficult to aspirate, and is not recommended. If laryngeal spasm is present, intubation and tracheotomy may be necessary. Nasal oxygen and intravenous fluids supplemented with parenteral vitamins are usual- ly beneficial. If the pain is severe, opiates will probably be required. Morphine given in small divided doses has been recommended. Cool showers have been found to be effective in relieving the severe itching. Fluids given to patients suffering from the paradoxical sensory disturb- ance should be warmed. Vitamin B complex supplements are advisable. SUMMARY he expansion of commercial fishing interests and the utilization of various species of shore fishes in the tropical Pacific impose upon fisheries and public health organizations an urgent solution to the prob- lem of poisonous fishes. Poisonous fishes are widely distributed through- out the torrid zone, but some species occur in temperate and arctic waters. Poisonous fishes are distributed throughout the entire phylo- O28 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS genctic series of fish-like chordates, including cyclostones, elasmobranchs and numerous groups of true fishes. Edible and commercially valuable species in one locality may prove violently poisonous in another area. The pharmacological and chemical properties of most ichthyosarco- toxins are unknown. ‘The poisons are water soluble and are not de- stroyed by ordinary cooking procedures. Bacteria are not involved in the production of the poison. Ichthyosarcotoxism or fish poisoning ap- pears in the form of different clinical entities. Four clinical types of ichthyosarcotoxism typified by various neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms are known to be endemic to the Pacific area: ‘Tetraodon, Gym- nothorax, Ciguatera and Scombroid poisoning. ‘The interrelationship of the various poisons involved is not understood. The treatment of fish poisoning is largely symptomatic. Research is urgently needed on the distribution, biology, ecology and systematics of reef fishes. “he prob- lem of poisonous fishes and fish poisoning will become of increasing economic and public health importance in the Pacific area in the years to come. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author takes pleasure in acknowledging the many helpful sug- gestions and kindly constructive criticism received from Dr. K. F. Meyer in the preparation of this manuscript. LITERATURE CITED 1. PALMER, F. D. Personal communication. April 11, 1958. 2. Ross, S. G. Preliminary report on fish poisoning at Fanning Island. (Cen- tral Pacific). Med. Jour. Australia, 2 (21): 617-621, (Nov. 22) 1947. 3. Brock, V. Personal correspondence. June 10, 1953. 4, Leg, R. K. and H. Q. PANG. Ichthyotoxism—fish poisoning. Amer. Jour. Trop. Med., 25 (8): 281-285, 1945. 5. GUDGER, E. W. Poisonous fishes and fish poisonings, with special reference to Ciguatera in the West Indies. Amer. Jour. Trop. Med., 10 (1): 43-55, (Jan.) 1980. 6. Hiyama, Y. Poisonous fishes of the South Seas. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 25: 1-188, 1950. 7. HALSTEAD, B. W. Ichthyotoxism—a neglected medical problem. Med. Arts and Sew., 5 (4): 1-7, 1951. Some general considerations of the problem of poisonous fishes and ichthyosarcotoxism. Copeia, (1): 31-38, 1953. 8. HALSTEAD, B. W. and N. C. BUNKER. A survey of the poisonous fishes of the Phoenix Islands. Copeia (in press). 9. HALSTEAD, B. W. A note regarding the toxicity of the fishes of the genus Euthynnus, the black skipjacks. Calif. Fish and Game (in press). POISONOUS FISHES “ATWUABY SIG? UIGIIM VIXO} aq 0} pdjJIOdel AjIPI[EA DIuIOUOXE}, e[qeUOI4sendD Jo satoads JO JaqUINU 93} Sd}VOIPUL SIseyjUCIBd UL IaqUINN es “A[TULBZ SIG} UIGIIM DIXO} eq 0} pazIOder satoads Jo AsquINU day} So}JOIPUI sSISAayJUSIed yNOYWIM AIqUINAT » ‘sojdoad oytoeg 0} a0UeIOdUIL [VlOAaWIUIOD JO PpatapIsUOD A[[BIaUes salrUIeT } spuezsa'y (T) (Z) (1) (1) (9) (3) N ca VO SHAH SHOHYHAMONAYAANL ANA sieddeus—oepiuelyny 4 ss01j sulysy—ervpriiydoT soysp[leus—oepiiedry soyId 1ed—ovplojsosideT sieyjnd—oepreydoo0se'] SOSSVIM—OPPLIQGe'T syoefdiys—ovpiuomnsyey Syleys [elayoeul—oeplains] soysy[ortinbs—oepiijusd0[oH Sy1VYSMOI—oeplyouexe}y syeoqy[ey—oeprydueyszuie S91qo3—oepIiqor Yoted LeATIS—oepli1ey S]e1eyoeu oyxevus—oepr[Aduies SYCQ9[YO1IS—ovpioqso.1e4sexy) Spoo—oepripey soyid—oeprloosy SsolAoyoue—Iepl[neisuy speys p1ezzis—oepiuloso10g ysy ourdno10d—oepruopoig sfeisulys—eoepizyedseq syleys puvlusce1y—oepiye[eq Sosy] —eepljyuopouraday SMOUUIUI—~eeprIulIdsg | Sjeteyoeut ystueds—eoepriqhky | suldjnos—eepizjo9 4 Sr qe te te ie (T) (T) (g) (3) (1) (g) xx (T) { \ GI40M FHL dO SAITINVY HSIYT SQONOSIOG dO LSI'T I Wlavi * VHA TE ANT HA MN HONE nA TOMA OAN OAH EA ban] N N ho Tad seysy ulydjop—eepiuseydA109 S[99 Iadu0I—oeplisu0) SuULLIeEy—eepiodn[p Sioyjnd—oepluly.zeuoyyn SV.1OVULYO—oeplLioeullyy seysy Alj1044nqg—oeprIyuopoyoeyyD soysypueq—eeprjoday syreys wWemnbei—oepiluryreyo1eg soueduiod—ovpiduei1e) Jajjnd poesou-dieys—oeeptiioysesiyyueg $}eUose.Ip—oeplulAUOl[e9 S1epunojy poAojjoT—eepryz0g seysyo[poou—oepiuojeg Soysypeo}—oepiproyoeryeg SoYysy.1033113—oeplisl[egq soysyjedwun.14—orprwuojsopny soysyyeo vos—orplliy —oeeprAjoepoldy soysy.do01J—ovpliieuuejuy S[9e 1oyeMYso1yJ—oepl]insuy SOysy-J[OM—oevpipeyoiyleuy Soysyo[Y—oepiron[ vy soysyApe[—oepr[nq y Soysyjeo—oeplsolouesy Su00d.1Nn}sS—oepllosucdly Soysyuosdins—oeplinyyueoy p qo EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 300 “A[YOIBY STYR UIATM 97x09 aq 0} peytodar AjIplyeA olwWoOUCXe, s[qeUOT{sonD JO soloeds JO AequINU dy} SoJedIpUL SIseyzUeIed Ur JequINN 4» ‘A[LULBF SITY} ULY}IM OLX0} OQ 0} pozyTOder soloeds JO JaqwNnU 9Y} SozBdIPUL SIseyjUSIed ynoyIIM AeqUINHT » *‘se[doad oylovg 0} ao0ue,1OdwE [elatemu0ds JO petepisuod A[[eteues soarime7 | syeys yeo—ovprurytorpéog ysyzyeo3—orplInW it fi {L ft U qn | = Je spueszeT a 06 EIST V 01 (= 1X0} e[qeuorysen® STs Ce ec) sotoeds d1XO], GG rite eet sescesseesseseeess sores o1x0} payodey BE tts sesesss goueqodut [eroreuluiod oyloeg jo Sel[iume,7, > S[@107, (1) I PpoulULteyep JOU sorT[IUWey (g) OE soysyuordtoos—aeprtused.100g T S[OPL YSLLoof[—ovprpoue7z, (9) 8 S[OLOyOeUI—oepliquiodg T soysypioms—ovpriydry | (3) g S10VOLI—OBPIUIVlIG “4 -—oePpIqUOPpOLL T —oepiseydoyeog (T) T s1oyovod—oeplIL.siq J, (Z) Gi soysyjo11ed—oeplieog G SyIVys punoy YLOOUS—oeplyVls J, (1) S qno1} ‘UOuUlles—eeprluoulles v —oeplyyULoeVLL TL, (1) & soyeys—oeprl fey T sAVi d11j.e[a—ovptiulpod.10o 7, 1 Sejnyeyeo—ovpiyyueovlig v sveunj—ovepiuunyy, | G Soysylosuep—oveplijusoeulog (9T) vs Sieyjnd—oepryuopoeryey, | T Soysyyeo [eJULLoO—eeptsojo] it S[lejorenbs—eeplinuose.r4a LT, o Iepunojy poso,Y.sl1I—ovplqoouoine[ g T soysyprzezi[—eeplqucepoudsg G sforduie,[—eepiuozAuloryeg I soysyodid—oepriyyeususg (T) val SoysyyUN1}— oevpI}UOINV.14SO a syieys josue—oeovepruryenbs T S}[oWsS—eepLIoulsoO, iE Syleys pvoysloumurey—eeprurzsyds G sjoo oyeus—eorepriAyiyoiydg L epnoeireq—oeepiueeiAydg | T soysyyeq—eevpr[eyda0003Q (6) IE sols1od—orpiiedsg | iE soysy.svy—ovplulxA[ G soysyuyeo—oevplinjis iE —oepliAyy g soysy yiqqei—eevpiuesig | o sket oj sevoa—oevpryeqorAW (9) 96 sosseq—orplueiieg 4 (8) 6T sjeo AVLOU—~ovpluSBIN], 9 iE oda seysy woouljyey—oeprdioog (penurzuoD) I AIAVL SB[OUI—oepI[O][ SOME ASPECTS OF FISHERIES PROBLEMS IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC AREA By A. H. J. Kroon Economic Development, South Pacific Commission Noumea, New Caledonia Fish plays an important role in the life of most inhabitants of the South Pacific area. It is their main source of protein. The Fisheries Conference held in 1952 at Noumea under the auspices of the South Pacific Commission stressed the importance of fish in the diet and pointed out that as land animal protein is not a regular item in the diet of the peoples of the region and as in most territories, social and economic factors limit the possibility of an early or rapid expansion of protein food supplies from livestock, fish is the most accessible and also the cheapest source of animal protein. In Melanesia, the present consumption of fish is on a lower scale than in Micronesia and Polynesia, where the consumption of fish and other marine products (algae, molluscs and crustacea) seems rather high, though accurate data are not yet available. A part of the population of the region, and even a great part, are not in a position to obtain fish easily. I am mainly thinking here of the impression that there are great untapped resources available. It is felt of the other islands fish production is often insufficient to cover the needs of the population, chiefly due to seasonal influences. The enormous acreage of the South Pacific Ocean leads to the impression that there are great untapped resources availabie. It is felt that the Pacific Ocean is a region where enormous quantities of valuable food are produced, and that we have to do with the problem of the “untaken crop.” One may ask if the untaken crop problems such as those in the field of fisheries, sago production, timber production and so on, are not somewhat over-emphasized in modern times. The un- taken crops in the world can only contribute to economic development in as far as the harvesting is within economic possibilities. Though there are still vast acreages of forests in the world, their exploitation is often impracticable for economic reasons. ‘There are a number of rubber producing plants in nature, but their harvesting is not practical, as it is cheaper to leave those resources “‘unharvested”’ and to grow hevea rubber. 331 Bon EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Mankind has nearly always passed from the stage of collection, of harvesting what was available in nature, to the stage of cultivation; from collecting and hunting to growing and raising. In fisheries we see the same picture, on the one hand fish catching, the harvesting of what is available in nature, and on the other hand fish culture, or controlled production. The abundance of fish in the Pacific Ocean and the fact that the largest ocean in the world furnishes food for only a few million people could lead to the idea that there is no need of fish culture in addition to fish catching. But reality seems to point in a different direction. It is a strange fact that the fish production in the South Pacific area is not sufficient to meet the needs of the population. Instead of being a fish exporting region the Pacific islands are importing fish. New Guinea’s © imports of fish and fish products in 1952 amounted to a quantity of more than 1,744,000 Ibs. with a value of nearly fAust.186,000; the figures for Fiji are 1,748,000 lbs. with a value of £¥F.154,500; Western Samoa 1,280,000 lbs. with the value of £NZ.46,230; American Samoa 405,000 Ibs. having a value of $47,380. Other territories such as Papua, Tonga, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, French Oceania, Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony and Netherlands New Guinea also have an ap- preciable import of fish. Although complete figures of fish imports are not available, a rough estimate gives a value of £400,000 Sterling per year for the region. The available figures indicate furthermore that imports are increasing. ‘Thus it seems possible that fish production in the region has not kept pace with the increasing population. It was stated at the Fisheries Conference that coastal populations sometimes abandon fishing and prefer to buy their food, even including fish in tins. Especially the deep-sea fishing (for pelagic fishes) seems to be declining. The report of the Fisheries Conference refers to: “A declining interest among the local populations in the conduct of fishing operations at market-fisheries level and some- times even at subsistence level.” FisH RESOURCES The resources within the region can be divided into: (a) marine fisheries; (b) inland fisheries. The marine fisheries are generally divided into: (a) coral reef and lagoon resources; (b) mangrove and estuarine resources; and (c) oceanic resources. FISHERIES PROBLEMS IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC AREA BO) The inland fisheries can be divided into: (a) fish catching in rivers, lakes, swamps and fresh water estuaries; (b) fish culture in ponds. Reef fishing is the main source of fisn supply. The limited reef area of some islands and the fact that fish stocks on the reefs are isolated within their particular reef systems set a limit to the yield. The Fisheries Conference states: “In some localities, in the neighbourhood of concentration of regional population, these resources appear to have been over-ex- ploited and the current harvest is small. These instances include reefs in the neighbourhood of Rarotonga (Cook Islands), Pago Pago (American Samoa), Papeete (Tahiti), Suva (Fiji), and Noumea (New Caledonia) .” The rapid rate of population increase in Polynesia and Micronesia and the deficiency of the diet in the interior of New Guinea make the problem of how to allow for higher levels of fish consumption per head, even more acute. Under such conditions it seems not unlikely that this reef and lagoon source, already over-exploited in some areas, will be- come more and more deficient in relation to the increasing demands of the future. The mangrove and estuarine resources are believed to be abundant and relatively unexploited in New Guinea. ‘The Conference report states: “It is in mangrove and estuarine areas that the greatest poten- tial for pond culture exists, but in New Guinea and large islands in Oceania the relatively large tracts of land might be expected, with appropriate social and economic change in the lives of the people, to make a contribution of animal protein on a scale which obviously could not be reached by the smaller islands of the region.” Oceanic resources: ‘The development of pelagic fisheries in the open ocean outside the reefs offers the best opportunity for increased fish production, not only for markets within the territories but also for export. ‘There are, however, in this field many unsolved problems due to lack of knowledge of the pattern and distribution of the prin- cipal species in these waters. Stocks in abundance sufficient to carry commercial operations have been indicated in equatorial waters north of New Guinea and south of the Caroline Islands. The Fisheries Con- ference expressed the opinion that most prominent among these re- 304 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS sources are the tunas, but there are numerous other species of potential commercial value, such as flying fish, half beaks and mackerels. The fisheries industry on a commercial basis should go together with a more differentiated community where a group of fishermen could earn their livelihood by catching fish for sale. Such differentiation does not exist to any marked degree. ‘The number of fishermen in the region who earn their livelihood by fish catching, although not known, is very small. Development in that direction requires better processing techniques. PROCESSING The Conference stated: “The only methods of processing employed in the region are salting, smoking and drying, mostly by crude and primitive tech- niques. Only small proportions of fish caught are processed.” In the papers submitted to the Fisheries Gonference some valuable information on fish processing is supplied. ‘The paper submitted by the Australian Delegation based on a survey of native methods of fish preservation in New Guinea carried out by Mr. K. W. Anderson of the Food and Transport Division, C.S.I.R.O., during April, May and June, 1950, states that the objects of that survey were: “I. To evaluate methods at present in use; 2. To determine what improved methods might be introduced to increase the storage life of the fish and make it available: (a) for smoothing out seasonal fluctuations in supply (b) for distributing to inland protein deficient com- munities.” In summarizing their observations, they state: “As far as could be ascertained, the sole method for preserva- tion of fish used throughout the territory was a simple, crude dry- ing over a hot fire.” The paper gives full information as follows:— “The extent to which the fish is dried varies somewhat with- in uncontrolled limits, but can broadly be classified into two groups:— (a) short term, partial drying, with or without prior cleaning of the fish, giving a product that is relatively soft, probably has moisture content in the range of 40 to 60% and a storage life of one to seven days. ‘This is the technique used in the great portion of the territory. FISHERIES PROBLEMS IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC AREA 335 (b) a more complete drying of cleaned and split large fish or whole uncleaned small fish, down to a moisture content of about 20% where it is hard and dark in colour, but, when protected from attack by insects, probably has an indefinite storage life even under tropical conditions. This latter technique seems con- fined to the Sepik River area.” The same paper states that:— “It is clear that in the absence of controllable pond fisheries the preservation of coastal fish as a means of smoothing out seasonal fluctuations in supply and of distributing inland to protein de- ficient communities with a poor system of communication will initially best be done by the traditional process of salting, drying and smoking in suitable combination, rather than by adopting elaborate processes such as freezing, canning and controlled smoking.” The importance of salt in the improvement of the existing primitive processing techniques was emphasized by the Australian Delegation, who stated that this salt will either have to be imported from Australia or produced by setting up a plant for its recovery from sea water within the territory itself. Lack of cheap salt and a small market for preserved fish are partly responsible for slow development in Netherlands New Guinea. Controllable pond fisheries as a means of smoothing out seasonal fluctuations in supply has already been mentioned. The culture of fish in ponds is not unknown to the Polynesian and ponds seem even to belong to the Indonesian-Polynesian cultural sphere. Fish cultivated are the milk fish (Tuamoto Archipelago, Nauru Island, the Gilbert Islands, the Lau Group), whilst the carp (Cyprinus carpis L.) was in- troduced into Fiji fifteen years ago. ‘The Fiji Government initiated pond culture experimentally in 1950 and yields of fish reached 1200 Ibs. per acre per year. However, since sewage had been run into the ponds to promote growth of algae, the Fijians would not eat the fish. In other territories also there is a growing interest in pond culture. It is unknown to what extent fish culture in ponds would contribute to a higher fish production in the region and to a smoothing out of seasonal influences. ae ae The lack of information and data on Pacific island fisheries in general was plainly shown and expressed in the papers submitted to the Fisheries Conference. One of the recommendations of the Conference Was: 336 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS “That periodical and regular compilation and assessment of quantitative and qualitative information on the fishing industries be recognized as essential prerequisites to regional development.” It is still not quite clear what course a short term development in the field of fisheries should take. The necessary basic survey and assess- ment of the fisheries resources and potentialities of the region is still most essential and urgent. At its Twelfth Session the South Pacific Commission authorized the appointment of a Fisheries expert for a term of three years, to assist and stimulate fisheries investigation and development in the region, in- cluding inland fisheries and pond culture. It is hoped that these ac- tivities will contribute to an absolute increase in production and to in- creased production per head, permitting an improvement of the nutri- tional value of the islanders’ diet. November 19, 1953 SYMPOSIUM ON MARINE PROVINCES IN THE INDO-PACIFIC REGION (SPONSORED BY UNESCO) Convener: Mr. A. W. B. Powext, Auckland Institute and Museum, Auckland, New Zealand. Secretary: Mr. INoceNcio A. RoNQUILLO, Bureau of Fisheries, Manila. AWARDEES OF THE UNESCO SUBVENTION Name Address Nationality 1. BRUUN, ANTON Fr. Deputy Keeper Danish University Zoological Museum Copenhagen K—Denmark 2. CHU, TSU-YAO Meteorologist, in charge of Re- Chinese search Section Taiwan Weather Bureau 64 Kong Yuen Road Taipei, Taiwan, China 3. CLEMENS, WILBERT A. Director Canadian Institutes of Oceanography and Fisheries University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada 4, HARDENBERG, J. D. F. Head, Laboratory for Investi- Dutch gation of the Sea Passar Ykan, Djakarta Indonesia 5. HipaKa, Kosi Professor Japanese Geophysical Institute Tokyo University Tokyo, Japan 6. PANIKK4R, N. KesAvA Chief, Central Marine Indian Fisheries Research Station Mandapam Camp, South India 7. POWELL, A. W. B. Assistant Director New Zealander Auckland Institute & Museum P. O. Box 9027, Newmarket Auckland, S. E. 1. New Zealand 8. SERENE, RAOUL R. Director, Institut French Oceanographique Nhatrang, Viet-Nam 337 308 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 9. SERVENTY, D. L. Senior Research Officer Australian Wildlife Survey Section C.S.1.R.O., Arundale Hall 1 Museum St., Perth Western Australia 10. THOMPSON, THOMAS G. Professor of Oceanography American University of Washington Seattle 5, Washington UC S.A. PROCEEDINGS The Symposium was sponsored by UNESCO, organized and con- vened by Mr. Powell, the Assistant Director of the Auckland Institute and Museum, Auckland, New Zealand. It was alloted one whole day for presentation. ‘There was a large attendance drawn from Zoology, Geology and Botany as well as Oceanography. ‘The rather full pro- gramme of fiiteen papers was accommodated by mimeographing all pa- pers in full and distributing copies the day before the meeting. ‘his avoided tedious full length reading of contributions and allowed ade- quate time for discussion after each paper and a reasonable amount of time at the end of the session for general consideration of the topic. The symposium convened at 9:00 A.M. with Mr. Powell opening the convention by speaking briefly on the manner in which the sym- posium was to be conducted, the number of minutes to be alloted to each paper, and the scope of the discussions. The papers were grouped into three categories, namely deep sea, distribution for general areas, and distribution for particular areas. The subjects represented by the fifteen papers embraced algae, plankton, holothurians, bryozoa, mollusca, fishes, and birds. The first paper read. was that of Dr. W. A. Gosline, Hawaii, entitled “The Nature and Evolution of the Hawaiian Inshore Fish Fauna.” The paper dealt with the Hawaiian provinces and inshore fisheries in the upper 200 meters of water. He endorsed the Schilders’ Hawaiian Province, into which he advocated including Midway and Line Islands. The geography, water temperature, and current systems of the Hawaiian Chain in relation to the evolution and endemism of Hawaiian fishes were discussed. Mr. Powell’s paper, “Marine Provinces of the Indo-West Pacific,” outlined the several published propositions for subdividing the area. It was suggested that the 18 named provinces for the Indo-West Pacific advocated by F. A. and M. Schilder (1939) were in excess of practical requirements. It was also suggested that this nomenclature applied mainly to shallow water faunas and that consideration of both deep PROCEEDINGS 339 sea and pelagic faunas would probably require separate consideration. Both these points were affirmed by other contributions and endorsed by several speakers. “Iwo slides and a full page map were presented. A question in methodology was brought up but it was suggested that it be taken up in the afternoon discussions. The next paper, “An Outline of the Distribution of Pacific Deep- Sea Animals”, was presented by Dr. Anton Fr. Bruun, Denmark. It covered the deep areas at and below 2,000 meters and described the Pacific Abyssal and abysso-pelagic fauna as part of a cosmopolitan deep sea fauna. The suggested subdivisions of the deep sea faunas were (1) Pacific and (2) Atlantic-Indian Ocean from which an Antarctic region may be separable. Slides showing specimens of deep-sea species accompanied the presentation of the paper. Dr. Rolf L. Bolin, California, on “Deep-Water Biological Provinces of the Indo-Pacific’, based his classification on the Archibenthic fish family, Macrouridae, which occur within a 200—2,000 meter range. It discussed myctophids and bathymetric fishes as indicators of biological provinces in the Indo-Pacific. Dr. Bolin’s suggested provinces were fewer, of larger scope, and were obviously not delimited by the same factors that gave rise to the shallow-water provinces. ‘The author spe- culated on the existence of other marine biological provinces as indi- cated by fishes and other marine fauna, but suggested more compre- hensive and detailed investigations before drawing conclusions. ‘There was agreement, however, in the recognition of a Hawaiian Province. Professor Martin W. Johnson of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, in “Some Outlines of Piankton Concentration in the Eastern and Tro- pical Pacific’, dealt with surveys involving marine plankton distribution along this west coast of North America and in some parts of the tropical Pacific. “The surveys were made by different scientific institutions in connection with the California Cooperative Sardine Research Program. The discussion related to the constitution of the plankton found in western Indonesia and also that found near the California coast. Dis- cussion follows: Dr. HARDENBERG: May I ask whether you can tell us about the com- position of the plankton? Dr. JoHNson: ‘They are mostly edible diatoms, Rhizosolenia, and are substantially not dinolagellates or watery planktons as Salpa. Dr. HARDENBERG: In Western Indonesia, there are few diatoms in the plankton. They are mostly Peridinium and watery organisms. Dr. JoHNSON: We need more work on plankton. We should give em- phasis to knowing what we are working on. 340 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Dr. HarpENBERG: It is hard to study our plankton due to the great abundance of floating water organisms. Dr. Jounson: The plankton is not worked out seasonally. It is not such in watery plankton. However, near the California Coast, in spring, there is a large volume of plankton. Drs. Yaichiro Okada and Shizuo Mawatari of Japan, in their paper entitled “Distributional Provinces of Marine Bryozoa in the Indo-Pa- cific Region”, presented a preliminary report on the distribution of the Indo-Pacific bryozoa, tracing geographical isolation and the oceano- graphical factors responsible for the formation of Bryozoan Provinces in the Indo-Pacific region. They recognize three subregions, the In- dian, the Western Pacific and the Central and Eastern Pacific with eight provinces: (1) Ethiopian and (2) Indian for the Indian Subregion, (3) Malayan, (4) Chinese and (5) Papuan for the Western Pacific Subregion, and (6) Hawaiian, (7) Polynesian and (8) Mexican for the Central and Eastern Pacific Subregion. Discussion follows: Mr. Domantay: In your study of Japanese Bryozoans have you come across species of Bowersbankia? Dr. Oxapa: Yes, there are four species found in Japan but these are not mentioned in this paper. “The Distribution of Polychaetes within the Indo-Pacific Region” by Mr. G. A. Knox of the Canterbury University College, New Zealand, is the first distributional survey of this group for the area. ‘The poly- chaetes inhabiting the shelves of 24 regions in the Indo-Pacific area were dealt with. Description of the species in the text was supple- mented by tables on the distribution and number of species found in each of the 24 regions. Extensive tables are given, an analysis of which points to recognition of the following faunal areas:—(1) Indian, with possibly a separate Arabian Sea region, (2) Malayan, (3) Philippine, including South China Sea, (4) Southern Japanese, (5) Northern Jap- anese, (6) Hawaiian, (7) Tropical Pacific. This paper was read by Mr. Powell. Dr. Leonard P. Schultz in his paper, “A New Approach to the Dis- tribution of Fishes in the Indo-West-Pacific Area” presented a grouping of. marine ecological habitats. It advanced the concept that the so- called species as named by Zoogeographers are actually composed of two or more species, subspecies or races, each more or less inhabiting sub- faunal areas. He considered that too much reliance has been placed upon check lists prepared by ichthyologists with only a local faunal concept and that the nomenclature used often stressed greater differ- ences between faunas actually occurs zoologically. He advocates com- PROCEEDINGS = a41 prehensive revisional work on generic, specific, and subspecific levels. The discussion related to the spawning periods of marine organisms in different areas. It was stated to be all the year round with certain species in tropical Djakarta, March the month for most prevalent spawn- ing of fishes at Palmyra and March, April and May for the Marshall Islands. Comments and discussion follow: Dr. HarvenBerc: In tropical Djakarta, most species spawn the whole year round. We found two types that breed the whole year round and another type that spawns during the fall and spring only. Are your Carangids more or less related to our species? Dr. ScHULTz: Yes. Dr. Gostine: I found that the check list and list of species of fishes of Guam could not be used in the case of the Hawaiian fishes. I aiso found that the Hawaiian Islands are not coralline, that coral reefs there are very small, with almost no atoll present, and that those parts with cooler waters have different fishes. Dr. ScHuLTz: You just have to ignore the list of fishes of Guam. Only 50% of it is correct. In one case, 35 species were listed as new but the listing were later found not valid, and this is probably true of other species. In the Samarano, if the ichthyologist cannot de- scribe these, he classifies them as new, as was found in the case of parrot fishes. Dr. HALSTEAD: I made various studies of coral atolls at various times of the year. In Palmyra I found that March is very definitely the month when the fishes are most active as far as reproduction is concerned. Dr. Jonson: In the Marshall Islands, March, April and May show very heavy spawning in plankton samples. It is probably so in other places. After the discussion on Dr. Schultz’s paper, Mr. Powell announced a recess for refreshments. The after-recess session began at 11:30. Only one paper, “The Zoogeographical Distribution of the Indo-Pacific Littoral Holothurio- idea”, by Mr. Jose S. Domantay of the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries, was read. The paper covered the study of the littoral forms of Holo- thurioidea found at depths not exceeding 50 fathoms. It proposed the zoogeographical division of the Indo-Pacific Ocean based on the Holo- thurian fauna, into the following ten provinces: (1) North Pacific (2) South Pacific (3) East Pacific (4) West Pacific (5) Northwest Pacific (6) Southwest Pacific (7) Northeast Pacific (8) Southeast Pa- cific (9) Central Pacific and (10) Indian Ocean. ‘These areas for the 342 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS most part fall readily into the named scheme of the Schilder’s. He also advanced opinions on the causes for the unequal distribution of the North and South Pacific Holothurian fauna. The number of the dif- ferent species of the various provinces were tabulated and presented in graphs and charts. The session adjourned for lunch at about midday. When the afternoon session resumed at 2:00 P.M. Mr. Powell an- nounced that there were six more papers to be presented. He said that aside from the discussion after each paper, there would be a general discussion after all the papers had been read. Comments and sugges- tions would be entertained. Mr. Powell then called upon Dr. Har- denberg to read his paper. Dr. Hardenberg’s paper entitled ‘Distribution of Marine Fishes in South East Asian Waters” presented the general range of distribution of tropical marine fish fauna of South East Asian seas. The complex pattern of the occurrence of fishes in different regions was discussed. It mentioned the division of the seas into regions, and the factors im- portant to the ecology of the marine fauna. Various species were cited for particular fish fauna of several regions with common ecological characteristics. The discussion was mostly concerned with the location of the eggs and post-larval stages of parrot fishes. Dr. Scuuttz: I have been troubled for years about parrot fishes and how their eggs look like. Have you seen some eggs of these fishes? Dr. HarpvENBERG: No. I saw only ovaries with small eggs. I have seen a parrot fish in the open sea. Dr. ScHuttz: We are troubled as to the identity of pelagic eggs at Bikini Atoll. They looked like anchovies but these fish are not found there. We even found certain fish eggs that looked like an- chovy eggs. Dr. Jounson: I found fish eggs 20 miles from the nearest land. Dr. Scuuttz: What is the smallest parrot fish you have found? Dr. HARvENBERG: ‘The smallest fish I have found is about 20 mm. long. I observed the same condition in Caesio. ‘The smallest I have seen is about 5 to 6 cm. long. I have seen Caesio spawn at the edge of coral reefs and the larvae get away after spawning. Dr. D. L. Serventy in “An Analysis of the Pelagic Bird Faunas of the Indo-Pacific Oceans”, working on taxonomy in relation to distribution patterns, considered that the whole of the Indian Ocean and the west- ern and central part of the Pacific represented one homogeneous fauna consisting of long-established descendants of the ‘Tethyan fauna of the PROCEEDINGS 343 Tertiary. He did, however, recognize a sub-speciation centre in the region of the Kermadec Islands. It interpreted the known taxonomic and zoo-geographical facts. Factors regulating the ebb and flow of species movement were analyzed. Faunal elements in the Indo-Pacific region were presented with enumeration of bird species with their habitat and migration. The paper was illustrated with three maps. Dr. Murphy referred to this paper as an admirable review in which the author reached a series of conclusions in harmony with the known geo- logical history and without resource to hypothetical land gaps or land bridges. Discussion follows: Dr. Mvurpuy: Dr. Serventy’s study is more admirable than that review it indicates. He found the breeding grounds of the sea bird spe- cies not familiar to the audience. He built up a series of conclu- sions which then coincides and harmonizes with the groups of sea birds and the geological history. He needed no land gaps and land bridges. Mr. Tuss: I would like to ask about the flying habits of the frigate birds. I have observed those that circle up to the point of invi- sibility and, when very high, cross the country where they roost. Boobies are also seen from land when nesting. ‘They fly direct to waters near the nest. Dr. SrrvENTy: Iam glad to know that frigate birds cross land and that they fly far from roosting islands. I have not seen this in the lite- rature. Dr. HARDENBERG: I wish to confirm the statement of Mr. Tubb con- cerning the flying habits of the frigate birds. Dr. WoostER: When we were opposite Cape Monticino, a bird stayed on our ship for three hours when we were about 1,500 miles from land. I would like to know if petrels form colonies. Dr. SERVENTy: ‘There are big scale conditions where petrels form co- lonies, that is, from South America to California. There in a ran- dom collection of birds we could recognize the New Zealand birds, and other sea birds were presented. ‘There is no evidence, how- ever, of migration of sea birds in historic times. Dr. E. Yale Dawson’s paper, “Some Distribution Patterns Repre- sented by the Marine Algae of Nhatrang Bay, Vietnam”, was read by Dr. Maxwell S. Doty. It presented a brief picture of the present knowl- edge of the marine algal flora of Indo-China. Results of the algal study undertaken by the author on the distribution of the different species and their occurrence were presented. ‘The paper also presented two generalities on marine algae of the Indo-Pacific; namely, the out- standing deficiency of information about algae not only of the South 344 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS China Sea but also of the whole Indo-Pacific region, and local varia- tions in ecology as the cause for the extreme diversity between algal associations of adjoining localities. ‘The paper, “Some Problems on Marine Biogeographical Micro- Provinces Surrounding Japan”, by Tadasige Habe, Tokubei Kuroda, and Denzaburo Miyadi was read by Dr. Okada. It points out that in southern Japan cold water continental coastal faunal elements often survive in bays whereas the adjacent open coast may have a warm wa- ter fauna belonging to a different marine province. Stress was made on the idea that biogeography based on taxonomic differences is only one side of biogeography. A comparison of bay fauna with littoral fauna of the open sea, with specific examples of various species, was presented. Several authors interpreted the term biogeographic prov- inces in the ecological or zonation issue and this led to some discussion. The characteristic aspects of marine littoral fauna which bear on bio- geographical segmentation of Japanese seas were discussed. The paper of R. K. Dell of the Dominion Museum, New Zea- land, entitled ‘““The Marine Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands in Rela- tion to Molluscan Faunas in the South West Pacific’, came next and was read by Dr. Hiatt. It reviewed briefly the literature on the marine mollusca of the region and the author’s own findings in his investiga- tions of the different species and genera. “The Geographical Variation of Early Embryonic Processes in Ma- rine Eggs” was read by Dr. Alexander Wolsky, Principal Scientific Of- ficer of Unesco in South East Asia. It dealt with the different factors affecting the development of marine eggs, and the causes of geographic variation in the embryonic processes. Dr. Boschma commented on the paper. Dr. BoscuMa: I agree with Dr. Wolsky that some species of animals found in the North Sea and in the Mediterranean have differences in their development. ‘The study of their embryos must be inte- resting. After this paper had been read, Mr. Powell opened the meeting for general discussions. Dr. Bruun: We found some Actinians in the Philippine Deep and also in the Java ‘Trench. I believe that this form is endemic in the trenches. We also found more in the depth of 6,000 meters, which cannot differ much from those found in the deep waters of India and Japan. As shown by the work of Dr. ZoBell, the bacteria for the Philippine Trench die when subjected to a pressure of 800 atmospheres, while they live at a pressure of 1200 atmospheres. It PROCEEDINGS 345 is possible that the deep sea fauna can be split according to dif- ferences in pressure, i.e. variation in pressure at the slopes rather than differences in temperature. . GostinE: I found that the fishes in the high island are similar to those found in the coral reefs and in the low islands. However, I found that in high islands with low water temperatures the spe- cies of fishes are poorer. . ScHULTz: I have noticed the relationship of fishes in the different provinces. As the distance gets farther for wide ranging species, there is a considerable difference in morphology and color distinc- tions. In different fish populations the colors vary widely. For example with reference to eels the use of the color for differentia- tion is very difficult to apply in the field. . PANIKKAR: It is interesting that prawn is marine in the Mediter- ranean but is estuarine in India and fresh water in China and Japan. ‘They belong to the same species but differ physiologically. Another example is Arenicola, which was recently found in the Gulf of Bombay. . Hratr: I hope that we are not confusing here ecological conditions and biological distribution. We may find new arrivals of animals in certain localities but we should not discuss these animals im- ported by men, i.e., those that had not existed in that locality before. . Harry: I observed that the faunas in the Atoll area are different from those in Hawaii, i.e., where the land shelf drops fast, and that similar atolls have similar fishes. . Borin: Rough shore and sandy beaches are different. Differences in habitat in a biological province are not so important but the similarities of fauna in high island and coral atoll are important. . PowELL: ‘This symposium stimulates more interest along the line of biogeographic distribution. Gentlemen, we have to conclude this part of the session. When I say this part of the session, I am referring only to the official presentation on the subject today, for I am sure sufficient materials have been presented today to be the subject of wide and lengthy discussions for a long time to come, and I am very thankful indeed to all of you for your splendid response to this symposium which I had the great pleasure of or- ganizing. ‘Thank you very much. The symposium adjourned at 4:30 in the afternoon. : amen met Hany tee i ae ; ert ise ia } THE NATURE AND EVOLUTION OF THE HAWAIIAN INSHORE FISH FAUNA! By Witii1AM A. GOSLINE University of Hawaii Honotute 1. Ls H., U.S. A: INTRODUCTION A very large number of the shallow-water animals of the Hawaiian Islands are endemic, and the area is usually considered a major zoo- geographic subdivision of the great, marine, shallow-water, Indo-West- Pacific region (Ekman, 1953). Among Hawaiian species of inshore fishes estimates of endemism range between approximately 15% (Fowl- er, 1928) and 50% (Jordan and Evermann, 1905). In my opinion the latter figure is about correct. Neither the distinctiveness of the Hawaiian inshore fish fauna nor its derivation from an Indo-West- Pacific stock are in doubt, and these matters will not be discussed here. ‘The purpose of this paper is to present a preliminary analysis of the factors that appear to have brought about the present. status of the Hawaiian shore-fish fauna. It is based on five years of investigation and on collecting trips to Johnston, Wake, and most of the Hawaiian Islands. Nevertheless, present knowledge is insufficient to provide more than leads to the subject, and no help is to be obtained from other components of the Hawaiian shore fauna, for they are more poorly known than the fishes. Consequently the ideas presented here can de- serve no rating higher than that of working hypotheses. GEOGRAPHY The Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1) form a long, narrow chain extend- ing for some 1600 miles along a southeast to northwest axis. Hawaii, at the southern end of the chain is the largest island in the central Pacific, whereas Kure, at the opposite end, is the northernmost coral atoll in the Pacific. he greatest distance between any two islands in the chain is less than 200 miles. For zoogeographic purposes, Johnston Island (Fig. 1), about 450 miles to the south of the central part of the chain, must be considered an outlying component of the Hawaiian faunal area. The nearest shallow waters to the north and east are those of the Aleutians and Alaska, somewhat less than 2000 miles away. Between 1 Contribution No. 49, Hawaii Marine Laboratory in cooperation with the Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Hawaii. 347 348 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Hawaii and the mainland United States lie about 2000 miles of deep water. There are no shallow-water fishes common to the Hawaiian Islands and the shores of North America, though a few high seas species, e.g., the albacore, inhabit both regions. ‘To the south of the United States, America slopes away from Hawaii, so that the distance from Hawaii to Panama is about 4000 miles. ‘Thus the nearest American coasts with water temperatures similar to those of Hawaii are separated from that island by at least 2500 miles of deep sea. ‘The Hawaiian fish fauna has derived little or nothing from tropical American waters. The nearest shallow-water areas to the Hawaiian chain lie to the south and west. The Line Islands (Fig. 1) south of Honolulu extend to within about 850 miles of Hawaii and to 800 miles southeast of Johnston. Due west of Hawaii, Wake (Fig. 1), a northern outlier of the Marshalls, lies about 1200 miles southwest of Midway (and about half way between Honolulu and Japan). WaTER TEMPERATURES With regard to surface-water temperatures, it can be seen from Table I that all of the islands of the Hawaiian chain, Wake, Johnston, and Palmyra (in the northern Line Islands) have about the same tem- peratures in summer; there is, however, considerable difference between the northern parts of the Hawaiian chain and the other islands men- tioned in winter. Since the Hawaiian fish fauna is essentially a tropical one, it would seem probable that if any temperatures are critical for Hawaiian fishes, they are those of winter. Consequently summer tem- peratures will be dismissed from further consideration. In winter, the differences in water temperatures within the Hawaiian chain are greater than those between Hawaii and the northern Line Islands or Wake. TABLE I SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE (FROM SVERDRUP, JOHNSON, AND FLEMING, Cuarts II Anp III) FEBRUARY AUGUST TEMP. C. DIFFEREN CB TEMP. Cc. 4 DIFFERENCE Wake 25 aI ean 28 i da 2 Midway 18 26 6 0 Hawaii 24 26 1 1 Johnston 25 oT, | aL 0 Palmyra ez it | NATURE AND EVOLUTION—HAWAIIAN INSHORE FISH FAUNA 349 If cold water were the principal limiting factor in the differentiation of Hawaiian shore fishes, then greater variation would be expected within the Hawaiian chain than between the northern Line Islands or Wake and Hawaii. ‘This, however, dces not occur. On the contrary, the fish fauna throughout the Hawaiian chain seems to be quite homo- geneous. Except for slight indications of racial differentiation in two species (Kuhlia sandvicensis and Istiblennius zebra), attempts to dis- tinguish even races of fishes within the Hawaiian chain have been un- successful. As to number of species, there are several a priori reasons for sus- pecting that it might differ at the two ends of the Hawaiian chain. One is the great differentiation in winter water temperatures within the chain noted above. A second is that the southeastern islands are high and volcanic, whereas the northwestern are low coral atolls. Pre- sumably all the atoll habitats are present around the high islands; how- ever, the volcanic rock habitats of the eastern islands are absent from the whole western part of the chain. Finally, there is the possibility that the low western islands have a larger fauna because they are older. Unfortunately, it is impossible to say whether the number of species at the two ends of the Hawaiian chain actually does differ, for the low leeward islands have been very poorly collected and the absence of species records from these islands means nothing. Consequently, it be- comes necessary to fall back on general impressions for what they are worth. After collecting at most of the islands from Hawaii to Midway it is my personal feeling that there is a decrease, though probably not an evenly graded one, in the number of species from southeast to north- west. Indeed I have collected no species in the leeward islands that I had not already collected in the high Hawaiian islands. (On the other hand the number of individuals of a species seems to increase from south to north. Also, judging from a few non-commercial species, the maximum size of individuals within at least some species increases from south to north.) If, however, there are species on the high islands restricted to lava rock habitats, I do not know them. In Oahu, the great majority, at least, of the species found over lava rock may also be en- countered over coral or coralline limestone areas. It seems necessary then to fall back on winter temperatures as the cause of the decrease in number of species in the leeward group, if indeed such a decrease really takes place. CURRENT SYSTEMS The adults of most Hawaiian inshore fishes are bottom feeders that would presumably starve in the open sea. It is generally believed, 350 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS though by no means verified, that most such fishes arrived in Hawaii as planktonic larvae carried in by the ocean currents. Under such pos: tulates the current systems should play a dominant role in the develop: ment of the Hawaiian inshore fish fauna. However, there seems to be little correlation between the present current systems of the Hawaiian region and the fish immigration routes. Although the Hawaiian inshore fish fauna has come in from the south and west, there are no known northeasterly-flowing currents reaching the Hawaiian Islands (see Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming, 1942, Chart VII). The North Equatorial Current, in which Hawaii lies, flows to- ward the west, and the eastwardly flowing Equatorial Counter Current does not pass within 800 miles of these islands. If the derivation of the Hawaiian inshore fishes is to be tied in with present current sys- tems there would seem to be only two possibilities, both in my opinion rather remote. One is that the larval forms were carried to the east of Hawaii in the Counter Current and then doubled back in a great eddy of the North Equatorial Current that carried them over 800 miles north. ‘The other is that Hawaiian fishes were carried in to Kure and Midway from the Bonins and Japan by a southern tongue of the Ku- roshio Current (see Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming, 1942: 122). This would involve transport in a slowly moving current across more than 2000 miles of deep water. There is of course the possibility that the current systems of the Hawaiian area were different in the Pleistocene than they are today. However, Arrhenius (1952) has shown that there was little or no dis- placement of, at least, the Equatorial Counter Current during the Pleis- tocene. If the immigration of Hawaiian fishes took place randomly, e.g., via occasional eddies within the major current systems, then it would seem logical that they came in from the nearest islands, namely, John- ston and Wake. ‘There is indeed considerable evidence in the Johnston fish fauna that this island has formed something of a way point in both the immigration and emigration of Hawaiian fishes. NATURE OF THE HAWAIIAN FisH FAUNA Before treating the endemism among Hawaiian fishes it seems ad- visable to divide these into several ecological categories. First, there are a small number of Hawaiian fishes, mostly gobies, that have taken up a primarily fresh-water existence in the streams of the high islands. At the other end of the scale are the deep-water fishes, both bathy- pelagic and bottom dwelling forms. ‘Third, there is a group in which the adults are pelagic, e.g., most sharks, the tunas, flying-fishes, and NATURE AND EVOLUTION—HAWAIIAN INSHORE FISH FAUNA 351 Schindleria. All three of the above-mentioned groups will be omitted from further consideration in this paper. ‘The remaining, inshore fishes will again be divided into two categories for purposes of treatment here. One group contains those species ordinarily living in depths of ap- proximately 200 to 600 feet, and the other those fishes usually inhabit- ing depths of less than about 200 feet. OF those fishes living between 200 and 600 feet, relatively little is known. In Hawaii there is a considerable hand-line fishery for such species, but only the larger forms are taken, and of these only the edible forms are brought in. About all that can be said of this group is that it seems to show less endemism and a greater affinity to the Japanese fish fauna than is present among shallower-water forms. The rest of this paper will be devoted to those fishes usually living in less than 200 feet of water. “This inshore group is not only the best known, but contains well over half of all the fishes recorded from the Hawaiian Islands. Four main features must be noted about these forms. First, a large proportion of the Hawaiian species appear to be endemic. Second, at most a very few of the Hawaiian genera are endemic. ‘Third, the Hawaiian inshore fish fauna, in distinct contrast to the Hawaiian terrestrial biota, is a harmonic (balanced) one. Finally, the Hawaiian fish fauna does not appear to be a particularly impoverished one by Central Pacific standards. It is necessary to discuss each of the above points in some detail. Since the lack of endemic genera and higher categories is most easily dismissed, it will be dealt with first. ‘There are, to my knowledge, only two genera of Hawaiian shallow-water fishes (Gregoryina and Micro- brotula) that can be considered endemic. However, both of these are made up of small, rarely collected forms that may have been overlooked elsewhere. The statement that a large proportion of Hawaiian inshore species of fishes are endemic needs some qualification, for the question may be raised whether the Hawaiian endemics are not merely subspecies. In- deed it cannot be proved that these endemics will not and do not in- terbreed with their central Pacific counterparts (see below). Never- theless, there are two basic reasons for considering the Hawaiian en- demics as full species. One is that the Hawaiian representatives of an Indo-Pacific Artenkreis are usually better differentiated than any other populations of the Artenkreis, e.g., Acanthurus sandvicensis in the A. triostegus complex (Schultz and Woods, 1948). ‘The other and more important reason is that no intergradation can be demonstrated at the borders of the ranges between the Hawaiian and the central Pacific forms. Johnston and Wake (Fig. 1) are both islands which geograph- 352 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ically lie somewhat between the Hawaiian and central Pacific faunal areas, and a mixture of these two faunas (but with a high predom- inance of Hawaiian forms) is found at Johnston. Nevertheless, no intergradation between the Hawaiian endemics and their central Pacific counterparts was found at Johnston. Among four species complexes investigated in some detail (Muraenichthys cookei- laticaudata, Gymno- thorax eurostus-buroensis, Acanthurus sandvicensis-triostegus and Kuhlia sandvicensis), the Johnston populations of the first three represented the pure Hawaiian stock, and of the fourth the pure central Pacific form. In no instance were both the Hawaiian and the central Pacific forms found at Johnston, nor have they been found together elsewhere. As to the harmonic nature of the Hawaiian fish fauna, a very high proportion of the families and genera of shore fishes found in the central Pacific east of Samoa have representatives in Hawaii. ‘There are, how- ever, two notable and curious gaps in the Hawaiian shallow-water fish fauna. Throughout most of the tropical Pacific, two of the most prom- inent genera are Lutjanus and Epinephelus. In the northernmost of the Line Islands, for example, perhaps a half dozen species of each of these genera occur. In the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Lutjanus appears to be totally unrepresented, and Epinephelus occurs only in a single, deep-water form. Yet the families to which these two genera belong are abundantly represented in Hawaii by other, smaller, deeper-water genera. These gaps seem especially peculiar in that both genera are made up of generalized, moderate to large sized fishes. Furthermore, both are present in Japanese waters that would seem to be colder than those of Hawaii. With regard to the relative size of the Hawaiian fish fauna, little can definitely be said. On the one hand numerous central Pacific species are unrepresented in Hawaii. On the other, more inshore species are recorded from Hawaii than from any one central Pacific island group east of Samoa. However, except for Hawaii, no central Pacific island group east of Samoa has been adequately collected. Under any circum- stances the Hawaiian inshore fish fauna, with some 400-500 known species, cannot be called depauperate. CHARACTERISTICS OF HAWAIIAN ENDEMIC FISHES The characteristics by which Hawaiian endemic fishes differ from their ancestral forms, i.e., their central Pacific representatives, can best be treated under two categories: physiological and morphological. In morphological features the Hawaiian endemic fishes show no pattern of divergence from their central Pacific relatives. One Hawaiian en- demic has a greater number of fin rays; a second has fewer gill rakers; a third has the dorsal fin originating farther forward; a fourth has NATURE AND EVOLUTION—HAWAIIAN INSHORE FISH FAUNA 358. slightly longer jaws; a number differ in various details of color pattern; etc. Even within a family no trend of divergence is shown by the various Hawaiian endemic members. Consequently there seems to be no pos- sibility of correlating the morphological peculiarities of Hawaiian en- demics with distinctive features of the Hawaiian environment, e.g.,. colder water temperatures. One anticipated correlation of this sort is strikingly absent: Hawaiian coral reefs are notably dull colored as compared with those of the central Pacific, yet the fishes seem to be as. brightly pigmented as those to the south. It is not, therefore, easy to escape the inference that the morphological peculiarities of Hawaiian endemic fishes are per se non-adaptive. ‘Treatment of physiological differentiation is handicapped by the fact that almost nothing is known of the physiological reactions of tropical marine fishes. It might be expected that Hawaiian fishes have: become physiologically adjusted to life in colder waters than their more tropical ancestors. ‘There is some indirect evidence for, and none against,. this supposition. The best available bit of information in this connec- tion is derived from the spawning seasons of certain Hawaiian fishes. One would expect (Ekman, 1953: 113) that a tropical species living in Hawaii would spawn, at least primarily, during the summer months when water temperatures most closely approximate those of its an- cestral home. However, many Hawaiian fishes spawn primarily or en- tirely in winter at temperatures below those ever reached in more trop- ical regions. One example will suffice. Around Honolulu Pomacentrus. jenkinst spawns from December to March; no ripe females have been taken during the remaining months. At Arno, 10° nearer the equator in the Marshalls, Dr. Strasburg informs me that ripe females of this. same species were taken in July. (Hawaiian specimens of Pomacentrus jenkinst do not seem to be morphologically distinguishable from their central Pacific counterparts, which further emphasizes the advisability of treating the morphological and physiological peculiarities of Ha-- walian forms separately.) The restriction of spawning in Pomacentrus jenkinst (and other similar examples can be given) to winter around Oahu is the reverse: of what would be expected, and the explanation for this phenomenon is obscure. Perhaps the Hawaiian populations of P. jenkinst have at one time become adapted to waters even colder than exist around. Oaliu today, e.g., in the Pleistocene, and the winter spawning is merely a holdover from such adaptation. (In any event, the Hawaiian fishes. must either have come in since the Pleistocene, under which supposi- tion it is difficult to explain the high degree of endemism, or they must. have been able to survive the Pleistocene water temperatures of Hawaii.), 354 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CAUSES OF ENDEMISM AMONG HAWAIIAN FISHES In the preceding sections the nature of the Hawaiian fish fauna has been discussed. It remains, however, to attempt some explanation to the question of why it is as it is. Why, on the one hand, has not the fish fauna undergone the adaptive radiation found in the Hawaiian terrestrial fauna (see Zimmerman, 1948)? Why, on the other hand, is there any endemism among Hawaiian fishes at all? The answer to these questions would seem to be found in the degree of isolation of the Hawaiian Islands. “Though the Hawaiian chain is equally isolated in space for both fishes and terrestrial organ- isms, the fishes (and other marine organisms) seem far better adapted to getting there than most terrestrial forms. ‘This is immediately in- dicated by the balanced nature of the fish fauna as compared with the terrestrial biota. Indeed there are a large number of central Pacific fishes unrepresented in Hawaii, but on the whole it looks more as though such absences were due to unsuitable conditions for survival rather than to inability to arrive there. If the foregoing is correct, most or all suitable inshore environ- mental niches have been filled by immigration, and the possibility of an adaptive radiation among Hawaiian fishes is precluded. But also, if the foregoing is correct, the question of why there is any endemism at all among Hawaiian fishes becomes difficult to answer. In my opinion, the endemism among Hawaiian fishes has been brought about by two factors acting together and, in general, additively. The primary cause is a moderate degree of isolation. ‘The secondary cause is the slightly colder water of the Hawaiian Islands as compared with the tropical central Pacific. With regard to isolation, it has been stated above that the vast majority of central Pacific fishes have probably arrived in Hawaii at one time or another. By this it was not meant that the Hawaiian fish po- pulation is deluged by an influx of immigrants every year, but rather that one or a small number of specimens of most central Pacific species have managed to get to the Hawaiian chain from time to time. Pre- sumably the original entrants, if they survived and reproduced, would have had time to saturate the islands with their descendants before the next immigrants arrived. ‘There is some evidence that such a process does take place. As already noted, at Johnston the pure central Pacific stock of Kuhlia sandvicensis is represented, but among three other fishes the pure Hawaiian form is present. Apparently what has occurred is that in the case of Kuhlia the central Pacific stock has been able to saturate the island with its representatives. Subsequent immigrants from Hawaii were either unable to survive at Johnston, or if they NATURE AND EVOLUTION—HAWAIIAN INSHORE FISH FAUNA 355 survived and interbred with the central Pacific form they did so in such relatively small numbers as to leave no trace of intergradation on the Johnston population. For the other three fishes the situation would seem to be similar except that the Hawaiian form has either arrived first or totally displaced the central Pacific type. The original immigrants to Hawaii that gave rise to the descend- ant population may or may not have been aberrant members of the ancestral stock. Furthermore, during at least the initial increase in the population, random drift may have been effective. Finally, among Hawaiian fishes, these possibilities of aberrant initial immigrants and random drift may have occurred at least twice, once at the stepping stone of Johnston (or possibly Wake) and again on first arriving in Hawaii. The above factors (more fully treated in Zimmerman, 1948: 122- 125) may have caused differentiation through isolation per se, and this differentiation would be of a non-adaptive type. Once arrived in the Hawaiian Islands the fishes may have undergone further differentia- tion in adapting themselves to the colder waters of this area. (Evidence for one such adaptation has already been discussed.) Such adaptive physiological differentiation would increase the ability of the residents to compete with further immigrants, so that these would be able to pass even fewer genes into the resident population than before (provid- ing of course that they could interbreed at all). Consequently, I believe that the integrity of a Hawaiian endemic species has been maintained whether or not an occasional central Pacific immigrant has interbred with it, and that the physiological adaptations of the endemics have insured them from extermination through competition with the central Pacific immigrants that may have arrived subsequently. REFERENCES ARRHENIUS, G. 1952. Sediment cores from the East Pacific. Reports of the Swedish Deep-Sea Expedition 1947-1948, vol. 5, fase. 1, pp. 1-227. EKMAN, S. 1953. Zoogeography of the sea. Sidgwick and Jackson Limited, London: 417 pp. FowLer, H. W. 1928. The fishes of Oceania. Memoirs of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, vol. 10, pp. 1-540. JORDAN, D. S. and B. W. EVERMANN. 