/ HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE Museum of Comparative Zoology X^.'s.'-^ PROCEEDINGS OF THE Indiana Academy of Science 1911 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Indiana Academy of Science 1911 J.. J. RETTGER EDITOR JT INDIANAPOLIS. IND. 1912. INDIANAPOLIS. WM. B. BURFORD, PKINTEF 1912 THE STATE OF INDIANA, Executive Department, March 1, lin2. lieceived by the Governor, examined and referred to the Auditor of State for verification of the financial statement. Office of Auditor of State, Indianapolis, March 5, 1912. The within report, so far as tlie same relates to moneys drawn from the State Treasury, has been examined and found correct. W. H. O'BRIEN, Auditor of State. March 20, 1012. Returned by the Auditor of State, witli above certificate, and trans- mitted to Secretary of State for publication, upon tlie order of the Board of Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding. MARK TIIISTDETHWAITE, Secretary to the Oovcrnor. Filed in the office of the Secretary of State of the State of Indiana, March 28, 1912. L. G. ELLINGHAM, Secretary of State. Recei^'ed the within report and delivered to the printer April IG, 1912. ED D. DONNELL, Clerk Printmg Board. MASON BLANCHARD THOMAS. On Wednesday evening, March 6, 1912, Mason Blanchard Thomas, I'roi'essor of Botany at Wabash College and Dean of the Facnlty, died at his home in Cl'awfordsville of an aente attack of pleurisy. Mason B. Thomas was born at New Woodstock, N. Y., December 16, 1866. He prepared for college at Cazenovia Academy and entered the College of Arts and Sciences at Cornell University in the fall of 1SS6. He was graduated with the degree of B. S. in 1890 and was awarded a graduate fellowship in biology at Cornell for the following year. In 1891 he came to Wabnsli College as Professor of Bidlngy, and after 18'.!.'), whrn the department was di\ided, he gave his whdle rinu' to the study and teach- ing of Botany. While at Cornell he was elected to membership in the Sigma Xi So- ciety and at Wabash was elected as an organization member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society. In 1907 an honorary Ph.D. was conferred upon him by the trustees of Wabash. In June, 1893, he was joined in marriage to Miss Annie Davidson, only daughter of Judge and Mrs. T. F. Davidson, of Crawfordsville, and his wife survives him. Professor Thomas was a great teacher. He brought to his work a thorougli knowledge of his subject, an unbounded energy and enthusiasm, and a personal interest in and love for his students. He was active also in furthering the general interests of llie rollege; was for many years the chairman of the Athletic Committee of tlie Faculty, and since 1907 has been the Dean of the Faculty. He was a fellow and past president of the Indiana Academy of Science and has always been active in its serv- ice. At the time of his death he was secretary of the Indiana Forestry Association and enied to h'.» apiu-Kpiiated for the J ear IMt-l. Skc. 3. All excejit tliree hiUHlrcd cojiies of each vohune of said re- ports shall he ]ilaced in the custddy of the State Lilirarian. who shall fundsli one cojiy thereof to each imhlic lihrary in the State, one copy to each nniversily, coUeice or iioriual school in the State, one copy to eadi hi,;j;li school in the State having a lilirary, which shall make ap]ilicatioii thei'efor. and one eopy to such other inst ihil ions, societies or persons as iiiay be dosisinated by the Academy throni^h its editors or its council. The remainini.' (liree hundred cojiies shall lie turned over to the Academy to be disp was increased l>y the Legislature in the General Aiipropriatiim bill, approveil Maidi '.•. I'.Mi'.l. That i»irtion of the law lixing llir amount of the ;i|iiir(ipi-ialion lor the .\cademy is here- with gi\(Mi in full : For the .Vcademy of Science: For the printing of the proceedings of the Indiana .\cademy of .SciiMice. twelve hundred dollars: /'roriilcd. That any unexpended balamc in IIHI shall be available in IDlL'. u AX ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS. Sec. 602. Whoever kills, traps or has iu his possession any wild bird, or whoever sells or offers the same for sale, or whoever destroys the nest or eggs of any wild bird, shall be deemed gnilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars: I'roridcd, That the provisions of this section shall not apply to the following named game birds: The Anatida\ com- monly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duclc ; the Rallida-, com- monly called rails, coots, mud-hens, gallinules ; tUe Limicolte, commonly called shore birds, snif birds, plover, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tattlers and curlew ; the Gallin*, commonly calletl wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails and pheasants; nor to English or European house spar- rows, crows, hawks or other birds of prey. Nor sliall this section apply to persons taking birds, their nests or egg.'', for scientific purposes, under per- mit, as provided in the next section. Sec. CO'.j. Permits may be granted by the Connnissioner of Fisheries and Game to any jiropcrly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain sncli permir the applicant for the same must present to such roHim.issioner written testimonials from two well-known scientific men certifylug to the good chaiacter and fitness of such applicant to be en- trusted with such privilege, and pay to such Commissioner one dollar thei'efor and file with him a proi)erly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars. jiayabJe to the State of Indiana, conditioned that he will obey tlip terms of such permit, and signed by at least two responsible citi- zens of the State as sineties. The bond may be forfeited, and the permit revoked ni)on proof to tlie satisfactioe. of such Commissioner that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nest or eggs of any bii'd for any other i»ur]iose than that named in this section. anDiana acaDemp of Science. OFFICERS, 1911-1912 Joseph P. Naylor, Donaldson Bodine, A. J. Bigney, E. A. Williamson, Mild H. Stuakt, w. j. moenkhaus, Charles R. Dryer, P. N. Evans, A. L. Foley, Glenn Culbertson, president JOSEPH P. NAYLOR. VICE-PRESIDENT DONALDSON BODINE. secretary A. J. BIGNEY. ASSISTANT SECRETARY E. A. WILLIAMSON. PRESS SECRETARY MILO H. STUART. TREASURER W. J. MOENKHAUS. EDITOR L. J. RETTGER. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE D. M. MOTTIER, Robert Hessler, John S. Wright, Carl L. Mees, W. S. Blatchley, IL W. Wiley, D. W. Dennis, C. H. Eigenmann, C. A. Waldo, Stanley Coulter, A. W. Butler, W. A. No YES, J. C. Arthur, O. P. Hay, T. C. Mendenhall J. C. Branner, J. P. D. John, J. INL Coulter, D. S. Jordan. CUR.\TORS Botany J. C. Artihr. Ichthyolo(;y C. H. Eigenmann. IIerpetology I Mammaloc;y r A. \V. IUtlku. ORNlTHOLO(iY J Entomology W. S. liLATtiiLEY. (12) COMMITTEES, 1911-1912. 13 J. W. BEEDE, PROGRAM. R. S. HESSLER. D. BODINE. D. BODINE, MEMBERSHIP. J. S. WRIGHT, E. R. CUMMINGS. A. L. FOLEY. NOMINATIONS. U. O. COX, R. W. McBRIDE. AUDITING. C. H. EIGENMANN, L. J. RETTGER, F. J. BREEZE. STATE LIBRARY. H. E. BARNARD, W. S. BLATCHLEY, A. W. BUTLER. RESTRICTION OF WEEDS AND DISEASES. R. HESSLER, J. N. HURTY, A. W. BUTLER. S. COULTER, D. M. MOTTIER. DIRECTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. STANLEY COULTER, J. C. ARTHUR, J. M. VAN HOOK, C. H. EIGENMANN, U. O. COX. RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY TO THE STATE. M. B. THOMAS, R. W. McBRIDE, G. CULBERTSON, C. C. DEAM, A. W. BUTLER. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROCEEDINGS. J. S. WRIGHT, H. L. BRUNER, G. W. BENTON, A. J. BIGNEY. PUBLICATION OF PROCEEDINGS. L. J. RETTGER, Editor, P. N. EVANS, D. M. MOTTIER. 14 a, ^ X X X X X ^ n^ '> p p do :<<-<-< '^-^^.^^^'>»»»' OOCCC''^'*^'^c3<:<■. >. >! >.— ^-^ s s c c c c 2:;^ c c c c ..■ c c n c; c o o''5 — -=~~ j9 9 9 r?C'.2.5 § "^ "^ "-5 »^ Irs "rj < < << H c ti^' jr ~' — -;■—■--'< < >>>>>>> > _-^^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ ^ ^ ^ • ■ ■::-~5:5; 7: 7J 7: X X X X X x X x X X X X X X X — — — — — :S :c :c <<<<<<< < u*^^=|^4^444^^-^-^-~i;;^^-^- cc i_^ X c^ o ^^ c^i cc •+* *o ^ i^ y ^ ^ — -. -- 2? ^ >: ^ 5: X X x x 5 5 5 5 y S. ?. ?. ?. 5. 'j: '.r i~ X r: c: — c^ •C O 1^ C<0 C5 O — " eg oC' QC 00 OC' c; ctj 2 2^ 2^ 22 2 '^ '^' ^ ^ 5: 5; :55 5 X X c: 5 ~ c- ~ 5; S S g 5 :r 5: CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. Section 1. This nssociutiou .shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the difCnsion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote interctturse between men engaged in scientific work, specially in Indiana ; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and malving known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of inves- tigation and discussions as may further the aims and objects of the Acad- emy as set forth in these articles. Whereas, The State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon reciuest of the Governor, or of one of the sev- eral departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its coun- cil as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the pros- ecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State ; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such inves- tigation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLE II. Section 1. ^Members of this Academy sliall be honorary fellows, fel- lows, non-resident members or active members. Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original research in any depax'tment of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy ; they shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar. Any person wlio shall at one time contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy may be elected a life member of 16 the Academj', free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members but who have removed from the State. In any case, a tliree-fourths vote of the members present shall elect to membershij). Ajiiilications for membershi]) in any of the foregoin.u; classes shall be referred to a committee on application for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the election. Sec. 3. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, maj- be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceed- ing five in one year may, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the mem- bers of the Executi^-e Committee for 1S94 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary membi^»rs shall bet-ome honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of si^ecial prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect. ARTICLE III. Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the ainiual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a I'resident, Yice-1'resldent, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press Secretiiry and Treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an Executive Connnittee. The President shall, at each an- nual meeting, appoint two members to be a connnittee, which shall prepare the programs and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. Sec. 2. The animal meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis witliin the week following Christmas of each year, unless otherwise ordered by tlie Executive Committee. There shall also be a sum- mer meeting at such time and place as may he decided upon by the Ex- ecutive Committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of the Executive Connnittee. The past Presidents, together with the officers and Executive Connnittee, shall constitute the council of the Academy, and 17 I'epl'eseut It in the transaction of any uecessai'y business not especially pro- vided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of the attending members of at least one year's standing. No question of amendment sliall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular departinent. Each curator .shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief sum- mary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report. 2. The President shall deliver a public address on the morning of one of the days of the meeting at tlie expiration of his term of office. 3. The Press Secretary shall •attend to the securing of proper news- paper reports of the meetings and assist the Secretary. 4. No special meeting of the Academy sliall be held without a notice of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. f). No bill against the Academy shall be paid witliout an order signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary. G. ^Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. [2—29034] 18 MEMBERS. FELLOWS. tG. A. Abbott *1908 Fargo, N. D. R. J. Alcy 1898 Orono, Me. r. M. Andrews 1911 Bloomington. J. C. Arthur 1894 Lafayette. H. E. Barnard 1910 Indianapolis. J. W. Beede 1906 Bloomington. George W. Benton 1896 New York City. A. J. Bigney 1897 Moores Hill. Katherine Golden Bitting 1895 West Lafayette. W. S. Blatchley 1893 Indianapolis. Donaldson Bodine 1899 Crawfordsvillc. F. J. Breeze 1910 West Lafayette. H. L. Bruner 1899 Indianapolis. Severance Burrage 1898 Lafayette. A . W. Butler 1893 Indianapolis. W. A. Cogshall 1906 Bloomington. t.Mcl. T. Cook 1902 Newark, Del. fJoho M. Coulter 1893 Chicago, 111. Stanley Coulter 1893 Lafayette. U. 0. Cox 1908 Terre Haute. Glenn Culbertson 1899 Hanover. E. R. Cumings 1906 Bloomington. S. C. Davisson 1908 Bloomington. C. C. Deam 1910 Indianapolis. D. W. Dennis 1895 Richmond. C. R. Dryer 1897 Terre Haute. C. H. Eigenniann 1893 Bloomington. Percy Norton Evans 1901 West Lafayette. A. L. Foley 1897 Bloomington. M. J. Golden 1899 Lafavotte. fNon-residcnt. *Duto o( election. J'.) fW. F. M. Goss 1893 Urbana, 111. A. S. Hathaway *1895 Terre Haute. W. K. Hatt 1902 Lafayette. Robert Hessler 1899 Logansport. J. N. Hurty 1910 Indianapolis. fH. A. Huston 1893 Baltimore, Md. Edwin S. Johnnott 1904 Terre Haute. Robert E. Lyons 1896 Bloomington: W. A. McBeth 1904 Terre Haute. tV. F. Marsters 1893 Santiago, Chili. C. L. Mees 1894 Terre Haute. tJ. A. Miller 1904 Swarthmore, Pa. W. J. Moenkhaus 1901 Bloomington. Richard B. Moore 1910 Indianapolis. D. M. Mottier 1893 Bloomington. J. P. Naylor 1903 Greencastle. tW. A. Noyes 1893 Urbana, 111. A, G. Pohlmann 1911 Bloomington. Rolla R. Ramsey 1906 Bloomington. J. H. Ransom 1902 Lafayette. L. J. Rettger 1896 Terre Haute. David Rothroc'k 1906 Bloomington. Will Scott 1911 Bloomington. J. T. Scovell 1894 Terre Haute. Albert Smith 1908 Lafayette. fAlex Smith 1893 Chicago, 111. W. E. Stone 1893 . . . : Lafayette. fJoseph Swain 1898 Swarthmore, Pa. J. M. Van Hook 1911 Bloomington. tC. A. Waldo 1893 St. Louis, Mo. tF. M. Webster 1894 Washington, D. C. Jacob Westlund 1904 West Lafayette. fH. W. Wiley 1895 Washington, D. C. W. W. Woollen 1908 Indianapolis. John S. Wright 1894 Indianapolis. *Date of elect ior. + Non resident. 20 NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS. George H. Ashley Washington, D. C. J. C. Bninner Stanford Universitj', Cal. M. A. Brannon Grand Forks, N. D. D. H. Campbell Stanford University, Cal. H. W. Clark Fairport, Iowa. H. B. Dorner Urbana, 111. A. Wilmer Duff Worcester, Mass. B. W. Everman Washington, D. C. W. A. Fiske Los Angeles, Cal. C. W. Garrett Pittsburg, Pa. Charles H. Gilbert Stanford University, Cal. C. W. Greene Columbia, Mo. C. W. Hargit Syracuse, X. Y. O. P. Hay Washington, D. C. Edward Hughes Stockton, Cal. O. P. Jenkins Stanford University, Cal. C. T. Knipp Urbana, 111. D. S. Jordan Stanford University, Cal. J. S. Kingsley Medford, Mass. D. T. McDougal Tucson, Arizona. L. B. McMullen Valley City, X. D. T. C. Mendenhall Worcester, Mass. J. F. Xewsom Stanford University, Cal. A. H. Purdue Xashville, Tenn. A. B. Reagan Orr, Minn. J. R. Slonaker Stanford University, Cal. Alfred Springer CinciniKili, Ohio. Ernest Walker Fayettesville, Ark. G. W. Wilson Raleigh, N. C. ACTIVE MEMBERS. C. E. Agnew Dclpiii. L. Evelyn Allison West Lafayette. H. W. .Anderson Ladoga. Paul Anderson Crawfordsville. 21 H. F. Bain San Francisco, Cal. Walter D. Baker Indianapolis. Walter M. Baker Redkey. Edward Hugh Bangs Indianapolis. Howard J. Banker Greencastle. H. H. Barcus Indianapolis. H. L. Barr Ann Arbor, Mich. Edward Barrett Indianapolis. W. H. Bates West Lafayette. Guido Bell Indianapolis. Ray Bellamy Moores Hill. Lee F. Bennett Valparaiso. Thomas Billings West Lafayette. Harry Eldridge Bishop Indianapolis. Lester Black Bloomington. Harold Blair Indianapolis. William N. Blanchard Greencastle. Charles S. Bond Richmond. A. A. Bourke Edinburg. Omer C. Boyer Lebanon. H. C. Brandon Daleville. Chas. Brossmann Indianapolis. E. M. Bruce Terre Haute. Wm. R. Butler Indianapolis. Edward N. Canis Indianapolis. E. Kate Carman Indianapolis. Lewis Clinton Carson Detroit, Mich. Albert E. Caswell West Lafayette. E. K. Chapman Crawfordsville. E. J. Chansler Bicknell. A. G. W. Childs Kokomo. C. D. Christie Cincinnati, Ohio. J. H. Clark Connersville. Otto O. Clayton Portland. H. M. Clem Chicago, 111. Charles Clickner Silverwood, R. D. No. 1. Charles A. Coffey Petersburg. William Clifford Cox Columbus. 22 J. A. Craswall Crawfordsvillo. C. O. Cramer West Lafayette. M. E. Crowell Franklin. Chas. M. Cuniiinfiluun Indianapolis. George Cutter South Bend. Lorenzo E. Daniels Laporte. E. H. Davis West Lafayette. Melvin K. Davis Terre Haute. E. M. Deem Frankfort. Harry F. Dietz Indianapolis. C. A. Dcppe Franklin. Martha Doan Westfield. J. P. Dolan Syracuse. David A. Drew Bloomington. Hans Duden Indianapolis. Herbert A. Dunn Logansport. M. L. (.Durbin) Ellis, Mrs Bloomington. J. B. Dutchcr Bloomington. Samuel E. Earp Iiidianai)()lis. A. A. Eberly Nowata, Okla. C. R. Eckler Indianapolis. Max Mapes Ellis Bloomington. H. E. Enders West Lafayette. Samuel G. Evans Evansville. James E. Ewers Terre Haute. William P. Felver Logansport . C. J. Fink Crawfordsville. M. L. Fislior West Lafayette. Mary A. Fitch Lafayette. A. S. Fraley Linden. George M. FricM- West Lafayette. F. D. Fuller West Lafayette. Austin Funk Jeffersonville. John D. (;;il)cl . Nortli Madison. Jesse J. (lalioway Hloonn'ngton. Andrew W. Gamble I.ogansjjort . il. ( ). (larnian . . hidianaiiolis. J. B. Garner Crawfordsville. 23 Florence A. Gates Toledo, Ohio. Robert G. Gillum Terre Haute. E. R. Glenn Bloomington. Frederic W. Gottlieb Morristown. Vernon Gould Rochester. Melvin K. Haggerty Bloomington. Guy E. Grantham West Lafayette. Frank Cook Greene New Albany. Earl Grimes Russellville. C. F. Harding West Lafayette. Mary T. Harman Bloomington. Walter W. Hart Indianapolis. Victor Hendricks Springfield, Mo. John P. Hetherington Logansport. C. E. Hiatt Philadelphia, Pa. John E. Higdon Lidianapolis. Frank R. Higgins Terre Haute. S. Bella Hilands Madison, Ind. John J. Hildebrandt Logansport. Geo. N. Hoffer Lafayette. Geo. L. Hoffman West Lafayette. G. E. Hoffman Logansport. Allen D. Hole Richmond. Lucius 'SI. Hubbard South Bend. Martha Hunt Indianapolis. O. F. Hunzikcr. West Lafayette. Joseph G. Hutton Brookings, S. D. Roscoe R. Hyde Terre Haute. Harry M. Ibison Marion. J. Isenberger Louisville, Ky . C. F. Jackson Durham, N. H. D. E. Jackson St. Louis, Mo. P. D. Jenks Indianapolis. A. G. Johnson Lafayette. W. J. Jones, Jr West Lafayette. A. M. Kenyon West Lafayette. Frank D. Kern West Lafayette. Clinton A. Ludwig West Lafayette. 24 L. V. Liuly '. Madison, Wis. R. W. McBride Indianapolis, Richard C. McCloskey Chicago, III. T. S. McCuUoch CharlestowTi, Ind. N. E. Mclndoo Edward G. Mahin West Lafayette. James E. Manchester Minneapolis, Minn. Wilfred H. Manwaring New York City. M. S. Markle Richmond. William Edgar Mason Borden. Clark Mick Indianapolis. A. R. Middleton West Lafayette. G. Rudolph Miller Indianapolis. F. A. Miller Indianapolis. H. T. Montgomery South Bend. Chas. R. Moore West Lafayette. Geo. T. Moore St. Louis, Mo. Richard Bishop Moore Indianapolis. Herbert Morrison Indianapolis. Edwin Morrison Richmond. Frank K. Mowrer Redkey. F. W. Muncie Crawf ordsville. Fred Mutchler Bowling Green, Ky. B. D. Myers Bloomington. Leslie C. Nanney Bedford. Charles E. Newlin Indianapolis. J. A. Nieuwland Notre Dame. Milton S. Nugent Elnoru. Clayton R. Orton West Lafayette. G. A. Osner Ithaca, N. Y. D. A. Owen Franklin. Everett W. Owen Indianapolis. C. E. Owens Bloomington. E. J. Pctry West Lafayette. Ferman L. Pickett Bloomington. Rollo J. Pierce Richmond. V. J. Pipal West Laf:iyctte. Ralpli B. Polk Greenwood. 25 James A. Price Ft. Wayne. W. H. Rankin Ithaca, N. Y. C. A. Reddick Crawfordsville. C. J. Reilly Syracuse. Alleti J. Reynolds George L. Roberts Lafayette. J. Schramm St. Louis, Mo. E. A. Schultze LaureL Charles Wm. Shannon Brazil. Fred Sillery Indianapolis, Oscar W. Silvey West Lafayette. James P. Simonds Indianapolis. Charles M. Smith Lafayette. C. Piper Smith Logan, Utah. Essie Alma Smith Shannon Bloomington. E. R. Smith Indianapolis. Geo. Spitzer West Lafayette. Brenton L. Steele Pullman, Wash. Chas. Stoltz South Bend. J. M. Stoddard ' Milo H. Stuart Indianapolis, Julius W. Sturmer Lafayette. J. C. Taylor Logaosport. Albert W. Thompson Owensville. Clem 0. Thompson Terre Haute. A. D. Thorburn Indianapolis. Iro C. Trueblood (Miss) Greencastle. William M. Tucker Osgood. W. P. Turner West Lafayette. Chas. A. Vallance Indianapolis. W. B. Van Gorder Lyons. H. S. Voorhees Ft. Wayne. Frank B. Wade Indianapolis, Luther D. Waterman Indianapolis, Luther C. Weeks West Lafayette. Mason L. Weems Valparaiso. Daniel T. Weir Indianapolis. James E. Weyant Indianapolis, 26 Virgcs Wheeler Montmorenci. A. E. White Connersville. Alfred T. Wiancko Lafayette. Kenneth P. Williams Urbana, Ohio. E. B. Williamson Bluffton. William L. Woodburn Evanston, 111. John W. Woodhams Indianapolis. Herbert Milton Woollen Indianapolis. J. F. Woolsey Cleveland, Ohio. G. A. Young West Lafayette. Jacob P. Young Huntington. W. J. Young Washington, D. C. Lucy Youse Terre Haute. W. A. Zehring West Lafayette. Charles Zeleny Urbana, 111. Fellows ee Members, active 210 Members, non-resident 29 Total 305 27 JMINUTES OF SPKING MEETING. TERRE HAT TE, INDIANA. May 11, 12 and 13, 1911. INIembers of tlae Academy were called to order by President Dryer io the library of the State Normal at 8 p. m. Thursday, May 11th. Tlie plans of tlie meetin.u as arrantied by tlie Local Committee weri outlined by the President. The regular program for the evening was as follows: Illustrated lecture — "The INIussel Industry of the Wabash River," by Prof. V. O. Cox, Indiana State Normal. Illustrated lecture. '"The Antochrome Process in Color Photography,'' by Prof. .1. P. Peddle. Ro.se Polytechnic Institute. About seventy-tive members and visitors were present. On Friday, at 0 :.30 a. m., a boat excursion was taken up the Wabash River. The party was landed some distance above Fort Harrison for an hour's tramp ashore. The i)arty then returned to the Fort Harrison grounds for luncheon, which had been provided by the Local Committee. After luncheon an inspection of the historic grounds was made. Dr. Sco- vell gave a brief history of the Fort, supplemented by some interesting remarks by Mr. Emil Ehrman, present proprietor of the grounds. Mr. Ehrman distributed souvenirs in tlie form of small pieces of wood from a log from the original fort. The following new members were elected to the Academy during a brief business meeting : Milton B. Nugent, Elnora, Ind. Geo. Cutter, South BeiKl, Ind. Edward Barrett, Indianai»olis. Resolution of thanks were voted Mr. Emil Ehrman for his splendid hospitalities. Similar resolutions were voted the Local Committee for tlie splendid program they were providing the members of the Academy. The excursionists landed at Terre Haute at 5 :00 p. m. At 8:00 p. m. a public address was given by Professor Wm. II. Hobbs, University of Michigan, under the auspices of the Academy, 28 May 13, Saturday, was spent by some of the visiting members in a drive along Sugar Creek. The following wei'e members of the excursion party : D. M. Mottier. Robert Hessler. T. H. Grosjeau. L. B. Webster. J. J. Galloway. John B. Peddle. W. S. Blatehley. A. H. CafCee. Donaldson Bodine. R. G. Gillum. W. H. Kessel. E. M. Bruce. U. O. Cox. James H. Baxter. W. C. Ball. O. J. James. George Cutter. Fred Donaghy. M. K. Davis. George W. Benton. :Mrs. George W. Benton. W. A. McBeth. Charles R. Stoltz. Dr. Charles Stoltz. L. J. Rettger. O. L. Kelso. 15. Y. Caftee. J. W. Beede. J. P. Young. W. A. Cogshall. II. J. Banker. C. H. Bean. E. S. Johonnott. F. R. Higgins. C. W. Shannon. R. R. Hyde. J E. Ewers. C. R. Dryer. William H. Hobbs. E. Barrett. Mrs. George Cutter. J. T. Scovell. W. J. MOENKHAUS, Secretary Pro Tem. 29 MINUTES OF THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CLAYPOOL HOTEL, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA. November 30, 1911. The Executive Committee of the Indiana Academy of Science held its regular annual meeting at S :00 p. m. The following members AA'ere pres- ent : Chas. R. Dryer, President ; A. J. Bigney, W. J. Moenkhaus, D. M. Mottier, W. S. Blatchley, Judge R. W. McBride, W. A. Cogshall, J. S. Wright, D. Bodine. R. Hessler, C. H. Eigenmann. The minutes of the Executive Committee of last year were read and approved. The Treasurer made the following report : Treasurer's Report, 1911. Balance cash on hand November 25, 1910 $323 64 Dues collected, 1911 163 00 Total $486 64 Expenditures during years as per vouchers 222 94 Balance cash on hand November 30, 1911 $263 70 W. J. Moenkhaus, Treasurer. Audited and approved. C. H. Eigenmann, L. J. Rettger. The Program Committee reported that its work had been performed as rejjresented on the printed program. The State Library Committee reiwrted that the State Librarian had been taking care of all the exchanges in the most careful way, that he had bound 237 volumes and had 300 more ready for binding, and that he 30 hnd iiiil)lish(,'d a list of the oxcliangos. wliidi can be secured on appli- cation. The committee on the relations of tlie Academy to tlie State were instructed to keep in close touch with the i)laus for erecting a memorial Idiilding. so tiiat if there wi're rooms available they miirlit be secured for the Indiana Academy of Science. Mr. A. "W. Butler was added to this conuuittee. Tlae committee on tlie distril)ution of the proceedings for J 910 reportett tlmt their work had been performed. Nine liundred vol- umes had been printed. 3(X) of which were retained in the State library for distril)ution to libraries and learned societies, tlie remainder distrib- uted to members as exchanges. The following ix'rsons were recommended as Fellows in the Academy: Will Scott, Augustus G. rohlman, J. M. Van Hook, F. M. Andrews. The following standing committees were appointed by the President: I'rogram. — J. AV. Beede, K. Hessler. D. Bodine. Membersliip. — D. Bodine, J. S. Wright. E. R. Cumings. XouiinatJcns.— A. L. Foley. V. O. Cox. R. W. McBride. Andiling. — C. II. Kigenniann. L. .7. Rettgor. F. J. Breeze. Stat.,' labrary.— II. E. Barnard, W. S. Blatchley, A. W. Butler. Restriction of Weeds and Diseases. — R. Ilessler. J. X. Hurty, A. W. Butler, Stanley Coulter. I). M. Mottier. Directors of Biological Survey. — Stanley Coulter, J. ;\I. A'an Hook, C. H. Eigenmann, J. C. Arthur, I'. O. Cox. Relations of the Academy to the State.— M. B. Thomas, R. W. Mc- Bri(h', C Ciill.frtson. C. C. Deain. A. W. Butler. Distriliution of I'roceedings. — J. S. Wright. H. L. F.runer. (J. W. Ben- ton. A. J. i'.igiii-y. rublicalion of I'roceedings. — L. J. Rettger, Editor; I'. X. Evans, D. M. .Mottier. After discissiug the general interest of the Academy the coiumitte!' adjourned. 31 MINUTES OF THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE GERMAN HOUSE, DECEMBER 1, 1911. The Indiana Academy of Science met in general session at 9:30 a. m. witli Pre.sident Clias. R. Dryer in the chair. The minutes of the Executivo Ccmmittee were approved. The Editor of the Proceedings, L. J. Rettger, reported that many difficulties confronted him in liis work as editor, and he urged those mak- ing contributions tliat great care should be taken in presenting their papers ii'. the best possible form and that no changes should be made in the proof if they possibly could be avoided. On motion of Dr. Rettger. it was decided that the other members of the committee should meet with the editor at least twice, and that their expenses should be paid by the Academy. The Program Committee introduced the following resolutions: (1) That the Program Committee shall liave the greatest possible liberty iu choosing what papers sent in shall be read in the Academy and what shall be read by title only, and they shall choose the place of meeting. (2) That the Academy vote on the question whether or not they desire the program to continue through Saturday morning. The first part was adopted. In the second part, it was voted to have no Saturday session. The following persons were elected to membership: F. J. I'ipal, West Lafayette; James E. Ewers, Terre Haute; E. K. Chapman, Crawfordsville ; E. J. Retry, West Lafayette ; C. O. Cromer, West Lafayette ; C. A. Deppe, Franklin ; Melvin K. Haggerty, Bloomington ; Harold Blair, Indianapolis ; Clinton A. Ludwig, West Lafayette ; Geo. L. Hoffman, West Lafayette ; F. M. Andrews, Bloomington ; E. B. Williamson, BlufCton ; B. D. Myers, Bloomington; P. D. Jenks, Indianapolis; Clem O. Thompson, Terre Haute; C. E. Owens, Bloomington; II. L. Barr. Ann Arbor, Michigan. After these business items the Academy took up the program as printed. 32 III tho aftoniooii session tlio following items of business were consid- fit'd : Tiie Anditing roniinittee reixn'ted account of the Treasurer correct. The Committee on Xnniinations rcjiortod as follows: For President, Joseph P. Naylor, Greencastle; Vice-President. Donaldson Hodine. Craw- fordsville; Secretary. Andrew J. Bigney ; Assistant-Secretary, E. A. Will- iamson. P.lnffton; Press Secretary, Mile H. Stuart, Indianapolis; Treas- urer, W. J. Moenkhans ; Editor. T>. .1. Rettger. Terre Haute. The printed program was carried out. Adjournment. ii PROGRAI\r OV THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL IMEETING INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GERMAN HOUSE, INDIANAI'OLIS, INDIANA. November 30, December 1. 2. 1911. Charles Redway Dryer, President. D. W. Dennis, Vice-President. A. J. P>igney. Secretary. W. J. Moenkhaus. Treasurer Thursday, November 30, 7 :30 p. m. Meeting of the Executive Committee, Clai/pool Hotel. Friday', December 1, 9 :30 a. m. Business Respiration of Necturus. 10 m H. L. Bruner Chemical Notes on Ventilation, 10 m P. N. Evan;-- Scientific Results of the Indiana University Expedition to British Guiana, 15 m C. H. Eigenmanii The String Galvanometer in Physiological Research, 10 m....L. J. Rettger An Indiana Shell Mound, 10 m W. S. Blatchley Maternal Impression, 20 m A. G. Pohlman Through the Yukon and Alaska Gold Fields. 20 ni. (Lantern) . .R. E. Lyons ^lountain Climbing in the Far Northwest Pres. W. E. Stone Friday', December 1, 1 :30 p. m. Business President's Address — The North America of Today and Tomorrow, and Indiana's Place in It Charles R. Dryer Purposes, Methods and Progress of the Indiana Soil Sur\'ey, 20 m State Geologist Edw. Barrett The Water Powers of Indiana. 15 m William M. Tucker Economic and Social Expressions of Physical Geogi'aphy in Indiana, 15 m Harry M. Clem [3—29034] 34 3:-i0 i>. III. SrctioiKil Meetings GEOLOGY AM) GEOGKAPIIY SECTION. Terraces aloiii: the Whitewater Kiver. near Kichniond. 20 in. . Alien D. Hole Conservation of the Soil in Dearhorn County. 10 ni A. J. Bigney Keniarks on t!ie .Xature and Oriu'in of the Stream Terraces of Southern Indiana. 20 m J. W. Beede The Geoloiiical Conditions of Municipal Water Sui)pl,v in HriftlcKS AVeas of Suuthern Indiana. ;!(» in K. K. Cnmings Some Physiograiihic Features in the Great Fault, near the Mouth of the Illinois Kiver (by title) J. G. Hutton Some Neglected Principles of Physiography (by title) A. H. Purdue The Function of Hydi'ostatic Pressure in Glacial Movement and Erosion. 15 m J. E. Ewers Sand Dunes in Indiana (lantern), 10 m C. W. Shannon Some Results of the Work of Glaciers in Indiana, 10 m. (lantern) C. W. Shannon Physiography of the Guadalupe ^Mountains. 20 m J. W. Beede The Georgraphic Contrasts of Brown and Johnson Counties, 10 ni Frederick J. Breeze Islands in the Border Drift, 10 m M. K. Davis A Note (jn the Bastostonias of the Ricliniond Series of Indiana, 15 m F. li. Cnniin;;s. J. .7. Galloway A Note on tlie Occurrence of Hand Specimens of Jointed Structure in the New .Vlhany Black Shale, 3 m Glenn Culbertson Observations H.-ivinir for '{"heir ()li.jc m A. J. Bigney The Archeology of Indiana and Ohio. 1(» m (laiiteni) F. W. Gottlieb Ethnological Researches in llio North liiiiid, I!"! m. (Inntonn F. W. Cottliel) SI President's Address. By Charles Redwav Dryer. THE NORTH AMERICA OF TODAY AND TOMORROW AND IN DIANA'S RLACE IN IT. Among the t\v(4ity-six iiresitleiits who have served the Indiana Academy of Science since its organization, I Iiave the honor to stand today as tlie tirst representative of geography. One out of twenty-six is hardly as many as the intrinsic importance of the science miglit jnstify, but it is as many as tlie standing of the subject among scientific men in Indiana calls for. However that may be, this is geography day in our Academy, and I feel Hl-ce opening it with an invocation to Urania, the muse repre- sented by that noble tigure in the gallery of the Vatican, standing alert and at ease, with a globe hi her left hand, a stylus in her right, and on her face an expression of dignity, interest and invitation wortliy of a schoolma'am about to demonstrate the change of seasons. In view of the infrequency with whicli geographical topics are discussed before gen- eral scientific audiences, and in view of the vestigial and appendicular character of the position which geography generally holds in colleges and universities (where it has any position at all), it would not be out of place to enter upon an exposition of the nature, scope, and content of geography, and its logical place among the sciences. I will content myself, however, with saying that the grandmother of the scientific family, al- though often assigned the role of Cinderella, is alive, active and fairly keeping pace with the growth of her numerous progeny. Her greatest problems are no longer those of research, but rather those of the organi- zation of the wealth of facts which her children, to the third and fourth generation, are continually pouring into her house. Geography is still a description of the earth ; and how much that means now as compared with 400 or 100 years ago ! Geography is still the science of distributions : and how the things distributed over the face of the earth do multiply I Geography is still the study of the earth as the home of man, and physi- ology, medicine, engineering, agriculture, economics and sociology vie with 38 one anothor in finding means to make that home more habitahle. Inxurious anil Utopian. (Jco^'i'aphy stn(li<'s the rehitionsliiijs between tlie earth and its inliahitunts. involved in tlie intlnences of natural environment and the reactions of pUmts. animals and men. Under the quickening power of the doctrine of evolution, hi(jlo.!ry lias gone to studying "the reciprocal re- lations of organisnis and the external world." and geography has been comi>eried to become a universal ecology. The very latest and happiest statement I have seen is that of Prof. Ilerbertson. that "geography is fast beconung the scicntilic study of environmenls." A distinguished geographer who is also a member of I'arliament gt)es farther and defines geography to be not a science, l)ut a state of mind, a way of looking at things in proper perspective, in relation to the world organism of which they form a part. And so I have undertaken by way of both exposition and apologj' to present to the Academy a con.crete exami)le of the method and the re- sults of contemporary geograpliie science, as applied to those regi(nis with wliidi tlie people of Indiana are most intimately concernetl. Geograpliy claims the right of scientific prevision, and therefore my topic is Tlic North America of Today aiul Totiimroir. niid Imlimin'^ I'hicc in It. My tlieme might be very fully prescnied liy a scries of maps, almost unlimited in numlter, but arrangcl' this i>ossible g.allery of maps I c;in display but half a do/en and make tlieni exhibit details, fcu' verbal mention of which linu is lacking. The Ue\ to ni\ thesis is map No. 4, 39 which divides North America into natural provinces, in each of which the conditions of environment are hroadly uniform. What these conditions are. may he seen by a comparison of No. 4 with Nos. 1, 2 and 3. North America In its world relations stands among the continents third In area and fourth in population. It. is built on the triangular plan, presenting to the Pacific a high and forbidding back, but facing the At- lantic with a low and inviting coast. The body of it is made up of the largest continuous plain in the world, one-third of the continent being less than OOO feet above the sea. Its shores are washed by all the oceans of the northern hemisphere, and it is crossed by all belts of climate (Fig. 2). It contains an assemblage of land forms which include all varieties of structure, relief and mineral i>roducts. It would be difficult to name a plant or animal which could not find a congenial home in some part of it. More than half of it lies in those middle latitudes which are most favorable for a high degree of civilization. Its position, extent, character and com plexity render it one of the most valuable assets of the human race on this planet. It constitutes by itself a world in which nothing essential for human welfare is lacking. In the scientific study of enviroHinents extremes are the simplest. In provinces controlled by one dominant factor, such as the ocean, heat, cold, aridity or vertical elevation, the outlines of the pictures are clear and bold. Environmental influence and organic reaction, "Ihe reciprocal re- lations of organisms and the external world," are apparent at a glance and leave little that is elusive or con.iectural. Greenland, the largest of islaiids, a broken block plateau capped witii ice, is an absolute desert except ai'ound the margins, where a fringe of barren rock affords a perching ])lace foi- sea fowls and Eskimos. Around its shores the lithosphere c(wers the hydrosphere in the fiu'ni of a shifting crust of pack ice, where the seal, walrus, polar bear, and man live as ice-riding animals. The basis of subsistence is found in the water, which teems with life from microscopic infusoria to whales. Upon these birds and beast subsist, and man upon all of them. ^Metals are absent and vegetable material is negligible. The kayak, the harpoon pointed with a walrus tusk and tied with a rawhide-line to a bladder float, sealskin clothing, tents and boats, bone sledges, the snow igloo built in an hour and frost and bear proof, the artic dog sleeping in all wt^athers with only his tail for a cover, blubber food and fuel, and the skill which men have acquired 40 ill luakii'.!,' use of these simple eleiiicnts to iiiniiitaiii ;ui endurable ami cheerful life, form for the ,t,'oof;rai>her one of tiie most interestinj^ and Siitisfactory demonstrations in ocolof^y. The Eslcimos live ui)on the edge of things, where the struggle for existence is so nicely balanced that it is easily upset. The interference of the white man and the introduction of the utensils and habits of civilization, instead of improving their con- dition, is likely to lead to their ultimate extinction. The destruction of the seal and the introduction of coal stoves, baths and bacteria are sulli- cient to bring irretrievable disaster. In the "l)arren gri^unds" of tlie arctic tundra the basis of subsistence shifts from sea to land, and the presence of lichens, grass, shrubs, thi' caribou and the muskox, brings new elements without materially compli- cating the problem. On the whole the barren laud breeds a race of men Inferior to those of the ice-covered sea. In the great Canadian coniferous forest, the caribou plays the leading part, furnishing food, clothing, shelter and utensils, nuich as the seal does on the ice cap. Native human life is hardly less simple and severe than in the barren grounds. In the forest the snow shoe and the birch bark canoe have evolved as monuments of human skill, comparable to nature's handiwork in the double overcoat of the muskox and the concave spread- ing h(X)fs of the caribou. Europeans began 250 years ago to reap the harvest of furs. Trading iK>sts and transportation lines were estal)lishel all over the ]irovince. and every square mile of it has been the scene of the labors of the loiu'ly trapper, greatly to the iK'cnniary adv.-mtage of th ' Hudson P.ay ("omiiany. .and to the luxury of European society, but with little gain in goods or morals to the Indian and (he half-breed. Tiie re- sources of the province in ]ieltiy have been so successfully conservtnl that the supply, except in the case ot some species, such as the l)eaver. is scarcely diminished. The fur trade has bred men of iron who have spent llieir sti'englh in getting nioi-e furs. .\n occasional exceiition, like Lord Strathcona, heljts to ennoble the inglorious herd. The lumberman has cul into tlH> southern fringe of the forest an(' may be expected to extend his oixrations as f.ist as the demand for timber justifies the construction of new railroads. \l a few points (he lure of gfild has led to the irrnplion of civilization in isolated chuidcs. The plienoinenon of a city like l»;iwson oi' Fairbanks, with loi-il railroads, electric lights, telegraphs, newspapers, iMilice and dog sle(lg(> mail service. 41 has aiipearecl almost in a flay. Such communities are wliolly artificial and precarious, but will probably be repeated many times as the assuredly great mineral wealth of the Lanrentian peneplain and the Yukon plateau is prospected and exploited. The Canadian province will always be a game country, and as it be- comes more accessible, its thousands of lakes, streams and wooded islands \^ill acquire new value as ideal play and recreation grounds, where the weary denizens of crowded marts will find a paradise for camping, boat- ing, hunting and fishing, and will revert temporarily to the primitive and simple life. On the ice cap. in the tundra and in the forest collective economy pre- vails to the exclusion of all others. Men produce nothing but live by plundering nature of plant, animal or mineral wealth. Yet these resources are subject to some degree of scientific conservation. We have heard much of the coal, copper, gold and tin of the Alaskan coast province, and they are probably worth looking into. We have also heard marvelous stories of Alaskan agriculture, of the ripening of wheat at Circle City, and of potatoes and other hardy vegetables grown in ap- l>arently impossible places. Summer days are long on the Arctic circle, but that the i)rovince will never do more than furnish a limited and local supply of agricultural products, and have anything to export except tim- ber, minerals, fish and moscpiitoes, are among the certainties of geography. It possesses one literally invaluable asset which can never be exploited. syiidicatele SO per cent, are of Indian blood and more than half of lli(/se without a st.iin of white. With all his faults, the Mexican i)eon is not lazy or vicious, and remains now. as of old, the pure American .at his liest. Mexico is the land of cactus and agave, of tortillas .and I'rijoles, of chili and iiuhpie. of silver and maniiower, of cockfights .and n'volutions, of opportunity and nninana, out of which I', stable and prosperous civilization, more promising tlnin that of Old Spain, seems to be rising as rapidly as tropical nature and human nature will pernut. The Caribbean province lies in tlu' eipiatoriai zone of volcanoes, earth- quakes, perennial heat, heavy raiiit'all and tmpicnl forest. These condi- tions attain their extreini's for the continent in Centra! America, where 4,n(X(,(MM> Indi.ans. negroes, and mestizos are leaNcned with less than one percent, of jiure f'aii'oiiean stock. The n.-itural .iml human <-on(litions are less favorable than on tiie .Mexiian plateau. 'I"he most niomeidous things ii! the province just now are the Tehuanteiiec r.iilway and the T'anama 43 Canal. The Mexicans have bettered Captain Eads" scheme for a ship railway by constrncting a Hrst-class trunk line 192 miles long, with a summit level below 700 feet, and adequjite harbor works at each end. The trathc amounted the first year to .$3S.0(KX(K)0. This route between Atlantic and I'acific ports is 1,000 to 1..W) miles and four to six days shorter than the Panama route, and in comiJetition with it can hold mail, passenger and fast freight transit. Concerning the consetjuences to follow from the opening of the Panama canal, no one can predict with assurance. Whether it is a great big bluff put up by the Ignited States in response to tlie world's dare, and will be of value clnefly as a means of doulding the effective strengtii of our navy, or whether it will tr.-uisform seai)orts and routes of trade between Europe, Asia and America, and even knock down transcontinental freight rates, remains to be seen. In eitlier event, it will prove well worth doing. It is eminently fitting that the Great Republic should make real the dream of centuries, and sliould overcome the greatest natural obstacle to com- mercial progress tliat tlie world presents. Tlae enteii)rise is more com- mendable and beneficent than the Crusades. Its execution is a victory of peace, suriiassing in discipline,- mastery of engineering and sanitary skill tlie achievements of Japan in war. The completion of the canal will make the Caribbean truly the American Mediterranean. In the West Indies tlie negro peoples are the most interesting. They immber 2,500,000 and constitute nearly the whole population of Haiti, Jamaica and Barbados. Here the negro has had the longest time and the best opportunity to show in a congenial environment his capacity for civilization. The results under self-guidance in tlie black republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo are scarcely better than those in central Africa. In Jamaica and Barbados, the British Empire has no more orderly, in- dustrious, intelligent, and loyal subjects than the colored people, a large majority of whom are members of the church of England. The Caribbean province has an area about six times that of Java and one-third as many lieople. If it were as efficiently manned and managed as Java, it could supply the continent with all tropical products, including rubber, coffee, sugar, cocoa, fruit and spices. Who will man and manage it? Thus far I have tried to characterize briefly the provinces of ex- tremes, those which may be called cold and dry, cold and wet, hot and dry or hot and wet. I now come to those medial provinces which are called temperate, but are in a sense the most intemperate of all. The climatic 44 map (Fif?. 2) shows that tho isotherms of 70 degrees for July and of HO degrees for January cross near San Francisco and si)read widely apart, bounding a belt which Ix'lon.irs to the torrid zor.e in sunmur and the frigid zone in winter. The climate is best characterized as intemi)erate, having an annual range of 40 to GO degrees. Maximum temperatures of 110 degrees and mininuun of -50 degrees are not unusual. The belt is swept by a procession of cyclones and anticyclones which bring rapid changes from cool and dry to warm and wet and vice versa, two or three times a week. The weather is perhaps the most variable and uncompromising in the world. Cold waves and hot waves intensify the seasons and give everybody something to talk and read about. The atmosphere furnishes a penietnal turkish bath, running the gamut from hot to cold and cold to hot in the most stimulating and irritating manner. Our European friends say that American hustle and restlessness and the strained expression on our faces are due to the uncertainty and intensity of American weather. The eastern half of the intemperate belt is saved from aridity by cyclonic winds from the gulf and Atlantic, which carry a rainfall of 2(» or more inches to Hudson Bay. The western half catches its moisture as catch can and i)nts up with the driblets left from the load dropped on the eastern plains or the western mountains. The line near the 100th merid- ian where the 20-inch isoihyet and the 2,000 foot isohyps coincide is one ol" the most strongly marked natural boundaries in tlie world. It is the west- em limit of forest, prairie, agriculture without irrigation and dense popula- tion. The medial belt of North America is divided into three pairs of ],rovinces, tlie Pacific. Interior, and Atlantic. The simplest is the In- terior," including the Arizonan, already noticed. The Interior province is composed of two i>lateaus separated by the broad system of the Rocky ninunlains. There is not a square mile in it below 2,000 except in llie luwcr Cdhimbia valley, and most of it lies abov(> all but the smnmits of the Aiiiialadiians. On the west the smaller Co- Iniiihia iilalc.-ni is a frozen sea of lava, trcuclud by tlu' Snake and Colnni- bia rivers in gl(M)my canons. Most of the scant rainfall sinks into the crevices to reai)pear along the cafion walls in voluminous springs. The dominant plant format io:i is sagebrush, wliicli is neither grass ntn- slirnb nor tree, but just artemesia. The t'astern plateau, connnonly known as the fireat Plains, but better ch.ariicteriztsl as the High Plains, is nearly 2,000 miles long and 800 to .'')0(» iiiilcs wide. It is liniken here and there by 45 islanded uplifts of iiigeiious iutrusion, such as the Black Hills, and carved into the fantastic forms of the Bad Lands; but over much of it the land- scape has no feature but the bounding curve of the horizon. Overloaded and dwindling rivers from the mountains wind across it in tortuous or braided channels. It is semi-arid steppe, a transition between forest and prairie on the one hand and desert on the other. It is the domain of bunch grass, fitted by nature for the home of nomad herdsman. The first chapter in the eventful geography of the steppe is concern- ed with the buffalo and the plains Indian. You know the story of the millions of "humpbacked cattle" and the thousands of fierce and restless red men who lived upon their tongues and hides, and with an economic basis and an energy that might have made them masters of the continent, expended both in killing one another. The white men brought them horses, firearms, firewater and smallpox, a combination which probably shortened their career. The first serious invasion of the country was that of the cattle kings and cowboys from tlie south, who drove their herds over "the long trail, ' and inaugurated the strange, brief, pastoral episode of the steppe. The conflict between the Indian and the cowboy raged for a decade with no decisive results until the prairie schooners of the Mormons, Oregon emi- grants, and gold seekers bound for California and Pikes Peak, brought new elements to tuni the scale. For another decade the life of the steppe was a chaotic welter of Indian, cowboy, emigrant, miner, hunter, freighter, coach driver, pony express rider, outlaw, soldier and engineer, which lives in literature and fascinates young and old as the most adventurous and romantic chapter in American history. The civil war demonstrated by liow slender a thread the Pacific States were bound to the Union and spurred Congress to tie them with iron bands. The completion of the Union and Central Pacific lines in 18H9 insured the speedy extermination of the buffalo, the suppression of the Indian raider and the dawn of an era of law, order, and peace. The Indian dozes on his reservation or works on irrigation dams, the open range has gone, cowboy life has become tame ranching, irrigation and dry farming are displacing bunch grass with alfalfa, kafir corn and durum wheat. Through all the shifting scenes in the strange drama of the steppe, aridity has been stage manager and will remain so to the end. The Pacific provinces are but a narrow fringe hemmed in between the sea and the mountains beyond which desert and steppe begin abruptly. 46 California lias the only bit of truly teniiK'rati' climate where the monthly temperatures are always iictwccii 50 degrees anil 7n degrees on the conti- nent. The loim. (liy snninicr and mild, moist winter invite to a free, out- d(M)r life, wliere men may take long breaths and live close to nature. Dr. Jordan claims for California tliiec most valuable assets, climate, scenery and freedom, and the claim may lie allowed m full, and to its items may be added Stanford Tniversity and San Francisco Bay. The Oreg«Mi province differs from the C'alifornian chiefly in having more rain, cloud and fog. Here the coniferous forest reaches probably its highest floristii.' and economic development. Fruit trees and vines are so luxuriant and Xjrolific that an astute, though amateur scientist, conjecturefl the presence of more radium than the average in the soil. Here the Columbia river makes the only complete gap in the mountain barrier between the tropic and the arctic circle. Here also the Strait of Fuca and I'uget Sound break ;2(X) ndles inland. In the eyes of the geographer the better part of the Pacific ]irovinces is water. The productive area is small, the great valley of California being about the size of Indiana. The land is narrow and rough and has no hinterland, but it forms a sufficient base for sea-power on the Pacific and a strong but gentle grasp upon the Orient. And thus by a roundabout road I come finally to the core of the con- tinent, the part of North America that really counts, around which the other provinces sbind as natural and economic tributary vassals. The Atlantic i>rovinces between the Laurentian heights and the gulf of Me.Kico, between the sea and the critical line of the 100th meridian .stand out boldly on every map. The area of the two is nearly 2.000.000 sipiare nnles, or one-fifth of North America, and is half as large as Europe. The popula- tion as about 90,000,(XX) or 70 jier cent, of the total of North America. This region is the most densely poptdated large area in the western hemisphere and the most importaid. center of civilization outside of Kin-o])". This preeminence is due to many ciuises, geographical and historical. (1) Position. It lies on the west side of the North Atlantic ocean and north of the .\merican Mediterranean. The long, low coastline, with many drowned v.alleys. and the number of navigable waterways wliicli penetrate (lie interior render it easily accessible by water from the better half of the world. (2) Struct II !■<■ (ind Uiliif. While its relief is sufficiently v.-iried. not more than a tenth of it is t(H) ruggwl for cultivation. Four-fifths of it is a smooth plain below 2,(tOO feet in elevation, almost everywhere arable 47 and traversible by roads and waterways. Its crust includes the most valuable coal, petroleum and iron fields yet developed in the world. Two- fifths of its area is covered with the best of glacial soils. (3) Climate. It lies in that part of the so-called temperate zone where the summers are long and warm enough to ripen the cereal grains, and the rainfall in the growing season is everywhere sufficient for agri- culture. (4) Vc(/ctation. The natural vegetation includes large areas of conif- erous and summer forests and prairie. The summer forests are easily con- verted by clearing into grass and agricultural lands. (5) People. The bulk of population is of Baltic Caucasian stock, which the presence of negroes, and the recent infiux of Alpine and Medi- terranean inmiigrants, have not yet notably mcKlified. In race and culture the region is an oversea colony of western and central Euroi)e. Here then we have an environment with infiuences and reactions suf- ficiently complex to task the powers of the most accomplished scientific geographer. I cannot in a part of an hour undertake to do it justice and sliall attempt only to touch upon a few points. I can sum up its economics in a brief table. LEADING PRODUCTS OF THE ATLANTIC PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA. North America. World. Per cent. Per cent. Corn 99 SO Wheat SG 21 Oats 90 Barley 75 Rye 94 Potatoes 79 Cotton 98 62 Tobacco 70 32 Rice 91 Coal 90 40 Iron Ore 98 40 Petroleum 70 46 Natural Gas 98 Foreign Commerce 80 12 Population - 70 5.6 48 The total value of its agricultural products in one year approaches nine billion dollars, a sum which Secretary Wilson says nothing short of omniscience can grasp. Tlie net value of manufactured products is well over ten billion dollars. However approximate these figures may l>e, tliey «-lu)W the order of the magnitudes. When goods are i)roduced in such (piantities, the circulation of prod- ucts and peoitle nuist be on a corresponding scale. In the way of this, *lie Appalachian highland offers the only barrier. This is broken through by two gateways, the St. liawrence and the Mohawk-Hudson valleys. The gaji of tlic Laurentian lakes and river plays the part of the Baltic sea in Euroiie. It lets tide and shipping 900 miles inland to Montreal, and smaller vessels penetrate to the head of Lake Superior, 2,000 miles by water and 1,000 miles in a direct line from the sea. Modern improvements have niade this the greatest commercial waterway of the world, next to the North Atlantic ocean. The total tonnage passing through the "Soo" canals ill one season of less than eight months is about €0,000,000 tons, or more than four times that of the Suez Canal, and etpial to the combined tonnag.' ol' New York, London and Liverpool. The totiil traffic of the ujiper lakes through the Detmit Uiver anidnuts to 70,000,000 t(ms. The Mohawk-Hudson gaii is even a more important gateway of tin- continent than the lower St. liawrence. 'I'lie New York barge canal now nnd«>r constru'-tion may lie I'egarded as a half-way measure toward a fu- ture ship canal at k'ast 24 feet det^p. Time is lacking to discuss the waterways of the Mississijtpi system. Improvements will he made, hut the coniplete control and utilization of the Mississippi is a larger prfiposition than mankind has yet anywhere attempted, and may prove too costly for even the richest C(^untry in the woi'ld to accomplish, f \'entnre only to mention ;is pi'obabli' future water- ways of consider.'ible magnitude: Lake Krie to Lake Ontario, lUilTalo t) Troy, Georgian P.ay to .Montreal, rieveland to I'ittsl»in-gli and Cairo, Chi- cago to N;'\v Orleans. I\ansas City to St. I>ouis. Winnipeg to Lake Su- perior. The strategic jioints on the seal)oard are .Montreal, New York and New Orlears. .Vmong those inland, T»uffalo, Cleveland. IMttsburgh, Detroit, Cliicago, St. Lonis .-iikI Winnipeg .-ire iilainly conspicuous. I want to call especj.MJ attention to WiiuiijK'g. It stands in tiie wasp-w;iist of Cauiida. through which ;ill currents nmst pass. If 1 were a capitalist I would look for in\cst niriits in Wiuniixvg. 49 New York already looms up as one of the modern wonders, with a reasonable prospect of becoming within twenty years the metropolis and financial center of tlie world. The vision of a city of ten or twenty millio:i i:eople appalls the imagination. The growth of the seaboard, Cleveland- I'ittsburgh, and Chicago manufacturing districts sustains the prophecy of H. G. Wells that thei'e will ultimately be a c-ontinuous urban industrial district, extei'.ding from Boston, New York, and Philadelphia to Chicago and St. Louis, with various outliers along the Mi-ssissippi. For the general map of future economies or use of land, Fig. (', we are indebted to Raphael Zon of the U. S. Forest Service. (Circular 159.) The question of future population is not only a fascinating subject of speculation, but a serious practical problem of vital importance to all stu- dents of the conservation of natural resources. It is not at all a question of space. If all the people in the world could be herded in Texas, every man, woman and child could have a domain 70 feet square, equal to au ordinary city lot. Even in lUiode Island they could stand in rows 4 feet 6 inches apart botli ways. The population which any region can support is fixed, according to IH*. JMcGee, not by land area or limitation of atmos- pheric nitrogen, but by water supply, a proposition sustained by a com- parison of the rainfall and population maps, which might almost serve one ii! place of the otlier. He calculates that tlie "duty of water" in relation to liuman popula- tion is "the maintenance of one human life a year for each five acre feet used effectively in agriculture." Tlie annual rainfall of the United States is five billion acre-feet; therefore the capacity of the United States for [lopulation is limited to one billion, giving a density about half that ol' Kelgium. a figure whlcli may be reached in less than three centuries. Sev- eral statisticians, calculating from known rates of increase, place the popu- lation of the Ignited States in the year 2000 at 2r.O to 3.50 millions. Even more momentous than the questio:i. How many? is the que.stlon What shall we be? In 3S30 the people of tlie United State and Canada numbered about 14,000,000 and were, except the French on the lower St. Lawrence, of almost pure British stock. Shortly after 1S30 immigration began on a large scale, and with some fluctuation has increased until the present, when in some years a million aliens land upon American shores. The total number amounts to about 2s,000,000, of which 90 per cent, have come from Europe. Previous to 1890. 75 per cent, of them were Baltic [4— 29034) 50 and Toiitoiiic in'ii|)l('. Since ls!i(». (lO per cent, have been Alpine and Mwli- torranean peoiiie. Tiiis iiillux (if peojyle wild differ widely I'roni the orig- inal stddv in teniperanient. habits, lanirnage. and religion, makes tlie prob- lem of assimilatinn and blending a scrions one. The most etllcient agent of American i/.atidn is the pnblic school, where the eliildren learn the Eng- lis^h langnage. absoib American ideas, and undergo a cliange even in head form. The Alpine people are noted for their domestic virtues and devotion to family, divorce being almost unknown among them. The Italians have a native taleiit for art and music. Tliese are qualities in which the typical .Vnicricau is oUcn lacking, and desirable contributions to the society of the future. A rajiidly developing country like ours has an almost unlimited ca pacify to absorlt and use labor supply, and there is no indication of a sur- plus. The luunber of colored people in proportion to the total population is decreasing, and it is jtossible that in time even the "black belt" will fade out. At the twelfth I'nited States census the native whites of native par- ents formed a small majority, the foreign whites and native whites of for- eign parents a little over one-third. The tardy returns of the thirteenth census will probably reverse these proportitms. The I'nited States is the melting pot of the nations. The relative and absolute decrease of the rural population, the increase of foreign born, the relative decrease of food supply, the approaching limit of f*>,()00, mostly in southern Ontario and Quebec, there are too many unknown factors to make preeoples, expanding upon new and vacant lands, are able not only to develop freely, normally and without foreign influence, but also to acquire an ever increasing personal initiative. "By the processes of private life alone," he says, "they have established and will maintain parliaments, self-government and the predominance of the indi- >idual over the State. They absorb, assimilate or eliminate numerous and diverse elements from the old world. They are a society of intense life, of individual energy and aptitude for progress raised to their maximum. They are the society of the future." And u hat of hulidiKi/ The i)repotent geographic quality of Indiana Is Its centrality. It is not in the center of North America, but near tlie cen- ter of its richest province. We, here at Indianaixilis, are nearly midway between the critical lino of the l(K>th meridian and the Atlantic coast, be- tween the Laurentian peiiephiin and the gulf coastal plain, between the Appalachians and the Mississippi, hetwtvii Lake Michigan and the Ohio, between the July isotherm of 70*^ and llic .lamiary isotlirnii of ."lO", be- 5-6 tween the Isohyet of 20 inches and that of (>0 inches, between the isopletJi of 250 and that of 8. Indiana sits astride the Cincinnati ardi with ont.> foot over the edge of the interior coal field and the other on the oil and gas belts, and astride the boundary of glacial drift and the boundary be- tween summer forest and prairie, with the balance on the right side in both cases. No State hits more exactly the golden mean, its position makes it, like France, a "bridgeland" between north and south, east and west. It has been hajipily called the "midland gap" traversed by many lines of human interest. The mid-parallel of the United States, the 30th. triangulated and leveled by the geodetic survey, crosses it. The centers of cereal production and farm values have crossed it into Illinois. The center of maniafactures is in Ohio headed this way. The center of popu- lation has been stuck in Indiana for twenty years and is likely to stay here indefinitely. The National Road, the Wabash and Erie canal and a score of east-west trunk-lines cross it, and ship canals both ways are morf-, than possibilities. Everything comes our way because it must. The happy mean involves an absence of startling e.xtremes. Few superlatives can be applied to Indiana, but it is not therefore commonplace. Its central posi- tion implies a moderate variety and complexity. In Indiana cold waves are not too cold, hot waves are not too hot, and tornadoes are not very frequent ; yet the climate is by no means monotonous or enervating. There are no volcanoes, geysers, earthquakes or glaciers, but the moraines and lakes of the north and the hills, knobs, bluffs and caves of the south pro- vide a pleasing variety of landscape beloved by the artist. The strongest contrasts in Indiana are between north and south separated approximately by the boundary of the Wisconsin drift, which also is or was the color line, the mule-horse line, the neckyoke and chain-trace line, the corn-shuck and corn-husk line, the tinpail-buclvet line, the "thataway" line and the "right smart" line. In the north the winters are severe enough to compel a proper degree of foresight and care. In the south a family might live as Thomas Lincoln's did, with only a blanket for a door to the cabin. In the days of slavery Indiana was the right of way of the underground railroad, and during the Civil War no northern State was more evenly balanced in its sympathies. In party politics no presidential candidate can count upon it with assurance. Many great men start or stop in Indi- ana ; not so many stay there. To trace the environmental influences which have given rise to a banner crop of oratory, poetry, fiction and humor 54 would l)e ;i lasciiiatiiij; I)r()l)!iMii. but soinetbiuji must bo left fur my col- leagues who are to follow on tlii.s program. Indiana is too nuich in tho way to be isolated, anticiuated or one-sided, yet not in danger of being swamped by I'orelgn elements. If it should ever cease to be the home of a prnsiterous connnunity of enlightened and hai)py people the event will not be due to adverse geographic position or environment. K <•" 'rCX f^^ 1 — — - — \\ — < i^ i> J «^i»j-j,^^ ^^^^ ^^ V^ fa s: V /9 y ^^^^^ ^^y^^ ^-^ p\~. -fc\ /C> ' ■1 ^^^^1 f\ J ^N ^/^ 1^^ .. ■ 1^^^^^ ^^M' m h~\ -r^ ^^S I '/■ '.'_ r^ : ■••- *\5^^?^T? L^W 55 Chemical Notes on Ventilation. By Percy Norton Evans. What is the direct cau.se of the enervating and injurious effect of poor ventilation on the human system is still uncertain. The old theory that it is due to increased carbon dio.xide and decreased oxygen in re- spired air seems quite inadequate in view of the smallness of the actual uifterence between ordinary poor air and fiesh air; to be sure the carbon dioxide may be increased many times, but it is not poisonous, and e.xperi- ments have shown that equal quantities added to air by purely chemical means have no such marked physiological effects; and the concentration of oxygen is altered to a scarcely appreciable extent in any case of ordi- nary poor ventilation. It is held by some that definite toxic substances are exhaled in respi- ration, and that these, rather than the alteration in tiie proportions of inorganic c<>nstituents of the air, are responsible for tlie undesirable effects. I-lxhalations from the siviu have also been considered of importance, and this hypothesis receives some measure of confirmation from the very notice- able difference in the intensity of tlie effect of a well-washed and a iiot- well-washed crowd in a poorly ventilated assembly room, the respiration products being tlie same in both cases presumably. Again, some claim that tlie excessive moisture is an important factor, but tliis seems an in sufficient explanation, for the air of badly ventilated buildings in cold weather contains nothing like the amount of moisture present in fresh air in warm, damp weatlier. Whatever the cause or causes — and they may be many — of the evil effects of poor ventilation, it is surely true that anything that tends to carry away the air that has been exhaled or in contact with the person and replace it by fresli air, must be beneficial. Elaborate provision is often made to insure by mechanical means tliis movement of air. As will be shown, something can also be done by auto- matic physical means to bring about tjie same result, and where mechan- ical means are employed they should for economy and efficiency operate in such a direction as to assist rather than oppose the natural automatic movement. 56 It was formerly thought that foul air, that is air that has been breathed, was more dense than fresh air, because part of the oxygen of the latter is replaced by carbon dioxide in the lungs, and carbon dioxido is denser than oxygen, and consequently tliat expired air tended to fall and foul air to accumulate at the floor of a room, so that for the best results the removal of air should be from near the floor. This reasoning overlooked the fact that oxygen is also replaced by water vapor in tlb' lungs, and water vaiwr is lighter than oxygen ; also that the expired air is at a higher temperature than the air of the room and e shown, expired air is actually lighter than fresh air under ordinary ventilation conditions, and therefore tends to rise and accumulate near the ceiling. This is as- sisted by the natural upward movement of air in a building warmer than its surroundings, as in a flue, and further by upward currents in the neigh- borhood of any body warmer than its immediate surroundings, such as a stove, a burning lamp or gas jet or electric light, or even the body of a person. That foul air tends to accumulate near the ceiling is very evi- dent to those occupying the gallery of a crowded auditorium. An exiieriment to test this upward movement of respiretl air was made by the writer in a class room about 27 by 30 feet and Ui feet high. The room temperature was 24° C. (75° V.). and the ontdtx»r temperature 10° C. (HO" F. ) ; the moisture in the air of the room as shown by a Mltt- hof hygrometer was between HO and (>0 per cent, of saturation. The win- dows and door and a ventilator were closed during the ixn'iod of exi)eri- ment and the only source of artificial heat in the room was a vertical steam pipe, the radiator being shut off by the automatic thermostat. The room was oeeupied by 2(i adults for ".() minutes and was then unoccupied for 10 minutes immediately before the jieriod of expcrinicnt. which also lasted HO minutes, .">(> adults being present, seated. ('arl)()n dioxide was (Iclerniined in llie air with a Tjinge air tester, samples being taken alternately from within (t inches of the ceiling and tlie floor, tlirongh tultes, and analyzed on a table, near the center of the room, 'i'lie annl.\li, fresh ontdooi- air i-cqniring is siiiU'fZfs witii tlie aiMiaratus used. 57 The results for the successive samples from near the ceiling were 14.5, 10.0, IS.O, and 21.0 parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air by volume ; near the floor the figure obtained was 14.5 in 3 successive samples. Moisture readings with the hygrometer showed an increase from 52 to 5S per cent, of saturation during the experiment near the ceiling, and from 55 to 58 below the table— a greater increase near the ceiling. These re- sults show that the respiration products, carbon dioxide and moisture, move upwards under these conditions. The influence of the temperature and moistness of the air of the room on the upward movement of expired air will be shown in what follows. The temperature of the exhaled air is necessarily body temperature, ;>T^ C. (D8.G° F.) ; that of the surrounding air of the room can be con- trolled in an artificially heated building, and since cold air is denser than warm air the lower the room temperature tlie greater will be the differ- ence in density between it and the exhaled air, and the greater the tend- ency of the latter to rise and be automatically removed from the respira- tion level. Failure to take advantage of this [principle probably accounts in part at least for the enervating and depressing effects of overheated rooms in our homes, schools, offices, public buildings, and, worst of all, our hotels. The usual temperature aimed at in this part of the country is well up in the seventies — a very mistaken form of luxury ; it should be at least ten degrees lower, and sensible habits in clothing, esiiecially on the part of fashionable women, would soon remove the apparent hardship. The accepted temperature for school rooms in England is said to be 58' r., and the standard temperature of the room generally accepted in Euro- pean scientific work is 15° or 15.5° C. (59° or 60° F.). The moisture factor is similar to the temi>erature factor in its effect and to a less degree in its control. The exhaled air is always saturated with moisture, the air of the room if at a higher temperature than out of doors is not saturated unless moisture is added to it after entering the building, and in frosty weather is commonly not over one-fifth saturated. Since, as already stated, water vapor is lighter than air, and since it dis- places an equal volume of air, tlie less moisture there is in the air of the room the greater will be the tendency of the expired air to rise. There may be other reasons against having very dry air in buildings, such as irritation of the nose and throat, though this objection is at present de- batable and not in agreement with the generally recognized benefits of 58 breathing fresh air even at low temperatures; also there may be injury to furniture anil wood-work, but from our present standpoint the drier the room air the better. In liaiiimiiy with this is the very noticeably de- pressing effect of a very moist atmosphere. Let us now consider the numerical values concerned in these densitie;} under ordinary cdnditions. Accepting Ilallibuiton's values for the composition of fresh air and expired air both in the dry condition, Fresh air — Oygen 20.0ii per cent, by volume Nitrogen 79.00 per cent, by volume Carbon dioxide 0.04 per cent, by volume Expired air — Oxygen 16. 12 per cent, by volume Nitrogen 79.45 per cent, by volume Carbon dioxide 4 .43 per cent, by volume the densities, compared with hydrogen at the same temperature and pres- sure, are rr u ■ . /20.96 16\ /7i).0() 14\ /0.04 22\ ,, ,r, Prcsh air: | x — | + l X — | + | X — 1=14.42 V 100 1 / V 100 1 /\ 100 1 / r. ■ , ■ /16.12 16\ /79.45 14\ /4.43 22\ ,, ^^ Expired an-: ( Hr^T) + (^(r^T) + (wXY)"''-^' Considering now the effect of moist urt> on the density of expired air. the tension of aipieous vapor, or vapor iiressure of water, is 47 nnlli- meters of mercury at 37° C. (9S.(>° F. ), therefore any gas saturated with water vapor at this temperature consists of x or 0.2 T>er cent. TOO 1 water v.-iiioi- and l(M)-().2 (U- 93.S per cent, by volume of all other constitu- ents together. The composition of ('.xjiired air saturated with moisture at body temperature is therefor(> Oxygen 10.12%. 93s. or l."..li: ]ier cent, by volume Nitrogen 79.45x.93S. or 74.52 per cent, by volume ('ail)on dioxide 4.43x.93S, or 4. Hi per cent, by volume Water v.ipor 0.20 \>oi- cent, by volume 'i'he density of this mixtni-e compjired with hydrogen at the same ivm- peniture and pressure, calculated as before, the density of water vapor being 9, i.s 14.33. 59 Compaiiiii;: then the densities of dry fresh air and expired air sat- urated with moisture, hoth at o7° C. (98.6° F. ), we find tlieni to he 14.42 and 14.33 respectively, the addition of the moisture having a greater effect in decreasing the density than the replacement of part of the oxygen by carbon dioxide in increasing it, if tlie inspired air is dry. Talcing into account such differences in temperature as are likely to occur between the inspired and the expired air, we find that since the density of any gas or mixture of gases is propoii:ional to the absolute temperature, a density of 14.42 for dry fresh air at 37° C, or 310° abso- lute, becomes at 20° C, or 293° absolute, O^^x^) ^r ^-'•2<5, so that the relative densities of dry fresh air at 20° C. (GS° F.), and ordinary ex- haled air (at 37° C), are 15.2G and 14.42. The difference between these figures, which is favorable to the automatic removal of respiration pro- ducts from the level of respiration, decreases with any increase in temi)er- ature of the fresh air. A density of 14.42 at 37° C. becomes 14.33 at 39' (14 42 310\ — '■ — X — I or 312° absolute is 39° C. ; therefore drv fresh air 14.33 1 / would have at 39° C. (102° F.), the same density as ordinary expired air (saturated with moisture and at 37° C), and at 39° C. the automatic upward removal of respiration products due to difference in density ceases. Having considered the case of perfectly dry fresh air. let us take the other extreme of fresh air saturated with moisture at certain temperatures. The tension of aqueous vapor at 30° and 35° C. is respectively 32 and 42 millimeters of mercury, so, liy reasoning similar tn that on page 58, the composition of fresh air saturated with moisture at tliese temperatures is At 30° C— Oxygen 20.96 x .958, or 20.08 per cent, by volume Nitrogen 79.00x .958, or 75.68 i>er cent, liy volume Carbon dioxide 0.04 x .958, or 0.04 per cent, by volume Water vapor 4.20 per cent, by volume At 35° C— Oxygen 20.90 x .945, or 19.81 per cent, by volume Nitrogen 79.00x.945, or 74 . 05 per cent, by volume Carbon dioxide 0.04x .945, or 0.04 per cent, by volume Water vapor 5 . 50 per cent, by volume 60 The densities of these mixtures comiinred witli hydrogen at the same temperature, say .'}7° C, are respectively 14.20 and 14.11, eahulated as JK'tore, while ordinary exlialed air has the density 14.33 compared with the same standard (hydrogen at 37° C). Imagining these mixtures cooled down to 30° and 35° C, respectively, their densities become 14.53 and 14.20, calculated as before from the absolute temperatures. By interpo- l.ition we find that if densities 14.53 and 14.20 correspond to temperatures ;'.0° and 35° C, 14.33 corresponds to approximately 33° C. ; therefore if fresh air is saturated with moisture it has at about 33° C. tlie same den- sity as ordinary exhaled air (saturated with moisture and at 37° C), therefore at 33° C. (91° F.) the useful upward movement of expired air ceases if the surrounding air is saturated with moisture. A certain temperature between 33° and 39° C. corresponds to each degree of saturation with moisture. It has been shown that under all ordinary conditions of ventilation the products of respiration move upwards; that this upward movement, by which the harmful products are removed from the level of respiration, is assisted by a low room temi>erature, and by dryness of the air of the room ; also, that the fresh air has the same density as expired air (saturated with moi.sture and at body temperature) at 33° C. or 91° F. if the fresh air is saturated with moisture, at 30° C. or 102° F. if perfectly dry, and at temperatures intermediate between these with different degrees of raoistness. Purdue Tin irerfiity, LaFayettc, Indiana, Novemher, lUll. 61 An Indiana SriFi.T. Mound By W. S. Blatchley. Some six (ir si>ve)i years atro while looking up the road materials of Martin County, liuliana, I noted on the northwest quarter of section 30 ('•i N. — 4 W.) of an old county map which I had in hand the words "shell mound." I asked my companion, a resident of the town of Shoals, if there was a mound at the place so marked. He did not know but proposed that we drive out and ascertain. As our afternoon's work took us near the place, on returning; we drove in a gateway and along a private road whicli followed the bank of White River for half a mile or more. While so doing we met the owner of the land, one Thomas Ghormley of Shoals, who re- turned with us and led us to the site of the so-called mound. It was on the crest of a sandstone bluff on the soutli side of White River and one hundred and twenty feet above the water. Here, on a level tract of sev- eral acres, the surface nearest the brink of tlie bluff was a few feet higher than that back of it and thnaigh the soil was here and there protruding a brolven sliell of a Unio or fresh water mus.'^el. One or two small open- ings had been made by some superficial investigator which showed the shells to be closely massed a foot or so below the surface. Having no tools for digging I at that time made no farther observations, but resolved to return for a thorough investigation. The next summer, accomiianied by James Epperson, State Mine In- spector, I spent two days at the place and found it to be an extensive kitchen-midden or refuse heap of some ancient race. They probably had their village site on tlie level tract to the south or back of the shell heap and had dumped the shells, after the animals had been extracted, on the edge of the bluff. The area co\ered by the shells and other remains was found to be one hundred and seventy-feet in length from east to west by sixty-five feet in width from north to south, the edge nearest the bluff being curvetl or in a half circle. Over most of that area the shells were from three and a half to four and a half feet in thickness and covered with one to one and a half feet of sod and soil, tlirough which in many places tlie shell fragments had worked to the surface. At several points 62 oil the slojics tlier(» was found to he :i layci' of shells, tfieii a layer of sev- eral inches of soil, followed hy another layer of shells, this indicating an irrejiularity of dinn[>in.ic. l)rou.dit ahoiit perhaps by the villaj^e site bein.2 vacated at intervals. n the thickest ]»ortion of the heap the shells were occasionally mixed with much humus, but for the most part they were nearly clean, appearing; as if but recently dumped, though rapidly disin- tegrating when exposed. They represented the more common species of nuissels now occurring in the river, but were mostly of small size. Among those noted were T'm'o triani/ulnrisi, hiteohis. lif/amrntiniifi. teres, rcctux. (irciiliis, (lonacifoniii.'i, tiihcn-iilatiis. irrordfiifs. (/ilthoxiis. plifiitiis. iiudii- hitiis, ci/Undrciis, metanevnix, lacliriimosUK, pn.stulosiis, nihiginous, etc. Numerous specimens of fresh water univalve shells of the genera Pleuro- crni and Campeloma were mixed among the bivalves, as were also frag- ments of elks' and. deers' horns and bones of various mammals. Almost all the bones, even the smaller ones, had been split for the marrow. Mixed with the shells were also many fragments of sandstone rock about 3x2x3 inches which appeared as if they had been exposed to fire ; also small pieces of charcoal and in two or three places thin beds of ashes tightly cemented together. One very small fragment of coarse pottery of a reddish hue was found and one or two imperfect flint arrow-heads. The most interesting arti- ficial objects taken were a number of bone awls and thicker pieces of bone sharpened down to serve as prys in opening the shells. The majority of the awls were broken, but of some all the pieces were found and cemented together. One had an eye or small opening at the end and had doubtless served as a needle. Some fragments of red orpiment or elay fronj which it is burned were also found. T. (Jhorinley. the owner of the land, has ploughed up two small axes and a nuniher of Hints, stone hanuuers, etc., from the sup]>osed village site just south of tile shell heap. Whether these belonged to the people who dumped the shells or to a later race which afterward inhabited the same site, tlii're is no means i>r telling. They would indicatt'. however, tliat the former owners liveons and imjilements of metal, l^y the best authorities such mounds in (illicr l(K"ililies are rel'erred to tin- early jiart of the Neolithic age when the art of ]>olisliing Hint iiislruuirnts w.-is i;no\vii but lu'fore It had reached its greatest development. 63 Similar shell heaps are known to occur in a number of places in Indi- ana, though but few if any of them have been thoroughly investigated. Along the Ohio River in Clark County tliero is one near the mouth of t'ourteen-niile Creek and another two miles east of New Washington. The large ohe foraierly at Clarksville, just below Jeffersonville, has been mostly eroded away by the stream. Others occur on the banks of the Ohio in Perry and Posey Counties. On a high bluff just below New Harmony there is a large kitchen-midden, and also another on the Wabash near Merom, Sullivan County. All of these Indiana refuse heaps are composed mainly of the shells of Unio, and show that that mollusc once formed an important element In the food supply of an ancient people. The larger number of Unios in our streams have in recent years been removed to furnish ornaments, not food, for the over-civilized white man. It might be well for him to culti- vate a taste for these fresh water clams and so add another variety of food to his menu, thereby reducing in .slight degree the high cost of living of which he now so much complains. I do not know, however, that I would advise him to try any of those (if any there be) in the West Fork of White River between Indianapolis and Martinsville. Shell mounds or kitcheji-middens of marine shells, some of them of great size, occur frequently along the Atlantic coast and are especially numerous in Florida. They have not as yet received the close attention from archaeologists that those of Europe have had. A thorough study of tliem would, without doubt, disclose many i>oints of interest regarding the food habits and domestic life of our prehistoric races. It was from one of these refuse heaps. 1.1 8!i feet in length and with an average width of 100 feet, located near Ormond, Florida, that, in 1899 1 secured the bones of the Great Auk. and so extended the known range of that now extinct marine bird more than 1.100 miles. 