1905. The aquatic resources of the Hawaiian Islands. Part I. The shore fishes. Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Commission for 1903, vol. 28, pt. 1, pp. 1-574. SCHULTZ, L. P., and L. P. Woops. 1948. Acanthurus triostegus marquesensis, a new subspecies of surgeonfish, family Acanthuridae, with notes on re- lated forms. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 38, pp. 248-251. 356 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS SVERDRUP, H. U., M. W. JOHNSON, and R. H. FLEMING. 1946. The oceans. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York: pp. 1-1087. ZIMMERMAN, E. C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii. Volume 1. Introduction. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: pp. 1-206. ODT NATURE AND EVOLUTION—HAWAIIAN INSHORE FISH FAUNA ‘aZIS Ul Ppo}Bladsexe DMD H a W A[}BO18 SBITB PUBT gol voysuyor “yl OF JSotVOU SpuBI[SE vy} pue UTBYY UBLIVABH OUL—']T “SI 08! oo?! SONV TSI TIVHSYVAN RE ET. SO OR ES REO EMT = MARINE PROVINCES OF THE INDO-WEST PACIFIC By A. W. B. POWELL Auckland Institute and Museum, New Zealand The precise definition of shallow-water provinces in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans is difficult since accurate faunal lists are few, not many bibliographies have been published, and the systematics of only a few groups are adequately known. The purpose of this paper is not to present a scheme based upon the systematics and biogeographic data of one phylum (mollusca) but to invite discussion of the topic by workers representative of as many phyla as possible. If a working plan satisfactory to the majority of interests emerges from this discussion it is hoped that agreement may be reached regard- ing both the nomenclature and the respective boundaries of any ap- proved provinces. It is realized that provinces apparent in the littoral do not neces- sarily extend to the deep waters, not even to the continental shelf in all instances. The abyssal faunas probably bear no relation to the shallow- water faunas and will require separate consideration. Pelagic faunas also will probably require special treatment. The recent appearance of Ekman’s “Zoogeography of the Sea’ (1953) will undoubtedly cause a renewed interest in biographic studies. Ekman’s classification of the tropical faunas is as follows: 1. Indo-West Pacific. Indian ocean to 30-35°S and the western part of the Pacific between 35-40°N and 30-35°S; extending from the east coast of Africa to the Hawaiian, Marquesas and Tua- motu Islands. 2. Atlanto-East Pacific. A. Tropical and Subtropical America a. Pacific American warm water region. b. Atlantic American warm water region. B. Tropical and Subtropical West Africa. We are concerned only with the Indo-West Pacific which Ekman subdivided into— ]. Indo-Malayan, 2. Islands of the Central Pacific (excluding Ha- wall), 3. Hawaii, 4. Subtropical Japan, 5. Tropical and Subtropical Australia, and 6. Indian Ocean. 359 360 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Recognition of the Indo-West Pacific as a homogeneous faunal region is irrefutable. To this region alone is confined all the Recent sea snakes. Of the 46 Recent species of the coral Fungia only one is found outside the region. Among living molluscs Nautilus, Hippopus, Tridacna and Malleus are not found elsewhere. Without mentioning specific instances Ekman (1953) refers to many coral and alcyonarian families confined to the Indo-West Pacific, and Myers (1940) recognises many families and genera of fishes not found outside this region. The outstanding paleogeographic condition that gave rise to this vast faunal region was undoubtedly Suess’ Tethys Sea which allowed almost unimpeded dispersal in the tropical zone. This sea is known to have persisted with but brief local interruptions from the Lower Cambrian to the Tertiary. The recognition of the influence of this vast waterway readily dis- solves many otherwise anomalous cases of discontinuous distribution. In molluscs, for instance, the spread to the Austro-Neozelanic provinces in the Tertiary of characteristic Paris and Vienna Basin genera (Eocene- Miocene), such as Baryspira and later Pecten and Ranella, is note- worthy. Although the segregation of faunas within the Indo-West Pacific must be of late development a fairly clear segregation is even now ap- parent with endemism strongly marked in areas of continental origin as opposed to the oceanic faunas of islands of coral or recent volcanic origin. A false impression of uniformity in the molluscan faunas of the widely scattered insular areas of the Indian and Pacific oceans is given by the extensive distributional patterns of common species of spectacular appearance; i.e. the spotted cowrie Cypraea tigris, and the spider-shell Lambis lambis. In many unrelated tropical gastropod families two efficient free- swimming larval types, known respectively as Sinusigerid and agadinid, are characteristic of most of the Indo-West Pacific wide ranging species. It is therefore among the sedentary and less conspicuous elements that endemism is apparent and in the mollusca in particular many -regional species and subspecies are apparent. Ekman’s six divisions of the Indo-West Pacific are in my opinion conservative, and on the other hand the eighteen divisions advocated by F. A. Schilder and M. Schilder (1939) on the basis of a world survey of the Molluscan family Cypraeidae are certainly excessive. Ekman made no reference to this work in his “Zoogeography of the Sea.” The Schilders advocated the division of the Indo-West Pacific into three ‘“‘provinces”’ and eighteen “regions”. ‘Their terminology should be reversed of course, i.e. “province” = subregion, and “region” = province. MARINE PROVINCES OF THE INDO-WEST PACIFIC 361 The scheme is as follows:— A. INDIAN PROVINCE. ]. Erythraean Region. Red Sea. 2. Persian Region. Persian Gulf to Karachi. 3. African Region. Somaliland to Mozambique and Southern Madagascar. 4. Lemurian Region. Northern Madagascar, Reunion, Mauri- tius, Seychelles and Maldive Islands. 5. Indian Region. India and Ceylon. B. CENTRAL INDO-PACIFIC PROVINCE. 6. Sumatran Region. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Christmas Island, Sunda Strait and south coast of Java. 7. Moluccan Region. Bali Strait to Timor, Aru Islands, West- ern New Guinea and Moluccas. 8. Java Sea Region. Southern Celebes, S.E. Borneo, North Java, Malaya and Gulf of Siam. 9. Sulu Sea Region. Annam, Northern Borneo, Northern Ce- lebes and Philippines. 10. Japanese Region. S.E. China, Formosa and Southern Japan. 11. Dampierian Region., N.W. Australia and Western Australia north of Sharks Bay. C. PACIFIC PROVINCE. 12. Queensland Region. New South Wales to Port Curtis Queens- land, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. 13. Melanesian Region. Northern and Eastern New Guinea, Bis- mark Archipelago, Solomon Islands, Torres Straits Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands and New Caledonia. 14. Samoan Region. Kermadec Islands, Fiji, ‘Tonga, Niue and Samoa. 15. Oceanic Region. Gilbert and Ellis Islands, Vokelau and Marshall Islands. 16. Micronesian Region. Caroline Islands, Palau Islands, Guam, Marianas and Bonin Islands. 17. Polynesian Region. Cook Islands, Society Islands, ‘Tuamotus, Marquesas Islands and Easter Island. 18. Hawaiian Region. Hawaiian Islands and Midway Island. Practically every worker will disagree in detail with the Schilders’ scheme which in places suggests convenience rather than the expression of natural biogeographic areas. Nevertheless the scheme provides a useful framework upon which either to build or to dismantle. 362 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Perhaps because I know my own region best I find most fault with the East Australian-South West Pacific section of the scheme. For in- stance, No. 12, the “Queensland Region” has been subdivided to the satisfaction of Austro-Neozelanic workers on the basis of systematic studies in mollusca, echinoderma and aigae, with a recent endorsement from the ecologists (Bennett & Pope, 1953). There is general recognition of the Peronian warm-temperate prov- ince for New South Wales and the Solanderian tropical province for Queensland to Cape York. It may be noted, however, that Whitley (1932) restricted the Solanderian to the Great Barrier Reef and added a new province, the Banksian, for coastal Queensland. RCI. —OUa ECO 106 ee Cbas) Gitomer nn eras oly [esusg jo Avg 28 Ga SO CRED eC cle Gk Oe sObeG: 286 2 Ga = C2 < =Gh. 29) GGG. 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O Gran OS emo 93% U90.10 S G6 UY 6 9 Ves Se ES OY 6G 6 Gf - fe Bl 6 Bil i? 8b ee TV x UBIPUT Ay Ci ae oe en ee ee Os CEG en pa UC) Oe ey Ga peee aSeyuoo1eg a an Oo SB te Se Oe) Oe Oe ee 0 Sie or ao jeordo.rq-wins.a19 a 66 & lb te NE tell tS SSS iy GSP OS 78 BE OB Or vl EO WE SE 9G RYUII1I Ey It 9 3 AE OIL NG 8) I OSGOOD) Oa GS IE OS th AS AS EBL? orwmepuyy B us zs wes aie ie a) cll Wir Ike Os tH6 Be G> (fe Ce US es SEIS ts OS De Oe ke 08 SE OS Os 9.dB}U90.10g es Oo WH ke oY elk Wy 176 DWE BE OG OG Bi G iG jl TS Wh BS 487 1) i GS iy ey weztfodowsop 5 i 6 ia Ie US Gi = ie a Gi ik a ae mw im 6G 6 m6 @ 28 @ Boom A i=} wy va a (el op) Dm 4 f Zs - ne a 5 4 4 4 q + | 2 8 =] ce = re) B 4 s Db jes oo ! _ a e 5 > - 4 a a > Es 5 : 4 rs 5 ae seein ee A ec ie ce Stee a OS pee ee ect bs gk a Si ie ook ae HO ee ee OR i ee Ea ee ae — Sateen pon Wee sn a STAD | eee Roe SS Bed) oh Ma ae Fa 7 fs fF s2 Zig ra Pesaro cls A NEW APPROACH TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN THE INDO-WEST PACIFIC AREA By LEONARD P. SCHULTZ Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum, Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A. Much has been written on the distribution of marine fishes of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Roughly ichthyologists classify the marine ecological habits into three categories, shore, pelagic, and deep-sea. Al- though these groupings are useful there is a considerable overlap be- tween the zones and their limits vary in different seas. Shore fishes are those that occur over the continental shelf or along the coastal areas, and around the shores of islands; as adults, normally not far out to sea, and usually in depths shallower than 600 feet. Most typical deep-sea fishes live in the stratified subsurface layers of the sea and because of the uniformity of temperature and salinity in these areas, they may have an almost world-wide distribution. The marine shore fishes may be divided into two main regions: tropical and temperate. ‘The tropical shore fauna extends around the world but is definitely restricted by temperature. ‘The temperate fauna may be subdivided into: North Pacific, North Atlantic and Temperate South Pacific. The circumtropical marine shore fauna may be divided into two main regions: Indo-West-Pacific and West-Atlantic-East Pacific. The richest marine shore fauna of the world is that of the tropical Indo-West-Pacific containing, with but few exceptions, representatives of all known living tropical shallow-water marine fish families and a very high percentage of all the genera occurring in other tropical regions. The geographical boundaries of the tropical Indo-West-Pacific shore fauna are in general the region from the head of the Red Sea southward along the African coast to Natal, thence eastward including island groups and coastal regions of Southern Asia, northward to the Ryukyu Islands and Southern Japan, southward to Northern Australia, the Great Barrier Reef and New Caledonia, thence eastward to the Tua- motu Islands and Easter Island, northwestward to include the Hawaiian Islands. Although the boundaries of this region are ill-defined the fauna is mostly restricted to coral reefs. 413 414 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The tropical West-Atlantic-East Pacific shore fauna in the Pacific extends from the Gulf of California and Lower California southward to Ecuador and the very northern part of Peru, including the adjoining offshore Clipperton, Cocos, and Galapagos Islands. Statements that the tropical East-Pacific shore fauna is trenchantly distinct from the Indo-West Pacific are only partly correct. It is true that the West-Atlantic-East Pacific has a very high percentage of distinct endemic species, but there is a substantial percentage of species very closely related, some the same, others of the subspecies level, common to both regions—on the generic level there is a high percentage of genera and subgenera common to both regions. ‘This condition of closer re- lationship is more pronounced in some families than in others, and in a few families the close relationships are lacking. ‘They are closer in the Clipperton and Cocos Islands than along the Pacific American shores. The statements by Zoogeographers as summarized by Ekman (Zoo- geography of the Sea, pp. 15-16, 1953) on the great distinctness of this eastern Pacific fish fauna has been based to some extent on misinforma- tion. This has resulted from studies by ichthyologists who have con- fined their observations to limited faunal areas, resulting in conclusions based on local faunistic concepts. There has never been published a single paper comparing the genera or species common to these major faunal areas. "Too many systematic ichthyologists are individualistic and have created numerous generic and specific names based only on difterences for the fishes of their local faunas. ‘The result therefore is to magnify differences by means of different names on the generic and specific level whether important structural differences do or do not exist. Zoogeographers base their differences between faunal areas to a large extent on the percentage of different generic and specific names occurring in faunal check-lists. Too many of these check-lists are pre- pared by ichthyologists who know only their local faunas, and have never had an opportunity to study widely ranging species and genera. This lack of comparison of the wide-ranging species in wide-ranging genera, and of genera in wide-ranging families, tends to cause zooge- cgraphers to establish barriers that exist to some extent in scientific names only. For example, conclusions have been made on the basis of the 1928 “Check-list of North and Central American Fishes” by Jordan, Ever- mann and Clark. Ichthyologists are nearly unanimous in their opinion that the check-list elevated hundreds of subgenera to generic level and numerous genera to sub-family level. Thus when this check-list is com- pared with others of a still more local faunal concept the number of “distinct genera” by name is greatly multiplied. NEW APPROACH TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES 415 Since there are practically no careful comparisons of the wide-rang- ing species and genera common to these major faunal regions too much significance has been given to different scientific names, which show neither relationship nor differences. Careful comparisons have not been made in a sufficient number of examples. I am fully aware of the almost non-existence of coral reefs in the eastern tropical Pacific and the Marquesas Islands since perhaps the time of the Tethys Sea. Ecological conditions are not wholly suitable in the eastern Pacific for a typical coral reefs fauna because of the mas- sive upwelling of relatively cold water. In addition there are few island “stepping stones’ forming a suitable habitat. Within the tropical Indo-West-Pacific region, in spite of the homo- geneity of the fauna, occur several subfaunas. Although extensive pro- fessional ichthyological collecting and study has been somewhat limited, enough has been accomplished during the last 50 years to indicate cer- tain island groups and regions as containing distinctive endemic species and subspecies. Roughly these regions are: (1) East Africa, Red Sea, Madagascar and Mauritius; (2) East Indies to Northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef to the Philippines; (3) Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan; (4) Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Islands; (5) Ma- rianas, Marshalls, Gilberts, Line Islands, Phoenix and Samoa Islands and perhaps others; (6) The Marquesas and Tuamotu Archipelago. Other island groups may be distinctive, too, but to prove it more careful ichthyological revisional analysis of species will need to be made. My comparative studies of wide-ranging genera, species and sub- species in the tropical Indo-West-Pacific and Eastern Pacific indicate a much closer relationship of these faunas than has been stated by zoo- - geographers. As might be expected on the generic level the relation- ship is very close, but on the species and subspecies levels there are dis- -tinctnesses between Eastern and Western Pacific. Among the Island groups of the Indo-West-Pacific the differences show up strongest on the subspecies and racial level. This new approach or concept requires careful analysis of species and of genera on a world-wide revisionary basis. Widely ranging species (used on a bread concept, perhaps super- species) extending from the Pacific American shores to the east coast of Africa, when studied intensively with the use of statistical methods, color photographs of living fishes and basic color patterns of preserved specimens, reveal that some of these so-called species actually are com- posed of two, or more species, subspecies or races each more or less in- habiting subfaunal areas. A416 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS To illustrate this concept I give herewith a few examples: Family Acanthuridae, surgeon fishes; Acanthurus triostegus ranges from Pacific American region of Clarion, Clipperton and Cocos Islands to the Afri- can east coast. A. triostegus triostegus (Linnaeus) has the color pattern. consisting of a single dark spot at base of pectoral and this form occurs from the Indian Ocean to the American Pacific with the exception of the Central Pacific and the Hawaiian Islands. t eee |e (BIMpny) wryo1ary9 “AT | E | Ss ea Sa ager SS = | al | x | | | | x | | x : UUBWIYIOG 9P270)DYO “I | | | | | | | | x | | uusuyored 909229 DLOWDIUI J x 3 | HABIO | hie "T “HH vrpodpiow auUohyygrO | : | . | i ; = UBUINH D7D})0ILID DILDWNIND (31M | x = {ZIMpNT syigniuu aUuohyT, -pnyq) sypqniy oUuohyz0UoT | ——-— ——— Nvd90 | Nvga0O o1aiove O1atoVe | omatovd DIV | lov omatova | oratova | OAIIV_ | OMIOVg | O1a1I0V a OL NVIGN[I | TVuUL ‘a's “oN “MS “M'N | IsaM Isvy St rao Oe WANONAS AWVN- OMILNAINS -NVILV -NaQ a = EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 444 | | | | | | | SIM “PNY Uuzyowyos wnipwohyy UBUY snawmobyznd - YRO “TH snqnurw - UsIZ19}SQ snowmodvl SIMpny appamorp daduesg snznuvjdmoa - YIRID “I “H sapiouoziya Avyueuog wouwnyong taaduiag sisuauDpUDd sisuajoyog ‘Sq Tadweg siswajoyog ‘sy Iddyiyg 8na24.02un 821087 uueUlysieg aponz -q MIRO “TH suzodnu -y MIVID "I “H saplowohyy +a (SIMpny) uzqawyos +4 TPA srazoid -y ByUspES winjpardsiad -q HIVIO "LT “H sapadiasnd -g7 Aejyuewmog wuuuvd gq SIMpN]T snubvw +7 SIMpNT sopro1nyzoj0y *g NVd90O OIL “-NVILYW NVva00 NVIGNJ OID V I TVuUL | -NqaO OMIOV aC Ge) orslovd “WN OaIovg “A'S “ACN OAV ISa MA olulovd Isvg o1alovd HIN0g | | | | | | | | So | | | ee | | radwiag asuangaa wripwo0fhy 7, Olav HiLYON WANONAG | | | SUIpsyT snusoa + (aedurag ) sisuangad sntoydornhy.T GAVN OMILNGIOSg 445 DISTRIBUTION OF INDO-PACIFIC LITTORAL HOLOTHURIOIDEA ABYUBWIOG 818UW9779U/09 "YT, AMI snzjvovs auohy Ty TQ osinu vwlapoese7s sdodweg vpibi. auohy eyUs[ag snrzyaoaps snj075 ae Be = | [rece =| | | | | ee ee Seo | | | | | | \ | | | | , | | [eae | | | | | | | | | | | | ee ee Sl ee ee eee ese | | | | | | | Fess! | | | | | | | = x i | | | | | | | | | | ere | Sagat) ee ae | eee |S seed | [E | | | | | esl (ax | ems ee | | | lard | | | | | | | ee] | { | |e mes | : | | | | [Fax | | | | | | | ease eae | | ieckas| | Sa =a Se ees es 2 ee eS ee ee | Pa ee | | [ee | [ | ages came | 5 | oe as ee es ee ope a Le eee | | | | | | | | | Pe ee (easel peat | | e eeepen ls | aaa l ea ee NVA00 | Nva900 OMOV | 1sOVd | O1s19VE oMovd | 1siovd | otstovd | o1ilovd o1stOVd | O1aIOVd gate jNvIONI val 1S aN MS | MAN | asam. | isvq | Hin0g HLUON AVUBA BF AI[YooY vinp auohyT Se Bnysor swassaauod visvUnonD Bimpny sadnvd °s J ‘yzreIO "Tl “H 8nzouonbs snjosq ————_—_—— WANONAS ABYUBWULOG 92/1009 “YT, uosdwiyg s2p90ng “YT UUBUAyIEg vzDJUapLG “YL uuswyoleg apope “ABA 22U9Q “YL uUBWIydIeg 27u2q “YL SIMPN'T 27199 “UL ABO "IH Pbojowp “YT MIVIO “I “H 2gip ouohyy uuBsUYdleg wnund ‘sq YIBIO “TL “H suaosaubwu ‘sg YBN "TH wnsafynuvs6 sq uuBUyoisg Wn}DIINGNI °s uuBWyoIeg wowya ‘sq Ae UBUL -OG W4a1ppG “AeA sadisLop "sq Simpny{ sadissop “sq Iola lag “Yo suaBsaau0a wnrpyosq UdsIB19}SO snzvAzva “sq IIIT snzoGaLbas “IBA snynuLonbs “sf YIBIO “T ‘HW snwafynuids “sq [POUL 189)p7.n0d snjosq @ANVN OILNaIOS EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 446 IsdwWag vpibiw ‘if 7, BYUI[PG snjjaavs #Nnj}079 yAodwuleyT tiapnjs ‘YJ, (BYUZIES) spoons “YT, WI2VIO “YT HH vssisad ys WleVIO “YT ‘HH vyps0fsad qaoduiey vaunjsvo BuOhi 5 ‘eau “IBA snenf aU0hyy, srsuandnd (P2GL) szsuandnd yz uuBwMydieqg susn{rind | | | | | | ae IPL uoyo “Yd, petp BY enysoe vLhiw “YT uugulyoieg susnfoau BIMPNT syiqnirme “45 IO TH Pynuyw “YL ABO “TH vioyw “UL UUBUIYIIEG sitqnin) “YT qreduey 140j;490) “YL AvjueUIOg SIBUIUWOLOD “ABA SIWL2UL “YT, aie a0 ae ‘a es | | | eeee | | | HIV “TH posi yy aquvulgoleg wyassnjh ‘YT, qaoduiey apyaznh sn1iy90j0p (Vledueyz) 9n)70z06 -y 7 SIMPNT szpiwmis aUohy T BYUZTES END 8njors (Byue[eg) 49qq20 “YT, SOUB A QD do[yey wvuryzsaf auohy TF NVa00 OIL -NVILW Nva00 NVIGNJ © o1MIoV 1VUL -NaQ O1dtovea | 3. O1aIoVd “AWN OMIOVE “MS OlaIovd LSa AA o1alovd | o1alovg LSVOl j AN O1dIovd HLAOS WANONAG ANWVN OldILNaIog DISTRIBUTION OF INDO-PACIFIC LITTORAL HGLOTHURIOIDEA 447 | SIMPNY] wzeqauryos wimpruochys eyusleas sdaowp enayy90109 (SIMpnT) weqaWYyos °*9 | Ua Aa eS pe rere | I9INIG snyouoy snsoydorhyg | AMI wILQDINQuD DYyAaYJ, | Ted | | LOZDINqup (snjosodAyy) snjosg poe1g B enysor 109400 aU0hYy T IPA VNadsuoswur meownong d BYUsfEg wnppIIas4ad * fy LMG wnjyouvy spwmaporgQ BYU2Z[EG snzovLydnjpa snuUrj071g (peatg a unysor) 200400 *¢ (IPA) vnardswoour +g | | | | | | ! | | ie | | | | SIMPNT suarignw wnipyosd | | | HARI "Tl ‘H Djaursip auofyzoinnzg9 IOYSiY asupupany YF, TIAdWeG asUuangad “YT oust 1apuneayD wnewpruohy, uUUBUIYIIDG siwo1ajaa “YY WARIO "TT “I suargnw -y7, uUuBUIYpIag 2/9001DY “UL uuBul SnjOsdaUony, F, “yoreq — 424294 uuBuL Dupaizau vnUohy,F “rd Todures Ds0]/0 “Yu | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Nvao0 OIL “NVILW NVa00 NVIGN] OlaIOVe ‘IVUL -NaQ oLMoVg as AN OIaIOV olIovd “MS | | 3 ae = 2 le ree ce | OlMtoveg LSaM sve Isva O1alOVg winog OWIOVg HLU0N WANONAS (uosdwyg) D2 wasn “LE ABLUBILOT “IBA DIVINE “YT ansap4no) uuewMyieg twabuvsys aUohyy, GAVN OILNGIOg EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 448 oes HBO ‘Tl ‘H sisuawmpjonpo.d py Ossi snynosnu * S| [R2UL wns14107,UD DM0ZSOYIOLT, (SImMpn'y) vipawsazus ATID “I “H siyyuissip * (uosduiys) Djoo2UWarD ((2e4L) vox40zwo yIeIQ “I “H sisuowsyn vypodjopy Bulpay pup. Djhzonpojaydy VadIOIVNHLOTOH snodody x Byuz] -2g vplanyead sapioippdjow - NVg00 OIL -NWILV Nvga00 NVIGNT olMtovd Val -NqO ‘a's avd OMaIoVg x x aaduiasg saploippdjowm vjifizappoj}dv AW dsduiseg s2piie °D yd snsojmno1aqny 29) uossey s2upjnbupippndb *D Surpey, wiyzuaddo? “OD aedwesg snaipuyfia "9D Jeduiag swunona -2 surp qT snjzlwaship “ABA sussvLo “D ee ESS Sees Sass ae ee es eee eee oe Pee | | x Olav HLYON OMMOV_ | OsIOVg oN “A'S “MIN oMMtovd IST M olMovd LSV OV HLNOG qradwmag sNajn1900 sn.t2Y90]09 WANONAS ANVN OMILNdIOS DISTRIBUTION OF INDO-PACIFIC LITTORAL HOLOTHURIOIDEA 449 pie ie | | | | | | eee | rats Aequewoqg pso1ajaa +H | | | | [ | | g | | souenA a | = | | | 1 | | : I[Y2oy 2y900)0 mrunyzoshydey | | | | | | | esses | | AvjUeUL | | | : | | ieee | | -0G wouunyong vunjoajdvsag | | | | : | | | | | | ALLO WO "TH vLodn.ja2 *q | li | ae "T ‘H vsodp.ya2 vurpnop = | =e | i | | | I S| | = AByuUBWOg 2449“ | | | | | | | sup | | | \ | -OET Wyouuosuvs vuipnnopivg | | | sup < x 5} | -aH Ujouuosuns vurpnvoopnasg| wWiaUUosUDY “XA sIsUapYa “¢Y x x MIN “f sisuanyo -9 | | $19] [9z | | -UdIB]. “A WzQUUOSUDL DULPNDD | x he) ee x ei (721MM “£) sisuepyo vurprog (m1 “f) sesuapyo “a | | | | | SHIT[NJ srsuapyo pmeppodjopy | | BUIpET 8yv1ysnv DULpNDIOpNISg x | | ‘tadweg sypviysny vippdjopy|aadweg sypuysnd vurpnvovivg a ee as : | x WARIO “'T HIBIO I ‘H vj00.1doona? “yw | ‘HL 02004d00na) ~ vjhijonpojaydy | | 8810 | |e 5s "Tl ‘H vpnoyap pvphjzovpojaydy | yaeQ “TH vypoyep nurpnooy | | | le Rat! Nva0Q | | NV9D0 | /NVaIO | O1dIOVd fe pay oratovg jorrovd | o1atovd | olaiovgd | olaiovd | o1aiovd| olalovd OL vial I val “a's “aN “MS "MN isaM | Isvq | HINOg | HLYON WANONAS GQWVN OMILNaIOS “NWILY “NGO | < EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 450 | | | | | | | | | Bulpsy prwosyol 77 | | | | | | | | | | :duIp (uosdwyys) | | =e | | | x | : | | | -ay] vurzodowna vidoufhisojdaT DlafLiqnjop vicnuhsojday | | | ‘uos ; le el | | | | | eee es “dug véafuqnjop vzrdnuhig ete | | lipsrses' (is | ees [peers Sese | sous syyeqne “y = | | | Seetlins Je | | | | eH Wyapny “vy i eee : = 1 | | | | | tex if ae TOYS susaur “VY sits eres |e eel |. | | | | | | quoduery apyof -y os | | 5 i | | | x | | | raduag sipovih pydvuhg (fedwmeg) s2p0016 “y | | = | 4 | | a | ee | a | UdsiIIg sisuasnump vidouy ee ee ees | | sa le See eel | | Jedues 07004 midvulig (taduieg) 77904 "9 | | | BS eax YIVIQ “I ‘H Dbz vynjdvuks (tedwag) ssw 9 | | tqedursg vif vidoulig [ | | | | = | iF | | | : | = 28, WARIO “TI ‘YH viopum “9 | | | x | | x | | | deduiag vsiipur vidvulg (tad | E _|rweg) psrarpuy va0j904puo"p | Sa | | | x | | | Aequewog apiazp6 oe ee | | | Dlge! -oj4and “eA syignjaads *O x | Eo) | | ; | eee ys x | TOYS szrqnyoads *O | | | | | 2s | es | iL x | | as | | Jadweg vasi1s vidvulig (tedwesg) nas216 ‘CO | | xs | | | x | | x | dadwag v1iqn)6 vidnufig (todweg) v1qn)5 ‘oO = | x ! | | | | | Suipsy, vuvnoi4f[o °O | | | | x x | D SuIp Suipoy al | i | | -3]] Dinoidsiwp4 Duosapoaydgo Siena ELIS SOONG) x | x lees i x x x | deduig Wouffepoh vidoufig | (todwas) osffapobh pidong clea core eet NVa9Q j Nvd0O0 o1utoved oMaIovd o1atoVe o1d1IoVg {| TaOV | olaIovg | o1aloV | O1aIOvE O1sloVd o1aloved ; . ae |sviont Naa “a's “ON “M’S “M’N | CTSaM IsvVq@ | HINOS | HLYON WANONAS GWVN OLILNaIOg *N - | ! AVGILGVNAS DISTRIBUTION OF INDO-PACIFIC LITTORAL HOLOTHURIOIDEA 451. ie = ale a deal Wail i eles | dat eesiaae 2 r ee SuIpeH pnovdsyun “of | oaks ick hi ; wae lee | yest se ees ss BUpOH avowns [ D? 1 GENE A cae ds Ne e | ee | (Seles (9) + Na Qin) Re ape 3 ms I @Nyp a 1 @Ny, 8 e jie dye Mm ($) + Nm Qin) Re dd? 3 + INEXOSB n) Le dM Re Vd? 3\/3 24 dNn aes > aM, — ——— ——M aga = = $ ot p dy » (9) po R2 m Tm dg? Ce) 3 where we have 39 A= ~ (2nR/3) , (39) so that the ocean is supposed to be bounded by the meridians of 0° and 120°, and the western and eastern boundaries are given by A = 0 and »} = | respectively. 2 diM My, d m Now it is possible to express an ae in terms of M,, (¢), dy’ or aM. ia dy > ee and d*M 3 aes y= mM .(¢) - Substituting (40) in (38) we have D; d*N GING. SMa (8) } 52 Se m On? 16x*R* das 8 47R? dy? 3/3 22 aANu i > 0? 1 ae D; 1 : a Qn dA > ( a Sai oh one — R2 3 © 1 530 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS In order that this relation should be always valid, the coefficients of M,,(¢) must vanish. Thus we have Bil 228 GENE, y @N 9x/38 aNe —_—_. iin va EL A SY tons ee SR se a 32 R2 on 327? 4 aX 477? dx 1 ; A 1 ae =( - = oy + 9-2 Pope iv + N, po dal,T, = (0) (42) where T, is given by (34). It may be anticipated from (39) and (40) that the values of Bi are larger than that of ai,for any corresponding set of values of i and m. But the ratio D} 2 Ay Re po NR? is of the order of 10-* for the usual value of A; (=108), so that we may neglect the terms of #? in the coefficients of N; in (42). Then (42) becomes nie oe Se ae 32 R2 dy gone 1 dy? TET GIN 1 on > (43) 7. DETERMINATION OF THE VALUES OF ai | 5 5 : aM, The coefficients of M,,(¢) in the expansions of ; were eval- bp? uated as far as M,,(¢), the higher terms being neglected. For the ocean under consideration, we have Ma © a M, ($) + 8M; (¢)— 6M; (4) t i + 4M, (¢) — 2Mg ($) , D a 9 | — 3M, (¢) + 20M. (¢) + 18M; (¢) , WA) tar @ 10Meerse (46) we have for odd series 9 (N, — 3N; + 5N; — 7N, + 9N,) D(N,) + 4747600y? x 4 — 0.548249 x 102° = 0, OVSNae i 20N, = ISN. PING = 27 Ni) D(N3) + 47476007? anil > HOMIE) See 9 (—6N, + 18N,; + 69N; —35N, + 45N,) D(N;) + 47476007? ar SOI alo woul) 200—— 10) 9 (+4N, — 12N, + 20N,; + 148N, — 63N,) D(N,) + 47476007? X 47 + 2.19300 x 102° = 0, 9 (-2N, + 6N, — 10N, + 14N, + 257N D(N,) + 4747600;? x Aes 1.096499 . 1020 m0! :) (47) where the operator D stands for d4 2 d 1D) = Fa, 1082323? — 14997110 -— (48) dy? Gh For even series, we have . (LIN, = SIN, 4b TON, = TENG + 20 .N,,) + 5.45179 x 102 = 0, GolGNs 4 43N—1O4N,, + 32Ne — 40N,,) + 3.59829 x 102° = 0, (SION, GE DAN, Se TNEUNG, == BOING + 60N,,) — 14.76753 x 102° = 0, (ALINE, == GIN se DAN, ts ON, — 80N,,) + 7.09512 x 102° = 0, (NL, <4 GN, == ONG <2 GINS + 343N,,) — 3.54756 x 102° = 0, (49) D(N,) + 47476007? x D(N,) + 47476007? x D(N,) + 47476007? x ale ee le D(N;) + 47476007? X 3 D (N30) + 47476007? X —; 532 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS where the operator D is also given by (48). To solve the simultaneous differential equations (47) and (48), we employ the method of indeterminate multipliers. Let the odd set of equations be of the forms: 9 DN) GN, + E, = 0, i 9 D(N,) + 2 CIN, + Es aa D(N,) + 2CIN, + E, = 0, Fil 9 D(N;) + DCW, te 1 a D(N,) + > CN, + E, 0, = (50) where the summation is made with respect to odd numbers. Multiply each of the five equations in (50) by J, Js, 1;, l;, and l, respectively, and add together; we have then DUNE art Nast, tN a LNG oie LNA) tC OC Cr, CN 0, | = e So ei ci, it Cl, u Cr, WP ey) N, ap (CRE se (CRM ae Og) ae Gg 8 Gu) a sp (CHL ap (GR te Ga ae (Ga ae CEI) NY + (Ci, + C3, + C5 + Ci + C%)N, Now let ees ee oie ee ae (51) CU, + C3, + Col, + CU, + Cl, = Le CU, + C3l, + CS, + Cl, + Ci, = Le, 7 : p 7 Oy as and eliminate ae vis ‘i ee Git Co ee (52) gene Si pa cr co =o “3 CS atc Ce C7 or C1 C3 Co — ¢ C7 Ce bo “ROW. CWE ec tlt (kta . : “3 “s Ce GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 533 This equation has five real roots. Let them be £1, &3, &, € and & and, corresponding to them, equations (52 will give five sets of 1,, l,, 5 op: Ulery Cove ae ii, Ii, Yh, Hi, lh; 1 1 3 5 7 9 3 UB) (ES RS Bo Tes 1 3 5 7 9 Eney LE lost, 15, 1 Sen ibn wircenio pee Ts As a aE ICR 1 3 5 7 9 Epcos p, p, 19, l. (54) These five sets of roots and multipliers /’s will give Y,, and F,, as Yt elaN InN, see EN are OTN oi IN es | ta (I) Sa eae bY Oate yes (1) ley i a be 2 Ge Sle Buy Te ©) (55) and the corresponding five equations D(¥,) + EY + Eq = 0 (i = 1k, Be Oy 7/5 8) (56) for ¥5, Vz, «8, Yo. a beygare no) longer simultaneous; and not. diffi- cult to solve. The same, of course, applies to even sets, too. Practically, the equation corresponding to (53) is 1—¢ + 8 — 6 + 4 — 2 — 3 20— ¢€ + 18 — 12 + 6 — 0 + 5 — 15 69 — é + 20 — 10 — 7 + 21 — 35 148 —¢ +14 + 9 — 27 + 45 — 63 257 — € or 210830400 — 841564682 + 462522522 — 7877123 + 4954 — = 0 (57) where =) 2] (Ganstoseiiess Y< BAN) (58) and the five roots of (57) are Ga 29011943; Ca — 26 1028 ie Ge Jan Bisse), Gi 1464569045 Go 2A AOOT Ae (59) For even series we have, corresponding to (57), (58) and (59), d= 57 + 16 — 12 + 8 — — 8 BG oy Pe — 16 + 8 = 0 + 12 — 24 Non | ee ae: — 12 — 16 + 32 — 48 Aaya LG ae AD) = a) ae (av —+80 toa ey 534 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 5217079023 — 593115237) + 16671798? — 17245878 + 715y! — y= (60) where y = £/(4.38649084 x 34) (61) and = 12.8567852, ys = 51494636, 116.1536052, ye = 207.4231320, vo = SerOT1e42, (62) 8. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS FOR Y’s AND THEIR SOLUTIONS . From the numerical computations described above, the numerical coefficients of the differential equations for Y,,(\; 7) were determined as follows: D(Ya) + 11514116,2Y, — 04037686 >< 1022 =" 0; Dot LOST tiWGo72Ys 0.020421 cnlO22s— 0; De) te 28880000872 — 2041449265 > 10220: IDO) ae Oe] isa ae SATB ios) < MUAY = UU), Da) Fo OSI SAOMO n2i5 oe Zonal o0o4 xe i020 sO: (63) and D(Y,) -- 51883042n7Y, + 7.4929828 x 1070 = 0, D(A) 207804544720 3393918 xo 0257— 10) D(V,) + 46873322877Y, +. 258.843806 x 107° = 0; De) 83701752725) 4) 158. 8661390 x 1025 = 10> D(Yao) + V319885336n2¥55, a 290:023938) x 1022.0: (64) where | : d? d 1D) = anata 1082323? a 14997110 ol and Ya, Ve, -- +» Yon Yo, 0. © 2) Yao Stand fon the tollowing expressions in terms of N,,: Y, = N, + 0.2167031N, — 0.0302211N,; + 0.0100338N, — 0.0045539N,; Y, = N, + 4.6332707N, + 1.6778105N,; — 0.2720794N, + 0.1018516N,; Y, = N, — 7.3461297N, — 31.5044500N, — 13.18126660N, + 2.0803739N,, Y, = N, — 4.2883468N, + 20.4004807N, + 99.0498144N, + 47.0163475N,, ; Y, = N, — 3.6583547N, + 9.7849522N, — 40.0969663N, — 245.9320935N,. (65) GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 5080 and Y, = N, + 0.3172231N, — 0.0501698N, + 0.0180624N, — 0.0086497N,,, Y, = N, + 4.1262613N, + 1.5874177N, — 0.2597861N; + 0.0995609N,,, Y, = N. — 5.4990870N, = 23.8405548N, — 10.3129949N, + 1.6109253N,,, Y, = N, — 3.0874234N, + 13.8285447N, + 68.6295877N, + 33.3180647N,,,, Y,. = N, — 2.5712654N, + 6.4271377N, — 25.6939046N, — 160.9722444N,o. (66) If the 10 functions Y,, Y,,..., Yy) can be determined by solving the differential equations (63) and (64), it will be possible to compute N, (A; 7), No (As 9), - - -» Nio (A; 7) from the following expressions which are the reversions of the expressions (65) and (66). = + 1.0650221Y, — 0.05878696Y, — 0.00491292Y,, — 0.001038174Y, — 0.000284101Y,, = — 0.2793058Y, + 0.2586992 Y, + 0.01644431Y, + 0.003283144Y, + 0.000879072Y,, + 0.1254434Y, — 0.07711532Y, — 0.04050495Y, = 0:006251173Y, — 0.001571970Y,, NGA = 0.05969848Y, + 0.03367969Y, + 0.01083299Y, 1 + 0.01265900Y, + 0.002526788Y,, N, = + 0.02520969Y, — 0.01264167Y, — 0.003642393Y, — 0.002365708Y, — 0.004554906Y,. (67) and N, = + 1.1172140Y, — 0.1028957Y, — 0.0109283Y, — 0.0026156Y, — 0.0007745Y,,, a = — 0.3385977Y, + 0.3066091Y, + 0.0247985Y, + 0.0055792Y, + 0.0016107Y,,, N, = + 0.1613919Y, — 0.0943220Y, — 0.0548464Y, — 0.0096171Y, — 0.0026064Y,,, Nee —-0:0792995 >. = 0.04207 TY 00175807, + 0.0184664Y, + 0.0040001Y,,, Nig= + 0.0314504Y, — 0.0160186Y, — 0.0050095Y, — 0.0034369Y, — 0.0069853Y,,. (68) Substituting the functions N, (x; 7), No(xim), - - -» Nio (x3) thus obtained in (30), we shall obtain the expression for ¥, (x,y; 7). Further substitution in (29) will give the solution of the problem as 1 ww Pp 7% LOC 2) = oD. 2yMn(y) {a (x; n) cos ) = )a (69) 536 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The method of solving equations (63) and (64) and the evaluation of the integral: ce Nin (*3 ( ak je Grvcerncn (ala will be discussed in the following section. 9. INTEGRATION OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS The next step will be to solve the ten differential equations (63) and (64). Let any one of these equations be pe — 10se3o3eemen 1907 10 4 dn? dn where b and c are constants assigned to each of these ten equations. Since a particular solution of this equation 1S + by?Y +-+Cc= 0 (70) y, =e (71) n? the general integral of (70) will be of the form: c 2) =e Age er IBIS (Crags ot) [DAN a ma (72) where a, 8, y and § are the four roots of the algebraic equation: O = 1082323 7202, 12997 MOG) 4 10ne — 0 (73) and A, B, C, D are constants to be determined according to the con- ditions: Y(0) = Y(1) = 0; y"(0) = Y(1) = 0. (74) The equation (73) has four roots a, 8, y and § for any given value of », and A, B, C and D all depend upon a, £, y and 8. The parameter 7 varies from & to oo, and the values of a, B, y, 8 all depend upon 7. When yn is very large, these four roots are approxi- mately 020/307 57); — 1040.3075y, Vit (O} LO82323)rz6 = — (0/1082323) 2. (75) As 7 decreases, a, 8, y and § also change gradually. For » less than a certain value between 7 = 0.4 and » = 0.3, B and § become complex conjugate. As » approaches 0, a, 8 and § approach finite values, while y decreases indefinitely as con?. “Thus we have, when yn — 0. M2 DR I| Sai ea (76) GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 5387 where p = (14997110)%, 3 G | = oe (77) For the intermediate value of 7, these four roots vary continuously ex- cept 8 and § which change from complex conjugates to real as 7 increases from 7 = 0.3 to n = 0.4. Of course, there are 10 series of such four roots of 10 equations (70), each varying with the parameter 7. The constants 4, B, C and D can be, of course, expressed in terms of a, 8, y and §. Thus the solution Y becomes, when £ and § are com- plex conjugates of the form B=+ pt qu J 12 — Ue (78) , uf Y= 41 te ex(h—1) — ev) Oa ay; Oeareey, a a ( ev — 1 eco ga G5 a= + ( a Pe tase aa) =) e-P\ sin ga bY, (79) ae) q q and, when a, f, y, § are all real, v= [is x ea) +4 : Ne ket Ua ys eBr Qany, B-8& a-yf-8 1) 4 RUSE a Sie gir +e] 12 Teay [Eee Ws Coolers nah dcdiag (80) where Y, is the particular solution given by (71), of the equation (70). When 7 increases y also increases. If we can neglect e€-7, the ex: pression (80) will be further simplified, and we have { y 8 a a—y p-8 a—y : f — ae ce g—o* (* (81) Since Y, is given by (71) as b/c Hale AGE 2 the solutions of the equations (63) and (64) will tend to zero as » in- creases indefinitely. The values of the roots a, 8, y and § of each of the 10 equations given by (63) and (64) were computed numerically and given in Tables V-XIV. Ol (oy) 10.) EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 10. COMPUTATION OF THE CURRENTS In order to calculate the distribution of the currents at various levelss we had ‘first toicompute ¥q\(\;)s) Yo (sim) nee (A; 7) accord- ing to one of the expressions (79), (80) and (81) for A = 0.0000, 0.0025, 0.0050, . . ., 0.0500, 0.0550, 0.0600, . . ., 0.1000, 0.1100, 0.1200, 0.1300, . . ., 0.2000 and for ae WAOOE, 2 oo vont 0 BHO, oo dey ONO). For larger values of 7, we have Oa 1040.3075, B = — 1040.3075n, y = + (b/1082323)%, 8 = — (b/1082323)% (82) very accurately, while Y, () are all very small, so that Y,(A; 7) will be approximately given by a i Sey G1) — ek =o | 7 (83) where y, and c are independent of 7. It will be more convenient to leave (83) as it stands rather than to compute their values against ». These values of the ten functions Y,,(\; 7) may be then converted into the functions N,,(\; 7) by virtue of the formulas (67) and (68). Substitutions of the functions N, (A; 9), No(A3; 7), Ns(Ain), - - 3 No (A; 7) into the equation (69) give the complete solution as ee ub Wr (Go y, Z) = On ai (y) ie (A; ”) cos ( 2D, 1) dr, isnt ed Tele (84) To evaluate the uatceral fx, (A; 7) cos (= =n ) dy, we have computed the functions N,, (\3; 7) for oa OOS OM Opec 8 een IOS PO ON S65: HOD and the process has to be carried out numerically between » = 0 and 7 = 10.0. For larger values of », we may use the approximate for- mula (83). Let the values of a function F (yn) for » = 0, h and 2h: be aswiae and F, respectively. Then the interpolation formula in this interval of » will be given by ua — 3F, + 4F, — F, ) Fy — 2F, 4 F, 0 2 BG) Bieta) 0 Tapes Ve) os 9 hows GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 539 Then we have 2h 2h Tz TZ 2) cos i= dp = io feos 2D," dn = Baa ee 4h — Fe Bene Aad) 3 cos lam 7 Idy SS AO ae Jae k ( 1 ya opis ie cos op,” 7 or 2h fea z fr (m) cos OD, nay = = (a, — 3b,+ ¢,) Fo + (4b, — 2c.) F, + (0; + 63) Fe where a i Zz Te a aol Secs (57)a ( oy (an, zn) 2D, Chae ae oa Som (x) aA Ope. Messy 9D, n ue op, h Hy Dh ie 1 i. D OD, eos om + op 2h)— 2¢ sin ) bey Giese wz 2 (86) ( 7) ( oD! 2h) For larger values of 7, we may express F (yn) in the form r Lies fgg Bei cha F(y) = Fy + Soe i ae aly Op? Ge at)? where F_, F,) and F,, are the values of F(y) for y) — h, no and 4 + h respectively. We have then noth xz oe = fie cos (a7) dy = (— dy + 6)F_y + (2 — 23)Fo 79>—h rete + (0; + ¢5)F iy (87) 540 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS w= f1-3(a) fe (s.") = {a(a) - aS )t= (ar) C= Wee Cay 1) bo oa) (88) The integration was carried out taking h = 0.1 in the interval 0 = » 1.0; and h = 1 for the interval 1.0 S y= 10.0. For larger values of y, integration was carried out by using the formula (82) which is only inversely proportional to 7?. In this case, we have only to evaluate the we Ve fF ol -1 Jay (89) The aes were rather tedious and took three computers more than six months to complete the surface, 1/2D,, D,, 3/2D,, 2D, and 3D,. The values of a, 8, y and § which are the roots of the quadratic equations (73) with » as a parameter and computed for the necessary values of y, are compiled in Tables V to XIV (omitted). The values of the stream-function were computed for the western- most 1/5 part of the entire expanse of the ocean, and the streamlines were drawn for the layers z = 0 (surface), 1/2D,, D,, 3/2D,, 2D,, and 3D,. The computations were not carried out for the deeper levels and for the part to the east of this area, partly because we did not have enough time to compute, and partly because the central and eastern parts are not as interesting. We have only a very slow zonal flow in the centrai part and very diffuse meridional flow close to the eastern coast of the ocean. Indeed, the California and Peru Currents are considered to be produced by local winds as proved by Munk (1950). The circulation patterns in the area close to the western coast were obtained from these computations, and illustrated in the Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6. The discussions for them will be given in the following paragraphs. Table II gives the velocities of the western current in the subtropic gyre corresponding to the Kuroshio, or the Japan Current, at the depths z = 0 (surface), 1/2D,, D,, 3/2D,, 2D, and 3D, along the 33° N parallel, which is the swiftest part of this mighty current. These velocities were computed by the formula: v=(& =) S _ Qo + AA) = ¥ Ao — Ad) 0 linear ~ linear distance of 2AX 3 041 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN ‘siajeu Ul passeadxa s1 *q o10q M4 a/b Aq satzI00eA esayy ATdyynw ‘w Gy, wey, Jaq}0 *"Gq yo saNnteA aAOJ AWIDOTOA ay} 423 OF, Sissel =— > ils —S=.- 8o- SS — 03 6g 6 OTT 62 0 (9as/w9)*qg = 2 ye Aqr0TOA fae Ole oe Coe 6 II ty 18 6ci LE LOL 0 (o0s/m9)"*qZ = 2 7e Aqro0joA 8- 6 Ve Bie Gg 1Z LY VOm 67 ie SOR = een (as /w9)*qZ/g = 2 ye AALO0TOA = 9- 8- G- L 8 3h OD Se ie (9es/u19)"q = 2 4a Aq00T9A Pv T 0 v LT &P 8 Cole = 98 = 90G = OSTa <0 (908/19) *qQZ/T = 2 ye ApD0PaA, TW: 8 L ral td 2g v6 OV ee OCI LG) es CO 0 (998/t9) AQToofeA eoejaing Giga OSG = Seon 00G = oT. 0Sh = cok 200K cv 0g GS 0 (wy) ATepunog 4seM WoOIZ ooULySIC w ¢), = 7q ONIWASSY “IATIVAVd N o&& GHL ONOTV “Gg GNV *qz “°d2/E “G2/T ‘0 = 2 SHLddgd INAYGIAIG LV OIHSOUNY BAL AO » ALIOOIVA GALNIWOD Il WTavai 542 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and taking D, = 75 meters. Because the velocity is inversely propor- tional to the quantity D,, we can compute it for any other value of D.. For this we have only to multiply these figures by 75/D, where D, is expressed in meters. The maximum surface velocity of 217 cm/sec agrees with actual observations very closely. Table II gives the distribution of EW-components along a meridian 24° of longitude east of the western boundary, or 1/5 of the entire east-west expanse of the Pacific Ocean off the western coast. At this distance from the western coast the coastal. effect nearly vanishes and the pattern of the circulation consists of approximately zonal flows. In this table the value of D, was again assumed to be 75 meters. Dis- cussions concerning these results will be made in the following para- graphs. 1]. SURFACE CIRCULATION The numerical result for the horizontal circulation has been worked out for several levels specified by the ratio z/D,. We show here those Ob thepsunfiace (ai — 10) yz De 25) (2 // De —— al se AD == 2 and z/D, = 3. The most important of them is, of course, the surface circulation, and Figure 3 shows its pattern. The gross features of the current distribution on the surface thus do not seem to differ much from those given by Munk (1950) and by the author (1951) for the distribu- tion of mass transport streamlines. Because of the considerable labor contained in the calculation, the computation is confined only to the western part of the ocean bounded by two meridians ) = 0 and \ = 0.2, that is, 24° of longitude apart. Choice of the western part of the ocean for the computation was made because the circulation patterns in that section are more complicated and hence more interesting. In the cen- tral part of the ocean we will have indeed a very slow motion approxt- mately in east-west direction, while very diffuse meridional motion will exist close to the eastern coast. We have a number of gyres in the surface circulation corresponding to those obtained in Munk’s (1950) and the author’s (1951) results with respect to mass transport. We have a broad gyre with strong western current flowing north in the latitudes between 20° and 40° N and corresponding to the Kuroshio or Japan Current. We also notice one boundary vortex, but the secondary boundary vortex is not distinct. We have a subtropic gyre with the western current flowing south. This corresponds to the Mindanao Current. Of course, we have a faint sub- arctic gyre corresponding to the Oyashio or the Kurile Current. On the surface of the Southern Pacific Ocean, we have western currents flowing north a little south of the equator and in the sub- antarctic latitudes. Between these two we have a strong current cor- GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 543 TABLE III ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF EW-—COMPONENTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS EXPRESSED: IN em/sec, ASSUMING D, = 75 m (++ EASTWARD, — WESTWARD) LAT. z= 0) 2 —) 1/2D) z= DI 2 — 3/2D 2) — 2D, z — 3Dy REMARKS (SuRFACcE) 60° N 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dili NI 0. =e Duo WP aah esl tO ea Oi PA CLIC 54° N SOT ee OMe an I ek 2p eo eee oo Current FyieeIN| si BH Se BO sk BR do Oey oe OI a 48° N wDo S-ehikGe > 3:6 ee 6. a2 ae 45° N 20:40 Eb toto El Os Ou eg! Wiest 42° N TEAMS Salle aE SE ee Se Ess) \ abe! 39° N SE SL TS) OS SE Wie Se Rea Der beg Omen 26 YQ a2 AB 2 RE -e aM +6 -2G chad SOmEN| HELO: demi OL Mia A te OCC th toto lin tem eore SO mee se AC OM at et ie tO Obie Un (PAGE vie PA? INS ies — dE — 1s I BS ED INoreln 24° N = WEA oS Wl op Re Os Se LIL Tropien cop ereal| Pilea WIN = 1S — 1s = O8 = WH 8 i> Sa. -Oumarinte 18° N ae Rese SOM Reeve Gana Ota soo. tan le oe IN = Tees = AD) Sees HD Hell =A! UA? IN Cale Ah eae td WP 0 J Oe ao) Oe SS -Os3 DSN BA ean ue tee eA) ee ore me Om quatorial 6° N Seen = 1.0) EV 9.8) ee 6.5). 14:8 Counter. Sani de te TA Eg elle sy sat (Gabber ele 0° Soro) Osan en iieOl tO Se Ger ee bee eo = OY: 22°10 46 25 sb Be se Be . ab aul 6° S$ eG SO ie OA co AIC ec OM Cone ogee eer ()ib aS eg Oc Ameer ae OS Oi mene bic COSI. emus) 12° FS} = BI) == GES 1s} RAL RS i Souda lee =a A bef Sp OI Geers erm Ube Le rr Lt bap 9.1 —5.9 Equatorial 18° §$ Sl Sey e aet ARO OS eam ONy era Ok Gee ee Ava nN Current, Fall tS: = HONG I) 74 CO = Oe) == 0 = By Blo SR EE BE lls OBO) a alee PANE TS) Sie, == 7 0f8) 06 = 04 703 0 30° S Sea to G5 = e508 ea 3tOs 3.0) ny, oR SS) SUA) eo - O58 - Th + 8. 4a AWese 365 5 JL OO) SS Ios) SE BED Sen SE Cbs Stash Aihara 39° S aE | BOK IE IZ) SIP tl ae ID igbis 42° S$ +200 +164 +1381 4+125 + 84 45.6 AUS S) +138.7 +106 + 7.9 + 60 + 47 + 3.0 48° § HE NO) 2S Pate ete aly) 0 == ON = WG mt? iS) = OE Giana aaa AS Ohi em Ose ad Ae Ole Memes oS 54° S GD GS iis ONE ee SO ae O Abe iA. Oy Ee PAILLATCEIC si? S = ALS ere Dla On AeA oe Ourrent E44 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS responding to the East Australian Current, though actually this current never develops so strongly because of many passages connecting the Southern Pacific to the Indian Ocean through the numerous islands and archipelagoes in the Australian-Asiatic Mediterranean. Had we not these passages together with the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Ocean, we could have a much stronger western current in the South Pacific Ocean than actually observed. It looks also rather strange that we do not have any strong west- ward flow in the latitudes between 5° N and 2° S. Actually the north- ern margin of the South Equatorial Current is in this zone. This comes as the consequence that the Equatorial Counter Current appears in our theoretical result much broader and much more diifuse than actually observed. ‘This is also the same in Munk’s and Hidaka’s results. The theory of the Equatorial Counter Current has been attacked and ex- plained by several authors (Montgomery and Palmén, 1940, Neumann, 1947) in some other ways than ours. 12. EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF VERTICAL MIXING The streamlines in Figure 3 are drawn for an interval Av = 250 x 10'°/D, cm?/sec. of the stream function. The velocity can be determined as the ratio Aw /Ax, where Ax is the actual distance between two consecutive stream- lines. Because these diagrams are not drawn in a common scale for the north-south and east-west directions, it would be rather laborous to compute the magnitude of current velocity for all parts of the Pacific. Still it will be easy to know it when the streamlines run in exactly north- south or east-west directions. The values of the stream function at several points along the 33° N parallel are computed as compiled in Table IV. Assuming the Pacific Ocean is 10,000 kilometers across in its east-west direction, we obtained the velocity of the Kuroshio at its swiftest zone, which is located approxi- mately 55 km off the coast, to be 329 cm/sec, 219 cm/sec, 165 cm/sec, and 110 cm/sec according as we assume D, = 50 m, 75 m, 100 m and 150 m, respectively. Actual velocity of the Kuroshio has been estimated at approximately 3 to 5 knots, or about 150 to 250 cm/sec in its swiftest zone. From Table IV we recognize that the computed velocity of the Kuroshio, assuming for D, a value between 50 m and 150 m, agrees with the ob- served values fairly well. ‘The previously determined values for D, fall mostly in this range also. ‘This enables us to compute the values of vertical coefficient of mixing from the formula (18). The above values of D, correspond to the values 188, 422, 750 and 1688 g/cm/sec of A, 545 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN s/uo g ¥ Vv 9 rae 9% LE eL GOL 60T 28 go :u OST = *d | s/uio g 9 9 6 61 68 OL aye Ne RE eas) SUD *q 101 AqTOOTOA s/Wd TT 8 L Ho Ea A OT 1m GL = “Cf 10 pemmaure s/o 9T ZT as 8T 88 8L we ie ab eB —ae O Us "a = *d —— eC BG 95S 88 o6t o68 VOL Gé60T OLST OS9T FSst 09 = ay /4V s/moyOT “al aa == SG 1S 86 ad G6 cet 3c oro G8 S18 cay = a s/,m00 10 wy GZ 066 46s 002 GLE Ost Get oot gL os ga Q = Arepunog ysoM WOIZ eoueystd @LZ0° 0&Z0° ¢2z0° 0020" SLTO QSTO’ zto’ O0TO’ 200° 0900" Gz00 0 = X qaATIVaVd N o$§ GHL Ssouov OIHSOUNY AHL Ao ALIOOTAA DOVIINS TVOLLAUOUH [, LO NOILVLNd NOD AI @1avVib 546 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS respectively. These are, of course, values consistent with the results derived from many other different sources. (Sverdrup, et al., 1942). 13. SUBSURFACE CIRCULATION Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 show the horizontal distribution of stream- lines in the level 14D,, D,, 1/4D,, 2D,, and 3D, below the sea surface, respectively. All give patterns similar to the surface circulation shown in Figure 3. We have western currents and a boundary vortex attached to each gyre. The only difference noticed is a general subsidence of the motion as we go down into deeper layers. Still, we see that the intensity of motion is only reduced to as low as half that of the sea sur- face even in the layer 3D,. Figure 9 shows the comparison of the cur- rent velocity profiles along the 33° N parallel at several levels to that on the surface of the sea assuming D, = 75 m. The maximum speeds are seen at about 55 kilometers off the western boundary. Although the Japanese Islands are not disposed parallel to a meridian, the above result agrees with the observed profiles of this mighty current quite satis- factorily. Another result of particular interest is that, at a distance larger than about 150 km, there is a flow to the south with much larger velocity than in upper layers. ‘This counter current reaches a maxi- mum speed of 20 to 30 cm/s at about 200 km off the western coast, despite the practically motionless upper layers. Figure 10 gives the comparison of the zonal distribution of EW-components along a meri- dian 24 degrees of longitude to the east off the western boundary. In this longitude it is expected that the influence of the western boundary nearly vanishes and the actual flow pattern of the Pacific circulation is disposed mostly as a zonal current system. The velocities of the current in these diagrams were computed assuming D, = 75 meters. For computing the velocities when the value of D,, is different, we have only to multiply these figures by 75/D,, where D, is expressed in meters. If we assume, however, that the value D, = 75 m-is consistent, we have for the maximum surface velocities of North Pacific Current, North Equatorial Current, Equatorial Counter Current, South Equatorial Current, and Antarctic Circumpolar Current 22, 19, 8, 23 and 23 cm/sec respectively. They are reduced to 18, 16, 8, 18 and 18 cm/sec respec- tively at a level 14D, and to 11, 9, 8, 9 and 10 respectively at 2D,. The Equatorial Counter Current remains nearly unaltered in its speed in all depths compared above. 14. VERTICAL VARIATION OF THE CURRENTS The most important objective of the present research is to get a certain idea about the vertical structure of the wind-driven circulation in the Pacific Ocean. ‘This will be, of course, impossible to obtain from GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN DAT former theories which have been mostly propounded with respect to the mass transport. Since the problem is three-dimensional, the numerical computation is rather tedious. For this reason the author has not yet been able to finish the computation below the level z = 3D,. Still we should be able to expect some important conclusions from what has been com- pleted thus far. First of all it is very interesting that the wind-driven currents exist in a layer much deeper than that expected from: the classical theory of Ekman (1905). According to Ekman’s theory, a wind-driven current is confined to the surface layer about D, thick, and we can expect prac- tically no drift current at a deeper level except very close to the equator. From cur computation, it can be shown that the current velocity does not drop as low as half the surface value even at a level 3D,. Hf we take D, = 75 meters, this depth is 225 meters. This conclusion will be helpful for us to understand the fact that wind-driven currents can penetrate into a layer several hundred meters deep, a layer several times as deep as that expected from Ekman’s theory as the limit of the wind-driven currents. This implies that the motion of water in most parts of the oceanic troposphere could be produced by the stresses of the permanent wind system prevailing over the oceans. In other words, the winds are responsible not only for the currents in the skin layer of the ocean, but also for the most part of the circulation in the oceanic troposphere. We have long considered that the winds are responsible only for the current motion in the surface layer of about 100 meters thick. This depth is nothing but the “depth of the frictional influence’ defined by Ekman. To explain the circulation in deeper parts of the tropo- sphere, we had to assume a very strong convection current and slope current. Still we had a distinct difference in the circulation patterns between the troposphere and stratosphere. “These circumstances have made several problems very much complicated. Defant (1928) defined the troposphere as the part of the ocean in which we can expect strong currents due to violent turbulence and convection. Still we can have violent convection in the seas of higher latitudes beyond the polar fronts which are no longer defined as troposphere. The conclusion that the drift currents penetrate into much deeper layers than D, is much in favor of the definition of troposphere that this is the upper layer of the ocean in which strong currents are present. ‘The explanation of the result that we can have a strong motion even in a layer several hundred meters deep might look possible by assuming slope currents which would be produced as the effect of purely 548 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS wind-driven water masses piled up against the land barriers. As a mat- ter of fact, Ekman’s theory assumes no boundaries and a constant lati- tude. We can prove the existence of slope current in an ocean having boundaries partly or completely enclosing it. The slope current is uniform from the surface down to the bottom. This fact seems in favor of the theoretical result we have obtained. Still, we must give attention to the fact that the velocity of slope current is always inversely proportional to the depth of the sea. When the depth is large as we see in the actual oceans, the slope current will not be strong enough to account for those large velocities we have obtained at the depth twice or three times as large as D,. We don’t know an appropriate explanation of the theoretical re- sult that the effect of winds can be felt at a depth several times as large as Ekman’s depth of frictional influence. It would be hoped someone may be able to solve this question satisfactorily in the near future. 15. SUMMARY (1) A theory of the general circulation of water in the Pacific Ocean produced by the semi-permanent wind system prevailing over this ocean is propounded. (2) The velocity is used to express the water motion which has formerly been explained by several authors in terms of mass transport. (3) The Pacific Ocean is considered to be a rectangular ocean ex- tending from 60° S to 60° N latitudes and from 0° to 120° longitude, and a zonal distribution of the wind system determined from actual observations has been assumed. (4) The effects of horizontal turbulence and the meridional varia- tion of the Coriolis forces have been taken into account. (5) The patterns of horizontal circulation are obtained in terms of streamlines for the sea surface and several deeper layers specified by the ratio z/D, where z is the geometrical depth below the surface and D, the depth of the frictional influence, a measure of vertical turbulence. (6) Surface circulation has a pattern similar to that actually ob- served and does not differ much from Munk’s result obtained in terms of mass transport. We have very strong western currents and boundary vortices. (7) The magnitude of the Kuroshio and other western currents was computed from the distribution of the streamlines in each level. The velocity is inversely proportional to D, so that we can determine it by assuming an appropriate value for D,. A value of D, between 50 m and 150 m gives values most reasonable and consistent with the actual observations. GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 549 (8) Subsurface circulations also show similar patterns except for a general subsidence as we go down into deeper layers. Still, it is remark- able that we have far stronger currents than expected from Ekman’s classical theory even at a depth much larger than Ekman’s depth of frictional influence at which we can scarcely expect any motion except very close to the Equator. This seems to show us that the winds are responsible for the most part of the tropospheric motion of water. 16. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was initiated several years ago. Due to the great amount of computational work, however, the author had to ask finan- cial aid from the Ministry of Education, Japanese Government. Actual computations have been carried out in Tokyo by Miss T. Osada, Miss T. Yoshimura, and Miss K. Maruyama since December, 1951. The completion and publication of this work were accomplished at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Several persons in the Department of Oceanography helped greatly in its preparation. The author is very much indebted to Dr. Dale F. Leipper, Head of the Department, for his kind suggestions and advice. Mr. Robert O. Reid was also greatly interested in this research and gave several sug- gestions to the author. Dr. Walter Saucier was kind enough to check the mathematical analysis and the English. Mr. Richard M. Adams and Mr. George B. Austin assisted the author in preparing the manu- script. Dr. Walter H. Munk of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, and Mr. H. Stommel of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution kindly furnished the author with data of wind stresses in the Pacific Ocean which enabled him to determine the meridional distribution of the semi-permanent wind system. It is the author’s utmost pleasure here to express his deepest thanks to all who helped him in carrying out this research. June 17, 1953 REFERENCES DEFANT, ALBERT. 1928. Die systematische Erforschung des Weltmeeres. Gesellsch. fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin, Zeitschrift, Jubilaums Sonderband. p. 450-505. EKMAN, V. W. 1905. On the Influence of the Earth’s Rotation on Ocean Currents. Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik, Stockholm 1905- 06, Vol. 2,-No. 11, p. 1-52. Hmaka, Kosi. 1950. Drift Currents in an Enclosed Ocean. Part I. Geo- physical Notes, Tokyo University. Vol. 3, No. 38, p. 1-23. 1951. Drift Currents in an Enclosed Ocean. Part III. Geo- physical Notes, Tokyo University. Vol. 4, No. ai jos olen) 550 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS MONTGOMERY, R. B. and EK. PALMEN. 1940. Contribution to the Question of the Equatorial Counter Current. Journal of Marine Research. Vol. By Now J pedal 133, Munk, W. H. 1950. Wind-driven Ocean Circulation. Journal of Meteorol- ogy. Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 79-93. MUNK, W. H. and G. F. CaArripr. 1951. On the Wind-driven Circulation in Ocean Basins of Various Shapes. Tellus. Vol. 2, p. 158-167. NEUMANN, GERHARD. 1947. Uber die Entstehung des aquatorialen Gegen- stromes. Forschungen und Fortschritte 21/23 Jahrgang Nr. 16/17/18. 1952. Some Problems Concerning the Dynamics of the Gulf Stream. The New York Academy of Sciences Transactions Ser. II, Vol. 14, No. 7, p. 283-291. Rew, R. O. 1948. The Equatorial Currents of the Eastern Pacific as Main- tained by the Stress of the Wind. Journal of Marine Research. Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 74-99. STOCKMANN, W. B. 1946. Equations for a Field of Total Flow induced by the Wind in a Non-homogeneous Sea. C. R. (Doklady) Acad. Sci. URSS N.S. 54 (5) p. 403-406. STOMMEL, Henry. 1948. The Westward Intensification of the Wind-driven Ocean Currents. American Geophysical Union Transactions. Vol. 29, p. 202-206. SVERDRUP, H. U. 1947. Wind-driven Currents in a Baroclinic Ocean; with Application to the Equatorial Currents of the Eastern Pacific. National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 338, 318-326. SVERDRUP, H. U., et al. 1942. The Oceans, their Physics, Chemistry and General Biology. Prentice Hall, Inc., New York. GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN 5DbiL y = + + a(60°N) =X (O=X)] y=O (EQUATOR) y=--5 0 (60°S) Fic. 1.—A Rectangular Ocean comparable in size to the Pacific Ocean. 552 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS WEST ———> EAST WEST WIND DRIFT NORTHEAST TRADES EQUATOR SOUTHEAST TRADES WEST WIND DRIFT | | | -0.5 oO 0.5 DYNE/CM2 Fic. 2.—Assumed meridional distribution of wind stress. 553 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN NV390 DgINVd FHL JO LYVd NY31S3M BHL Ni ~*. NV390 D151IDVd 3HL 40 LYVd NYZLS3M FHL NI NV300 91510Vd 3HL 4O LYvd NY3LSIM *0.01=Z 73A37 Vv NI NOILVINDYID G3LNdWOD 49452 73037 v Ni NOILYINDNID a3LNdWOD BHL 4O NOILVINOYIO JOVIENS GILNdWOO Soy b Oi4 € 614 (ZO) (OY) (oy) ve cdl é Coe) Ob Osan bHAD ia eam wand eyousey 83 (ve) yeysd| "ier won) BYS2) (Foy tess ecsssom $29ssRD (sperandg eee aweasy EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 554 NV390 D15IDVd FHL 40 LYVd NY31SIM FHL NI "00€*Z 13437 V NI NOILYINONIO G31LNdWod ag 614 NV300 91d1D¥d SHL JO LYVd NY31S3M JHL NI N¥300 914/0Vd FHL 4O LYVd NYFLSIM FHL NI 7q.2:Z V3A37 BHL NI NOILYINDNID G3LNdWoOo 4QGi=Z 13A37 ¥ NI NOILVINIYID G3ILNdWOD 2 b4 9614 (Z0=¥) (10=¥) (O-”) tye edi 0 ° S09 Be - - SSe ose 5 =< ose 00s a oce - ° ose NGI Ose ° os2- N.O€ 00s - cos - Osz- NSP ° oz s. Yooz{) oor ‘ NOD 4, ozg gid 420 FER 1th young oosyemy 4953 194504022 YROS weoum) sayened joy 01000] (y91m eouEporm reaun 102050832 WN omy 955 GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN (‘Siejout UL posserdxe st “7 atayAy *77/ey Aq Serqto -OJeA 9Sey}y Aydiyjnur ‘wi Gy ueYyy TaYy,O 7q AOF SoTyord oy} 4ad OF) ‘WeG), = 7q Sutunsse ‘jaTTeIV~gG N ee 24} suo[e ‘aovjins oy} MOTEq Syydep 4JUdteFJIP [BIAS Je OTYSOINY ey} Jo sapyord Ayroojaa [eoye1004,—'6 “DIY = > °) Ww 8/400I- AYVONNOG NY3LSIM WOYS JONVLSIO ae i a 2) Zz SSS Suro ool Shyj002 556 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS WEST < > EAST =SOun/s) = 2Onn ys) 10° 5) NO +10°%5 = 20° «430% 60°N WEST WINO DRIFT 30°N NORTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT 1S°N EQUATORIAL COUNTER EQUATOR Mean SOUTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT 15°'S 30° S WEST WIND ORIFT OR ANTARCTIC 45° S CIRCUMPOLAR CURRENT ANTARCTIC CURRENT 60°S Fig. 10.—Zonal distribution of 1W-components of ocean currents at several depths expressed in cm/s, when D, = 75 meters. (To get the velocity for other values of D, multiply these velocities by 75/'D, where D, is expressed in meters.) A CONTRIBUTION TO THE THEORY OF UPWELLING AND COASTAL CURRENTS * By Koji Hipaka Geophysical Institute Tokyo University, Japan 1. INTRODUCTION There have been several descriptions of the upwelling noticed off California, Peru, West Africa and other coasts by Thorade (1909), McEwen (1912, 1929), Gunther (1936), Defant (1936, 1952), Sverdrup (1931, 1938) and Sverdrup and Fleming (1941). The explanation of this process given by Sverdrup in 1938 is worth attention. According to Sverdrup and Fleming, it is known from the analysis of the water masses that the water taking part in the process of upwelling off the coast of Southern California originates mostly in the layers from 200 to 300 meters below the surface. ‘These are, however, all qualitative discussions and it has been as yet not possible to explain this phenome- non theoretically and predict the velocity and width of the coastal cur- rents produced by the prevailing winds. Very recently Defant (1952) made a theoretical explanation assuming a sea consisting of two layers of water with different densities. “The present research is an attempt to solve this problem mathematically and to draw some quantitative conclusions concerning this process, which is very important in all fields of oceanography. The explanation of the upwelling seems to be satisfactory only by treating this problem thermodynamically as well as hydrodynamically. The following discussion will, however, be made only from a purely hydrodynamical standpoint, on the assumption that the seawater is of uniform density. ‘This is a necessary consequence for simplifying the mathematics, but the author believes to have been able to obtain some results which are consistent with certain facts observed in this process. It has been noticed that the upwelling takes place most favorably when, in the northern (southern) hemisphere, a wind blows in such a manner that the coast is on the left-hand (right-hand) side of an ob- server who looks in the direction of the wind. ‘Thus the upwelling off the coast of California is most remarkable in early summer when north- westerly winds prevail for several weeks nearly parallel to the coast. + Published in the Transactions American Geophysical Union, June 1954, v. 35, No. 3, p. 431-444, 5D7 558 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS consideration. And it may be stressed that the horizontal mixing seems to play the most important role in the theoretical explanation of the process of upwelling. 2. ‘THEORY Consider an infinitely long straight coast coincident with the axis of y, and take x-axis perpendicular to it in the offshore direction. (Fig. 1). Suppose a wind of constant force and direction is blowing steadily and uniformly in a belt of limited width L parallel to the coast from nega- tive to positive direction of y. This is a disposition favorable for the upwelling to actually occur. Take the z-axis vertically downwards. In a steady state which is attained after a sufficiently long time since the wind began to blow constantly, the motion of water will be inde- pendent of y. This means that all the vertical and horizontal compo- nents of the currents can be determined as functions of x and z only. Moreover, the surface of the sea will not be a plane, but have a slope in the x-direction. In such a case, the hydrodynamical equations of motion of sea water are, after several reasonable simplifications, A, 0?u A, 07u ; 0g + 2 — — 0 Pox? =e aes © SIN gv Sas A, 37u A, Ow ; set —— — 2 sin gu = 0 PROX Py Oz (1) where uw and v are the horizontal components of the current velocity in the x and y directions, £ the surface elevation depending on x only, P the density, A, and A, the coefficients of vertical and horizontal mix- ing, of sea water, © the angular velosity of the Earth and ¢ the geographic latitude. In addition to these, we have the equation of continuity in the form: + a0 (2) Ox OZ where w is the vertical component of currents and represents the intensity of the upwelling, and because duv/cy = 0. Suppose the wind blows in the positive direction of y in a belt between the coast x = 0 and x = L. The wind velocity may vary in the offshore or x-direction. The conditions to be satisfied on the sur- face of the sea are therefore at Cu — A =) e ” Oz (3) can eee ~ =, for? =*2SL =0 forL 2), the expression (19) can be given very accurately by W = agy (A) Be ay (2 a0 2772)u sin bD;, i7D, 1 i 1 — cos (AL/D,) Opera ie JL NE x (21) Now we have, for the vertical component w, mw =O sep = Oe S10 (22) since there can be no vertical motion on the surface and bottom of the sea. Integrating (2) with respect to z from the surface down to the bottom, we have 3 {: + a ea |) YC S00 |\ SS Ox 0 z—0 h This means that the integral Sua is independent of x, or therefore a constant. But as this integral must vanish directly on the coast or at x = 0, we must have bh uae = () (23) 0 always. Integrating (21) with respect to z from 0 to k and equating the real part of the resulting equation to zero, we have () ’ x7/ pw 1] — cos (AL /D,) Hs ? le Qi he A BC pee? ) tee (24) This determines the relation between the wind stress 7 and slope of the sea surface induced by the former. Substitution of (24) in (21) gives u,, and v,. The substitutions of u,, v, and y(A) thus obtained into (10), (11) and (12) give wu, v and the surface slope 0¢/0é. The vertical velocity w can be derived from the equation of continuity (2) as 562 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Z pent ac 0) i) udz (25) Ox 0 : 2 ; 3. UPWELLING IN A DEEP SEA When the sea is sufficiently deep and the ratio h/D, increased in- definitely, we have from (24) yO) 0 (26) and (21) becomes 17D Ae = cosy (NIE/ DD) SS a ea led YS ee oy ee (27) N/ NEw nr Then we have ey | eae ale U(x,z%) = po sin om (A, 2) R (A, x) dr (28) Q mn 2rr co acd f N (2) R (a,x) da (29) 0 D co 2 2ar mae NEE, 2) Saco (30) ce) po sin ol Di . where Ov cos(Oz Dy we sin(Oz 7D) ia. vie rn P? = Q? P DN Oo 1D), INI Os, 2) = pa ee i a Ane) pe ern ie (32) P? — (OP LL(A,2) = if 2PQ | cos (Qz/D,)e-P2/D, — I } + 2 — Q* sin (Qz/D,Je P42. (P+ OP (33) 18 (A, x) ==" Sin) (ax/D,)} ita eee (34) S(A, x) = cos (Ax/Dy){1 — cos (AL/D,) } (35) and P and Q are the real and imaginary part of \/A2 + 272: whose expressions are given by (20). These results show that, by the effect of the wind blowing parallel to the coast, we can expect a vertical circulation in the plane perpen- THEORY OF UPWELLING AND COASTAL CURRENTS 563 [ne dicular to the coast in addition to a coastal current parallel to the direction of the wind. The vertical component of this circulation evi- dently represents the upwelling. From the expressions (28), (29) and (30) for u, v and w, it can be expected that the horizontal velocity of the water in this process is approximately D,/D, or \/A,/A, times as large as the vertical velocity. This result will be very useful in estimating the approximate speed of upwelling. But this kind of vertical circulation can be noticed best in the case of a very deep sea where there is very little current produced by the slope of the surface of the sea. If we define a function ¥ (x,z) as (oa) GR f Srl gee eos ULE Ne NP poe. A/S 2 (86) we can show that this is the stream function in the plane perpendicular to the coast and u and w are given by ov ow (Dea ries : v= — 3 OZ Ox (37) so that any curve W (x,z) = constant represents a stream line. 4. A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE So far the author has elucidated the process of upwelling in a quan- titative manner and obtained the expressions representing the motion of water produced by a wind blowing parallel to the coast in a belt of finite width. The stream-function w (x,z) can be computed from the formula (36) for any distance x/D, and for any depth z/D, below the sea surface where D, and D, are the distance and depth specifying the intensity of the horizontal and vertical mixing respectively. The result of computation of the stream function is given in the Table I and illus- trated by the diagram in Figure 2. ‘The unit is given by canme 10-+ po sin. cr) From the table and diagram it can be easily shown that the vertical circulation is most strongly developed close to the coast and in the upper layers of the sea directly below the surface swept by the wind. An in- 564 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS tense upwelling can be seen in the belt within 0.5D, from the coast-line and the stream-lines go down gradually outside the wind zone. This means that beyond the wind zone there occurs the process of sinking. The fact that the expressions for the velocity components all in- clude sin ¢ in the denominator shows that the lower the latitude the more intense will be the process of upwelling. Perhaps the strong upwelling off the Peruvian coast may be ascribed to this theoretical result. ae It will be interesting and useful to compute the magnitude of the off-shore currents and the velocity of upwelling from the stream-function given by (36) and to compare them with the values formerly estimated from various sources. It is of course not easy to estimate the magnitude of the coefficients of mixing. ‘The vertical mixing coefficient may be estimated at some- thing like 1000 c.g.s. If we adopt this value, D, is about 162 meters for a latitude of 30° N. ‘To estimate A, is even more difficult. But actual oceanographic observations show that 4,/A, = 10° approximately. This means that D, is just about 1000 times as large as D,, cr 162 kilo- meters. Furthermore, we do not know much about the width of the coastal wind belt. In this computation, the author tentatively assumed L = 2.0944 x D, that is, about twice as large as D,; or at 339 kilo- meters. It will be still more difficult to estimate the wind velocity of the northwesterlies prevailing off the coast of Southern California in the earlier summer months. The author took ; = 1 cg.s. ‘This corre- sponds to a wind velocity between 5 and 6 m/s. If we consider the upwelling off the coast of southern California and take 6 = 30° N, we have Se So 0 wae From the table we can compute the average velocity between the surface and the layer 0.2D, deep by oie SoeTEN) Bie volar citigs eee po Sin db Az 0.2D, = 3.35 cm/sec (offshore) This is the maximum velocity of the offshore current in the layer be tween the surface and the 32.4 meters level. The maximum vertical velocity can be estimated in a similar way, Viz., at THEORY OF UPWELLING AND COASTAL CURRENTS 565 ant At 0.083 Se CG $2 108 cE Be po sin & Ax 1 X <4D, 3.14 x 10-3 cm/sec (upward) = Zhi) aii. This speed of upwelling is just about 80 meters per month. G. F. McEwen (1929) estimated the speed of upwelling off the coast of Southern California at about 10-20 meters per month. The present result appears to show a speed a little too high, but may be suggestive of the order of magnitude of ascending motion in the process of up- welling. From the diagram in Figure 2, we can see that the water mass par- ticipating in this process comes up from the layers from z = D, to 1.5D, or more. If we take D, = 162 m, the layers from which the upwelled waters originate are located somewhere around the layers 200 meters or deeper. This also agrees with Sverdrup-Fleming’s estimation derived from practical observations off the coast of Southern California. 5. COASTAL CURRENTS In addition to the circulation in a vertical plane perpendicular to the coast, we have a current parallel to the coast. The author thinks that this will be another subject of major interest. The model treated in this research is very simple, the winds being assumed always to blow parallel to the coast. But it may be considered that a certain pattern of water motion will always correspond to the wind of any direction. ‘The investigation into this problem seems sug- gestive of the explanation of several facts observed close to the shore in relation to the motion of the water. 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author hereby expresses his sincerest appreciation to Dr. Dale F. Leipper, Head of the Department of Oceanography, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, who encouraged the author in carrying out the present research and publishing the result during his stay in the department. He is also much obliged to Mr. Robert O. Reid and Dr. John T. Hurt who kindly discussed on the result. REFERENCES DEFANT, A. 1936. Das Kaltwasserauftriebsgebiet von der Kiiste Stidwest- afrikas—Landerkundliche Forschung, Festschrift Norbert Krebs zur Vol- lendung des 60, Lebensjahres dargebracht, p. 52-66. 1952. Theoretische Uberlegungen zum Phanomen des Windstaus und des Auftriebes an ozeanischen Kiisten. Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift. Bd 5, Heft % pp. 69-80. 566 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS GUNTHER, E. R. 1936. A report on oceanographical investigations in the Peru coastal current. Discovery Repts. Vol. 13 pp. 109-275. McEwen, G. F. 1912. The distribution of ocean temperatures along the west coast of North America deduced from Ekman’s theory of upwelling of cold water from the adjacent ocean depths. Internationale Revue des Gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie. Bd 5, pp. 248-286. 1929. A mathematical theory of the vertical distribution of tem- perature and salinity in water under the action of radiation, conduction, evaporation, and mixing due to the resulting convection. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. Bull., Tech. Ser. Vol. 2, No. 6. pp. 197-306. SVERDRUP, H. U. 19380. Some oceanographic results of the Carnegie’s work in the Pacific—The Peruvian Current. Amer. Geophys. Union Transac- tions, pp. 257-264. 1938. On the process of upwelling. Journal of Marine Research. Vol. 1, pp. 155-164. SverDRuUP, H. U.. and R. H. Fupmine. 1941. The water off the coast of Southern California, March to July, 1937. Scripps Institution of Ocea- nography, Bulletins. Vol. 4, pp. 261-378. 567 THEORY OF UPWELLING AND COASTAL CURRENTS | @le- | ke 1) T= ap | ee geet le ocp | See bt | ebb—- | ees—- | er8—- | sas— ws— s,s L8G Lee— (ree eo | | 88L— LE8 — ec8— | 898— 3o8— 269 — 628 — | 0 Es L6L— | 9S8— S18— 068 — G98 — 86g — Zee— 0 | wt 808— 698 — 188 — 168 — TL8— oo9- | res— 0 - eo | | 88L— 878 — 998 — L98— h8— gLg— | Tes— | 0 ' 90 289 — PEL — ogL— 8hL— | GBL— 66h— | LLB — 0 0s | | 93r— cep — Gor y= | Cir = | ite 0 aD 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 | | | “ale 9L9°T | 966°T LITT 8&3°0 | 6ss'°0 6100 : 968T'0 0 | q/x | SS g@ UIS do ae = s-OT 1208 x LSVOD FHL OL UVINOIGNAdYad ANVIdG TWOILYGA GHL NI NOWONOAY WVGULS AHL dO SAN IVA TVOTHGWoON I WIlaVvib aN ah sae ea THEORY OF UPWELLING AND COASTAL CURRENTS 569 COAST WIND BELT SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF WIND TO COAST RELATIONSHIP OR THE DEVELOPMENT OF UPWELLING IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE FIGURE | 570 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ¢ NY SK > DISAROLE o R SSS S> Wl ND ZONE L ae ae Z=0 (SURFACE) Z#12D, Zz UPWELLING AS INDUCED BY A WIND PARALLEL TO THE COAST (ILLUSTRATED BY THE STREAMLINES IN THE VERTICAL PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE COAST) FIGURE 2 80'UO- 20°0- 90'0- SURFACE WATERS OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST Bye LuLty and LAS Es Dor Pacific Oceanographic Group, Nanaimo, B.C., Canada In 1950 the Pacific Oceanographic Group undertook an explora- tory investigation of the physical oceanographic conditions in the Paci- fic Ocean within some 300 to 650 miles west of the Canadian coast (Figure 1). Four surveys were completed, in August 1950, May 1951, August 1951, and March 1952. ‘These included serial observations of temperature and salinity to depths variously of 900, 1000, and 1200 metres on the several cruises. Although the four cruises were observed in different years it is convenient in some cases to regard the data in sequence of seasons. STRUCTURE AND PHySICAL PROPERTIES OF THE WATER The most conspicuous characteristic of the water structure of this area is the presence of the distinct layers, or zones.* “These are con- veniently illustrated by plotting the properties as functions of the loga- rithm of depth as shown in Figure 2 (Tully, 1948, 1953). In this figure the surface zone is defined by the logarithmic salinity-depth relation ex- tending to about 80 metres, the lower zone by the logarithmic relation below 180 metres, and the salicline is regarded as a transition zone be- tween these two principal water masses. A similar but not concurrent structure occurs in the temperature. In winter (March 1952) the properties of the upper zone approach vertical homogeneity due to cooling at the surface and vigorous mixing by winter storms. At this time the temperature and salinity structure correspond. As vernal heating progresses (May 1951) the surface waters are warmed and a shailow thermocline develops which gradually deep- ens and becomes more pronounced as summer progresses (August 1950, 1951). With the advent of autumn weather and storms in September, the surface waters are cooled and the winds cause mixing to greater and greater depths. In this process the thermocline sinks, becoming less distinct, until late winter (March) it coincides with the salicline. During the summer the fresh water from precipitation and land drainage is conserved near the surface in the presence of light winds ? Tully, in his discussion of the oceanography of Alberni Inlet (1949) has used the term ‘zone’ to designate the principal layers in the water structure. This term has the advantage of being more specific in its reference than “layer’’, which is used variously to designate hori- zontal strata of any order. 5i1 572 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and strong thermal gradients. In the winter there is much greater pre- cipitation but the fresh water is mixed to great depths by the violent winter winds, which also reduce the thermal gradient. The seasonal variation occurs only in the surface zone, and never extends below the salicline. Thus the properties of the water at this boundary are associated with the extreme of winter conditions. Due to the strong salinity gradient, it is the zone of permanent stability maximum below the depth of seasonal influence. There is always a temperature discontinuity of some degree coincident with the salicline. Usually there is a small negative (decreasing) temperature gradient; however, there were positive (increasing) gradients in the northern part of the area in 1950, and in the southern part in 1951. In some cases these amounted to more than a degree Centigrade and were stable in the presence of large salinity gradients. Beneath the salicline and extending to the maximum depth sam- pled, is the lower zone, where both the temperature and salinity gra- dients show marked regularity. In fact they fitted the logarithmic struc- ture suggested by Tully (1953) within the limits of observations. As shown in Figure 3 the surface salinity is lowest at the ccast and increases seaward throughout the area, and in all seasons. The lowest salinities appear to be associated with Juan de Fuca Strait, and Queen Charlotte Sound, and suggest outflows of coastal waters. The runoff from the land is a substantial factor in reducing the salinity of the surface zone. Even in March when the offshore region was essen- tially homogeneous to 100 metres depth, appreciable gradients were observed near the coast. Along Vancouver Island the local runoff is a maximum in the winter (Pickard and McLeod, 1953). However, the greatest runoff from the coast as a whole occurs in June, when the large mainland rivers flood due to melting snow in the mountains. Following these floods the fresh water influence is a maximum and extends far offshore. More detailed investigation immediately adja- cent to the land would undoubtedly reveal a complex series of systems, varying with tide, as well as the local runoff and discharges from the major drainage systems. In the offshore region the salinity was relatively constant during each survey, but changed significantly from summer to winter. In the summer, the fresher waters tend to be conserved near the surface, hence the salinity is less than in the winter when the waters are mixed to great depth by the violent storms. In this region the vertical salinity gradient is small at all times, but tends to be greater in summer than in winter. The summer gradients are presumably due to the great precipitation in this area, and are preserved under conditions of strong thermal! stability. SURFACE WATERS OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST 973 The surface temperatures observed during the four cruises are shown in Figure 4. During the summer the water along the coast is cold, particularly in the approaches to Juan de Fuca Strait. This cold coastal belt corresponds to the region of fresh water influence shown in the previous figure. The temperature of the surface zone increases to seaward. In August 1950 there were several clouds of warm water lying in a band extending due south from the Queen Charlotte Islands and be- coming warmer towards the southern limit of the area. Thus the coldest and warmest regions were contiguous. West of the warm belt the water became colder in all latitudes, the minimum temperatures being similar to those in the approaches to Juan de Fuca Strait. In August 1951 the characteristic band of cold coastal water was again present, and the temperatures increased to seaward. However, in the offshore regions the isotherms crossed the area essentially normal to the coast. ‘The principal gradient instead of being east-west as in the previous year, was practically north-south. Although the average tem- perature was two degrees higher in 1951, the range was smaller. This picture is a distinctly different type of situation from that observed in the previous year. It is interesting to note in passing that during August 1950 vast numbers of vellela were observed throughout the entire areas of this survey west of Longitude 130°W. Large numbers were visible at all times, and they frequently occurred in such concentrations as to look like great streaks of foam on the water. By the crudest of calculations it was estimated that the number in the area between Longitude 141°W and the coast would be of the order of 10° to 101, and it is not known how much further they extended in all directions. In August 1951, on the other hand, when the water was warmer, not a single specimen was observed throughout the cruise. In winter the warmest water was along the shore, and became colder to seaward. It appears likely that this condition is typical of winter and spring. The dynamic topographies of the sea surface shown in Figure 5 indicate that the currents are weak and variable. In the summer the currents do not exceed two miles a day (4 cm./sec.). They are so sinu- ous that there appears to be no resolution of flow in the southern part of the area. However, there is a general tendency for water to enter from the south and west, and leave to the north. This results in some degree of convergence and acceleration towards the northern limit of the area. The two August and the May surveys were made during periods of northwest winds which oppose and retard the net flow. The northward tendency is much stronger in the winter (March 574 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 1952), attaining four miles a day (8 to 10 cm./sec.). This flow was accelerated by southeast winds, which are dominant in winter. In the study of the data it was found that the currents decreased with depth to about half the surface value at 300 metres. Below this depth there was little or no intrusion of water from the west, so that there was only a slow northward movement. It was considered instructive to examine the data by the method of isentropic analysis (Rossby, 1936; Montgomery, 1938), which does not assume gradient flow. However, it was kept in mind that the pro- cess of vertical mixing, which would limit the validity of this ap- proach, is likely to be strongest near the coast. The principal patterns of flow suggested by the isentropic charts was similar to those shown by the calculated dynamic topography, although considerable differences in detail were overlooked. However, there was no more definition of flow in these isentropic analyses than in the gradient studies. It was evident that in the summer the area was dominated by eddies or very slow indeterminate movements, with no more than a general tendency northward. When surface waters are carried seaward by winds from the north- west they are replaced in part by the upwelling of deep waters along the coast. This upwelling has been advanced by a number of authors as an explanation of the cold saline waters found along this coast in the upper zone, during the summer (Igelsrud et al., 1936; ‘Tully, 1938: Pickard and McLeod, 1953) and by Sverdrup (1941), who observed simi- lar phenomena along the California coast. Figure 6 shows the disposition of isotherms and isosalines along a line normal to the coast of Vancouver Island, during each of the sur- veys. The March 1952 cruise followed a period of fairly strong varia- ble winds which were predominantly southeast. There is no indication of upwelling associated with these data. The other three cruises were preceded by predominantly northwest winds, and show a distinct rise of the isotherms and isosalines adjacent to the coast. ‘This tendency is most marked in August 1951, when the northwest winds were most prolonged and consistent. In the classical example of upwelling found off California, the offshore movement of the waters results in the accumulation of light surface water in a narrow stream parallel to the coast, and some dis- tance from it. Off the British Columbia coast the northwest winds oppose the prevailing current and no coastal stream is developed. How- ever, the offshore tendency persists and results in a degree of upwelling. As the water upwells in summer it is diluted by coastal drainage, warmed by insolation, and dispersed in a narrow north flowing coastwise cur- rent which has been described by Tully (1938). ‘Vhis current loses SURFACE WATERS OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST 575 water to the coastal region because of the offshore component of the summer winds. This seaward transport is evidently greater than the supply from runoff so that there is a degree of upwelling. This results in a band of cold water along the coast, which would be as saline as the California coastal water, if it were not diluted by the great summer runoff. In the winter the prevailing southeast winds impart an onshore component to the motion, the light water is confined in a narrow region. close to the coast, and the surface waters are depressed. ‘This is evi- denced in the accumulation of low salinity warmer water along the coast at this time. ‘The seasonal effect is noticeable here in that the coastal water, although warmer than that to seaward, is colder than during the summer. ORIGINS AND CIRCULATION OF THE WATER The general circulation system of the north Pacific Ocean (Figure 7) has long been established by the Pilot Charts of the U.S. Hydrograph- ic Office. The west wind current, called the Sub-Arctic Current by Sverdrup (1942) is the wind driven drift of surface water eastward across the Pacific Ocean between Latitudes 40° and 50°N. As this cur- rent approaches the coast of North America it divides. Part turns north to form the Alaska Gyral, and part turns south to form the California Current. The Marine Lite Research Program from Scripps Institution of Oceanography has been studying the California Current in a series of near-monthly cruises since 1949. Fortunately their Cruise 17 coincided with the August 1950 survey and it was possible to combine the dynamic charts as shown in Figure 8. This chart covers an enormous area, and is the first dynamic picture of the current system off the North Ameri- can coast. It is a spectacular confirmation of the previous conclusions from the Pilot Charts. It is regretted that the other surveys by both agencies were not co- ordinated more closely so that a seasonal, and annual series of such diagrams could have been prepared. However, this example shows the position of the area of the present studies in relation to the whole cur- rent system, and allows the interpretation of the observations on a broad basis. Evidently the area off the coast of British Columbia is in the region of the divergence. Because of this, it is a region of eddies, or slow and indefinite currents. Furthermore, it is extremely sensitive to small changes in the route of the trans-ocean current. It may be subject to 576 KIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS northern or southern flow as the point of division of the major current shifts south or north. Previous studies in the northeast Pacific Ocean have examined small parts of the system. ‘The U.S.S. Bushnell (Sverdrup et al., 1942) crossed the Sub-Arctic Current from the Aleutians to Hawaii. U.S.S. Oglala (Goodman and Thompson, 1940) crossed from the Aleutians to Juan de Fuca Strait. The International Salmon Commission (Mc- Ewen e¢ al., 1930) examined three sections normal to the coast in the Gulf of Alaska. Each of these studies shows part of the general picture. When they are considered together it is evident that there is a con- tinuous circulation of low salinity coastal water, in a counterclockwise direction all around the Gulf. Part of this stream is dissipated through the Aleutian Islands into the Bering Sea and the remainder moves southwards to join the continent-bound Sub-Arctic Current. The low salinity surface zone water found throughout the Gulf of Alaska is pro- bably due to the conservation and re-circulation of a substantial part of the coastal water, as well as to the high precipitation associated with the semi-permanent Aleutian low pressure area. Thompson and Van Cleve (1936) have deduced from drift bottle experiments that in March 1932 the division of the Sub-Arctic Current to form the Alaska Gyral and the California Current occurred well south of Latitude 47°N. They point out that this conforms to the la- titude of the division between residual winds, with a northerly and southerly component, as calculated from the Pilot Charts. The result- ing current along the British Columbia coast in the winter agrees well with this. From drift bottle experiments during the summer of 1931, Thomp- son and Van Cleve concluded that the division of the currents occurred further north at Latitude 50°N, which again agrees well with the divi- sion of winds deduced from the Pilot Charts. This conclusion is also supported by Tully’s (1938) examination of the waters within 100 miles of Vancouver Island in 1936. ‘These indicated that the general flow was southeasterly and suggest that the division of the great current was north of Latitude 50°N in that summer. ‘These early observations ap- pear to contradict the findings of the 1950 and 1951 studies where the general movement appears to be northward. However, when these are viewed as part of the overall picture (Figure 8) it is evident that there is no contradiction. The southward movement occurs near the coast of Vancouver Island, while the northward tendency is further offshore, and becomes stronger to northward. These earlier studies are not complete enough to describe the character and location of the great divergence with any precision, and SURFACE WATERS OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST 577 it cannot be determined whether there are significant differences be- tween them and the present surveys. However, it is evident that there are important differences be- tween the conditions observed in 1950 and 1951 (Figure 5). The cal- culated gradients and isentropic analyses suggest that the division of the Sub-Arctic Current was further south in 1951. An attempt was made to relate this difference with the atmospheric pressure systems in the area. However, these showed that the division between the winds with a southerly component and those with a residual northerly com- ponent was further south in 1950. Thus the differences between these two years observations are not immediately apparent in the wind fields. Considering the character and magnitude of the system (Figure 8) it may be anticipated that the division of currents will shift north and south by several degrees of latitude from year to year. Such changes are small, but their effect is enormous in the strategic area off the Bri- tish Columbia coast. It cannot be said that the early data showing a southward flow near the shore are inconsistent with the present data indicating a northward movement further offshore, or that the change of character of the currents and properties from year to year are ano- malous. The present problem is to determine the cause, sequence, and nature of these changes. REFERENCES GOODMAN, J. and T. G. THOMPSON. Characteristics of the waters in sections from Dutch Harbor, Alaska to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and from the Strait cf Juan de Fuca to Hawaii. Univ. of Wash. Publ. in Ocea- nography, 3 (8) 81-103, 1940. IGELSRUD, I., R. J. ROBINSON and T. G. THOMPSON. The distribution of phos- phates in the sea water of the northeast Pacific. Univ. of Wash. Pudl. in Oceanography, 3 (1) 1-34, 19386. McEwEn, G. F., T. G. THOMPSON and R. VAN CLEVE. Hydrographic sections and calculated currents in the Gulf of Alaska, 1927 and 1928. Rep. Int. Fish. Comm., 4, 86, 19380. MoNTGOMERY, R. B. Circulation in the upper layers of the southern north Atlantic deduced with use of isentropic analysis. Papers in Phys. Ocea- nog. and Meteorol. Wood’s Hole Oceanog. Inst., VI, 2, 55, 1938. PICKARD, G. L. and D. C. McLrop. The seasonal variation of the tempera- ture and salinity of the surface waters of the British Columbia coast. Journ. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 10 (8) 1958. RossBy, C. G. Dynamics of steady ocean currents in the light of experimental fluid mechanics. Papers in Phys. Oceanog. and Meteorol. Wood’s Hole Oceanog. Inst., 5, 1, 1936. Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Physical and chemical data, Cruise 17, Marine Life Research Program, MS. 51-32, 1951. SverDRuP, H. U. and R. H. FLEMING. The waters off the coast of southern California. March to July, 19387. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanog., 4, 10, 261-378, 1941. 578 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS SVERDRUP, H. U., W. M. JOHNSON and R. H. FLEMING. The oceans, their physics, chemistry, and general biology. Prentice-Hall Inc. New York, 1087, 1942. THOMPSON, W. F. and R. VAN CLEVE. Life history of the Pacific halibut. Rept. Int. Fish. Comm., 9, 184, 19386. TuLLy, J. P. Some relations between meteorology and coast gradient cur- rents off the Pacific Coast of North America. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 19th Annual Rept., 1, 183-187, 19388. TULLY, J. P. Notes on the behaviour of fresh water entering the sea. Proc. Seventh Pac. Sc. Cong., Wellington, N.Z. 1949 (1952). MS. Rept. Pacific Oceanographic Group, Nanaimo, B.C., 1948. TuLty, J. P. Some characteristics of seawater structure. Proc. Eighth Pac. Se. Cong., Manila, 1958. MS. Rept. Pacific Oceanographic Group, Na- naimo, B.C., 1953. SURFACE WATERS OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST a7T9 LIST OP FELCURES Fig. 1.—Chart of the offshore waters of the Canadian Pacific Coast showing the courses sailed, and the stations occupied in May and August, 1951. Observations were made along approximately the same lines in the other cruises, although the arrangement and numeration of the stations were different. Fic. 2—Examples of the characteristic temperature and salinity structure in the offshore region, off the Pacific Coast of Canada, at Latitude 50°N, Longitude 1385°W (c.f. Figure 1). Fic. 3.—Surface salinity observed off the Pacific Coast of Canada. Fic. 4.—Surface temperatures observed off the Pacific Coast of Canada. Fic. 5.—Calculated geopotential topography of the sea surface (anomaly of dynamic height, metres) and implied gradient currents. Arrows in- dicate the direction of flow. The inset diagram shows the current speed in relation to the distance between isobars. Fic. 6.—Structure of the water off the Pacific Coast of Canada. Vertical sections showing the distribution of temperature (°C light lines) and salinity (S °/,, heavy lines) as observed on line A, normal to the coast of Vancouver Island during each o fthe four cruises. The location of the section is shown in Figure 1. Fic. 7.—-Schematic diagram of the surface zone circulation in the northeast Pacific Ocean. Fic. 8—Anomaly of dynamic height (metres) from the August, 1950 survey of the Pacific Oceanographic Group, and Cruise 17 of the Marine Life Research Program (Scripps, 1951). DR . ee si lath av teen) aa tee a a CN OHRERE | Pais Rania en ny AD Pact 4 tee 7 : aud ¢ en"? Tee's ts b) Pega Be WHR it pa Woah i SURFACE WATERS s*c moter OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST q- ENTRANCE 581 nw asd QUEEN 9] cuarLorte OUND FIGURE 1 TERPLRATURE SCALE = Lh is T i Stotion 39 AUGUST ___1950 Station C8 MAY _1951 Sol/nity Temperature Upper Lone sper Zone 100 F rhermoctine Lower Winter Thermocline no fone lower Zone LiL ava Stotion Station C8 AUGUST MARCH 1952 Temperature Upper Lore Upper Zore Temperature Winter Thermocline lower Zone 3 SALINITY SCALE FIGURE 2 5&2 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS MAY + AuGUST 195! MARCH 1952 FIGURE ° us 30° CEN. 120 > age) ZIV ES . we ass AUGUST 1951 FIGURE 4 (J) MAY ISI ns MARCH 1952 SURFACE WATERS OFF THE CANADIAN PACIFIC COAST 583 z061 HOUVH \ Is6l 4snony isst AVA 1000 KLM 800 200 KLu oO 1c0O KLM €00 600 200 mt OO e780 B50 & omsmsnae 19 gs 0 9 es 7 6 5 Siswabenr Kal Se es i 50 n ©. 23 G4 2. 33.0) 3324 150) S a 200] Bsn 3c 300) { a - E400 2400) 3 e 5+)340 |x = o = = S50) E soo) 3 - 600) rll — 700) 700 T > Pal Line A 800 ~ 00; —}—+ lari AUGUST 1950 | Line A- MAY 1951 wot 1M) Le | | aL DISTANCE FROM COAST DISTANCE FROM COAST 4 200 Kim O KLM 600 400 KLM 200 eR Bad Ce EES, Led 50 ae © r oo 100) . = 330, 35 cy Bees f 150) 2 200) Bree) use 300) IL Ht . 