65 Maternaij Impression. A. G. PoHLMAN, Indiana Universitj'. When a doctrine lias been in vogue since the earliest ctiapters of re- corded history, and when evidence in its favor may be found in all climes and peoples, oi:e is tempted as was Von Welsenburg to believe that some basic facts underlie the belief in maternal impression. Belief must however not be confused with fact, and the antiquity, iniquity and ubiquity of ma- ternal impression are not synonymous with convincing evidence. In days gone by, skepticism was not particularly encouraged and the truth in a given matter was in direct proportion to the caliber, mental or physical, of the individual who uttered the statement, not to the amount of evi- dence he produced. Nostradamus' excellent contention for the peculiar inherent psychic qualities in the seventh son of a seventh .son had a face value once upon a time, but now-a-days the Civil Service Commission would give him op]>ortunity to pass the examination for Custom's Inspector if he applied for this position. Even in my own lifetime I have remarked that the clairvoyants are no longer born with a "caul" and have ceased to use the "caul" as the fulcrum upon which they pry into the affairs of others. Possibly through selection they have develoi>ed an instinctive second-sight. The fact that it is physiologically impossible for the hair to turn wliite in a single night may not be convincing, and I doubt that the inability of the German anatomist Stieda to find a single authentic case will be received any more seriously. Indeed we find tliat a single case cited upon good authority, even before history was, is slill observed daily by trusting minds. The antiquity and ubiquity of the doctrine of maternal influence do not convince me as they did Von Welsenburg of certain fundamental facts. The sun went around the earth for myriads of years and will continue to do so even in remote peoples. Why deny our senses? The antiquity of the doctrine is phenomenal and practically all writers pro or con hark back to the source whence all this blessing flows — the story of Jacob and his cattle. I will make an exception and dismiss Jacob with a word. It may be that Jacob used the "pilled rods" on the more susceptible human observers much after the fashion that the present day [5—29034] 66 I magicians use tlieir wiuids^ — to ilivort tho attention and "cover the experi ment." As evidence I cannot consider it any more seriously than tlie re niarl heard of a mother (evidence?) who gave birth to a child that had lint (Uic hand, 'riic other arm was handles.s ns if Miiiputated bo 67 tween elbow and wrist. The only way she conlcl account for the deficiency was the fact that her husband's brother, who had his hand amputated, lived in the same family during the earlier months of her pregnancy. While she received no special shock, being familiar with his condition, yet maternal impression continued through a considerable period had its dis- as: :>us effects." This case is illustrative and suggestive for, as Dr. Stall says, it shows that the unconscious impression may be as potent as the conscious. Assuming that the evidence is quite good, how does Dr. Stall account for the normal children born directly of our mutilated war vet- erans ? III. Missed maternal impression; where a well defined shock occurred but the resulting defect did not resemble its alleged cause. "An instance came under my observation but a few years ago in which the boy of the family had fallen from a banister of a porch some eight or ten feet to the ground below where his head came into contact with stones inflicting a large gaping wound of the scalp. The mother had it to care for until my arrival. In a few months (seven to be exact) she gave birth to a child with spinal defect that soon extended to the head to form hydro- cephalus, causing great enlargement and the death of the child." Here the unborn child did not exactly register its mother's distress. Inasmuch as Goethe misunderstood the bones of the head and regarded them as modified vertebra*, the error on the part of the child is wholly excusable under the circumstances, for as Dr. Blondel said nearly two hundred years ago, it is "not yet acquainted with the outward objects that disturb the mother." IV. Postpartum maternal impression ; w^here a woman on beholding a marked child remembers the circumstance that must be held re- sponsible. I abbreviate a case reported by Ballantyne. "On July 2, 1884, she gave birth to a full term male child on whose chest there was a peculiar mark similar in size to the apple which was thrown at the patient, but rather paler in color. She then remembered the above mentioned circum- stance (being hit by an apple in the previous October) and connected the impression and the mark together as cause and effect." Ballantyne, while he places this case in his list of maternal impression, remarks that it is not a strong case ; to which I heartily agree. As evidence we cannot ac- cept it any more than we accept the statement of several individuals on 68 beholding a well-filletl pocket book — "It's mine" — as conclusive proof of the wallet's collective ownership. V. Non-selective maternal impression; where a mother succeeds in mark- ing both ot the twins. These cases are extremely uncommon, for as we shall see, maternal influence api)ears to be extremely rare and twins occur about one in eighty-eight births. I am therefore glad to report as an illustration, a case given by Wiistnei. He tells of a woman who was accustomed to taking her nap with her forehead against a porcelain stove. She gave J birth to twins and it was found that each had a rather long impression running up and down on the forehead. The case is not reported in sutfl- cient detail to comment on it. I present it for its face value, together with the suggestion that a mark down the forehead of each of the twins would \ be likely to make a skeptic examine the birth canal of the mother for a bony prominence in the pelvis. VI. Non-selective type of maternal impression ; where a mother only suc- ceeded in marking one of the twins. These cases must also be unconnnon and 1 luivc^ fdund no instaiu\» reported by the champions for maternal impression either because they do not occur at all or because they do not strengthen the cause. I am of the opinion that the latter is the case; for abnormality in one twin is not particularly infrequent. I can, however, call attention to a case where the twins did not succeed in marking a single baby — the notorious example of the Balzac twins — a variety of Siamese— and one of them, I forget which, gave birth to a normal baby. VII. Threatened maternal influence; where the mother is in-ofoundly shocked and the infant refuses to register any marking whatever. It may be remembered tlial the Messina disaster was calculnteil to upset the routhie of that town, and yet after the eartlupiMkc only one abnormal child was born of the women who were pregnant at tlie time, and that in a woman who had been pinned down for many luun-s with a beam over her abdonnMi. Indeed, it was reported that a number of women that had al)orted spontaneously in previous pregnancies wer(> so severely shocked that they carried their eliildren to term. Rischofr .(mid not dem- onstrate a single case of niateiiial iniprcssion in ll.OOii coiiliiiements ; and William Hunter "during many yi'ars every woman in a large T>ondon lying-in liospital was asked before iier connnement wiutlu'r anytliing Iiad 69 specially affected her mind, and the answer was written down, and it so happened that in no instance could a coincidence be traced between the woman's answer and any abnormal structure ; but when she knew the nature of the structure, she frequently suggested some new cause." To this I would add a statement from Mauclerc : "Do we not know how shy Women are always in confessing their Longings? They will never own upon the Spot, that they longed for such a Thing. It must be pre- sented before them as if we knew nothing of their Desire. And, if they are so unwilling to confess their Longing and Affections before the Ef- fect, why may they not be sometimes as backward to confess them after Y.'ards? Certainly some Women are such unaccountable Creatures, that no more Stress can be laid on their Denials, than their Affirmations." (I would state the gentleman has been dead over a centurj-.) Mauclerc attacked Blondel's famous treatise and based his contention on the Art of Criticism. He says : "All that lies upon me is to shew, that he (Dr. Hlondel) has not proved his Negative." This argument holds today ; for, as I liave said, without the facts we liave nothing to disprove. While nothing can be brought forward to demonstrate that a pregnant woman acttially does influence her unborn child, it can be definitely proven that the child does affect the mother. Now, then, based on this fact, and with the idea that six equals half a dozen, if I propose the doctrine of fotnl impression, I can defy anyone to prove me wrong — provided of course that any intelligent person will enter into argument with me. Further, this pseudo-hypothesis is much stronger than tlie maternal impression doctrine. If a child through congenital defect has hare-lip or what yon will (and I can show that these defects arise spontaneously in egg-laying animals) ; and I can also show that the metabolism of the child (or call it what you like) influences the mother, then with justice I can also infer that carrying a child with a given defect will make the mother more sus- ceptible to being shocked by a creature having a similar abnormality. It is strange how difficult it is to think a new thought. I constructed an Illustrative example for my hygiene class. "If a pregnant woman goes to the sideshow and is frightened at beholding a two-headed steer and later gives birth to a two-headed child, the biological question is, "What did the cow see?" I can not replace this with an authentic case reported by Wilstnei. It seems that a woman gave birth to a child with a sort of tumor in the pelvic region. Tlie child died on its attempted removal, and 70 the tumor was found to contain a second child, or at least additional fetal parts. The mother then related that while she was pregnant she had ii goose which hrought forth her goslings and among the number was a double one. This double gosling she gave to her child of four years to play with but presently the sight of it became hateful to her and she was forced to dispatch it. Now while the maternal impressionist must explain wliat the goose saw; my pseudohypotiiosis of fetal impression can explain why the double gosling became hateful to the mother very readily. I would therefore close this brief paper by repeating: The doctrine of maternal impression has four strong factors, its anticpilty; its ubiquity; its iniquity and its unquestit>nable lack in proof. After all, the human being is more superstitious than he will openly admit, and iHM-liaps P. T. Barnum, who capitalized credulity, should be accounted some word of au- thority in Ills statement "The pul)lic likes to be humbugged." 71 Terraces op the Whitewater River Near Richmond, Indiana. By Allen David Hole. INTRODUCTION. The terraces referred to in this paper constitute a small part of the complex series of terraces which characterize practically all the larger \alleys in a considerable portion of the glaciated area of the United States. The terraces along the Whitewater Iliver near Richmond have been recog- nized and referred to by a number of ohservers, but so far as the writer Icnows, there is no record of any systematic, detailed study of them prior to 1J)09. n that year Harold Chapman, then a student at Earlham Col- lege, studied carefully under the direction of the writer the terraces within the gorge from Richmond to a point about one and one-half miles south of the city. A continuation of this work for the three forlis of the White- water above the city, extending four or five miles along each fork, was tindertaken by W^endell H. Pitts, another student, and completed by him in 1911. The author has, by permission, used freely the data gathered in these two studies, which covered the areas Indicated on the accompanying outline map. Fig. 1. GEOLOGY. The geologic formations involved include (1) thin-bedded limestone and intercalated shale of Upper Ordovician age, exposed in the gorge-like valley near the city of Richmond and for some distance above and below: (2) Middle Silurian limestone exjwsed scarcely at all within the limits here referred to, but forming the underlying bed rock in the northern (upper) parts of the area studied; (3) glacial drift of Pleistocene age, both unassorted (moraines), and assorted (valley trains, outwash plains, etc.) ; and (4) deposits of Recent age, mainly alluvial (flood-plains), but including also fans, material shifted by sheet wash, accumulations of talus, etc. Sti-ucturally, the bed rock forms a part of the northernmost end of the Cincinnati anticline ; the strata exposed are, however, practically hori- 72 l-'i^. I. Outlinu map of the region Htudicd. Spaces included between dotted lines, or between one dotted line and the iidjiiccnt .stream are approximately the areas within which terraces are found that is, a considerable part, though not all, of the included spaces are terraces. 73 zontal within the area observed, clinoiiu'ter measurements indicating either no inclination at all or dips varying in amount up to about 1° in various directions, showing tliat the strata are either horizontal or departing from i1 to a very slight degree in such a way as to form an irregularly warped surface. Evidence of continued warping in the same direction of relatively recent date, considerable in total amount, yet occasioning dips too slight to he measured with a clinometer, will be presented in connection with the detailed discussion farther on. No great systems of joints have been detected, and no faults except exceedingly diminutive ones. GEOGRAPHY. Whitewater River at Richmond Is strictly East Whitewater River, the western branch crossing Wayne County near Cambridge City, and finally uniting with the eastern branch just below I'rookville, in Franklin County, to form the Whitewater River proper : but in this paper, for the sake of brevity, the stream at Richmond will be referred to as the Whitewater Rivei'. This (East) V>'hitewater River is formed by the junction of three smaller streams just north of the city of Richmond, known as the West, 'the ^Middle, and the East Forks, respectively, of the Whitewater River. For the greater part of their course these three forks tlow in valleys which are formed for the most part in glacial drift, bed rock being encountered at only a few points. Beginning a short distance north of Richmond, liow- ever, the valleys of these streams liave cut into the underlying rock, which from this point on forms a large part of the slope of tlie sides of the val- ley; sometimes being exposed in steep, cliff-like faces, sometimes covered with a thin layer of soil, talus, or other rock waste. From the vicinity of the junction of the three forks for a distance of over two miles southward, the valley is narrow, steep sided, and canyon- like, its width at the top being from fiOO to 1,000 feet, and its depth GO to SO feet. A little farther down, the valley is somewhat deeper but pro- portionately much wider, with sides which, while still steep, are less precipitous, having cliff-like faces at relatively few points, and in genera! showing signs of greater topographic age. THE TERRACES. The region at and near the points of junction of the three forks marks the approximate location of a natural division separating the series of terraces along the vallevs of the three foi'ks above from those along thf 74 R / W 'A Fig. 2. Map of the gorge of the Eiiat Whitewater River and country adjacent, showinK the ap- proximate location of two levels of terraces within the gorRe. viz: (A) a higher series, shown by solid black areas; and (B) a lower series, shown by cihliciu.ly lined areas. single, narrow, gorge-like valley below. The reasons for emphasizing this area as a division point will be clearer when the details of the different series are understood; but it may be worth while to note certain general differences just here between the terraces and valleys above the area near the junction and tlie corresponding phenomena below. The more obvious or the more important differences are : 1. Different materials ; slopes mainly of outcropping bed reels below, mainly of glacial drift above. 2. Different number of terrace levels ; four clearly marked below ; seven above. 3. Different gradient of terraces ; slope being upward in the down- stream direction, or nearly horizontal below the junction area ; level to a gradient about the same as the beds of the streams above the area. Summary of Observations on Terraces Above the Gorge. The diff"erent terraces along the tlu'ee forks of the Whitew-ater can be referred to seven different series. For the "West Fork these seven series are indicated in Fig. 3 by broken lines numbered from (1) to (7) inclusive. In nearly every case each series is made up of a number of disconnecte to s feet at the jtoint fai'thost upstream where they are clearly marked, lo (M feet abnve the slreiiiii at the farthest down- stream ])oint. a difl'ereiil i;il eh'vation of about Th fi'et, rising higher and higher the farther downstream they are found. This suggested at first that there might be an error in correlating the separati' renuiant.s as parts of the same terrace; but it was ob.served thai in eaeli case where the ter- race was continuous for about A mile, there was this consistent rise in the downstream direction; in one case a rise of about 2") feet in a half-mile's distance; in another c;ise a rise of 11 feet in ;i Utile less tiian i mile. The shoulder-like i»oints and projections and smaller terrace renmants where the terraces are disconi innous, have elevations agreeing closely with the general rise of the gradient in llie dowiist ream direction. 79 Fig 4. View along terrace (B) looking south from a point near the north end. Fig. 5. View along terrace (A); looking north from a point about 4U rods north of Test's bridge. 80 Referred to sea level, the southern or downstream end of the upper terrace is about 20 feet higher than the northern, or nj^stream end. That is, in a distance of a little more tlian two miles tlie terrace level rises 20 feet liijilier above sea level, while the surface of the water in the stream has a fall of about 37 feet in the same distance, makinj; a total differen- tial level between the surface of the terrace and the surface of the water of about r>7 feet. Tile terraces of the lower level are from 2.1 to ?,~t fcHit lower than those of tlie upper level and are fotind only in the lower portion of tlie canyon- like part of tlie valley ; their width is about the same as that of the upper terraces, averaging iierhaps 2.1 or 80 feet, with a maximum of from .10 to ('0 feet. The height of stirface of tliis lower series above tlie stream also increa.ses in the downstream direction, but at a much smaller rate than in the case of the upper terraces ; in a total distance of about two-thirds of a mile the difference in elevation is about 0 feet. The fall of the stream is, in the same distance, a little more than G feet, whicli leaves the surface of the lower series of terraces with a very slight gradient in the down- stream direction, when referred to sea level as datum. Considering, then, the upper terrace level, the lower terrace level, and the present gradient of the stream in their relations to eacli other, the lower terrace level can be represented by a nearly horiznntal line drawn a little lower than mi doiilit, be iiiclndid for the most iiart in the following: 1. Variations in ttH> amimiit of stMlinieiit carried by the streams. 2. Variations in the amount of water carried liy the streams. 3. Variations in gradient due to — (a) IMastroiihism ; (111 Dams (if ice and glacial debris nuin' nr less coniiilete. n'sulting in ponds, river hikes, ete. Wiiile it is imt imssible t<> s;iy pusitivcl.N Jnsl what sli.ire eiicii of these causes may Inive had in the formation of eacli one of these (erraei's. the following partial e.vplanations seem to lie .justitied: 31 1. Terraces (A) and (B) in the gorge of the Whitewater River (mainly below the city of Kichuiond), were developed by the stream at periods, in each ease, when its gradient was very mnch less than at present ; a gradient sutticiently low to permit it to erode chiefly laterally. 2. In the case of the npper terrace, at least, this period of lateral erosion was interrupted by a relative elevation of the land (bed rock), which was not uniform, but increased southward from the city of Iiichniond to an undetermined distance. The total amount of the movement as indicated by terrace (A), is not less than 10 feet of ele- vation per mile in a general southward direction. ?.. Since the terraces along each of the three forks are composed very largely of glacial material, it seems probable that temporary ponding of waters, and variation in amounts of water and sediment present, are largely responsible for their presence and for their rela- tive positions. It seems probable also, however, that diastrophic move- ments may have had some part in producing the lack of parallelism in surface gradient of terraces of the different series. The time relations involved can be stated clearly only in part. For example, the lowest terraces along the three forks, such as (1) along the West Fork, nuist be of date so recent as to fall within the category of present-day formations. Others, such as (A) in the gorge, must evidently be considered as belonging to a period sufficiently remote to allow for the erosion of a channel in bed rock flOO to SOO feet in width and 64 feet deep. Geologically this is still, however, quite recent, and this work may all have been accomplished since the final withdrawal of glacial ice from this latitude. Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana. :— 20034] «3 Some Neglected Principles of Physiography. A. H. Purdue. All sciences suffei* from errors and misconceptions, whicli have in one way and anotlier crept in ; and as such are difficult to eliminate. Many are passed on from older to younger workers, and are used in both theory and practice. Of such in geology are the popular notions of the characteris- tics of entrenched meanders; the origin of limestone sink-holes; and (in the opinion of the writer) of anticlinal valleys, and possibly of some transverse drainage. The Entrenched Meander. It is an accepted principle of physiography that after a stream reaches base-level, it begins to meander. Uninter- rupted by diastro]ihic mo\ement. the meandering continues until the region on either side has been reduced to a plain, the width of which depends upon the size and strength of the stream. If such a region be elevated, the stream, from renewed vigor, will resume the downward cutting of its bed, producing a new (entrenched or incised) valley within the old one. Thus far, the popular notion of the entrenched meander can be accepted without question ; but it is also the popular though erroneous notion that the new valley occupies the bed of the old one, and is V-shaped. While it appears that some rejuvenated streams do have V-shaped val- leys, such are rare. The rule is that the valleys of such streams are un- symmetrical. The slopes above the insides of the curves are of compara- tively low gradient, while those on the outside are steep. This may be seen by inspecting almost any good toixigraphical map of an area with rejuvenated streams. The explanation is simple. In an old stream, the downward cutting is little or nothing, while the lateral cutting on the outside of the bends may be relatively great. In rejuvenated streams, the downward cutting is resumed, but the lateral cutting does not cease. On the contrary, it becomes more rapid, because the impingement upon the banks is greater than before. The resulting topography is shown in Fig. 1, A and B. As all bends become greater, the rejuvenated stream is more crooked than when in its previous stage of old age, which of course means that it has shifted from its old bed. 84 < cq e -a a J2 3 •« 85 Just why some V-sliaped valleys occur in older, wide, flat ones is not clear to the writer. Whether the inner gorge of the Grand Canyon is the result of rejuvenation or not, there has been little lateral erosion accom- panying the great vertical cutting. Whether lateral cutting takes place or not, may depend ui)on the acceleration of the stream's force, which in turn would depend upon the rate and amount of elevation ; or, it may de- pend upon the character and structure of the rocks. Unmetamorphosed, horizontal rocks of alternating hard and soft beds would favor lateral erosion, while metamoi'phosed crumpled beds, such as occur in the inner gorge of the Grand Canyon, probably would retard it. Limestone ISi)il:-]toles. Tlie common notion, and the teaching of most ttxt-books, that limestone sink-holes are formed by the collapsing of the roofs of caves, is erroneous. That some sink-holes have had such origin doubtless is true, but they are the rare exception. Most of them are the result of solution by descending groundwater. As this has been discussed somewhat at length elsewhere, it will be only mentioned here. Anticlinal Vallci/s. Tlie common explanation of anticlinal valleys is that streams have gradually shifted from synclines to anticlines, the shift- ing having been invited by the excessive fracturing of the latter over the former. The writer believes that most anticlinal valleys have had a differ- ent history. It will be conceded that most folds had their inception while yet submerged. This granted, the first part of the folds to appear at sea level were the crests of the anticlines. Except at considerable depths, all the sedimentary material but that of calcareous nature was in the incoher- ent state at the time of elevation, and consequently was easily eroded. As soon as the anticlinal crests came within the effective force of the waves, they were thereby truncated. The rate of rise was greater than we are accustomed to admit, if the truncation did not for a long time equal the elevation. As the truncated material was shifted to the synclinal troughs, the whole process was a leveling one. It is not unreasonable to suppose that many folded areas emerged as practically level plains, and that streams were at least as free to flow along anticlines as synclines. In those cases where the rise of any anticlines was rapid enough to overtake the erosive action of the waves, that action was still effective on the sides of the resulting islands. Added to this, was the work of the subaerial agencies. On the whole, the direction of the resulting small 1 A. H. Purdue, Science, Vol. XXVI, p. 120. 86 streams was transverse to the anticlines. Tlie anticlines did not everj'- where emerge at a uniform rate, but appeared as rows of islands over each of which streams flowed radially. Consetiuently, some of the streams were, from the start, longitudinal to the direction of the anticlines, and others nearly so. If at this stage the streams were still on incoherent material, the longitudinal ones had no particular advantage over the transverse ones; but if the indurated or partly indurated material had been reached, they had the special advantage of being able easily to seek out the soft beds and follow their strike. In the meantime, the material lapped off the sides by the waves and that waslied into the sea by the streams was still filling up the adjacent syuclines. During the elevation, the syuclines were occupied first by lagoons of salt, then brackish, and after complete emergence by those of fresh water. Even during the last stage they continued to be lines of deposition until the lagoons dwindled into lakelets and finally disappeared. Meanwhile, the anticlines were lines of degradation, and it is not improbable that as many synclinal lakelets were drained into streams that followed anticlines as into those that followed syuclines ; and it seems not unreasonable to suppose that in the course of stream adjustment, as many have shifted from anticlines to synclines as from syuclines to anticlines, if, indeed, the former has not been the rule. Major Streams Transverse to Folds. Folds are parallel to the old iand areas from which the clastic material of their rocks was derived. In the addition of new land areas to old, the growth was often exogeneous. If a newly added area was folded, and the folds were leveled as above supposed, the streams from the old land gradually extended themselves over the new and in goncnil were at right angles to the folds. As the clastic sediuH'uts wore yet incoherent and nonresistant. it seems probable that many streams so thoroughly established themselves across the folds as to niaiiitain (his <(iursc as the elevation coHtiiuicd and after the in- durated rocks were reached. May it not be that this has been the history of some of our transverse drainage? This concei)tion, while closely re- lated to that of antecedent streams, is different because it contemplates folding that antedates the streams, while the latter contemiilates a well established stream before folding takes place. 87 In cases where anticlinoria emerged, not contiguous to existing land areas, it seems wlioUy within the prol)ahiIities that many of the transverse streams assumed and maintained their courses across the minor folds of the limbs. It has occurred to the writer tliat possibly this has been the history of some of the numerous transverse streams in the Ouachita area of Arkansas. Conservation of the Soil in Dearborn County. A. J. BiGNEY. Since Theodore Roosevelt called the Governors of the several States together to consider the preservation of our forests and other natural resources, the word "conservation" has had a new meaning, not a differ ent meaning, but an intensified meaning. A general awakening is occur- ring along many lines that were very remote from that considered by the council of the Governors. The recent congress in our own State called by Governor Marshall exhibited the range of the use of the term. Since boyhood I liave been observing the wasting of the land in my native county. Dearborn. The developing of the interest in these lines has stimulated me to more serious thought and has kindled a desire to be of some service in helping in the conservation of the soil in ray own county. 1 believe that every member of the Academy should make himself felt in his own locality at least. The ear of the average citizen is open to the scientific man as never before, for his work is seen on every liand. Dearborn County is drained by the tributaries of the Ohio River. On the south the Laughery Creek forms the boundary and drains that part. It empties into the Ohio River two and one-halt miles south of Auror;T. About six miles to the north and running nearly parallel with Laughery Creek is South Hognn. which empties into the Ohio at Aurora. The B. & O. S. W. follows it to Aurora. Between these creeks is a ridge of good farming land. Flowing from this ridge toward either stream are numer- ous branches. About eight miles further north, measuring on the west side of the county, is North Hogan, which joins South Hogan at Aurora. About the same distance to the north is Tanner's Creek. The Big Four follows it much of the way to Lawrenceburg. The northeastern part of the county is drained by the Great Miami River, the main Indiana branch being the Whitewater. With so many streams of various sizes it is plain to see the county is very hilly, no part of the county has much level land. Twenty-five years ago most of the hilly land was heavily timbered. Since then, however, the greater part lias been removed and the land put under cultivation. 90 This is' where the most serious mistakes have been made. Year after year the hills were planted in corn, barley or wheat. Tiie ground was thereby kept loose and the rains eroded it and transported this rich soil to the valleys below, thus enriching them. As the forests were cleared away the erosion increased until at the present time the rich black soil is largely removed from the hills and the clay l>enoath it is now being eroded very rapidly and this new .soil is being transported to the bot- tom land and deposited upon the rich soil previously deposited. This not being mixed with liunnis is not very productive. This is seen ou the large bottoms of the Ohio and Great Miami. Twenty-five years ago those alluvial plains produced corn in an e.xtraiirdinary way, but today their productiveness laas greatly decreased. It is plain to .see that the farmers on both the hill lands and also the bottoms have suffered great losses on account of this unfortunate method of procedure. Many of the landowners have seen the error of their way and are changing their method of farming. Alfalfa is now being sowed, and this is protecting the land and at the same time is rendering large profit. Others are sowing to blue grass and using the land for pasture — another wise and productive plan. Still others are setting out locust plants and in this way they are protecting the land and providing for the future realization of profit. Much of the waste land in the county could very l)rofitably be used in this way. Others are clearing away the little timber that remains and planting this to tobacco year after year, and in this way the wasting of the land continues. A large per cent, of the farmers have never realizetl the real value of their land. They have so much of it that it makes very little difference to them even if some of it is going to waste. Tlie time is coming when this county will be more densely populated, and some one will be com- pelled to reclaim Ihis waste land. Many are so selfish that they do not care; but is this a sensible way in which to act? The greater number of the landowners do not cmsidiT how important the soil is. They fail to realize that niankiiul nuist look to it as the source of sustenance. If we could look into tlie future more and try to see the coming needs it would be better for the present as well as the future generations. Moores Hill, Indiana. The Effect op Deforestation upon the Water Level op Montgomery County. H. L. Barr. HISTORICAL. The relation of the forest to many problems of vital interest to the welfare and prosperity of the people is becoming more apparent. Until comparatively recent times the far reaching intluence of the forest has not been seriously considered, but the gradual disappearance of our vast areas of forest cover and the siumltaneous appearance of certain phenomena that are, in the popular mind, probably incorrectly in many cases, ascribed to the cutting off of the forests, has stimulated interest and study along these lines. European countries were the first to recognize the importance of these questions and have conseects of forest influence is its relation to the ground water level. Influenced by public men, the press, private preju- dices, etc., the public is divided on the question, the partisans of one side asserting that forests have a beneficial effect upon the water level, the others that they do not. Scientists are not agreed upon the subject, and many observations and experiments have been made which give conflicting results. The greatest faults have been that the areas under consideration have been too large for careful study, preventing definite conclusions. Really simple and trustworthy data in sufficiently comprehensive quantity has not been secured. We have deemed it possible that some definite con- clusions might be reached by obtaining from a small area all statistics and data available regarding the past and present water level, also the forest, swamp, and drainage conditions. Tliis paper has been undertaken to show the effects of deforestation upon the water level in Montgomery County, Indiana. 92 SouKCE AND Disposition of Watkr. Source. — It is deemed ndvisable to consider first the jreological condi- tions wliich govern jjround water. All terrestrial water is drawn primar- ily from the ocean, from whence it is taken by evaporation and carried by winds to be deposited upon the surface of the ground, principally as rain Ijut partially as snow, mist, fog, or dew. There can be no other source of gi"(mnd water available to man in any portion of the globe, with the prob- able exception of the special cases iu which sea water penetrates througli the pores of the rocks for a considerable distance inland in coral and other islands of a porous material. Evaporation. — The rainfall is disposed of in a variety of ways. A great portion of it is returneil to the atmosphere in the form of vapor by evaporation. This may be made to include the great amounts given off by vegetation in transpiration. A small portion of water is used in supply- ing the organic needs of the plants. The proportion that evaixirates from the surface of the soil varies greatly under different conditions. Wind^. a warm temperature, sunshine, etc., are very conducive to evaporation. The character of the soil and soil covering also has a great influence upon the amount of water returned to the air, a mulch of any character reduc- ing the same. /'iin-off. — Another portion of the water which falls upon the earth is known as run-off. This may be divided into two classes: surface run-off and sce]>age run-off. That portion of the preciiiitation which flows over the surface of the ground into streams and rivers without gaining access to the soil is known as surface or superficial run-off. By seepage run-off is meant that portion of the rainfall which sinks into the earth but wliicli later reapi)ears on lower levels as si>rings, seeps, etc., and joins the surface run-oft'. Another i)ortion of the water is known as deeiJ-seejiage, and this sinks into the .soil to such deiiths that it does not later reajipear on the drainage basin. I'NDERGROUND WATER. The amount of water wliich enters the soil, rocks, and other materials. varies greatly with the nature of the materials, the iiorous mediums ab- sorbing the most water. The porosity of a soil or rock is determined by the fracfi(»nal part of it wiiicii is occupied by the oiien sjiaces. //( Drift. l>ritl is a ]ict('i'(.genoiis mixture of clav. s.nul. L^ravel. and ixMilders left by gl.Mciers. It v.aries from very ])orous to imiiervious. ae 93 cording to the relntive anionnts of sand and clay. Water is also found in this in more or less tubular ehannels a few inches iu diameter as well as in the interstices between the particles. Sands and gravels are very por- ous, the water sinking into beds of such material and the whole mass being saturated with water below the water level. Clay is very impervious to water. //( Rock. — Water found in the pores of rocks is given up readily only Ui the coarser rocks such as sandstones. The waters found in finer grained recks are generally from .ioint, fault, or foliation planes. In limestone the water occurs mainly in channels and caverns which have been dissolved out or eroded by water. The amount of absorbtion also depends upon the inclination of the iwrous beds, the gently inclined ones absorbing more than the steeper ones. Water-table.- — As the water passes down through the ground it soon reaches a level at which the soil is completely saturated. The surface o'! this saturated zone is known as the water level or water-table. Above this plane the soil contains a large percentage of moisture which is a niosr important factor of plant and animal life, but only the water beneath this is generally included in the term underground water. The water-table in general follows the contours of the overlying soil, but the angles and slopes are much less abrupt than the surface of the land. The dejjth of the \\ater-table below the surface of the ground varies greatly in different localities. In regions of abundant rainfall it is generally within a few feet of the surface, while in arid countries it may be hundreds of feet below. Moreover, the water level of any locality is subject to changes because of seasonal variations of rains and drouth. Underground water. I>esides being drawn up as soil moisture by capillarity, also creeps later- ally, its direction and rapidity of liowing depending upon the porosity 'jf the soil and rock through which it passes. Forests and Water Level. Regarding the effects of forests upon water level, it is evident from the above considerations that any factors which tend to increase the condi- tions that make it possible for a larger per cent, of the precipitated water to enter the soil, will aid in raising the water level of the region on which the rainfall occurs, and any agent which tends to increase evaporation, surface run-off, etc., will help to lower it. Let us now consider the ini portance of the forest as a factor in both of these conditions. 94 Rainfall. The water level of a region is necessarily alTected by tlie amount of precipitation whicli falls upon its soil. It cannot be said, however, that forests have any great influence upon the rainfall of a country. This question has long been debated but no conclusion, backed by convincing proofs of sclentitic exactness, has been reached. It is true that rainfall if, most abundant where foi'ests grow, but it is more reasonable to believe that rainfall controls the density and di.strlbution of the forests rather tlian that forests ax'e great factors in determining the amount of rainfall. Precipitation takes place whenever the air is suddenly cooled below the dew point. Forest air is cooler and contains a relatively greater amount of moisture than air in the open, and for this reason it is fair to infer tiiat forests may have at least .some effect in increasing local precipita- tion. The trees also have a mechanical effect in retarding a vaiwr laden wind, which condition may be conducive to the precipitation of moisture. On the other liand, tlie following quotation from Blanford (3) shows the opinion that meteorologists are adopting. "As a result of a long study of rainfall in India, and perhaps no country affords greater advantages for the purpose, I have become convinced that dynamic cooling, if not the sole cause of rain, is at all events the only cause of any importance, and that all the other causes so frecjuently appealed to in popular literature on the subject, such as the intermingling of warm and cold air, contact with cold mountain s1oik»s, etc., are either inoperative or relatively insig- nificant." Many experiments and ob.serva lions niiuU' in Europe and elsewhere show an excess of rainfall in forested areas over that of open countries. Some of these excesses were so small, however, tliat they might have been due to errors in rain gauges and other extraneous conditimis wliich affect them. In Prussia the following records have been gatheretl from the ordi- nary meteorological stations showing the excess of rainfall in forest sta- tions over those in the oi)en regions. Between sea level and 328 feet elevation, 1.25 per cent. Between 32S; and r)5(> feet elevation. 14.2 per cent. Between l,(t('i7 and 2,297 feet elevation, 19 per cent. Between 2,L",i7 and '2.(\2'i fcH'l elcvafion, 43 per cent. These figures seem (o show that forests have very little effect on rain- fail in the plains, but tliat tlieir influence becomes greater witli increasing 95 elevation. In studies made by Schubert (31) in Silesia a few years ago, the experiments indicated that the rainfall varies with forest cover and altitude as 529 + 0.7S p. + 0.57 a, that is, precipitation varies above a con- stant amount by 0.7S nun. for each per cent, of the surface of the country under forest cover and 0.57 mm. for each meter in altitude. It is further stated that beyond about 50 per cent, of tlie total forest area, forest cover seems to have little additional influence uiwn I'ainfall, so that in Silesi;v, which has about OCO mm. rainfall and 29 per cent, forest cover, complete deforestation would reduce this amount only 5 per cent., and 20 to 80 per cent, additional forest cover would increase it but by 1 per cent. Schu- bert (32) has also presented data for the provinces of West Prussia and I'osen and this data corresponds closely with that compiled in Liberia and Sweden. "Correlating these three series of data it may be stated gener- ally that at altitudes under 500 meters an elevation of 100 meters increases the rainfall by S-12 per cent. — the higher tigure for the drier region — while in a country averaging 1.5-25 per cent, forest an increase of 10 per cent, in the forested area gives a corresponding increase of 1-2 per cent, in rainfall." Near Nancy, France, observations were made for seven years in two stations, one in a forest and .the other in an almost woodless country. The results were as follows: Excess in Forest. February to April 7 per cent. May to July 13 per cent. August to October 23 per cent. November to January 21 per cent. Mean of year 16 per cent. This shows an increase of 16 per cent, at the forest station. Even this, however, cannot be taken as entirely conclusive proof because other factors may have helped to produce the difference. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau, says : "The records of precipitation of the United States Weather Bureau do not show that there has been any ap- preciable permanent decrease in the rainfall of any section of the United States." It should be said of the statement of Moore's that this conclu- sion was given in a pai^er pi-epared to prove that the removal of the for- este has not influenced the erosion of the surface of the ground or the 96 water level of the streams. Rut his i-epdrt has been shown to be so fu!. of glariuir inac-curacies ami iiiisstatciiients that its conchisions are almost wholly discredited by scientific mci!. (12), (29), and (38.) Other literature, uuich of which has contributed nothing new to the subject, has In^n gone over and after considering all the facts it may be safely said that the weight of evidence seems to show that forests do in- crease precipitation, at least to a small extent. Evaporation. Under the best of conditions much of the precipitated water is lost by evaporation. The proportion evaporated varies greatly in different parts of the world and under different conditions of season and soil. It de- pends principally on the temjierature, the wind, and the amount of moist- ure already in the air. That the forest retards evaporation cannot be denied. The shade which it affords the soil and its relatively cooler tem- perature in summer retards evaporation to a great extent. The greater amount of moisture in the atmosphere of the forest is another factor which reduces evaporation. Winds are checked by the forest and their ix)wer to take up moisture limited. The wind and sun in winter evaporate a great portion of the snowfall. In the San Bernardino Mountains, snow- falls a foot in depth are frequently evaporatetl in two or three days with- out even moistening the soil. The forest aids in reducing tliis lo.ss in so far that it furnishes shade and checks the wind. Experimt>nts in Ger many have proved that evaporation under trees is about one-half of that ill tile open and show a saxiiii,' of 21 per cent, of the i(re(i]iitatioii by the woods. The evaporation and saving by the forest were both greatest i:i May and June. It was also found that deciduous trees when in leaf re tarded evaiioiatinn UK.re than the evergreens and that evaporation under young trees was only 20 per (cut. less than in the open. t\)llowlng is data from a series of investigations by Dr. Ebermayor and by German in- vestigators : 97 EVAPORATION IN WOODS IN PER CENT. OF EVAPORATION IN THE OPEN. Dr. Ebermayer's Re.sults. Gekman Observations. \Vator Surface. 1 Bare Soil. Soil Under Forest Litter and Within Forest . Rain- fall. Water Surface. 1 Open. Wood:. Open. 1 1 \\oods. Open. Woods. Rain- fall. April Mav .45 .43 36 .35 .34 .33 .41 1.15 .91 1.07 .89 .87 .92 1.26 .64 .37 .38 .34 .36 .39 .44 .27 16 .14 .12 .11 .11 .18 1.75 68 1.46 1.02 1.00 .59 3.45 .51 .47 .41 .38 .36 .35 .37 1.37 1.35 June July August Septciiil cr 1.91 2.33 1.98 2.54 8.49 May-.Scptcmbcr. . 1 .36 .93 .35 .13 .95 1 .39 2 02 The difference in instruments used by Dr. Ebermayer or their exposure is prohalily tlie cause of tlie relatively slii^ht differences in the results. One of the most striking features of the table is the retarding effect that forest litter is seen to have upon the soil beneath. About seven-eighths lit the loss of water by evaporation is cut off ])y the forest and litter. The stations of Prussia allow the following average for evaporation, the amount evaporated in the open field being called 100 : Tnder beech growth. . I'nder spruce growth . . I'nder pine growth . . From cultivated field Retained More Than n Evaporated. Open Farow Field. Per Cent. 40 4 59 6 45.3 54 7 41.8 58.2 90.3 9.7 Olher data from I'russia are also given which show thai: greatLn- amounts are lost by exaprration in the open than in the forest. Investi- gations by Shimek ( :J4 ) in western and northwestern Iowa show that evaporation is much greater on prairie surfaces than in adjacent forests. It must therefore be admitted that wastefulness by evaporation from the ground is reduced by forest cover. [7—29034] 98 Transpiration. Great nmounts of water are returned to the air through evaporation from leaves aud stems of plants. Tliis is known as transpiration. Careful experiments and estimates have shown that ])liints differ widely as to the amounts transpired and that conditions such as wind, the amount of humidity, sunlight, etc., affect this to a great extent. An oak tree, with .<^even hundred thou.sand leaves, will transpire one hundred and eighty gallons of water per day. A'on Ilohnel estimates that a beech will trans- jjii'o about two thousand two hundred and fifty gallons of water in one summer. Schleider believed that a forest trauspii'ed three times as much water as would be evaporated from a water surface equal in extent to the territory covered by the forest. Schvibler considered it only one- fourth as much, and Pfeff, who studied only one oak, found it to vary from 0.87 to 1.50. ■ Hartig believed the transpiration from a forest less than the evaporation from bare soil of equal extent. Schiibler found that a forest transpired .06 as much as evaporated from bare soil and from sod three to five times as much. Investigations by Wollny show tliat agricultural crops and forms of low vegetation, such as weeds, transpire greater amounts than do forests. Risler, after a long series of experiments, concludes that forests take up less than one-half as much water from the soil as the average agricultural crop. Some investigators claim that the ground water level of a forest is lower than that in the open, and that this is caused by excessive transpiration. Othei's draw opi)osite conclusions. On the whole, however, it may be said that the forest, at least, transpires no more water than docs any other ordinary form of vegetation. Forests and Kun-okf. It is generally believed that forests are great regulators of run-oft", that is, that they increase seepage run-otT and decrease surface run-oft" This is true to such an extent that tlie government has recently mad. provision for buying certain timber lauds with the express puri>ose of Iirotecting the headwaters of several navigable streams. Many factors enter into the question such as the sloi»e of the ground, the underlying rock, the amount and leiii,'th nf time (•!" precipitation, etc. The forest canopy intercepts the raindi-nps aiui extends the period of time during which the rain readies the urimiid. 'I'his gives the soil more time in wliich to ;il)sorb tjie preeipihilion ;ind thus lessens the surfOCf 99 run-off. An nddcd advantage is also obtained in that tlie force of the ramdro])s is diniinislied and prevents the soil from becoming hard and compact, thus reducing its absorbtive power. It must uot be forgotten, however, that the branches of the trees catch from S-10 per cent, of the rainfall, an.d this is, of course, immediately evaporated. The character of the soil has much to do with the distribution of the fallen water. Many experiments have been made concerning the con- ductivity of certain soils, but as many of these have led to contradictory results, no attempt will here be made to discuss them. It is fair to say, however, that the foi-est soil is well adapted to absorb a great deal of water. The humus and litter of leaves, limbs, etc., serve to keep the soil in a loose, spongy condition, which undoubtedly assures a great ab- sorbing capacity. The great mass of roots also aids in this and facili- tates the passage of the water down through the soil. It may be true, however, that after a long continued rain the forest soil will become so saturated that the water will run off as freely as from bare soil. The forest lloor offers m:iny obstructions and obstacles to the water that is not imuiediately absorbed as it runs over the surface of the ground. These retard its passage and thus more is taken into the soil. In the case of bare land, the water is gathered into little rivulets which form larger and larger ones, which flow with constantly increasing velocity with the result that very little water gets into the soil. Forests also have a great power in conserving snow water. Mattoon (21) in Northern Arizona has shown that the forest retains the snow later in the spring than does the open parks. The snow melts more slowly and more is taken into the earth. A layer of ice which kept the water from entering the soil was formed above the soil and under the snow in the park, while this was absent in the forest. By retaining the rainfall the forest is a benefit in two ways. It tends to prevent disastrous and destructive floods, and holds the water until long after precipitation and gives it out slowly to streams, springs, etc., ill times of drouth. Many, however, do not concede the regulating effect of the forest and much discussion has arisen concerning the subject. Professor Engler reports that at the Swiss Station experiments made for three years show that the springs in times of drouth continued to give out water for a longer period in a forested region than in an unforested one. Buffault (4) discusses the evidence reported at the Navigation 100 Congress at Milan in which Wdll'scliiitz dl' lU-iinn yave prodf to show that the efficacy of the forest in retarding water fails in times of lon.i^-continued and extraordinary rain, and Ilonsoll claims that the best wooded basins of the Black Forest, Ilarz, Spessart, etc., contributed most of the water of tlie floods of the Rhine in 1882. Like experiences were reported from the watersheds of the l^lbe in 1897, of the rivers Enns, Traun and Ybbs in 1899, and from the densely forested Itiesenwald in Silesia in 18SS, 1897 and 1903. Wolfschiits, however, tbinks that forests have a limited and local influence in certain regions in reducing floods. Landa, director of the Austrian Hydrographic Bureau, conies to the conclusion that weather conditions i)receding the precipitation lia.s a bearing on forest influences, the forest having the greater retentive capacity after a drouth. Pouti, an Italian engineer, asserts experiences of increased floods due .to de- forestation in Sardinia, Sicily, and Camrx)basso, and of the watersheds of Adda and Matero. He also finds favorable influences from forest planting in several provinces. The Russian, Lokhtine, cites a long series of gen- eral experiences and observations from i)arts of Europe and especially from Russia which indicate injurious effects from deforestation. Other instances were given which show that the water level is decreasing with deforestation. After considering these and nuu-h additional testimony on the subject, one is justifled in saying that forests do act as great regulators of rain- fall but that their value in this respect is a relative one which is modified by many conditions. Forests and Watki: Level. Let lis now consider the relation of forests and water \v\v\ as shown by observations and experiments. Profes-sor Biihler [see (7)1 foun9 per cent., and the effect was noticeable in ISST in a striking manner by low river l)eds and abandonment of mills. Results of a special commission m the I) lieper and its tributaries show the deforested basin as retaining from 3-20 per cent, less water than the forested basins, in pro]>orlion to the def> resta- tion. In the Soma, a gradual decTease of the average water level has been observed from 1888 in proportion to progressive deforestation. Similarly on the upper Bielaja at Oufa, where deforestation has been going on from 1S87-1900, the average water level has decreased, while on the lower Bielaja at Grouzdecka, where the forest cover has remained undisturbed, the water level has remained practically the same. Like observations are cited for the Volga basin. Experiences were also given by the depart- ment of Aude in 1893. The main river r(is(- fifteen feet. In t!ie two branches which passed through a country mostly deforested, great d image was done. In another brancli which ran through a well forested region, little damage resulted. From these evidences, it is seen that although the water level under a forest may be lower than in the surrounding land, it is evident that deforestation causes a lowering of the ground water which is very detrimental to the continued flow of springs, streams and wells. MONTGOMERY COUNTY. We have discussed the general relationship which exists between for- ests and water level. We shall now take up our own particular problem and consider the effect which deforestation has had in this county. 102 Muiitgoniory County is located in tlie middle wosteni part of tli-' State and contains 504 square miles, or 322,500 acres. The surface is somewhat diversified. The western and central part near the principal Ktreams is hilly and broken; in the north central it is gently undulating, Jind at the east and southeast flat and level. The northern part of the county is, in general, a prairie region, level or gently rolling. The dip (-f the underlying rocks gives direction to the drainage, which is gener- nlly a little west of southwest. The main stream is Itock River or Sugar Creek, which enters south of the norlhcast corner and traversiim' the central area, passes out six miles north of the west corner of tlu' county. Its tributaries from the north are r.lnck and Lye creeks; from the south, Ofheld. Walnut and Indian creeks. The southern and south- eastern parts are drained by Big and Little Raccoon creeks and at the southwest by Coal Creek, which flows directly into Rock River. Glaciers liave left the bed rock of the county covered with a drift whiclj reaches in some places to a depth of 200 feet. In only a few places, mainly along streams, does the bed rock outcrop. The average depth of the drift, however, is very nuich less than the figure given above. Collection of Data. In order to discuss this question intelligently, it is evident that one must be familiar with not only the past and present history of the water level of the county, but also the past and present forest, swamp and drainage conditions. To obtain data, trips were made personally ti» the principal towns in the county. Old residents were inti-rvicwed as to the past condition, and well-drillers and diiigers were asked concern- ing their observations as to the water h'vel. Stress was laid particularly en the history oi' old dug wells, because in these any fluctuations of the water level of the region would be evident. Owners of old wells were asked concerning the water level. l''i'oni men well .•ic(|n;iinted in the difi'erent conunnnities visited, were ohlniiied names of farmers wiio liad or who would be most rndile to have old dug wells on their farms. Letters of explanation and lists of (lueslions wei-(> thtMi scMit to these men. These (juesli(nis covered jioiuts coiiccniiiiL; water level as exhibited by wells, and forest and drainage c(Miditions, both past and iin'scnt. They were asked to return answci-s on blanks furnished. One hundred and thirty-six letters were s^nt out and ;'orty-two answers were receivetl. eiLdit of which contributed iiolbinu; to the sojiilioii of llie i.i'i>blem. 103 Past and I'kesent Conditions in the County. Forests. — Early settlers in the county fonntl a vast forest ; broken only here and there by paths left by cyclones, and by marshy prairies. Their way had to be cut with the axe, and, from the first, war was made on the tree as an enemy to prt),i;ress and civilization. Clearings were made and regular logging bees were held where thousands and thousands of trees were cut, rolled together, and burned. Great amounts of timber were used for cabins, fences, corduroy roads, etc. Practically the entire county was covered with this virgin stand of timber. The northern part of the county in the neighborhood of New Pichmond, Linden, and Kirkpatrick borders on a prairie country which extends northward up into Tippecanoe, but even there the forests were in evidence. The soil over the greater portion of the county was covered with leaves, underbrush and general litter, under which was a thick layer of humus which acted as a reservoir for the rain- fall of the region. The needs of a growing population and civilization lias increased the drain upon our once luxuriant forests until, today, little I'emaius to remind us of them. Only here and there are patches of woodland, and these are so thin that they cannot be called forests at all. Fields, pastures and bar- ren slopes have taken the place of our great stands of timber, and this has done much to lessen the efficacy of the soil as a retainer of rainfall. The following figures from the report of the statistici;in show the above conditions in the county: 1881 07,574 acres of timberland 1882 62,983 acres of timberland 1883 C9,390 acres of timberland 1884 C9,451 acres of timberland 1885. 46,508 acres of timberland 1880 44,183 acres of timberland 1900 7,184 acres of timberland Inaccurate data is respoi;sible for the discre])ancies in the early re- turns; the later reports are more reliable. Sircams. — It is evident to any one who has given the matter the slightest consideration that the flow of streams in the county is much changed. The amount of water carried by the streams is probably no less, but the flow is much moi*e irregular, being greater than formerly in times of rain and lower in times of drouth. This is yer^' noticeable \n 104 Sugar Creek. This strenni wns once much used as a incaus of transporta- tion. In 1S24 William Nicholson (aiiic from MaysvilU>. Kentucky, to Craw- fordsvillo in a koolhoat of ten tons hiirdcn, which landed ut the mouth of Whitluck's SjiriiiL; Iti'anch. 'I'rips wci'c also made between r'rawfonlsvillp and Tcrre Haute in rtathoals. Only the li^litcst fif canoes can now do so. IJocords also show that Suj,Mr ('i-ee!< has fiiniishetl the motive power for at least ninetet'ii mills situated aloiit; its course in Mont'^'omery County. Xot over three of tliese mills are lunv in operation, and these have to de- pend upon steam durinjr most of the suuuuer months. It may he that other factors, such as competition, have helped to cause their abandonment. No accurate information reuardinj; the maximum and minimum flow of the stream in different seasons in i)ast years can he obtained, hut it is ll'.e prevailini,' oi)inion that tloods are now hi.Lclu'r and more freipient and that the waters .-ire lower dnrini: the sunnner months than formerly. The sm.aller streams of the county have also been affected. One stream near New Market has been reiiorted as beiuLC dry for half the year, whereas, formerly it was never dry. A stream near Waveland under my own ob- servation used to furnish fishing and swimming pools for the boys during the summer, but such si>orts are now rarely possible in this stream. Nu- merous other examples of tlie same nature can be cited. This evidence proves that the water escajves from the ground in times of rain faster than formerly. From this it is evident that less water is held in the soil, thus causing a corrc^sponding decrease in the water level of the county. Sliiiiitifi. — The early settlers built tlieir caiuns where fresh water was easily obtainable. Springs v\ere founer for water than they formerly did. The weight of evidence show.s that the falling of the water level is general in the wells all over the county. Sicdiiips. — Many places in the county have been wet and swampy. Natural ponds of greater or less extent were numerous, some of these being ten acres in area. The water level was very near the surface in these places. The region around Whitesville was especially very wet, water even running into shallow post holes. Such jdaces have now all been drained and the ground water level much lowered. Drainage. — A great amount of drainage has been done in the county. The county surveyor reports abtmt 200 county ditches, open and large tile, with a probable average of two miles in length, which makes a total of 400 miles. The county is also well uuderdrained by many thousand rods of private tile ditches under farm lands. Swamps, ponds, wet fields, etc., have been drained and much of the water that sinks into the soil is quickly carried by ditches to the nearest stream. Water-level. — That the water level of the county his lowered certainly needs no additional proof. Observant and intelligent men in all parts of it have given their opinion that this is undoubtedly so. The lowering has been greater in some places than in others. As reported by wells, the lowering has been 2-9 feet. Causes of the Change. Dcforestaliou. — That deforestation has been a great factor in causing a lowering of the water level can not be doubted. The cutting off of the timber has increased evaporation and surface run-off to such an extent as to affect the water table. One man gives the following experience : A well was dug on the farm and in ten years it went dry. During that time, a large tract of timber was removed from the farm. Another well was then dug with the same result in a few years, deforestation also having proceeded during the time. The same occurrence also happened again. Of course, it can not be asserted that deforestation was the sole cause of the lowering. 106 Drainage. — Drainage is also responsible in a great measure for the lower water level. The miles of tile and open ditches, city storm sewers, etc., carry a great part of the water to the streams as soon as it falls. The water is thus carried away instead of hein;,' held to feed the wells, springs, etc. Two instances have been given me in which wells went dry after sloughs, lower than but near the well, had been drained. Greater Aiitoidits Iscil. — A growing population has increased the drain uj)on the underground water supply. Water is jtut to more uses than formerly and this, no doubt, has its effect upon the water level. IJELAT.YE IMPORTANCE OF ABOVE FACTORS. It was hoped that it would Ite possible to separate the effects of de- forestation and drainage and determine just the part each had played, but this can not be done in Montgomery County. My own judgment, based on field work and reported data, is that drainage has played as great a part in the lowering of the water level as has deforestation. The results of this study are not as detinite as were at tirst exiiected, Init it is believed that the rather thorough study of such a typical county in Indiana is well worth recording, and it is hoped that it may induce others to undertake similar surveys in various parts of the Stixte until more definite data are discovered upon which to base conclusions that, as far as Indiana is concerned, will be sufficiently reliable for real scientific work on the problem which depends upon these things. This investigation was carried on in the Botanical Laboratory of Wa- bash College under the direction of I'rof. M. B. Thomas. 15II5LI00RAPHY. The following bibliograjihy. while not complete, is sufliciently compre- hensive to cover fairly the ixiints pi'csented. (1) Abbe, Cleveland. Determination of the True Amount of Precipita- tion and its bearing on theories of forest Influences. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Ag.. Bull. No. 7, pp. IT.'.-ISO. (2) Barbour, Erwin llinckly. AVells and AViiuhnills in Nebraska. U. S. Geo. Sur., Dept. of Int. W.-S. and Irr. I'apcr No. 20. (3) Blauford. Nature NXX'IX, i). r,s:\. (4) BufTaiilt. I.a cap'" 'Ic rctcniionelle de la foret. Revue des eaux et forets. January, lt)01>, pp. 1-ls, .'{;;-;m. April, IIKV.). j.p. 229-234. Re- viewed in .\nierican Forestry, IMarcli, T.tld, ]ip. l."(<;-17."!. and Forestrj' Quarterly, Vol. 7, pp. 322-321, Scplcmbci-. HMH». 107 (5.) CoUett, John. Montgomery County. 7tli Ann. R. of the Geo. Sur. of lud., 1875, pp. 361-422. (6) Curtis, George E. Analysis of tlie Cause of Rainfall, with Special Relation to Surface Conditions. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bull. No. 7, pp. 187-191. (7) Engler, Prof. Funfte Versammlung des Internatioualeu Verbandes forstlichen Versuchsaustalten. Centralblatt fiir das gesamnnte Forst- wesen, January, 1S07, pp. 35-40. Reviewed in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. 5, pp. 91-92, March, 1907. (S) Fernow, B. E. Forest Influences. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bull. No. 7, pp. 9-22. (9) . Relation of Forests to Water Supplies. Forest Servince, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bull. No. 7, pp. 123-170. (KM Finney. John H. The Connection Between Forests and Streams. American Forestry, Feb. 1910, pp. 109-110. (11) Fuller, M. L. Underground Waters of Eastern United States. U. S. Geo. Sur., Dept. of the Int. W.-S. and Irr. Paper No. 114. (12) Glenn, L. C. Forests as Factors in Stream Flow. American For- estry, April, 1910, pp. 217-224. (13) Harrington, M. W. Review of Forest Meteorological Observations, a Study Preliminary to the Discussion of the Relations of Forest to Climate. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bull. No. 7, pp. 23-122. (14) Haworth, Erasmus. Underground Waters of Southwestern Kansas. U. S. Geo. Sur., Dept. of the Int. W.-S. and Irr. Paper No. 0. (15) Henry, Alfred J. Rainfall of the United States. Ann. R., U. S. Weather Bureau, 1S96-97, p. 317. (16) Hough, Franklin B. Report upon Forestry. U. S. Dept. of Ag., 1877. ( 17) King, F. II. I'rinciples and Uunditions of the Movements of Ground Water. 19th Ann. R. U. S. Geo. Sur.. I'art II. (IS) Leighton, M. 0., and H. Horton. The Relation of the Southern Appalachian Mountains to Inland Water Navigation. Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Ag.. Circular 143. (10) Leverett, Frank. Wells of Northern Indiana. U. S. Geo. Sur., Dept. of the Int. W.-S. and Irr. Paper No. 21. (20) . Wells of Southern Indiana. U. S. Geo. Sur., Dept. of the Int W.-S. and Irr. Paper No. 26. 108 (21) Mattoon, W. U. Moasnremeiils of the Effects of Forest Cover upon the Conservation of Snow Water. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. 7, pp. 245- 248. September, 1000. (22) Moore, P.arrin.uton. Checking Floods In the French Aljis. American Forestry. April, 1!»1(>, pi). 199-20(). (2,'>) Moore, Willis L. The Influences of Forests on Climate and on Floods. House of I{ej>resentatlves. T'. S. Com. on Ag. (24) Oppokov, E. v., and II. Schreiber. Are Swamps Regulators of Water Flow and Shonld they be Drained? I'nii. by the '•Khozian," 10O4, p. r)2. Keviewed. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. H, pp. 37U-872., November, VM'). (2.3) Otoski. Die rnsslshen I'ntersuckugen ilber den Elnfluss des Wal- den anf den (i!run") . Theoretical Investigation of the Motion of Ground Waters. 10th Aim. R., U. S. (4eo. Sur., 1897-98, Part II. (08) Swain, George F. "The Influence of Forests on Climate and Floods."" A Peview of Prof. Willis L. Moore's Report. American Forestry, April, 101(». pp. 224-240. (.■)9) Touniey, James W. Tlie Relation of Forests to Stream Flow. Re- print. Yearbook of V. S. Dept. of Ag. for 1903. (^0) Tol.'-ky. A., and PI Henry. Les forets de Plaiiie et les Eaux Souter- raines. (Extrait des annals de la Science Agronomique francais et etrangere 2 Serie, 8 aiinee, 1902-03. Tome I.) Review, Forestry Quarterly, ^'ol. 3, p. 370. (41) Tolsky, A. P. Transactions of the Imperial Forest Institute, Vol. X. St. Petersburg. 1903. Reviewed, Forestry Quarterly, Vol. 5, pp. 54-55. Feb. 1905. (42) Velschow, Frantz A. The Cause of Rain ai)d the Structure of the Atmosphere. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Vol. XXXIII, 1890, p. 303. (43) Vermeule, C. C. New Jersey Forests and their Relation to the Water Supply. The Engineering Record, Vol. XLII, No. 1, July, 1901. (44) Wysotski, Lesnoj jornal. All gemeine Forst. u< Jagdzeitung. September, 1007, pp. 318-320. Reviewed, Forestry Quar^^erly, Vol. 5, pp. 417-419. (i'j) Wilmout, S. Eardley. The Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply. Indian Forest Service. 58 pp. 8 Calcutta, 1906. Reviewed, Forestry Quarterly, Vol. 5, pp. 57-58, March, 1907. Ill The Geological Conditions oi'^ ]\[unicii'Al AVater Supply in the Driftless Area of Southern Indiana. By E. R. Cumings. I. Introduction. Description of tlie driftless area. Character of the rocks and topography. II. The Kuobstone area. Peculiarities of the rock formations. Topography and soil. Water-bearing qualities. Water-producing qualities of the alluvial valleys of the region. Climatological data of the driftless area. Relation of rainfall to runoff. Conditions affecting the impounding of water in the Kuobstone region. Proper construction of dams. Indiana University dam. III. The limestone area. Peculiarities of the rock formations. Topography and soil. Cavernous character of the rocks and development of underground drainage. Difficulties of impounding water. Character of the springs of the region. General inadequacy of springs without impounding the water. Deep and shallow wells. Valley alluvium. IV. The Chester-Mansfield area. Peculiarities of the rock formations. Topography and soil. Intermediate character of the region. Conditions affecting the impounding of water. Wells. 112 V. Relation of forests to water supply in tlie driftless area. Runoff and ground water. Erosion. Silting of .\cw Voik. Xew Vorl; Slate Miiseiiin, I'.iiii. No. s.-., inor>. 113 the "Knobs," coiupromisiiii; tin- counties of Flnyd, eastern Washington, Jackson and Brown, and lapping over into eastern Lawrence ami Monroe, is a region of mature topography, with deep, steep-sided valleys, very little level njiland, and broad flat valleys only on the larger streams. To the west of this lies the great limestone region (Mississippian limestones) in Harrison, western Washington and eastern Orange, central Lawrence and Monroe, and northeastern Ow-en counties. The topography of this region ii-, rolling, with deeper valleys on the eastern and western edges only, it is the region of caves and sinkholes, and consequently, to a marked de- gree, of underground drainage'. It is also the region of chief interest in the present connection. To the west of tlie limestone belt lies the region of the Chester (Huron) formation and the Mansfield sandstone, which for our present imrposes may be treated as a unit. Toitographically this region bears con- sideralile resembl.-inco to the region of the "Knobs." In places it is even more rugged, as in Martin and Craw^ford counties. One important point of difference, however, from the standpoint of the water-supply engi- neer, is the fact that in this region of the Chester formation, the larger streams cut through the shales and sandstones to the limestone beneath, while in the region of the "Knobs," the valley floors are always in the same material as their sides. This type of valley in the Chester region is well exemplified liy Richland Creek, in Monroe and Greene counties, and by French Lick Creek in Orange County. To the west still of the region of the Chester and Mansfield forma- tions, is the region of the Coal Measures, which presents no points of special interest to the present discussion. Broadly speaking, we may say that the driftless area presents, from the standpoilit of the water-supply engineer, two main types of geo- 1 For descriptions of the geology, topography and caves of this region see : Blatchley, W. 8.. Indiana Caves and their fauna, 21st Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., 1897, pp. 120-212 ; Hopkins, T. C, and Sicbenthal, C. E., The Bedford Oolitic limestone of Indiana, Hid., pp. 289-427 ; Neivsom, J. F., A geo- logic and topograpliic section acros.s southern Indiana, Ibid., 26th Ann. Rept., 1901, pp. 227-.'502 : Ashley. G. H., and Kindle, E. M., The geology of the Lower Car- boniferous area. Ibid., 27th Ann. Rept., 1902, pp. 49-122 ; Shannon. G. W. and others. The Indiana Soil Survey, in the 32d to 34th Ann. Repts., Ibid., 1907-10; Cinninys, E. R., On the weathering of the Subcarboniforous limestones of southern Indiana, Proe. Ind. Acad. Sci. for 1905, pp. 85-100 ; Greene, F. C, Caves and cave formations of the Mitchell limestones, Ibid., for 1908, pp. 175-183 ; Beedc, J. W.. The cycle of subterranean drainage as illustrated in the Bloomington, Indiana, quadrangle. Ibid., for 1910. pp. 81-111. . [8—29034] logical formation, and a type intermediate between them. One of these principal types, the Knobstone formation, consists of compact, insoluble, impervious sandstones and shales; and the other, the Mississippian lime- stones, consists of consi)icuously fissured and jointed, highly soluble, and consequently pervious limestones. It is also apparent that these two prin- cipal tyi^es of formation present interesting differences of topography, which are of iniiH)rtance to the student (if water-supply problems. II. The first of these, the Knobstone formation, ccmsists of a considerable thickness of fine-grained sandstones, witli clay cementing material; and of sandy shales, becoming more argillaceous toward the base of the formation. Roth sandstones and shales are imi>ervious to an uuusnal degree. The evidence of this is seen in the general absence of springs in the region of the Knobstone formation, in the impossibility of obtaining good wells, either deep or shallow in the I'ock, and in the small dry- Meather flow of the streams in the area underlain by this rock. An indirect evidence of the minute size of the pores of the Knobstone sand- stones, is the damage that the rock suffers when exposed to freezing. Experiment and microscopical examination reveal the same thing. If a sample of the rock be tested, it will be found to absorb water rather readily, but to transmit it very slowly. As a matter of fact the purely geological evidence already presented, of the impeiwiousness of the rock, is altogether more satisfactory than the experimental evidence mentioned, because it deals with the formation in masses commensurate with those with which the water-supply engineer has to deal. What the Knobstone formation lacks in water-bearing qualities, it more than makes up in its perfection as a substratum for reservoirs and ponds. Its qualities in this respect will be brought out in the description of a typical water-supply plant — that belonging to Indiana University — and need not be further discussed at this point. It is siillicient to say here that wherever the conditions are such that an adtMjuate supply of pure water can be impounded, the Knobstone formation niaj^ be de- pendests of tiiis \\v\\ ni;ide hy puiii])ing it out 117 unci noting Uie rate of filling, indicate a capacity of 12.000 gallons per clay, under a head of fiftetn feet, the water-table being depressed five feet when the rest was made. This is pmbably about the usual dry weather depression. Allowing 50 per cent, interference of wells, this valley should produce 50,000 gallons of water per day during the driest year. Such a supply would be suflicient for a town of 1,000 population, and would be of first-class quality. There are many valleys of this type in the Knobstone region, that would be good water producers for small towns, or for manufacturing plants. The water would be of excellent character and exceptional purity. The larger valleys, such as Bean Blossom, should furnish sufficient well- water for cities of 10,000 inhabitants or less, or for extensive industrial plants. The conditions affecting the impounding of water in the Knobstone region can not be adequately discussed witlK.ut introducing certain cli- matological data. Since these data will also serve for the limestone region, they may properly be discussed in full at this point. The following climatological data are obtained principally from the publications of the U. S. Weather Bureau. Between the coldest and warmest portions of this section of the State there is a difference of about 5 degrees in the mean annual temperature. The wannest locali- ties are in the Wabash and Ohio valleys, the temjjerature increasing quite regularly from the upper to the lower portion of each valley. The mean annual temperature varies from about 52 degrees at the north end of tlie area, to nearly 57 degrees at Evansville. The length of the growing season is somewhat greater in the south- ern than in the northern portion of the area under consideration. It is from two to three weeks longer at the Ohio Kiver than in the northern part of Indiana. The mean annual precipitation varies from about 40 inches to 55.21 inches (at Marengo). The maximum precipitation for any one year within the area was 97.38 inches at Marengo, in 1890. The maximum for any one month is 18.00 inches, also at Marengo, in August, 1888. The minimum for one month is a trace in October, 1908, at Mt. Vernon. Pre- cipitations of 10 inches or more in one month are not uncommon, having been recorded an aggregate of 35 times at the seven stations reporting within the area. Ten of these were in the month of Marctfi, 118 lour each in January, July and August; three in September; and two each in February, June and November. Over ten inches have not been reported in any of the remaining months. Six inches or more have been reported an aggregate of 233 times at these seven stations. Of these IS were in January, 28 in February, 44 in March, 19 in April, IS in May, 25 in June, 14 in July, 17 in August, S in September, S in Oc-tober, 2t) in November and 9 in December. Less than 1 inch has been reported an aggregate of 120 times at the seven stations. Of these, G were in January, 14 in February, 4 in March, 4 in April, 3 in May, 1 in June, 11 in July, 10 in August, 25 iu September, 25 in October, 12 in November and 5 iu December. These statistics by stations are as follows : At Bloomington there have been 10 inches or more of rain in one month, twice. There have been G or more inches 19 limes; and less than 1 inch 11 times (indices, 1-7S, 1-S and 1-14 )^ At Paoli, there have been 10 or more inches 2 times; G or more inches IG times; and less than 1 inch 12 times (indices, 1-GG, 1-S and 1-11). At Jeffersonville there have been 10 or more inches 4 times; G or more, 34 times; and less than 1 inch 22 times (indices, 1-78, 1-9 and 1-14). At Marengo there have been 10 or more inches 18 times; G or more, 77 times; and less than 1 inch, 17 times (indices, 1-17, 1-4 and l-lS)^ At E'vansville, there have been 10 or more inches G times ; G or more inches, 51 times ; and 1 inch or less 32 times (indices, 1-G4, 1-7 and 1-12). At Rome there have been 10 inches or more, once; G inches or more, S times; and 1 inch or less, 5 times (indices, 1-G8, 1-8 and 1-13). At Mt. Vernon, there have been 10 inches or more, 4 times; G inches or more, 3G times; and 1 inch or less. 21 times (indices, 1-GG, 1-7 and 1-12). The mean annual precipitation for these towns is as follows: Bloomington, 43.4:*.; I'aoli, 43.47; Jef- fersonville, 42.51; Marengo, 55.21; Evansville, 44.11; Rome, 44.G2 ; Mt. Vernon, 42.(i5. The maximum annual precipitation for these stations is as follows: Bloomington, 52.15 (in 1S9S) ; Paoli, 55.SG (in 1907); Jef- fersonville, 54.1G (in 1898) ; Marengo, 97.38 (in 1890) ; Evansville. 70.G1 (in 1882); Rome, 57.12 (in nur.) ; Mt. Vernon, 57.4G (in 1890). 'Hie ' In order to compare the data of the several stations, it is necessary, since the length of record varies notably, to divide the niiml)or of times a Riven prc- (•ll)ltation is reported at a Riven station by the total nnmlier of monthly reports for tliat station. Thns for niooniinirton, where the Icnirtli of record is 13 years, the divisor is mO. Since in cacli the luiiiierator is niiidc 1. Iliese indices arc only apiiroximate. ^ The unusual character of the record at MarenRO arouses suspicion that some mistakes have been made in measurlnR the precipitation at that station. 119 luinimum anmial precipitation for these stations is as follows : Bloom- ington, 33.14 (in 1901); Taoli, 20.12 (in 1901); Jeffersonville, 30.18 (in 1904); Marengo, 32.37 (in 1901); Evansville, 2S.G.5 (in 1S87) ; Rome, 3r..86 (in 1901) ; Mt. Vernon, 34.10 (in 1902).^ At Indianapolis, which has a rainfall record going back without interruption to 1871, a period of forty years, the minimum, recorded precipitation for any one year is 30.33 inches, in 1901. An analysis of these data by seasons is interesting, and for our purposes more valuable than ait Ihjjf arfs to niMch ^'|'e:i|er depths, ]2:] to shoot. Like the saudstones, also, it will not eudure frost action and insolation. Structurally and texturally it is very impermeable, and ideally free from objectionable johits and crevices. Sound rock will usually be found fairly near the surface, especially on steep slopes. This shale formation is known to geologists as the New Providence .shale. It is 400 to 500 feet thick. \Yhere, in the eastern portion of the Kiuibstone area the larger streams cut through the New Providence shale, they enter the upper portion of the New Albany black shale, vciiich is, like the former, a very impervious formation. It is evident, therefore, that any part of the Kuobstone I'egion will afford satisfactory foundations for dams of all sorts. The i)roper type of dam for the Knobstone region will depend, of course, on the conditions at the particular site. lu the majority of cases comparatively narrow, deep, steep-sided valleys will have to be dealt with: and this will be so in practically every instance where only a few square miles of catchment are needed.' For this type of valley where the breadth of the valley floor is not more than 300 feet, the most satisfactory, as well as the cheapest type of dam, is the concrete dam, arched up-stream to a radius of 300 feet or more. Such a dam, depending to a large degree on its curvature for its stability under water pressure, may be built with less material than any other type of safe, I)ernianent dam. The construction should be such that the water face of the dam is perfectly tight. The balance of the dam may, however, be built of rubble concrete (uncoursed stone) i. e., large stone imbedded in a mortar of concrete. Some reinforcing steel to assist the stinicture in taking up the strains due to setting of the concrete and to thermal readjustments, will tend to prevent cracking. After the pressui'e of the water comes against the dam, there should be no tendency of an arch dam to crack. The ends and base of the dam should be mortised into the solid, unweathered rock, and every precaution should be observed to make these contacts perfectly water-tight. 'From the rainfaU and run-ofl: data given .above, it will be sp-p" tii^t ic in uvt safe ill the present region to allow more than 25 per cent, of the i-ainfall of a drj' season as available for impounding. This will approximate 300,000 gallons per clay from each square mile of catchment with reservoir capacity sufficient to hold the entire run-off of the year. With resei-\'oir capacity sufficient to hold the run- off of the three driest years — it is not economical to increase capacity beyond this point — the yield can be increased by about 50 per cent. A very full discussion of this subject will be found in the article on Water Supply in the 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, l)y Mr. O. F. Deacon. This article is a mine of infor- mation on most phases of water supply. 124 lOiirth (lams will imt onliiiiiril.v hu feasible in tiie Kiinlistonc region, (twinjj to the iieiieral laclv of clay of good imddliiig (niallties for the core or the (lain. In the edge of the limestone region sudi day may he avaihdile, hnt wonld in most cases have to he moved ddwn very steep i-lopes at considerable expense. Exce]it on large contracts, where the construction of a cable-way wouhl be worth wliile, the use of clay for short dams would i>r()b;d)ly be more expensive than concrete'. In some instances it might he advisable to use earth eml)an!hs of the dam and l)ond in Figs. 2, ."