3 3 Fy ea = 400) 5 2 3 = So = = é 500) 500}—- TZ rf 8 60o}—} 600) T00r wey Se [s4z5|m C Ee 800) co Line A MARCH 1952 Ling A AUGUST I95! a en FIGURE 6 584 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS SUBARCTIC CURRENT 2 TO CALIFORNIA CURRENT —_ NORTH PACIFIC Hs dL CANADA FIGURE 8 CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST * By Ciirrorp A. BARNES and RoBERT G. PAQUETTE Department of Oceanography University of Washington Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. INTRODUCTION The area covered in this paper is a section of the Northeast Pacific Ocean bordering the West Coast of North America between the paral- Jels of 44° and 51° North and extending 600 miles seaward (Fig. 1). The coast is mountainous and contributes considerable runoff to the sea from heavy precipitation in winter and the melting of the snow in early summer. ‘Two concentrated sources of fresh water are the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Columbia River, which drain large inland areas. The Strait differs markedly from the river in that it is the mouth of a large tidal basin and is deeper than 100 fathoms for a considerable dis- tance inshore. As a result of the tidal action, its effluent has been considerably altered by mixing with the cold deeper water. The continental shelf, as measured by the 100-fathom contour, ex- tends about 40 miles offshore near the Strait of Juan de Fuca and nar- rows to about 20 miles both northward and southward. Beyond the slope, depths increase gradually to about 2000 fathoms. A number of ‘seamounts rise from this deeper water, but the bathymetry of only a few has been worked out in any detail. The climate of the region is predominantly maritime with prevail- ing southwesterly onshore winds accompanied by heavy precipitation from autumn to spring. In summer considerable air flow is from the northwest and north and little precipitation occurs. The circulation of the Northeast Pacific is predominantly clock- wise to latitude 40° North, giving way to counterclockwise south of 50° North (Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming, 1946). The colder water along the northern periphery of the main easterly drift in mid-ocean, the so- called Aleutian or Subarctic Current, splits in all ill-defined zone well seaward from the coast near 45° North, both orientation and position of the zone of divergence varying with the season. The northerly arm, the Alaska Current, recurves through the Gulf of Alaska; and the south- erly arm, the California Current, sets south well offshore at lower lati- * Contribution number 194 from the Department of Oceanography of the University of Washington. Technical Report No. 17, University of Washington and Office of Naval Research, Contract N8onr-520/III, Project NR 083-012, and Contract Nonr-477(01), Project NR 083-072. 585 O36 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS tudes. Oif the Washington and Oregon Coasts in winter, the Davidson Current feeds water northward inshore. The area studied, being an area of divergence, is characterized by weak and poorly defined currents which are easily influenced by temporally changing wind patterns and local bathymetric irregularities. The measurements to be reported in this paper were carried out with the research vessel M. V. BROWN BEAR during seven offshore cruises in the spring and summer months of 1952 and 1953. Because of the anticipated variations of currents with time, determinations of circulation patterns by dynamic topographies were supplemented by use of the Geomagnetic-Electro-Kinetograph (G.E.K.). It was quickly dis- covered that the latter instrument was measuring currents (or effects) very much greater than those from dynamic topographies, and showing a rotary variation with time. In recent cruises therefore, several time studies have been made to discover the nature of the rotary variations. Further evidence of the reality of the rotary variations was ob- tained by direct current measurements from an anchor station on Cobb Seamount, a seamount rising very sharply from 1500 fathoms depth to within 16 fathoms of the surface, and located approximately 270 miles west of the Washington Coast (46°-45.5’N, 130°-46.3’W). ‘The results from two such time studies are presented in some detail. Another sphere of activity has been a detailed investigation of the outflows of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Columbia River, par- ticularly the latter. “The outflow of the Columbia has been traced for over 200 miles seaward. The position and structure of this long plume of less saline water is of interest as an indicator of offshore circulation and mixing, and because of the possible influence it may exert in di- recting the salmon which migrate to and from the river. The circulation near the coast of Vancouver Island and the mouth of the Strait of Juan de Fuca has been discussed by Tully (1938, 1941) on the basis of salinities and temperatures measured near the coast, often in shallow water. ‘These measurements as well as those of Mar- mer (1926) made from Swiftsure Lightship establish the direction of outflow of the Strait of Juan de Fuca as northwestward, very close and parallel to the coast of Vancouver Island. Tully further shows the accumulation of fresh water along the coast due to the prevailing south- westerly winds in spring and early summer, with a gradual transition to a condition of upwelling in a narrow band along the coast under influence of the northerly winds of late summer. He interprets the resulting dynamic topographies as representing northwesterly flows close to the coast in early summer and a reversal in direction in late summer. The latter flow, however, is overcome by the generally northwesterly CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST D387 outflow of the Strait of Juan de Fuca near the mouth of the Strait. Similar conclusions as to the seasonal shift in currents were reached by Thompson and Van Cleve (1956) from drift bottle experiments com- menced about 80 miles off the Canadian Coast. These authors also relate the change in direction of flow during the summer to a change in wind pattern. Some dynamic sections along the coasts of Washing- ton and Oregon are presented by Sands (1937), but these are too few in number and too close to shore to correlate with the present work. Farther offshore, the circulation off the Canadian Coast has been studied by Doe (1952) and Goodman and Thompson (1940) in two sections, from the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Dutch Harbor, and from the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Hawaii. Still farther offshore, the Carnegie Cruise VII (Fleming, 1945) established the gross structure of the east- ward flowing Aleutian Current and the beginning of its separation into southeasterly and northeasterly branches. ‘Iwo or more sections have also been made by Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory, but the results are unpublished. ‘Yo the south, Scripps Institution of Ocea- nography have studied the coastal currents very intensively and their cruises have occasionally come as far north as the Columbia River. Thus the details of the circulation near the Washington Coast are little known. With respect to the G.E.K., as used in areas of weak and poorly defined currents such as this, there is little published. The interpreta- tion of the results as currents is in some question, as is the “K’’ factor. The apparently rotary current changes observed, although indicated by von Arx (1950), have not been carefully analyzed, probably because in areas Of higli currents they are relatively less important. Oceanogra- phers at Scripps Institution of Oceanography are known to be working on this problem. For analysis of the rotary current changes in the deep sea, One must turn to the direct measurements made from anchored vessels, the BLAKE in West Indian waters (Pillsbury, 1891), the MICHAEL SARS (Helland-Hansen, 1930), the METEOR (Defant, 1932), the ALTAIR (Defant, 1940), and the ARMAUER HANSEN (Ekman, 1953). In all of these, the uncertainties due to the motion of the an- chored vessels weaken the validity of the conclusions. However, rotary current changes do occur and these changes apparently contain com- ponents of tidal and inertial periods as well as random fluctuations. The existence of rotary currents of tidal period in shallower water is well established, and Gustafson and Kullenberg (1936) have demon- strated an excellent example of inertial rotations in the Baltic. 588 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS WATER PROPERTIES AND CIRCULATION As others have suggested, the horizontal gradients of temperature and salinity may be generalized in two representations, one for spring and early summer and one for late summer. ‘The winter conditions have not been studied. Figures 2 and 3 show the horizontal distribu- tion of surface temperature and surface salinity in April-May, 1953, the data having been smoothed to eliminate local fluctuations. ‘The piling up of warm surface water along the coast of Vancouver Island is evident. Figures 4 and 5 show the conditions in July 1952. Here the break- down of spring conditions is just beginning to appear. The water which earlier increased in temperature essentially up to the coast is now showing a wide band of somewhat cooler water near the coast. The effect is more marked if vertical sections of temperature are plotted, demonstrating the decrease in thickness of the surface water layer on approaching the coast. Close to the mouth of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the effect is accentuated at the surface probably because of the mixing processes of tidal flow as well as the tendency of upwelling deeper water to appear far within the Strait. Figures 6 and 7 (smoothed somewhat) show the conditions in Sep- tember 1953, farther south. Although not completely comparable with the above data because of the different areas covered, there is still sur- ficial evidence of upwelling in the region near the mouth of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Along the Washington Coast south of the Strait, the subsurface temperature structure indicates the presence of upwelling which, however, does not reach the surface because of a blanketing layer of less saline water. ‘This is especially so in the vicinity of the Colum- bia River mouth where the surface waters flowing seaward are rapidly replaced by river effluent. Along the Oregon Coast south of the Colum- bia, low temperatures characteristic of upwelling are again apparent at the surface. Figures 6 and 7 also show the first results of a detailed study of the Columbia River outflow. The plume of water having a salinity less than 32.0°/,, is seen to extend over 200 miles to the southwest. Associated with the lower salinity is a somewhat higher temperature. The position of the wake stream is in itself evidence of the generally southerly set of the currents in this region during the summer. At the velocities indicated by the dynamic topography for the general area, the time required for the water to travel to the outer limits of the 32°/,,, isosal is of the order of one to two months, and hence the position of this limit establishes a minimum value for the integrated currents for at least this period. CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST 589 The processes of mixing in the wake stream have not yet been examined. However, there is some interest attached to the abrupt change in salinity gradient seaward of the 31.0°/,, isosal. In essentially all of the area between this and the next isosal, the surface salinities are greater than 31.5°/,, and mostly greater than 31.7°/,9. The dynamic topographies within 300 miles of the coast have been quite consistent in all the cruises analyzed. Since only Cruise No. 7 in July 1952, went as far offshore as 600 miles, data from this cruise are combined with a composite of all the others to obtain a generalized diagram for the area which is presented as Figure 8. The curves south of 46°-30’ are based principally upon data from Cruise No. 9 in early September 1952. Appearing generally in all cruises are the lower dynamic heights to the west of about 130°W, corresponding to northerly or northeasterly flows of 5 cm/sec or less. Some changes in gradient occur in different months but the general picture is little altered except that the contours seem to tend more nearly northward in the early summer, as would be expected from the meteorological conditions. Also appearing in all the data is evidence for a deflection southward of northeasterly flowing streamlines in the area between 128° and 130°Wand 47° to 49°-30’N. The data of Cruise No. 9 indicate that this flow continues southward along the Washington Coast and is probably responsible for carrying the Columbia River water southward. ‘These results are consistent with those of Doe (1952). G.E.K. RESULTS AND TIME STUDIES Early in the investigations, it was discovered that apparent cur- rents measured hourly by means of the G.E.K. along a cruise track showed continual changes in direction and magnitude, suggesting the rotary changes of tidal period observed at lightships. “These currents typically had peak values of 15-20 cm/sec and occasionally as high as 35 cm/sec, the correction factor “K” for the G.E.K. being taken as unity. To be contrasted with these are the velocities below 5 cm/sec, determined from the dynamic heights. Tidal periods could be found in the data by harmonic analysis, but the amplitudes were only about one-fifth as great as the observed peaks. Later it was discovered that inertial periods were present, with amplitudes of the same magnitude or somewhat greater than those of tidal period. The inertial period in this area is approximately 16 hours. The harmonic analyses of these data were interpreted with some reservations due to the fact that the ship was rapidly changing position and to the evident existence of ap- parently random fluctuations of considerable magnitude. 590 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS In order to derive the residual non-fluctuating currents in this situation, the data have been calculated as 48-hour running means, 48 hours being the least common multiple of 16 and 12 hours. If tidal and inertial constituents are present, they should disappear in the averages together with the greater part of those of shorter and random periods. This is admittedly a rather brutal treatment, as any fluctua- tions in the residual current are severely smoothed thereby. However, it has served for the preliminary investigations. A serious disadvantage is the fact that the ends of a continuous series of observations may be approached within only 24 hours by aver- aged results, and hence any lengthy break in continuity of the data may leave large gaps in the results. “Twenty-four hour groupings also have been tried and are found to remove most of the fluctuations and leave smaller gaps. It is preferred to use 48-hour means where possible, however, since the results will be less ambiguous. The results of such a treatment to the data of Cruise No. 7 are shown in Figure 9. The large gap in the data on the northern leg of the cruise is due to the break in continuity occasioned by a short storm. Twenty-four hour means, however, show the residual currents setting south to southwest throughout most of the northern leg, with velocities of the order of 5 to 8 cm/sec. A comparison with Figure 8 shows some similarity of G.E.K. means to the dynamic heights along 48°-30’N but none whatsoever along 50°-30’N. ‘The current pattern is also internally inconsistent, requiring the existence of a region of convergence within the area surveyed, an improbable situation. It appears evident therefore that the G.E.K., in this region, does not always measure the long-term average flows associated with the distribution of mass. ‘The converse might be true in regions where stronger currents are found. It is postulated therefore that the currents measured are shallow wind-driven currents of short duration. To test this hypothesis, average wind vectors have been plotted along the course. ‘There is reasonable correspondence along 48°-30’, assuming the resulting flow to be 45° to the right of the wind and lagging it by a few hours. In the northwest corner of the survey, there appears to be an inconsistency. However, the northwest storm which appeared two days later at about 130°W longitude may already have been driving water well ahead of it. Along 50°-30’, the agreement with 24-hour average currents (not shown) is good. These results showed the necessity of making time studies with the G.E.K. The first studies begun in June 1952, were about one day in length and were made by steaming back and forth over an 8-to-16-mile course, obtaining G.E.K. fixes enroute. Hydrographic stations to 1,000 CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST 591 meters of depth were occupied at intervals of 2 to 12 hours in the several experiments in an attempt to correlate the results with the dynamic heights. Rotary changes in current direction were readily demonstrated, but twenty-four-hour periods are too short for effective harmonic analysis. “Two experiments of 3 to 4 days’ duration were therefore made in June and August 1953, Cruises No. 29 and 31, re- spectively. In Cruise No. 29, the ship steamed backward and forward two hours’ run on reciprocal headings, taking G.E.K. fixes every hour to- gether with other data. Positions were fixed frequently by loran, and hydrographic stations were occupied about every 12 hours. Some fail- ures in equipment being used for corollary measurements caused several undesirably large gaps in the data, but the results are only a little less consistent than those to be presented below. In Cruise No. 31 the cruising plan was modified, as suggested by Mr. Joseph Reid of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, so that the ship steamed squares on the cardinal compass headings, each side being approximately 7 minutes’ run. Thus a fix is obtained every 7 minutes, there being some interdependence in the measurements because each datum enters into two fixes and two zero determinations. Reid has directed experiments of this type in which he has simultaneously fol- lowed a freely drifting buoy (personal communication). An attempt to do this with an improvised buoy and drag was abandoned after the buoy lost its drag and was itself nearly lost at night during a radar failure. The results of this experiment have been expressed as north and east components of velocity and are presented in Figure 10. K has been assumed to be unity and corrections have been made for electrode droop. The results are surprisingly consistent and have given rise to a renewed belief in the reality of G.E.K. measurements. ‘The 16-hour imertial period is evident by visual inspection. Much of the distortion is due to other components, principally the semidiurnal. Some smooth- ing has been practiced but there is difficulty in deciding which fluctua- tions may be real and which due to experimental uncertainty. Due to the interdependence of separate fixes, errors often appear symmetrically in alternate or adjacent points. Moreover, in some cases the record can not be interpreted more accurately than several tenths of a millivolt. In correlation with this experiment, an anchor station was occupied for the preceding three and one-half days atop Cobb Seamount (see Fig. 8). Here currents were measured at a depth of 20 meters with an Ekman current meter every 30 minutes, and temperature structures were measured hourly by bathythermograph. Bathythermograms were 592 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS also obtained hourly during the time study with the G.E.K. Three hydrographic stations were occupied at corners of a 30-mile square about the seamount to obtain dynamic heights for comparison. The time study with the G.E.K. was performed in depths ranging from 1,500 to 600 fathoms and between 30 and 15 miles northwest of the seamount. The ship drifted south during the period. The direct current measurements also show rotary changes contain- ing tidal and inertial components. The basic periods are less well defined because of the motions of the ship, but these motions are small compared to those of a ship anchored in deep water. It is assumed in these two experiments that there should be some similarity in the cur- rents on a sharp isolated seamount to those in the adjacent deep water. On the other hand, considerable distortion near the seamount would not be surprising. The results of harmonic analysis are given in Table I, for both the direct measurements and the G.E.K. Only the 16- and 12-hour com- ponents are considered of primary importance, but the higher har- monics are presented to suggest the magnitude of the amplitudes which could result from random data in a series of this length. The contribu- tion of each constituent is assumed to be expressed in the form V, = V, cos (6 — x3) Ue = V..cos (6 — x2) where v, and v, are the instantaneous values of the north and east com- ponents of velocity, V, and V, are the corresponding amplitudes, @ is the time angle of the constituent and «x, and «x, are the local epochs, the negative of the conventional phase angle, the origin of time being the time of local lunar transit on the first day of the anchor station. If x2-x, expressed as an angle less than 180° is positive, rotation of the current vector with time is clockwise. In particular, 1f «.-«, = 96° and V, = V,, the current hodogram for the constituent is a circle. Theoretically, circular changes are to be expected in the inertial component and generally elliptical changes in the tidal component. It is evident that most of the motion is accounted for by inertial and semidiurnal constituents, the former preponderating. The diurnal constituent is probably of significant magnitude, but the others are questionable. The phase difference between north and east components in these three constituents corresponds to clockwise rotations, as would be expected from the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation. In the inertial constituent, it is very nearly 90° for both the direct measure- ments and the G.E.K. In the G.E.K. results, the two amplitudes are es- sentially the same, which satisfies the condition for circular rotation. Further deductions from the phase relations will be attempted at a CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST 593 later date. The amplitude of the semidiurnal constituent on Cobb Sea- mount is about 15 per cent less than the G.E.K. results, which is the same as the change in the mean tidal range at Astoria during the two periods. The change in the inertial component may arise from an in- crease in average wind velocity from about 8 to 20 knots over the same period. The results of the time study in June 1953, are shown in Table I]. Although the amplitudes are smaller, the relative importance of the 16- and 12-hour constituents is supported. This experiment was carried cut at 48°-02’N, 130°-29’W; and by chance during the time study, the ship drifted over and charted a new seamount rising to a least depth of 280 fathoms. This shallowing of the water may have had some effect upon the G.E.K. The possibility exists that internal waves of tidal and inertial period give rise to the currents or effects measured by the G.E.K. This has been investigated by a study of the bathythermograms taken to a depth of 450 feet during the time study of Cruise No. 31. Internal waves oc- cur with amplitudes of the order of 25 feet but with periods poorly defined. Visual examination suggests six-hour and two-hour periods rather than those of twelve or sixteen hours. It is felt therefore that these internal waves are not a determining influence on the G.E.K. results, but that they possibly account for some of the aberrations and short-period constituents. In Table III, the average residual current calculated from the three time studies is compared with the dynamic topographies and with the approximate drift of the ship as determined by deviations from the courses run, measured by loran fixes. In Cruise No. 29, the G.E.K. com- pares well with the drift of the ship but not with the dynamic topo- graphies. This was in a period of light winds in which the ship might be expected to move with the water. In Cruise No. 31, there is little agreement, possibly because the winds averaged 20 knots from the north. However, the direct current measurements compare favorably with the dynamic topographies close to the seamount. Farther away, the velocity and direction derived from the topographies are extremely uncertain and are not shown. It seems well established therefore that the rotary changes observed by the G.E.K. in deep water have their counterpart in the direct measurements of currents. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY The water circulation off the coasts of Vancouver Island, Washing- ton and Oregon in late spring and summer has been studied by means of dynamic topographies and the G.E.K. A picture is presented which 594 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS fills a previously existing gap in the information for the central area. The relatively flat dynamic topography is especially sensitive to transient conditions and experimental error. Nevertheless, the topographies con- sistently show a weak northeasterly circulation at 5 cm/sec or less, part of which is deflected southward off Vancouver Island to continue along the coast past 45° North. ‘This circulation pattern is consistent with previous work in the adjoining areas, and with the assumed divergence of the Aleutian Current beginning well offshore around 45° North. The G.E.K. has been shown to measure apparent currents which rotate in direction and fluctuate in intensity. ‘The peak flows are of the order of 20-35 cm/sec which is several times greater than the net flows. The rotations contain semidiurnal and inertial constituents, the latter predominating. A time study in direct measurement of currents on Cobb Sea- mount, 270 miles offshore, has been compared with a similar time study with the G.E.K. in the adjoining deep water. Harmonic analysis of the North and East components of velocity has produced amplitudes of 7-11 cm/sec for the semidiurnal constituents. The differences could be almost completely accounted for by the change in phase of the moon during the period of the measurements. The amplitudes of the inertial constituent were 9 and 13 cm/sec in one case and 22.5 cm/sec in the other, a difference ascribed to an abrupt change in wind velocity. Another time study with the G.E.K. showed similar results, but smaller amplitudes. The combined results suggest that the currents being mea- sured by the G.E.K. are real. This conclusion is supported by the pub- lished results of current measurements at several deep-sea anchor stations which show similar variations. The net currents obtained by averaging the G.E.K. results show little correspondence with those indicated by dynamic topographies. ‘The former probably represent short-term surface currents due to the wind, whereas the dynamic topographies represent integrated effects over longer periods. in conclusion, it is suggested that progress in the interpretation of currents in this area requires a better insight into the cause and nature of the transient currents. The G.E.K. should be useful in these studies, but must be further evaluated in terms of direct measurements. LITERATURE CITED DEFANT, A. 1982. “Die Gezeiten und innern Gezeitenwellen des Atlantischen Ozeans,” Wiss. Ergebn. der Deutschen Atlant. Expedit. auf dem ‘Meteor’ 1925-1927 7 Teil I. CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST 595 DEFANT, A. 1940. “Die ozeanographischen Verhaltnisse wahrend der Anker- station des ‘Altair’ am Nordrand des Hauptstromstriches des Golfstromes nordlich der Azoren,” Ann. der Hydrog., Nov.-Betheft. Dor, L. A. E. 1952. “Oceanographic Studies off the Canadian Pacific Coast, 1951,” Unpublished report of Pacific Oceanographic Group, Nanaimo, B. C., August 1952. EKMAN, V. W. 1953. “Studies on Ocean Currents. Results of a Cruise on Board the ‘Armauer Hansen’ in 1930 under the Leadership of Bjorn Helland-Hansen,” Geofysiske Publikasjoner 19 No. 1. FLEMING, J. A. et al. 1945. “Scientific Results of Cruise VII of the ‘Carnegie’ during 1928-1929 under Command of Captain J. P. Ault,” Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 545, Vol. I-B. GOODMAN, J. and T. G. THOMPSON. 1940. “Characteristics of the Waters in Sections from Dutch Harbor, Alaska to the Strait of Juan de Fuca and from the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Hawaii,” Univ. of Wash. Pub. in Oceanography 3, No. 3 (1940). GUSTAFSON, T. and B. KULLENBERG. 1936. “Untersuchungen der Traigheits- strémungen in der Ostsee,” Sv. Hydrograf. Biolog. Komm. Skrifter, Ny Ser. Hydr. 13, 28 pp. (1936). HELLAND-HANSEN, B. 19380. Physical Oceanography cand Meteorology. Re- port of the Scientific Researches of the ‘Michael Sars’ North Atlantic Deep Sea Expedition. Marmer, H. A. 1926. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Spec. Pub. 121, 63-77 (1926). Pituspury, J. E. 1891. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report, 1890. SANDS, WALTER C. 1937. “Hydrodynamical Investigations off the Pacific Coast of North America,” B. 8. Thesis, University of Washington (1937). SVERDRUP, H. U., M. W. JOHNSON and R. H. FLEMING. 1946. The Oceans, N. Y., Prentice-Hall (1946). THOMPSON, W. F. and R. VAN CLEVE. 1936. “Life History of the Pacific Halibut,” Report of the International Fisheries Commission 9 (1936). TULLY, J. P. 1938. ‘Some Relations between Meteorology and Coast Gradient Currents off the Pacific Coast of North America,” Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 19, 177-182 (1988). -——-——— 1941. “Surface Non-Tidal Currents in the Approaches of Juan de Fuca Strait,” J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 5, 398-409 (1942). EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 596 “MINUIIXeUL UIN}I{SUOD JO aut} 94} 0} YsNBny F UO 4IsUeI} AeUN] [e2O, JO aI}, OY} WOAZ pornseow alsue SaryIsod oy} St ¥ puB ‘soUlsOod sv passeIdxXe o1B sjUeNzI}sUOD EYL, x yet | 69 | Let | 82 sre | eet) Gor) 26a ieseOe | Boe sO s0 | 60 | 9% | ST “we'd Load >: ic 2) LogUia ag 29 ver O Gc tr) Loauia ap; GiC td) aa 9T SG6L ySnSNY TI-P “duton ‘a ‘NI 89 | 648 | 962 |"dutoD __ 888_ Z6L eis ‘dulog “*N ie Sse iaic = 9ST | O's Ge LL) LOaYIG ep: Gic i) LOGUIa a qauvdWOD “Y'q'D) GNV SINSWANNASVAW Lowi SLNGTYUND JO SASAIVNY OINOWAVE IT WIaVi Seelsop Ul x4 ‘Yoodq [eoo'y, des/Ud epnyy[dury sunoH uvios ‘aciyid CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST 597 TABLE II HARMONIC ANALYSES OF CURRENTS BY G.E.K. 7-10 June 1953 PeRiop, Sorar Hours 24 16 | 12 Amplitude ~-|-N. Comp. 2.3 6.4 4.9 is aca | er | ae aes ~~ Local Epoch,* *, in. |N.Comp. | 171 | 164 | 245 ae ben | 8 Cl Mat | on * The constituents are expressed as cosines, and « is the positive angie measured from the time of local lunar transit on 7 June to the time of constituent maximum. TABLE III COMPARISON OF NET VELOCITIES BY DIRECT MEASUREMENT, G.E.K., AND DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHIES ee Cruise No. 29 ae ae G.E.K. 6.6 130 seynamcptonoszaphy Mae fy @ oer ol) Mags Deilis Ot Sip I) I nT Cruise No. 31 ; | Pe risk Direct Measurement 4.5 095 plane | Cobb Seamount (SATO oe | G.E.K. Position ? g es Sel a hae ny . 4 im L i i ND f iy 1 {al i nell t i} y hue We torn i ; ; ; i iN San Soni es 599 CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST GQ3I0NLS V3AYV ONIMOHS NVW390 O151DVd HLYON SHL JO LYVHO T gunols WL : o02i ©OZl KIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 600 Jo SeNIVeSdWSaL 39V4SeNS NOILNGIYLSIG TWLNOZIYOH €S6l AVWO! — 11YdvV OF 92 ON 3SINYOD YV3E NMONS 601 CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST °°% ALINIIVS S9VSYNS NOILNEINLSIG TWLNOZIYOH €S6l AVAO! — WYdvV OF 92°ON 3SINYD YVIE NMOS 602 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE 51°30 124° 2-13 JULY 1952 138° 140° CONGRESS 46° > a . AS flow 44° 30° FORM UW-OL-OS-! 605 THE WASHINGTON COAST EAR TION N RCULA Cl -$0:10-MN WHO OF eh ==, —— ! uOs = | °%. 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Ov! 607 CIRCULATION NEAR THE WASHINGTON COAST OF evb 1-SO-10-MN WHOS ‘Wao Ag S3ILIQOTSA LNIYUND LIN SNV3W ONINNNY UNOH-er zgel Aine 91-2 MERE GARI 2°ON 3SINYO uVag NMOUE (9e6/w3| = qsoqg yong) | ALIDOISA YSLVM NVYAW O—« ON3937 50 eS Hole 39EI El oO%l EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 7.4) £961 isnenv ti-@ 1€ ‘ON 2SINYD YVZG NACE SLNANOdWOD 1SV3 GNV HLYON ‘W329 AG SINZYYND JO NONLVINVA JAIL OT FUNDA S4NOH ANINODHOD 16Va —- ANBNOGWOS HIYON -e- On3931 AjjQ0j2Q jusuodwod 9903/9 U. S. NAVY CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF PACIFIC CIRCULATION By JoHn LyMaAn Division of Oceanography U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. The U. S. Navy has participated in several different ways in the study of Pacific circulation. The Hydrographic Office, serving as the national repository of information submitted by cooperating observers on merchant vessels of many different nationalities, has for half a cen- tury collected the current observations of navigators, obtained by com- parison of celestial fixes with dead-reckoning positions. These obser- vations up to the year 1935, reduced to punched cards, have served as the basic materials for the preparation of Hydrographic Office Publica- tions Nos. 568, 569, and 570. Figure 1 is a sample of the data presented in H. O. Pubs. No. 569 and 570, which give not only vector resultant currents for each month for each 1° quadrangle but also the frequency distribution of set and predominant drift for somewhat larger sub- divisions. Observations from 1935 to 1945 have been tabulated and are on file at the Hydrographic Office, while records since 1945 are awaiting punching. Cooperating mariners in the Pacific also participate in current studies by throwing over bottle papers (Fig. 2). Captain E. R. Johanson of the Matson Navigation Company of San Francisco has taken an especial interest in this subject in recent years, and his name appears frequently in the lists of recoveries, which have been regularly reparted in the weekly Hydrographic Bulletin. These bottle drifts, while of course they yield no direct evidence as to the precise route travelled by a drifting object between the points of release and recovery, -never- theless are valuable in giving general circulation patterns and minimum values of the set of surface currents. They are particularly useful in forecasting drifts of wreckage and floating mines. A study of local circulation at Guam in 1949 made by naval authorities for planning sewer outfall locations by releasing a number of drift bottles, yielded unexpected results when several bottles turned up at Talaud and others in the Philippines and Japan (Hydro. Bulletin of 7 April 1951). 609 610 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS During the 1930’s the U. S. Navy occupied oceanographic stations over a wide range of the eastern North Pacific, in connection with its hydrographic surveying program. Although the immediate objective was to obtain temperature and salinity values that could be used in computing the speed of sound to correct sonic soundings, the data also yield information on the dynamic topography. Observers from Scripps Institution of Oceanography and from the Oceanographic Laboratories of the University of Washington participated in most of this work, and the data were worked up at those respective institutions. ‘Table I lists the vessels engaged in this work. Part of the HANNIBAL, GANNET, OGLALA, and BUSHNELL data have been published (H. O. Pub. No. 212; Barnes and Thompson, 1938; Goodman and Thompson, 1940; Sverdrup and Staff, 1943). During World War II the oceanographic investigations of the U. S. Navy in the Pacific were more concerned with studies of underwater sound than with circulation. ‘The atomic bomb tests at Bikini in 1946, however, imposed requirements for the prediction and tracing of the movements of radioactive water. Included in the broad oceanographic and geophysical program of Operation CROSSROADS under the direction of Cdr. R. R. Revelle, USNR, therefore, were several series of oceano- graphic stations taken by a group of oceanographers under Cdr. C. A. Barnes, USCGR, in the USS BOWDITCH and BLISH, and by another group directed by Mr. D. F. Bumpus and LCdr. John Lyman, USNR, in several units of Destroyer Squadron 7. ‘These results have been discussed by Barnes, Bumpus, and Lyman (1948), and in more detail by Han-Lee Mao and Kozo Yoshida in a forthcoming U. S. Geological Survey professional paper. During 1946, also, three administrative actions within the U. S. Navy produced results of significance to the study of Pacific circulation. One was the establishment in the Hydrographic Office of a Division of Oceanography, headed first by Dr. R. H. Fleming, Director, and Dr. C. A. Barnes, Deputy Director. ‘These positions are now occupied by John Lyman and Dr. C. C. Bates, respectively. Another was the creation of the Office of Naval Research, including an Earth Sciences Division, headed first by Cdr. R. R. Revelle, and later by Dr. J. N. Adkins. ‘Through contracts administered by the Office of Naval Re- search, considerable financial support has been given to oceanographic survey programs in the Pacific. “The SPENCER F. BAIRD, a former Army tug, converted in 1947 to an oceanographic research vessel for use in the Philippines Fisheries program and transferred to the U. S. Navy in 1952, is operated by Scripps Institution of Oceanography, with funds provided by the Bureau of Ships and the Office of Naval Research. The Navy has also helped support operations of the Scripps vessel CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF PACIFIC CIRCULATION 611 HORIZON in such expeditions as Mid-Pac (1950), Northern Holiday (1951), Shellback (1952), and Capricorn (1952-53), and of the Univer- sity of Washington research vessel BROWN BEAR. The third action to be mentioned was the establishment of an oceanographic unit under Mr. E. C. LaFond at the U. S. Navy Elec- tronics Laboratory (LaFond, 1949). In addition to studies of the Pacific with the immediate objective of defining the sound channels or Sofar, LaFond’s group has participated in surveys in the Antarctic (Dietz, 1948) and in the Bering Sea (LaFond, e¢ al., 1948, 1952), cooperating in the latter area with Canadian authorities (Lesser and Buffington, 1950). Sofar cruises have been performed by the USS FIEBERLING (Holtsmark, 1949) and SERRANO (Anderson, 1950); and the EPCE(R) 854 has also carried out similar work. In addition to the data contained in the publications already cited, most of the observations made by the vessels mentioned have been punched onto cards (Fig. 3) as described by Lyman (1953). H.O. Pub. No. 242 lists the cruises which have been so punched, and H. QO. Pub. No. 238 is a comprehensive bibliography of the physical oceanography of the Western Pacific. REFERENCES ANDERSON, ERNEST R., Distribution of sound velocity in a section of the east- ern North Pacific, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 31, pp. 221-228, 1950. BARNES, C. A., D. F. BUMPUS, and JOHN LYMAN, Ocean circulation in Mar- shall Islands area, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 29, pp. 871-876, 1948. BARNES, C. A., and T. G. THOMPSON, Physical and chemical investigations in Bering Sea and portions of the North Pacific Ocean, Univ. Wash. Publ. Ocean, v. 3, pp. 35-79 and appendix, pp. 1-164, 1938. BRYAN, G. S., Oceanographic activities of the Hydrographic Office and the United States Navy during 1939, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 21, pp. 333-339, 1940. Dietz, R. S., Some oceanographic observations on Operation Highjump, USNEL Rept. No. 55, 97 pp., San Diego, 1948. GHERARDI, W. R., The oceanographic activities of the Hydrographic Office and the United States Navy during April 1933 to April 1934, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 15, pp. 188-200, 1934. The work of the Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy during April 1934 to April 1935 in the field of oceanography, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 16, pp. 200-214, 1935. GOODMAN, Jor, and T. G. THOMPSON, Characteristics of the waters in sections from Dutch Harbor, Alaska, to the Strait of Juan de Fuca and from the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Hawaii, Univ. Wash. Publ. Ocean., v. 3, pp. 81-103, and appendix, pp. 1-47, 1940. HOLTSMARK, B. E., The Sofar project: Hawaiian oceanographic survey U.S.S. FIEBERLING, Feb.-July 1947, next Rept. No. 139, 58 pp., San Diego, 1949. 612 KIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Kays, H. E., The oceanographic work of the Hydrographic Office and the United States Navy from April 1936 to April 1937, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 18, pp. 194-201, 1937. LAFonpD, E. C., Oceanographic research at the U. 8. Navy Electronics Labo- ratory, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 30, pp. 894-896, 1949. LAFOonpD, E. C., R. S. DiETzZ and D. W. PRITCHARD, Oceanographic measure- ments from U.S.S. Nereus on Arctic cruise 1947, usNnEL Rept. No. 91, San Diego, 1948. LAFonp, E. C. and D, W. PRITCHARD, Physical oceanographic investigations in the eastern Bering and Chukchi Seas during the summer of 1947, Jour. Mar. Research, v. 11, pp. 69-86, 1952. Leany, L. R., The oceanographic activities of the Hydrographic Office and the United States Navy during April 1935 to April 1986, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 17, pp. 194-205, 1936. Lesser, R. M. and G. L. BUFFINGTON, Oceanographic cruise to the Bering and Chukchi Seas: summer 1949, Part 2: currents, nzz Rept. No. 211, San Diego, 1950. LYMAN, JOHN, Oceanographic activities of the Hydrographic Office, 1946- 1952, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, v. 34, pp. 122-124, 1953. SVERDRUP, H. U. and Staff, Oceanographic observations on the U.S.S. BUSH- NELL in 1939, Records Obs. Scripps Inst. Ocean., v. 1, pp. 66, 123-128, 1943. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 212, Dynamic oceanographic data for the central eastern Pacific Ocean, pp. 1-38, Washington, D.C., 1934. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 238, References on the physical ocean- ography of the Western Pacific Ocean, 174 pp., Washington, D.C., 1953. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 242, Vessel and source listing of oceano- graphic data, Washington, D.C., (mimeographed) 1952. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 568, Atlas of surface currents, South- western Pacific Ocean, Washington, D.C., 1954. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 569, Atlas of surface currents, North- western Pacific Ocean, Washington, D.C., 1950. U.S. Hydrographic Office, Pub. No. 570, Atlas of surface currents, North- eastern Pacific Ocean, Washington, D.C., 1947. 3 618 IFIC CIRCULATION 4 / CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF PAC OFGL ‘UBAIg LE6T ‘sAvy “ec geo, ‘AyveT GS6T ‘Iprereyy VS6L ‘Ipre1eyy 9g6T ‘AyvoTy GS6L ‘Tprereyy PS6L ‘Tprvsceyy DONGAAIA YY 6 N[N[OUOH{ 0} OSsiqG UBS 6861 puowey “OD “Ht 6 BIULOFI[ED OMOT 07 vurvurg 686 TIYISIO(T a I OOSTOUBIY, UBS OF TIBAVETT 9861 pue S1OQOW “D aJ OT NBMBET 0} Sajaduy sory 9661 odin T x] la’ WeMepy 07 Aroqye_y odep See { | ai A1oq7eL yy odeQ 07 suernopy G86r Ureuqie) a Lf ep rona se oe PL SuBI}NELy S)UMSORSES aE eS ST emery 0} Ssuvrqnoly Ve6l Soule “VW “OD oV SUBIINE[ VY SE6T a een 96 BolToULy [C1}Ue) SE6T DSi re oe aa or BILIOULY [v14ueD) FE6L SUIT, “HW 9ST vuueued JO JIN) SE6L UAAUASIO SNOILVYLIS dO ‘ON Vary Suvay 6S6T-SS6L ‘HOMO CINdVUDOUGAH AAVN ‘S “ GHEE dO SATAUNS OIHAIVYDONVODG I WIaVvib TIINHSi8 TIGNHSOAS COV ATTA TITIASINOT VWIVIDO TIWNHSNd LUNNVO IVEINNVH IWdINNVH JTIVEINNVA wictc 7,4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF PACIFIC CIRCULATION 615 igo Fala, Iho” 5 Pang 5 oS 0 ee A 2.0 |19.0 AE r a Ny | a Fe) ee “SS VW x 4 ai 23.1 |26.9 |15.6 op ‘lene =F, 19.2 | iS 3 14.4 14.9 28.8 | pees 22.8 & i S SSS << SSS 1.2 34 1.8 GS ES ES 3 SS BS SS ee GG Gs BS ee Se (PE a BD 170° 160° FIGURE 1 616 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PRNC-NHO 84 BOTTLE PAPER U.S. NAVY HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE WASHINGTON 25, D.C. u. gs. A. (PLEASE USE LEAD PENCIL) Thrown overboard by (Give name of master and observer): IMGSLEP eR Ilr ene eel aera Me cites CONF TOA, aigew eal oe oo ee Gero anes AOreer a anart a ae Viesselrih deieaceinicne mene) deat ie IDPs inh st ale TEN GI i aioe iD te anaes re rs Oo TeatitUd CMe er pee eee yay cuMteeo etary Zong ytd es cane ata ln es ney Oa 204 aati ategalrae tees INSTRUCTIONS TO FINDER Trouvé par (indiquer le nom, date et lieu). Gefunden von (man gebe Namen, Datum und Ort an). Gevonden door (men geve naam, dagteekening en plaats op). Trovato da (dare il nome, data e luogo). Hallado por (dar el nombre, fecha y paraje). Achado por (dar o nome, date e paragem). Trovita de (skribu nomon, daton, k, lokon). ID) Le Ne hey laste eee ote mam nL ei Mya eS oes The finder of this will please send it to any United States Consul, or forward it direct to the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Washington 25, D.C. La pergonne qui trouvera ce papier est priée de l’envoyer a un consul quelconque des Etats-Unis, ou de le faire parvenir directement & la section d’hydrographie du ministere de la marine a Washington 25, D.C. Der Finder Dieses wird ersucht es irgend einem Konsul der Vereinig- ten Staaten zuzusenden, oder es dem hydrographischen Amte des Marineministeriums in Washington 25, D. C., direkt zugehen zu lassen. De vinder van dit papier wordt verzocht, het tot een Consul dér Vereenigde Staten, of rechtstreeka naar het Hydrographische Ambt ces Departements van Marine te Washington 25, D.C., te zenden. Chiunque trovi questo pregato d’inviarlo a qualche Console degli Stati Uniti d’America, o di farlo pervenire direttamente alla Sezione d’Idrografia del Ministero della Marina a Washington 25, D.C, Se suplica d la persona que hallar esto que lo envfe 4 algun Cénsul de los Estados Unidos de América, 6 que lo remita directamente 4 la Seccion de Hidrografia del Departamento de Marina en Washington 25, D.C. Roga-se a pessoa que achar isto o favor de o enviar a um dos Consules dos Estados Unidos da America, ou de o encaminhar directamente 4 Secg&o de Hydrographia da Reparticio da Marinha em Washington 26, D.C. Oni petas ka la trovanto sendu la paperon al iu Amerika Konsulo, ai rekte al U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Washington 25, D. C,, U.S. A. This form should be placed in a strony bottle. The cork should be driven in flush with the rim and covered, preferably with sealing wax. If the finder of this paper will return it to the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Wash- ington 25, D. C., direct, or through any United States Consul, he will thereby assist in the verification of the circulation of ocean currents. His services will be very much appreciated by all mariners. There are no funds available for paying rewards to the finders. 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SHoji and K. Supa Hydrographie Office, Tokyo, Japan INTRODUCTION There have been many investigations concerning the nature of the Kuroshio, but the study on its variation is yet very rare, and the hourly variations of its pass and strength may be said to be almost unknown. In recent years, as the results of oceanographic observations gradually piled up, it was made clear that the ocean currents which have been thought rather stationary, made a comparatively violent variation. But the observations are very poor compared with other scientific fields, for example, with meteorology. The cause or the mechanism of variation of ocean current can not be cleared at the present time. We intended, therefore, in the following only to describe some example of the ob- served variation of the Kuroshio. 1) A Cotp WATER Mass OFF THE SOUTH Coast or Honsuu It was first reported by fishermen in 1934 that a large cold water mass of a diameter of about 100 sea miles appeared off the south coast of Honshu and that the Kuroshio flowed around this cold water mass. According to this report the Hydrographic Office, the Meteor- ological Observatory and the Fisheries Research Institute of Japan made many oceanographic observations in this area (Figs. 1-5). At first this cold water mass (the water temp. at 200 meters was about 10°C in it and the opposite side of Kuroshio about 18°C) was off the Kii Penin- sula, and then moved eastward a little and its existence was confirmed until 1944. Owing to the War the observation was interrupted, and when reopened in 1946 the cold water mass was much contradicted, and then disappeared. Hereafter, the cold water mass appeared in winter of 1946-47, 1950-51 and 1952-53 in this area, but it did not so devel- op, and the appearance of this cold water mass seems to be a seasonal phenomenon in recent years. It is clear from the T-S diagram and other evidences that this cold water mass is a consequence of the upwelling of the cold intermediate water. But why this upwelling happens so extensively and why the Kuroshio runs around this, departing from the Japanese coast, has not been satisfactorily shown. It is true that the 619 620 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS bottom configuration of this area is suitable for an upwelling. Dr. Uda and Dr. Koenuma explained this phenomenon as follows: When the North Pacific High Salinity Water (Kuroshio Water) weakened and the strength of the Subarctic intermediate water (Oyashio Water) increased, this cold water mass appeared. He pointed out that prior to the appearance of the cold water mass in 1934, cold water off the coast of Sanriku prevailed so intensively that the northeastern part of Japan had suffered a very cold summer in 1934-35. It may be ex- plained that the weakening on the Kuroshio in recent years has caused the appearance of a cold water mass in winter. Before the appearance of the cold water mass in 1934, the famous Muroto typhoon had passed the central part of Japan, and in recent years the cold water mass appeared after a strong typhoon passed near this area. The effect of typhoon may be one of the causes of the up- welling of cold water mass. Summarizing the above observations, the strengthening and weaken- ing of the Kuroshio and Oyashio is the major cause of the appearance of the cold water mass and the bottom configuration and typhoons have much effect on it. 2) A VIOLENT VARIATION OF OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITION OFF THE Boso PENINSULA It is well known by fishermen that ocean currents change their course and other oceanographic conditions vary in a very short time. But the oceanographic observation is seldom carried out in so short an interval that there are few examples for these variations in the record of observations. In this paragraph we intend to describe an example in which sev- eral observations were carried out in a short interval in the same area, and a large variation of oceanographic condition was observed. But in this example, too, the shortest interval of observation was 10 days, and from the variation of observed water temperature, etc., this is not suf- ficient to make clear the detailed variation which was taking place in the ocean. Figure 6 shows the sectional distribution of water temperature ob- served by the Hydrographic Office from March to May, i944, off the Boso Peninsula. ‘These five observations were carried out on an almost similar line (Fig. 7). As in this area the Kuroshio deflects eastwards departing from the Japan Islands and the Oyashio reaches to the north of the Kuroshio, the oceanographic condition in this area is very varia- ble. Between 3 and 25 March, the water temperature lowered to about 3-4°C in the whole region, and on 11 April there appeared a minimum VARIATION OF THE KUROSHIO NEAR THE JAPAN ISLANDS 621 of very low temperature (and very low salinity) of 3-4°C at 200-meter layer near the coast. (This temperature minimum is a very rare phe- nomenon as this appeared so far south.) These results indicate that the Oyashio came down farther south than usual. On 22 April, 11 days aft- er the former observation, the temperature minimum disappeared com- pletely and the isotherms inclined so sharp that this indicated that there was a strong northeasterly current, that is the Kuroshio was flowing in this area. From the observation of 9 May, the temperature rose gen- erally and warm water occupied this area. The variation of the sea water has close connection with the me- teorological conditions. So we examined the wind observed at the Chosi Weather Station. From 13 March to 11 April northern winds prevailed. On 18 and 28 March and 8 April the wind velocity exceeded 20 m/s (wind direction N or NNE) and on 18 March and 8 April winds of more than 10 m/s continued more than 24 hours. After 11 April it was generally calm and the wind direction was variable. From these data it may be concluded that the southward flow of cold water from March to April was caused by the strong north wind of the same period. 3) ‘THE TRANSLATION OF THE KUROSHIO AND ITS PERIODIC CHARACTER AS OBSERVED BY THE MEAN SEA LEVEL Due to La Fond the variation of water level observed at tidal stations (the effect of tide eliminated by taking suitable mean values) is almost the same as the variation of dynamic height of the neigh- bouring sea surface. The difference in the dynamic height on both sides of an ocean current like the Kuroshio reaches as much as about 100 cm. There- fore if water level is observed at an island situated in the stream of the Kuroshio, we can know the translation of the Kuroshio continuously. For this purpose we put a tidal station at Hachijo-sima, and observed the variation of water level, and at the same time the record of three tidal stations on the coast of Honshu were also examined. As the va- riation of the current was very sharp in some cases, we used daily mean sea level (25-hour mean); and to eliminate the barometric effect, cor- rection was performed assuming 1 mmb. of air pressure corresponds to 1 em. of water level. Air pressure was taken from the record of the nearest weather stations. At first it is necessary to examine whether the mean sea level varies parallel with the dynamic depth or not. Figure 8 shows the correlation between the dynamic depth obtained from oceanographic observations and the sea level. As both values have error of a few centimeters, we can conclude that proportionality exists fairly well between these values. 