> and 4. The length of the dam on the rock substratum is llGl feet, and on the crest litXt feet. 'I'lie thickness at the base is 2SA feet, and the tot.al height subject to watci' iiressure is .".4 feet. Tlie niiiximum height above the valley alluvium is I'S feet. The dam is stepped up in ledges on iioth the uii-stre.im and down-slre:im faces, and the cross-section is such (bat ample stability is imivided. even without any arching. Tiu' .•u-ching (to a radius of ."'.Ki feet) gives very greatly in- creased stability under water pressure, and vastly decreases the liability ' -Vs a mattci- (ir r:i,.| ii,.:uly all dl' llu' liids on cartli .lams i",ir the Hidvorsit.v were hii,'licr lliaii on (hr lyp,. of ,oii,it|,. daiii ronsi ni.i.il, and lo be dosi'riliod later. = -V type of dam, <-(insistin'; <<( a lliin plali' of rrinloiciMl concrctf. snpportcd liy bnttrcsscs of con.rrlc is disciilMii in i!uul d.niamls a coiisiderahle outlay for forms. It would prohahly idsi ahoui I he sam.> as a L^ood lulilile oni-rete dam. I 125 to crarking. The dam is mortised into tlie rock on both bottom and ends, and is also anchored to tlie roclv by 1-incli steel bars, grouted into the rock and extending well np into the daai. Reiiil'orcing bars of g-inch section lap past these and extend to the top of the structure, being spaced four feet apart. The center of the crest and of all ledges is one foot lower than the ends, so that the water spills over the middle sec- tion of the dam. The pump installation is a triplex Deming pump, driven by a 25 H. P. Otto gasoline engine; and it works against a 220 to 240 foot stallc head. The writer is pumped one mile to a reinforced concrete Fig. 1. Indiana University dam. Cro.s.s-.section, showing dimensions, and distribution of rein" forcing steel (a, b, c, etc., m-n, s-t. etc.). After a drawing by A. L. Folev. 126 - o 127 Fig. 3. Indiana University water-works dam from above north end, showing arching up-stream. 128 129 tauk of 120,000 gallons capacity, and 100 feet above the University cam- ]H]s. Ttie main pipe lines are of S-inch asplialted cast iron witli leaded joints, and for the heavy pressure near the pnnip-house are of double strength. For the present consumption of SO.OfK) gallons per day, a few hours' service every three or four days is all that is required of this l^ump. The pond formed by this dam has a water surface of four acres, and is deep and narrow. Its estimated capacity is 20,000,000 gallons. The area of the catchment is approximately 200 acres, most of which is characterized by steep, sparsely wooded slopes. The dam was completed in July, 1911, and the pond began to fill in September. There was very little run-off, however, till the loth of Septem- ber, when a three-inch rain raised the pond from a nearly empty condition to within eight feet of the top of the dam. During the remainder of September the pond completely filled, and by the first of October was spilling over the crest. The total rainfall of this period was ten inches, from the first five inches of which there was no immediate run-off of any consequence. In other words, five inches went to replenish the ground- water, after the severe drouth of the summer. No leakage has developed in any part of the structure of the dam, nor in any part of the contact between the dam and the lx)ttora and sides of the valley. III. The geological conditions of water supply in the limestone region are radically different from those ju.st described for the Knobstone area. First of all the slopes are much less steep, and the soil is less per- meable than in the Knobstone region. The soil is also of greater thick- ness and more fertfle. Originally the region was heavily forested, and a few examples may still be seen of virgin forest, as for example, on the University farm at Mitchell. The central portion of the region, away from the deep valleys to the east and west, is nearly level, and is the area of the Mitchell limestone, preeminent as a cave-bearing formaticm. In this central portion of the limestone i-egion, nearly all of the drainage is underground, and springs and sinkholes abound'. In many instances the entire headwater portions ' It is the sinkhole region of Newsom. the IMitchell plane of Beede. See Ncw- som, J. P., A Geological Section Across Southern Indiana from Hanover to Vin- cennes, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. for 1897, pp. 250-2.5.3 ; Bccde, J. W., The Cycle of Subterranean Drainage as illustrated in the Bloomington, Indiana, Quadrangle, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. for 1910, pp. 81-111. [9—290341 13C H niid Cave I'dniial imis of ilic .\Iilclnll Linifslimc. Pi-oc. Iiid. Acad. Sci. for 1008. p. tnc. ■■.Most people di) ndt realize the deplli 1(1 which li;iiesl(iiie I'oi-inatioii.s may lu- alTecled hy solulicii. In the reiiiarU.'ihh^ (i-ealise hy .Marlel mi the <'avo rejiiou.*! of lOnroix- (T.cs .\hline-ii. (Iiei-i> ai-e descTihed lu.-iny well-lileatedly'. Another evidence of the same thing is the frecpienc.v of sinlcholes in the valley floors themselves. This is illustrated in many of the valleys to the west of Bloomingtou, as on the headwaters of Richland Creek, Blair Hollow, etc. In the excavation for the foundations of the bottling works at the French Lick Hotel, cavernous rock was met with under the ^ The distances of these various wells and sprin,ns from Pluto are as follows : I'lnto to the wells near French Lick depot, l.noo feet; Pluto to the (Jai^non (Colonial Springs) wells, 4,000 feet; Pinto to Howard weU, 4,000 feet; Pluto to Ritter well. s (100 feet : Pluto spring to Bowles spring, 950 feet ; Pluto spring to Pagoda spring ■t West Baden, 5,000 feet; West Baden Hotel to Ritter well, 3,000 feet. ]:'r2 I'ii;. ■). Spilhv:L\- of iho iipp.T p )n.l of Blicmiiniton \v:\lfr-\V()rk-i, slinwins joints in the rork. Fid. li. Joints ^'nlar^if.! I>i solulion. C'ui on Illinois ("cnlial K. U , r.l..oiuiii;;io 133 valley. In the excavations for the foundation of the second dam of the Bloomington water-works, a joint, widely opened by solution, was trace(^l down seventeen feet into the rock, without closing up. Some of these vreathered joints are illustrated in the accompanying photographs (Figs. (> and 7), and other illustrations may be found in the papers of the wi'iter and Dr. Beede, cited above. Fig. 7. A quarry ace in the Hunter vallej- region, Bloomington, showing joints widely opened by solution. The valley sitles in the limestone area are apt to bo so leaky as to render them totally unfit to act as i*etainers of impounded water. This has been very thoroughly demonstrated in the case of the Bloomington water-works plant. The original dam at this plant has long been decrepit, and the extensive leakage is due to a variety of causes, among which the chief is probably faulty construction. A considerable quantity of water, however, finds its way into the joints and bedding planes of the rock, under the spillway (Fig. 5), and is recovered by the second pond, which is immediately below the firs^t. In the case of the second pond, built in ]84 lUO'i, tlK' dam was very caivfully coiistnioted of fjood clean clay, with a concrete core carried down into the nx-k far enough to i)revent any likelihood of leakage thnniicli tlie siil)stratniii. As soon as this pond filled, nevertheless, severe leaks developed under the spillway, through the crevices of the lock. as in the case of the old dam. It is thought that some of the wati-r .-iiipcariiig at this leak actually comes from the upper (first) iiond, making the entire journey through the cavernous rock of the vallcy-side. .Vn attciiipl was next nnule to rei)air this leak hy tun- Tieling into tiic valley side at the sjiillway. This excavation developed the fact th.it there is a mnd-filled seam, extending hack into the hill be- tween two layers of limestone. This stvim was followed hack into the hill alMint 40 feet, and as it showed no sign of closing uji. the jiortion excavately sys- tems. Where it is necessary to obtain water, if .-it .all. from the liinestoiK- area, the iioi'tions underlain by tlie Oiililic limestone or the ILarrodsbur!,' limestone shoulil be utilized in iirel'erence |o the area underlain by the .Mil(licll limestone, .iiid the Oiililic is to be pi'el'crred to the llairndsburg Ff it liecomes necess.ary lo nlili/.e the Mitchell .ire.i. the following facts siiould be noted: Fiisl, it will be noticed by any one familiar with tlu» .Mifcjiell Jimeslone Ih.il llieic is a layci' or bed of r.illier impervious rock about r>(> leet ab(i\(' the base of the formation. This layei" serves as the floor of m.in.v of tbe ca\es of the region, .ind is the le\ el ;it which many of th<> lai-u'c spriie^'s emerge. I'.xaniples of this are Hie Leonard and Shir 135 ley spriiis« aiul the Stone si)ring (Blcoiiiinutoii water-works) near Blooni- ington. In .some cases this hiyer might be made to serve as the substra- tum of a pond. Great care would then be necessary to make the sides of the pond secure, since they would lie in an extremely cavernous part of the formation. Second, for ponds to be fed by springs of the type just mentioned, the top of the OiHitic limestone can be utilized for the bottom of the pond, and here again the sides of the pond must be made secure. The second pond of the Bloomington water-works is built on this layer, and all of the leakage is through the valley sides, and not through the floor of the pond. Where the valley sides are thickly covered with residual clay, and this is carefully i)uddled, ponds at this level should be fairly tight. Third, in a few cases tne flow of the larger springs of the region, or of several springs combined, will be surticient for small towns, witliouc inapounding. In such cases the flow of the springs should be very care- fully gaged, through a period of years, before any money is spent on works to utilize the water. In this connectiori it is proi)er to speak of the special characteristics of the springs of the limestone region, especially since they are usually very mucli overrated, and their nature and cause misunderstood. All of the large springs of the limestone region are the outlets of subterranean solution channels in the rock, and very often serve also as the mouths of well-defined caves. These caves and channels are in turn, as already shown, intimately connected with the sinkholes of tlie region. The sink- holes are the main gathering grounds of the waters that emerge at the springs. Or. to be more precise, they are the avenues through whicli tlie v.ater is taken under ground. Tlie sinks, like the eaves themselves, are largely the work of solution. (See Fig. S.) Where tlie sinks are open at the bottom, as is usually the case, storm water passes very readily and very quickly into the subterranean channels, and as quickly emerges at the springs. At such times the spring water is muddy, showing that it is merely surface water that has made a .lourney of greater or less lengtii through an underground conduit. It is indeed possible in some cases to drop a handkercliief into a sinkhole, and to presently see it emerge at a distant spring. Sometimes the journey from the sink to the spring is very short, a few rods; at other times it may be many miles. In any case the storm water comes to the spring luiHltered. 136 137 The drainage area of tliese springs can usually be defined witli a fair degree of accuracy, and is as important to know as in the case of surface water, for it must not be forgotten that the water of these springs is just as certainly conditioned by rainfall, as the water of surface streams. The criteria of rainfall and run-off, discussed above, apply here with equal force, though it is probable that a somewhat larger percentage of the rain- fall is available than in the Knobstone region to the east; at least the run-off is more regular. If the element of catchment area be analyzed, it will be perfectly ap- parent why so few of the springs of the region are adequate for municipal supply without impounding the wet-weather flow. The great Shirley and Leonard springs, near Bloomington, drain an area of about six square miles. During the storage season the flow of these springs must be at times several million gallons per day. At the end of the dry season of 190S the writer estimated their combined flow at less than 100,000 gallons per day. At that time the writer gaged the Hottel spring in Bloomington and found a flow of 12,000 gallons per day. At the same time also the Rogers springs, just east of Bloomington, had a flow of 10,000 gallons per day. All of these springs have the local reputation of being very strong springs. The Stone spring, at the Bloomington water-works, during the same season had an estimated flow of about 20,000 gallons per day. On the other hand, Wilson's spring, on Blue River, is estimated by Tucker^ to have a dry-weather flow of neai-ly 10,000,000 gallons per day. It is said to be the largest spring in Indiana. Several attempts have been made to obtain water in quantity from deep wells in the limestone region. Invariably the water so obtained has been mineral water. The wells at French Link and West Baden are typical. The writer is unable to state definitely the yield of these wells, but from a rather intimate acquaintance with those that are still flowing, it would be safe to say that none of them, except the Ritter well, has a flow greater than that of the Pluto spring. The flow of this spring is said by Blatchley= to be nearly 2G,000 gallons per day. The water con- tains about 300 grains of mineral matter per gallon. The flow of the Rit- ter well was at first much greater than this, and the water was less > Tucker, W. M., Water Power of Indiana, 3Dth Ann. Rept. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., 1910, pp. 34-37. ' Blatchhji. ir. .S'., Mineral Waters of Indiana, 26th Ann. Ropt. Indiana Dept Geol. Nat. Res., 1901, p. 102. 138 strongly iiiiiircu'iialL'd willi iiiiiKfa! matter. Init was nevi'rlh(.'less unlit for ilomestic use. The Nasliville well. '>(») feet (leep. Hows aliout 2!»,(XXJ gal- lons per (lay. and the water is .strongly impregnated witli sulphur. The Wliite Sulphur well, in Crawford County. Hows about l.").UUO gallous per day. There are many other wells of this type in tlie region, but even if their How were iucrea.sed by iiuiiijiiiig. none of them have a capacity sullicieut to be of any coiise(]niMi(e. jiiid. morecner, thi'y are all too strongly impregnated with niincr.il matter to be of use for domestic or numicipai l)urposes. They vary in depth from a few luindred feet to 1,(XJ0 feet or more. Attempts have also been made to obtain water from shallow wells in the limestone. There are three levels at which w.-iter may l>e expected in small quantities in llu' Mississipiiian limestones; namely. ;it the top of the Oolitic, at the top of the Ilarrodsburg limestone, and at the top of the Knobstone formation. The latter horizon is the most important. The writer is fjimiliar with the liistoi'y of a considcr.ilile number of sudi wells ill the \ icinity of Itloomiiigtoii. and these are tyiiical of tlie entire lime- stone region. Tlie I'liiversity has drilled, at one time and another, three wells on the campus in the hoi)e of obtaining water for boiler-water. These well.s vary in depth from .50 to more tluin ICK) feet, and reach the top of the Knobstone formation. The city of I'.loomington also drilk'd a well in the dry .seasou of lOOS, starting at the top of the OfHitic limestone an call iitli-iitioii U> llu' |(ircst ciiiiililidiis of llic (ii-iftli'ss ;iifii. Wliilc tliis suhjoct does not. in stricliu'^s. c-oiiic witliiii the view <>f a ,L'('(^i(»;;ist. nevertheless the success or faihire nl' a water-stiiiply system, in a re,:.'ii)n where steep sh)pes pro- poudcrate. is so intimately hoiuid iiii with forest pi-ol)lfiiis. that it may not he out of place- to devote a little spa( c to the (Miisidcrat ion of this topic. N'ery little \ir.uiii limher is left stalldin^' in southern Indiana. Where the timher I'as not heeii removed entirely, it has lieeii closely culled, and ill man\ instances Itnrned o\-er. so that the stand is often thin and the' forest (()\er \)ih,v. The writer has often been struck hy the characier of the woods in P.rown County, which i,dves the impression of being largely under forest. And so it is, if one co.nsiders merely the area occupied mainly hy trees; but when one notes caiefnlly the character of the stand, one is Immediately impressed with the fact that scarcely :i tree can be found that .aiijiears to be over fifty years old. and much of the stand con- sists of mere sapliiiLCs and inferior coppice, ("uttiu:,' is still u'oiiii,' on in the whole of the driftless area, and the wi'itei has seen tracts of many acres oi steep shtpes denuded of their trees within the last five years. T!k> fate of these sIojjcs, under the type of farmin.t,' LCeiierally practiced in the legion, is jiathetic (Fig. 0.). (Jidlying begins immediately, especially where the soil consists largely of cl.ay. and absorbs the rainwater slowly, ami in a few years the hillside is a seined ruin. The regimen of the streams is ladic.illy changed. Floods increase in frequency and violence. Springs tiiat formerly had ;i .-teadx and abundant How throngliout the year, are redticed to dwiudling threads of water throughdUt the dry sea- son. From the standpoint of water-snpiilx . one of the most serious of tliesc effects is the chiinge of stream regimen. .Vs (ileim' has poiided out in t'n> Miulheiii .\ppalacliians. whether or not tlie total rainfall of a reu'ion is all'ected liy deforestation, it can bc> demonstrated that tlie regimen of th" streams is m)tably clianged. lie lias shown, and the same thing can lie sjiowii in southern Indi.nia. lliat in regions still under adequate forest cover, the streams are clear even at Hood st.iu'e. lie ;ils. r .No. 71!. I'.UI. I 143 144 very significant fact that the former regimen of a stream is revealed in tho character of its valley deposits. If a stream has been in the lialiit of depositing only very line silt, the valley deposits (alliivinm ) will consist of fine material only. On the otlier hand if the stream has been in the liabit of (U'liositing coarse material, the valley deposits will reveal this fact. If fnrthermore a stream is now deiM)siting coarse material where it fornierly depo.sited only fine material, and if this change has come about Itaii ijdssu with the deforestation of the region, and no other adequate canse can be as.sigued, it is a fair inference that the deforestation of the region has changed the regimen of the stream. This effect also finds ample iUnstration in southern Indiana. Torrential streams now emerge on the sides of broad alluvial valleys, building fans of coarse and sterile gravel out over the finer silt of the main stream flood plane. Deep scouring of fertile valleys by flood waters is only too common. Now the importance of this change in stream regimen for the water- supply engineer is two-fold. First, if floods are notably increased in fre- (juency and volume it will be necessary to build more massive structures to withstand them, and it will also be necessary to build large enough reservoirs to hold tlie flood water, since very little catch of water can be expected in the growing season. Second, the greatly increased erosion of slopes and valleys brings down innuense quantities of sediment which tends to silt up reservoirs. The rapidity and completeness with which reservoirs are silted up., in the southern Api)alachian region, as described by Pro- fessor Glenn, almost passes belief.^ He says : "From the slopes along these streams a steadily increasing amount of waste is woi-king its way down the channels, filling the dams and destroying their storage capacity ; and lliis loss of storage means a decrease of efliciency that is calculated by the most experienced mill engineers to amount to 80 to 40 per cent, in plants that have been built especially for storage and a somewhat less marked decrease in other plants, the exact amount depending on the topography of the basin and the regimen of the particular stream on which the plant is located. So universal is tliis silting of storage basins that a promineiit mill engineer of wide experience in his reports on the construction of power plants no longer calculates on power or anything except the flow of the stream, and lie has increased his usual estimates l)y an allowance f intermediate between those of the eastern and central portions. To main- tain the perennial tiow of sprin.ij;s and prevent the silting of ponds the steep slopes of the area should be reforested, where necessary, and for- ever kept in forest. Gcolofjical Luhoratory, Indiana Universitu. 147 A Note on the Batostomas of the Richmond Skkies. By E. I\. (jUmings and J. J. Galloway. Four specit's of tlif i^emis lidlnslonui h.-ivt' I)i'eii reiKirted from the Kicli- uiond series, namely: Bittosfoiiia iiKiiiitalicnsc Ulrifli, fri):ii Stony Moun- tain, Manitoba; B. (V) nit/osiiiii ( Wliitfield). (iiossildy a species of Cal- loponi) from Delafield. Wisconsin; li. ^'(ll^illns James and B. rdrinhilc V\- ricli from various places in Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and Wis- consin. The two species last named have heretofore been confused, owin.i; to inadequate description.s and ti.ijcures, although it appears that they never occupy the same horizon and are really very distinct. Batoxtoiiui vuriu- bilc, which has been consideicnl a rare si)ecies, occurs in si'ei^t abundance at ISallstown and Weisbur;;. Indiana, in the lower part of the Whitewate'' formation. Associated with Batoxtmini nirimis. in the upper Waynesville and lower Liberty formations on Tanner's Creek. Indiana, near Weisburg, is another species of Batostonia, not heretofore recognized. This is the form described in the present paper as Batosfoma pros-seri nov. It differs from li. rdfidiis in its ramose growth, more numerous mesojxu-es. larger acan- thopores with a smaller lumen, and the al)sence of a median lamina. These two species caimot readily be distinguished by external characters alone, I'Ut internally they are ver.v different. Batostoinu ijrosscri, and the ramose forms of B. rariinis are ditticult to distinguish by external appearance from Eridotriijia simiihtii ic and ('(illoporu stthiiodosu with which they are associated. The encrusting fcrnis of B. raritiiis might be confused with certain phases of Ccntmo- liorclld. In any of these cases, however, close inspection will I'eveal char- acteristic differences. The only species occurring with B. rdridhilc. with which it might be confused is Rlioiiibotri/pa qiiadrata, which it resem- bles in zoarial characters, and to a less extent in deep tangential and long- itudinal sections; but the quadrate zotecia at the growing ends of the branches are sufficient to distinguish the Rhoinhotrijpd. Communication pores, which lia\e heretofore been considered as char- acteristic of the genus Homotimnt. are ft)und in abundance in many speci- 148 iiUMjs of liittdsldiint raikins iuid /?. /'rossrri. They are also typically de- veloped in tiie followiiii? ,i,'enera of the Trepostomata : Bi/tlioitora, Callo- pora, Dvkayla, Eridotnjpa. MoiiticuliiKtra, Nicholsonclla and I'cronopora. It seems quite probahle that communication pores are characteristic of all of the Trepostomata. They are most numerous near the surface, but are sometimes found in the deeper portion of the mature region. They are most readily seen in fairly thick tangential sections cut near the surface of well presex-ved material ; hut very thin sections show their structure better. Communication pores may also be seen occasionally in longitudi- nal sections. These pores usually pass through the region where the inter zooecial wall is narrow, going directly from one zooecium to another. But Uiey are sometimes very irregular in their course. They may be straight, curved, or looped, and are sometimes branched, so as to connect three zooecia. In the sections the poi'es usually appear clear and empty, but they sometimes are filled with dark colored, opaque pellets. Batostoma variubUe was quite certainly derived from B. mimieso- tense Ulrich, of the middle Trenton formation of Minnesota^ ; from which locality it migrated southward during the late Richmond invasion. The two species seem to be almost identical. B. prossvri, in everything but the possession of imperfect diaphragms, presents striking points of resemblance to Hcmlpliragma irrasum Ulrich."- In B. prosscri, however, the diaphragms are always complete, so that it is a true Batostoma. Batostoma rarians api)eai's to be more closely related to the Edeb forms, B. jautcsi (Nicholson) and B. inipUcnttim. The detailed description of these three Richmond species follows. Batostoma vaiu.vns (James). Plate I, Figs. 1-le; Piute VII, Fies. 3, 3a. Chwtetcs i-(irknis. James, Paleontologist, No. 1, 1S78, p. 2 (not figured). MonticuUpora (Chdtctcs) rarinns. James, Paleontologist, No. 5, ISSl, p. 36. MonticuUpora variaiis. James and James, Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. X, 1888, p. 177, 1)1. ii. Figs. 4a, -lb. ' Goology of Minnesota, vol. iil, pt. i, p. 207, pi. 2G, figs. 38 40 ; pi. 21 figs. 0-in. 2 Ibid., p. •-'!)!), pi. xxiv, fiR.';. 50. 149 Itatostoma vaiiabile (pars). Ulricli, Geol. Surv. 111., Vol. VIII, 1S90, p. 460, pi. XXXV, Figs. 4b, 4c (non 4, 4a, 5, or pi. xxxvi, Fig. 1). Slonticulipora varians. J. F. James, Jour. Gin. Soc. Nat. Hist., A^ol. XVI, 1894, p. 199. Batostoma variahUc. J. F. James, Jour. Gin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XVI, 1S94, p. 200. Batostoma varians. Nickles and Bassler, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 173, 1900, p. 179. Batostoma varians. Nickles, Kentucky Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 5, 1905, p 57, pi. iii, Figs. 8, 9. Batostoma varians. Bas.sler, Proc. U. S. National Museum, Vol. XXX. 1906, p. 18. Batostoma varians. Cumiugs, Indiana Dept. Geol. Nat. Res. 32d Ann. Kept, 1907, p. 77S, pi. vii. Fig. 9; pi. viii, Figs. 3-3b; pi. xxvi, Fig. 14. Zoarium irregularly ramose, branches .5 to 10 mm. in diameter, 10 to SO mm. long; subfrondescent, or encrusting on the shells of brachiopods. Orthoceras, or other bryozoa. The encrusting forms are from one to 5 mm. thick, and frequently cover an area of 20 to CO sq. cm. Cylindrical branches £i.nd knobs may spring from any portion of the zoarium. Surface smooth. GO monticules, and only an occasional macula of larger zooecia and meso- pores. On unweathered specimens the knob-like projections of the acan- thopores appear at the angles between the zocecia. The pores at the ends of the acanthopores are funnel-shaped. The zocecia, at the surface are usually angular or oval, sometimes rounded, and vary much in size and the thickness of the walls. The thin-walled zooecia are angular, and the thick-walled ones are round or oval. Mesopores fewer than the zooecia, at the angles of the latter, and in the macular; sometimes long and nar- row, separating the zooecia in thick-walled specimens. 6 or 7 zooecia in 2 mm. The tangential section shows the zooecia to be thick-walled and sep- arated by a conspicuous median lamina. Zoopcial apertures oval, meso- pores fairly abundant, not so numerous as the zooecia. Acanthopores abun- dant, situated at almost every angle between the zooecia, rather large, thin- walled with wide central canal. Acanthopores sometimes occur in the wall between two zoa-cia and then slightly indent the wall. Communica- tion pores abundant in some specimens, but usually absent In very shal- 150 low or very (leep t;iiijj:eiitial sections the zocecia are thinner walUnl and angular, and in the deep sections the mesopores apix^ar to l)e more nu- riierous. In lont^itiidinal sections the zocecia are s(>en to he thin-walletl and without diaphra.LjMis in the axial re.i^ion, and ,i,'raduall.v curvinji; to the sur- face, they emerge at riglit angles to the latter. The mature region is fairly deei> and liere the zoa'cia are thick-walled, e.xcept very close to the surface. Diaphragms from 2 to S in each zcxpcial tuhe. in the mature region, one-half to two tulte-dianictcrs apart, the first one usually not nearer than two tube-diameters tn tlic surface osition of scleren- chyma. Accoi'ding to liassler. liiitostniini rdJiinis is "aliundant in llie Arnheim. Waynesville. fJberty and Whitewatei- formatidus of the Richmond group in Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky."' It occurs in the Tanner's Creek section rarel.v in the Aiiiheim and lower sixty feet of the Waynesville. ar.d abundantly in the upper thirty feet of the Waynesville and liiwer twent\ feet of the Liberty foiMiiatious. It does n()t (iccur in the uiijier Lib- erty. Sahnla or Wliitewalei- furmations in Indiana. The Whitewater fiii'ni is IS. i-iiriiihUc. li. rdrhnis occurs in the base of the Tyi])erty near .\bington, Wayne ("ounly, Indiana, and in the .\rnlicini and Waynesville ne;u' Madison. I'.vrosTOMA \ AiiiAiiiLi; (riricli). il'hilr II. lius. Me: I'lat;' III, liys. 1 Ic: I'latc I\". lius. 1. la: IMalc \'1I. lius. 1-lc.l lialonlnimi rariiihilc (pars), rii-ich. (;e<)l. Surv. III.. \'ol \III. isOO. 1)1. xxxvi, Fig. I. ( non jil. x.xxvi, Figs. lit. \i\ li. ntriinis) . lUihislniiKi niridhilc. r.assler. I'roc. T'. S. Xat. Mas., \i>]. XXX. I'.KX;. p. IS, III. vii. Figs, it, 10. lUilnsloiiiti rdriiihilc. Cumhigs. Indiana l>ept. (ieol. Xat. Ues. ;i'Jd \uu. Ifei''-. 1"-i'*7, p. 777, pi. xxvi. Fig. 1."!. /oai'iniii ramose, robust, cylindrical oi- subcylindrical. ." to "JO nun. in diaiiiclci'. ,aiid II) lo 7o mm. long, dividing e\-er.\ 1(> to "_'(» mm. eilliei' dii-bot- oninusly or irregularl.x . Tlic b.is.il exp.iiislon forms large in-CLrular masse.-; ' I'roc. II. S. Xalioiial Miis.nin. vul, xxx. r.iOC, ]>. IS, 151 by throwing off iiuuieious larjie braiR-lies. wliirli sonu'tiiues lumsluinose. Surface siuootli, but hMving uineuhie of consi>icul()usly larger zooecia, which rise slightly above the surrounding zocecia. .Six maculae in 1 sq. em. Acan- thopores usually not visible at the surface, but sometimes in unweathered specimens, they project as very minute spines. Mesopores al)sent, except an occasional one in the niai-ula'. /(xeeia very thin-walled at the surfac(j in well preserved material, but thick-walled .inst below the surface. In weathered material the zocecia appear thick-walled at the surface, owin^ to the fact that tliis outer thin-walled zone has been removed. Zooecia very regular in size, angular or idunded by deposits of secondary scleren-. cliyma ; six or rarely seven in l' nnu., tlmse in the macula' one-half larger than the ordinary zofecia. Tangential sections show (he zocrcia to be angular, thick-walled, and usually separated by a dark conspicnons lamin;i : their apertures I'ouniled. Mesopores absent, but an occasional very small zcxecium. having the same wall-structure as the larger zcMccia is ju'esent. Acanthopores small or large, abundant, from 4 to lO surrounding a zcxecium. Their walls thin, indistinct, and continuous \^'ith the median lamina. The central canal is usually nnnute. and not sharply defined. ( "omnmnication pores few or absent. ^ In t'jc lo'.gitudnial section the zixecia are tliin-w.-iUed in the axial region, slightly tlexuous and crossed by straight diaphragms, from one to three tube-diameters apart. Tlie zorjocia curve gradually till they reach the mature region, where they turn abruptly and go straight to the sur- face, and emerge at right angles to the latter. Diaphragms more numer- ous in the mature region, one-lialf tube-diameter or less apart. Some of the diaphragms are irregular, curved like cy.stiphragms, infundibular, and either concave or convex upward. Zocecial walls abruptly thickened in the mature region. excei)t in young zoaria, and becoming very tliin again at the surface. Idaphragms thickened in the mature region l\v a secon- dary deposit. liatostonia niiiahUc occurs abundantly in the lower 40 feet of the Whitewater division at Weislturg and I>allstown, Indiana. Ratostoma prosseri nov. (Plate V, figs. 1-lc; Plato VI, figs, l-ld; Plato VII, figs. 2-2c. Zoarium ramose or digitate, cylindrical, or coini)ressed, dividing dichot- omously or une(pially ;it intervals of 10 to 20 mm.; ?> to l.T mm. in di- ameter and 20 to CO mm. long. Sui-f:ice smooth, but having maculae of 152 large zoa'cia and niesopores, elevated above, or depressed slightly below the general level of the surface. About '.) niaeulje in 1 S(i. cm. Mesopores abundant at the surface, frecpieutly entirely surroinidiiig the zoa'cia ; at other times not conspicuous. Zo(ecial ai>ertures round, and regular in size. Acauthopores. in unweatliered specimens, appearing at the surface as large blunt spines at the angles of the zocecia, and giving tu the surface a decidedly spinose appearance. The zocecia average 7 in 2 mm. In tangential .sections the zocecia are thick-walled and round. The angles bebveen the zocecia are filled with secondary sclerenchynia and acanthopores. IMesopores usually abundant, but nearly absent in some sec- tions. Acanthopores numerous, 4 to 10 surrounding a zooecium ; large and thick-walled, with a small distinct central canal; sometimes indenting the zooecial walls. No hitei'mural lamina. Communication pores usually ab- sent, but numerous in some sections. In longitudinal sections the zocecia are thin-walled and wavy in the axixal region, and usually without diaphragms. Diaphragms begin ab- ruptly as the mature region is entered, and become numerous toward the surface, where they are from one-half to one tube-diameter apart. Zooecial walls much thickened in the mature region, and proceeding directly to the surface, where they emerge at right angles to the latter. In immature specimens the zocecial apertures are oval, the mature region shallow, and the zocecia emerge obliquely to the surface. In the longitudinal section the acanthopores are thick-walled, with a small central canal, crossed by an occasional diaphragm. The diaphragms in the zocecia are usually straight, but are occasionally cystoid. Diai)hragms are more numerous in the mesopores. The distinguishing features of Batostoma prosscri are the ramose growth, numerous mesopores and large acanthoi>ores. The species is named in honor of Professor C. S. I'ros.ser of Ohio State University. It occurs in the upper 40 feet of the Waynesville, and commonly in the lower 20 feet of the Liberty, at Wei«burg, Indiana. It disappears abruptly at the level of the I'Icctavihonites scrircus- layer, as dot^s also B. r(i)iavs, with which it is as.sociated. 153 a a .3 -1 >. s oJ a 1 1-9 1 5 g .5? .a rt n 3 » 3 ai aphr in esopi 3 _H 11^ 5 ^ X; " •Z " A £ o l§ *-" ^ fl _ cfi t-> O "g ill - i ii II 6 ■ o "^ o , aphragms Periphera Region. 2 i ti< 3 Numerous, beginning ab ruptly in a line parallel with the surface. 3 o s 3 D .5 2: 2 m >> "3 ^ o J5 < 'S) 3 g - ^ £ §■.£ « s -< fe s 3 ci fS z ^ g. i xl 1 o § ^ -■ 3 .2 e n ^ £ .-S -j^ 1^1 S £-5 ill £ Z .3 ^ g mber ocecia mm. CO t^ to 3 ^3 =^> Z-3.S ose. n or ed. or few. o . --^ - "o aj Smooth rarely spin Zooecia thi thick wall polygonal rounded Mesopores ^ ^.-5-6 ■5 s o.s Smoot spino; Zooecia walle Smoo Maculi larg ZOCBC P - 6 S - s . E - S . ^ m 10 m) thick -80 m long. ~ .2 ^ c lO j3 § _0 -20 m thick -70 in long. ■^ s CO "^ lO ^ ^•§ i bi ^ H m S C m e rregula mose, 1 ondeso ncrusti O S CJ ^ ? O tf hH C3 (-• <£> ^,- Batostoma Varians. Bato-stoma Prosseri. Batostoma Variabiib. 154 ri.ATK [. Page. ISiitustoiiKi ntiiiiiis (James) 14N 1. .Surface. X 0. I'piier Wayiu'svillc. la. A sn))fr()iulesceiit siieciineii. natui-al size. Lower Liberty. 11). Typical tangential section, sliowini; commnnicatinn imres. X IS. T'jjper AVaynesvlUe. Ic. A subraniose siiecimen, natural size. Lower Liberty. 1(1. Lonjjitndinal section, showing deep mature roiiion and spiny acanthopores. x is. T^ower Liberty. Ic. Tyiiical lon.uiludinal section, x is. I'piicr Wayncsville. All sjiecimeiis from WeisV)ur.s;, Ind. Plate I. 156 I'LATE II. rag:e. liutostoina. raridhilc riricli 150 1. Typical tanj^eiUial sectldii, x IS. Ballstown, iiul. la. Tangential section, showing unusnally large acantliopoves and faint median lamina, x IS. Weisburg. Ind. Ih. Shallow tangential section, showing thin walls and few acanthopores, x IS. Weisbnrg, Ind. le. Ramose specimen, natural size. Weisburg, Ind. ^ -v ■ -< ■%. M i V 1 Ic Plate II. 158 I'LATi: Iir. lliilosloimi niridhUr I'lricli ir>0 J. Siirracc. slidwiuL; a macula and lliin-wallcd /inrcia, x '.». la. L()ii.i,ntii(liiial section, x is. ]li. Tyiiical longitudinal section, x is. Ic. A (-(unpressed sitecinien. naluial size. All siieciniens from Weisliuric, Ind. ic Plate III. 160 PI.A.TK IV. Page. Uatostotna rariubilr Ulricli 150 1. Cross section, showing an unusual (It'levopnient of cystoid diaphragms, x IS. Ballstown, Ind. la. Longitudinal section of a specimen having an unusually deep mature region, x IS. Weisburg, Ind. [11—29034] Plate IV. IM.AIK V. rase HdloslniiKl l)l().sf«'i I uov I.'l 1. Tangential section, showing eonunnnlcatioii pores, x is. Lower Liberty, la. Tangential section, showing nnnsnally large acantliopores. X IS. Lower Liberty, lb. Ty])ical tangential section, x IS. Upper Waynesville. Ic. Surface, showing numerous niesopores and acanthopores, x D. Lower Liberty. All specimens from Weisburg. 'igtgpj IL Plate V 164 Plate VI. lUitostnma prosscri, hoy 1 •"• 1 1. Longitudinal Hection, allowing sliallnw matiin' region, x IS. Lower Liberty, la. and b. Two specimens natural size. Lower Liberty. Ic. Ty])ieal longitudinal section, x IS. TTpper Waynesville. Id. Longitudinal section, sliiiwiiig decii mature region, x IS. Upper "Waynesville. / / 'i^^^ ^. ^ ^; id ■A 5^1 Jo' \ 166 Plate VII. Page. liatostoina rariahHc ririch ITid 1. Shallow Tangential section, showing thin walls. Weishurg, Ind.» la. Deep tangenital section, showing thick walls. Weisburg, Ind. lb. Tangential section, showing numerous indistinct acantho- pores. Ballstown, Ind. Ic. Longitudinal section. Weisburg. Batostnma pronseri nov 1 ."1 2. Typical tangential section, showing large acanthopores and numerous mesopores. Weisburg. Ind. Upper Waynesvillt. 2a. Tangential section, showing couiniunication pores. Weis- burg, Ind. Upper Waynesville. 2b. Tangential section, showing unusually large and numerous acanthopores. Weisburg. Ind. Upper Waynesville. 2c. Longitudinal section. liato.stoiiia ru rill lis (James) 14N 3. Tyi)ieal tangential section. 3a. Longitudinal section, showing spiny acanthopores crossed by diaphragms. ' All figures magnified 44 diamotfrs. Plate VII. 169 Observations, TIavintg for Their Object the Approximate De- termination OF the Time Required for the Erosion of Clifty and Butler Ravines in Jefferson County, Ind. Glenn Culbertson, Hanover, Indiana. In the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy for 1897, there is given nn acconnt of preliminary work loolcing forward to the determination of llie period required for tlie erosion of Clifty and Butler ravines or valleys. This iireliminary work consisted in making accurate tneasurements of the length of the valleys mentioned, aud in drilling holes and in driving steel rods into the rocks both above, and in the amphitheater-like space beneath, the falls, and in making accurate measurements from these rods so thi^.t the rate of recession of the falls could be determined. Nothing of \alue has resulted from the measurements from the rods driven in the bed of the streams above the falls. From those driven into the softer rocks beneath the falls, as describedsfn the Proceedings of 1897, results so far as Clifty Valley is concerned niv quite satisfactory. The evidence obtained in case of Butler Valley is as yet of little value. A comparison of the measurements made at Clifty Falls fourteen years ago and very recently indicate that the sajiping, as the weathering caused by the mists carried by the waterfall winds against the rocks be- neath the falls, followed by frost action, is called, has been quite nvirked. Since 1S!)7 the sapiiing has amounted to four and one-fourth inches. The sapping has been of a uniform character throughout the whole period, and certainlj' indicates veiy closely the present rate of retreat of the falls. Four and one-fourth inches in fourteen years is very aiiproximately at the rate of two-sevenths of an inch per year. The period required for Hie retreai of the falls from the edge of the deep valley of the Ohio, a distance of 11,000 feet, if the present rate of erosion has held throughout its history, should be 402.000 years. The r(X-k over which the water now flows at the falls is of the same character essentially as that over which the water flowed during the whole of the past history of the valley. Flence so far as that element is con- 170 cerned, the erosion should have Iveeii unifinin thmughout the period of the growth of tlie valley. Whether or not the stream flowing over the falls at i)resent is as great as in the past is a problem rather difficult of solution. The falls are in the main valley, yet as they have retreated through the two aud a twelfth miles, several tributary valleys have been left to work back their heads, and because of this element it may be that there is a smaller volume of water flowing over the falls than in the past, and hence a somewhat slower retreat. Again, the valley above the falls has certainly been growing longer, and developing tributaries, and hence has been adding to its vohune of water during these millenlums, and because of this factor the falls may be retreating more rapidly than during the earlier i>eriod of its growth. Considering all the possible factors which may have influenced the erosion of Cliffy Valley, it is probable that the present rate of sapping beneath the falls, and hence the retreat of the falls up the valley, is very approximately that which has held throughout the history of its growth. Whether the valley has been entirely or only i)artially eroded since retreat of the ice sheet, probably the lUinoian, which at one time covered the entire region concerned, is an open question. I 171 The Occurrence of Hand-specimens of Jointed Structure in THE New AiiBANY Shale. Glenn Citlbertson, Hanover^ Ind. About one and one-half mili-s northwest of the village of Kent in Jefferson County. Indiana, and near the entrance to Lloyd's Cave, there is an outcrop of the New Albany black shale. Tliis outcrop is found for some distance along the east and west road, and also along the road extending in a northwest direction past the upper entrance of the cave. One stratum of the shale, which is somewhat more indurated than the others, and which is approximately one-half an inch in thickness, furnishes excellent specimens of jointed structure. Both master and minor joints run so close together as to leave the weatliered remnants of the shale in pieces from four to eight inches long and from two to six inches wide. The joint planes ax'e approximately parallel, although in some cases there is considerable variation from parallelism. Such specimens furnish excellent illustrations of jointed structure for museums and for the classroom, and are very convenient. The accom- panying photograph shows several typical specimens, as found weathered out and lying on the surface. The relation of master and minor joints and the sharp outlines of the specimens are clearly indicated. The number of specimens is seemingly rather limited, but further ex- amination may disclose many more. So far as the writer is aware, the occurrence of such perfect specimens of jointed structure in sizes con- venient for handling is very unusual if not entirely unique. 172 Typiciil spLTiiiicns 1)1 joiiUfil sduriuic in New All,:in\ HI Indiana.— Photo by Gk-nn Culberlson, IlaiKiv..