622 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The observation of mean sea level at Hachijo-sima has been con- tinued since May 1951. Figure 9 shows the results from September 1951 to September 1952, with the values of Kushimoto, Ito and Mera Tidal Stations (Central Meteorological Observatory). ‘The position of the tidal stations is shown in Figure 10. (i) The range of variation of mean sea level at Hachijo-sima was very large compared with other tidal station. While the differences between maximum and minimum were about 50 cm. at other stations, the difference at Hachijo-sima reached to 140 cm. This was caused by the translation of the Kuroshio. To demonstrate this we shall com- pare the variation of sea level with the oceanographic observations car- ried out in the same period. The water level at Hachijo-sima was be- tween 250 cm. and 260 cm. until September 1951. Then it lowered greatly from the middle of October and from November 1951 to April 1952 (December 1951-February 1952 observation lacked) it remained between 170 and 220 cm. At the beginning of May, it rose suddenly about 50 cm. and then continued to rise slowly until September 1952. According to the oceanographic observations, in May-August 1951, the Kuroshio was obviously to the north of Hachijo-sima, in September—De- cember, as there was no observation, the condition was not clear, but from the Ten-day Marine Report of the Central Meteorological Obser- vatory, there appeared a cold water mass in this area. In February 1952 a cold water mass was situated in Enshu-nada and the Kuroshio run around this and Hachijo-sima was situated at the north boundary of the Kuroshio (Fig. 5). In April the Kuroshio was flowing near Miyake- sima. ‘These facts were well coincided with the variation of sea level, and we can conclude that by the observation of sea level, it is possible to pursue the translation of the Kuroshio. The slope of sea surface at the strong current of the Kuroshio can be assumed to be about 10-15 cm/10 miles. Therefore, that the sharp rise of the sea level at the beginning of May was a rate of about 10 cm/day, indicated that the velocity of translation of the Kuroshio was 5-10 miles/day, namely 0.2-0.4 knots. This cold water mass was much smaller in scale and continued in shorter time than the one mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Ii is interesting to note that before the appearance of this cold water mass a strong typhoon, Ruth, had swept over our country on 15 October, (ii) It was made clear that the variation of mean sea level at Ha chijo-sima had close connection with the translation of the Kuroshio. The most interesting point in the variation is that there appear some remarkable periodic changes and this may indicate that there are cor- responding meanderings of the Kuroshio. VARIATION OF THE KUROSHIO NEAR THE JAPAN ISLANDS 623 The most distinguished one was seen from March to April, 1952. The period was 20-30 days and the wave height was 30-50 cm. As the number of waves is only a few, it can not be decided whether this is a durable phenomenon or not. But it is clear that this is due to the trans- lation of the Kuroshio from the large range of variations. From May to September 1952, there appeared a periodic change of sea level of much smaller amplitude than the former one. Figure 12 shows the 5-day moving average of mean sea level. “The mean of wave height was 5 cm. over a period of 14 days. As the amplitude of this wave is rather small, it is not possible to conclude that this is due to the oscillation of the Kuroshio. But it may not be the wave of astronomical origin, for if it is one of the astronomical tide, it must appear in every time and place. Whether this wave is progressive or not, and also its wave length and velocity, can not be decided on account of lack of ma- terials. (ui) In September 1951 and 1952 the Kuroshio was to the north of Hachijo-sima in both cases. But the monthly mean level was higher about 34 cm. in 1952 than in 1951, and the difference between Hachijo- sima and Ito was 27 cm. in two cases. ‘The difference of sea levels on both sides of the Kuroshio is proportional to the mean velocity of the Kuroshio. ‘Therefore, this means that the Kuroshio was stronger in September 1952 than in 1951. In fact, from the observation, the Kuro- shio was very strong in the summer of 1952 as compared with usual years. Hachijo-sima is not the most suitable position to know the strength of the Kuroshio, for it often comes out of the stream. It may be very important for oceanography to know the annual and secular variation of the Kuroshio by observation of sea level at some adequate places. (CONCLUSION We have described some example of variation of the Kuroshio, but the variation of the Kuroshio can not be cleared up without the co- operation of the scientists of all nations around the Pacific, for the Kuroshio is only a fraction of the great circulation of the Pacific Ocean. REFERENCES M. UpaA. On the Correlated Fluctuation of the Kuroshio Current and the Cold Water Mass. C. O’D. ISELIN. Preliminary Report on Long Period Variations in the Trans- port of the Gulf Stream System. Papers in Phys. Oceanogr. and Meteor. Vol. VIII, No. 1. E. C. LA Fonb. Variations of Sea Level on the Pacific Coast of the United States. Jour. Marine Research. Vol, 2. 1939, EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS se (SE6T ISNSNY) “Gp ONS OF OANL[oY oowfing jo Ayderscdoy, s1weudkAq—T ‘DIyT vl Gl ofl Vel = BS | eS fa DLU/ 0{ ey Ve w a NaS Bulg OAZ12%H VARIATION OF THE KUROSHIO NEAR THE JAPAN ISLANDS 625 (SE6T Jsnsny) “TOABT UL QOS WV atnqzeloduay Jo uorNqLysiq [eyUoZ.Loy—zZ SGT vel EN Dung okzi4 Hew Sy DUWID Duiny ify L vers ay 2h) “Dy PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS IGHTI PI Lay 626 (€ré6t adv) “qp 008 0} cAV[ey evjang Jo Aydv Orr pe! 058 Sic okz 94)" ov GL pc gle WAS a LYPS Ov °g “i ihe —1) 4 (og + [| in which k and ¢ may be evaluated in terms of the data as shown in Equations 2 and 3. Whence the expression becomes (9) oo fee SS eee logy 2 eiloe es k k Coma Cr SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA WATER STRUCTURE 651 It is not necessary to calculate o at every observation, rather the mean values of temperature and salinity may be evaluated similarly to Equation 5, and the mean value of ¢ computed from them in the usual way. Having evaluated g in each zone, these may be treated in the usual manner to discover the dynamic height. This procedure reduces the number of calculations and is probably more accurate than the usual computations based on linear interpola- tion between observations. DEDUCTIONS REGARDING MECHANISM AND STRUCTURE Origin and Behaviour of Water Masses It has long been recognized that sea water occurs as masses, each having characteristic values of temperature, salinity or other properties. Usually these water masses are generated in some locality such as the Arctic, the Tropics, estuaries, etc. As they move out from the sources they over-ride the more dense, or under-run the lighter waters that are encountered enroute. It is supposed that a water mass must be subject to internal turbu- Jence if it is moving at an appreciable rate, since the Reynold’s Num- ber in all natural flows far exceeds the threshold of turbulence. Each water mass tends to pursue its own course and speed and so is inde- pendent to some extent. Consequently, there is a region of boundary turbulence resulting from the shear between water masses. Turbulence, regardless of its course or location, may be regarded as the random exchange of fluid elements normal to the plane of mo- tion. In the vertical direction it is statistically similar to diffusion, and results in exchange of properties through a zone. This is indicated by the derivatives of the observed relation (Equa- tion 1) = : (6) where z refers to the total depth from the surface. This implies that the limit of every zone is virtually at the sea surface. The slope constant (k), as shown in Equation 2, depends only on the thickness of a zone, and the difference of the values of the properties at the upper and lower limits. It describes the physical character of the zone at the instant of observation, and is not, by itself, indicative of the mechanism by which the zone is created. It is possible to ima- gine a situation where there were two water masses with identical turbu- Jence (energy) characteristics. An upper, boundary, and lower zone would be formed, each having a different gradient of properties. ‘] he mechanism of mixing is revealed by the form of the relation, and the source of the exchange is truly at the surface. oP k 652 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS On further consideration, it is evident that in any case the source (or sink) of the property may always be referred to the surface, since the process of mixing is continuous at all depths, even though the rate may vary. There is a temptation to associate each zone with a region of a particular degree of turbulence. For example, the nearly homogeneous zones might represent the region of internal turbulence in a water mass, while the boundary zone would represent the extent of the added tur- bulence induced by the shear between water masses. However, this would imply that the structure at a single position was an expression of the energy characteristics of the system. ‘The structure reveals the mechanism, and is surely a result of the energy characteristics, but the energy distribution can only be expressed by the difference between structures. Furthermore, there is no quantity of time in the definition of the structure (Equation 1) and finally it has been shown that the slope of the gradient can be readily explained by the dimensions and distribution of the water masses. It is concluded that each zone is an independent structure, be- haves as if it were the only zone present, and as. though its source or sink were at the surface. This concept is implied in the evaluation of the constant (c) in Equation 3. It is supposed that there is a surface layer of unit thickness, and of constant properties (P) and that it is con- tinually being renewed, so that it acts as an inexhaustible source, or sink. In the simple case where the water masses are not affected by ex- ternal factors such as insolation or precipitation, the structure in each zone tends towards homogeneity. But at the same time the conditions at the limits of the zones are being renewed by transfer of water from elsewhere. Each zone is a source and sink for its neighbours, so that one zone cannot become homogeneous while the character of its neigh- bours remains unchanged. Rather the gradients in the several zones tend to become congruous, and then the whole structure tends to degen- erate towards homogeneity. ‘This process is well illustrated by the se- quence of salinity observations shown in Figure 8. ‘The step structure is very apparent near the mouth of the Fraser River, but with increasing distance the steps become less and less apparent as the structure becomes mature. The tendency towards homogeneity can only be opposed by the introduction of new sources of properties. For example, the surface water may be heated diurnally so that a gradient of temperature, as shown in Figure 9A, is formed. During the night the surface is cooled, or the zone is mixed to homogeneity by the wind so that a single step structure is formed as in Figure 9B. ‘The effect of further heating and SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA WATER STRUCTURE 653 homogenizing is indicated in structures C and D. Eventually a step structure such as E may result. It is important to realize that each advection must tend toward congruity as it becomes deeper, and more mature, because once removed from the source at the surface no further advection can take place, and the homogenizing tendency proceeds un- checked. ‘Thus step structure degenerates towards a simple logarithmic gradient at maturity. Obviously step structure with respect to any property can occur at any depth or zone where a new source of sink is provided. Excellent examples of such deep phenomena occur in the margins, and confluences of the great ocean currents. The Meaning of Structure Studies now in progress indicate that each structure is a historical record of the influences and processes which the water masses have experienced in the sea. ‘These are too extensive for general discussion here, but one simple example may be cited for illustration. The origin of the minimum temperature zone in the northeast Paci- fic Ocean has been made apparent by the seasonal sequence of structures shown in Figure 10. In March, towards the end of winter the upper zone waters are isothermal and at a minimum temperature, somewhat colder than the top of the deep zone. As the season advances the sur- face waters are warmed by vernal heating. This process may be re- garded as the accumulation of heat from successive afternoon effects and wind mixing, as illustrated in the sequence of structures in Figure 9. The warm upper zone continues to increase through the summer to mid-September. However, in the autumn the surface cools and the violent winter storms mix the waters. In this process the upper zone cools but continues to become deeper. Eventually its boundary inter- cepts the remnants of the previous winter boundary, and finally the characteristic late winter structure is formed. CONCLUSION It is evident from these remarks that the concepts of zones and logarithmic structure are at least plausible, and the consequent tech- nique of the log-plot affords a new and powerful oceanographic tool. The present examinations have been limited to the coastal and oceanic waters of the northeast Pacific Ocean, but it appears that the principles involved should be general. However, such a conclusion must await study of data from other places, and examination of the ideas by other oceanographers. It is hoped that such studies will enrich the present experience. 654 FIG. Fic. Fic. 3 FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. Fic. Fic. Fie. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ILLUSTRATIONS 1.—Idealized examples of simple salinity and temperature structures showing the characteristics of the natural-plots and log-plots. 2.—Types of simple temperature and salinity structure. There is an upper and lower zone separated by a boundary zone. LHither the upper or lower zone may be absent or they may be congruous. —Types of complex structure where the successive gradients of pro- perties in the boundary zone continue to increase or decrease from segment to segment. 4.—Method of analysis of the logarithmic gradient in the boundary zone. The conventional. interpretation is indicated by the solid lines. Other possible interpretations are indicated by the dashed lines. 5.—Bathythermograph, Latitude 50° 24’N, Longitude 131° 34’W, 0304, 7 August, 1951. This illustrates step structure whose mean gradient approximates a logarithmic gradient within small limits of error. The circled points represent the standard depths that would have been observed in a serial observation. 6.—Log-plot from a series of half-hourly BT observations in Juan de Fuca Strait, Latitude 48° 13.8’N, Longitude 124° 09’W, 4 July, 1952. These demonstrate that the hourly variation in the fine structure, and in the depth and magnitude of the boundary zone, are greater than the deviation from the best straight line through the points. 7.—Log-plots of the serial observations at Latitude 54°21’ N, Longitude 140°05’ W, on 0730, 10 August, 1950. These show that the structure with respect to each independent property is unique. 8.—Application of the concept of index salinity in logarithmic structure to the illustration of oceanographic data. 9.—Idealized temperature structures illustrating the formation and de- generation of step structure due to diurnal heating and cooling in the upper zone. 10.—Idealized sequence of structures illustrating the annual temperature cycle in the upper zone in the northeast Pacific Ocean. (Reference . DOE) 3. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA WATER STRUCTURE 655 4 SALINITY 26 Yo 30 34 26 “eo 30 34 =i = meters 1000 TEMPERATURE 20 0 °C meters 500 = 1000 = 1000 NATURAL PLOT LOG - PLOT FIGURE 1 H1d3a 656 KIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS SALINITY (S%o) TEMPERATURE (°C) FIGURE 2 Hid3jQ SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA WATER STRUCTURE 657 SALINITY (S%c) 30 30 “oo 30 BOUNDARY TEMPERATURE (°C) 5 10 is) 10 FIGURE 38 658 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS TEMPERATURE (°C) ! 10 Sf ale) oneall | 200 Points | Points | Points Sey ae r i0o 1006 FIGURE 4 TEMPERATURE (°F) 40 °F 50 60 40 °F 50 60 feet feet F100 = 200 {00 300 400 NATURAL PLOT LOG - PLOT FIGURE 5 SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA WATER STRUCTURE 659 TEMPERATURE (°F ) 45 °F 50 FIGURE 6 TEMPERATURE SALINITY DENSITY DISSOLVED OXYGEN XG S%oo Ostp mg /| 5 10 32 33 34 24 26 28 30 8 9 10 100 1000 FIGURE 7 660 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS oeere'123° 30' W Ng fF amt Yas 09 Depth (feet) of index salinity (29.4%) in Georgio Strait 20 May 15—22,1950 Index S alinity 29.4 Ya 100 Salinity Zone Structure in Georgia Strait FIGURE 8 SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA WATER STRUCTURE 661 TEMPERATURE (°C) FIGURE 9 TEMPERATURE (°C) Summer Boundary Cs? Winter Boundary a MARCH JULY SEPT. NOV, DEC. MARCH ey TING ——| Ea COOLING ——>| FIGURE 10 100 1000 meters 100 1000 ON THE CIRCULATION IN THE NORTH PACIFIC IN RELATION TO PELAGIC FISHERIES By MicwitTaka UpA Tokyo University of Fisheries Kurihama, Yokosuka City, Japan On the charts plotted by the author, the semi-permanent boundaries of the water masses (fronts) in the Northwest Pacific adjacent to Japan, i.e. the Coastal Fronts, Oyashio Front (Polar Front or Subarctic Convergence), Kuroshio Front, Warm and Cold Fronts in the Japan Sea, Subtropical Convergence, Equatorial Counter Front, Continental! Front are shown in relation to pelagic fisheries grounds of tuna, skip- jack, Pacific saury and whales (Fig. 1). Briefly we can summarize the following three types of pelagic fishing grounds on the above hydro- logical point of view: (1) Those produced by the planktonic livings and fishes in the compressed zone of the optimum water temperature due to mere con- vergence (e.g. the skipjack fishing grounds in the northern boundary zone of Kuroshio and the Pacific saury fishing grounds near the Oya- shio Front), (2) Those produced by marine organisms due to the upwelling of the water of rich nutrients in the deeper layer obeying Nathansohn’s theory (e.g. the fishing grounds of sardine, squid, yellow-tail, bluefin tuna, mackerel, etc., or some varieties of this type), indicating dense “ concentrations near the coastal front and the fishing grounds on the eddies around the islands or capes (mackerel, flying fish, etc.) and around banks (skipjack, tuna and mackerel, etc.). (3) The combined fishing grounds of (1) and (2) types (eg. the marginal convergence of the upwelling area at the front of the cold water such as the fishing grounds of the albacore, whales, Pacific saury, etc.). Further we will inspect the oceanographic structure in the North Pacitic by means of the nucleus method. ‘The depth of the inter- mediate water S min. and the value of that depth during the period 1931-41 were plotted in Figures 2, 3 and 4. The intermediate water in the Northwest Pacific may be con- sidered as the carrier of the rich nutrients which are produced in the seas of high latitudes and fertilizer resulting in the high production in the seas of lower latitudes. The prevalence of the cold water circulation, 663 664 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS i.e. the prevalence of the intermediate water, was associated with the anomalous Kuroshio conditions in recent years (1935-47). The northern intermediate water appears to extend conspicuously to south along the Japan Trench and invades in the sea basin south to Japan. Going south further, it descends to its deepest layer beneath the depth of 800 m. in the sea-region at about 34-24°N. with the sal- inity of 34.0-34.2 °/,, and rises again gradually up to the depth of 200 m. at about 5°N., showing the increase of salinity to 34.5 °/oo. The northern and southern intermediate waters collide with exch other in the zonal region of the latitudes of 12°-2°N., lying at about the depth of 200 m. for the former (the Northern Intermediate Water) and at about the depth of 800 m. (600-1000 m. depth) for the latter (the Southern Intermediate Water). Accordingly in that region the vertical distribution of salinity shows the double minimum which is produced by the stratification of the southern intermediate water beneath the northern intermediate water. The distribution of the depth and the value of the maximum salinity Sax: In the subsurface tropical water mass (Fig. 5) in- dicates obviously in the deepest layer (100-200 m. depth). Sax, lies in the regions of the North Equatorial Current (latitudes 20°-10°N.) and in the Kuroshio area. It lies in the shallowest layer (0-100 m. depth) in the western part of the North Pacific Saline Water (Salinity more than 35 °/,.), having its axis along the line of Subtropical Converg- ence (water temperature in the upper layer above the 100 m. depth in- creases suddenly in the south over this Convergence). In the Equatorial Counter Current area the depth of S,,,,. again rises to its shallowest (depth almost less than 100 m.) above the opti- mum angling depth of tuna with the salinity of about 34.8 °/,, or less, which corresponds to the belt of the cold water (water temperature less than those in the surrounding north and south). Beyond it to the south (latitudes 3°N.-3°S.), again the S,,,,. layer sinks beneath 100-200 m. depth with the high salinity of 35.0-35.7 °/o9, which corresponds to the water of the South Equatorial Current. The distribution of surface salinity in winter and summer during the period 1931-35 (Fig. 6) shows the expansion of the North Pacific Central Saline Water mass in winter, lying in the zone of lat. 20°-30°N. around the axis of 22°-26°N., 165°-180°E., and the shrinkage in sum- mer season in the period of 1931-35. The water mass of low surface salinity (34.0-34.3 °/,.) lying in the zone of the Equatorial Counter Current (lat. 5°-12°N.) which cor- responds to the Equatorial Calm or Equatorial Rainy zone, and also CIRCULATION IN RELATION TO PELAGIC FISHERIES 665 to the belt of the cold water at the depth 100 m. appearing more re- markable in winter than in summer. In the region south from the lat. 4°N. to 3°S. we meet again the saline water mass of the Central South Pacific (salinity 34.5-35.2 °/,,). The northern and southern boundary lines of the Equatorial Counter Current (Equatorial Counter Front) lie at about 12°N. and 4°N., corresponding to the theoretical results obtained by Dr. K. Yo- shida and others (1953). (ap) (orp) fos) EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. 1.—Principal Watermasses and the Fronts in the NW Pacific. Explana- tion of Notations: LC—Liman Current, NKC—North Korean Cold Current, JCC—Central Cold Current in the Japan Sea, EKC—East Korean Warm Current, TC—Tsushima Current, CCC—Continent Coastal Current, ConF—Continental Front, CF-—Cold Front in the Japan Sea, WF—Warm Front in the Japan Sea, KC—Kuroshio Cur- rent, OC—-Oyashio Current, ESC—East Saghalin Cold Current, OF— Oyashio Front, KF—Kuroshio Front, STC—-Subtropical Convergence, NEC—North Equatorial Current, ECF,, ECF,—Equatorial Counter Front, SEC—South Equatorial Current, ECC—Equatorial Counter Current, CoF-—Coastal Front. Fic. 2.—Smie. (°/99) and its Depth during 1931-1935. (Shaded area means the zone ot Double Smin.). Fig. 3.—Smin. (8/95) and its Depth during 1935-1938. (Shaded area means the zone of Double Smin,). Fic. 4.—Smin. (9/5) and its Depth during 1988-1941. (Shaded area means the zone of Double Smin.). FiG. 5.—Smax. (9/99) and its Depth during 1931-1938. FIG. 6.—Som. (°/,,) in Winter (Real line) and in Summer (Dotted line) 1931-19385. CIRCULATION IN RELATION TO PELAGIC FISHERIES 667 /30° /40° 150° 160° Fishing Locabsties : | \) ‘\ gC @ Albacore 5 i) © Yellowfin tiema is Ja v @ Btuefin tena O Skippack A Pacckc Saury S Sardcne We) FRY ing fuse q Soudd m Sgue Ge ye fm Mackere Oz Uiee FIGURE 1 685 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS FIGURE 2 669 CIRCULATION IN RELATION TO PELAGIC FISHERIES § GY EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 670 y ANNDI Ky 671 CIRCULATION IN RELATION TO PELAGIC FISHERIES G WMNDIY 9 GUND oO. ° Fic. 1—Surface topography during northeast monsoon. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 130° CRUISES 23,24,25 AND 26 DYNAMIC HEIGHT ANOMALIES |(DYN. M) AT SURFACE SULU SEA- 0 OVER 800 DCBS SOUTH CHINA S. AND PACIFIC OC. O OVER 2000 DCBS. CONTOUR INTERVAL - 0.02M cAuIse 26 90 ocY. 12-23,1968 cruise ep ® WULY 1@- aue ui, ay oe e HALMAHERA eo Fic. 2.—Surface topography during southwest monsoon. RECENT OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION IN THE NORTH AND EQUATORIAL PACIFIC OCEAN By WARREN S. WOOSTER Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California, U.S.A. The exploration of the Pacific Ocean may be divided into three major phases. The first phase, that of geographical discovery, was ini- tiated by Magellan and reached its climax in the voyages of James Cook. Karly in the nineteenth century the general outline of the shores and the locations of most island groups of the Pacific had been fairly well established. Yet the early explorers were not oceanographers, and in their travels they discovered little about the sea. The second phase of Pacific exploration and the science of deep-sea oceanography were both opened by the cruise of HMS CHALLENGER in 1873 to 1876. For the first time a major expedition was devoted to a study of the ocean itself, the physics and chemistry of its waters, the character of its bottom and the nature of its denizens. Expeditions in the great tradition of the CHALLENGER have continued up to the pre- sent day, notable among them being the cruises of the DANA and the CARNEGIE in 1929 and the recent voyages of the ALBATROSS and the GALATHEA, Such studies lead to a general description of the major characteristics of the Pacific Ocean from the physical, chemical, biolo- gical and geological points of view. The third phase of exploration can be described as the detailed ~ study of the spatial and temporal changes in conservative and non-con- servative concentrations. The ocean is considered as a dynamic system, and the goal of this phase is the description and understanding of the processes bringing about changes in this system. Much work of this sort has been done already by scientists on both sides of the Pacific, using the classical tools of oceanography. ‘The successful prosecution of this phase, however, requires eventually the development and appli- cation of new tools (such as the bathythermograph, geomagnetic electro- kinetograph or high-speed plankton samplers) which can be used from a moving ship. Although the five post-war expeditions of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography have made use of such new tools, their results belong properly to the second phase of exploration. The two expeditions in which the author did not participate differed in purpose from the others 679 580 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and will be mentioned only briefly here. The MID-PACIFIC Expedition of 1950 in the eastern North Pacific, and the CAPRICORN Expedition of 1952-1953 in the Central Pacific were principally geological and geophysical in intent, studying the shape of the sea floor with the echo- sounder, the character and depth of bottom sediments with bottom samplers and by seismic refraction methods, and the transport of heat through the sea floor with the bottom temperature probe. The NORTHERN HOLIDAY Expedition of 1951 in the eastern North Pacific, the SHELLBACK Expedition of 1952 in the eastern Equa- torial Pacific, and the TRANS-PACIFIC Expedition of 1953 in the deep Bering Sea and the western and central North Pacific, were similar in basic purpose. In each case the course was laid out to cross the major current systems and to sample the principal water masses of the area. In each case the major work of the expedition was a series of hydrogra- phic stations at 60- to 90- mile intervals where temperature and salinity were measured down to considerable depths, chemical analyses of water samples made, and quantitative plankton tows carried out. Between stations observations were made with the bathythermograph, geomagnetic electro-kinetograph, echo-sounder and midwater trawl. Geological and meteorological observations were also made on each expedition. An effort was made to cross the major circulation features at ap- proximate right angles to facilitate velocity and transport computa- tions. By means of water mass and isentropic analysis it will be possi- ble to map out the distribution of water types and to study their origin and subsequent transformation. In particular, the distribution of pro- perties in deep water may cast some light on the little known inter- mediate and deep circulation of the Pacific. The distributions of dis- solved oxygen, phosphate and silicate and of planktonic species are closely related to the distributions of conservative concentrations, and the results of these expeditions will make possible a careful study ot this relationship. In summary, the results of these five expeditions should contribute substantially to our knowledge of the major circulation and the distri- butions of properties and organisms in the Pacific Ocean. An under- standing of time and space variations in this general picture must await the extension of phase three methods to deep-sea oceanography. EXPLORATION OF THE NORTH AND EQUATORIAL PACIFIC OCEAN 681 PACIFIC OCEAN T 40° % rey . “3 «1951 \7 woulOPe -- "ss = -- avco® oh 08? 2 4. Howaiian Is 5 20° DTT : & 20° EE & : ; RY ” Marshall Is g to) 20° 4 2 Tahiti ~ 20° aN Tonga Is SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN vA in UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SCRIPPS INSTITUTION OF OCEANOGRAPHY EXPEDITION TRACK CHART rowinselr EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 682 £S6l €S61-2S6l eS6l IS6I DISIOWd-SNVYL * NY¥YODIedYD " WMOVETIZHS ° AVQINOH NYSHLYON ° D1d1NVd -CIN * =) ES Ei Se "St NVILNG SNOILVDITENd DIKDVHSONYIIO AB Ob MING ———— EXPLORATION OF THE NORTH AND EQUATORIAL PACIFIC OCEAN 683 AYVHD HOVYL BAILVINAL NOILIOSdX3 DISIOSVd-SNVYL AHdVHSONVIDO JO NONMLILSNT Sddiads VINYOSIIWD JO ALISYIAINNA | | + | ADMDIW vais ved Se) wi 7 (ahon. +f ae BASIN WATERS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA By K. O. EMERY Allan Hancock Foundation University of Southern California Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. ABSTRACT Off the coast of southern California are 14 basins that are separated by submerged ridges. ‘The sills of the basins are 475 to 1900 meters deep and from 150 to 880 meters above the basin floors. In general, the basins that are located farthest south have the deepest sills. Water below sill depth in the basins is isothermal at the same temperature that was found in the earliest measurements in 1931]. It is also isohaline except for effects of diagenesis near the bottom. A close relationship between temperature and sill depth exists,—such that the northern basins with their shallow sills contain the warmest water. It is evident that the water in the basins comes from adjoining basins or from the open sea at a depth which is within 200 meters above to 40 meters below sill depth. This relationship makes possible the tracing of basin waters, which were found to flow northwesterly, in contrast to the general southeasterly moving surface currents. 685 AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND * By Ciirrorp A, BARNES, JOHN H. Lincotn and Maurice Rattray, Jr. Department of Oceanography, University of Washington Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. INTRODUCTION Oceanographic observations must be made in great numbers and extend over long periods, in many cases years, in order to obtain a re- latively complete understanding of the conditions existing in even a small estuary or bay. Resolution of the mass of data to provide the desired information is further complicated by the fact that none can be obtained under controlled conditions. Data obtained at different times are not directly comparable since the natural conditions neither remain constant nor precisely repeat. Thus a synoptic picture of the oceanography of an area may be considered only in general terms at best, and as the size of the area is increased the generalities must of necessity become broader. In treating an area as large and complex as Puget Sound, the prob- lems of obtaining a complete understanding of the over-all oceanogra- phy, under either normal or extreme conditions, from field observations alone are almost insurmountable. In recent years, hydraulic models of tidal estuaries have been used in increasing numbers as a guide in in- terpreting the conditions within the prototype. It is recognized that it is impossible to construct a reduced scale model rigorous of the pro- totype and that distortion and scale effects may easily lead to misin- terpretation. Nevertheless, these small-scale models are useful in clari- fying the nature of existing conditions and in planning more efficient field programs. Observations may be made under controlled conditions and, of utmost importance, a particular set of conditions may be set up in the model and repeated at will until all pertinent information is collected. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA Puget Sound (Fig. 1) branches to the south from the eastern ter- minus of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between the Olympic and Cascade mountains of Washington. Its various arms, averaging less than 3 miles wide, have a total area of 767 square nautical miles at mean high water. * Contribution numler 195 from the Department of Oceanography of the University of Washington. Technical Report No. 19, University of Washington and Office of Naval Re- search, Contract NSonr-520/III, Project 083-012. 686 AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 687 The entire system lies within an area of about 40 by 90 nautical miles. It may be subdivided into four general sections which are partly isolated by vertical or lateral constrictions. "The main basin extends from a 40-fathom threshold sill at the confluence of Admiralty Inlet with the Strait of Juan de Fuca, south to a 26-fathom sill at the Tacoma Nar- rows. ‘The section south of the Narrows consists of a 100-fathom pri- mary basin with many branching channels and inlets. Hood Canal, averaging about 2 miles wide and having a depth of 100 fathoms, ex- tends about 50 miles southwest from Admiralty Inlet and is partly separated from it by a 30-fathom sill. The fourth section extends with diminishing depth from Possession Sound, about 25 miles from the entrance to Admiralty Inlet, north through Skagit Bay to Decention Pass. This pass is a very restricted channel about 150 yards wide and 16 fathoms in depth connecting with the Strait of Tuan de Fuca. Pu- get Sound is relatively deep in comparison with other inshore waters of the United States with a maximum depth of 155 fathoms and with 50 per cent of its total volume lying below 25 fathoms. The tides of Puget Sound are of the mixed type characterized by marked differences in the successive heights of low waters. Consider- able changes in the tide with respect to character, range, and time occur within the area. Periodically, the tide near the mouth at Port Townsend loses its mixed characteristics and for several days each month becomes virtually diurnal. This effect does not extend into the sys- tem for any great distance and the tides are semidiurnal over the rest of the system at all times. The tidal range generally becomes progres- sively greater landward from the entrance. Port Townsend has a diur- nal range of 8 feet while the inlets at the southern extremities have 15 feet. The rate of progression of the tidal wave into the Sound is altered by the topographic characteristics, particularly at the Tacoma Narrows, a narrow constriction between two of the larger basins, and changes with the character of the mixed tides. The tidal currents also are subject to wide local variations and are dependent upon the tide range. The maximum velocities occur in constricted channels and may reach about 7 knots. The tidal prism in Puget Sound amounts to about 5 per cent of the volume below mean lower low water. Numerous rivers and small streams feed into Puget Sound from a drainage basin of about 11,300 square miles within which precipitation varies locally from 20 to over 100 inches per year. The eleven largest rivers, having a combined mean yearly runoff of about 40,000 second- feet, account for about 80 per cent of the total fresh water influx, the Skagit alone contributing about one third. The peaking characteristics 688 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS of the rivers are governed by the major water sources. Lowland rivers peak during the winter from rainfall. Those rivers having mountainous areas as their principal watershed peak during the late spring from snow melt. Others may have both peaks. Hydroelectric developments on some rivers tend to flatten the peaks and maintain a more uniform runoff. Discharge varies greatly with flood stages being as much as 150 to 200 times the minimum flow. The population of the area is over 1.5 million, the principal sea- board cities being Seattle, ‘Tacoma, Bremerton, Port Townsend, Everett, Olympia, and Shelton. Virtually all sewage from the municipal systems is discharged untreated into the Sound. While industrialization of the area is not heavy, some industries, particularly those manufacturing pulp and paper, are potential pollution hazards because of the large volume and high oxygen demand of the wastes. CONSTRUCTION OF THE MODEL It is common practice to make tidal models as large as is consistent with space and facilities available and cost. The horizontal scale is or- dinarily determined by these empirical] factors. The vertical scale is governed by the practical requirements for suitable time scale and water depth in critical areas and by the theories of dynamic and kine- matic similitude. Space available limited the present model to a hori- zontal scale of 1:40,000. The vertical scale selected was 1:1,152 or 1/16-inch per fathom, giving a distortion of 34.6:1. With these scales, the model is approximately 7 feet by 15 feet and has a maximum water depth of 10 inches with 1-14 to 2 inches over the critical sills. As a consequence of the distortion, some channels are deeper than they are wide. The time scale from the Froude modeling law is 1:1,178 or 3.05 seconds per hour, permitting a year’s tides to be observed in 7.4 hours. With this choice of scales, the Reynold’s number in the model will be in the turbulent region over the critical sills, for most of the tidal cycle. ‘That the motion is actually turbulent is easily verified by in- serting dye into the model and watching its rapid diffusion. The ap- propriate criterion for turbulence in a fluid with stable stratification is given by the Richardson number g mites = With Froude modeling, the salinity scale must be unity to ene the same Richardson number in model and prototype. With a reduced salinity scale, the mixing in the model could be expected to be increased. The customary method of constructing model basins consists of moulding the contours to conform to templates fixed in position within the model area. This technique was found unsatisfactory for reproduc- AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 689 ing the fine detailing of contours required by the small scale and the complex system of narrow deep channels. A method was developed for casting the model basin in concrete from accurately-contoured hand- carved wood patterns. The contours used, established from the Hydro- graphic Charts of the area, were the elevations of mean high water, 75 feet, and 150 feet, and successive ten-fathom depth intervals below mean lower low water. The area was divided into 25 sections for con- venience in preparing the patterns. The contours of each were trans- ferred to white pine lumber planed to the thickness of the contour in- terval. The sections were then cut along the contour line and laminated in exact position. Excess wood was removed and the patterns brought to precise shape by careful hand-carving and sanding with constant re- ference to the charts for soundings between the contour intervals. Small basins were provided upstream from the river mouth for introduction of the river discharge. ‘The wood was brought to a very smooth surface, sealed and varnished (Fig. 2). The individual patterns were assembled in an inverted position upon a strongly supported platform 8 by 20 feet, constructed as a base for the model (Fig. 3). Forms were built around the assembled pat- terns with sheet metal separators between the pattern sections to form easily handled blocks. Copper tubing was placed from the outside of the forms to the river basins to carry the fresh water. ‘The patterns were oiled to prevent sticking to the concrete. When the steel reinforc- ing was placed, a coating of smooth cement grouting was applied to the patterns. The forms were then filled to a uniform depth of 15 inches with a standard quick-setting concrete. “Twenty-four hours after the concrete was poured, the forms were removed, and the blocks separated and inverted. The patterns were sprung out of the concrete by a meth- od analogous to removing a tightly fitting stopper from a bottle. The blocks were reassembled to form the model basin. A bitumas- tic compound was used to seal the joints between blocks. Surveying methods, combined with a latitude-longitude grid on the platform af- forded accurate positioning of the patterns and of the completed sections. The method used insured precise fitting together of the blocks. The joints between the blocks and the minor defects which occurred during the casting were smoothed with plaster of Paris. The basin was finished with several coats of a vinyl resin paint (Fig. 4). TIDE-GENERATING MACHINE The requirements for the tide-generating machine were that it closely reproduce natural tides and that it be adaptable to any model of regional waters that might be constructed at these Laboratories. it 690 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS was desired further that simple repeating tides could be set up and that a sequence of natural tides could be conveniently interrupted and repeated. The tidal harmonic constants computed by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for Seattle and Port Townsend indicated that a mini- mum of six constituents would be required to reproduce prototype tides within a deviation of +1 foot. These, the diurnal K,, O,, and P,, and the semidiurnal M,, N,, and S,, were incorporated in the tide-generat- ing machine using many principles of the Coast Survey’s prediction machine. Identical gear ratios were used for corresponding constituents. A 1/8-horsepower motor was used to drive a line shaft through a 900: 1 reduction box and spur gears at precisely one revolution in 12 solar hours, model time. Scotch yokes, driven from the line shaft by gear trains at speeds corresponding to the period of each constituent, generate cosine functions. ‘These are fed into a summation wire con- nected through a suitable pulley and reduction drum arrangement (Fig. 5) to a plunger located in the model headbox. The changing water displacement caused by the motion of the plunger, shaped to correct for the tidal prism, produces the rise and fall of the tides. Phase angles and amplitudes for any epoch or location are readily set for the dif ferent constituents on the calibrated cranks of the Scotch yokes. A sup- plementary chain drive is incorporated between the M, and K, const1- tuents to provide a means of generating repeating tides of either diur- nal, semidiurnal or mixed character. RIVER SYSTEM AND SALT WATER ADDITION Provision is made for the introduction of fresh water through ele- ven major rivers of the area having a yearly mean discharge ranging from approximately 400 to 16,000 second-feet. The water flows by gravity from a constant head tank, through individual flow meters of the expanding bed type, to small basins located a short distance up- stream from the river mouths. ‘The rate of flow of the rivers is con- trolled manually by means of individual needle valves. Loss of salt resulting from river runoff is balanced by a circulation system in the headbox. Water is removed from the headbox through a shaped stand- pipe and pumped into a reservoir having a capacity of about 125 liters. Salt solution is added to the water in the reservoir to maintain the desired density. A second pump returns the water from the reservoir to the headbox where it is introduced along the bottom at a rate exact- ly balancing that of removal. In this way the net surface outflow from Puget Sound and the balancing inflow of oceanic water at depth is simulated. AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 691 INSTRUMENTATION The design and development of instruments for measuring and re- cording tides, tidal currents, and the density structure in the model is complicated by the small scales and distortion. The sensing ele- ments must be such that they do not significantly alter the properties being measured or interfere with the operation of the model. Further, because of the short time scale, it is necessary to obtain measurements rapidly in order to adequately differentiate conditions during the tidal cycle. A portable recording tide gauge and an instrument for recording the salinity or density structure in the model have been designed and constructed. The recording tide gauge will resolve the model tides to within about 3 inches or 0.003 inch actual change in water level. The gauge is not affected by surface tension or factors other than change in the water level in the model. In principle it consists of an inter- connected probe and recording arm operated by a synchronous motor. The prabe alternately rises and lowers as the recording arm sweeps a stylus across electrosensitive paper being moved by a standard recording tape puller. As the probe, tipped by a fine platinum wire, contacts the surface of the water, an electrical circuit is completed which fires a thyrotron tube discharging a condenser. The charge from the condenser passes from the stylus through the paper to a second electrode consist- ing of a small roller extending across the underside of the paper. The discharge causes a small spark to burn a fine hole in the paper making a permanent black dot. ‘The probe operates at a frequency of once per second. The instrument for recording the salinity structure is based upon the conductivity of the water. The variations in the conductivity of a vertical section are electronically transposed to a plot of conductivity versus depth on an oscilloscope which may be photographed for a permanent record. The conductivity cell consists of a capillary 0.025 inch in diameter and 3/4-inch long, having electrodes at each end forming an integral part of the capillary. A maximum potential of about 50 volts at 10,000 cycles may be applied across the cell. Alter- nating current is used to reduce the effects of polarization of the elec- trodes. Water is drawn through the cell at a rate equivalent to the rate of displacement of water by the cell and tube to which it is attached, as it is lowered through the water. It has been found that measure- ments must be made while lowering the probe since some mixing and turbulence occur when the probe is raised, leading to fictitious values. Response is fast because of the rapid flushing of the cell. 692 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Probing rate and depth of sampling may be adjusted as desired and operation is automatic. Camera operation is manual at present but may easily be adapted to automatic operation if desired. CuRRENT METER Since the velocities and distances in the model are both very small compared to those in the prototype, it has proven impossible to use small-scale standard current measuring devices. The present method of current measurement consists of introducing small vortex rings of dye into the water at fixed time intervals and then to photograph their re- lative positions. This method has proved satisfactory and has the addi- tional advantage of measuring both components of horizontal velocity simultaneously. The equipment consists of a glass capillary connected to a dye reservoir through a T section. A rubber bulb, connected to the other junction, is tapped at one second intervals by a hammer driven by a synchronous motor to emit a vortex of dye from the capillary tip. TIDE AND CURRENT STUDIES A comparison of the tidal action in the model with that of the prototype was one of the first detailed studies undertaken as a part of the validation. The phase and amplitude changes between Port Town- send and key locations within the Sound were determined for each in- dividual tidal constituent and compared with corresponding values for the prototype. Within the main basin, the time lag error was of the order of 6 minutes, or 0.3 second actual time greater than the Coast Survey values. Amplitude ratios agreed within 10 per cent. Beyond the constrictions of the Tacoma Narrows and those leading to Bremer- ton, the deviations were approximately double these values. A mari- gram of the six constituents for the first half of 1951 at Seattle was drawn by means of the tide machine using the Coast Survey tidal con- stants. “The model tides at Seattle for the same period, generated by the tide machine adjusted to produce the correct tides at Port Townsend, were recorded. Portions of the recorded tides were compared with cor- responding portions of the prepared marigram and with the tide table predictions (Fig. 6). The average deviation of the recorded tidal heights from the marigram was less than +0.5 foot. Measurement of the deviation in time lag was not obtained. Quantitative measurement of the tidal currents and patterns of circulation have not been completed. Visual observations indicate that the model is giving good representation of prototype circulation, current patterns, and velocities, and the eddy patterns appear to follow quite well. AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 693 DENSITY STRUCTURE In the past, most tidal model studies have been concerned with silting in an estuary or harbor rather than the processes involved in and resulting from a variable density structure. Little work on the dy- namics of an inhomogeneous system resulting from the interchange of oceanic water and river discharge in tidal models has been reported in the literature, and the theoretical requirements for similitude in this respect are not well resolved. It is thus necessary to determine the ef- fects and interrelationships of the variable parameters in a model before representation of the prototype may be achieved. A series of studies was initiated to investigate the density structure as it is one of the ma- jor factors influencing the oceanography of Puget Sound. When the model structure under various conditions is known, it can be correlated with nature to establish any major differences and demonstrate possi- ble corrective measures. For the purpose of this work, the salinity structure in each of the four main sections of Puget Sound was typified by measurements at Point Jefferson, Camano Head, Green Point, and Hood Point, (Fig. 7), under controlled conditions of tide, river run- off, and source salinity. (Repeating tides with an average range and diurnal inequality were used throughout this series of studies.) In the first experiment, the equilibrium situation was obtained for mean river flow with a source salinity of 16°/,., which, for the purpose of simplifying comparisons, has been related to a prototype salinity of 32°/49. The results (Fig. 8) in general show a fresher surface layer with sharp gradients to a depth of 10-30 meters, below which there is a practically homogeneous more saline layer extending to the bottom. At first, it might appear that the homogeneous bottom layers were due to a lack of mixing of fresh water down from the surface; but that this is not the case is shown when the salinity of this bottom water is compared with that of the source water. At Point Jefferson and Ca- mano Head, the bottom saiinity is about 1°/,, less than the source, while for Green Point the difference is about 1.5°/,,, which com- pares favorably with the differences obtained in nature. It must be that the mixing in these lower layers is sufficient to destroy any initial gradient. The influence of the fresh water runoff on the salinity structure is best seen from the results of raising the flow of the Skagit River to the normal flood discharge rate of 50,000 c.f.s. (Fig. 8). After 1,000 consecutive days of flood, the effect of fresh water was noticed only to a depth of 80 meters at Point Jefferson although the surface layer had definitely freshened and deepened. At Camano Head, on the other hand, the deep water had freshened somewhat with no perceptible change in 694 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the surface layers. Since the mechanism of these changes is not im- mediately clear, it will be a subject for further investigation. Off Green Point, the whole water column was freshened as would be expected since strong mixing occurs in that region and its water source is mainly the surface layers of the main basin. Thus even under these extremely extended conditions of flood, a noticeable gradient can not be main- tained beneath the surface layers and another mechanism must be found to simulate the gradients which occur in nature. Since in nature the source water of the Strait of Juan de Fuca does not hold a constant salinity throughout the year, the effects of a change in source salinity was investigated in the model. In order to make results clear-cut. a sudden decrease of salinity of 10°/,., was main- tained for 166 days and then increased back to its original value. The decrease in source salinity (Fig. 9) was first noticed at Point Jelterson. A uniform gradient to a depth of 100 meters developed within 45 days. Subsequent mixing of these waters produced a homo- geneous salinity to this depth with a sharp interface separating it from the more saline bottom water by 101 days. Mixing then gradually low- ered the interface. The changes in salinity below 100 meters were minor during the first 101 days. As would be expected from the proxi- mity and lack of sill between Camano Head and Point Jefferson, the sequence of events was very similar for the two stations. At Green Point, the salinity decrease was later at the surface, but when it did occur it was felt almost to the very bottom. After 166 days, the salinity was homogeneous in the bottom layer. At Hood Point, the fresher water was only noticed to a depth of 50 meters after 45 days, and only to about 70 meters after 166 days with very little change in the salinity of the bottom waters. Correspondingly, in nature the bottom water in Hood Canal has a tendency to stagnate. An increase in source salinity produces a series of density gradients markedly different than above in both shape and rate of change (Fig. 10). Within 24 days, there was a considerable increase in salinity of the bottom water at Point Jefferson with the appearance of an almost constant gradient between the depths of 30 and 150 meters. After 38 days, the surface gradient was increased to a depth of 50 meters and decreased below that depth. This pattern continued until equilibrium conditions were reached after 89 days. At Camano Head, the salinity structure went through the same sequence although the mixing ap- peared to be faster between 20 and 70 meters. At Green Point, the increase in salinity was not great for the first 24 days, but thereafter there was a marked increase of salinity at all levels but never with ap- preciable gradients below the surface layer. At Hood Point, the heavier AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 695 water appeared to flow into a bottom layer below 100 meters before there was any effect above that level. After 38 days, however, there was more saline water at all layers with a relatively uniform gradient existing between 10 and 80 meters. At this time, the salinity below 100 meters had practically attained its maximum value. Equilibrium con- ditions were closely approached by the end of 89 days. It is seen from these results that, with the exception of Green Point, significant salinity gradients will appear at all depths for appreciable lengths of time following a change in source salinity; whereas a change in river runoff will only have a minor and local effect. Qualitatively, these results are borne out in the prototype. Characteristically, the Pu- get Sound basins flush most rapidly in the fall when the Strait of Juan de Fuca water, the salinity source, is of its greatest annual density, and not during periods of maximum local runoff. MopEt APPLICATIONS The model has been operated for groups of engineers interested in sewage disposal and pollution studies with good success. The insertion of dye at present or proposed sewage outfalls gives a clear and rapid pic- ture of the pollution likely to occur at various localities. The value of a tidal model for this type of study may readily be appreciated when the ease with which a particular mass or type of water may be “tagged”’ by a suitable dye is seen. The transport and rate of dispersion of the water mass may be observed directly and continuously followed over large areas for the equivalent of long periods in the prototype. The model has proven useful support of a fisheries-biology study concerned with the drift of fish eggs. “The drift of dye in the model correlated with field observations clarified the movement of the eggs, location of the hatching areas, and distribution of the larvae. Con- tinuous observations were made for a period representing many days in the prototype. Thus a detailed picture could be obtained from field observations which were somewhat scattered with respect to both loca- tion and time. In planning field work, the model can be set to operate for the anticipated period of the cruise. The probable water structure and movement can be observed, and locations selected for most efficiently collecting the desired information. In an area of mixed tides, a tidal model which can be set to duplicate tides for a specific calendar period is a distinct advantage. The model has proven to be a valuable teaching aid. The processes occurring in nature over a large area are readily observable, and a clear synoptic picture of their interrelations is thus obtained. Examples 696 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS of various features of inshore circulation can be pointed out and ex- plained simply and easily. ‘The student can use the model to obtain data corresponding to field measurements, and then work it up in the usual manner. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS An hydraulic model of Puget Sound has been built and tested under various conditions. Equipment for controlling and measuring the oceanographic variables has been designed and put into satisfactory operation. Prototype tide and current are well represented by those in the model. It has been demonstrated that density structure similar to that in nature can be obtained by proper control of operating condi- tions, but no detailed comparison has been made between prototype and model structure under corresponding conditions. 697 AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 2 Duckabush oe om omen ae : ve #40 AOA a Fiber & % i 3 H. ~Feckany ong? iT OB a Ry she Beerivenns rears Fic. 1.—Puget Sound Area. 695 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Rccenis ose # of ise pie sedate NUE Fic. 3.—Assembled patterns. Tey AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 699 Ita. 4.—Completed model basin. 700 ee oe ‘unip woronp -O1 pUB OTT LoryeuUAS ‘seyoA YoJoog SuTMoYsS jeued supose epry,— G aya | 701 OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND A “SEE ON AST) BY OS IME COMED UNOnas WkPi aN cE NAN MOT puv YSIPZ Fo SzZYStoy Surpuodsetiod pue szuouoduioy xis uO peseq punog joend je seply, [epom pue odAjoj01g Jo Uostiedwopj— 9 “Diyy a: ees ag Re oo a SOQ 9SN AG SNOILIIGSdd YALVM MOT GNV HOIK © SNOILOIGAUd LNSNOdWO9 9 WOUYS SNOIWWIAAG TAGOW --—— SJaqiL LNANOdWOO 9 Q3ALIIGIYd By SYNOH NI 3Wid eo a LHOISH JUelz\s) Nil pos i> bo EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS oats Sheep se oer ad = Bares i Pe. %, ta, 4 eee ae ; 5 oats 4 oA C4, ¥ 2 ; > f Rt is A os: : eo Cosh 2 3 Gin St ees t7 Se cos — : See eS 3 : _ ofoms sh . a Co + estes 2. aoe . es aS % 30" en \ i — ep re : ae : % : Vega tee RRO RE ON ere geprcksoa ete eA pat ‘ ae Ps poe ixivsar A Fic. 7.—Location of sampling stations for salinity study. Depth tn Meters Depth in Meters Salinity %o 26 32 26 32 26 32 50 AN OCEANOGRAPHIC MODEL OF PUGET SOUND 7038 Comparison of Equilibrium Salinity Structures Average river flows Skagit river flooding at 50,000 cfs, -------- PT, JEFFERSON CAMANO HEAD GREEN POINT 100 1SO 200 FIGURE 8 Change in Salinity Structure Resulting from DECREASE in Source Salinity ELAPSED TIME (1) Start (2) 45 Days (3) 101 Days (4.) 166 Days PT JEFFERSON CAMANO HEAD GREEN POINT HOOD PCINT Salinity %o 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30 i] 50 100 150 200 FIGURE 9 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 704 OT aunyryt € \ v |j€ ait | |€ \2 t O€ Oe o¢ Oe o€ oye o¢€ 1NIOd GOOH 4NIOd N33¥9 GV3H ONVAVS skogee (bv) skoage (¢) skoave (2) 4404S) 3Wil a3sdv13 AyiuijoS a94nog ut SSV3SYONI wos BuNINSaY aanpoONsyS Ayiuijog ul abun) 002 Os! oo! 0s ‘3 OQ 02 °% Ayiuijos NOSY3I33f Id ssasaw ut yydag DAILY SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA By H. J. HOL.isTER Pacific Oceanographic Group Nanaimo, B.C., Canada A programme of daily observations of surface seawater temperatures and salinities has been in progress on the Pacific Coast of Canada since 1933. Fourteen sampling stations are located at strategic positions (Fig. 1) along the extensive coastline so that each station monitors the condi- tions in a natural region. The majority of the stations are located at lighthouses (Fig. 2) where the lightkeeper carries out the duties of water sampling in addition to his regular duties. The procedure and apparatus are quite simple. The observer takes the daily sample during the last hour of the rising tide occurring in the daytime. A two-ounce medicine bottle is inserted in clips attached to a wooden rod and lowered to a depth of three feet. The bottle is stop- pered with a rubber cork on the end of a guided brass rod, and the sam- ple is obtained by pulling out the stopper. Fastened alongside of the bottle clips is a brass protective case containing a mercury Fahrenheit thermometer. The whole apparatus is left immersed in the sea for two minutes, then the stopper is replaced in the bottle and the rod raised. The observer immediately reads the temperature and records it on a dated label already placed on the sample bottle, which he then seals with a wax-impregnated cork. Date, time of sampling and water tem- perature observed are also recorded on a data record sheet. The bottles are packed in cases of one hundred, and are shipped to the central laboratory where the salinities are determined by a modi- fied Mohr titration. The water temperatures and salinities are pub- lished in annual volumes entitled, “Observations of Seawater Tempera- ture and Salinity on the Pacific Coast of Canada.” ‘These data provide a continuous record of the changes occurring in the marine climate of the waters surrounding each station, and provide a backlog of informa- tion which can be used to illustrate the year to year fluctuations in the overall coastal oceanographic conditions. ‘These data might provide the only clue in determining why the fishery in a certain coastal region changed in volume from one year to the next. 705 706 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CLIMATE IN THE SEA Seasons can be defined in the sea (Fig. 3) just as they are in the atmosphere. Summer is that period when water temperatures are at a maximum, which in the northern hemisphere occurs in the month of August. Winter is the season when they are at a minimum, usually December and January. Spring and autumn are the transition periods from these two extremes. “The extremes and durations of these marine seasons differ from year to year due to changing atmospheric conditions. That is why these daily seawater records are so valuable. It is only by reference to these records that the scientist is able to measure just how great the annual variation has been. The daily seawater records will show these annual changes more clearly than meteorological data be- cause they reflect the combined effect of the varying atmospheric factors of solar insolation, wind, rainfall, and land drainage. Along such an extensive coastline as British Columbia, there are several different types of oceanic regions. The locations of the water sampling stations have been chosen so that the various types of regions are all being recorded by daily surface observations. The annual range of seawater temperature varies from station to station and this differ- ence in annual temperature range is a criterion to the type of region being observed. For instance, in Figure 4, Langara shows an annual temperature range of 10°F, typical of an exposed open ocean region; Kains shows a slightly higher annual range of 11°F, typical of an exposed coastal region; Entrance shows a high annual range of 18°F, typical of a protected coastal region; and Race Rocks shows a low annual range of 6°F, typical of a region of great turbulence. The annual salinity cycles observed at the various seawater sampling stations (Fig. 4) are typical of three climatic regions. Summer salinity maxima (Kains) are due to coastal upwelling and low summer precipi- tation with little subsequent fresh water runoff. “The degree of coastal upwelling is governed chiefly by the force and duration of winds blow- ing offshore during the summer. In these latitudes, the winds are never in a continuous steady state, and assessment of the degree of upwelling from wind data alone would be quite difficult. Observation of the ef- fect of these winds as indicated by the surface salinities is a much easier matter. Fresh water runoff from the many large rivers that drain into the Canadian Pacific area is at a maximum in the summer because of the melting of snow at the sources of the rivers far inland. This effect is demonstrated by a summer salinity minimum at all the sampling sta- tions situated near the mainland coast, such as Entrance Island. Here again, measurement of the combined effect of the various atmospheric SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 707 factors creating this summer freshet, such as solar insolation, previous winter snowfall, and wind, is easily monitored by the simple observation of the changes in seawater salinity. The third type of marine climatic region is that where the annual salinity variation is very slight. On the Canadian Pacific Coast, this can be further divided into two sub-classes, one where the station is exposed to the deep open ocean (Langara) and the other where the station is located in a turbulent water-way (Race Rocks). There is very little annual salinity variation at Langara, but the records will demon- strate the year to year changes caused by major alterations in the system of offshore circulation (Figs. 6 and 7). To measure these large scale circulation patterns is a major oceanographic undertaking, and is some- times not possible owing to lack of facilities. But an idea of the extent of the change in unsurveyed periods can be estimated from surface sea- water observations made at the exposed ocean stations. The annual salinity changes observed in turbulent sea-ways serve to measure the extent of mixing of the more saline deep waters with the less saline surface waters. “The Fraser River flows into Georgia Strait and is eventually discharged to the ocean past Race Rocks in the Juan de Fuca Strait. It may be noted that there is a slight drop in sa- linity at Race Rocks during the month of August, following a large decrease in salinity during June and July at Entrance Island, further north in the Strait of Georgia. Comparison of the records in these two stations which are subject to the influence of the one major river, shows the difference of the degree of this influence in adjacent and connecting regions. Combining both water temperatures and salinity records, it is pos- sible to measure the annual seasonal fluctuations in the oceanic climate. This is a simpler method than trying to evaluate the more variable at- mospheric phenomena from meteorological records and applying their effects on the oceanic state. MONITORING OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS The oceanographer determines the changes that occur in the sea from year to year and from season to season by conducting detailed examinations of the various properties of sea water, chiefly the tempera- ture and salinity. On the Pacific Coast of Canada there are several general types of oceanic regions, each demonstrating a typical pattern of seasonal variation in the properties of temperature and salinity. This pattern is similar from year to year, but the extent and duration of the change from one season to another varies. The seawater sampling sta- tions have been located in such a way that they sample the ocean waters 708 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS of these typical regions. Once the oceanographic conditions of an area have been determined for each season of the year by means of oceano- graphic surveys, it is only necessary to refer to the daily seawater records to recognize annual changes in the properties of the water. Thus, Lan- gara and Cape St. James record the exposed open ocean regions; Triple, Sandspit, Ivory, Entrance, Texada, Departure Bay and East Point record the protected coastal regions; Kains and Amphitrite record the exposed coastal regions; and Pine, Cape Mudge and Race Rocks record the tur- bulent sea-ways. ‘The Pacific coastline of Canada is so extensive that these typical oceanic regions occur in widely separated locations where the determining factors of meteorological conditions, fresh water runoff, and tide might be quite different in magnitude. This is especially true of the region of Georgia Strait, where the extensive variation in. local geographic conditions creates several sub-classes of oceanic regions. The oceanography of the Georgia Strait (Fig. 1) is dominated by the fresh water discharge from the Fraser River. This fresh water flows over the surface of the strait, mixing all the time with the underlying salt water as it flows in a northward direction along the eastern shores. Once these surface waters reach the vicinity of Cape Mudge they turn south and flow along the western shore and finally empty into the Juan de Fuca Strait (Figs. 5 and 6). The passage of this brackish upper zone of water can be marked by the changes in surface salinities at Entrance Island, Cape Mudge, East Point, and finally Race Rocks. The diluting effects of the Fraser River discharge and the degree of mixing with the deeper salt water can be measured by the salinity changes observed at Entrance Island (Fig. 7). A series of oceanographic surveys extended over a period of two years have determined the circulation patterns in Georgia Strait for every month of the year. It is now only necessary to refer to the annual changes in salinity at Entrance Island in order to predict the occurrence and duration of any of the seasonal patterns previously determined by the oceanographic surveys. Another application of these daily seawater observations to observ- ing oceanographic conditions is in the “offshore” area. During August of 1950 and 1951 oceanographic surveys were made of the northeast Pacific Ocean extending to 500 miles offshore. In 1950 (Fig. 8) there were three clouds of warm water (60°F) lying in a band parallel to the coast with colder water on either side. In 1951 (Fig. 9) the warm water covered the southwest part of the area surveyed. ‘The surface water temperature increased steadily to seaward and decreased to the north. An examination of the August mean surface water temperatures observed at four seawater sampling stations located on the coast showed that the irregular 1950 ‘“‘offshore” surface conditions were associated with an ir- SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 709 regular sequence of monthly mean temperatures at these stations for this year (Fig. 10). The more regular 1951 “offshore” conditions were associated with a regular decrease of monthly mean temperatures at these same stations from Amphitrite in the south to Langara in the north. Although the oceanographic surveys were conducted during the months of August and July, the sequence of coastal temperatures for each year showed the same pattern as that following in August; so it should be possible to predict changes in the oceanographic state of the ‘‘offshore”’ waters from an examination of the surface temperature trends exhibited by these daily seawater stations. During the summer of 1950 there was an excellent tuna fishery off the Canadian Pacific Coast. In the following summer, 1951, very few tuna were caught in the same area. Tuna are a warm water fish and their occurrence in Canadian Pacific waters could be due to the warm water cloud circulation observed in the August 1950 oceanographic sur- vey previously mentioned (Fig. 8). A correlation between the varia- ble “offshore” temperature distribution of 1950 and 1951 and the sea- water temperatures measured at coastal sampling stations has been pos- tulated. ‘The value of this correlation will be immeasurable if it can be extended to serve as a means of prediction of the availability of tuna to the fisheries in this marginal region. DAILY SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ASSIST FISHERIES INVESTIGATIONS Fisheries biologists are finding significant correlations between changing ocean conditions and fluctuations in the availability of fish. These studies have only been instituted in recent years because of the inadequate catch statistics for previous years. Ihe scope of these studies covers the effect of ocean environment on spawning populations, juve- nile fish and adult migrations. It has been demonstrated that the daily seawater observations can be used to monitor the changes in the con- ditions of the sea in the several climatic regions on the Pacific Coast. It is now only a short step to the next logical phase of using these daily observations to assist in the prediction of fish availability. Investigations have already been made into the possibilities of a correlation between the July sequence of coastal station temperatures and the offshore tuna fishery, with quite encouraging results. The tuna fishery for 1952 was as unsuccessful as that for 1951, and an examination of the July and August mean temperatures for the same four coastal stations showed a similar characteristic of a regularly decreasing tem- perature from south to north. It was not possible to make an offshore 710 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS oceanographic survey during the summer of 1952 to determine the tem- perature distribution pattern, so these daily records from the coastal sampling stations were doubly important because they are the only cri- teria of what type of surface temperature distribution must have existed in these offshore waters during the summer of 1952. Considerable research has been done on the relationship of seawater conditions in Hecate Strait, as monitored by Triple Island station, and fluctuations in the strength of lemon-sole year classes in the fishery in that area. Researchers have found that when the water temperatures during January and February are lower than normal there is an in- crease in the availability of fish in April and May. Further studies are progressing to determine why the relationship exists. An association has been found between availability of the cohoe salmon in the fishery off the west coast of Vancouver Island and the salinities of the coastal waters as observed at Amphitrite and Kains sampling stations. It appears that higher than normal inshore salinities during the summer months provide better cohoe fishing for the inshore boats and poor fishing for the offshore boats. Studies concerning the ocean environment of salmon and their feeding habits are being con- tinued to determine the reason for this correlation. BIBLIOGRAPHY HOLLISTER, H. J. Daily sea water observations in Georgia Strait. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Prog. Rep. Pac., No. 91, December, 1949. Daily sea water observations along the west coast of Vancouver Island. Jbid., No. 86, April, 1951. Daily sea water observations in northern British Columbia wa- ters. Ibid., No. 91, June, 1952. Daily sea water observations along the central British Columbia coast. Ibid., No. 94, March, 19538. PIcKARD, G. L. and D. C. McLrEop. Seasonal variation of temperature and salinity of the surface waters of the British Columbia coast. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 10, p. 125, 1953. TULLY, J. P. Weather and the ocean. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Prog. Rep. Pac., No. 26, December, 1935. Report on dynamic studies off the Canadian Pacific coast, 1936. Trans. Amer. Geo. Union, 18, p. 228, 1937. Seasons in the sea. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Prog. Rep. Pac., No. 32, June, 1937. Some relations between meteorology and coast gradient currents off the Pacific Coast of North America. Trans. Amer. Geo. Union, 19, p. 176, 1938. —————. Seasonal cycles in the sea. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Prog. Rep. Pac., No. 85, December, 1950. SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 711 TULLY, J. P. Climate in the coastal seas of British Columbia. Jbid., No. 90, March, 1952. TULLY, J. P. and E. BERTRAM BENNETT. Project “Offshore,” coastal tem- peratures and tuma. Ibid., No. 92, October, 1952. WALDICHUK, M. Oceanography of the Strait of Georgia. I. Salinity distri- bution. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Prog. Rep. Pac., No. 93, December, 1952. ANONYMOUS. Observations of sea water temperature and salinity on the Paci- fic Coast of Canada. Pacific Oceanographic Group, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C., Volumes I to XII, 1914 to 1952. 712 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ILLUSTRATIONS Fic. 1—Chart showing the location of daily seawater stations on the Pacifie Coast of Canada. Fic. 2.—An aerial photo of Triple Island lightstation. (Photo courtesy R.C.A.F.) Fic. 3.—Seasonal variations of the water and air temperatures at Kains Island, Quatsino Sound, for the year 1935. Fic. 4.-Average seawater temperatures and salinities at four typical sampling stations for 15 years, 1934-1949. Fic. 5.—Distribution of salinity at two yards depth in Georgia Strait. February 1950. Fic. 6.—Distribution of salinity at two yards depth in Georgia Strait. June 1950. Fic. 7.—Seasonal variation in Fraser River discharge and surface sali- nity at Entrance Island station, 1950. Fic. 8.—Surface temperature distribution, north-east Pacific Ocean, August 1950. Fic. 9.—Surface temperature distribution, north-east Pacific Ocean, August 1951. Fic. 10.—The sequence of monthly average temperatures along the ocean coast of British Columbia. SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 713 Long. 126° W Cope St. James QUEEN CHARLOTTE SOUND Koins:|. FIGURE 1 Location of Stations Making Daily Seawater Observations Stations ore Underlined @.9- Langero L COLUMBIA . a ads Cope Mud: EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 714 Z ANNI SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 715 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT ocT NOV DEC Po a Ulnar ae as ea \ i : OBSERVERS Jo Hy CE.CARVER By eka nea se SLNEAVE 60°F RSSaG : t Wath AN g iE ‘ ib ; , AL : i aw ; AQ j y, i Vt Na x Was Vi & A Ig . SUMMER- | ae .: : WINTER 20 ene BY 40° QUATSINO STATION WEST COAST VANCOUVER ISLAND '935 ener FIGURE 3 * LANGARA Ww Ut PONHDONS F M A My Ju vy Au S ON oO NNN Nw Ww On Too SYN LWY3dW3L ALINIAVWS RACE ROCKS | lence oa 1 SALINITY W a = a 4 WW a = WwW (SF do FIGURE 4 T1é EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS (Ss w w re OEPTH . 10 20 ° [gee falies ! n ] Secele of Olistence FIGURE 5 SEAWATER OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 717 ACIWOnNGe 27 7 We AS DEPYW - FEET 10 zo ° [gee files l 4 ] Scale of Distence FIGURE 6 400 cu.FT./SEC. X 1000 200 DISCHARGE 100 | EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 30 FRASER RIVER DISCHARGE at HOPE , B.C. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MA 25 20 F244 synoptic surveys SALINITY %e Y JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. 1950 NOV. DEC. FIGURE 7 bs —_ PROJECT OFFSHORE CRUISE | | (HG& CEDARWOOD) PACIFIC OCEANOGRAPHIC GROUP NANAIMO , B.C. & S 0, iv) AUGUST SCALE OF DISTANCE qe hwics 60 wo | | 1 as" 1 ‘o7" "SURFACE "SEAWATER TEMPERATURES (F)___ 1950 LOts1SS° WOOT iy 12955 SA ee ae 2 Tee FIGURE 8 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CANADA 719 SEAWATER SEAWATER TEMPERATURES (°F) PROJECT OFFSHORE CRUISE i, 1988 (KMS CEDARWOOD) PACIFIC OCEANOGRAPHIC GROUP NANAIMO, BC SURFACE AUGUST 1951 SCALE OF DISTANCE SEA MILES 30 100 eee ll 1 ws? LOMG 133" WEST FIGURE 9 1950 JULY 1951 50°F 55 50 55 60 Langora C St James Kains Amphitrite J AUGUST 50°F 50 55 60 55 Taney San ihs| Langara . Cc St James Kains Amphitrite FIGURE 10 fe! Eb ay A STUDY OF LOCAL VARIABILITY IN MARINE SEDIMENTS * By RicHarp G. BADER Department of Oceanography, University of Washington Seattle 5, Washington, U.S.A. INTRODUCTION The sampling problem involved in obtaining any natural sample is often exceedingly complex and has received much consideration in the literature. In the process of obtaining any one sediment sample by means of a coring tube or other sampling device, only an exceedingly minute portion of the sea bottom is sampled. In a strict sense any single sample is merely representative of the exact spot sampled. Unless the process of sampling continues systematically in this and adjacent areas, radial extrapolation from the sample is subject to great error, with any single sample being representative of only itself. ‘The introduction of this limitation on problems of sedimentation or sedimentary environ- mental studies, whether they be physical, chemical, or biological, pre- sents a serious handicap. In order to proceed with any sedimentary research it is necessary to know the limitations of the samples obtained and to understand, at least to some degree, the existing local variations and the probabilities for such variations. The purpose of this paper is to briefly present some of the initial results concerning a problem of sampling marine sediments in the region of Puget Sound, in the State of Washington. The information to date consists of the data from a particle size analysis of the bottom sediments obtained along an east-west traverse of Puget Sound, about 12 miles north of the city of Seattle. REGIONAL DESCRIPTION Puget Sound is a pre-existent valley system which has been partially drowned by the sea. It is one of the deepest salt water basins in the United States. The mid-channel bottom area exceeds 900 feet in depth in some localities. Depths of 600 or more feet below sea level are usually encountered in the channel portions of the Sound. Except for local areas, the shore slopes and underwater slopes are steep; inclines of 25 degrees are common. * This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research under Contract Ne. N8onr- 520/III, Project NR 083-012, with the Department of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle 5, Washington. 721 W22, EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The topography of the Puget Sound area is due primarily to glacial action by a lobe of the Cordillerian ice sheet. The shore line is bordered by deposits of clay, sand, gravel and till, reminiscent of the glacial con- trol. These glacier-derived sediments often form shore line cliffs 200 or more feet high. Glacial till is a prominent source of sediments in Puget Sound and may become a part of the marine sediment in various ways. (1) The slopes may be in part composed of glacial deposits “in situ”. (2) The ercsion of cliffs and beaches will also be a supply of glacial sediments. (3) the streams are imposed on glacial till and will transport this ma- terial to the marine environment. (4) Slumping of the cliffs, which are composed of glacial deposits, will add to the marine sediments. Chemically and mechanically weathered material from the basement rocks of the Cascade and Olympic Mountains contributes to the sedi- ments as they are carried to the Sound by the numerous streams and rivers. Volcanics, from direct dust-falls and from inland erosion, pro- bably account for some sediment supply in the Sound. In the area of sampling (Fig. 1), between President Point on the west shore and Point Wells on the east, the bottom configuration is analogous to the steep shore bluffs. The eastern underwater slope is generally steep and continuous with a value of 1:3.5 from a single break at about 20 feet below sea level to the base of the slope which is approximately 700 feet below sea level. A few localities have slopes of 1:1. The western slope is not as continuous, being divided into areas with different slope angles. Some portions are exceedingly steep with values as great as 1:3, others have gradual slopes with an average value of 1:15. This suggests that bathymetrically the two slopes are different (See Fig. 3). In this region the slope areas account for about one-hall of the total Sound width of 35.7 miles. The mid-channel region, repre- senting the remaining one-half, is relatively flat with a maximum relief of about 75 feet. METHOD OF SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Initiai examination of core samples from Puget Sound indicated that extreme variability in particle size existed. It was suspected that this variability occurred over exceedingly small horizontal distances. In order to study the variability both horizontally as well as vertically, over small horizontal distances, a device was designed to simultaneously ob- tain three cores spaced in a triangular pattern, | foot apart (Fig. 2). The cores obtained by this method were cut into sections 4 cm. in length from the surface down. Thus three approximately equal surface samples and three samples for every subsequent 4 cm. in depth were obtained LOCAL VARIABILITY IN MARINE SEDIMENTS U2 for analysis. Some 60 locations on a traverse across Puget Sound have been sampled, making available for comparison the data obtained from the analysis of 180 cores. (Fig. 3 gives the location of these samples.) The sampling of approximately 18 to 20 locations in the mid-channel and on the near shore slopes is planned for the near future. The vertical sectioning of the cores in the manner just described yielded well over 500 individual samples. Each sample was analyzed for particle size by standard methods. The material courser than 1/16 mm. in diameter was sieved mechanically, separating it into standard fractions. “The material finer than 1/16 mm., previously separated from the sample by wet sieving through a 1/16 mm. sieve, was submitted to a pipette analysis for size determination. This latter method is based upon Stokes Law; that is upon the settling velocities of spheres of a given radius suspended in a fluid of known viscosity. Since this study deals with the variation in the results obtained in the size analysis of adjacent core samples, it is essential to know the analysis error. The standard method briefly described above satisfies this condition in allowing an impartial duplicate analysis of the same sample to be run under essentially standard laboratory conditions. When the reproducibility of the results are known, it is possible to differentiate between inconsistencies due to analysis and the actual variation between samples. Duplicate analysis of 20 samples indicated that the analysis error was very small, with an average reproducibility for any one size deter- mination of +0.2 percent. There was very little divergence from this average, with only about 20 percent exceeding the average by a factor of 2. The probabilities are thus in favor of actual sample variation ac- counting for percentage differences between adjacent samples which ex- ceed +0.4 percent. INITIAL RESULTS In order to present a summation of the results obtained, the east- west traverse of the Sound has been divided into three general areas. The eastern and western slope area from sea level down to about 500 feet below sea level represents one division. ‘he lower portion of both slopes, from about 500 feet below sea level to the base of the slopes and adjacent channel areas, represents the second division. The last division is the mid-channel region. The following table presents some of the differences in grade size percentages between the samples from the three cores obtained simul- taneously at one Jocation. The percent differences shown are thus in- 724 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS dicative of variations in particle size distribution from samples only one foot apart. DIFFERENCES IN GRADE SIZE PERCENTAGES * SLOPE BASE OF SLOPE MID-CHANNEL (ee MAX MIN AVER. MAX. MIN. AVER MAX. MIN. AVER % % Ve Nyce Zanes % a %e >4 1 Al 5 — See <1 42 2 <1 1 <1 193e Ste 1980 Fic. 2.—Variations of the annual mean sea-level (solid curves) and their progressive trends (dashed curves). ANNUAL MEAN SEA LEVEL ALONG THE JAPANESE COASTS 741 FIGURE 2 (continuation) | i ww) EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Des hn Kushimoto 3) aD Tonoura Masamori Miyazaki me FIGURE 3 SUBMARINE CANYON INVESTIGATIONS By Francis P. SHEPARD Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, La Jolla, California, U.S.A. [Published: Proceedings of the Eighth Pacific Science Congress, vol. IIA (Geology and Geophysics and Meteorology), p. 820-826 (1956) ] SURFACE TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY IN THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC OCEAN By D. M. Garner Oceanographic Observatory Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington New Zealand ABSTRACT From material recently collected, the hydrology of surface waters in seas around New Zealand is discussed in a series of papers to be pub- lished in forthcoming issues of the New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology. ‘The disposition of mean monthly sea surface isotherms is described over an area from the East Australian coast to the 180th meridian between latitudes 20°S and 46°S. Differences between these patterns for individual years and the charts showing mean monthly isotherms published by the United Kingdom Meteorological Office, are defined and discussed in terms of climatological factors. “These pat- terns are also discussed in terms of oceanic circulation and, in part- icular, features of the flow of subtropical water southwards off the east coasts of Australia and New Zealand are described. With the aid of thermograph records obtained on transTasman and tropical commercial routes, the fine temperature detail associated with the water masses (defined by the mean patterns), and their boundaries, are described. Similar records, obtained in New Zealand coastal waters, establish the relation between water circulation and bottom topography, and define areas of upwelling, and the distribution of subtropical, subantarctic, and coastal water types. To a more limited degree, salinity in the various water masses defined by the temperature patterns is also discussed. 743 nin ecome aban: t | ; te bene Se AL 7 iS eee d ans « {8 Pas erin } ve ; é rc rhs 5 % £3 ie as F ali eRe Ga i | Mi 5 F elcte Ci aeet* 4 he Sar ‘ i Boe naaeh A alee. he tht Aatictniee (ibsty Fined kleine ere Pea fete, BS toi Cau As iyo iey eb psieiregn: otf aE ee aad die Lp ee ae 00 Joa aay it pie Aid bite) mobelionty pays ate he Ee oe. adi bos, - Adelie ber ii GRAAF “he _ RO ae ny i A wows a t¢ 5 ae, +7 ; an ae; ee ACTRESS Be Oh era beaee tame of rer Yissys a iieas sealer ie cre geleas wee Mt higay beth on ih Geng ‘4 agile : ? etic sa aroleT ‘Shainin eth SECULAR TRENDS AT EAST AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS: 1942-1952 By D. J. Roctrorp Marine Biological Laboratory, Cronulla N. S. W., Australia I. INTRODUCTION A phenomenon of extreme importance to the oceanographer work- ing upon fisheries problems is the occurrence of long term trends in hydrological conditions at any region. As part of its coastal oceanographical programme the C.S.I.R.O. Fisheries Division has, since 1942, maintained monthly to fortnightly sampling at a number of stations situated some five miles offshore in about 60-70 metres of water. (Fig. 1.) At each of these stations samples for temperature, chlorinity, dis- solved O,, pH, inorganic phosphates, organic phosphorus and _ nitrate nitrogen have been collected at 10-metre depth intervals to 50 metres. Within the time limits of this paper it is proposed to demonstrate long term trends in hydrological properties at a number of these sta- tions, and to discuss possible causes of such trends. II. DATA AND METHODS The data and the methods used in their collection and analysis have been given in Oceanographical Station Lists of the C.S.I.R.O. Vols. 4 and 14. In order to simplify the presentation of the trends, the data have been divided into a summer period, October to April inclusive, and a winter period, May to September, on the basis of the annual tem- perature cycle in these waters. During the summer period the water temperature increases or remains at a stationary maximum value, whilst during the winter it decreases or remains stationary at a minimal value. The vertical water column at each station has been subdivided into a surface zone, in which sampling at 0, 10 and 20 metres depth are included and a bottom zone in which sampling at 30, 40 and 50 metres depth are included. Surface or bottom values of any hydrological prop- erty are thus the A.M. of the 0, 10 and 20 or the 30, 40 and 50 metre values respectively. 745 746 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS III. S—EcULAR TRENDS AT THE Port STEPHENS, PorT HACKING AND MariA ISLAND COASTAL STATIONS In order to illustrate the latitudinal spread of the trends exhibited by east Australian coastal waters, and also to provide as long a time span as possible, only data from the three earliest established coastal stations in New South Wales and ‘Tasmania will be considered in this section. Fig. 2 shows how the mean summer and winter surface and bottom nutrient conditions at the Port Hacking station have varied over the period 1943 to 1952. There is clear evidence of a gradual rise in in- organic and total phosphorus for both surface and bottom layers, with little difference between winter and summer conditions. Nitrate ni- trogen values have also risen during the same period, but only in the bottom layers. Fig. 3 demonstrates clearly the gradual decrease in Cl°/,, as- sociated with an increase in the rainfall at the Port Hacking coastal station during the same period. However, it is clear that the summer bottom Cl°/,, was decreasing well in advance of the 1948 increase in summer rainfall. At the Port Stephens coastal station (Fig. 4) there is evidence of an increase in inorganic and total phosphorus from 1945 to 1950, but after that year the values have remained steady. It is to be noted, however, that the magnitude of the increase is much less than at the Port Hacking station. Moreover, nitrate values have decreased, except for the rather inexplicable increase in the bottom winter waters. At the same station the Cl°/,, of surface waters has been greatly af- fected by land runoff (Fig. 5). However, it is important to note that the Cl°/,. of the summer bottom waters has varied little during the period. Off Maria Island (Fig. 6), the inorganic phosphates have increased since 1946 to a maximum in 1950, but have remained at this level since that year. The total phosphorus increase parallels that for inorganic phosphate. There appears to have been little change in the nitrate nitrogen of these waters during the same period. The Cl°/,,. of these waters (Fig. 7) has increased at a steady rate since 1947 and this is true of both summer and winter periods. The decrease in rainfall particularly during the winter period is apparent. It is clear then that at each of these three coastal stations at dif- ferent latitudes along east Australia, there has been an increase in the phosphate content, both in the inorganic and organic form, over the past 7-10 years. The nitrate nitrogen has increased only at the Port Hacking station and has decreased at the other two stations. SECULAR TRENDS AT £. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL. STATIONS :1942-52 747 For the New South Wales stations, the decrease in chlorinity of the surface waters particularly has been associated with increases in rain- fall, but on the other hand, at the Maria Island station there has been an increase in C]°/,, accompanied by a decrease in rainfall. IV. Factors oF PossisLtE IMPORTANCE IN THE GENESIS OF THESE TRENDS (a) Riverine dilution and nutrient enrichment of coastal waters. The parallelism between surface Cl°/,, and rainfall trends at the three stations considered in the previous section, suggests that land drainage can greatly affect the Cl°/,, of these coastal waters. The considerable scatter evident in the plotting of the relationship between rainfall and coastal surface Cl°/,, in east Australian waters (Fig. 8), is not unexpected, because of the varying time lag between rainfall and its effect as riverine discharge on coastal Cl°/,, and also because of the varying depth to which such discharges are mixed into the coastal water structure. However, it is clear that surface waters are diluted by riverine discharge with increasing effectiveness as the rain- fall increases. Moreover, there is clear evidence of the existence of two principal surface water masses, a New South Wales above 37°S and an eastern Tasmanian below 37°S. Is it possible that these riverine dis- charges could vary the phosphate levels of these coastal waters to the extent that has been experienced at the three stations discussed in Section III? In Fig. 9, the relationship between inorganic phosphates and Cl¢/,, at the Port Hacking station is shown. It is clear that surface and bottom waters exhibit a different Cl°/,.-phosphate relationship. inpthnesuniace Wayery a decrease im) Glo/>5 from 19:70 to 19.40%, is accompanied by a rise in inorganic phosphates of 6ug P/L. Assuming that the decrease in Cl°/,, is due to land drainage and that the rise in inorganic phosphates has been wholly an effect of such riverine dis- charges, then the phosphate concentration in the discharge would have to be about 400yg P/L. ‘This figure is about 10 times greater than the maximum phosphate level in coastal rivers of the phosphate rich north- ern New South Wales region and about 40 times greater than the rivers immediately adjoining Port Hacking. In the bottom waters the decrease in Cl°/,, from 19.70 to 19.55 is paralleled by a rise in inorganic phosphates of 9ng P/L. This would imply a phosphate concentration of 1200,g¢ P/L in the diluting water, which phosphate concentration is quite impossible. 748 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS It is apparent therefore that whilst land drainage can modify the Cl°/,, structure of coastal waters, its role in the gradual increase in phosphate levels at coastal stations since 1945 cannot be a direct one. (b) Lateral movement of slope waters into the coastal region. During 1940-42 F.R.V. “Warreen’”’ was able to sample simultaneous coastal and shelf stations at frequent intervals off Port Hacking. Fig. 10 shows the relationship between inorganic phosphates and Cl°/,, for slope waters and Fig. 11 for the bottom coastal waters sampled during this period. The regression line for the slope data above 10ug/L PO,P has been calculated and superimposed on the coastal water diagram. The coastal data fits this regression line fairly well and it is highly probable that slope waters of varying depths have periodically invaded these coastal regions during this period. Since that time, the systematic collection of data at the Port Hack- ing coastal station has revealed that these slope water invasions of the coastal region are a common feature of the summer period, particularly during the period of high vertical stability. “These slope waters are comparatively rich in phosphates with lower Cl°/,., temperature and dissolved O, than the coastal bottom waters. Could the rise in in- organic phosphates and the decrease in Cl°/,, in the bottom waters at the Port Hacking station during 1943-1952 be an effect of more frequent invasion and more effective assimilation of such slope waters into the structure of coastal waters? Whilst lack of information about the dynamical continuity between slope and coastal regions makes the examination of such a possibility very difficult, there are certain significant features in the trend curves at the Port Hacking station which favour such a theory. Referring again to Fig. 3, it can be seen that the mean summer bottom temperatures have decreased fairly consistently from 1943 to 1949, and risen rather rapidly since that year. This trend is paralleled by the Cl°/,,. of these waters and, whilst the surface dilution of these waters during the 1949 period and onward, may have contributed in some measure to the later portion of this trend, the fact that this de- crease commenced in 1944 would indicate some more fundamental cause of the phenomenon. Assuming then that the decrease in summer bottom temperature and chlorinity has been little influenced by the rainfall cycles during the period, there seems good evidence to support the theory of more effective assimilation of low temperatures and chlorinity slope waters into the structure of the Port Hacking bottom coastal waters during 1943-1949. (c) Increase in phosphate content of slope waters. SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 749 Fig. 12 shows the relationship between total phosphorus and oxy- gen saturation values of the Port Hacking summer bottom waters during 1943-1952. By differentiating the data into years, it is possible to see clearly that these bottom waters have changed their O,-total phosphorus rela- tionship quite considerably during the period. To better illustrate this, two envelopes have been entered, one labelled A, containing a majority of the data subsequent to and the other labelled B, prior to that year. At any given oxygen saturation level it is clear that the total phosphorus content has increased over the period. Unfortunately one cannot assume from this that the parent slope waters have also changed their total phosphorus and dissolved O, content in a similar fashion at the depth of origin of these coastal in- trusions. “There would, however be no reason to suppose that the east Australian slope waters would not undergo long term changes in hydro- logical properties, and it is quite possible that an increase in the nu- trient level of the parent slope waters themselves has contributed to these coastal water trends. (d) Replacement of local coastal waters by a foreign water mass of higher nutrient content. Along the east Tasmanian coast the evidence from coastal observa- tions suggests that lateral movement of deep offshore waters into coastal regions is extremely rare, largely because it is suspected that a slope current is only weakly developed. One cannot assume therefore that the same processes have contributed to the secular trends at the Maria Island station, as have been considered responsible in more northern latitudes. It is significant too that the rise in phosphates and total phosphorus has been accompanied by an increase in Cl°/,, and temperature during the winter period, particularly from 1947 to 1951. On the evidence it was considered probable that in this region the secular changes were due to a gradual displacement of the original east Tasmanian water mass of 1945 by a new water mass of higher Cl°/ 9, temperature and nutrient content. In Fig. 13 the total phosphorus-chlorinity relationship of the mean summer bottom data for east Australian coastal stations is shown. It seems clear from this slide that all of the data can be developed by mixing between three primary water masses with distinct total phos- phorus-Cl°/,, relationship. If we examine the chlorinity-temperature relationship, Fig. 14, three primary water masses can be distinguished. It is possible to identify a New South Wales coastal and an east Tasma- nian coastal water mass on their temperature, chlorinity, total phos- phorus relationships, but the genesis of the third with low temperature 750 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and chlorinity, associated with high total phosphorus characteristics is difficult to decide exactly, although such characteristics are more typi- cal of deeper offshore waters of New South Wales than of east Tasma- nia. Without sufficient knowledge of the dynamics of the New South Wales ‘Tasman Sea, however, it is impossible to demonstrate how such a water mass could have influenced the Tasmanian coastal region. V. METEOROLOGICAL AND DyNAMICAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH THESE TRENDS If we accept the proposition that the secular trends at the Port Hacking coastal station are due in large measure to variations in the amount of slope water influence, then a study of the possible factors controlling such slope water variation might eventually enable the oceanographer to predict by study of the variation in the principal con- trolling factors, oceanographical conditions in future seasons. For the past 10 years the C.S.I.R.O. Fisheries Division has been studying the monthly and annual variations in mean sea level at a station representa- tive of coastal conditions off Port Hacking. If we examine the mean summer and winter mean sea levels varia- tions at this station during the period 1942-1952, Fig. 15, the existence of a secular trend is evident. Moreover, the magnitude of the cycle has been much greater during the summer than the winter period. ‘The period of minimum summer mean sea levels irom 1946 to 1949, cor- responds to the period of lowest mean summer bottom temperatures at the Port Hacking station. ‘There is evidence from the New South Wales coastal station of the development of a counter current flowing north, at distances of about 5 miles offshore, during the later part of the summer, ‘The high mean sea levels normally experienced in March- April are considered to be an effect of this current along the coast. Presumably then during seasons when this counter current is strongly developed, the intrusion of slope waters is retarded because the isen- tropic layers are tilted down towards the coast and oppose the latera! movement of dee) slope waters into the coastal region. In Fig. 16 the relationship between mean monthly sea level and bottom temperatures at the Port Hacking station during December over the period 1942-1952 is shown. For those years when high sea levels prevailed during December and are indicative according to the theory outlined above of weak slope water influence, the mean monthly bottom temperatures are higher. It seems clear then that the ultimate answer to both variation in slope water intrusion and the coastal mean sea level at the Port Hacking SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL. STATIONS :1942-52 751 station is linked with the variation in the development of this counter current. However, it has not been possible as yet to show any con- sistent relationship between the variation in this counter current and corresponding variation in the direction or strength of coastal winds. It is possible that wind conditions over the Tasman Sea proper may be more influential in this regard but scarcity of data prevents such an analysis being made. VI. Discussion In studying the coastal hydrology of the east Australian region with its comparatively narrow shelf and well-developed offshore current system, the extreme variability of the coastal environment and the major effects of the offshore current on such variation, are evident. ‘This paper serves to illustrate another longer term variation, which is im- portant to the fisheries of the region and which has had very wide- spread effects. It is obvious, however, that to advance beyond the mere descrip- tion of coastal events, and of their probable genesis, to a more com- plete and perhaps useful stage, requires the simultaneous collection of information upon the dynamics and hydrological structure of the off- shore in addition to the onshore regions. Moreover, it is clear that the elucidation of the causes for long term fluctuations in east Australian coastal conditions requires persistent and intensive investigation not only of the coastal hydrology but also of the associated estuaries and their flood contribution, as well as of the meteorological elements, par- ticularly wind and rainfall, which enter into these cycles. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PORT STEPHENS COASTAL STATION Latitude: 32° 43’ S. SUMMER PERIOD October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October October ’45-April ’46-April »47—-April ’48-April ’49-April ’*b0—April *51-April ’52-April ’45—-April ’46—-A pril ?47—April ’A8—April ’49-April ’50-April »51—April ’52-April *45-April ’*46-April ?47-April ’A8—April 749—April 50—April 51—April ’52-April PORT STEPHENS COASTAL STATION "46 "AT "A8 "49 D0 *ol D2 08 "46 "AT "48 "AQ ’b0 ol 702 d3 ’A6 "AT "48 "49 50 ’O1 "52 D3 TEMP. Cl °/v0 0—-25 m. Mean 19.51 TO eTO 19.54 19.22 19.53 21.64 18.62 20.26 25-50 17.47 17.35 17.91 17.89 16.99 19.31 17.52 18.10 m. 19.27 19.60 19.63 19.62 19.52 19.52 19.63 19.56 Mean Column 19.59 19.60 19.63 19.64 19.61 19.61 19.62 19.58 Longitude: 152° 18’ E. PO:P Column or co O1 00 Or 1 bY CO 9 8 13 8 15 ff 13 14 0-50 m. Mean Column 18.49 18.53 18.63 18.56 18.26 20.73 18.07 19.18 Latitude: 32° 43’ S. WINTER PERIOD May—September May-—September May—September May—September May-—September May-—September May-—September May-—September "45 "46 "AT 48 *49 ’b0 "51 "D2 TEMP. 19.48 19.60 19.63 19.63 19.57 19.57 19.63 19.57 Cl "/s0 10.5 9.5 TeTAL P. 13.5 10.5 18 11 23.5 13.5 16 16 NO:N Longitude: 152° 18’ E. PO:P 0-25 m. Mean Column (17.52) (19.52) 16.89 19.65 17.98 19.61 (18.45) (19.63) 18.05 19.36 18.21 19.34 (18.50) (19.59) 19.07 19.62 (2) 3 (4) (5) 9 8 (6) 6 ToTAL P. (5) 5 (8) (12) 16 13 (18) 15 NO.N 100 (105) 101 o 80 89 88 it 93 89 82 83 87 94 94 87 96 (97) 92 SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 755 25-50 m. Mean Column May-September ’°45 (17.88) (19.68) (8) (14) (56) (79) May-September ’46 16.48 19.67 2 5 19 96 May-September °47 (17.85) (19.63) (6) (11) (51) (87) May-September ’48 (18.15) (19.62) (4) (12) (3) (100) May-—September ’49 17.90 19.51 10 15 45 91 May—September ’50 18.07 19.56 11 15 54 86 May-September ’51 (17.87) (19.68) (8) (14) (95) (95) May-September ’52 18.42 19.63 8 iy 21 95 0-50 m. Mean Column May—September 745 (17.48) (19.60) (2.5) (9.5) (35) (88) May-September 746 16.69 19.66 2.5 5 15 97 May—September 747 (17.92) (19.62) (5) (9.5) (40) (91) May-—September ’48 (18.30) (19.68) (4.5) (12) (3) (100) May-September ’49 17.98 19.44 9.5 15.5 31 93 May-September ’50 18.14 19.45 9.5 14 42 91 May-September 751 (18.19) (19.61) (7) (16) (48) (96) May-September °52 18.75 19.63 a 16 15 96 PORT HACKING COASTAL STATION Latitude: 34° 05'S. Longitude: 151° 13’ E. SUMMER PERIOD TEMP. Cl °/o0 PO:P TOTAL P. NO:N 02% 0-25 m. Mean Column October ’42-April °43 19.86 19.67 1 — 5 97 October ’43-April °44 19.45 19.67 1 4 7 97 October ’44-April 45 19.37 19.65 1 4 4 96 October ’45-April ’46 19.54 19.60 4 10 17 96 October ’46—-April ’47 18.69 19.64 3 7 15 97 October ’47—-April ’48 19.18 19.60 6 13 6 98 October ’48-April ’49 18.91 19.61 6 12 10 98 Qetober °49-April ’50 19.19 19.43 9 20 19 95 October ’50-April 751 20.85 19.44 5 15 6 98 October ’51—April 752 19.54 19.64 4 15 10 100 October ’5Z-April 753 20.14 19:59 5 15 5 99 25-50 m. Mean Column October °42—April 743 18.10 19.63 5 — 22 83 October *?438—April ’44 17.85 19.69 4 8 19 90 October *44—-April 745 17.87 19.64 3 uf 18 90 October ’45-April 746 17.00 19.60 9 15 46 84 October ’46-April ’47 16.92 19.62 6 11 35 88 October *47-April ’48 17.30 19.58 12 19 53 88 Qctober ’48-April ’49 16.75 19.57 10 15 35 88 October ’49-April 50 17.50 19.58 14 21 62 83 October ’50-April °51 18.98 19.54 9 21 34 89 October *51—-April 52 17.56 19.63 13 20 44 89 October °52-April 753 17.74 19.58 13 21 40 87 754 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 0-50 m. Mean Column October ’42—-April 743 18.98 19.65 3 — 15 90 October ’43—April ’44 18.65 19.68 2.5 6 1133 94 October ’44—April ’45 18.62 19.65 2 55) 11 93 October ’45-April ’46 18.27 19.60 6.5 WPA 32 90 October ’46—April ’47 17.81 19.63 4.5 i) 25 93 October ’47—April ’48 18.24 19.59 9 16 30 93 October ’48—-April ’49 17.83 19.59 8 13.5 23 93 October ’49—-April ’50 18.35 19.48 Tales) 20.5 40 94 October ’50—April 51 19.82 19.49 uf 18 20 93 October ’51—-April ’52 18.50 19.64 10 We) Pal 95 October ’52-April 753 18.94 19.59 9 18 28 93 PORT HACKING COASTAL STATION Latitude: 34° 05'S. Longitude: 151° 13’ E. WINTER PERIOD TEMP. Cl °/00 PO.P TotaL P. NO:N 02% 0-25 m. Mean Column May-September 743 15.89 19.62 5 10 15 97 May-September 744 16.84 19.70 2 9 9 97 May-—September 745 17.99 19.57 3 9 21 92 May-—September 746 16.98 19.67 3 6 15 95 May-September 747 16.86 19.65 5 ult 31 95 May-—September ’48 16.59 19.62 8 EZ, 8 99 May-September ’49 17.67 19.638 9 14 9 96 May-—September ’50 17.90 19.44 7 19 IY 99 May-—September 751 aL S74 19.51 8 18 16 hel May—September 752 17.53 19.47 10 16 21 89 25-50 m. Mean Column May-September 743 15.74 19.69 6 11 18 92 May—September 744 16.38 19.67 4 10 7 93 May-September 745 16.54 19.58 8 15 52 82 May-September ’46 16.72 19.67 4 Uf 27 94 May-—September 747 16.17 19.638 6 10 44 sit May-September 748 16.01 19.61 9 16 20 96 May-—September ’49 17.04 19.63 9 16 30 91 May-September ’50 17.36 19.52 11 21 48 92 May-September ’51 WAL 19.56 10 20 33 90 May-—September 752 16.80 UG) by 7 15 22 54 89 0-50 m. Mean Column May-—September 743 15.79 19.66 5.5 10.5 7 95 May—September 744 16.61 19.69 3 9.5 13 95 May-—September ’45 OAL 19.58 5.5 12 37 87 May-—September ’46 16.85 1OLGi 3.5 6.5 21 95 May-September ’47 16.52 19.64 5.5 10.5 38 93 May—September ’48 16.30 19.62 8.5 14 14 98 SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 755 May-—September 49 17.36 19.63 9 15 20 94 May-—September ’50 17.63 19.48 9 20 33 96 May-—September 751 17.50 19.54 9 19 25 94 May—September 752 IU ell'g 19.52 1255 18 38 89 MARIA ISLAND COASTAL STATION Latitude: 42° 36'S. Longitude: 148° 16’ E. SUMMER PERIOD TEMP. Cl °/o0 PO:P Tota. P. NO3N 02% 0-25 m. Mean Column October ’44-April *45 (12.51) (19.34) — — (12) — October ’45-April ’46 (14.59) (19.34) (4) (6) (13) (97) October ’46—-April ’47 13.78 19.31 4 6 1% 101 October ’47—April 748 14.14 19.39 9 13 12 97 October *48—-April ’49 13.26 19.37 8 i 5 92 October ’49-April 750 (13.91) (19.387) (11) (22) (7) (100) October ’50—April 751 14.64 19.40 8 22 7 (95) October °51—April 752 14.31 19.54 11 (14) 10 (85) October °52-April °53 14.65 19.40 8 Wi 1 101 25-50 m. Mean Column October ’44-April ’45 (12.18) (19.384) — — (3) — October ’45—-April 746 (14.14) (19.35) (5) (9) (22) (94) October ’46—April ’47 fi Seto 19.30 5 iq 24 99 October *47—April ’48 13.59 19.39 10 14 15 92 October ’48—April 749 12.80 19.41 8 13 6 95 October ’49-April 750 (12.98) (19.387) (12) (15) (13) (94) October ’50—April 751 14.16 19.44 9 au 4 90 October ’51—April 752 13.89 19.51 10 (16) 12 85 October ’52-April 753 13.59 19.41 11 21 25 (91) 0-50 m. Mean Column October ’44-April 745 (12.35) (19.84) — — (8) == October ’45—-April 746 (14.87) (19.35) (4.5) (7.5) (18) (96) October ’46—April 747 13.45 19.31 4.5 6.5 18 100 October ’47—April 748 13.87 19.389 975, 13.5 14 95 October ’48—April 749 13.03 19.39 8 12.5 6 94 October ’49-April ’50 (13.42) (19.87) (11.5) (18.5) (10) (97) October ’50—April 751 14.40 19.42 8.5 20.5 6 (93) October *51—April 752 14.10 ORD Ss 10.5 15 11 (85) October ’52—April 753 14,12 19.41 9.5 19 19 (96) MARIA ISLAND COASTAL STATION Latitude: 42° 36'S. Longitude: 148° 16’ E. WINTER PERIOD TEMP. Cl °/o0 PO:P OLA Ebr NO3N 02% 0-25 m. Mean Column May-—September ’45 (13.00) (19.46) — — (7) (97) May—September 746 LEST 19.33 7 9 36 $9 ; 6 May-—September May-—September May-—September May—September May—September May—September May—September May—September May-—September May-—September May—September May-—September May—September May-—September May-September May-—September May—September May—September May—September May—September May-—September May-—September EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS "47 °48 ’49 *b0 "D1 52 *45 *46 "AT 48 "49 *B0 51 D2 "45 "A6 *47 °48 749 "60 *51 "52 12.44 19.32 6 11.43 19.35 11 (12.46) (19.39) (11) 13.31 19.44 10 13.76 (19.48) (9) 12.19 19.47 11 25-50 m. Mean Column (12.95) (19.45) Tiss TO) ay a my IAS OS Es nA OB) (12.47) (19.89) (12) WO OL) ES (Oss) © #12125) 19.47, 10 0-50 m. Mean Column (12.98) (19.46) — 11.48 19.34 7 1246" 149-33 6.5 YD = IGAYR cata (12.47) (19.89) (11.5) e103) VLOG 9.5 13.75 (19.47) (8) 12.22 1947 10.5 16 14 (17) ul) (22) 13 8.5 15 14 (19) 17.5 (17) 11.5 SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS 21942-52 757 rn BRISBANES . COFFS HARBOUR PORT MACQUARIE > PORT STEPHENS BOTANY BA Y PORT HACKING LLADULLA ae ws sr PORT PHILLIP @ ST. HELENS PT. FIGURE 1 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 758 NITRATE NITROGEN TOTAL PHOSPHATE FP INORGANIC PHOSPHATE FP 1947 1948 ’ iF . ® NUMBER OF STATIONS FIGURE 2 SECULAR TRENDS AT E,. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 759 RAINFALL ANOMALY FIGURE 3 CHLORINITY °%,, WATER TEMPERATURE (°C.). ° NUMBER OF STATIONS SNOILWLS 40 WIGANN r 60 INORGANIC PHOSPHATE P EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS TOTAL PHOSPHATE P NITRATE NITROGEN $z uw ° - FIGURE 4 ty4 AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 761 SECULAR TRENDS AT E. RAINFALL ANOMALY CHLORINITY °/,, WAT_4 TEMPERATURE (°C) 1948 ‘ NUMBER OF STATIONS 1949 7 FIGURE 5 NITRATE NITROGEN TOTAL PHOSPHATE P INORGANIC PHOSPHATE P so 1948 1949 4 5) ’ s NUMBER OF STATIONS 1952 FIGURE 6 SNOILVLS 40 WIBWAN AO2 WATER TEMPERATURE (TC. 261 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS CHLORINITY °/.. RAINFALL ANOMALY is: $ t \ a ' a ° a a yy £4 li UE ‘i FIGURE 7 SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS : 1942-52 +] (oy) 6 6 O' \ © 30-34°S. 56 \ x 34-3795 \ OB 37-45°S. Oo BASS STRAIT. 40 30 ss >». “s ~ 20 TOTAL RAINFALL IN SEASON io Sos vs. 12) 19-20 19:40 19-60 19-80 CHLORINITY %,, FIGURE 8 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 764 PORT HACKING. 20 . N ® O - 25m \ \ \ \ ‘ ‘ ‘ \ \ 1s \ aN N \ \ x \ \ \ oe X \ x OAS e N ae x \ a \ 1O T kat NX xX X e Pee xX XK \ ~ \ e . x ® \ ® \ vin) S X Sek ORE SN A \ TaN 5 r S ex 0 ae © Ne XK Sew @ \g ® el N Deu \ ® tN 4 aN ol i 19-40 19-SO 19-60 19-70 fe) Gl foe FIGURE 9 SECULAR TRENDS AT E, AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 765 19-90 I9-GO Qrz0 = be o a CHLORINITY °/,.. 19:50 19-40 19-30 PHOSPHATE P FIGURE 10 766 6 loo. CHLORINITY EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 19-80 02° Jo. ORIGIN. 50 19-60 3 DEPTH OF SLOPE 19:50 10] 5 10 i) 20 25 30 35 INORGANIC PHOSPHATE P FIGUZE 11 SECULAR TRENDS AT E. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS: 1942-52 767 CL GUAT d W1LOL or te OE 9E ce 8z ad iol 4 91 zi 8 v (oe) pF oS, Ttadyv - 146, *390 + ap ° IN pk bZ bS, Ttady - 0S, *190 * Noy lz 0S, Ttady - 6h, *3200 O \ 62 6h, ttady - gh, *200 A ate ~ 29 eT, ttadv = 1h, *390 0 N on Zh, Ttadvy - 9h, °300 @ > 6 gn, ttadv - Gh, *290 WV \ S Sh, Ttadv - th, "390 Xx N i) th, Ttady - ¢€h, °190 @ L/S (ex YSWWNS (“OS —SZ) ONINXOVH LuOd FL AWN 00 . NS) O4-6h 09-61 OS 6) Ov-6l O€-61 69°6s 8) 25°64 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 61 oe ex48dk00 eg (YBNWNS) YOS-St ONINDSVH LYOd eW3al 2) eT aun sO0/)4 ED 09:6! 0s-6! Ov-6l Oc-6t “d Te4oL ¥ 19 Oo! S| ley4 £6,- 26,4 2g,- 16,0 bS,- 056,% se 0S.- 61,9 6%.- 87, @ ene LV dn.- 99, X 97.- Sn, @ oe (YBNIWNS) “OS— SZ ONINDVWH LYOd d W1OL SECULAR TRENDS AT CL. AUSTRALIAN COASTAL STATIONS :1942-52 769 PORT HACKING. 28 a WINTER SEA LEVEL. (Inches) MEAN 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 193) 19Sa 19S YEAR FIGURE 15 770 (25-5Om) TEMP EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS PORT HACKING (DECEMBER), 30 33 MEAN SEA LEVEL. (Inches). FIGURE 16 40 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TIDAL AND TIDAL CURRENT MEASUREMENTS * U.S. CoAsT AND GEODETIC SURVEY CURRENT MEASURING EQUIPMENT During World War IJ, when a large part of its personnel and equipment had been transferred to the Armed Forces, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in an effort to meet both military and civilian requirements, devised several new instruments and procedures. One of the most interesting of these is a radio current meter known as the Roberts Radio Current Meter after its designer Capt. E. B. Roberts, now Chief of the Division of Geophysics of the Bureau. The design includes both the meter and a special buoy to support the meter and house the radio transmitter. As often happens after field trials, the first design of this equip- ment was found to have some features capable of being improved. These improvements have been embodied in a revised design known as Model II. However, Model I instruments are still being used with satisfactory results. Equipment losses in congested harbor areas are likely to be high. Buoys with attached equipment sometimes disappear without trace and cannot be found by dragging. More often buoys are rammed by pass- ing craft and set adrift. When found, if the meters are still attached, they are usually badly damaged. Frequently the meter suspension cable has been cut and all meters lost. Losses can be minimized to some extent by publication of operations in local and weekly Notices to Mariners. From time to time, it becomes necessary to replace equip- ment lost in operation, and successful bidders have found it desirable to make minor changes during construction. These have not changed the basic design, but unless made by the same manufacturer, parts are not always interchangeable. The introduction of this meter represented such a radical change in standard methods for the determination of tidal current velocities that it was necessary to prepare a special operating manual for it. This manual has been revised periodically as improvements in equipment * Contribution from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Department of Commerce, Wash- ington, D.C., U.S.A. Presented by Capt. Andres O. Hizon, Director of the Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey, Republic of the Philippines. a CU EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS and methods have occurred. ‘The latest revision was made in early 1952. It will be revised again to include improved procedures devel- oped during the 1952-53 seasons. At present, research is underway toward improved designs for the transmitter and chronograph. Considerable work has been done on the design of a low-velocity highly sensitive meter for use on the bot- tom. Work is also in progress on an automatic recording system for these meters. FIELD METHODS As indicated earlier, this meter is a wartime development, con- ceived as the solution of the problem of economical and rapid deter- mination of surface current velocities of interest to marine navigators. The laborious and time-consuming methods involving the anchoring of vessels or barges on current stations could no longer be employed for lack of men and floating equipment. The Roberts Radio Current Meter provided an economical and relatively easy method for making current observations from surveying vessels engaged in hydrographic or other surveys within radio range of the buoy transmitters. The design of this equipment was based on the concept of single-meter oper- ation. ‘To permit satisfactory handling from small craft, weights were kept to a minimum. At first, normal operating procedure consisted of streaming a buoy with one meter attached—usually at some level 12 to 40 feet below the surface. At receiving stations, whether ashore or afloat, it is necessary to tune manually receivers to the frequency of each transmitter. This limits observations in radio-congested areas to six or seven meters for a single receiving station, as six or more clear, unobstructed frequency channels are difficult to find. Interruptions in transmission make records difficult to process—oftentimes worthless. For marine transportation, surface current velocities are of para- mount interest, and the Roberts Radio Current Meter was used at first to determine these. Because of its light weight it tends to lift in proportion to the strength of the current in velocities greater than about 2 knots. A tendency to sheer is noticeable in velocities of 3 knots. A leader was devised for attachment to the buoy anchor cable to obviate these tendencies. It was found desirable to use this leader regardless of the velocity because it causes the meter to pivot about a point of the anchor cable and produces more consistent results in cur- rent direction measurements. Although the buoy, as designed, has a strong planing lift, it must be carefully streamed to insure satisfactory operation in strong cur- rents. The lightest cable of adequate strength must be used. It has also been found desirable to attach buoy wings at the sides and bow. DEVELOPMENTS IN TIDAL & TIDAL CURRENT MEASUREMENTS 773 The Roberts meter lends itself to economical operation for obser- vation at one or two stations simultaneously with large-scale surveying activities in the same general area. Activities of this nature are usually carried on by vessels maintaining continuous radio watches. Radio per- sonnel can monitor and receive the meter transmissions without greatly interrupting their normal routine. Since the advent of electronic ship- positioning methods, it is sometimes desirable to have electronic shore- station personnel receive meter returns from isolated current stations within range. This method is not as desirable as the ship receiving method unless electronic shore-station personnel are increased sufficient- ly to permit the usual “on the spot” tabulations. For short-period observations, it has been found desirable on oc- casion to use the Roberts meter without the radio link. In practice a small vessel, or launch, is anchored on station and the meter hoisted in and out in the manner normally employed when using non-record- ing meters. The meter is connected electrically to a tape chronograph, ut without the radio receiver and amplifier. REVISED FIELD METHODS Earlier methods have been revised and new components introduced which have made it possible to more than double the former rate of receiving. In the early days each meter required a separate radio fre- quency and transmitter. Monitoring, receiving, and tabulating records from six or seven transmitters were about all the receiving-station per- sonnel could manage in one 30-minute observation period. Last year a timing device, known as the “Sequence Switch,” was designed and developed in the Bureau. Since then it has become standard practice to suspend three meters from one buoy. By inserting the sequence switch in the meter circuits returns from each meter are coded and transmitted over one frequency. It is now possible to receive returns from 18 meters in one 30-minute period. This switch is illustrated and described briefly in the 1952 revised operating manual. An _ article concerning the switch appeared in the Surveying and Mapping News section of the 1952 September-October issue of the Military Engineer. With the development of the three-meter suspension method it be- came necessary to discard the leaders. The added weight of meters and connections plus a 30- to 50-pound lead, or cast iron “sinker’’ below the meters prevents any great amount of lift in moderate velocities. Care must be exercised in attaching the two extra meters to prevent “twist” in electrical cables—otherwise they may not stream freely with the current. If this does occur, it can first be detected in the direction data, as, obviously any prolonged indication of directions normal to TTA EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS channel axes must be erroneous. Multiple meter suspension was first used with 80-inch buoys. They do not have enough reserve buoyancy to carry the extra weight satisfactorily in strong currents. One-hundred- twenty-inch buoys are now being used with much better results. Their use also makes it possible to employ heavier “sinkers’” and heavier ball- bearing swivels between meters. For routine current work in the past, when velocities at levels other than surface were desired, observations were made at two-tenths, five-tenths, and eight-tenths of the depth at the station. In an effort to determine the behavior throughout the depth, observations have been made at varying intervals from surface to bottom. ‘The larger num- ber have been made at levels of 6 to 12 feet below the surface, at mid- depth, and at a minimum of about 3 feet above the bottom, irrespective of the rise and fall of the tide. The Woods Hole Oceanographic In- stitution has devised an experimental mounting for use in shoal water where velocities are desired at fixed levels within 1.5 to 3.0 feet from the bottom. EQUIPMENT AVAILABILITY AND CosT The Roberts Radio Current Meter and equipment is not patented. It is currently being used by severai federal agencies and one or two oceanographic institutions. One English instrument maker has ob- tained a set of specifications and has, it is presumed, produced instru- ments for Admiralty use. ‘Those used in the United States have been produced by three different “low-bidding” instrument makers, none of whom have produced them for general sales. ‘The radio transmitters and sequence switches have been procured in much the same manner. The major items of special equipment necessary to operate a cur- rent survey party using a launch and shore-based receiving station are listed below, with the approximate total cost. [EB UOy sO sGlhi ier aces eee 6 @ $760.00 — $ 4,560.00 2. Roberts Radio Current Meter 18 @ 550.00 — 10,000.00 3. Radio transmitter for buoy .. 6 @ 400.00 — 2,400.00 4. Radio receiver for shore station 1 @ 400.00 — 400.00 5. Chronograph, tape recording . 1 @ 675.00 — 675.00 6. Voice radio, for launch and Shoremstablon ue ane alien 2 @ 750.00 — 1,500.00 7 Ground tackle; per) DUOy nae) 40 @ 200.00 — _ 1,200.00 SE SEQUENCE mS WiC Iain ere a ee ae 6 @ 90.00 — 540.00 Total $21,275.00 DEVELOPMENTS IN TIDAL & TIDAL CURRENT MEASUREMENTS 1775 From this it can be seen that the equipment required for one cur- rent party represents a modest investment. ‘TIDE AND CURRENT PROGRAM Early in 1951 the Bureau embarked on a tide and current program in domestic waters on a scale it had never before attempted. Several vessels were assigned this duty exclusively. ‘Two of these were large enough to provide suitable berthing and working spaces for all per- sonnel employed. Others were not, and it became necessary to estab- lish self-contained receiving stations ashore. In protected waters the employment of the shore-station method permits the use of medium- sized launches suitably equipped to handle the buoys, but otherwise re- quiring few men. A shore station can be operated quite satisfactorily by nine men. One of these is the supervisor and relief and the other eight are divided into four watches of two men each. The launch and station combination makes for very economical operation, if or when overhead costs of larger vessel operation are considered. Simultaneous observations of tides and currents have been under- taken as regular routine in this program. Normally, about one-third of the special tide stations in each area are established and operated for a period of 12 consecutive months. ‘They are equipped with stand- ard recording gages. The remainder are equipped with portable gages which are operated for 2 consecutive months. While the tides and cur- rents are being observed, all tide station bench marks and tide staffs are interconnected by closed loops of first-order levels. “This provides the means of relating the tide planes determined independently at each station. When the observations at the tide stations have been cor- rected to a 19-year mean through comparison with a reference station, the results show the variation of the different tide planes throughout the survey area as referred to a common datum. Also through com- bination of simultaneous tide observations and the interconnecting level lines, the pattern of gradient variation between stations throughout the tidal cycle can be established. fe i Teles ON THE MINIMUM OXYGEN LAYER IN THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN By TAkEo KAWAMOTO Kobe Marine Observatory, Japan Oxygen in the sea is supplied by contact with the atmosphere and by photosynthesis. On the other hand, dissolved oxygen is consumed by the respiration of marine organisms and the reduction of bacterial action or the reducing agents of both inorganic or organic matters dis- solved in water. Thus the oxygen contents in sea water are always af- fected by the reactions of general oxidation and reduction taking place im the sea. Besides the oxygen content in the sea are influenced by the mixing with other waters. Therefore, if there is no supply of oxy- gen in sea water, the dissolved oxygen will be diminished gradually. Then, if we observed a water mass which contained low oxygen value in the intermediate waters, we generally consider that the water mass had taken a long run and many times before reaching that region. So when we discuss the property of the water mass or its movement in ocean, it is important and interesting to know the distribution of dissolved oxygen in sea waters. Though the causes of the variations in the dissolved oxygen content are not explained completely, but by tracing the distribution of poor oxygen layer in the ocean some aspects of the oceanic general circulation in the intermediate waters will be given. We have much interest in the oxygen minimum layer observed at the depths between 400 and 1000 meters in the North Pacific Ocean. This paper is an attempt to obtain the general aspects of the general oceanic circulation in the intermediate waters in the North Pacific Ocean by the distribution of poor oxygen layer. Figures show the hori- zontal distribution of the dissolved oxygen at 250, 500 and 1000-meter layers, respectively. These oceanographical data were obtained from the following re- ports: The “Carnegie” in 1928, 1929. The “Soyo Maru” in 1933, 1934, 1935. The “E. W. Scripps” in 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941. The U. S..S. “Bushnell” in 1939. The “H. M. Smith” in 1950. The “Tenyo Maru” in 1951. UE 773 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS From the figure (500-meter layer), we can recognise a remarkable poor oxygen region on the east side of the North Pacific Ocean. Espe- cially off California, we can find even no oxygen at that layer; how- ever, on the west side—Kuroshio region—the content being abundant comparatively. And in the Oyashio region the minimum layer is at shallower depth. This means that in the southern region off Kurile Islands there occurred upwelling of the intermediate water of the North Pacific Ocean. ‘The writer will, in conclusion, show the general circulation of the intermediate water of the North Pacific Ocean as follows: (1) In the region off California the intermediate water upwells and runs westward following the equatorial current. (2) Before reaching the Kuroshio region it mixes with other waters along the route. (3) A part of the above mentioned current takes the easterly course sinking to a lower layer. (4) The other part of the current flows northward to the Kurile Islands region and runs eastward along Aleutian Islands to places off North America and California. MINIMUM OXYGEN LAYER IN THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN 779 150 180 150 ‘ 120 150 180 150 120 eww DY ON THE PROPERIY, OF DHE COASHAL WATER: AROUND HACHIJO ISLANDS By Yasuo Miyake, Y. SuGiuRA and K. KAMEDA Meteorological Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan It is interesting to study how the property of the ocean water is affected by the presence of a tiny island in the far-off sea, and to what extent the coastal water of such an island is changed by land water pouring into the sea. Since the land water contains more nutrient matter than the offshore water, it may contribute more or less to the biological productivity around the island. Accordingly, a study of this problem will give also a basic knowledge for the coastal fisheries and the growth of sea weeds near the island. For such a program, the chemical properties of the coastal sur- face water around Hachijo Island (33°05’N, 139°48’E) were studied in July, 1951, December, 1952, and in October, 1953. Land waters of the island were also chemically investigated during the observation periods. In summer (from 13 to 28 July, 1951), the surface water temperature varied from 23.7°C to 27.4°C, pH of sea water averaged 8.3 and the mean chlorinity was 18.75°/o,. The con- centrations of most of the nutrients in this season were so low that am- monia-N was less than 3g atoms per liter, nitrite-N was also less than 0.05u.g atoms per liter, and phosphate-P could be found only in traces. Only silicate-Si was present in an appreciable amount. The amount was about 10g atoms per liter in the offshore water, but increased as the shore was approached until a quantity of 20 to 70y,g atoms per liter was present. In winter (from 6 to 14 Dec., 1952), the water tem- perature of the surface was about 20°C and the chlorinity averaged 19.02°/,,, which was comparatively higher than in summer. The amounts of the nutrient salts were also larger. Nitrite-N and nitrate-N were contained from 0.05 to 0.70 and from 1 to 100,g atoms per liter respectively. Phosphate-P was from 0.05 to 4.0ug atoms per liter. Sil- icate-Si was from 10 to 70ug atoms per liter. The distribution patterns of these compounds around the island were like that of the chlorinity shown in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, the effect of the island on the ocean water was greater in the region from the eastern to the southern coast owing to the different amount of the outflowing land water as well as to the direction of the current. The effect of the ocean 781 782 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS current is seen clearly on the southern coast where the shadow of the current is formed. The daily variations in the concentrations of some chemical sub- stances were observed at a fixed point A in Figure 1. It was found that the chlorinity change showed a good correlation with the tide, increasing and decreasing in the same direction as the elevation of the water level (Fig. 2). The relation between the silicate content and the chlorinity is almost linear as shown in Figure 3. Using these facts, we can calculate the mixing ratio of ocean water and land water. The result of calculation shows that the rate of mixing in the surface water at the distance of 100 m. from the coast line is about 25% in winter and the effect of land water seems to extend as far as to about 5 km. from the land. The diurnal variation of the dissolved oxygen content is shown in Figure +. It is maximum at about 14 h. and minimal in the early morn- ing. Such a type of variation resembling somewhat that of air tem- perature may be regarded as a normal one as pointed out by one (Miyake 1) of the present authors previously. In summer the range of variation is greater than in winter, as the population of living matter and the intensity of the sunshine are larger in summer. Since most of nutrient matter near the shore is supplied from the land, the chemical analysis of land water is also necessary. There are a number of wells, small springs and a few streamlets in the island. These may be classified into two groups from a chemical point of view. The first group (A) of waters contains much chloride and nutrient matter while the second one (B) contains a considerably lesser amount. It is interesting to note that the content of the silicate-Si in land water was comparatively larger in summer than in winter. In compar- ing the land water with regard to the nutrient matter, it is seen that the first group has a remarkably richer silicate and nitrate content than the second. The average concentrations of both groups are shown in Table I. TABLE I AMM.-N NITRITE-N NITRATE-N PHOSPHATE-P SILICATE-SI CHLORINITY ug at/L pe at/L pe at/L pe at/L pe at/L % A 0.0 0.00 ees 0.5 180 0.02 B 3.0 0.05 95. lef 180 0.60 1Y. MIYAKE: Geophys. Mag., 16, (1948), 66-70. PROPERTY OF THE COASTAL WATER AROUND HACHIJO ISLANDS 783 [<>] Ss = oe } 2 SH SoS 2 oO B Sa ~ = 33°10" B Fig. 1.—The distribution of the chlorinity around Hachijo Islands, Dec., 1952. EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 784 -INS Td}BVM 01 SULISIP [BOIQIOA B SE Gq IU ck 9G Vi. cE of - 3 eso 2° ‘Aqyjgol vw worz sory ‘Opty oyy pue AqtuLtopyo oy. udeMJoq UOIZVIel 9Y,—zZ ‘DIW 9 y ¢ be 22 O8 03° eT 19 00° 6T % Ost 002 wo PROPERTY OF THE COASTAL WATER AROUND HACHIJO ISLANDS 785 °% 19 06°8T “APULLOTYO BY} pus Ig 97¥dI[IS 94} Jo JUNOWe ayy UdEMJaq UOTWBIOL euUL—'e “DIY OL°ST Og9°S8T Og°ST OT°ST 06° LT OL°L4T §=OG° ALT 1/° 48-377 ts I oC fons KIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS —@---@— pDec., 1952 % —@—_o— July, 1951 Summer ec/litre ae Rome. 4 ea ws : 5.0 “Oe --@--o 4 Winter 4.0 Summer Bo Oe Ley LAN OS Ie BON Bey BAN ee yA Glen Ou Dis Fic. 4.—The diurnal] variation of the dissolved oxygen. ON THE OCEANOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SEA NEAR EEE EEX Dy POET alba 7 oI aN: INT aE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN By M. Nakano, M. Koizumi and J. FUKUOKA Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan, Tokyo, Japan 1. INTRODUCTION The variations of water temperature, chlorinity, etc. in deep layers of the ocean have not yet been made clear owing to the scarcity of con- tinuous data of serial oceanographical observations taken at a fixed point for a long time. However, several years ago, ocean weather sta- tions were set up, and serial oceanographical observations are being made without interruption. In Japan, the first ocean weather station was established at the point beso Ne iin Ene North Pacific: Ocean, im October 1947, andthe second one at the point 135°E, 29°N, in June 1949. ‘The former station is now named “Extra,” and the latter “Tango.” The data of meteoro- logical and oceanographical observations at these fixed points are pub- lished in “The Results of Marine Meteorological and Oceanographical Observations,” a quarterly bulletin of the Central Meteorological Ob- servatory of Japan. At these fixed points oceanographical observations are usually made from surface to a depth of about 1200 m. about 12-24 times a month, the main oceanographical elements observed being water temperature, chlorinity, and contents of oxygen and plankton. In the present paper the authors intend to report some results of investigation on the varia- tions of water temperature and chlerinity in deep layers mainly, together with some other results, made from the data of observation at the fixed POE ENT. (hic-ali): 2. WATER J EMPERATURE (a) The annual variation of water temperature. In the first place, the authors calculated the monthly mean water temperature of each layer. Figure 2 shows the variations thus obtained of water tempera- ture of the layers 0 m. (surface), 25 m., 50 m., 100 m., 200 m., 300 m., 400 m., 500 m., 800 m., 1000 m. and 1500 m. From this figure we can see that the water temperature near the surface becomes minimum in February or March and maximum in August or September and that, 788 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS for the layers from 100 m. to 300 m. deep, the phases of change of water temperature are nearly coincident and the maximum temperatures generally appear between October and December. Moreover, the time of occurrence of the maximum temperature of each layer near the sur- face (0 m.—100 m. deep) tends to lag with increasing depth. For example, the maximum temperature of the surface layer appears in August, while that of the layer of 50 m. depth appears in October or November. This time-lag may be regarded as mainly due to the effect of eddy conductivity of sea water. If we assume that the said variation of water temperature near the surface is due to the effect of eddy con- duction alone, the amplitude A, of the annual variation of water tem- perature of a layer of depth z is expressed by the formula AA coe e—a\t (1) PT where A, is the value of A, for z == 0 (surface), » the coefficient of eddy conductivity, and ; the period of variation (assumed sinusoidal), of the water temperature. Again, let ¢ be the phase lag of the variation of water temperature at the depth z; then ene] |S ae ae If we calculate the value of » by the formulae (1) and (2), using the data of oceanographical observations in 1948, we have the results as follows: Layer By formula (1) By formula (2) 0 m—50 m. 7.55 2.39 0 m.—100 m. eral 417 These values of », are not so extravagant in the order of magnitude. However, as seen from the above results, the values of » calculated by the two formulae (1) and (2) do not agree very well with each other. This is because we have neglected the effect of heat transfer other than that of eddy conduction. (b) Long periodic change of water temperature. As seen from Figure 2, in the variation of water temperature of each layer, longer and shorter periodic changes other than the annual variation are also recognized. In order to eliminate the annual variation, if we apply the method of twelve-month moving average to these data, we have the results as shown in Figure 3. From this figure we can see that the water temperature was rising from 1948 to 1951 and has been falling since the summer of 1951. As for the cause of this periodic variation, we cannot give any definite explanation for the present, but it seems that this variation is due to a long period change of water mass situation. OCEANOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SEA IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN 789 (c) Short periodic change. On the other hand, as mentioned above, in the variation of the water temperature of each layer, a short periodic variation is also recognized. ‘This is especially the case for the layers 50 m., 100 m., 200 m. and 300 m. deep. Now, the maxima and minima of temperature of the 100 m. layer as shown in Figure 2 were read off, and the time intervals between two maxima or minima were measured and are shown in the following table. __ { Period (in Months) 3 4 5 Time Interval of Temperature Maxima < | Frequency By tl Peri i [ 7 Time Interval of Temperature Minima Soe! Woon MMOS) Be Frequency Hea Boe (From 100 m. layer) As is seen in this table, the short periodic change in question has a predominant period of 3 months. J. Fukuoka, one of the present authors, and T. Yusa have studied the variation of water temperature along the so-called “C-line” (Fig. 1) and it has been known that there exists a change of water temperature of about 3-month period in the sea adjacent to the Tohoku District (Northeastern Japan). 3. CHLORINITY Figure 4 shows the variations of chlorinity at different depths. From this figure we can see that the annual variation of chlorinity in the upper layers has a maximum in spring, which is due to the effect of continued evaporation, and a minimum in autumn, which is caused by heavy precipitation. Again, we can recognize that the chlorinity in the layers 50-100 m. deep, tends to become high from early summer to autumn. ‘This could be due to the effect of the Kuroshio having high chlorinity. On the other hand, the chlorinity in the layers 200- 500 m. deep is generally lower, which could be due to the effect of the Oyashio creeping current. Further, if we look at the variation in chlorinity shown in Figure 4, we can recognize that the long periodic change of chlorinity is similar to that of water temperature, which is a fact worthy of being noted. Thus it seems that the long periodic change of chlorinity is also due to a long period change of water mass situation. 4. COLOUR OF THE SEA, TRANSPARENCY AND PLANKTON VOLUME At the point “Exira,’ the observations of colour of the sea and transparency have been performed since March 1948, and the collec- tion of plankton since March 1950. In the following, we shall outline the result. 790 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The annual variation of the colour of the sea is similar to that of the transparency, both with two maxima, one in summer and the other in winter, and two minima, occurrmg in spring and autumn. As to the seasonal variation of plankton volume, a very distinct maximum, a phenomenon of the so-called burst growth, occurs in spring and a less marked maximum in autumn, and a marked minimum appears in winter, and also, in a less degree, in early autumn. An experimental for- mula D == 21.8)-%25, where D represents transparency expressed in meters, and V the plankton volume in cc/m.*, has been determined (Fig. 5), although there are involved somewhat unsatisfactory conditions such as the disregard of composition of plankton, the inequality between the values of transparency and the depth of the net haul, ete. REFERENCES (1) J. FUKUOKA and T. Yuss: The Variation of the Oceanic Condition in the Sea Adjacent to Tohoku District. Oceanogr. Mag., Vol. 4, No. 2, 1952. (2) T. NAN’NITI: On the Fluctuation of the Kurosiwo and the Oyasiwo. Papers in Meteor. and Gecphys. (Meteorological Research Institute, Tokyo), Vol. 2, No. 1, 1951. (3) J. FukuoKA and T. Tsurki: On the Variation of the Oceanographic Con- dition of the Sea near the Fixed Point “Hxtra.” Records of Oceanogr. Works in Japan. (Japanese National Commission for Unesco) Vol. 1, No. 1 (New Series), 1953. (4) M. KorzumMi: On the Annual Variation in Oceanographical Elements at a Fixed Point (39°N, 153°E) in the Pacific Ocean. Records of Oceanogr. Works in Japan. (Japanese National Commission for Unesco) Vol. 1, No. 1 (New Series), 1953. CCEANOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SEA IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN 791 Fic. FIG. FIG. IDES FIG. MG O SE RNAIOIN'S 1.—Map showing ‘‘C-line” and the fixed points “Extra” and “Tango.” 2.—Variation in water temperature at different depths. 3.—The variation of the water temperature obtained by taking twelve- month moving average. 4.—Variaticn in chlorinity at different depths. 5.—Relation between transparency and plankton volume. The curve represents D-21.8V—).25, 30S | _ 0051 svi _—_—sC«éOPI eae a: OE! a gj ge = NvFIO WAI S ica) oO Z == Fe ie) <— A, an al S V3S Nv I AY 4 ON | 2 N OCEANOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SEA IN PACIFIC OCEAN 793 Vamces iota) 0 | << =~] EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS nN ny D — = S eae) = — Ln = fe) & — pal — EQ: D & cS xy = Oo) -t om - —)- — 4 oe) a D> mow3tm ONT CN (2) ANjesAadwas 491VM | 11 OCEANOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SEA IN PACIFIC OCEAN 795 Pp aundiy SHL BvéEl YWsA V3 NOW 796 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS O {-0 2-0 3-0 4-0 5-0 “rn V FIGURE 5 DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER AND ZINC IN SEA WATER (1) By YosHim1 Morita Chemical Institute, Faculty of Science Nagoya University, Japan The contents of copper and zinc in the sea water have been repeat- edly determined by many investigators. However, many of the data so far obtained are unfortunately unreliable, owing partly to defects in the methods and their application and partly to contamination from the metallic sampler used and often from insufficient care in handling collected samples. Previously the author developed a procedure in which such defects and contamination can be avoided. He examined 21 samples of the surface waters from Tokyo Bay and Ise Bay (1). Although these waters looked to be contaminated more or less by land drainage, their contents in copper and zinc were found far smaller than the values ever reported. Also it was noticed that their values decreased from the head of the bay towards its mouth, seemingly in parallel with contamination. Naturally we are forced to expect that the far distant waters, free from the effect of land, will give smallest values and the copper value will drop probably below 1 yg/I. Thus the study was extended along this line. First, the surface waters of the “Kuroshio” area were examined in May, 1951 on board No. 5 Kaiyo-maru, a surveying boat of the Hydrographic Office, Mari- time Safety Agency, while at the second time the vertical distribution was determined in Sagami Bay and Suruga Bay in February, 1953, on board Umitaka-maru of the Tokyo University of Fisheries. For collecting surface water a glass sampler was used, which had previously been thoroughly cleaned with special care; while for deep water sampling an Eckmann type sampler, coated with acrylic resin, was devised, taking into consideration that the trials by previous inves- tigators, who used a metallic sampler, failed in getting a satisfactory result, due to probable contamination from the instrument. The deter- mination was carried out by mixed-colour colorimetric titration with dithizone (2). 797 798 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The results, given in Tables I and II, show that 1) The surface waters from Sagami Bay and Suruga Bay are richer in copper and zinc in comparison with those from the “Kuroshio” area, a fact indicating that the former are still affected by land drainage to any measurable extent. 2) The vertical distribution, given in Table II, shows that this contamination is limited to the surface and that the contents of the elements decrease in layers below. 3) Their contents, once decreased, rise up again from 200 m. or thereabout downwards. At the present stage of study it is difficult to decide what is the main factor determining the rise-up observed. How- ever, at least it may be said that here setting free of these elements from dead organisms by decomposition in the course of falling down, contributes to the enrichment in the deeper waters, which is usually the case with other nutrient salts such as phosphate. Unfortunately in the February cruise in 1953, the sampling from the “Kuroshio” area could not be done because of unfavourable condi- tions of the sea. The author is now planning, for the next step of study, an examination of samples from such an area as well as from other bays. Also the study will be extended to far deeper layers than ever examined and further to the seasonal variation of the elements. Efforts are also being made to improve the sampler by which the dura- bility of acrylic resin coating is expected to increase. Deepest thanks are due to Professor K. Sugawara for his guidance and to Dr. K. Suda, Director of Hydrographic Office, Maritime Safety Agency, and Professor M. Uda, the Tokyo University of Fisheries, by whose courtesy the author took advantage of participating in the sur- veying cruises. Also a sincerest condolence must be expressed to the late experts and crewmen of No. 5 Kaiyo-maru who missed, with the ship, the voyage for the exploration of Myojin Reef, which appeared last September because of undersea eruption, in recollecting the warmest help offered by them during my stay on board. TABLE I CorpPpeR AND ZINC IN THE SURFACE WATERS FROM THE ““KUROSHIO” AREA LOocATION DATE Cu peg/) Zn ug/l Sis Bh BYP OG? ING, IBIS ORY 1a May 1, 1951 0.5 1.5 Sin Gh ene CO aie aise all! 33) May 2, 1951 0.6 1.8 St. 4, 38° 16.5’ N, 138° 13.5’ E May 2, 1951 0.7 —_ DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER AND ZINC IN SEA WATER TABLE II VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF COPPER AND ZINC 799 SAGAMI BAY SURUGA BAY (1) Y. Morita, J. Chem. Soc. Japan 71, 246 (1950). (2) Y. Morita, J. Chem. Soc. Japan 69, 174 (1948). Location: 35° 03.8’ N, 139° 21.8’ E Location: 35° 00’ N, 188° 39.1’ E Date: Feb. 12, 1953 Date: Feb. 15, 1953 DEPTH Cu Zn DEPTH Cu Zn m ug/l ug/l ™m ug/l ug/l] 0 0.9 ee 0 0.8 2.3 50 0.6 1.8 50 — — 80 0.8 2.0 80 -= — 100 — — 100 0.6 1.8 200 0.8 2.4 200 0.6 1.9 400 0.9 2.8 400 0.5 4.4 600 0.9 3.0 600 1.0 eaae 1,000 15) 4.2 1,000 —- — REFERENCES ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT By ERWIN SCHWEIGGER Compania Administradora del Guano Lima, Peru The fact that the Peruvian Coast has a temperate and dry climate, although geographically situated in tropical latitude, is known since the Spanish conquest of Peru and northern Chile. The phenomenon of rainless years, especially rainless summers is due to the effects of the cool Peruvian Current which flows slowly along the greater part of the Chilean and almost the whole length of the Peruvian coasts, in the direction to the Equator. It was first explained by Alexander von Humboldt, who believed that this current was derived from the cold polar waters in the Antarctic. Modern investigation, however, proved that the low surface temperatures along that part of the West coast of South America are produced by “upwelling” of water from depths at more or less 130 m. below the surface. (Schott, 1931; Gunther, 1936). In this zone, as in any other place, the most interesting phenomena are brought forth by anomalies which in the Peruvian Current are also observed from time to time. The basis of our knowledge regarding these abnormalities is laid by the description of the occurrences in 1891 and 1925, made by Schott in 1931. They have their origin in changes of the course of the Equatorial Countercurrent in combination with the displacement of the zone of convergence of the trade-winds of the northern and the southern hemisphere, and of the situation of the baro- metric low-pressure-area. Although very little is known regarding the mechanism which originates these changes, we are well informed of the effects it has on the Peruvian Coast. Thunderstorms and heavy rain- falls accompany the change of the hydrographic conditions as far as about 9°S. Further south the coastal plain and the western slopes of the Andes are soaked by rains producing great landslides and destruc- tion of arable soil. Together with such meteorological and hydro- graphic anomalies goes a deep change in the ecologic conditions in the Peruvian Current which leads eventually to a complete destruction of the habitual life in the current. The last of these great catastrophes occurred in 1925, and since then the system of the current and life depending upon its normal con- 801 802 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS ditions were repeatedly subject to invasions of the Equatorial Counter- current with some of its consequences but never in such a degree as reported for the summer of 1925. The author presented to the Sixth Pacific Science Congress in 1939 a paper regarding the hydrographic anomalies observed in that same year and by coincidence he wishes to relate to the same Congress to be held in November 1953 about other, and perhaps even greater, disturbances of the normal conditions in the summer of 1953. It must be said that nearly all reports contained in the oceano- graphic literature about destructive biological changes in the Peruvian Current are extremely exaggerated and generalize the extraordinary events which have been observed only twice during the last 62 years. Some abnormal situations, marked by the emigration of the guano-birds, are recorded for November-December 1912, March 1917, March and June 1923, but only for 1923 is the death in greater extension of fishes mentioned (Lavalle 1917, 1924). Later perturbances occurred in 1932, 1939, 1941, 1951 and the last one just recently in 1953, this, however, without any biological consequences. ‘These are characterized by the emigration of almost all or at least an appreciable part of the guano- birds which occupy the small islands off the Peruvian shores. Nothing has been heard or seen since 1938 of a widespread mortality of fish, except some rare occurrences when fishes still alive were washed ashore (1941), perhaps poisoned or suffocated by lack of oxygen. However, oceanographic perturbances have taken place in all these years and in a lesser degree also in 1949. If it were not for the behavior of the guano-birds, which are carefully watched in view of their importance as producers of guano, one source of Peru's great wealth, the abnormal conditions in the sea would not be noticed. Abnormalities can only be detected by careful hydrographic observations. It is not the intention of this paper to enter into details about the biological changes which take place in years of greater hydrographic perturbances, but only to show the abnormal features of the summer of 1953 in comparison with those of some other years, and to discuss some hydrographic phenomena connected with these disturbances. All the data used for the original charts reproduced herewith are based in their greater part on observations made by the author on board ships of the Guano-Company (Compania Administradora del Guano, Lima), in sailing ships in 1939 and 1941 and complemented by data obtained from merchant vessels navigating along the Peruvian Coast. The data collected are kept in special oceanographic archives of that same Company. It must be stated here that the great merit of the Guano Company, besides the absolute and well planned protection ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 803 given to the guano-birds, consists since the first years of its existence in having initiated and supported scientific investigations related not only to the birds, but also to the whole ecological and hydrological complex in which they live and upon which depends their well-being. Selected from the representation of abnormal situations are the years 1939, 1941 and 1953. Maps concerning the year 1947 which might be looked at as an abnormal year have been inserted. It has been in- cluded only because it shows for the month of March an ample review of the conditions in the outer limits of the Gulf of Guayaquil. All available data have been sampled and averaged in squares of half a degree of geographical latitude and half a degree of geographical longi- tude, and according to the averages thus obtained isotherms were traced. For all the above mentioned years drafted charts are presented for the months of March and April, although in some cases maps refer- ring to February would already show some major anomalies; these, how- ever, have been left out, in order to avoid undue length of this paper. The number of observations on which these maps are based is as follows: 19395) March 131) April 157 1941 4% 619 ‘3 293 1947 ‘ 855 i 681 1953 cf 380 rs 780 An isothermic chart for normal conditions in the Peruvian Coastal Current (Fig. 1) shows the isotherms running parallel with the conti- nental coast, whilst abnormal situations originated by an invasion of the Equatorial Countercurrent in 1891 and 1925 are represented by the almost perpendicular course of the isotherms to the shoreline (Figs. 2 and 3). On the other hand, both of these maps show along the whole Peruvian littoral as far south as Callao (Fig. 2) or a little further than 10° S, temperatures of 26°C, although perhaps in the immediate vici- nity of the coast, lower temperatures may have been present. None of our charts (Figs. 4-7) shows something similar, running all the isotherms more or less parallel to the coast. The highest inshore temperatures have been observed in 1941, but the highest temperatures in the outer part of the Gulf of Guayaquil and also off the southern- most part of Peru were observed in 1953. March 1939 (Fig. 4) shows the nearest approach of a 27° isotherm to the Peruvian coast at 8°S and that of the 26° isotherm at 10°S. The extension of the hydro- graphic perturbance brought forth by the warm waters which evidently came from the north is easily seen by comparing the maps for March 1939, 1941 and 1953 (Figs. 4, 5 and 7), with March 1947 (Fig. 6), where S04 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the outer limits of the Gulf of Guayaquil are completely under the influence of the very far northward reaching outlet of the Peruvian Current, whilst only the inner parts of the Gulf indicate higher tem- peratures belonging to waters which may be able at any moment to form the “real Nifio Current” (Schweigger, 1945). The maps for April (Figs. 8-11) contrast strongly with those for March. It is evident, in all of them, the depression of the sea-surface- temperatures as compared with March. Only in 1953 (Fig. 11) the 26° isotherm was observed nearer to shore than in March of the same year. The diminution of the surface temperatures is especially visible in the southernmost part of the Peruvian littoral and also in the Gulf of Gua- yaquil where all temperatures are reduced. Unfortunately, data are missing for April 1941 north of 9°S and south of 14°30’S, and it is just this year which seems to have shown the greatest anomaly of all the years since 1925. The extended voyage of the author to the region W of Pisco (12°-14°S) allowed him to trace the isotherms over a great area in the open sea, and it must be deduced from the distribution of the hourly observed surface-temperatures that in April 1941 the iso- therms for 26°, 25° and 24°C had a course nearly perpendicular to the continental coast, at least from a certain distance on, being space left for lower temperatures along the Peruvian shore. Three parts of the coast deserve our greatest interest: The Gulf of Guayaquil, the area included by the latitudes 9° and 10°S and the region between Atico-Ilo-Arica. The position of the isotherms in the Gulf of Guayaquil for March and April 1953 (Figs. 7 & 11) leaves no room to doubt that the high sea temperatures are derived from the NW, which can only mean an advance of the Equatorial Countercur- rent, corroborated also by low salinities. In March 1939, as in March and April 1947 (Figs. 4, 6 and 10), the highest temperatures in this zone belong without doubt to the interior parts of the Gulf and extend from there to the W and SW. The conditions in April 1939 and in March 1941 (Figs. 8 and 9) cannot be determined satisfactorily in view that observations are available only for one route of navigation, al- though in March 1941 the highest sea temperature (27.5°C) was observed E of 81°W whilst in the half-degree-square just W of that meridian the surface temperature was found half a degree lower (27.0°C). The warm waters south of Cabo Blanco, and especially those southwest of Aguja Point, must be brought in connection with the open ocean, but not with certainty with the Equatorial Countercurrent, although in March 1941 very low salinity was observed between 8° and 6°30/’S which induced one to believe that these waters had come from the Equatorial Countercurrent. But as these titrations of salinity had to ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 805 be made without control by standard-seawater, their true oceanographic value cannot be emphasized. The revision of the charts regarding the region between 3° and 4°S leads to distinguish two different movements of warm water north, northwest and northeast of Cabo Blanco. Figures 4, 6, 10 and perhaps also Figure 5 show the expansion of warm waters from the inner part of the Gulf of Guayaquil. These surround frequently Cabo Blanco in a southerly direction and are then identifiable as far as 5°S, sometimes even further, to the south by higher temperatures, lower salinity and a different fauna (especially fishes) (Schweigger, 1943, 1945), but are without any climatic influence on the northern territories of Peru (Zo- rell 1928). Such a southerly flow of warm water is not only produced in summer months, it may happen in any month of the year. Contrasting with these features are the maps for 1953 (Figs. 7 and 11) in which the warm water without any doubt is coming from the northwest. Such a direction of the flow is also indicated in Figure 2 (1891) and this is evidently also the meaning of the charts in Figure 3 (1925). Such a situation seems to be characteristic for the major disturbances in the outer parts of the Gulf of Guayaquil with the conse- quent production of climatic abnormalities at least in the northern parts of Peru. A rapid fall of surface temperatures near Cabo Blanco and south of it indicates the presence of warm water derived from the interior of the Gulf of Guayaquil, whilst on the other side high inshore tempera- tures between Cabo Blanco and Aguja Point are connected with the inrush of warm water from the northwest, which comes from the open South Pacific Ocean or the Equatorial Countercurrent. Following this differentiation, it seems possible to attribute the high temperatures between 4° and 6°S shown for March 1941 (Fig. 5) to the influence from northwestern areas. The second interesting feature in these maps is the pressure of warm water against the coastline between 9° and 10° and sometimes 11°S. This is most impressively represented in April 1953 (Fig. 11) but can be deduced to a greater or lesser extent from many of our maps and even so from Figure 3. An elevation of the surface temperatures at the south or the southwest of Chimbote is observed almost regularly throughout the year. The zone of warm water seems to be connected with a countercurrent which spreads out south and southeastward in coastal areas and is known by all navigators by its accelerating effect when sailing from Huarmey on a southerly course. Repeated observa- tions have shown that the water entering there is of higher salinity than the normal inshore water, so that it seems justified to consider £06 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS the space S and SW of Chimbote, or W of Huarmey as one of the most susceptible zones for the entrance of warm oceanic waters with the tendency to spread out, not only in the direction of the flow of the Peruvian Current, but also in the opposite direction (sometimes with a wide-reaching influence on fisheries). The presence of warm water in this part near the coast is also shown in the isophletic diagram published by Schott (1931) for the abnormal period of March 1925. The diagram reveals that the ships passing between 8° and 10°S registered in almost all voyages higher tempera- tures than those observed further north. This held true in April 1953 (Fig. 11) when temperatures of 26.5°C west of Chimbote were higher than the temperature found about 3 days later off Cabo Blanco. The possible heating influence of this zone upon the southward warm water flow, recorded in 1925, has been mentioned by the author in an earlier paper (Schweigger, 1949). According to his own repeated experiences and the frequent obser- vations made by merchant ships in all months of the year in this zone, the author came to the conclusion that the advance of the warm waters must be directed to the northeast as it is also suggested by Figures 4, 6 and 11. But nearly every one of our maps referring to summer months shows at the NW or at the west of Chimbote the curvature of the iso- therms, especially of those for 27° and 26° and 25° with its axis directed to the SE, as if the warm water were rushing in from NW (see also Fig. 3 for comparison). ‘This, however, is a problem whose discussion may be taken up later. Perhaps more interesting still is the region in the extreme south of the Peruvian littoral which could be circumscribed as situated between Atico-Ilo-Arica and Iquique (see Fig. 12). The center of this zone seems to be the area off Ilo, from where the warm water makes its appearance and then disperses partly in direction N and NW (together with the Current) and partly to the southeast, turning outside Arica southward and making itself discernible as far as the latitude of Iquique in the form of a “tongue” of warm water keeping always at a certain distance off shore. The author has been able to corroborate such a distribution of surface-temperatures in different opportunities travelling between Iqui- que and Peruvian ports mostly during winter months, when tempera- tures in this “tongue” were not so high to make it difficult to correlate them with other temperatures in more northerly zones of the Peruvian coast. But although this paper is really not so much concerned with the southerly flow of warm water in northern Chile, it may not be superfluous to illustrate such a situation by means of Figure 12, which at ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 807 the same time serves to underline the difficulty to understand the move- ments which bring these high temperatures to the zone between Ho and Arica. Figure 12 differs from the other charts in so far as it combines the observations of only two ships which sailed the whole Peruvian and part of the Chilean coast from Talara to Iquique during 20 days (16th of February to 8th of March 1948). The map contains also some earlier observations made by the northbound vessel off Cabo Blanco and in the interior of the Gulf of Guayaquil (8/9 of February) in order to represent a typical distribution of high sea temperatures in the zone of Cabo Blanco and northeast of it. Both these ships passed, according to a previous understanding, a zone situated 80-90 miles W of Pisco in order to obtain information about the conditions there at this time of the year. The comparison between the observations registered W of the northern part of the Peruvian shore (4°-6°S) and those made while sailing from Talara to Callao, suggests that a very strong inva- sion of warm water must have taken place in the 8 days between 9th and 17th of February which shoved the 24° isotherm more or less 90 miles to the SE. The most interesting feature of Figure 12 is the appear- ance of the temperature of 26.2°C off Arica (27th of February) whilst neither the first boat passing the zone W of Pisco (16th of February) nor the second one (7th of March) observed more than 25.3°C. Between these dates the warm water off Pisco had expanded, but it cannot be said if its extension found on the 7th of March was already diminished after having reached a culmination in the foregone days or if the ex- pansion was a steady one during all the time. The high temperatures off Arica place before us the following problem: If they are connected and how far with the invasion of warm water in 6°-7°S, or the other one in 13°-14°S. That the temperature registered off Arica was a recent one, can be concluded from the fact that data obtained in the same half-degree-squares before and after the sailing from Iquique prove that the water was cooler between the 22nd and 24th than between the 26th and 27th of February. It seems undeniable that such a “tongue” of warm water as showr: in Figure 12 and which is also confirmed by a series of maps in a recent paper by Bini (1952) must have its origin in the region situated between Ilo and Arica. It seems difficult, however, to trace back the warm water and connect it with waters still warmer in further northern parts of the Ocean. It seems possible to draw the isotherms for 25°C in 17° and 18°S (Figs. 4, 7 and 12) in such a manner that they join the iso- therms for the same temperatures at the N or NW of Callao. The author does not feel that such a course might be considered correct. 