-. Incliaiui. SliaK' from Ji'lT.'i.si.n Count \ 173 Result^ OF Gi.act\t!On in Indiana. Bv Charlks W. Shannon. l.tiriir- the pa.t live or six years my tteld work has been in both the ...nciated and unglaciated parts of Indiana. Tlie work has been chiefly eoncerning the surface features, such as drainage, soils, clays, gravel and sand deposits, and stone outcrops. A study of these surface features has revealed many contrasts between the two areas. Some of these are very luarked, others are not so prominent at first consideration. It is the purpose of this paper to show some of these results of glaciation withu. tlie State. . , . , , ^ For the general information concerning the ice sheets which have invaded the State, and their influence upon drainage and other physical IVanires. I have drawn upon the works of I'rof. T. C. Chamberlin, Mr Frank Leverett, Dr. Charles K. Dryer, and others who have made special studies and investigations in glaciation within the State. The work of the glaciers in Indiana has been attracting the attention of geologists and other investigators for a number of years. Both the State and the United States Surveys, as well as individuals, have done a great amount of work and are at present engaged in the investigation A ;.aveful study of the glacial deposits in Indiana will throw much hgh npon the conditions present in adjoining States, and on the resxilts of jaciation in general. According to Mr. Deverett, the gh.ial deposi^ and .eorings of the State have been recognized from the earliest days of set- tlement' "It is in Indiana that we find about the first recognition m Vmerica of the boulders as erratics and of stri. as products of ice action^ SO long ago as 1S28, granite and other rocks of distant derivation were obseJd by geologists near New Harmony, in the -"^J/^^^/J ,1,- n fi-TtA (^^4'^) striEe were noted near Kicn the State; at nearly as earlj a date (iNi-). ^i^'-*^ , , ^f tbp ^t^te " But even with these observa- mond. in the eastern part of the State. ±iur tions, very little attention was given to the deposits until within the past twenty-five or thirty years. About four-flfths o< tl,e State lie, in tU. giaoiated area In •« soutb central part of the State Is a ciriftless area comprises all o, a part twenty counties. 174 Topography ou,,s,de of influence of Glaciers. Knobstone area in Brown C.untv, Me,.ZZotDu^Lco:n!y. "'" '''""'"' """"'"^ ' '"" """""■•-' ^'-'"'^ '">' ■'"•«-''■ C"-,.! 175 Two rlistinct periods of glaciation are recognized and in addition niucb material derived from a tliird, in wliich tlie advance of the kc sheet did not reach tlie limits of Indiana, but produced many important features by the action of wind and water upon the outwash material. The various stages producing glacial deposits are spoken of as ( 1 ) The First Ice Invasion, chietly that of the Illinoian ice sheet and probably an eastern lobe which reached the eastern side of Indiana. (2) The Main Loess Depositing Stage, the lowan drift. (3) The Wisconsin Stage of Glaciation. First Ice Invasion. — The State was invaded by ice which had its cen- ter of dispersion in the elevated districts to the east and south of Hudson Bay. From the region to the north of I,ake Huron there was a move- ment to the west of south over the Lake Michigan Basin, Illinois and western Indiana. From a part of this sheet the part known as the Illi- noian lobe was formed. The deposit left by this invasion constitutes the surface (aside from the thin covering of loess) over southwestern Indiana and an area of almost equal size in southeastern part — that is, it covers the entire area between the glacial boundary and the line of the Wisconsin drift. Many wells and drillings have shown that this drift is also present farther to the north underlying the Wisconsin. The thickness of this drift over the area of its exposure is in general about twenty-five feet except in filled valleys. In places the ridges carry but a thin coating, while adjoining valleys may be filled 100 feet or more. At the southern limit the coating of material is very thin in most places, and while the boundary is not marked by a well defined ridge, the character of the soil'and the natural vegetation mark approximately the limits of the drift. In general, the material is of a yellowish brown color to a depth of fifteen feet or more, beneath which the color is a gray or blue gray. There is every transition from the brown to the gray; it is therefore probable that the brown is an altered gray till, the oxidation of the iron having pro- duced the color. In the filled valleys sand and gravel are often found, and in the northern part of the area the drift becomes more variable. The underlying rock formations in most of the area appear to have contributed Largely to the material of the till. Where the underlying rocks are of a friable nature the material has been reduced to sand or clay and few if any i)ebb]es remain in the till, the coarse and pebbly constituents of the 176 till thus viiries with the ohiirad* r of the umlerlyins rocks. The locally foi'ined pebbles and rock fragments .ire chietly sandstone, but numerous foreign rocks' and boulders of large size; are occasionally found near the limit of the drift. The region presents a fairly even topography. In places, knolls and ridges with nndnlating surfaces occur, but in no place do they become of great height. Strife are found in several places. They occur in Sullivan, Vigo, Clay, Greene and Owen counties. The markings are chiefly upon sandstone ex- posure. Tho drainage of the area covered by the Illinoian Invasion was in many respects greatly modified. In attempting to work out the history of an area whose drainage has been assisted by the invasion of the ice sheet, the life resolves itself into four fundamental parts. First. What were the topograjihic characteristics of the area during the preglaeial history? Second. What changes took place during the glacial history? Third. What has happened since the disappearance of the ice sheet; its post glacial history? Fourth. What was the effect produced on the nnglaciated parts of this area? The drainage is discussed to some ex- tent under the lieadhig of "Rivers and Lakes." Loess Depositing Stage.— The loicaii Diift.^rriov to the invasion by the Illiiidian ice lobe there was a marked interval of deglaciation and a similar interval occurred at the close of the Illinoian i)eri(i(l. These inter- vals were marked by leaching and oxidation of tlie drift, tlu' accumulation of peat and soil, and the iirocesses of erosion. The intorglacial interval following the Illinoian invasion is known as ilic Sang.-iinnn Stage. The surface of the Illinoian drift outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift is covered with a tine grained yellowish silt or loam, to which the term loess has been api)iieears excepting boulders and sandy deposits. In northern Indiana the drift is very thick. Its average thickness for fifty miles south of the north lioundary of the State is probably not less than 2r>0 feet and may exceed nOO feet. At Kendallville it is 4S5 feet, and at several cities on the moraine which leads northeast from Fulton County to Steuben County, its thickness has been shown by gas borings to exceed 3(X) feet. The rock is seldom reached in that region at less than 200 feet. Were the drift to be strlpjjed from the northern portion of Indiana its altitude would be about as low as the surface of Lake Michigan, though much of the present surface is 200 to 300 feet above the lake"'' TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of Indiana jiresents no great diversity of t>)pograi)hic I'eatures. The eli'vation above sea level ranges from 313 feet at the junc- tion of the Ohio and Wabasli rivers to about 1,2^") feet, in tlie southern I)art of Kando'iili County. It is on this height of land that both the east and west forks of White iliver liave their source. The average elevation of the State is about T(t<> feet. The greater part of the Stjite is a plain of accumulation. North of the glacial boundary much of the area has a comparatively level surface, or only gently undulating. In the northeastern ]iart of the State are .some considerable hills and ridges, formed from the coarser materials and large Ixiulders of the drift. These morainic ridges, some of which reach a height of 2W feet, stand out in sharp contrast to the level area of old Lake Mauniee on the south, and to the sand covered area to I he west. Here on the west, the Kankakee Marsh with an area of l,(is are represented only by the old channels, or by streams which are iusigniticant as compared with the How fi'om tlu^'^^e front. In the driftless area det'i' \alle.\s, gorges and ra- vines, are charm-teristic of the drainage, some of the special draiua.iif fea- tures will be f>^rf!idered umler the heading of Kivers and Lakes. Riicrs. — All the rivers of the State have been more or less inlluenced by the glacial action. In the glaciated part there is no uniformity in the drainage lines: in the driftless area a section of drainage worked out in detail will present ;i jiei-fect dendritic system. The Ohio Uiver forms the southern boundary of the State, and flows in :i winding course for 351' miles. The valley of the Ohio is very nar- 181 row except for a few miles near Louisville where it has developed a valley several juiles wide mi the Devonian shales and attain widens in the southwestern part of the State, in the art-a of the cnal measures. There are a few places between IMttshuru and Louisville where the width of the valley exceeds two miles, and usually it is less than a nule wide. The narrows above Louisville range in depth from 301 > to -i'tii feet, below Louisville the average is about 300 and in (he wider jiarts the depth is from KM) to 150 feet. The lower Ohio appears to be a very old drainage line. The course of the lower Ohio is almost parallel with the dip of the formations. There has been almost a total disregard of topographic features ; the part of the river as boundary which has bec-n directly affected by the slaciation is between Louisville and the Indiana-Ohio line. The early liistory of the stream has been largely obliterated by glacial deposits. The entire part of the Ohio which has been intluenced by the result of glaciation extends from Louisville to Maysville, Ky., a distance of 190 miles, and including the abandoned channel near Cincinnati the glacial extent is about 225 miles. The drift deposits are found to extend down to the rock floor at a lower le^el than the present bed of the river, and as the material is unmodified the full excavation of the valley precedes the stage of glaciation. This work was done during the Illinoian period. White Water. — White Water River in the eastern part of the State drains an area of about 1.500 square miles, partly from Ohio. The source of the stream is in a moraine in southern Randolph County. The east and west forks unite near Brookville. "The head water portion for 15-20 miles are flowing in channels cut in drift. The east fork, then, near Richmond enters the rock and has carved its course partly in rocks from that point to Brookville. The west fork encounters rock at only a few points. Below Connersville it is in a partially filled preglacial valley, with broad bottom and elevated uplands on either side. "The west fork, with its head waters, constituted an important line of drainage for the waters from the ice sheet at the time the moraine above referred to was forming and probably also at earlier stages in the glacial epoch. It is in consecpience a gravel-filled valley, and the work of the present stream has been merely a removal of a small portion of these 182 gravel deposits. Above (,'anibridge it has cut scarcely twenty feet into these deposits. Tiie dei)th gradually increases toward Brookville. At Brookvillo and below th.it city it lias formed a diennel G0-7o feet in depth." — ( Leverett. ) It is possible that the luirrlierii ]iarv of (he river basin drained west to the Wabash, as would be iudicj'.led l)y channels encountered in oil and gas borings. However, the width and depth of the lower White Water valley would reciuire a drainage area almost as large as the prc»sent. Blue River has a drainage area of 450 square miles, which lies wholly in the unglaciated. The flow of the stream is greatly influenced by under- ground cliaunels. The fall is estimated by Tucker to be 5.34 feet per mile. 7'lic Wliitc River Si/stnii drains about one-thii-il of tlie State. There are two main brandies, the east and west forks, which unite at the south- west coi'uer of Daviess County. Below the point of unidu tlie stream flows the entire distance to its junction with the Wabash through the lower part of the Illiudian drift. The west fork rises in Randolith County, where the maximum elevation is 1,285 feet; the elevation of the niduth is 375 feet. The total length of the stream is al)()ut 275 miles, with i)robably another 100 miles of windings. Tlie av(M-age fall is nearly three feet per mile or more than twice that of the Wabasli. The entire course is through the glacial area. The two main triitutaries are Fall Creek having its source in a cascade ten feet in height at Pendleton, and Kel River which has a length (>f 100 miles; the source of the west fork is in southern Boone County. It flows over the edge of the Wisconsin drift in Putnam County. The ca.stern fork rises in Hendricks and Hows through the lime- stone region in Owen County, where a series of falls are produced. Eel River is a very meandering stream witli a s.iiul choked channel. The material is derived in part from glacial material but largely from the lieavy sandstone formations exposed along the course, and especially on the tributaries. The east fork of While Rivei" rises Just below the soutli\v(>st t'(UMier of Randolph f'ounty, a short distance from the head of west fork. The main streams of these forks grow farther .iii.irt until they reach Shelby and Marion counties, where they .-ipproach each other then again turn from one .•mother until the east fork reaches the southeast corner of Bartholomew ('ounfy. This fork then turns in ;i southwest direction 183 Showing polished surface of sandstone. James Campbell tarni north ot Hnwlina Creen. Glacial Striae on Mansfiehl -:iii.1~'mii,. J i:,,- Campbell farm, north of Bowling Green. The marks to the left running at right angles to the scorings are cracks. Markings are filled with white sand to give contrast. 184 and crosses the glacial boundary near Brownstowu, Jackson County. It cuts across the unglaciated- area in a west-southwest direction, and is cut U> ;i c'liiipiiratively low gradient, although it has cut through many rock forniatious of great hardness. Tlie valley has been filled to such an extent that the present stream is on the average about 100 feet above rock floor. The bluffs are 200 to 300 feet above the present valley floor, thus giving the preglacial valley a depth of 300 to 400 fcH't. In the un- glaciated area the east fork receives only one important tributary from the north, thafis Salt Creek. This creek lies wholly in unglnciated area hill, proltably carried much water Irniu the melting heads of glaciers which passed through the divides to the northeast, as is evidenced by the filling of sand and gravel in the ui)per course (jf the tributaries, as ex- .•im])]*' Iluliliard's Ca]), Monroe County and eastern part of Brown County. The streams leading down from these gaps have strewn along their Cdurscs glacial boulders of considerable size. In the Salt Creek basin the valleys are cut to great depth and a dendritic system of drainage has been developed which stands out in con- trast to the irregular and unsymmetrical drainage system of the streams witliin tlie drift area to the north and east. Lost River, an eastern tributary to east fork, is entirely out of drift limits area and for a distance of 12-1.") miles flows through a subterranean chaimel. In flood times part of the water flows over the old surface bed. The MuscatatiicL-. a large tributary from the east, has little fall compared with the neighboring part of llii' east fork. At the railway crossing south of S(\vmour the i>c(l of the Muscatatuck is forty feet lower than at th'' crossing on the e;ist fork to the north of Seymour. The dif- Icrcncc is due to a filling of the e;ist fork valley by dei)osits of gravel from the Wisconsin glacier, '{"lie Muscalatuck lies outside of llie Wiscon- sin drill limits and tlie I'encji of its waters and llie \;illey renuiins iin- lilled. Tlie iirincipal I riluilarics of e;ist fork to the nortlieast are lUue Kiver and Little Fl.-it Itock Creek. Tlu'se tributaries li:i\(^ an aver.age fall of about live U'('\ jier mile. From Colunibiis near the edge of tlie Wisconsin i\r\f\ to the iiioiilli of the Alusc.-it ;it lick llie fall is about iweiily inches per mile. In llie nld preghicial \alley tln-ough the driflless area the fall is iiboiit ten indies per mile. Itilllcs and r.ipiils in tiiis jiart of the oiurse, however, iiicrejise tile f;ill. 'llie lliiidnstaii I';ills iielow Slioiils giV(' ;i 185 descent of about five feet; here the stream has cut off an ohl oxliow and is cutting down the roclv in the ridge encircled by the oxbow. Tlic Patoku is a sluggish stream flowing along to tlie south of east fork of Wliite River for a distance of alxiut 100 miles, with a very nar- row drainage basin, nowhere exceeding twenty miles in width. The river rises in the Huron Sandstone of southern Orange County, thus having its source in the driftless area, but in the vicinity of Jasper, Dubois County, it comes in contact with the drift. The present drainage system is made up of three small drainage systems which were formerly distinct and the waters of which flowed to the northwestward to west and east forks of White River. "The upper system embraced the portion above Jasper, the old divide being at the northeast border of that village. The middle system embraced the portion between Jasper and Velpen and the lower part from Velpen down to the vicinity of Princeton. The old drain- age way there turned north to White River near Ilazelton, but the pres- sent stream continues westward across a rock pass into the Wabash." — Leverett. These streams which had then a northwestern discharge have been turned westward, just outside the glacial boundary to form the present Patoka River. The Wahash River has a large drainage area within the State. The river rises in the western part of Ohio, flows across central Indiana then turns south and from a point a few miles below Terre Haute forms the Indiana-Illinois boundary to its junction with the Ohio. The main .stream lies entirely within the glaciated area and practically all the waters from the system come from the drift surface. The river enters a preglacial valley just north of Lafayette, and after following this valley for a few miles, turns southwestward across a rock point, while the pre- glacial valley takes a longer route to the west and south, joining the river at the bend near Covington. From this point southwest the river follows the preglacial valley to the Ohio. Above Terre Haute the pres- ent stream has cut out only a part of the old valley, while to the south the river bottoms extend from bluff to bluff of the old valley. At Terro Haute the valley is five miles wide, to the north from 2-4 miles, and increases to the south to about fifteen miles near the mouth of the river. In the upper part of its course at Huntington the river enters the old outlet of glacial Lake Maumee. The old valley here is several times i8n N'erlical face of luuss ulonj; tlio Wabasli iiDrlh of (Jld Foil Kii.i.x. \\ iili.-.t;iiuls uratl htters which have been cut, in face for Ion? time remain unclian^eii. 187 as wide as that occupied by the river al)ove this jtoiiit. From Iliiiitiiigton it flows in a westward course and has opened up a post glacial line as far as Lafayette, where it joins a preglacial channel as mentioned above. Big Raccoon Creek and its main tributary Little Raccoon Creek drain an area of about 500 square miles. At the southern edge of Parke County the stream enters an old channel of the Wabash and follows this chan- nel for about fifteen miles northward before entering the Wabash. Busseron Creek, a tributary of the Wabash, has its source near the Clay and Vigo line. The general direction of the stream is southwest across Sullivan County into the Wabash. For a few miles near the mouth the stream probably occupies a preglacial channel, otherwise it is not in- fluenced by preglacial drainage. There are two Eel rivers within the State. One a tributary of the Wabash entering at Logansport and the other a tributary of White River entering just above Worthington. Along the latter and its tributaries are some of the best rock ex- posures in southern Indiana. These exposures are chiefly in the Mans- field sandstone. It is a very meandering stream and at present the ques- tion of the drainage of some of the bottom lands which are subject to overflow is receiving serious consideration in Clay. Vigo and Greene counties. From the great bend westward to the Wabash there is a con- tinuous strip of almost level country. TItc Salanioiiic River enters the Wabash from the southeast near the city of Wabash. The river is about seventy-five miles in length and flows along a plain along the south side of a moraine. The Mississinewa enters near Peru. It has a length of about 100 miles and its channel is cut mainly in drift, but in a few places down to solid rock. The Tippe- canoe Rircr is the main tributary from the northwest. Its source is in the moraines in the northeast part of the State. Its course is con- trolled by the moraines. From the moraines it passes through a sand plain of "Old Lake Kankakee" then again follows the course of a moraine along the northwest side of the AVabash, and enters it a few miles below Delphi. The Kankakee River is a very sluggish stream, flowing a distance of about seventy-flve miles in Indiana by a very meandering course in which the river is said to make 2,000 bends 188 Washes in Glacial till, eastern Gibson County. Thickness about 5(f feet . (il!ic]:cl nil irilciiiunnlril uiili lan.'i' liaiiincnts iil ^an(l>liini' iroiii li Countj' . loirnal iniis. (Iilison 189 111 Illiiidis the KiUiknkec unites with tlie DesPlaines to form the Illinois. The river drains an area of about 0,040 square miles in Indiana. The general trend of the watershed is from east to west with an entire lenjith of 200 miles and a north and south width of seventy miles. All the north tributaries have their source in the Valparaiso morainic sys- tem. The southern limit of the watershed is in the Iroquois and Mar- seilles moraines. There is no well defined ridge separating the water- shed of the Kankakee from that of the Wabash. Tlie river rises in a marsh near South Bend in the edge of a moraine. The Kankakee marshes comprise the most extensive body of swamii land in Indiana. In the seven counties drained by the river the original area of the marsh was almost a half million acres. In many places wild rice, rushes, water- lilies and grasses grow so abundantly in the channel as to cause the flooding of the marshes even during a summer freshet. In former years the river could scarcely be approached but now more than a dozen rail- ways cross the stream and numerous highways bridge its waters. The surface of the marsh laud is for the most part a treeless plain except along the immediate border of the river, where some trees are found. The soil is in general a dark, sandy clay soil, rich in organic matter. The sand content varies, and presents a number of soil types. According to situation the soils would be classed as swamp, marsh, island, i>eat and nmck. The St. Joseph River, now tributary to Lake Michigan, formerly dis- charged through the Kankakee. It has a drainage area of about 4,000 square miles. Papaic River which joins it near the mouth is the chief tributary. It has its source in the swampy region to the east of Val- paraiso Moraine. Pipestone Creek and Doicaglac River are other trib- utaries. YcUoic Rircr drains an area of about 700 square miles lying to the east of the moraine in which the Kankakee also has its source. About 800 miles of the Iroquois watershed lies in Indiana. In most of its course the stream is sluggish and the drainage imperfect. The soil of the area is a sandy loam and is largely under cultivation. The natural waterways have been greatly assisted in drainage by systems of ditching. The Calumet River has its source in the Valparaiso morainic system south of Michigan City. All the tributaries enter from the south side. The course of the stream and tributaries are controlled to some extent by the sand dunes along the beaches of the old lake. The stream now 190 discharges at South Chicago in Illinois. The old discharge was in Lake County on the southeast border of the lake. Near the source the river flows in an almost straight line and has the appearance of an artificial ditch rather than a natural stream. After flowing across the counties of Porter and Lake it crosses the State line but three miles south of its entry into Porter County and almost due west of its source. From the State line it flows in a northwesterly direction, for about seven miles and then at Blue Island, Illinois, it makes a sharp curve, then flows north- east then southeast and again crosses into Lake County about three miles north of its first line then continuing eastward for fourteen miles to its old point of discharge, but two and a half miles from the ix)int where it first entered Lake County. The area included in this meander con- sists of slightly elevated niorainic tracts, sandy beaches and marshes. LAKES. In the northern part of the State are hundreds of lakes varying much in size. These lakes are chiefly confined to the four northern tiers of counties. These lakes are all due to the irregular deposition of glacia! drift. They occupy basins within the niorainic area. They may be di- vided into three classes. (1) Kettle Hole Lakes, those which have been formed by the melting of detached bh)cks of ice. (2) Channel Lakes, in which the basins are the abandoned clianncls of glacial streams. (3) Irregular lakes, those with no general form of outline but are due to the irregular depressions formed in the accumulated drift. The al)undant vegetation has produced considerable deposits of peat al)out the margins of many of the Inkes. and many of the smaller ones have been completely filled. Good iiiari deposits also occur in many of the lakes and is being utilized for (he niannfacture of cement, brick and tile. No lakes occur outside the limits of the Wisconsin drift, although many basins of e.xtinct lakes occur over the scmthwestern border of the Illinoian. Some small ponded areas are found which take consid- erable proportions in wet seasons but are not permanent. In the drift- less area numerous small ponds are fcmnd, which owe their origin chiefly to sink Iiole depressions in wliidi the ontlel has become cloggeams, seo TT. S. O. S. Mdiiovriaplis XXXVII and XLI.— Leverett. 191 Niagara limestone exposed in the Wabash Arch at Wabasli Niagara limestone exposed in the channel of the Wabash river at Logansport. 192 SOILS. The soils (if tlu' State arc iif two general classes. First. Sefhiitiirn ttr h'cxiiliuil Soils. — These are the Ktils in place, tlioy have not licen removed from the parent rock. Such soils occur Iliroui^Miout the driftless area. They vary much in coloi', texture struc- ture and natural fertility, accordinf^: to the luiture of the formation of which they have heen derived. The poor soils are those derived from the shales and the sandstones. Those from the limestones are rather fertile, but will not stand continuous cropping, hut soon become depleted. The residual soils are as a rule not vei'y deep and do not withstand drouth very well. Another group of soils to be classed as sedentary are in cumulous deposits as peat, muck and swam]), since they result from the gradual accumulation of material "in situ." Though diffen'ning in lioth coiii](osi- tion and origin from those just described such soils are common in the northern part of the State in the Wisconsin drift. Peat occurs only in very limited areas outside of the Wisconsin drift boundary. Muck areas occur about the margins of the many lakes and thousands of acres are iu the swamp areas of the lake region and the Kankakee basin. Second. Transported Soils. — Those which have been transpurted by the power of water, wind and ice. These are known as colluvial. allnvi;il and glaci;il drift soils. The two latter classes are of most importance. All of the alluvial soils of the State are fertile butli in tlic glaciated and driftless areas. A large jiaiM of tJie rivei- bottom soils ai'c low lying and difficult to dr.iin. These soils vary from the sands and gravel to the stifl'est clays, but in geni-ral they aiv a g(KMl clay loam. Corn is the princii)al crop. The drift soils .-ire composed of a gi'cat variety of types, and mostly of good to f.aii- IV'rtility. The lilack loam of the dril't h;is made Indiana take first jilace .-imong tin- States in the i)roduction of corn and other staple crops. The glacial drift is for the most part a xcry iirodnctive and ])ermanent soil. The drift deposits are varied in the arrangement of clay, grave! and sand. s(» that what is true in one localit.v may be en- tirely different in another. I'.ut in general it consists of a confused mass of matei'iai dcrixcd fi-om many sources and is nsnall.N' rich in all the necessary iilani foods. 193 The lino between tlie residual types and the loess covered tracts is well defiiietl as to differences of plant growth aud crop production, but the line between the pale silt and the black soils of the Wisconsin drift is very conspicuous. The loess soils are easily cultivated, much of the surface of a well tilled Held is frequently a loose floury dust, and wlien small clods occur tliey are easily broken. The soil may be plowed when wet and yet easily be worked to a loose pliable condition. There is a marked deficiency of organic matter in the virgin soil and as this amount becomes less the soils get in a poor physical condition and are sometimes difficult to man- age. A systematic rotation of crops and good application of stable ma- nure are necessary to keep the soils in good c-onditiou for cultivation. Much of the land is used for pasture, but when left uncultivated for a few years the gi'ound becomes covered with a browth of briars. The principal alluvial soils of the State are those of the White Kiver, Wabash and Ohio Valleys. The valleys of these streams and their tributaries are the results of stream erosion, and chiefly by the streams which now occupy them. During the glacial period they were largely choked with drift, only a small part of which has been removed ; gorges and ravines exist in great numbers along the White Water, White and Ohio rivers and their tributaries. The eastern tributaries of the Wa- bash in Fountain and Parke counties flow thi'ough deep gorges cut in jlie sandstone. The streams flowing from the glacial area had their valleys flooded with glacial waters and choked with glacial debris. The effect of tlais is shown by the extensive terraces of sand and gravel which border their present channels. Between these terraces are the bottom lands, large areas of which contain very productive soils. A larger percentage of the drift so/Is are suited for cultivation than Ihose of the driftless area, but there are, however, large areas of the former which are either t(JO rough for agricultural purposes, as in the boulder morainic belts, or too wet, as in the lake and marsh districts of tlie northern part of the State. ROCK OUTCROPS. In the northern part of the State rock outcrops are few. At Mo- mence, Illinois, occurs the first limestone outcrop along the Kankakee, and from that point to its junction with the Iroquois there is a solid [13—29034] 194 i :£■ s^j.- .^^^afe^^tiT''**^ Oolilic liiiifstonu wcatlioring into soil. Cleveland Quarry near Harrodsburg, Monroe County. Typical uxaiiiplu of the source of the residual soils of the driftless area. 195 lock bed. At Momence some of the rock ledge li:is been bhisted away in an effort to give a better flow to the Kankakee. The Wabash arcli presents the best exposure in the central and northern part of the State. Follow- ing down the Waliash numerous outcrops occur, at Logansport, Coving- ton, Merom, Vincenues and below New Harmony. The rock gorges along Sugar Creek below Crawfordsville afford some of the most picturesque scenery within the State. Above Crawfordsville the channel is shallow and touches rock only at a few places. Rocky Fork, in Parke County, also has many erosive features of similar appearance. In Vigo County many exposures occur along the tributaries of the Wabash. Along Eel River in Putnam County and Clay County are some excellent examples of erosion In the Mansfield Sandstone. Croy's Creek, a main tributary, is lined with gorges, undercuts, vertical walls, and cliffs witli steep slopes. The falls of the east fork of Eel River at Cataract in Owen County are over the limestone. In the eastern part of the State along Cliffy Creek, Big Flat Rock and Little Flat Rock there are long stretches of rock bottom and bank exposures in the Devonian and Upper Silurian. Along the channel of White Water and at Madison is found some of the very best of scenery. The rock bluffs along the Muscatatuck, as at Vernon, and the shale in the beds of the streams to tlie south, as about Heuryville, are also of prominence in the southeastern part of the State. In the southwest the bluffs of the Patoka are specially noted. These are only a part of the rock outcrops within the drift area, and in addition to the many ex- l)osures of natural ledges may also be mentioned the great deposits of conglomerate gravel ^^■hicil presents some rugged surfaces, as along the upper Wabnsh and along White River to the northeast of Noblesville. In the driftless area the bare rock surfaces give all sorts of weath- ered forms. The sandstone areas have the most striking features, with the almost vertical cliff's, rising in some cases to 200 feet or more. The scenery of the driftless area is not excelled by any in the State, or along the Ohio Valley, or indeed, by any in the Middle We."=t. Most of the streams of the State would afford good water power; many examiiles of good power sites are present which could be utilized with little cost. Rock exposures in the bed of some of the streams afford greater fall and at the same time good solid bases for dams or other works to L>e constructed. 196 An accurate topograiihic niai> of the State would show the contrast in the physical features of the glaciated and the unglaciated portions bet- ter than any other descrii>tion or illustration that could be given to a person whoh had not been over the area to investigate the contrast. In the glaciated area the lines would run in large regular curves and far apart, showing the smoothness and regularity of the surface. South of the drift limit the lines would be close together with a very winding course and sharj) curves, showing a region of deep, narrow valleys, ir- regular divides and abrupt cliffs. POPULATION AND LAND VALUES. About four-fifths of Indiana is in the glaciated area. Excluding Indianapolis, about one-eighth of the pupulation of the State is in the unglaciated area. New Albank and Jeffersonville, although inchided in the unglaciated area, really do not belong in that class but are river valley towns and their population has been increased by the condition of the surrounding area. The next largest towns in the unglaciated area are, Bloomington and Bedford, with populations of about 9,000 each, with no other towns com- ing up to this size by less than half. In the unglaciated area the average per cent, of the land under cultivation is about tJO per cent, and is valued on the average at about $40 per acre, while in the glaciated area over T.'t per cent, is under culti- vation and sells on the average at .$85 per acre. The average is lowered greatly by the sand hills of I^ake County. In the central counties about 95 per cent, of the land is under cultivation, .-ind much of its sells at prices ranging from $100 to .$150 per acre, or t-vcii nmrc where within a few miles of good market centers. 197 The Sand Areas of Indiana. By Chas. W. Shannon. Sand deposits may be studied from two points of view, tirst as to origin and structure, second as to their economic value. Dune sand Is a kind of soil and at the same time is a particular kind of deposit. The sand areas of Indiana consist of sand-dunes, sand-hills, sand- flats or "swales" and sand prairies. The pricipal areas of the sand de- ]josits are. (1) The dunes and ridges about the head of Lake Michigan. (2) The great expanse of the sand-hills and plains to the south of the principal dune area, extending to the southern limit of the marshy area south of the Kankakee River and east to the gravelly moraines. (3) The sand prairies of the lower Wabash Valley. (4) The deposits along the Ohio River. (5) The deposits along White River and its tributaries. Tlie Dune Area. — One of the marked features of the northern part of the State is the shifting dunes and ridges of sand. These great tracts of sand about the head of Lake Michigan belong wholly to beach ac- cumulations, being sand derived from the immediate south shore, and from the erosion of the eastern and western shores and carried south- ward by shore currents during northern gales, and after being rolled upon the south shore it is carried inland by the winds and built up into unstable hillocks and ridges. "Dune sand consists of loose, incoherent sand forming hillocks, rounded hills and ridges of various heights. Dunes are found along the shores of lakes, rivers or oceans, and in desert areas. They are usually of little value in their natural condition because of their irregular surface, the loose open nature of the material, and its low water holding capacity. Dunes are frequently unstable and drift from place to place. The con- trol of these dunes by the use of windbreaks and binding grasses is fre- quently necessary, as at Cape Cod and on the coast of California, for the protection of adjoining agricultural lands. In certain regions they have been improved for agricultural purposes or employed as catchment areas in city water supplies or planted to pine forests for the protection of agricultural lands and for revenue." — U. S. Bureau Soils. 198 Showing Progress of Dune from "A" to "R. Hh^ Relation of Dune Profile to the Wind. A.s Affected f)y a Solid Object — as a Fenc I'.v an Inllcvilile Object — as a Trei Hs a l'"lexiblc < tbject— as Gra 199 Wljorevor a sandy suil occurs niijirotecUMl I)y vegetation dunes are built up. Tliey are usually i-oughly stratified, the degree of stratifica- tion and the tliickness of the beds depending upon the force and direction of the wind. The sand grains become much rounded by abrasion, and in many cases become very small. Sand grains are heavier than dust par- ticles and are not raised far above the surface by the winds; the larger grains being rolled along on the surface. The movement is very similar to that of "frozen" snow in drifting. From Michigan City, Indiana, west for a distance of about twenty- five miles, the lake beach presents a line of sand-dunes, averaging in width from oise-third to one-half mile, and in places I.jO to 200 feet high. Farther to the west to the State line the beach spreads out into a broad belt of low ridges running parallel and with an extreme width of about two miles. It has been estimated that after deducting the sand deposited by Lake Chicago that at least half a billion cubic yards of materia! have been added to the surface of Lake and Porter counties jilone by the waters of the present lake. The dunes and ridges are most tiiDically developed on a large scale about Michigan City in the great "Hoosier Slide," which has stood as the greatest and most noted of the dunes. During the past few years this dune has had its bulk greatly decreased by the hauling away of the sand by the hundreds of train-loads for various economic purposes. The sand sells for about three dollars a carload. Railroad switches are laid along the sides of the dune and steam shovels scoop out the sand and dump it into the cars. Many cars are also loaded with hand shovels and wheelbarrows. WTien a cavity is made in the sand the wind soon brings down a new supply from the top and renews the deposit. A sand brick and building block factory located in the southeastern part of the dune finds its sup- ply of raw material continually replaced at its shed doors. Practically all the railroads entering Chicago liave used this sand in track ballast and elevation. Great trestles have been filled and swamps and marshes {ilong rights of way have been covered with the sand. The dunes and ridges at Dune Park, about twelve miles to the southwest of Micbigan City, are very extensive and are also a source of much of the sand shipped out for numerous purposes. In addition to the use mentioned the sand is used for the filling of city lots, building sand, and many manufactured products. 200 The Origin and Accumuldiion fit flic tSand. — Estimates were made several years ago by Dr. Andrews t<> determine the amount of sand be- longing to the Lake Chicago deposits and the amount belonging to the work of the present lake. It was found that the lake was encroaching upon the western border and on the eastern lioi-dcr along southwestern Michi- gan. In Indiana the lake is filling in rather than extending its borders. The estimates show that the combined bulk of the beaches formed by Lake Chicago is nearly equal to that due to the present lake. The length of time involved in the accunudation of the beach deposits was estimated by measuring the amount of sand carried southward past the piers at Chi- cago and Michigau City. The sand stopped by the two piers annually was found to be 129.(KJ0 cubic yards. Since the estimate shows that not more than one-fourth or one-fifth of the drifting sand is stopped by the piers, the period for the accumulation is given as less than 6,000 years. or about 3,000 for Lake Michigan. Dr. Andrews has also estimated the age of the lake from the annual amount of destruction from the bluffs. "Dr. Andrews's estimates were based on the assumption that there is a southward-flowing current on each side of the lake, carrying sand to its present head. Investigations made by the Weather Bureau in 1892 and 1893, under the direction of Pro. Mark Harrington, led him to the conclusion that the currents on the east shore in the southern portion of the basin are northward instead of southward. He accounts for the ac- cumulation of sand on the north side of breakwaters along this coast by the action of the surf, in storms blowing from the north which is more transient than the currents proper and would affect the southern part of Lake Michigan only when the wuid was in the north. This occasional plieiiomeno;i Is very eliicicut whiMi it occurs. lie roiu Indcs that the esti- mates of the time involved in the formation of beaches have less value than they would liave if the accumulations were due moi'e largely to lake curi'ents. "Considerable study of the movement of water in Lalce Michigan lias iteen made by the Chicago Drainage Conunission, largely luider the direc- tion of Trofi'ssor Coolcy. .\s a result of these investigations, which in- volve n(jt only a study of bottle i>apers but also a thorough canvass of the opinions ol' lake cai)tains and an examination of iireakwater.s, Cooley lias leachcd the conchisioii tlint the (■ITccti\(' work on the shores is due to waves and not to currents, and it is a iiiallci- of doulit if tliis lake has 201 Hoosier Slide as viewed across the docks at Michigan City. The entire foreground is a solid expanse of sand. Hoosier Slide as viewed across the docks at Michigan City. Chicago-Michigan City steamer "Roosevelt" in the foreground. 