808 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS April 1941 (Fig. 9) shows for example that the isotherms for 26°, 25° and 24° at the peak of the invasion of the warm waters must have had a direction from approximately WSW-ENE. It seems improbable that they turn further offshore to the direction NW-ES in order to show up again off Ilo and Arica. Should we believe that the high temperatures reach this region as consequence of the invasion of warm waters from the NW and are curtailed when the invasion reaches the culminating point (isotherms stressed out WSW-ENE), or is there a steady flux of new warm water from another source? We must also take in account that the elevation of temperature off Mollendo-Arica is practically a constant phenomenon, although the amplitude of the varia- tion of temperature is less in winter time. On the other hand, according to the map published by Schott and Schu, (quoted from Gunther, 1936), surface temperatures of 22°-20° are traced as belonging to the latitudes 17°-20°S in the open ocean far away from the Continental Coast, deflected, however, some 1200 miles offshore in the NE direction, by the northerly movement of the waters along the coast of South America. Their position during March 1891 and 1925, makes us look with awe at the overwhelming forces of the Equatorial Countercurrent, which stemmed back these isotherms to their position in the outer ocean over an area of nearly 1200 miles wide in those latitudes. We see now that none of the perturbances of 1939, 1941 and 1953 can be compared with the catastrophes of 1891 and 1925, which for their part restituted for a short time the hydrographical and meteorological situation corresponding to the geographical latitudes of the coast involved, where the cool water of the Peruvian Current has created a thermic anomaly of such a magnitude. None of our maps entitles us to draw the isotherms in the zone off Ilo-Arica-Iquique in the same manner as for 1891 and 1925. The iso- therm for 25° situated there has therefore been left open without sug- gesting any solution of our problem. Nevertheless, it might be possible to look for an explanation of this phenomenon off Ilo and Arica, and the other one, created by the warm water off Chimbote, in the hypothesis of Gunther (1936). He supposes the existence of two different countercurrents, “warm wedges’, off the Peruvian Coast which flow in a southeasterly direction, one start- ing more or less off Aguja Point and reaching as far as the latitude of Callao and the other one coming out of a region WSW of Pisco and entering near the coast just off the bay of Arica. Both these counter- currents transport, according to the view of Gunther, warm water from the NW to the SE. The author of this paper has objected (1943) against the existence of these two “warm wedges’, because Gunther cor- ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 809 relates observations which are too far apart, not only in space but also in time by many days and even by weeks. This is a procedure which does not seem advisable in a current system exposed to so many and so sudden changes, as Gunther himself had to admit. During all his nu- merous voyages in the Peruvian Current, the author only once came across a situation which could induce him to accept the idea of Gunther (1943, p. 242). On the other hand the fact must not be overlooked that Gunther made his investigations in the Peruvian Current in the winter of 1931 between the warm summer of that same year and the still warmer one of the year 1932, so that the countercurrents appeared to be the result of some unstable situation in the Current, an idea which might be sup- ported by our maps which show that in all of the abnormal years the warm temperatures advanced more or less in the same sense as proposed by Gunther (the line of the least resistance?). The northerly axis of these “warm wedges” runs parallel with the axis of the bend of the iso- therms for the high temperatures which according to our maps seem to advance in direction to Chimbote, Huarmey or even Callao; there is only a slight difference insofar as the main axis of Gunthers counter- current lies a bit further to the south and west than ours. It should, however, be taken into account that Gunther’s observations have been made during winter months, whilst our figures are all referring to sum- mer time. The southerly countercurrent constructed by Gunther does not co- incide, as well as the northerly one does, with the apparent movements of warm water to the SE; but it would be possible to accept this theory of Gunther’s as a working hypothesis. The author must repeat that the Peruvian reconnaissance could not yet be widened so far out at sea as to prove or deny for any time of the year the existence of such countercurrents, and it must be borne in mind that the Guano Company has to make great sacrifices for all the research work done. ‘The voyages made by the author took place during the routine travelling of the ships of the Guano Company, which allowed their captains, with a fine under- standing of the scientific requirements, to take different courses from the normal ones, according to the wishes of the author in order to make hydrographic investigations, mostly in correlation with the more important biological factors. But even if we accept the warm wedges of Gunther, the problem is not yet resolved because the same Gunther has not been able to answer exactly the questions as to where these countercurrents are coming from. As his view of the conditions was limited to the winter months, it seems possible that for the summer time the origin of these &10 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS countercurrents may lay further off shore and to the north, as he indi- cates, so that at least the northerly one might perhaps be brought in contact under still unknown conditions with the Equatorial Counter- current. But as for the southerly one, there seems to be no other ex- planations as a bending of the isotherms in the open ocean from their run SW-NE to the course NW-SE. ‘These problems must be left open to further investigations. PUBLICATIONS CITED Bint, G. 1952. Osservazioni sulla fauna marina delle coste del Chile e del Peru con speciale riguarde alle specie ittiche in generale ed al Tonni in particolare. Bol. di Pesca, Piscicoltura e Idrobiologia. Ato XXVIII, Vol. VII (n-s.), pp. 3-52. GUNTHER, E. R. 1936. A Report on Oceanographical Investigations in the Peru Coastal Current. Discovery Reports, Vol. XIII, pp. 107-276 DE LAVALLE, J. A. 1917. Informe preliminar sobre la causa de la mortali- dad de aves ocurrida en el mes de marzo del presente ano. Mem. Comp. Adm. Guano, VIII, pp. 61-84. 1924. Estudio de la emigracién de las aves guaneras ocurrida en los meses de mayo y junio del ano 1923. Mem. Com. Adm. Guano, XV, pp. 94-107. SCHWEIGGER, E. 1939. Studies of the Peru Coastal Current with reference to the extraordinary summer of 1939. Proc. 6th Pac. Scie. Cong. III, pp. 177-195. 1943. Pesqueria y Oceanografia del Pert. Lima. ———-—— 1945. La “Legitima Corriente del Nino”. Bol. Com. Adm. Guano, Vol. XXI, pp. 225-296. 1949. Der Perustrom nach zwoelfjaehrigen Beobachtungen. Erdkunde, Bd. III, pp. 121-132, 229-241. ScHoTT, G. 1931. Der Peru Strom ... Ann. Hydr., pp. 161-169, 200- 213, 240-252. ZORELL, F. 1928. Der “El Nino-Strom” im Jahre 1925. Ann. Hydr., LVI, pp. 166-175. —-—_ ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 811 TOI eae ae an ans « ACES AS IN PE Ag (From Bini) FIGURE 1 20° rz + b00b. Stromrichtung Jim Stérungsjahr 1891 -..erganzte = (From Schott) FIGURE 2 Si2 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS a NCSC ESO a OEP rT FIGURE 3 toe aie eB a © eee Ce ONS ie ee es ee eos Bn Ce ae eee one, Reems Pena emma EE Gee FIGURE 4 ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 813 Q TUADI ST G aUNDILT EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS Cin. Zac Re. rie ch eee es Crk He Ee NCAA FIGURE 8 FIGURE 7 ABNORMAL SUMMERS IN THE PERUVIAN COASTAL CURRENT 815 y i=) a LAG ~ = = ! Ay J BY a4 & _ = Ea | ie FIGURE 10 816 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS SAQA Vas FIGURE 12 FIGURE 11 QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF TUNGSTEN AND MOLYBDENUM IN SEA WATER By MasayosuH1 IsHiBaAsHI, TSUNEBOBU SHIGEMATSU and YASUHARU NAKAGAWA Kyoto University, Japan As an amount of molybdenum in sea water, the values obtained by Ernst et al.(1), Bardet et al.(2) and Ishibashi et al. (3) are about 0.3, 3 and 10 pg per kg. of sea water respectively. Tungsten has been detected in sea water, but the amount of it is not yet quantified. From the regularities of the amount of elements dissolving in sea water (4), Ishibashi and Shigematsu calculated and pre- sumed the amounts of molybdenum and tungsten dissolved in sea water as about 10 »g Mo/1. and 0.4 pg W/1. We determined the amounts of molybdenum and tungsten in sea water and found that the amount of molybdenum was almost same as that previously obtained by our thiocyanate method (3), and the amount -of tungsten was about 0.1 »g per |. of sea water. ]. COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF [TUNGSTEN AND MOLYBDENUM We studied on the colorimetric procedure for trace amounts of tungsten and molybdenum by dithiol (toluene-3,4-dithiol) and estab- lished the conditions necessary and satisfactory to obtain accurate results. Reagents: Dithiol solution; dissolved 0.2 g. of dithiol in 100 ml. of N-NaOH, freshly prepared, or stored under H, atmosphere. ‘The solution is stable for 2 months under H,. Standard tungstate solution; 10 »g W/ml. and 10.0 pg W/ml. Standard molybdate solution; 10 »g Mo/m1l. and 10.0 »g Mo/ml. Procedure: The solution containing molybdenum and tungsten was diluted to 50.0 ml. The 25.0 ml. aliquot of the solution was acidified with 2 ml. cf N-HCI, then 1 ml. of dithiol solution was added to it, and heated on boiling water for about 10 minutes. After cooling, the resultant dithiol complexes were extracted with 10 ml. of butylacetate. The color intensity of butylacetate solution (Extinction E,) was measured by using Pulfrich Photometer, the cell length 2 cm., the filter S661. To the 817 818 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS other 25 ml. aliquot, 1 ml. of 10% citric acid solution and 2 ml. of N-HCI were added, then 1 ml. of dithiol solution and heated on boiling water for 10 minutes. And the molybdenum complex was extracted with 10 ml. of butylacetate. The color intensity (Extinction E,) was measured as above. The amounts of tungsten and molybdenum were calculated from the following equations: pe W =.58.8 x (E, — E,) pg Mo = 83.0 X (E, — 0.040) It was found that through this procedure 1-40, of molybdenum and tungsten can be determined within £0.5y ‘of error, and this meas- urements are only interfered by the presence of iron and copper. 2. CONCENTRATION OF MOLYBDENUM AND TUNGSTEN IN SEA WATER For the purpose of separating and concentrating the molybdenum and tungsten in sea water, we utilize the coprecipitation method as follows: To 0.5-15 1. of artificial sea water (5), 1-3 ml. of HNO, and 200 mg. of ferric iron as ferric nitrate solution were added. Then 50-100 ml. of 1M hexamethylenetetramine solution was added, and allowed to stand overnight to settle the precipitate. The precipitate was filtered, dried and ashed in platinum crucible at low temperature lower than 500°C. ‘The residue was fused with small amounts of the fusing mix- ture (Na,CO, + K.CO, 1:1). The fused mass was_taken up with 10-20 ml. of hot water, and filtered. The filtrate was just neutralized with 4N-H,SO, to litmus.* The results obtained are shown in Table I, nos. 1-9. Determination of tungsten in the presence of large amounts of molybdenum: In the presence of large amounts of molybdenum (>10 x W), tungsten was determined inaccurately by the above proce- dure. In sea water, the amount of molybdenum may be about 30 times larger than that of tungsten (4), so molybdenum was separated as sul- fide from tungsten as follows: To the neutral solution *, 1 ml. of 50% citric acid solution and 5 drops of 4N-H.SO, were added, and H,S bub- bled vigorously for a few minutes. The sulfide was filtered through a small filter, and washed with H,S water. The filtrate was evaporated to a few ml., filtered again through the filter, if necessary, and washed with hot water; and the solution was dried up in a platinum crucible. The residue was ashed with a small amount of sodium carbonate and fused. ‘The mass was taken up in hot water and just neutralized with H.SO,. ‘The solution was diluted to 50.0 ml., and the amount of tungs- ten and residual molybdenum was determined as above. * Residual molybdenum. DETERMINATION OF TUNGSTEN AND MOLYBDENUM IN SEA WATER 819 The results obtained are shown in Table I, Nos. 10--16 TABLE I RECOVERY OF Mo AND W No | “W Appr (ue) Mo ApbpED (pe) W Founp (ug) | Mo Founp (ug) 1 0.0 | 0.0 0.0 0.0 2 30.0 | 0.0 29.1 | 0.0 3 0.0 30.0 0.0 99.3 4 5.0 10.0 4.9 9.3 Sita 10.0 | 10.0 | 8.9 | 2.0 Gal 10.0 | 20.0 12.5 18.3 vi 10.0 30.0 Bol 28.0 Ss 20.0 20.0 18.5 18.3 Diep 30.0 30.0 28.0 26.9 NOat aa 0.0 1000 | <0.2 13.2 * 11 20.0 | 1000 18.0 7.1 * 12 30.0 1000 30.6 3.5 * 13 30.0 1000 O71 10.6 * 14 30.0 1000 28 | 6.8 * 15 30.0 1000 26.8 10.8 * 16 30.0 1000 26.4 | 10.6 * * Residual molybdenum. The recoveries of molybdenum and tungsten in this procedure are both about 90%. 3. DETERMINATION OF MOLYBDENUM AND TUNGSTEN IN SEA WATER About 50 1. of the sample water was taken, and acidified with 6 ml. of nitric acid; 400 mg. of ferric iron was added as ferric nitrate and thoroughly mixed. To the solution, 200 ml. of hexamine nitrate was added and thoroughly mixed. To the solution, 200 ml. of hexamine solution (containing 100 gr. of hexamine) was treated as above men- tioned, and the amounts of tungsten and residual molybdenum were determined. Molybdenum sulfide in the filter was ashed at low temperature and dissolved in sodium hydroxide. Then the amount of molybdenum was colorimetrically determined by the dithiol method. The results obtained are shown in Table II. TABLE II tee | Mo Founpb SEA WATER TAKEN | W FOUND | Residual | Sulfide Sum ug | ug | ug ug 40 1. | sro ts Nl tG 340 351.6 60 1. ee 90. MRE ISS) lol. 3598 651.6 | | 4014+ 5.0u¢ W | 8.97 $20 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS The sea water was sampled on June 13th, 1952, offshore at Shira- hama, Wakayama prefecture, Japan. As seen from Table II, the molybdenum content of the sampled tungsten content is 0.10, 0.15 and 0.11 »g/1., in the average 0.12 pg/1. We wish to thank Dr. T. Tokioka, of the Seto Marine Research, Kyoto University, for his help in sampling the sea water. LITERATURE CITED (1) Ernst, HorMANN. Brit. Chem. Abst., I. A. 99 (1938). (2) BARDET, TCHAKIRIAN et LAGRAGE. Compt. rend., 206, 450 (1938). (3) ISHIBASHI, SHIGEMATSU and NAKAGAWA. (In press.) (4) ISHIBASHI and SHIGEMATSU. Bull. Inst. Chem. Res., Kyoto Univ., 27, 42 (1951). (5) LYMAN and FLEMING. J. Marine Research, 3, 134 (1940). A STUDY ON ‘TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY OF THE SURROUNDING WATERS OF TAIWAN By Cuu Tsu-yao Taiwan Weather Bureau, Taipei, Taiwan I. INTRODUCTION Taiwan lies 150 km. off the coast of Fukien and is now a province of China. It consists of a main island and many small ones. The main island, widely known as Formosa, resembles a spindle extending from north to south with a coast line about 1500 km. The Penghu or Pes- cadores is a group of islands in the middle of the Taiwan Channel. Other small islands such as Penkiayu, Lanyu, Lotao, etc. are found in the vicinities along the north and east coasts of the main island. The main island of Taiwan stands on the edge of the continental shelf of Asia and some of the small islands are of volcanic origin. The depths of the surrounding waters are, therefore, strictly different be- tween the east and west sides of the island. In the Pacific ocean off the east coast, the slope of the bottom is very steep and the deep water reaches close to the island. At some places such as Hwalien and Tai- tung, the bathymetric line of 3000 meters is within 100 km. from the coast. On the other hand, the water in the Taiwan Channel is very shallow and in most parts of it the depths are below 100 meters. The topography of the bottom is very irregular and numerous rocks, reefs and banks rise from the bottom and some of them are exposed to the open air during the time of low tide. In the East China Sea off the north coast of the island, the depths are also less than 200 meters. It is much deeper in the South China Sea where we can find the deep water over 3000 meters. Taiwan is located in the subtropical zone of the West Pacific where the North Equatorial Current turns northward and becomes the source region of the “Kuroshio” with properties of warm current. The main {low of the Kuroshio passes along the east coast of Taiwan and curves eradually northeastward far to the coast of Japan. A small part of the Kuroshio runs westward through the Bashi Channel and, after passing it, divides to two branches. One enters into the South China Sea while the other runs northward around the west coast of the island and re- joins the main flow of the Kuroshio in the East China Sea. Along the coast of Fukien province, there is a different system of current running from north to south. It has the name of China Coastal Current, and 821 822 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS it originates from the coast of North China and is reimforced by the outflows from the Chinese mainland. ‘The properties of this current vary in different seasons. The water temperature is much higher dur- ing the summer time and cooler in the winter time. The climate of Taiwan is mild with a small seasonal variation of air temperature, but the distribution of rainfall is variable at different places. During the rainy season there are great outflows from the island which influence greatly both the water temperature and salinity along the coast. With the vast area of outstretching waters surrounding the island, Taiwan is a suitable place to serve as a base ground for oceanographical investigations. Owing to the shortage of funds and technical experts, research works have not been conveniently carried out during the past few years. The writer can only make a brief study on the distribution and seasonal variation of water temperature and salinity of the sur- rounding waters of Taiwan with all the data available. II. SuRFACE WATER TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY ALONG THE COAST Coastal observations of water temperature and salinity are made at nine stations situated all around the island as shown in Figure 1. The average monthly values of each station are listed in Tables I and I, which have been prepared from records covering more than ten years. At the station of Penkiayu, which is situated at the coast of a small island some 100 km. off the north coast of the island, the water temperature is similar to the open seas. It reaches its minimum in February and maximum in July with a yearly mean of 23.2°C. and a small annual range of 7.5°C. The seasonal variation of salinity is also small and the yearly mean is 33.86 °/ 9. The stations of Fukuikiao, Keelung and Bidiukiao are all found on the north coast of the main island. At these places the water tem- peratures are influenced by the outflows from the island. Their annual ranges are greater than Penkiayu, 1., 12.2°C. for Fukuikiao, 10.9°C. for Keelung and 10.0°C. for Bidiukiao. The minimum and maximum water temperatures are also found in February and July respectively. Mean values of salinity are little lower than Penkiayu; they are also influenced by outflows from the island. Along the east coast of the island, there are two stations, Hwalien and Singkang. These two stations approach more to the south and the warm current of Kuroshio comes very near to the coast. It makes the water temperatures a little higher and the annual ranges are 5.8°C. for Hwalien and 4.9°C. for Singkang. The salinity of Hwalien is 32.34 °/o, and that of Singkang is 34.07 °/ 0. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY—WATERS OF TAIWAN $23 The station of Ngulerbei is situated at the south tip of the island stretching into the Bashi Channel. The water temperature is high and the annual range is small, that is 25.5°C. and 6.0°C. respectively. The mean salinity is 33.89 °/,, with a small seasonal variation. Kiaoshiung is a station along the southwest coast of the island facing the Taiwan Channel. The yearly mean of water temperature of 25.7°C. is the highest value among all the stations, and its annual range of 8.0°C. is also higher than the stations along the east coast. The seasonal variation of salinity is very much pronounced as it reaches its maximum of 33.82°/,, in December and falls even to 24.07 °/,. in August. ‘The reason is that at the southwest part of the island, it is very dry during the winter time and there are almost no cutflows at all. But during the summer time the rainfall is quite heavy. Peitao is a small island of the Pescadores located in the middle part of the Taiwan Channel. At that station, the yearly mean water temperature is 23.3°C., lower than at the southern stations of the main island. ‘The annual range of 8.9°C. is little higher. ‘This district is the most dry region of Taiwan, rainfall is very scarce during all sea- sons. ‘Therefore it shows a higher monthly salinity and has a mean salinity Of 33.82 °/ oo. III. SuRFACE WATER TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY OF THE OPEN SEAS As the oceanographical investigations of the surrounding waters of Taiwan were interrupted, from the beginning of World War II, we can only find some records of surface water temperature and salinity observations made before the War. The writer has made an exami- nation of these data and gives a brief discussion below. The surface water temperature of the surrounding waters of Tai- wan is greatly influenced by the Pacific warm current of the Kuroshio and by the China Coastal Current. During the winter time, the tem- perature of the coastal current is much lower than that of the Furoshio, and very close isotherms are arranged from the coast of Chinese main- land to the southeast. In summer, the water temperature of the coastal current is warmed almost up to the same level as the Kuroshio. There are only a few lines of isotherms which make the distribution very simple. In Figure 2, showing the distribution of water temperature in February, we can see the lowest temperature of 10°C. along the north part of the China coast. It increases gradually southeastward and reaches the maximum temperature of 26°C. off the southeast coast of the island. At the south entrance of the Taiwan Channel, isotherms 824 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS curve to the north near the coast of Taiwan, which shows the warm water entering into the Channel. At the north entrance of the Chan- nel, the isotherms curve to the west. It also shows the influence of warm current but there are still outflows from the Channel close along the north coast of the island. The water temperature of the China Coastal Current in May is warmed up and we can find the lowest temperature of 20°C. along the north part of the coast (Fig. 3). It increases gradually southeastward and reaches its maximum of 28°C. In the Taiwan Channel the iso- therms are parallel to the China Coast, but they turn gradually to pa- rallel with the latitudes off the south and east coast of the island. From this distribution of water temperature we can find out that there are still inflows of warm current at the south entrance of the Taiwan Chan- nel along the west coast of the island. But at the north entrance of the Channel the China Coastal Current seems more intense and the warm current leaves farther to the east. The distribution of surface water temperature in August, which is shown in Figure 4, looks very simple. ‘There are only two lines of isotherm in the figure. The isotherm of 27°C. is along the north part of the China Coast, while that of 28°C. separates the coast of the is- land of Taiwan. ‘They all run from southwest to northeast. In this month, the water temperatures of both the China Coastal Current and the Kuroshio reach their maximum, but the former, coming from the higher latitudes, is comparatively cooler than the latter, which comes from the lower latitudes. In the month of November, the surface water temperature along the north part of the China Coast drops down to 20°C. It increases gradually to the southeast, as shown in Figure 5, in which we can find that the isotherm of 26°C. is very close to the south and east coast of the island. But the isotherm of 27°C. is far to the southeast, leaving a great space to the isotherm of 26°C. From this manner of distribu- tion it may be considered that the temperature of the main flow of the Kuroshio is around 27°C. and is mixed with the cooler water in the Taiwan Channel and the East China Sea. The seasonal variation of salinity of surface water in surrounding waters of ‘Taiwan is not so great as that of temperature. ‘The writer gives two sketches here to show the distributions of salinity in Febru- ary and August. In Figure 6, showing the distribution of salinity in February, we can find that in the east and south of ‘Taiwan the salinity is more than 34.5 °/,), which coincides with the salinity of the Kuro- shio. In the Taiwan Channel, the salinity decreases gradually toward TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY—WATERS OF TAIWAN 825 the coast of the mainland of China, reaching a lowest salinity of 30.0 °/o9, which is influenced by coastal waters. The salinity off the east and south coast of the island in August is a little lower than in February. The iso aline of 34.5 °/,, leaves farth- er to the east, as shown in Figure 7. ‘The lowering of salinity at that region is contributed to the plentifulness of rainfall during that season. Very close to the coast of the island of ‘Taiwan we find still lower sa- linity below 32.0°/,, and 33.0°/,,. It may be contributed to the effect of outflows from the island. In the Taiwan Channel, the salinity de- creases toward the coast of the Chinese mainland, where we find the lowest salinity of 31.5°/,,. This value is a little higher than in Feb- ruary. It is, perhaps, the result of intense evaporation effected by the high water temperature. IV. CONCLUSION From the above discussion, we can see the general feature of the seasonal distribution of surface water temperature and salinity in sur- rounding waters of Taiwan. It is clear that these variations are greatly influenced by the properties of different systems of currents. Unfor- tunately, we can not get enough data to find out the vertical distribu- tion of these two elements and, therefore, it is impossible to form a whole idea about the nature of the currents. It needs more data of observation and further investigations to solve the problem. 68 6&6 8°61 T'&3 GSS G96 L°9G GLE 696 9'VG V'GG L°06 661 S81 OB}IOG — 0°9 G'a¢ G66 SVS 9°96 0°86 0°86 G86 T'86 L°96 S'S GEG T'636 GZS oqteNSN *) 6 VSG 6°66 8G V'9G LS VLG LL} OLS 6 9G L'VG LSS GES 8'2Z 49 suUBYSUIS “9 8S V'G¢ 8°96 G6 T'96 ILS VLS SLE GLE L°G6 CVG 66S V'GS 0°66 UoTTeMH “GS TOT PGS GrS ilies ae Lak CVG P'9G 6°96 LG G96 GEG 0°06 st Sa OST = CVI pla 7 6 0T 666 G'8T OTS 8°86 696 GLE SLs 6°96 O'S G06 ILI 6°9T Salt sun[eey “g ool GGG 81 GIG CVG P96 GLE V'86 GLE V'¥G 6°06 681 GOT SLE OvBIyinyny % ui! 8 Gh G&G $93 CLG 196 6°66 S16 60% 6°61 G06 ndelyuod SONVY NVI ‘oad “AON ‘LOO ‘Lads ‘DAW A1N¢ aNQae AVIN Wd VIAL aa ‘NVE NOMVLS NOILLVIS 40 ANVN 40 ‘ON EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS AIOLVAGING], WLVM DOvANAS JO SANIVA NVA I AITaViL 827 TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY—WATERS OF TAIWAN OETOd = 16 suntysoery ‘8 foqtaynsN *L BUBYySUIG “9 usTjean 6g OBNIplg © oRIyIMyN, v sunjeey “es G nAviyusg ‘T G8°SE 9L'SS OPE B8LE 6Veo e yase Skés = STS? 9EVS PETS VEPs “Shs ose T&0& 28es LOSE 82S G966 LOVS IMLS I9686 BLIE PEOCE YECE BETE 69°E 68°SE 9G°7E 8688 SSE GLE passe Ease PGES ESHPS SSPE 69VE PEPE LIVE LOVE crprs ere sess egse LOSS B88SE OPE PEPE YEVE BPVVE ITIVE OIE VEss osss 0228 L80S PPIS LETS GCE OFCE G6ECE CECE YOEE B80SE IEEs V9'SE 6oVS 9LEE | CPyse =Voce. OOS OSS) GES “99S. SLES JOSS Vaicce Sos 6T SS 6Tes 9OFSS PSS STSE Gees SasSE PVVEE BEE GEE ICE LOGE ITGEE 6G && SL’'es 68°88 PES ZO'ES LL PAE CECE PVHESE G6CE B88CE TOEE GLEE 98°SE espe pes ug9ee 9988 TESS OFS PLES G6BSE ELVES T8rE ETE GLE NVSIN ‘oad “AON ‘LWO "Laas ony = XIN aNof AVIA ‘Udy aI aa NVE NOILVLS NOILVLS 40 GWYN 40 ‘ON ALINITVS dO SANIVA NVA Il ATaV iL UBB: Pet ok ct Alt =e = EpEEY. yf d ak NRT ED te vat Gy : : = eae Seana Spat 2 ey a. a a is 829 TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY—WATERS OF TAIWAN ot el ot el orl 81) | TINNVHO |IHSVE oeytag ° Buntysoeyy ° IS oy 6 g BueyButs °9 uayTeMy °S oepinipla “F Bunyaoy °C oeyyynyng °2 nheyyuag *T IOF7BIS JO sweN dO GNVINIVA VIS VNIHD LSVF | jo weaeon, “18a 4 | S | oP e/ ott/ 90e/ EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS OO WNIHO dO ONVINIVW Aieniqay uy ainzeraduay 19484 IezAINS JO uotinat4ystq *Z “bry OF TAIWAN 831 WATERS TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY or e/ “92 VIS-YMI1EV: ova of @s pane ae 008? Sattar & °8// | O8F VNIHO JO ONV INIVA fey uy einzeladway 13,24 sezans yo uozyngyiystq “¢ “Bty EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 832 ONVINIVW ysnbny uy ainjesed Way 133BmM BezJINc Jo uorynqy4aisiq “p “bry 835 TAIWAN OF SALINITY-—WATERS TEMPERATURE AND ok f/ o%e/ Pk 2A o8// ote oh QNVINIVA Taquaaoy uy oft CF 4 einzeiadway 12384 eezang jo uoyingyaystq °S “bry oft/ ote 9027 \ote EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS eee) Ro _ 0€&/ e0f/ a | ’ é TINNVHD JAHSVE ¢ & ote o88 obZ 4O ONVINIVIN It Azeniqag uz Aypuryes Jo UOT{nqyI}stq “9 ‘Bey ot 2/ o%Z/ TAIWAN 835 WATERS OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY ote eh 09% er ES VIS VM (2 sB09/ i oer Ke ot es oOZ/ 73NN vo I ? ae 918 Say oee/ o : svg Ae o’ee Fo uopynqT43stq VNIHO dO ONV INIA qsnBny uz Agyuypes as ak a eine fagureee ent aN ial A chy da wil ied Pr sid is Sine n hy Laine Biro: cn ON THE FLUCTUATION OF THE KUROSIWO AND THE OYASTIWO By ‘Tosio NAN’NITI Meteorological Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT Using the area occupied by the oceanic current in a fixed section, the author represents on a graph the intensity of the Kurosiwo and the Oyasiwo as mentioned in his previous paper. The occupied area has one or two maxima a year. The period is about seven to nine months as shown in accompanying figure. 1. INTRODUCTION To represent the intensity of the Kurosiwo and the Oyasiwo nu- merically, the author adopted substitute quantities which are easily calculated; they are the ratios of the area occupied by the Kurosiwo or the Oyasiwo to the whole observation area in the fixed section on the parallel of 38°18’N. In the case of the Kurosiwo the calculation is limited to 300m depth, and in the case of the Oyasiwo to 600m depth.t The author will copy the values published by the Central Me- teorological Observatory for the sea conditions, and will compare these with his quantities, the ratios of the Kurosiwo and the Oyasiwo. 2. COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY THE AUTHOR’s METHOD WITH THE ACTUAL OCEANOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS The results obtained for the ratios of the Kurosiwo and the Oya- siwo are shown in the following figure. If these values correspond to the actual oceanographical conditions with small differences, we would have an important means to represent and forecast oceanographical conditions. The actual oceanographical conditions quoted here were inves- tigated by the usual method using the distribution patterns of tempera- ture, chlorinity, etc. We observed that the intensity of the Kurosiwo was less in 1949 than in the preceding year. In 1948 the Oyasiwo was somewhat strong- er in early summer and late autumn, but it was weaker in other months. On the other hand, the Kurosiwo was stronger, especially in summer, and the warmer anomaly of the surface water temperature was largest in August.2 The ratio shows that the Kurosiwo’s area was large in late 837 &38 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS September and in October. Perhaps the ratio in August can be con- jectured to be large from the tendency of the figure, but observations were not done before September. In 1949 the Kurosiwo had average or somewhat stronger intensity in summer, and the warmer anomaly of surface water temperature was largest 1n October. ‘The figure shows that the ratio of the Kurosiwo had maxima in June and July, and that their value was usual for summer maxima. Another maximal value appeared in Septem- ber, after the rainy season. This was smaller than that of the preced- ing year. This fact indicates that the Kurosiwo was weaker than in the preceding year. In these years, the available data were scanty due to the imperfection of our equipment. In 1950 the Kurosiwo became stronger rapidly from April, with an extremely warm surface temperature in summer. The warmer anomaly of surface temperature, which was largest in May and August, was limited to the somewhat upper layers in summer. ‘The Oyasiwo be- came stronger rapidly in April, weakening from middle August and growing stronger again in September. But it was still warmer in the warm current region and colder in the cold current region than in the average year. ‘The ratio of the Kurosiwo grew larger from April and May, and it was very lage in August and September, growing smaller rapidly in October and tending to zero in December. The ratio of the Oyasiwo was large in spring and in early summer also, but it was small in summer, growing large again from September, and reaching a maxi- nium in December. In 1951 the Kurosiwo became stronger rapidly from April, but weakened from middle June to July; the temperature anomaly was low- er than the average. But its temperature became higher again from late July to August. It stopped to rise, maintaining the average or somewhat lower value in September and October. But it became strong- er from November especially and kept the intensity till February 1952; so the warmer anomaly of temperature, warmer than those of 1950 and 1951, was observed in February, and this vigorous Kurosiwo weakened in March and April. The Oyasiwo had iess intensity than that in the preceding year in early Spring, but it became stronger in early July, weakening in August and again becoming stronger in September, then weakening from October till February.® The ratio of the Kurosiwo grew large rapidly from April and was largest in June, growing smaller trom July but larger again from November, becoming largest in Feb- ruary, 1952.The ratio of the Oyasiwo had a maximum in December, 1950, and alter that it grew small and was smaller than in the preced- ON THE FLUCTUATION OF THE KUROSIW) AND THE OYASIWO 839 ing year. It was large in July, September and late October, and small again from November till February. In 1952 the Kurosiwo was strong from the last decade of Novem- ber till February and became strong again in early April along the meridians 143°E and 149°E, reaching the average intensity in June and July, but the warm current stopped spreading northwards in Aug- ust at a lower anomaly of temperature. But it grew warmer again and reached the average temperature in September. After that it had the average intensity. The Oyasiwo was strong along the meridians 142°E and 147°E in March and April. In August, the Oyasiwo ran south- wards strongly along the 145°E meridian. The ratio of the Kurosiwo became smaller from February and was generally small all year with a maximum in September, which is of the average value in summer. The ratio of the Oyasiwo had maxima in April, July and September. The ratio of the Kurosiwo seems to vary periodically. If there were a maximum in February, 1950, though it was not observed owing to bad weather condition, the maxima of the Kurosiwo’s ratio have the following time series: Oct. W9285.9; stl SIS OR -os web. e950) 7-5; Sept: 1950, 8.5; June NG ORS ECD A952 y/-osgocpt 9a. The period is about seven—nine months. On the other hand, the period of the wind stress shear is about six-eight months.’ The periods of the oceanic current and the wind do not coincide with each other, and the reason why the current’s period is lengthened will be found in a complex combination of the wind-driven, thermo-haline circulation, etc. 3. CONCLUSION By the comparison mentioned in the above section, we can recog- nize that the area occupied by the oceanic current is an important meas- ure to represent numerically the intensity of the current or the oceanic state, and the period of the Kurosiwo’s fluctuation is about seven—nine months. Though we may have to make further investigation of the difference in the periods between the Kurosiwo and the wind, it is cer- tain that we have made a step toward the forecast of oceanic conditions. (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) FIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS REFERENCES NAN’NITI, T., 1951:On the Fluctuation of the Kurosiwo and the Oya- siwo. Papers in Mteorology and Geophysics MRI 2, (1) p. 102. Report on the State of the Sea adjacent to Japan, Central Meteorological Observatory, 1949 (in Japanese). WOE Cit 4 (2) 4 L950: Report on the Oceanographical Investigation and Study on the Long- range Forecasting in Japan, Centr. Met. Obs. 1951 (in Japanese). loci cuts (4) 9 a28 Letter from Mr. J. Fukuoka (Centr. Met. Obs.). NAN’NITI, T., 1952: On the Fluctuation of the Kurosiwo and the ‘Wind. Journal of the Oceanographical Society of Japan, 8, (1) p. 9 DEB ON THE FLUCTUATION OF THE KUROSIWO AND THE OYASIWO 841 © “he Oyasun fe} O +e Kuresvo es oni fore) fo) © OC 0600 © © 09 60 © 6 © O e) © 0 9 M004 we) nas A REPORT ON THE OCEANOGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN CARRIED OUT ON BOARD THE JAPANESE WHALING FLEET DURING THE YEARS 1946-1952 By Masao HAnzawa and TakrEo TsucHIDA Oceanographical Section, Central Meteorological Observatory Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT The chief characteristics of the oceanographical conditions of the Antarctic Ocean given in the present treatise are founded on the obser- vations taken on board the Japanese whaling fleet during the years 1946 to 1952. Among many interesting facts found by the Japanese Fleet, we may mention these significant points. 1) In the Antarctic Ocean, the temperature and chlorinity graph of the sea surface increases in the shape of a parabola as the distance from the pack-ice line increases. 2) Ocean currents computed from dynamic calculation near Scott Island in 1949 show eastward flow to the north of 67°S, and southward flow along the 180° line to the south of 67°S. 3) The insignificance of the Antarctic circumpolar water is due to bottom topography and to small clockwise circulations. 4) The boundary of two currents is a good whaling ground, even in the Antarctic Ocean; and in the homogeneous water area good whaling is not expected. 845 A NEW JAPANESE G.E.K. By K. Supa, Kuropa-Masao, D. SHoji and SAWAYANAGI-FUMIWO Hydrographic Office, Tokyo, Japan (1) INTRODUCTION An insulated conductor is drifted along the ocean current flows, cutting the geomagnetism; then there must occur an electric motive force by Faraday’s electro-magnetic induction law. If this e.m.f. can be picked up, the velocity of the conductor, which is the same as that of the current, may be known, as the distribution of the geomagnetism is already known all over the world. Electromotive force will be in- duced in the current too, but it is dropped as negligible, because the sea water is conductive and its volume is immensely large, even in the superficial part, as Stommel proved. If both ends are shortened to the sea water, an electric current flows through the wire and sea water. We utilise this e.m.f. for measuring the velocity of the current as above mentioned. In practice, there remain the following difficulties: 1. Sea water is an electrolytic solution, so a contact of metal intro- duces an ionization potential and the measuring is disturbed very much. We conquered this trouble by using a special electrode of silver-silver chloride. 2. The resistance of these electrodes is very high and the electric current decays them even as small as less than 0.1 micro-ampere. These problems have been easily solved since the electronic potentiometer was produced in Japan. We composed a system of measuring apparatus from a couple of specially designed electrodes, an electronic potentiometer, a set of lead- ing cable made by special order, and a switch pannel having switches, electric condensers, etc. Some confirming experiments were done very cautiously on the characteristics of the electrodes on the temperature effect, density effect of salt water and some points of handling for practica! uses. (2) PracricaL MeTHop oF MrAsuREMENT The electrodes are connected directly to the pannel board of the potentiometer by two lines of the specially made cord of a single core. The length of the cord is 200 m. and 100 m. respectively for the elec- 845 846 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS trodes, i.e. the latter is 100 m. distant from the former. ‘Then they are driven into sea and the cord is tied to the ship as the shorter electrode stays about 100 m. from the stern of the ship. These works are conducted when the ship is running. When all have been prepared well, measurements are begun. At first and at last, the zero point confirmed by the longer cord is shortened till the length becomes the same as that of the shorter one, i.e. the two electrodes lie side by side. We got the constancy of the zero point in the range of 0.2 mV or less, which corresponds to about 0.1 kt of the current velocity. After confirmation of zero point, we prolong the longer cord to full length. Then the meter indicates some millivolt, which shows the e.m.f. produced by the component of the ocean current perpendt- cular to the direction of the ship course. Then we turn the course to another direction, preferably near right angle. When the needle of the meter sets in the new direction, it indicates the e.m.f. of the com- ponent perpendicular to the new direction. Under the assumption that the current is constant during the turning of direction, or the two com- ponents can be considered to be those of the same vector of the current velocity, we can compose the total velocity from the two components of velocity and the direction of the course of the ship, which is known by the compass. The composition of these vectors 1s, however, a litle different from the ordinary method. We draw the respective vectors of the compo- nents, from the same point in the middle of turning. The scalor amount is given from the reading of the potentiometer and the direc- tion must have been informed from the bridge of the ship, whenever the reading is taken. Then, the intersection of the two perpendiculars from the respective points of the component vectors must be the top of the composed vector, drawn from the same origin. In such a way, we can measure easily the vectorial velocity of the ocean current from the moving ship. For the check of these values, we compared the values of the amount of the drift of a ship by the cur- rent measured by our method and by calculation from the positions of the ship at the beginning and the end. ‘The position of the ship was confirmed by triangular survey by a sextant. (3) PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT OF OCEAN CURRENT 1. Off the point Nojima-zaki. Nojima-zaki is situated at the south edge of the Bohsoh Peninsula, Chiba prefecture, Japan. The warm current “Kuroshio” flows along A NEW JAPANESE G.E.K. 847 the south side of the main island of Japan and passes through the row of Iz islands to Nojima-zaki. We attemped the first experiment of the measurement on Kuroshio, off the Point Nojima-zaki. Three square courses and two zig-zag courses were made as shown in Figure 1. At every point of turning, the measurement was tried. The velocities measured by our method are shown in the following table. The points of survey stand in four rows, so the values may be ciassified into four series. The series 4 farthest right is considered to be near the edge of the current. VELOCITY OF KUROSHIO OFF THE POINT NOJIMA-ZAKI POSITION No. oF SERIES VELOCITY KT MEAN KT left (north) 1 Ne, IB. a8} 1.37 middle 2 sy! ELS ey : right (south) 3 ‘otmoudts eto eo 1.34 3 edge 4 0.8, Om 0.85 On the other hand, we found the amount of drift of the ship from the difference between the positions, surveyed by the triangular method to land, and those calculated from ship velocity, time duration and direction. At every drift is 1.1 kt, 1.3 kt and 1.4 kt, and the vectorial mean is 1.26 kt. Comparing these values of drift of the boat with the former values 1.37 kt, difference was found to be only 0.1 kt and the direction coincided with the accuracy of the compass, 5°. In conclusion, the accuracy of triangular survey by the sextan meth- od is rough as known generally, but the two values coincided well. Furthermore, the mean values of the three series of the G.E.K. method coincide with each other very well. The individual values differ from the mean values of the 1.37 kt, with the range of error as +0.25 kt This accuracy has not been confirmed till now with more accurate meth- ods, yet the statistical values will explain well about the accuracy. 2. Along Iz Isiand. In the south of the Iv Peninsula, Shizoka Prefecture, there lies a row of islands from north to south. We call them Iz 7 Islands. The warm current Kuroshio flows through this row of islands from west to east. For the second experiments, we surveyed Kuroshio around this row of islands between two peninsulas, Bohsoh Peninsula and Iz Penin- sula as shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the recording chart. The nu- merical figures show the time; those between arrows in middle circle $48 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS are the millivolt produced in the cord. 1.74 millivolt corresponds to 1 knot around this district. In this experiment, we found many new facts. 1) Kuroshio flows from S.S.W. to the nose of Iz Peninsula and changes its direction to N.E.E. with a velocity of 1.7 kt to 1.3 kt. 2) Though we missed to survey well, it can be said from our other results that this current collides against Ohshima Island of Iz 7 Islands and separates into two ways. One tlows N.E. and reflects at the Sagami Bay to S.E. Another one flows E. and passes through the south side of Ohshima, and changes its direction to S.E. into the center of Pacific Ocean. 3) The former passes through between Ohshima and Nojima-zaki to S.E. with velocity 1.3 kt. 4) It is imagined that a still part exists behind Ohshima Island, as a center of vortex. 5) A part of the two flows shown in 1) miay join after this vor- tex and flows N.E.E. to some point off Nojima-zaki, which was sur- veyed in the first attempt. 6) We found a current which flows S.E. with velocity over 3.5 kt at a point about 34°20'N., 139°40’E. “This current comes, perhaps, from a branch of the current through the south side of Ohshima shown in 2). Details of this current are shown in Figure 4. (4) CONCLUSION 1. We constructed a new G.E.K. with special silver-silver chloride electrode, an electronic potentiometer, special cord made to order, and other accessories. 2. The calibration shows that this has a good accuracy compared with the drift method, surveying land points by a sextan to confirm the ieal position of the ship. 3. Three series of the measured value by G.E.K. off the Point No- jima-zaki show the same mean value 1.37 kt from observations of over one dozen, and the individual values deviate +0.25 kt from the mean value. 4. Survey with G.E.K. along Iz Islands showed many details about the construction of Kuroshio. A NEW JAPANESE G.E.K. 3549 Lidl ON Nie Ore Sun aie ou ACIS INISE FIGURE 1 Je YB, we Bohson P. Onsfhima ab es © § 10 215 20 hee od FIGURE 2 EIGHTH PACIFIC SCIENCE CONGRESS 850 f GUND YT Nae = ce tO oV2 YAEL ae ay) © 7H | gee NWS cases) Wis \ ‘| gos - Na ae a 2. Nk @ DUA og Hake ree AT A a Senne i. sae 8 “ae REIN = E. ou: 5 = AUTHOR INDEX BADER, RICHARD G. ........ Sipe {val BARNES, CLIFFORD A. ...... 585, 686 BOHUKE ANMIES) Wn sc. acne ss 183 BOUIN RAROLE eae aecinine @ atak os 373 BRUUINEEAINTOND Rs eins ieee: 365 BUEN, FERNANDO DE .........-. 266 WAR TERA OINTAT Mig 3 au elle haere 200 CWREMENS HY Wie Ag) 3) 2505 ess os 121 DIAWISONG Hin YATE) Sle yee oe a: 489 TD YEAET op, ol neg RGAE oe toe ne en Le ee 499 DOU Me ePAR SG tector tid, ny Sates ens 571 IDOIMIAINIDAY JOSE GS) oy. oon) 417 VERRAN OE phe ycean oy. cco yeas 685 ETCHEVERRY-DAZA, HECTOR .... 246 UAW OKA ris Sit = sitniets ac tvece sees 787 GUARINIER nD inn eee tie oe ee ie 743 COSEINES WEELIAM YAU a. 20: 347 GRAHAM, HiRBERT W. ........ 673 CGUREEERMPdissss ce ees ke eee 208 IsDAg, AUNDNSIGON 6604s cone ae 493 ELAS THAD: eSRUCKO Wie ta... na 321 IREAINIZAWIAN IMIASIAO) Ges ce oe 843 ELAR DENBERGS ie De iy eae 457 AD Melissa ara cconce Una reac oe 314 LIVARKCAS, SOS ns ee ws HUG). ELRYAINWAN YOOSIENIO! Su eis es se Aas 165 EL OUETSTER td Ie us piers Ae Sic ie 705 ISHIBASHI, MASAYOSHI ........ 817 JOHNSON, MARTIN Wi .....2-.. 379 JCA IMD Gol aati cool ilaieeo aie bearers 781 ICA AAIVIO TIO IN. eG naling a oets aoe PPXY) KAWAMOTO, TAKEO ........... lacae IISA, (Ile soocpoecconoc 3038 LCTSUAINIE iON) (ied Re este neha ape ene ee 189 TROND, GC cea Pe 403 OEZUIMT SIME. Eiegayirs sist cishe: a,evanacee 787 GR OONAWAN GELS ie wy cial cee hls 331 KeURODAWLOKUBEL anaes ce 4938 TRQGROIOA, MUSING) Gocccunnccedoe 845 ILINCOitiN, Ou 18k, soesssoeeae 686 ILRAVIAN, MOEN aoococoocoouone 609 WUAIOVA, JeoxOssete oookcoccsaoeue 234 WEARRS ROHN GC. suicuc ues sse ne 1838 NATSU Ie VOSHDICET =. 55 seers 225 MUN ANDAR, SSHSUUAOO) “BOS Ea vege oc 391 MiEWER ROBERT Osl.540 5588 126 MiIVADT DENZABURO! 26) 52505 493 VEDA IASC OMe air ce ni as Aco 781 MIYAZAKI, MASAMORI ......... lio VOR TWA (OSU TIS teers ee nee Ot NAKAGAWA, YASUHARU ....... 817 NAKAMURA, HIROSHI .......... 165 INPAUCAYN Os VIB flee Se erate vas maa i 787 INVAIN NIT Tepe waee nets nse dhcp casei 837 OKADA GAT OHIRO! ee sa! ae 391 OSORTO=APAR ATT Bea as aie oe 253 JEYNINIECRONG, UINIG IK 5 Sen poke aueds 294 PAQUETTE, ROBERT G. ......... 585 IPERTERSSON, HIANS =... .552 4... 637 IPOWLSENASETR Gp Vike ys eis ee 241 TERON GADD Gp ANG NYG 1 Bio ie Gveteqees tonesteaen 359 TVATER AY, 2 Jie VEAURICH yn seer 686 REVEROS-ZUNIGA, FRANCISCO ... 280 ROCHEORD AD idl aaenvc a2 ahs slat 745 SAWAYANIG'-FUMIWO ......... 845 SCHAERER, MUlmNERS IBS 2.50. -5e 149 SCHUDIZS IEBONARD Pa. saee are: 4138 SCHWEIGGER, ERWIN .......... 801 Swinney, IDs Ibs sos edesocobs ae 461 SELTES OS OAR BH paracrine 131 SHEPARD] SHRAINCISm b> 6 cian sn.) 743 SHIGEMATSU, TSUNEBOBU ...... 817 OIETO UIT ais heroes ttre seees Shey 619, 845 SUD IAP Kerra errs ch raeun een! a 619, 845 SUGIURAM INGE Mp hae 8 oka cls Sc 781 HIVAUNGT Tt KG sare nrenrcn msc ovS ia ssn iene 215 THOMPSON, THOMAS G. ....... 3 SU CHTD Apo IVAUCEO) 2 Ss ye cteeeoee 843 SU RNEN ON CHIWiet vey ae earn or 821 IMMHING, HORI 1, Gacoocspcccc 3, 643 WIA, WGeoneGHW NN Sooo ooaeooue 663 VIALARD-GOUDOU, A. .......... 208 WOLSKY, ALEXANDER .......... 505 WOOSTER, WARREN S§. ......... 679 WAINIAGAW Ala tli iiarener ney! inj so aoe « 215. NGAINIE:Z/ mle ARI MIBINIDO Ateneo). 287 CORRIGENDA Page 369—last line, for “Colloqgium” read “Colloquium” Page 431—line 27, for “fuscopuntata”’ read “fuscopunctata.” Page 446—line 3, for “Kehler” read “Koehler.” vi wee Hn ht ek K x i ; ak uu 7 eee ae nt pF ro