202 sufli a system of cuneiits as is indicated by Professor Harrington's cluirts. The movement of the water seems to depend mainly upon tlie wind, hut is governed to some degree by the contour of the shores. If the north winds prevail for a few daj's, as is often the case in the spring months, the surface water appears to have a southward movement through- out the breadth of the lal^e, and return currents must he at some depth. On the other hand, a prevailing south wind, such as occurs for short periods during the summer, will induce a northward movement across the entire breadth of the lake. I'he contours of the shore seem to favor a northward uiovenicnt from direct west winds In the .north half and a southward movement in the south Iialf of the lake. As the prevailing winds are often from the west, these become the most protracted of the movements of the surface water. Cooley has found that breakwaters along the shore support this interpretation. In the southern, half of the lake they are largely constructed to protect the harbors from the drift on the north side, while in the northern half they are constructed to protect them from drift coming from the south. In view of this ap- parently changeable course of Take nioTements, it seems doubtful if esti- mates, such as Dr. Andrews attempted, have the value that some have nttached to them.^ "Near the shore the bottom of Lake Michigan is uniformly covered with sand. At the shore line this sand is about ten feet deep and it ex- tends out to where the water reaches a depth of about thirty-five feel. Keyond this depth of water the lake bottom is composwl of a stiff, tena- cious blue clay, which is said to contain partings, or pockets of sand from whence; in part, comes the supply which is constantly being canied to the shore b.y the waves. Much of this sand is doutbtless blown iv -in the dunes by south winds back over the lake, and, tailing on its surface is again brought to Land. Moreover, by st(U'iiis and by ice jams in tlie sjiring all Iirojec-ting points along- the lake are slowly worn down and the niateri tl composing tlicm is carried out to be again returned and built up in a new place. Thus mucli Of'the saiid is in cdustant circnlat imi. and the niM'essary new snpiily is not as great as it seems In b(\ ".Much gravel, consistii'g- (|f iie.bbles r.-iuging in size fnini the size of ;i hen's egg to th;it of ;r small niijrhlO;- is. washed up b.\- the w;ivcs to witlii;i a foot or two of the mai'gin of Ihe water. In ni.iny iilaces 11 is raked unf ' U. S. C. S. l\I(ini>i;rii|)li .WW I 1 1, pp. 4n.''.-.f>(). " 203 Uprooting of trees on sand dunes at Dune Park InJ. Wind ripples in foreground Uprooting of tree caussd by the sDuth side of the dune being disturbed by the building of interurban line. The sand at once began to move on and the old dune was destroyed. 204 liy liaiid aiul carted beyond the reach of the high storm waves, and after- wards loaded and shipped hy rail to Chicago, wliere it is used in roofiug and concrete pavements. Tlie inmiediate source of tills gravel doubtless is the blue glacial till which forms the greater part of the floor of the lake, since the coiiipdsitinn of the pehlilcs jilaiiily show that they <-aiiii' originally from formations which lie far to the northwest."^ If a per.son stands upon the southern shoi'e of the lake and observes the waves coming in, he will notice that each wave cai-rics up a small (jnantity of sand, and when it is rolled up far enough to be out of th(' reach of other waves until it has had time to dry it is rolled farther inland by the wind and is added to the great mass of sand already accumulated, which goes to build up the dunes and the ridges. The surface of dry sand over which the wind blows for a considerable length of time is generally marked with ripples just as the sand in the buttom of a slinllow stream The ripples are small, but their shape and structure is the same as that of the larger dune of which they are a part. The long gentle slope of the dune is formed on the windward side. As the wind bl()ws over tlu> surface the current is turned upward, and as it passes over the crest an eddy is left on the leeward side and the grains roll over the crest and dro]) down- ward. Objects in the path of the dune influence the outline of the dune as shown in the page of diagrams. The transporting power of the wind varies as the sixth power of the velocity, i. e., if tlie velocity be doubled the carrying power is sixty-four times as great. Conse(iucntly any increase in velocity rapidly increases the carrying and erosive power. The grains of sand freshly brought up from the lake from the erosion of the shores are angular pieces of (piartz. but soon become rounded by abrasion. The sand of the Lake Michigan region is of a light brown color, but when viewed at a distance in the sunlight has a very white apjiearance. Vegetation. — The surface of a great part of the dune .area is wilhoui vegetation. The tops and sides exposed to the winds arc in most cases bare, while in the swales between the ridges are shrubs and grass(>s of distinctly sand soil types. The bare surfaces gleam in the sunlight and give the appearance of great snowdrifts. On cloudy days the top of the ridges, the clouds and the lake in the background present a confused out- line. Farther inland the vegetation gets a better hold on the sand and many of the hills arc imictically covered with black and barren oaks, north 'Indiana State Oeolojileal Ro])ort. 1,sn7, p. 11. Blatcliloy. 205 Sand dunes and ridges at Dune Park, Ind. Some vegetation finds a footing on the sides and in the swales. Buildings of the Sand Brick and Building Block Co., located in the southeast corner of Hoosier Slide. Raw material is close at hand and with natural transportation renewing the supply. 206 orn scrut) i)iii(' iiiid white piiic. hut often Mfter ;i tree hi\s attained consid- erable size and apiiarently lirniiy rooted, tlie crust of the sm-face is broken slightly in some manner, or the .ucrasses and odicr protecting plants are burned and the wind again gets free action on th(> l)are surface and the sand is moved along and the trees niirooted. On ihc other hand, the sand often drifts about a tree and wholly or partly covers the tree. If the toi) of the living tree be found to be iirojecting from a dune it is a good evidence of a recently constructed dune. In most cases the trees are dead, and after the twigs and linil)s become brittle or decayed, they are broken from the nmin branches or trunk and blown away. The wind then agai;i begins its work, and as new jiai-fs of the tree are exposed the juocess continues and the sand once present has constructed new hills or ridges and the resurrected tree with only the trunk and larger branches stands as a marker of tiie former local ion of the s.-ind. Animal life is rare in the dune region. Vegetation is too scarce to furnish a suflicient sujiply of food. In the area (|uiet i)revails but work is constantly going on, the sni'face is always jieiiig modified. 2. The Xdiid-hills (iiid /'hiiiis. — 'I'his area in a \ cry general way com- prises the tract of sand to the south of the iirii;ci]ial dune aiea extendin,' to the southern limit of the Kaidcakee marshes, and east to the gravelly moraines. The term "sand-hill" is used to describe ridges and uneven tracts of sand not in motion, either on account of partial consolidation, or because tlie sands are lixed by a natural growth of vegetation. In addition to the sand-dune and sand-hill areas, large tracts of sand are common, the surface of which is v( ry even. Such areas o<-cur usually in connection with the dune or hill areas, hul are designated as "sand plains" or "sand-pi'airies." Such areas also occur along the i>ld Hood plains of rivers. Some of the best agricultui'al lands, and especially for tlie growing of small fruit, are found in these level sand tracts. The sand usually cai'ries a large iiercentage of organic matter, and retains nioisturv' sufficiently well to insure good yields exceiit in limes of long continued drought. The dry growing season of I'.HI was .1 severe test on such soils. Sand-plains wary in size from the low nari'ow swales betwi'i'u dunes and ridges to areas many S(piare miles in extent. In tlie area undei- consideration the sand ridges and hills occupy stuitli eastern Starke, the greatei' part of rnl.aski and llie centi-al portion of Jasper and Xewton Counties; all of which lie southeast of the Kankakee 207 iiiarsh ; also a narrow stri]) of ridws on the east and south borders of the sand area in Fulton, Cass, White and Jasper Counties; and the ridges from the southern limit of the typical dunes to the flats on the north of the Kankakee. Scattering ridges and "sand-islands" are found scattering over the level portions of the sand area. The thickness of the sand varies much because of the irregularities of tlie surface. Over much of the region the sand is very tliin except in the ridges. Throughout much of the region wells are obtained without passing below the sand. They are shallow, having depths of ten feet or less on the le\el tracts and correspondingly deeper on. the ridges. It would appear from all available data and estimates made that the sand is on an average about ten feet in thickness over the area. The ridges range in height from five to forty feet, but tlie majority are less than twenty feet. Tliey vary in breadth from a few feet to an eightli of a mile, but in gen- eral are from two hundred to tliree liundred feet wide. The prevailing trend of the ridges is usually easily determined, l)ut in places they wind about apparently without system. Mr. Leverette, Dr. Chamberliu and Professor Purdue liave attempted to work out a system of the ridges and the bouldery tr;icts associated with the ridges. Further study of the region is contemplated to work out the system. "Those on the east border in Pulaski County, Indiana, show a tend- ency to a north to south trend, while those on the south border in Cass. White and Jasper Counties trend nearly east to west. Those on the south border of the Kankakee trend about with the course of the stream, south of west in the Indiana portion, and north of west in the Illinois portion. Between the ridges bordering the Kankakee in Indiana, and those on the south and east borders of the sand area, the trend is not so easily sys- tematized. The ridges there are arranged in groups and strips, among which there are extensive plain tracts, often boulder strewn ar.d', having only a thin sand covering."— F. S. G. S. Monograph XXX^'IIT, p.; 332-33. The soils of the area vary from peat and muck, with a considerable p.ercentage of sand ar.d high in organic content, to the loose barren sands. JMuch of the area is low lying and marshy, thou.sands of acres of which have not been reclaimed for agricultural purposes. In the undulating and lolling parts the soil is chiefly a fine sandy loam, with good natural drain- age. All the ordinary crops are grown to some extent and many special crops are of great importance in the region. While much of this land has 208 Showing stratification lines in sand dune at Michigan City. Miirkin^s caused by sluiiipin«s in san I'etersluu-;^ the sand continues in an irregular line, and from there to Ilazleton tlu' area widens and becomes a part of the line of the Wabash deposits. Through (ireene and Daviess Counties considerable sand occurs along th • west fork, but in most places where it occurs it becomes a sa'idy loam. To the northwest of liloomlield some magnetite is found in the sand, and similar deposits of less extent occur at other points to the north along the main stream and its tributaries. 211 Ancient Pipes. Andrew J. Bigney. The customs of ancient peoples are always interesting and inslructive. Several pipes of rare occurrence have come into the possession of the museum of Moores Hill College. Some brief notes are here presented. No. I is a very large pipe measuring nine inches long and the bowl end four inches, and 2^ inches in width. It is made of soapstone. Its place of occurrence is not known. No. II is a pipe of the mound builders. The place where it was found is not known. No. Ill is an unfinished mound builder's pipe. This is particularly interesting because it is unfinished. No. IV is a very old pipe showing the rude drawings on it of some pi'ehistoric people. No. \^ is probably a more recent pipe. It no doubt was used by the early Indians. 213 Polarization of Cadmium Cells. By R. R. Ramsay, This work is a contliuiatioii of some worlv reported at a previous meet- ing (Ind. Acad. Proc. lUOO). in whicli it was shown tliat if a cadmium cell was polarized it would regain its normal E. M. F., if the cell contained mercurous sulphate, but would remain polarized if the mercurous sulphate v/as absent. In that paper it was stated that when the mercury from the polarized cell was sparked, a spectroscope showed the cadmium lines. Since then I have been able to obtain a photographic X'ecord of the fact, which I present at this time. The photographs were made with a large Plilger quartz spectograph using Cramer spectrum plates, which are sensitive for the entire visible spectrum and far up into the ultra violet. The cadmium amalgam from the mercury terminal of the polarized cell was placed in a small arc lamp made as follows : The lower terminal was made of the amalgam in a quartz tube which had a heavy copper wire leading into the bottom. Fireclay was used to make the tube mercury tight around the wire. The upper terminal of the arc was a heavy copper wire. After filling the cup with the amalgam the terminals were drawn apart and an arc could be maintained for about 10 seconds, after which it was necessary to fill the cup again with the amalgam. The current strength was about three amperes. The arc was focused upon the slit of the spectrograph by means of a quartz lens. The spectrum of the amal- gam is shown, together with the spectrum of mercury taken with the same arc lamp, the spectrum of cadmium arc between C. P. cadmium rods and also the spectrum of an arc between copper terminals. Referring to the plate beginning at the top : We have 1st, mercury arc of short exposure, the brighter lines showing on the plate; 2d, the cadmium amalgam arc made with three different lengths of slit, thus bringing out the fainter lines and avoiding to some extent the blurring due to the brighter lines ; 3d, the spectrum of the cadmium arc, showing four lines in the visible spectrum, which can be identified In the cadmium amalgam spectrum, to- gether with a large number in the ultra violet; 4th, the spectrum of the copper arc. The wave lengths of several of the more prominent lines are marked. This will serve to give one an idea of the accuracy of the scale as well as to identify the copper lines; 5th, the mercury arc of long ex- posure; 6th, the cadmium amalgam arc, and. 7th, the cadmium arc. u b£ o o u o 215 The Effect of Pressure on a Cadim'um Cell By 11. li. Ramsky. This work is an exUMisiini of some work done in 1901 (Phys. Rev., Vol. 13, July, 1901), in which the pressure was raised to 300 atmospheres. In 1909 there appeared the work of Cohen and Swinge (Zeit. Phys. Chem. 07, n pp. 513. t^ept.. 1909), in which the cell was i)laced under a pressure of 750 atmospheres. Within the past year the Department of Physics has secured a compression inimi) extending to 1,00!) kilograms per square cenfi meter (1 atmosphere^=l,033 kilogram per square centimeter) and inasmuch as Cohen ard Swinge's results were not in exact accord with my former results T thought it well to repeat and extend the work. 216 The apparatus and plan of the experiment was practically the same as in my former work. Tlie ])nuip was a Ducretet compression pump fitted with a gauge recording pressure up to l.OOf) kilograms per S(iuare centi- meter. The cell is made in llic // foi-ni with vci-y short connecting tuhe (Fig. I), so that it will go inside the piezometer (I"Mg. 11), whose inside Fig. 11. F S FiK III. 217 diameter is three centimeters. The top of the cell is drawn to a capillary after the electrodes and cadlmiiun sulphate crj'stals are placed inside. The cell is then immersed in kerosene inside the piezometer. A special cap was made for the piezometer. This cap has two insulated connections leading through it so that the cell can be connected to a potentiometer. The piezometer is connected to the pump with a copper tube of small in- side diameter. The potentiometer (Fig. Ill), is so arranged that the cell can be compared with a standard Weston cell and also so that the differ- ence between the cell under pressure and a second cell can be measured. This second cell is immersed in a quantity of kerosene and placed as close as possible to the piezometer. In this way any fluctuations due to change of room temperature will be avoided. The results are given in Table I. TABLE I. Pressure in Killograms per Square Centimeter. Change of E. M. F. in Volts. de Average — . dp 100 7.x 10-' Volts. 7.X10-' 200 13.3 6.65 300 19.3 6.23 400 26 6.5 500 32.4 6.28 600 38.7 6.45 700 44.6 6.37 800 50.7 6.33 900 1000 64.7 6.47 Mean, 6.47 The results are also shown in a curve (Fig. IV). The average value de -f of -;— is 6.47 X 10 '' volts per kilogram per square centimeter, dp In the previous work a cell was made of heavy glass tubing and sub- jected to pressure up to 75 atmospheres, at which pressure the cell burst. The result for this method was 6.02x10""^ volts per atmosphere. The result for the piezometer method obtained at that time was 7.6x10"^ volts per atmosphere. Cohen arid Swinge have found the value 6.28x10"^ volts per atmosphere for a pressure up to 750 atmospheres. The E. M. F. 218 '^ is the observed first throw, and G is a constant expressed in terms of coulombs or micro-coulombs per scale division. To interpret any reading the galvanometer must be calibrated by passing through it a known charge and observing the resulting first throw, the quotient giving the value of G. This first throw is reduced somewhat by the so-called "damping," by which is meant the effect of all those resisting forces which tend to absorb the energy of a vibrating system, of any sort whatever. These forces are generally assumed to be proportional to the velocity of the moving parts, although there is no reason a priori why they should not depend upon other functions of the velocity, as indeed they appear to do in some cases. How- ever, long experience has shown that the simple proportion above stated is a satisfactory generalization for slowly moving bodies, and one which introduced into the general equations of motion leads to results quite in accordance with experimental observations, for a large class of physical problems. The earlier forms of ballistic galvanometer, now seldom seen in actual service, were designed with small, highly polished needles of the Siemens pattern, boll-shaped and slotted, and usually arranged much like the Kelvin galvanometers of the same period, astatic, and highly sensitive. An essen- tial feature, as pointed out in the older text-books, was that the damping should be a minimum, in this tj^e of galvanometer being due to fiber vis- cositv, air friction and the electi'o-magnetic reactions of induced currents, 222 this latter effect however being very small. Such dampinj;: as did occur was corrected for by tlie use of that convenient fiction, the throw which would have occui'red if there had been no danipiiiu', which is given by 04) where

01t 223 K('i,';ii(lii!.i,' this matter of calibration, existing hand bdoks, hii)orator.v text books, and maker's catalogs are not clear, and the reader, whe'.her he be a student, an inexperienced instructor, or a practical man can be, and to to the writers knowledge often is, misled. In discussing the use of the l)a]listic galvanometer in iron testing for example, the statement in va- rious sources which should be authoritative is not infrequently seen, that the galvanometer may be calibrated with a standard cell and condenser, and students have been known to follow these directions, without couuse! fi-om the instructor, although the condenser was introducing perhaps 4,000 megohms in series with the galvanometer, while the resistance of the sec- oiidary circuit otherwise used was leSvS than 100 ohms. This procedure may give rise to errors of several hundred per cent, with corresponding influence on the values for the B-H curve. IJecognizing that this problem is satisfactorily treated in much of the existing literature, it must also be admitted that many of the current helps, to which one first turns for reference, are quite inadequate and mislead- ing, and it is the purpose of this article to offer a wider discussion of the facts. A single example with calibration curves of a Leeds and Northrup type H galvanometer will serve to illustrate the principle. In figure 1, curve D gives the relation of charge to deflection for the case of calibra- tion with a standard condenser. For the same galvanometer. A, B and C •Ave the corresponding calibration curves when the total circuit resistances are i-es|iectively 486, SSO, and 1,486 ohms. These curves show clearly tht* influence of diminishing total circuit resistance upon the value of the gal- vanometer constant. Curve D shows 8.2 scale divisions for 1 micro-coulomb, while curve A, for a circuit resistance of 486 ohms, shows 1.4 scale di- visions for the same charge. Curves A, B, C, and D were taken with the small rectangular damp- ing coil removed. A similar set of curves, Ai. Bj. Ci. and Dj give the call bration values after the damping coil has been removed. Various suggestions have been made for calculating the true value ol the ballistic constant for any given condition from the known constants of the galvanometer such as period, moment of inertia, moment of torsion, strength of field, etc. These methods, entirely adequate theoretically, are nevertheless ditticulc to apply practically, because the values of the con- stants are seldom known with sufficient precision, and are themselves liable io change when the galvanometer is readjusted. 224 . A yellow prcH-iiiitate iir(/\('s tlio jireseiice of potassium in the solu- tion (.-mnnoninni cuniponnds nnist be absent). 1. To the remainder of tiltrate I add an excess of perchloric acid-. A white crystalline precipitate of potassium perchlorate is formed. Fil- ter (II) and test a few drops of filtrate II with the sodium cobaltic ni- trite. If a precipitate is formed, add to the tiltrate II more perchloric acid, tilter again and test as above. When the sodium cobaltic nitrite shows that all potassium has been removed by the ijerchloric acid, proceed us directed in B, 2, for the detection of sodium. 2. To the filtrate from B, 1, add a few drops of hydrofluosilicic acid, H^SiF". A cloudy flocculent precipitate indicates the presence of sodium In the solution. This precipitate is not very voluminous and must be looked for carefully if only a little sodium is present. Turn the test tube and examine the sides for adhering precipitate. This method has been tried in this laboratory with excellent results Some of the advantages are: 1. Magnesium does not interfere and need not be removed. Mag- nesium perchlorate is very soluble. Magnesium flnosilicate is soluble and only precipitated, even in the alcohol solution, when large amounts are present. 2. The test for sodium is delicate but traces of sodium which are present in so many reagents are not detected. This is an advantage over the spectrum test where all substances show sodium. 3. The tests are simple and easily understood and followed by the students. 4. The tests are decisive and the student has confidence in his work. 5. Only a short time is reiiniriMl to make a test. 2 The perchloric acid must bo froo from sodium but the presence of potassium does no harm bocavise potassium is dctcn-ted previously, by the use of sodium co- baltic nitrite, and any polassiuin present is precipitated l)y the alcoholic perchloric acid solution. Indiana University, Blooniin(jt()>i. I iiditnta. 229 An Apparatus for the Stttdy of the Radiation from Covered AND Uncovered Steam Pipes. By O. W. Silvey and G. E. Grantham. "Tbe iiR'asnreiuent of the efficiency of materials in preventing loss of beat from hoilies involves the determination of the constant K in the expression : A(t2-t,) Where D = thicl^uess of the specimen. H = Amount of heat per sec. flowing through A. A = Area of specimen. ti = Temperature of cooler side of specimen. U ^= Temperature of hotter side of specimen. "The determination of H, ti, and t, are attended with considerable diflieulty if accurate work is attempted, and for much engineering work the relative efficiency of two coverings for heated surfaces is all that is required. For the testing of the relative efficiency of two such substances as are conunonly used for covering steam pipes, or for determining the relation between the heat loss from a covered pipe and that from an un- covered pipe, the following method has been found suitable: "The apparatus consists of two short pieces of steam pipe which may be heated electrically from within by means of a current bearing coil of wire immersed in oil. If sufficient electrical energy be supplied, the pipe becomes gradually heated to some temperature at which the amount of heat energy lost to the surroundings is just equal to the electrical energy siipplied to the heating coil. By measuring the electrical energy with an ammeter and voltmeter we may find at once the amount of heat lost from the pipe by radiation, convection, and conduction. At some temperature the heat loss would be such as to require some other rate of energy supply to keep the temperature of the pipe constant, and the electrical supply would, therefore, have to be varied. Again, if the bare pipe be heated to some convenient reference temperature (200°O iB usually selected for testing steam pipe covers) and the current adjusted ^^0 Fit;. 1. 231 nntil a coudition of temperature eqnilil)rium is obtained — that is, the electrical input just compensates for the thennal output — and a second, and exactly similar pipe, be covered with a 'non-conducting' cover and lieated in the same manner, it will be found that much less electrical energy is needed to keep the covered pipe hot than Is required by the bare pipe. The difference represents the saving due to the use of the covering."' — Laboratory Notes, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In accordance with the above plan, we are now using for a lab- oratory exercise for engineering students the apparatus shown in Fig. 1. Two pieces of ordinary three-inch gas pipe of equal length (40 inches), are closed by means of caps at both ends. They are mounted on an oaken support, and separated by a i-inch oak board, which prevents one pipe receiving heat from the other. Three short pipes are fitted into holes in the upper cap extending through about an inch; one (B. Fig. 2), of S-inch pipe, five inches long in the center, another (A), of i-inch pipe, five inches long, for the support of a thermometer, and a third (C), of f-incli pipe, nine inches long on the opposite side of the center from the second, for the lead wires of the heating coil. The heating coils (G), made of No. 16 advance wire, are wound on a Ijaper-insulated brass tube, which extends along the axis of the pipe. Each turn of the coil is separated from the neighboring coil by a hemp cord. The tube is held in position at the top by telescoping over the lower end of the pipe which pierces the middle of the cap. At the lower end it is held in position by a wooden frame (E), clamped rigidly around it by means of screws. This frame also holds firmly the lower end of the heating coil and the lower part of the paper insulation. A similar clamp holds the upper end of the coil and insulation. The two pipes are covered alike at the ends by means of magnesia covering one inch thick (D and F), leaving 3G inches of each one bare. Brass collars having a flange extending out flush with the circumference of the covering are clamped to the pipes and prevent the end covering from slipping along the pipes. AVhen a test is to be made, a piece of pipe covering of regulation length (36 in.) and suitable size, is placed on one of the pipes, thus completely covering it, while the other one has an equal length left bare. The tube (Fig. 3), upon which the heating coil is wound, acts also as the cylinder for a pump, by means of which the oil is stirred. It is | inch 232 lff»MAJVi:^»rx^ort fastened to the oaken partition. Above the pipes is mounted a switchboard (Fig. 1), containing the necessary measuring instruments. The ammeter on the right side of the switchboard measures the current used in heating the covered pipe, and the one in the upper central part of the board measures the current used in heating the uncovered pipe. The two coils are in multiple circuit, and when switch C is closed current passes through both coils, the amount in each coil being regulated by the two rheostats. The upper rheostat controls the current in the covered pipe, and the lower one controls the current in the uncovered pipe. When the switch on the left side of the board is thrown, closing circuit A, the voltmeter is connected to the terminals of the coil in the unjacketed pipe, and when thrown, closing circuit B, it is connected to the terminals of the jacketed pipe. Switch B is in multiple circuit with an impedance coil, and may be used when a large circuit is needed in the heating coils. Each of the heating coils has a resistance of about (5.5 ohms, the im- pedance coil a resistance of about 9.3 ohms, and each rheostat has a re- sistance of 7.5 ohms when all is used. At the outset of a measurement the resistance of the rheostats is thrown in, switch D is closed, thou the sides of the rheostats moved until the current in the covered pipe is S amperes. The oil in the pipes is stirred by means of the pumps. When the temperature of about 100° C. is reached switch D is opened, and while the oil is vigorously stirred the current is regulated until the tem- perature of both pipes is kept at the same constant value. After the two pipes have kept at the same constant temperature for about ten minutes, the temperature of each oil bath, the voltage at the terminals of each coil, and the current in each coil, is read. A record of the test is as follows : Outside diameter of pipes, 3.5 in. Length exposed, 3G.0 in. Temperature of surroundings, 23.1° C. 234 Uncovered Pipe. Covered Pipe. Volts. Amperes. Temperature, Degrees C. Volts. Amperes. Temperature, Degrees C. 38.5 38.5 38.5 39.0 39.0 39.0 39.0 38.0 38. 5 38.3 5.5 5 5 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.4 98.8 99.0 98.7 98.8 98.8 99.0 99.0 98.8 98.9 98.9 24.0 23.5 24.0 23.0 24.0 24.0 23.5 23.0 24.0 24.0 98.9 98.6 98.9 98 9 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 Mean, 38.63 5.48 98.88 23.70 4.13 98.93 Average energy consumed by uncovered pipe, 2n.(!!> watts. Average energy consumed by covered pipe, 07.88 watts. (211.69 — 97.88) -^ 211.(J9 = 53% the efficiency of the pipe cover- ing. 211.09 watts = 0.283 horse-ixjwer 97.88 watts == 0.131 horse-power. Difference —- 113.81 watts = 0.152 horse-power. Area of radiating surface, 395.G4 sq. in. = 2.74 sq. ft. 113.81x10^^4.2x107 = 27.09 cal. per second loss. = 0.107 B. T. U. per second loss. 0.107x3600x24 = 9240 B. T. U. loss per 24 hours. 0.107 X 3600 X 24 X 365 = 337 xlO* B. T. U. loss per year. 337 X 10^ -^ 2.74 = 123 x 10* B. T. U. loss per sq. ft. per year. "Problem ; Compute the saving for the first year for 1,000 feet of three-inch pipe, assuming that the pipes are maintained at the tempera- ture used in the above test, that coal develops 14,000 B. T. U. per pound and costs .$0.00 per ton, and that the loss in the boiler, etc., is 50%. The pipe covers cost 25 cents per squiire foot, and inttM'cst and depreciation are 10%." Loss on 1,000 square feet of pipe per year 121] x 10' B. T. TT. 1 lb. coal gives up on combustion 14,000 B. T. T'. 1 ton of coal gives up on combustion 2Sx10" B. T. II. 235 At 50% efficiency 14 x 10" B. T. U. are used in pipes at a cost of $0.00. Cost of covering per 1,000 square feet at 25 cents per square foot, is $250.00 ; interest 10% = $25.00. Total $275.00. 123 X 10' -^ 14 X 10''=87.9 tons of coal required. 87.9 X G = $527.40 loss per 1,000 feet per year. $527.40 — $275.00 == $252.40 saving for tlie first year for a pipe cov- ering of 53% efficiency. Physical Laboratonj of Purdue TJnivcrsity, Lafayette, Ind. 28^ Ash and Calorimeter Tests of Coal Purchased by Indl\na University. Bv Frank C. Mathers and Ir,\ E. Lee. Coal is iturchased by Indiana University under a contract tliat all coal with ash greater than 15 per cent, shall be rejected. The analyses given in this paper represents the ash tests (and some determinations of British Thermal Units, B. T. U.) of the nut and slack coal which has been delivered by the Summit Mine under this contract. The sampling was done by an employe of the University in the follow- ing manner: The coal from six holes, each about 1.5 feet deep which were dug at uniform intervals into the car of coal, was mixed thoroughly. This large sample weighed 50-75 pounds. After the large lumps had been broken, the sample was quartered until about one pint remained. This sample was then brought to the laboratory.^ The analyses are upon samples dried at 10-3 to 110 degrees Centigi'ade for 0.5 hour. A Pan- calorimeter was used in determi^iirg the British Thermal Units. The results are as follows: No. of cars Dates between which analyzed. dehvered. Maximum. Minimum. Average. B. T. U. 148 0/1/09 & 7/10/10 13,470 11,525 12,719 Ash % 27G 9/1/09 & 0/20/11 22.G 6..37 11.047 The asii determinations when averaged by months are as follows : September. 1909, 10.00; October, 10.53; November, 10.97; December, 10.64. January, 1910, 11.25; February, 12.35; March, 11.39; April, 11.50; May, 11.88; June, 10.26; July, 13.32: October, 11.80; November, 13.15; December, 10.81. January, 1911, 10.76; February, 10.07; March, 12.37; April, 11.41; ]May, 11.33. 1 The analy.sis of the sample obtained by taking portions of coal from each wagon load from a car did not differ materially from the analysis of the sample obtained from the car in the manner described. This showed that the method of sampling was accurate. 238 There is no relation between time of year and low asli values. This indicates that the variation in ash and heating value is due to variation in the quality of the coal and not to any greater carelessness in mining due to rush periods, since high ash tests do not coincide with winter months. These determinations are presented on account of their value. They represent actual coal and show exactly^ the kind of coal that can be de- livered to customers. Many of the samples of coal which are furnished by the mine operators for analysis are improperly taken and do not rep- resent the average character of the coal. A small sample taken in a mine will almost always show a better analysis than a sample taken from a car. The official taking the sample leaves out the slate and takes only the coal. The miner puts in the car as much slate as the boss will allow. A black, shiny lump of coal, picked up at random and submitted for analysis will show a higher grade than the dull, lusterless pieces. A United .States bulletin advises mine officials to have analyses made of samples taken from cars and warns them that analyses of samples taken from mines will generally show a quality which cannot be reached in car lots. For example, the analyses of coals "from nineteen of the lead- ing mines of the State^ (Indiana)" show an average ash of 6.09 per cent. The analysis of coal from the Summit Mine as given in the same report shows 5.42 per cent, ash on the dry basis. No analysis in this laboratory of samples of Indiana coal, which were known to be accurately taken from cars, has shown such a low ash. Of course nut and slack coal is higher in ash and lower in 15. T. U. than ruii-of-mine coal, but the difference be- tween 11.64 and 6.09 in ash is greater than really exists between the two grades of coal. It is of value to compare this Indiana coal with the coal i.urchased by the United States under rigid tests and specifications during the year J'JOS-9. The following table shows the analyses of bituminous coals which were delivered under these specifications. The analyses of the coal pur- chased by Indiana University are also iii.ju.l.-d in the table. » The rejected cars are inchuled in the averages. '31st Annual Report of Indiana Dcparlmont of (ieology and Natural Resource-, pairc 21 (1906). 239 B T. U. State Ash. ( A vrrage for each Slate.) Peiiusylvauia , 7. So 14,321 West Virginia G.O(j 14,715 liliiiuis 13.33 12,437 Alabama 9.50 13,917 Virginia 5 .40 14,941 Maryland 7.81 14,480 Average of the six States 8.325 14,133.5 Indiana 11.04 12,719 All the coal receivi'd hy the Tniled States Giivernnient from Virginia ;uid West Virginia had percentages of ash 0.03 and 0.09 lower respectively tlian the average ash from "nineteen of the leading mines of the State (Indiana)."^ Pennsylvania coal showed 1.70% more ash than the Indiana coal. No one thinks that Indiana coal is as good as comparisons from these analyses indicate. However, if Indiana coal is given the value of 11.04% ash and 12,719 B. T. U., it will occupy a position where it seems to belong. While there are objections to Indiana coal, nevertheless it makes a good showing when compared with the eastern coals, which are actually of a higher grade. A maximum number of heat units for a dollar is what one wishes in a coal and "* * * it is possible to burn coal of low heating value .as efficiently as high grade coals."- Indiana coal, as deliv- ered, generally contains more moisture than eastern coal, say 10 per cent, in the place of 3 per cent. There is, say 1 per cent., additional expense for the extra cost of handling the greater amount of ash in the Indiana coal. This gives eastern coal an advantage of, say 8 per cent., over Indiana coals, i. e., if two samples of coal (dried at 103 degrees Centi- grade) have e. T. U. values of Indiana coal, after deducting 8 per cent, for the excess of water and ash, were compared with the B. T. U. values of coals from the different States which are represented in the United States Purchase Bull.^ If one ton of Indiana coal is worth $2.00; then One ton of Pennsylvania coal is worth $2.45 ; One ton of West Virginia coal is worth $2.52 ; 1 Indiana Geological Report, loc. cit. = 11. S. (Jeol. Survey Bull., No. 325, p. 94. "Four Ilnndicd Steaming Tests." ^ Loc. cit. 240 Oue toil of Illinois coal is worth $1.95; Olio ton of Alabama coal is worth $2.38; Oue ton of Virginia coal is worth $2.55 ; One ton of Maryland coal is worth $2.4S. This gives a method of flguring the value in dollars and cents of east- ern coals compared with Indiana coal. This table is for average values of many grades of eastern coal, but for only one coal from Indiana. For example, if oue ton of this Indiana nut and slack costs $1.G0, the value of one ton of Pennsylvania coal (7.85% ash and 14,321 B. T. U.) is (100x245) /200, or the eastern coal is more economical, if it costs less than 19G cents. If Virginia coal is $2.50 per ton, then Indiana coal is more economical if it costs less than (250x200) /255, or 190 cents per ton. Summary. The nut and slack coal which has been delivered to Indiana Univer- sity from the Summit Mine showed an average ash of 11.64% and an aver- age B. T. U. of 12,707. A comparison of this coal with the coal purchased by the United States during the year 1908-9 shows that the Indiana coal is inferior to the coal from Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Alabama, bnt superior to that from Illinois. A method is given for calculating from the P>. T. U. the relative value of Indiana coal compared with eastern coal. This article is an attempt to show the real worth of Indiana coal and to make clear the errors due to inaccurate sampling. The buyer of coal should know exactly what he purchases. Eastern coal has been incor- rectly sampled, the same as Indiana coal. Analyses and method of saiu- ])ling given in the Government bulletin are without doubt correct. Analy- ses of Indiana coal from samples incorrectly taken are worthless for use in calculating the comparative values of the coals and should not be given the least weight or consideration by a purchaser of coal. It is urged that coal samples for analysis lie taken from cars by some one who understands sam]iliiig. The figures given in this ]»a])er for Indiana comI arc not assumed to be average values, since coal from only one mine is ri>presented. The average value of Indiana coal can not be determined without making a series of analyses of proper sam|)les from many Indiana mines. IiiilidiKi riiircrsil I/, JSIoDiiiititjtoii. 241 Kecovery of Silver from Silver Ciilortde Residues. By Frank C. Mathers. The silver from any silver residue or solution can be easily precip- itated as the chloride. Some silver electro-plating experiments in this laboratory gave silver chloride residues which were treated in various ways for the recovery of the metallic silver. One of the schemes was so satisfactoiy that it is described in this paper. Metallic zinc and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid will reduce silver chloride to metallic silver. The objection to this method is that it intro- duces any impurity which is In the zinc into the metallic silver. Also the finely divided precipitate of silver is very difficult to filter and to wash free from the zinc salts. If silver chloride is boiled in sodium hydroxide solution witli glucose or other reducing sugar, it is reduced to metallic silver. The very serious objection to this method is that the finely divided silver is exceedingly dilRcult to filter and wash free from the sodum chloride. The method which has given the best results in this work is an electrolytic reduction scheme. The silver chloride was filtered and was washed free from soluble salts. The silver chloride, after drying, was transferred from the filter paper to a porcelain crucible and fused with a Bunsen burner. One end of a platinvim wire was dipped into the fused mass just as it begun to solidify. This crucible, containing the silver chloride, was suspended by the platinum wire into a dilute sulphuric acid solution. This platinum wire was connected as cathode. A platinum foil served as anode. The electric current should not be strong enough to heat the solution, since this would cause platinum to dissolve from the anode. After several hours of electrolysis, the crucible either drops away from the partially reduced silver chloride or may be removed easily by pushing with a rod. The electrolysis was continued until the large amount of hydrogen evolved from the cathode showed that the silver chloride was largely reduced. The electrolyte was changed, at intervals of several hours, imtil the odor of chlorine could not be detected in the gases which were given off. The reduced silver, which retained the shape of the cru- [16—29034] 242 cible, was suspended in distilled water until tlie sulphuric acid of the electrolyte was washed out. This pure silver was then ready for use again. The advantages of this method are: 1. No metal or other impurity is introduced during the reduction. 2. The silver which is obtained in a firm condition can be very easily handled. This avoids the very troublesome filtration of finely divided slimy silver, which is obtained by reduction with glucose. University of Indiana, Bloominyton. 243 A New Gas Generator. By Raymond Bellamy. This generator is really so new that it exists only ou paper. There is, therefore, still a question as to its efiiciency, although it is so simple in its construction that it can hardly fail to perform its work satisfactorily. It is designed for use whenever a gas is to be made by intermingling of a liquid and a solid and will be found to be especially adapted to the gen- eration of hydrogen sulphide for analytical work. 244 This generator's claiin to superiority is based on its simplicity of structure, its inexpensiveness and its ease of oiwration. All the special apparatus required is a bowl-shaped member, attached to an upright rod, the bowl being perforated. This can be made any size desired, but should be of some material which will resist chemical action, preferably glass. This can be used with a vessel constructed especially for the purpose, or with an ordinary wide-mouthed fla.sk or bottle. In use, the rod extends through one of the holes in an ordinary rub- ber stopper. Through the other hole is the tube furnishing an outlet for the gas. The acid or other liquid is put in the bottle or flask receptacle and the solid is placed in the bowl-shaped member. Now when a quantity of gas is desired, by pressing downward on the rod, the bowl with its solids w-ill be lowered into the liquid and the chemical action will begin. Vrhen a sufficient amount of the gas has been obtained, by raising the bowl out of the liquid the action will be stopped, as the acid will run out tlirough tho perforation in the bowl. This will save the unused chem- icals and prevent the escape of the poisonous and obnoxious gas. As a still further safeguard, the bowl can be constructed with a i)rojectiou on it, this projection having a concave depression; this will be arranged in such a way that when tlu' Ijowl-shaped member is lifted from the liquid, this depression will fit over the outlet for the gas and completely shut off the escape. The principle of tlie generntnr will lie made clear by an examination of the accompanying drawing. Moores Hill, Indiana, 245 Some Abnormal Plants. By Raymond Bellamy. While tramping across the country in nortliern Montana, my attention was cauglit by a plant of the Campanula rotundifolia (L) species. This was remarkable for its abnormalities. It was in full bloom and the cen- tral stem appeared to be formed l)y the union of three separate stems, while all the flowers on this stem showed the same triple growth in all their parts. Surrounding this stem were a number of others, each of which showed a double arrangement throughout, in the same manner that the central stem had showed a triiile one. The specimen was preserved, but lost, along with a number of others, somewhere between there and Indiana. Another interesting al)norma]ity was noticed this fall while sprouting some white beans for laboratory work. In the bunch were two that had three cotyledons, one being nuicli smaller than the others, but seemingly as strong and full of vitality as they. Moores Hill, Indiana. 247 A Modified Method for the Determination of Lead Peroxide IN Red Lead. B\' A. R. Nees and O. W. Bkown. Two general methods are used for determining bow near commercial red lead corresponds to the fornuda PbsO^. One method depends upon dis- solving the free litharge from the sample and assuming the residue to be pure PbsOj. Other methods depend upon the determination of the per cent, of PbOa in the material, and calculating from this value the per cent, of PIkO^ in the sample. Mr. E. E. Dunlap (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 30, p. Gil) has proposed a method of determining the free litharge in red lead. He states that by digesting a sample of commercial red lead in a boiling dilute solution of lead acetate, all of the free litharge is dissolved and that the material re- maining corresponds to formula PhjOi. This method is employed in many commercial laboratories. However, the writers have not obtained accord- ant results when it is used, because the amount of litharge dissolved by the lead acetate solution depends upon the length of time the sample ii digested. The analysis of a single sample by this method gave results of 4.71% to 8.8% litharge when Mr. Dunlap's directions were care- fully followed, and the time of digestion was varied from ten to thirty minutes. For accurate results the writers believe that it is necessary to use some of the methods for the determination of PbOo. A number of methods have been described in the literature and most of them have been tested in this laboratory. The method of Lux (Treadwell and Hall's Quantitative Analysis, p. 491) is based upon the fact that oxalic acid is oxidized by PbO, in dilute nitric acid solution. Our experience with this method is that it usually gives high results and that they are not concordant. A series of deter- minations on the same sample gave results varying between 35.1% and 31.54%. The method of Diehl as modified by Topf (Treadwell and Hall, p. .531) was also tried. This method depends upon the fact that potassium iodide 248 reduces lead peroxide in iui acetic acid soliitinii in ilic presence of an ex- cess of alkali acetate. The iodine liberated is titrated with N/10 sodium thiosulphate. This method gives concordant results when proper precau- tious are taken. The best results were obtained when the potassium iodide and sodum acetate were ground in a mortar, dissolved in 50% acetic acid, the sample then added and the solution diluted. It is essential that all of the lead iodide be dissolved. This is the chief objection to this niethotl, since it usually recpiires considerable time and troulile to Itriui; ahdut tlie complete solution of the lead iodide. A method which has given good i-csults is based upon the fact that dilute nitric acid will dissolve the I'bO in red lead and leave Ix'hind the rbO... Careful tests have shown that the concentration of the acid should be at least 1 to 20 and not stronger than 1 to 10. We proceetled as fol- lows : Digest a weighed quantity of aliout one gram in about 100 c. c. of warm dilute nitric acid (1 part acid, 10 parts water by A'olume) for tliirty minutes. The sample is then liltered and the residue of lead perox- ide washed with dilute (1 to 10) nitric acid, and then dissolved in equal parts of dilute nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. This solution is evap- orated to dryness to remove oxides of nitrogen. The evaporation carried out in a Kjeldahl flask to prevent spattering. This residue of lead nitrate is dissolved dilute uitric acid and electx'oyzed in the usual way. This method gives good results but requires considerable time and very careful manipulation. A series of determinations on one sample gave the follow- ing iieri-entagc of lead peroxide: .*^2.04, 31.84. .Sl.SO, 31.70. 31.S!). The most rapid method for the determination of PIiO. is distiihitiou witli hydrochloric acid. The I'bO^ reacts witli tlie IKM to iibcrale free CI according to the following reaction: rb( ),. 2rbO + 8ITcl -= SPbCl, + 4IL0 + CI,. Tlie chief objection to tliis niclhod, .ns descril>i-(l in the various Itooks, is the cumbersome apparatus used. Cork or rubber stoppers on rubber connections of any kind can not lie used because of the corrosive action f»f the strong IIcl. Aftci- many trials we (innlly devised a very simple and workable apparatus. It consists essentially of a KH) c. c. distilling (lask liavin.; a long I>eiit delivery tube and provided willi a i)erfectly lilting C'ronnd glass sfopjier. The coniplele apparaliis is shown in the lignre. 249 The (letenniiintion is carried mit as folluws: One grain of Ihe sample is iutrodueed into the distilling tlaslv. together with a few lumps of pure niagnesite. The neck of the flask is washed down with 5 to 10 c. e. of distilled water, then 40 to 45 c. o. of concentrated HCl is added and the flask quickly stoppered. The delivery tul>e of the flask, which is drawn out to point, dips into a 100 c. c. Nessler tnhe containing a 3 to 4 per cent, solution of potassium iodide. The chlorine given off liberates free iodine which is soluble in the excess of potassium iodide present. The amount of iodine iiberated is determined by titration with N/10 normal sodium thiosulphate solution. One c. c. of N/10 .sodium thiosulphate .01195 gm. of PbO,. The tlask should be gently heated at the beginning of the reaction and strongly again at the end. During the intervening time, heating is un- necessary and undesirable, since it causes a too rapid evolution of gas. The action of hydrochloric acid on the niagnesite causes the evolution of enough carbon dioxide to carry over all the chlorine except the last traces. Twenty to twenty-five minules should lie allowed for the com- 250 llete reaction to take place. Care must be taken during the last stages (if tlae reaction, since tlie magnesite is used up and the HCl gas given off lieing extre)nely soluble allows the potassium iodide solution to suck back into the flask. This is prevented by heating. Heating at this iK)int not only prevents the sucking back of the KI solution, but is necessary in order to expel the last traces of chlorine from the flask. A second Nessler tube should be inserted and the heating continued a few minutes, in order to make sure that the reaction is complete. During the distillation tlie Nessler tube is surrounded by a beaker of cold water, in order to keep the temperature of the potassium iodide solution as low as possible so as to l»revent the volatilization of the iodine. This method is both quick and accurate. A series of analysts on one sample gave the following results: 31.84, 31.92, 31.92 per cent, lead per- oxide. In all about fifty different samples were run by this method and in every case it was easy to check the results to within 0.10 per cent. If a distilling flask with a ground glass stopper is not at hand, one can be made in a few minutes. Select a glass stopper of the proper size to fit the neck of the flask and fasten it in an horizontal position to the end of a slowly rotating shaft or axle fit the flask over the rotating stop- per and grind with fine emery dust moistened will a mixture of equal parts of ether, turpentine, and alcohol. Chemical Lahoratori/, I II (lid II a Vnivcrftitij, 251 A Simple Laboratory jMetiiod of I\Ieasitking Vapor Tension. By a. E. Caswell. About a year ago I designed a slight modification of the ordinary barometer tube apparatus for measuring vapor pressure of less than an atmosphere. This has been used in connection with a heat course for engineers with very satisfactory results, the accuracy attainable being about the same as by the usual metliods. The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in the accompany- ing figure. A, is a piece of glass tubing about 2 cm. in diameter and 10.1 cm. long, graduated at suitable intervals. B, is a metal tube of slightly larger cross section than A, and ending in the reservoir C. This is pro- \ided with a tripod support. The length from the bottom of the tube to the top of the reservoir may be 15 cm. less than the length of A. The top of the tube A is surrounded by the vessel D, which may consist simply of a metal or glass tube fitted with a rubber stopper E. The vessel D, together with the tube A, to which it is rigidly attached, is raised or lowered by means of a clamp attached either to a rigid support attached to the tube B, or to a common laboratory support. When the tubes A and B are being filled with mercury about 5 cm. of the length of the tube. A is filled with the liquid whose vapor tension is to be measured. Tlie vapor space can be varied by raising or lowering D, and by noting the corresponding change in height of the mercury column the necessary cor- rection for any contained air may be determined. Ten centimeters is a convenient length for the vapor space. I) is equipped with suital>le ther- mometer and stirrer. This method involves determining the temperature corresponding to a given vapor pressure. The vessel D, is filled with water, or other liquid, Iteated to a temperature above that at which the determination is to be made, and raised or lowered until the mercury surface in the tube is be- low graduation G, which is about 1~> cm. from the upper end of the tube, and another graduation coincides with the level of the mercury surface in the reservoir C. The liquid D, is kept well stirred and allowed to cool 252 sldwly; the temperature beiiif? read the instant that the meniscus coin- cides with G. The vapor tension in cm. of mercury is then the difference between tlie l)arometric readinj; and the heiglit of tlie mercui'y column in A plus the mercury etiuivah-nt of the liquid in A and pressure of air in the vapor space. The principal advantai,'e of this arrangement lies in the ease with which one may secure a series of determinations at different temperatures by merely raising D n (ir 10 cm. as soon as one determination is made, and allowing the licpiid in I) to cool until the meniscus again coincides with (i. In this way a series of ten or twelve determinations may be made in a half hour. Purdue Vnivcrslty, LaFayettc, Ind. 253 A simple laboratory method of measuring Vapor Tension. — A.E.CasweiJ. 255 A Theorem on Addition Formulae, P.v T-ESLiE MacDill. The theorem stated here is a corollary of a general theoreiji on a certain class of functional equations, whose theory has not been completed at the time of writing. Abel has shown that if a function, 4> (x, y), has the property: ^ [z, 0 (x, y)] is a symmetrical function of x, y, and z; then there exists another function such that: f (x) +f (y) = f [0(x,y)]. The corollary mentioned proves the converse of this theorem, and shows further, that a necessary and sufficient condition for the solution of an addi- tion formula in the form: f (x) + f (y) = f [z (x, y)], w'lere z (x, y) is supposed given as a known function of x and y, is that the ratio: dz dy shall assume the form of the ratio of a function of x alone,- to a function of y alone, both of which functions have an indefinite integral, possessing each an inverse function, viz: 5x u' (x) dz. u' (y) dy Furthermore, if we designate the inverse function by the bar, z (x, y) = u [u (x) + u (y)] is another necessary and sufficient restriction on the function z (x, y), If the equation be given in the form: (2) z [f (x), f (y)] = f (x + y), 256 the necessary and .sufficient conditions are: Qs u' (s) .s = f (x). dz " u' (t) t = f (y). at z (s, t) = u [u (s) + u(t)l. The solution for the unknown function in (1), under the restrictions named above is f (x) = A u (x), A = arbritrary constant, and for (2) is f (s) = A u (s), or as before; f (x) = A u (x). It will be further noticed that if z [w, z (x, 3')] = synmiotric function, t^ en f (x) + f (y) = f [z (x, y)], by Abel's theorem. Wj prove the converse. Necessarily z (x. y) = u [u (x) + u (y)]. z [w, z (x, y)] = u [u (w) + u\n (u (x) + u (y)) }■] = u [u (w) + u (x) + u (y)]. which is a symmetric function. Indiana VnivtrHily. 251 Note on Multiply Perfect Nitmheiis. Including a Table of 204 New Ones and the 47 Others Previottsly Published. i;y 11. I). Cakjiuhael and T. E. Mason. §1. Intrer were discovere table itself was being constructed. The list of number pairs in the rules might be largely extended by a further comparison of numbers in the table. We have selected a part of those which actually proved to be of most use in the construction of the table. §2. Rules for Fhidhni Mnltiiili/ Perfect yionlK-rs. The following two theorems afford useful working rules for tinding new multiply perfect numbers: I. // li i)i"i and IT qj^i (in either order) are a pair of factor sets from the list below and if a multiply perfect number N of muliiplicitij m contains the factor III);"' without containing either ani/ factor \yi"'^+^ or any factor q, different from every pi) then the number N II qj/'^i II pi"i is also a m,ultiply perfect number of nniltijilicity m. ^British Associalion Report, 1002, pp. 528-r)2!t. " We are indcbtod to I'rof. Dickson for rofcrence to the fust pulilioatiou of six of thope numljer^. 259 2M7, 2'°. 23. 89 2'. 17, 2". 19.683.2731.8191 2^31, 21^43. 127t 211.35^ 2-«. 33.127. 337 2-\ 7 . 23 . 233 . 1103 . 2089, 2'\ 7K 43 . 223 . 7019 . 112303 . 898423 . 61G318177 2". 131071, 2". 174763 . 524289 238. 53 229 . 8191 . 121369, 2^\ 59. 157 . 43331 . 3033169 . 715827883 . 2147483647 3MP.13, 3MI.I32 3M37 . 547 . 1093, 3'°. 107 . 3851 3^23.41, 3'°. 23=. 79. 107.3851 5'-.7M9.31, 53.73.13 5M3-.31-.61.83.331, 53.133.17 5^7M9=. 127, 5^73.19 53. 1\ 133. n\ .307 . 467 . 2801, 5^ 73. 13 .17.71 If N = ri/i r2/2 Tn/" , where ri, r-,. . . ., r„ are different primes, is a multiply perfect number of multiplicity m, then from the formula for the sum of all the divisors of N and the fact that this sum is now supposed to be mN, we have n T;— 1 m = II i = 1 > i ri(ri-l) Therefore in order to prove the accuracy of the rules we have only to show in each case that «i + 1 /5i + 1 Pi - 1 q; - 1 Pi (Pi-1) Qi (Qi-l) The verification is not carried out. II. If II Pi"i (mi) and H Qj ji\ (mo) {in either order) are a pair of factor sets and multiplicity from the list below and if a multiply perfect number Ni of mul- tiplicity nix contains thz factor n p;«i without containing either any factor p/''+l or any factor cj; different from cv;ry pi; then the number N,nq,,?i N. IT pi«i This pail' is due to Descartes. 260 IS a mulliphj perfect number of multiplicUy mj'. 3^ 5 . 7\ 13 (5), S'". 7 . 23 . 107 . 3851 (4) 3^ 7 . IP. 19 (5) , 3«. 23 . 137 . 547 . 1093 (4) 5.7 (5), 5^7=. 13.19 (6) 5^31 (5), 5^7.13 (6) In order to prove the theorem it is clear that we have only to show in each case that fli-l-l Pi+i mi «i+i ni; ft' Pi(pi-i) qi^qi-i) The verification is omitted. The following theorem, due to De.scartes, i.s also readily proved: III. If N is a multiply perfect number of multiplicity p'^, where p is a prime number, and if N is not divisible by p, then pN is a ?nultiply perfect number of multiplicity (p + 1)'^ . %?,. Table of Miiltiph) Perfect A'»?/)/>cr/5.*t 2) 2. o. (Euclid, Nicomaque.) 2) 2-. 7. (Euclid, Nicomaque.) 4) 2-. 31 5. 7-. 13. 19. (Lehmer.) 3) 2\ 3. 5. (Mersenne.) 4) 2\ S\ 5. 7. 13. (Descartes.) 2) 2\ 31. (Euclid, Nicomaque.) 3) 2\ 3. 7. (Fermat.) 4) 2\ 3\ 5. 7. (Descartes.) 4) 2'. 3\ 7-. 11'. 19=. 127. 2) 2". 127. (Euclid, Nicomaque.) 4) 2^ 3\ 5^ 17. 31. (Mersenne.) 5) 2^ 3'. 5. 7. ir. 17. 19. (Descartes.) 5) 2\ S\ 5. 71 13. 17. 19. (Descartes.) 4) 2\ 3". 5. 17. 23. 137. 547. 1093. (Fermat.) 4) 2'. S'". 5. 17. 23. 107. 3851. 4) 2\ 3. 5. 7. 19. 37. 73. (Lucas.) • The numbers marked with a star were discovered by Mr. Mason. The re- maining hitherto unpublished numbers wore discovered by Mr. Carmieliael. t The multiplicity of each number Is written to its left. If pre\iously (lub- lislii'd llie discoverer's name is Kiv(>n to Ihe rijiht. •26: 2\ 3=. 7=. 13. 19=. 37. 73. 127. (Lehmer.) 2^ 5. 7. 19. 37. 73. (Legendre.) 2". 3. 11. 31. (Jumeau, Fermat.) 2\ 2r. 7. 11. 13. 31. (Descartes.) 2'. 3\ 5. 11. 31. (Descartes.) 2\ Z\ 7. 11^ 3r. 61. S3. 331. 2'". 31 5-. 23. 31. 89. (Mersenne.) 2". 3*. 5. 7. 11-. 19. 23. 89. (Fermat.) 2'". 3\ 5. T-. 13. 19. 23. 89. (Frenicle.) 2". 3^ 5^ T-. 13. 19. 31. (Lehmer.) 2". 3'. 5. T-. 13=. 19. 31. Gl. 2". 3'. 5=. 71 13% 31=. Gl. 83. 331. 2'\ 3\ 5=". 7^ 13^. 17. 2". 3'. 5. 7=. 13. 19. 23. 137. 547. 1093. 2". 3'". 5. 7-. 13. 19. 23. 107. 3851. 2'-. 8191. (See EncyclopMie I, 3„ p. 55.) 2» 3. 11. 43. 127. (Descartes.) 2". 3=. 7. 11. 13. 43. 127. (Descartes.) 2'^ 3\ 5. 11. 43. 127. (Descartes.) 2". 3. 5. 7. 19. 31. 151. (Fermat.) 2". 3=. V. 13. 19=. 31. 127. 151. (Carmichael.) 2". 3=. 5=. 71 13. 19. 31=. 83. 151. 331. 2". 5. 7. 19. 31. 151. (Fermat.) 2^=. 3\ 5=. 7=. 11. 13. 17. 19. 31. 43. 257. (Carmichael.) 2'\ 3\ 5^. V. 11=. 13^ 17=. 19. 43. 2.57. 307. 467. 2801. 2^\ 3'. 5^ T. 11=. 13. 17. 19. 43. 71. 257. 2^\ 3^ 5. 7. 11. 17. 41. 43. 257. 2'\ 3^ 5^ T-. 11. 13. 17. 19. 41. 43. 257. 2'". 131071. (See Encyclopedie I, 3i, p. 55.) 2". 3'. 5^ T. IV. 13=. 19'. 31. 37. Gl. 73. 181. 2^^ 3\ 5. 7^ 13. 19=. 37. 73. 127. (Fermat.) 2". 3". 7. 19=. 23. 37. 73. 127. 137. 547. 1093. 2'\ 3^ 5=. 7^ 11=. 17. 19'. 31=. 37. 61. 73. 83. 101. 227. 331. 137561. 2". 3'\ 7. 19=. 23. 37. 73. 107. 127. 3851. 2". 3". T. 11=. 13. 17=. 19^ 43. 53. 73=. 101. 227. 307. 1801. 137561. 2". 3». 5. 7^ 11=. 13. 17=. 19\ 43. 53. 73=. 101. 227. 307. 1801. 137561. 2". 3". 5^ 7'. 11. 13^ 17=. 19. 53. 73=. 307. 467. 1801. 2801. 262 G) 2''. :V\ 5\ T. n. 13. 17. 19. 53. 71. 731 ISOl. 2) 2'». 5242S7. (See EncycJopiiUe I, 3„ p. 55.) G) 2"'. 3\ 5==. 1\ ir. 1^. 19=. 31^ 37. 41. 61. 127. G) 2'°. 3\ 5\ V. ir. 13. 19. 31". 37. 41. 61. 6) 2'". 3''. 51 7-. 11. 13^ 19=. 3r. 37. 41. 61. 127. 6) 2'«. 3\ 5\ 7^ 11. 13=. 19. 3P. 37. 41. 61. o) 2'". 3". 5. 7. 11. 23. 31. 41. 137. 547. 1093. 6) 2'». 3". 5^ 7=. 11. 13. 19. 23. 31. 41. 137. 547. 1003. (Lehniei-.t 5) 2'". 3'. 5=. 7. 11. 31=. 411 83. 331. 431. 1723. ■i'G) 2'". 3^ 51 7=. 11. 13=. 19=. 31=. 41. 61. S3. 127. 331. 379. 757. 6) 2'". 3». 5^ T. IV. 1Z\ 17. 31. 41. 61=. 97. 467. 2S01. 5) 2'^ 3'°. 5. 7. 11. 23. 31. 41. 107. 3851. G) 2}\ ^"'. 5\ 7=. 11. 13. 19. 23. 31. 41. 107. 3851. 5) 2^\ d.\ 5=. 7^ 13\ 17. 31. 127. 337. 5) 2=°. 3\ 5. T-. 13=. 19. 31. 61. 127. 337. (Fermat.) 5) 2^'. 3^ 5=. 7^ 13-'. 31^ 61. S3. 127. 331. 337. 5) 2-\ 3^ 5^ T. 1Z\ 17. 127. 337. *6) 2=». 3\ 5=. V. 11=. 13^ 17. 19. 31. 127. 337. 467. 2S01. 5) 2=°. 3'. 5. 7^ 13'. 17. 41. 127. 337. 467. 2801. 5) 2-\ 3". 5=. 7. 19. 23-. 31. 79. 89. 137. 547. 683. 1093. (Lolinior.) 5) 2=1. 3'. 5=. 7. 19. 23. 31. 41. 89. 683. 5) 2=^. Z\ 5. 7. 13. 19=. 23. 89. 127. 379. G83. 757. *G) 2-\ 31 Tj\ 1\ 11=. 13=. 19=. 23. 61=. 89. 97. 127. 6S3. 5) 2=\ 3'°. 5=. 7. 19. 23=. 31. 79. 89. 107. 683. 3851. *6) 2-\ 3". 5=. V. 13. 17. 19^ 23. 31. 37. 73. 89. 101. 227. 6S3. 1375G1. 5) 2='. 3'=. v. n. 13. 17=. 19\ 23. 89. 101. 103. 227. 307. 617. (is'5. i;!T."(;i. 39S5S1. 797161. G) 2='. 3'=. 5. 7=. n. 13. 17=. 19'. 23. S9. 101. 103. 227. 307. (il7. 683. l.T.'.'.C.l. 398581. 797101. *6) 2='. 3'=. 5=. 7-. 13=. 17. 10\ 23. 31=. 61. S3. 89. 103. 181. .3.31. G17. GS3. 398581. 797161. 5) 2=-. 3'. .5. 7. 11. 19. 41. 17. 151. 197. 178481. *6) 2". 3". .5=. T: 11. 13=. V.)\ 31-. 47. 61. 8,3. 151. lsl. 1) 2-\ 3^ f). 11. 131 19^ 23. 31. 61. 127. 233. 379. 757. 1103. 20S9. 6) 2''. 3". 5=. 7. 11. 13^ 19-. 23. 31=. 61. 83. 127. 233. 331. 379. 757. 1103. 20S9. *G) 2=». 3'. 5'. 7. 11. 131 17. 19=. 23. 127. 233. 379. 757. 1103. 20S9. 6) 2-\ 3". 5\ 7. 11'. 13. 19. 23. 31. (il. 71. 179. 233. 1103. 20S9. 3221. *(;) 2-\ 3'". 5-. 71 11. 13. 19=. 23-'. 31. 79. 107. 127. 2.33. 1103. 20S9. 3S51. (;•) 2='. 3'". 5^ 7. 11. 13=. 19. 23=. 31. 01. 79. 107. 233. 1103. 20S9. 3851. 6) 2-\ 3"'. 5*. 71 11=. 13. 19=. 23=. 71. 79. 107. 127. 233. 1103. 20S9. 3851. 6) 2=«. S'". 5". T. 11. 13. 19. 23=. 31. 79. 107. 233. 1103. 2089. 3S51. *G) 2=^. 3". 5'. 7=. 11. 13\ 19^ 2.3. 37. 73. 181. 191. 2.33. 1103. 2089. 30941. G) 2=". 3\ 5=. 7^. 11'. 13. 19=. ?>V. 37. Gl. 83. 127. 151. 331. G) 2='. 3\ 5=. 7^ 11. 13=. 19=. 3P. 37. 61. 83. 127. 151. ,331. 5) 2-\ 3«. T. IV. 13. 19^ 23. 31. 43. 83. 137. 151. 181. 331. 547. 1093. G) 2-\ 3«. 5. T. 11=. 13. 19^. 23. 31. 43. 83. 137. 151. 181. 331. 547. 1093. G) 2=^. 3". 5^ T. 11. 13. 19. 23. 31. 83. 137. 151. 331. .547. 1093. 5) 2=°. 3'°. r. 11=. 13. 19^ 23. 31. 43. S3. 107. 151. 181. 331, 3851. G) 2=°. 3"'. 5. T. 11=. 13. 19\ 23. 31. 43. 83. 107. 151. 181. 331. 3851. 6) 2»'. 3'". 51 r. 11. 13. 19. 23. 31. 83. 107. 151. 3.31. .3851. 2) 2^°. 21 47483047. (Eiiler.) *5) 2". 3". V. IV. 13. 17. 31. 41. 43. Gl. 88. 103. 257. 307. 331. 407. 5tT=. G13. 1093. 2801. 65537. *G) 2»', 8'\ 5. 7*. IV. 13. 17. 31. 41. 43. 61. 88. 163. 2.57. 307. 331. 407. 547=. 613. 1093. 2801. 65587. *6) 2^=. 31 5'. 7^ 1,3=. 17. 19. 2;{. .31. 61. 79. 89. 1.57. 313. 379. 757. 2141. 599479. *7) 2'=. 3'\ .5-'. T. 11=. 1,3=. 17=. 19\ 2,3. 31. ,37. 43. 61. 78. 89. 101. 227. 307. 2141, 1.37.561. 599479. *7) 2"-'. .3". W. 7\ 11=. 1.3=. 17. 191 2.3. 31. .37. 4:!. 61. 71. 7:!. 80. IM. iMll. 599479. *7) 2". .3". .5=. T. 11\ 13. 17=. 19\ 2.3. 31=. .37. 41. 61. S.3. 89. 101. 163. 227. .307. .3.31. 1063. 2141. 2281. 4561. 1.37.561. .599479. G) 2'=. 3". .5'. 7". \V. 17. 2.3. 29. 31. 61. 71. 89. 179. 107. 521. 1181. 2141. 3221. 599470, 265 4) 2'\ H\ 7. ir. 31. Til. S3. 331. 43€9]. 131071. 5) 2'\ 3\ 5. 7\ n. 13. .^3. 331. 43091. 131071. 4) 2''. 3". 7. n. 23. 83. 137. 331. 547. 1093. 43691. 131071. r.) 2''^ 3'. 5. 7-. 11. 19. 41. S3. 331. 43(191. 131071. 4) 2". 3'". 7. 11. 23. S3. 107. 331. 3S51. 43G91. 131071. *G) 2'\ 3". 5-=. 7'. 11^ 13=. 17. 31'. 41. (il. 1(13. 179. 331=. 407. 22S1. 2G17. 2S01. 3221. 4.5G1. 5233. 43G91. 131071. *G) 2=*. 3^ 5^ 7. 11. 13. 17. 19=. 31. 71-'. 127=. 271. 379. G83. 757. 1279. 2557. 5113. 5419. GS29. 122921. 5) 2'\ 3'=. 7=. 11. 13. 17-. 19\ 31. 71. 101. 103. 127. 227. 307. 617. 683. 6829. 122921. 137561. 398581. 7i)71Gl. G) 2". 3'=. 5. 7=. 11. 13. 17=. 19\ 31. 71. 101. 103. 127. 227. 307. 617. 683. 6829. 122921. 137561. 398581. 797161. -6) 2'*. 3". 5=. 7'. 11. 13. 19. 31=. 41. 71. 83. 127. 163. 307. 331. 467. 547=. 613. 683. 1093. 2801. 6829. 122921. *6) 2". 3^^ 5\ 7\ 13-. 17. 19. 31=. 41. 61. 71. 83. 97. 127. 193. 331. 467. 683. 2801. 6829. 122921. *6) 2". 3'». 5'. 7. ir. 17. 19=. 31=. 43. 61. 71. 83. 127=. 179. 197. 257. 271. 331. 683. 1181. 3221. 5419. 6829. 19531. 122921. 7) 2'\ 3". 5=. 7". 11'. 13. 17. 19=. 31=. 37=. 41. 43. 61. 07. 73. 83. 109. 127. 163. 307. 331. 547=. 613. 1093. *7) 2^\ 3". 51 7'. ir. 13'. 17=. 19=. 23. 37=. 41. 43. 67. 73. 109. 127. 163. 307=. 367. 467. 547=. 613. 733. 1093. 2801. *7) 2^'. 3'\ 5". 7\ ll^ 13=. 17. 19=. 31. 37=. 41. 43. 61. 67. 73. 109. 127. 163. 179. 257. 2281. 3221. 4561. 19531. 7) 2'\ 3'°. 5". 7^ 11*. 13. 17=. 19. 29. 37=. 41. 43. 67. 71. 73. 97. 109. 179. 193. 307. 521. €01. 1201. 3221. 6) 2=«. S\ 5\ 7\ 11=. 13=. 19. 31. 43. 61. 71. 223. GOl. 1201. 7019. 112303. 898423. 61G31S177. *6) 2=". 3". 5=. 7\ 11. 13. 19. 23. 31. 43. 137. 223. 547. 1093. 7019. 112303. 898423. 616318177. 6) 2"^. 3". 5*. 7\ 11=. 13. 19. 23. 43. 71. 137. 223. 547. GOl. 10^)3. 1201. 7019. 112303. 898423. 61G318177. *6) 2'". 3'. 51 7^ 11. 13=. 19. 31. 41. 43. 61. 223. 7019. 112303. 89S423. 616318177. *6) 2'^ S\ 5=. 7'. 11. 13=. 19=. 31=. 43. 61. 83. 127. 223. 331. 379. 757. 7019. 112303. S9S423. 61G.31S177. 266 *6) 2'"'. 3^ .V. T. 11. 13--. 17. in=. 43. 127. 223. 370. 757. 7019. 112303. S9.S423. 616318177. 6) 2'". 3". 5\ 7". 11. 13-. 19. 311 43. 61. 83. 223. 331. 379. 601. 757. 1201. 7010. 112303. 898423. 616318177. (Ggrardin.) *6) 2^». 3". 5\ T. 11^ 13. 19. 31. 43. 61. 71. 179. 223. 3221. 7019. 112303. 898423. 616318177. 6) 2^". 3". 5\ 7". 11^ 13=. 10. 29. 31. 61^ 223. 263. 1861. 4733. 7019. 112303. 898423. 616318177. "^6) 2-"=. 3^ 5=. 7\ 11. 13. 10. 23. 31. 43. 107. 223. 38.51. 7019. 112303. 898423. 016318177. 6) 2™. 3'°. 5\ T. 11=. 13. 19. 23. 43. 71. 107. 223. 601. 1201. 3851. 7019. 112303. S9S423. 616318177. *6) T-\ 3'\ 5-'. 7^ 13=. 17. 19=. 31=. 37=. 61. 67. 73. 83. 127. 223. 331. 1063. 7019. 112.303. S0S423. 61G31S177. *5) 2^'\ 3'\ T. 11. 13. 17. 10^ 37. 41. 101. 163. 223. 227. 307. 547=. 613. 1063. HX)3. 7010. 112303. 137561. 808423. 610318177. *6) 2^". 3'\ 5. 7^ 11. 13. 17. 19*. 37. 41. 101. 163. 223. 227. 307. 547=. 613. 1063. 1093. 7019. 112303. 137561. 898423. 616318177. *0) 2^". 3'*. 5*. 7". 11*. 13=. 29. 31. 41. 61. 71. 163. 179. 223. 263. 2281. 3221. 4561. 4733. 7019. 112303. 898423. 616318177. 4) 2". 3*. 7. IV. 31. 61. 83. 331. 43691. 174763. 524287. 5) 2". 3\ 5. 7^ 11. 13. S3. 331. 43691. 174763. 524287. 4) 2". 3". 7. 11. 23. 83. 137. 331. 547. 1093. 43601. 174763. 524287. 5) 2". 3^ 5! 7=. 11. 19. 41. 83. 331. 43691. 174703. 524287. 4) 2". 3^». 7. 11. 23. 83. 107. 331. 3851. 43091. 174763. 524287. "=6) 2". 3". 5=. v. 11*. 13=. 17. 31^. 41. 61. 163. 179. 331=*. 467. 2281. 2617. 2801. 3221. 4561. 5233. 43691. 174763. 524287. 6) 2^. 3'. 5°. T. 11. 13. 19. 23. 43. 53. 79. 220. 2.->7. SIOI. 19.531. 121369. *5) 2=». 3'. 5\ V. 23. 31. 41. 53. 70. 220. 8101. 121360. *6) 2?\ 3'. 5*. 7=. 11. 13. 10=. 23. 53. 71. 79. 127. 229. 370. 757. 8101. 1213(;0. *6) 2'«. 3». 5=. T. 11=. 10=. 23. 31=. 43=. 53. (11. 70=. S3. 127. 220. 331. (SI. 8191. 121369. *6) 2'^ 3". 5*. T. ir. 13. 2:5. 43=. .53. 01=. 71. 79=. 97. 229. 601. 631. 1201. 8191. 121369. *6) 2^. 3". 5'-. V. 13=. 10. 23. 31=. .37. 53. 61. 7:5. 70. S3. 229. 331. 467. 2S01. 8191. 1213(iO. 267 *7) 2-". 3". 5^ 7\ 11. l.T. 17. 19=. 29. 31^ 37. 41. 01. 73. 79. S3. 127. 157. 313. 331. 2203. 30S41. GlGSl. *7) 2'". 3'=. 5^ 7'. 11'. 13=. 17'. 19=. 29. 31=. 41. 43. 01=. S3. 97. 103. 127. 307. 331. eOl. 017. 1201. 2203. 30841. GlOSl. 398581. 797101. '=7) 2-"'. 3". 51 7=. 11=. 13. 17=. 19*. 23. 29. 31. 41=. 43. 101. 103. 227. 307=. 307. 431. 547=. 013. 733. 1093. 1723. 2203. 30841. 01081. 137501. *7) 2^^ 3^\ 5\ 7'. 11=. 13^ 17^ 19=. 29=. 31=. 41=. 01. 07. 71. 83. 97. 127. 193. 331. 431. 407. 1723. 2203. 2801. 30841. OlOSl. =••5) 2''. 3^=. 7^ 111 17=. 19\ 31. 37=. 43. 47. 07. 103=. 127. 257. 307. 557. 017. 1063. 3571. 7621. 13307. 15241. 39S581. 797101. 104511353. -0) 2'". 3'\ 5. 7^ 11=. 17=. 19^ 31. 37=. 43. 47. 07. 103=. 127. 257. 307. 557. 017. 1063. 3571. 7621. 13307. 15241. 39S5S1. 797161. 104511353. *7) 2^". 3^^ 5=. 7". 11=. 13. 17. 19=. 29. 31=. 37. 41. 43. S3. 97. 103. 127. 193. 257. 263. 331. 557. 4733. 7021. 13307. 15241. 104511353. *0) 2". 3\ 5\ T. 11. 131 17=. 31. 43=. 79. 127. 271. 307. 337. 001. 031. 1201. 5419. *7) 2". 3". 5\ T. ir. 131 17= 19. 29. 31=. 37. 43. 61. 73. S3. 127. 263. 271. 307. 331. 337. 4733. 5419. *5) 2". 3". T. ir. 13*. 17. 31. 41. 43. 61. 127. 163. 191. 271. 3.37. 467. 2281. 2801. 4501. 5419. 30941. *G) 2". 3". 5. 7*. IV. 13*. 17. 31. 41. 43. 01. 127. 103. 191. 271. 337. 407. 2281. 2801. 4501. 5419. 30941. G) 2*=. 3". 5^ T. 131 17. 19. 31. 37. 01. 73. 79. S3. 157. 313. 331. 431. 9719. 2099863. 5) 2*=. 3". T. ir. 13. 19=. 31. 41. 43. 01. S3. 127. 163. 307. 331. 431. 547=. 013. 1093. 9719. 2099863. 6) 2*=. 3". 5. T. 11=. 13. 19=. 31. 41. 43. 61. 83. 127. 163. 307. 331. 431. 547=. 013. 1093. 9719. 2099803. *0) 2". 3". 5\ T. 11. 19^ 23. 31. 37. 41. 89. 127. 151. 163. 199. 307. 397. 547=. 013. 083. 1063. 1093. 2113. *7) 2". 3". 5^ T. Ill 13. 17. 19*. 23. 31. 41. 43. 01. 89. 101. 151. 103. 199. 227. 257. 397. 683. 2113. 2281. 4501. 19531. 137501. *7) 2*\ 3*1 51 T. 11. 13. 17. 19'. 23. 29. 31. 41. S3. 89. 97. 151. 181.. 193. 199. 263. 397. CS3. S29. 2113. 4733. *6) 2*\ W\ 51 7. 11*. 19=. 23. 29. 31. 01. 71. 89. 127. 151. 179. 197. 199. 397. 521. 683. 1181. 2113. 3221. 268 *7) 2'\ 3='. 5". 7". 11. 13. 17. 19\ 23=. 21). 43-'. 07. 70". S3. S9. 107. 151. 181. 199. 257. 2G3. 331. 397. 631. 661. 6S3. 2113. 3851. 4733. 19531. *G) 2". 3*". 5^ 7\ 13. 19-. 23. 31=. 37. 47. 73. 79. 83. 127. 137. 151. 331. 547. 631. 1093. 23311. 6) 2". 3^ 5\ 7\ 11. 19=. 31=. 37. 41. 47. 71. 73. 79. S3. 127. 151. 331. 031. 23311. *0) 2". 3'". 5^ 7'. 13. 19=. 23. 31=. 37. 47. 73. 79. 83. 107. 127. 151. 331. 031. 3851. 23311. *7) 2". 3". 5\ 7". 11=. 13^. 17=. 19^ 29. 3r. 37. 47. 53. 73=. 79. 151. 181. 2G3. 307. 631. ISOl. 4733. 23311. *5) 2". 3". 7=. ir. 17. 19=. 31. 41. 43. 47. 61. 127. 151. 103. 197. 271. 307. 547=. 613. 1093. 5419. 178481. 2790203. *6) 2". 3". 5. 7=. 11'. 17. 19=. 31. 41. 43. 47. 01. 127. 151. 103. 197. 271. 307. 517=. 613. 1093. 5419. 1784S1. 2796203. ♦7) 2'\ 3". 5^ 7\ ir. 13=. 17=. 19*. 31. 37. 41. 43. 47. 61. 101. 151. 103. 197. 227. 271. 307. 2281. 4561. 5419. 137561. 178481. 2790203. *7) 2". 3'*. 5*. 7\ ir. 13=. 17. 19\ 31. 37. 41. 43. 47. 01. 71. 151. 103. 181. 197. 271. 2281. 4501. 5419. 17S4S1. 2796203. *7) 2". 3". 5^ 7". 11=. 13. 17=. 19^ 29. 37. 41. 43. 47. 71. 97. 151. 181. 193. 197. 263. 271. 307. 4733. 5419. 178481. 2796203. *7) 2". 3='. 5^ 7=. ir. 13. 17^ 19^ 23. 29. 43. 47. 67. S3. 101. 107. 151. 197. 227. 271. 331. 661. 3851. 5419. 137561. 1784S1. 2796203. *7) 2'". 3". 5''. 7^ 11. 13. 17=. 19=. 23. 31. 37=. 41. 61. 89. 97. 127. 193. 307. 1003. 2351. 4513. 442151. 13264529. *7) 2". 3'^ 5^ 7M1. 13. 17. 19=. 23. 31=. 37=. 43. 61. 07. S3. 89. 127. 331. 379. 001. 757. 1201. 2351. 4513. 442151. 13204529. *7) 2'\ 3". 5^ 7\ 11. 13. 17. 19. 23^ 31. 37. 61. 67. 71. 79. 83. 89. 107. 331. 467. 661. 2351. 2801. 3851. 4513. 442151. 13264529. *6) 2'-'>. 3'. 5'. 7\ 11'. 13\ 171 31. 61. 67. 103. 139. 307. 467. 2143. 2801. 11119. 131071. 6) 2'°. 3*. 5\ 7\ IV. 13. 17. 31. 01. 07. 71. 103. 139. 2143. 11119. 131071. 6) 2'X'. S\ ->\ 7\ 11. 13^ 17. 31. 61. 07. 71. 103. 139. 2143. 11119. 131071. *G) 2''"'. 3". 5'. 7=. 13-. 17. 19. 23. 31. 01. 07. 103. 137. 1.39. 547. 1093. 2143. 11119. 131071. *6) 2"\ 3". 5'. 7^ 11. 13'. 17'. 23. 07. 103. 137. 139. 307. 407. 547. 1093. 2143. 2S01. 11119. 131071. 269 6) T\ 3". r/. 7^ 11. 13. 17. 23. (17. 71. 103. 137. 139. 547. 1093. 2143. 11119. 131071. *8) 2^". 3^ 5=. 7-. 33-. 17. 19. 23. 31. 01. 07. 103. 107. 139. 2143. 3S51. 11119. 131071. *6) 2'°. 3^". 5^ T. 11. 13^ 17^ 23. 07. 103. 107. 139. 307. 467. 2143. 2S01. 3S51. 11119. 131071. 6) 2™. 3". 5^ T. 11. 13. 17. 23. 07. 71. 103. 107. 139. 2143. 3851. 11119. 131071. *G) 2^\ 3>\ 5". T. 11. 17. 19^ 41. 43. 53. 79. 97. 127. 157. 193. 2.57. 209. 683. 1613. 2731. 8191. 19531. ■=6) 2^\ 3". 5^ 7^ 13. 17. 19''. 31. 37=. 53. 67. 79. 127. 157. 2G9. 379. 683. 757. 1063. 1613. 2731. 8191. *5) 2^\ 3^^ 5". 11^ 19'. 31. 43. 53. 61. 79. 127. 157. 179. 197. 2.57. 269. 683. 1181. 1613. 2731. 3221. 8191. 19531. "6) 2=1. 3='. 5'. T. 13. 17. 19% 23. 53. 67. 79. 83. 107. 127. 157. 209. 331. 661. 683. 1613. 2731. 3851. 8191. *6) 2". 3". 5\ 7. 11. 17. 19. 23. 53. 07. 71. 79. 83. 107. 157. 269. 331. 001. 683. 1613. 2731. 3851. 8191. *7) 2". 3='. 5*. 7'. 11. 13. 17. 19\ 29. 37. 41. 43% 53. 71. 73. 79=. 101. 157. 227. 209. 463. 631. 683. 1013. 2731. 6481. 8191. 137561. *7) 2'=. 3'\ 5\ T. 11-. 13. 17. 191 31. 37. 41. 43. 53. 61. 79. 97=. 127. 157. 193. 2C3. 313. 317. 2503. 3169. 3181. 6361. 69431. 4855S1. 20394401. *6) 2'"'. 3". 5^ T. 131 17^ 19=. 29. 37=. 67. 73. 79. 127. 157. 313. 1063. 1619. 16189. 32377. 524287. 1212847. *6) 2=". 3". 5^ 7^ 11*. 13\ 17=. 31. 41. 1G3. 179. 191. 307. 467. 1619. 2281. 2801. 3221. 4561. 161S9. 32377. 524287. 1212847. *7) 2'». 3=1 5^ T. 11=. 13^ 19'. 29^ 31=. 37. 41=. 53. 61. 73. 79. S3. 151. 157. 181. 191. 211. 2G3. 313. 331\ 421. 431. 463. 661. 1321. 1723. 1889. 4733. 6481. 30941. 2) 2™. 2305843009213693951. (Seelhoff, Pervusin.) 6) 2". 3^ 5^ r. 11. 13. 19. 23. 43. 59. 79. 157. 257. 19531. 43331. 3033169. 715827883. 2147483647. *5) 2". 3^ 5% 7^ 23. 31. 41. 59. 79. 157. 43331. 3033169. 715827883. 2147483647. 6) 2". 3^ 5\ 7=. 11. 13. 19=. 23. 59. 71. 79. 127. 157. 379. 757. 43331. 3033169. 715827883. 2147483647. (Cunningham.) 270 *0) 2". 3". 5^ T. 11==. 19-. 23. 31=. 43-. 59. (Jl. 79\ 83. 127. 157. 331. 031. 43331. 30331(J9. 715S27SS3. 21474S3G47. -G) 2''\ S". 5*. 7^ 11'. 13. 23. 43^ 59. Gl=. 71. 79=. 97. 157. COl. G31. 1201. 43331. 3033109. 715S27S83. 2147483G47. *G) 2". 3". 5\ 1\ 13=*. 19. 23. 31=. 37. 59. 61. 73. 79. 83. 157. 331. 4G7. 28<»1. 43331. 3033169. 715827883. 2147483G47. -7) 2". 3'\ 5'. 7^ 11^ 13. 17. 19. 23. 41. 43. 47. 53. 79. S3. 97. 137. 157. 103. 313. 331. GOl. 953. 1201. 13159. 26317. 43691. 131071. *7) 2'\ 3='. 5". T\ 11\ 13. 17=. 19\ 23. 37. 43=. 67. 79=. 97. 107. 139. 181=. 191. 199. 229=. 257. 307. 331=. 457. 467. 631. 661. 2617. 2801. 3851. 5233. 11939. 19531. 43f;91. 174763. 262657. 524287. 525313. 2) 2''^ 61897(K>l'.Mi420001374495G2111. (Powers.) nioomingtoH, Ind. 271 Concerning Spheric Geometry, By David A. Roth rock. (Al)stract.) In this paper is devolopod a system of analytic geometry upon the surface of a sphere, in wliicli tlie axes of reference are great circles and tlie coordinates of a point are arcs of great circles. With a jn-oper choice of axes, the equations of the loci known as spheric straight line, spheric circle, spheric ellipse, spheric hyperbohi, spheric parabola defined metri- cally as in plane analytics, appear in a form analogous to their equations in the plane. The paper also investigates other loci of more complex character, to- gether with a discussion of the notion of spheric pole and polar, radical axis, etc. A sunnnavy of the literature upon this system of geometry is also included. lUoomington, Indiana, Norcmber 30, 1911. 273 On the Representations op a Number as the Sum op Consecutive Integers. By T. E. Mason. (Abstract.) '■J'heorem : If we define a series of consecutive integers so as to include zero and negative numbers and if we consider a number itself as a series of con- secutive integers witb one term, tben a number m = 2« . pi'" . p/'> p,.">-, where the p's are the odd prime factors of m and the as the power to which they occur, may be expressed as the sum of a series of consecutive integers in 2(", + l) («.> + l) («r+l) ways. When m = 2" it may be so expressed in two ways. One-half of the total number of series will have an even number of terms and one-half will have an odd number of terms. One-half of the total number of series will consist of all positive terms and one-half the number of series will contain zero or zero and negative terms. We shall now apply this theorem to express 15 as the sum of con- secutive integers. 15==3x5. The numlier of series will be 2(1+1) (1+1)=S. Sei'ies. 15 4 + 5-f6 1 + 2-^3-1-4 + 5 -6-5-4-3-2- 1+0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 -h7 + 8 7 + 8 0+1+2+3+4+5 -3-2-1+0+1+2+3+4+5+6 -14- 13.... -4-3 -2- 1+0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5+.... +14 + 15 No. of terms. Mid terms. 1 15 3 5 5 3 15 1 2 7,8 6 2,3 10 1,2 30 0,1 Indiana Univcr.^it)/, November, 1911. [18- -29034] 275 Application of the Cauciiy Parameter JMethod to the Solution OF Difference Equations. By T. E. Mason. In the application of tlie Cauchy parameter metliod to tlie solution of difference equations tlie following are the necessary steps : 1) Break the equation up into two parts, one of which gives a part i'l (x) which may be readily solved and multiply the other part of the equation by the parameter t, so that the equation f(x)=0 becomes (a) fi(x)+tf=(x)=0. 2) Assume a solution of the form U(x)=A(x)+B(x)t+C(x)t=+D(x)r'+ 3) Substitute in the ec(uation (a) and equate the coefficients of the different powers of t to zero and solve. Then the parameter t is made equal to 1. 4) The solution U(x)=A(x)+B(x)+C(x)+D(x)+ must be shown to be convergent and to satisfy the original equation. In brealcing up the equation it is necessary to make such division that the resulting solution is convergent. In equations with constant coefficients the solution of the resulting equations is, in general, no easier than the solution of the original equation, so that this metho ax(n+2) A--^B(x)=- -^ + api(x) . x + ap2(x) (n-|-2)<2) „2x(n+4) ^(3) y(2) A-C;x) = ; -^+a-pi(x) + a=P2vx) (n + 4)*''' 3! 2! a2x(n+6) x^^^ x*"** C(x) = — - + a=pi(x) — + a=p2(x) — (n+6)(6) 5! 4! x(n+2) ^x(°+4' a=x(°+6) , . r ax(3) a^x^^) a'x^^) .-<2; n2v(4) „3v(6) U(x)=^ — + - ~-^~ — - + +pi(x) x + + — + ' (n+6)**^) L 3! 5! 1 . , r, ax<2^ a^x^*' a^x^S) l . +p.(xj 1 + + + + J L 2 4 6! J Since ams again in August and September of the same year. After blooming the next spring an in- creased number of blossoms were produced in August and September as compared with the same time tlie preceding year. It is well known that apple trees often bloom a second time in the fall in very dry seasons, but in this ease the climatic conditions were just tiie re\erse. It will be interesting to see what this tree will continue to do in this respect. At the time that the second period of blossoming occurred the tree was bearing a fairly good crop of apples from the first blooms. The same may be seen in many other plants at times, as in violets, horse- chestnuts, anemones, gentians, redbuds, some primulas' and weigela. The sudden and complete transformation of color in flowers from the normal sometimes occurs, as in Achillea millifolium, where the rays are pink instead of white. The same is true of the common yellow adder's-tongue (Erythronium Americanum) which sometimes, though rarely, produces purple instead of the usual yellow flowers. When found such specimens should be trans- ferred to a rich garden (if it is not possible to guard and grow them in their native habitats, which would be better) and cultivatt'd and closely watched and protected in order to see whether they would reproduce the monstrosities again or even to a greater extent. Apparent monstrosities are sometimes caused not naturally by the plant but are fnniuently caused by some sort of traumatic effect. This I have repeatedly seen in plants. Especially is this true in the more hardy plants that are able to bear a rather consiihn-able injury without a fatal termination. The comnum iron weed (Vernonia fasciculata) shows fre- quently a branching only a short distance above the ground and below the usual branching, if i)artly crushed or otherwise injured. Another instance of an apimi-cnt niousl rosity, is liic change bri>ugli( ' Kernor, Vol. 1, p. 504. 281 about iu Ambrosia arteniisia'folia due to traumatic causes, as shown by A. C. Life.' This plant was injured by a wagon running over it and showed a number of abnormal conditions in which the reproductive pri- mordia had a tendency to change into vegetative parts. It is well, therefore, on finding any monstrosities of any kind to con- sider and inquire into the cause or source of the deviation and to try to ascertain whether these deviations are traumatic in origin or are inherent ill the plant itself for some other reason. lA. C. Life, Botanical Gazette, 1904, Vol. 38, pp. 383-384. l^J'ouiingtnn, Indiaiid. 28;:} Report op the AVork in Corn Pollination, III. M. L. Fisher. A brief resume may be helpful. In 190S a series of studies in corn I'dUination was begun. Of these studies two were reported to this society at the ItiOS meeting. One of these dealt with the vitality of pollen as affected by age. The other dealt with the results of cross-pollinating varieties of different colors also, the crossing of sweet and dent corn. Seed obtained from these crosses was used for planting in 1909. The re- .^ults of this planting were reported at the 1910 meeting. In brief they showed an agreement with Mendelian principles. In 1910 seed was selected from the various types developed in 1909. For example, from ears which showed white and yellow dent, and sweet kernels all on the same cob, the white kernels were picked out and planted separately; the same was done with the yellow dent and sweet liernels. In all sixteen different selections were made. These were iilanted in single rows side by side and given similar ti'eatment in every v.ay. Hand pollination was resorted to as in the two previous years. It may be said here that after three years of self-pollination there was not the marked deterioration which breeders have told us would happen from sucii in-breeding. A full account of the results of this experiment may not be given in this place, but the following observations are presented : 1. The effect of using Reid's Yellow Dent as a male on Boone County White was to increase the height of the stalk noticeably, while the recip- rocal cross showed a sturdier stalk than is usual with either variety. 2. Sweet corn as either parent induced an abundance of suckers. The average for six different rows in which the seed used had some sweet in it was 47.5 per cent, of the stalks being suckered, some stalks having as many as six to eight. Also, where Reid's Yellow Dent was the male, the per cent, of suckers was lai'ge, amounting to 42.6 per cent, of all the stalks, while the reciprocal gave only 9.6 per cent. It is well known that sweet corn normally produces many suckers, and under favorable condi- tions Reid's I'ellow Dent produces more than most dent varieties. 284 3. The Sweet-Reid's Yelow Dent and the Raid's Yellow Dont-Boone County White crosses which had the largest per cent, of suckered stalks also showed the largest per cent, of twin ears and the smallest per cent, of barren stalks. It may not be accepted that suckers are an indication of prolificacy, but this series of experiments indicated as much. 4. This being the third year of the experiment the constancy of dominants and recessives would be expected to show itself. Sweet, red. speckled, and white are supposed to be recessive to dent and yellow. In ' 18 self-pollinated ears from sweet, 15 were pure sweet and 3 mixed white, sweet, and yellow. In 12 ears from speckled seed, 9 were pure speckled. 2 pure yellow, and 1 pure red. In 15 ears from red seed, 13 were purr red and 2 pure yellow. However, in none of the pollinations from white seed was the percentage of pure ears so high. The highest being from the white seed selected from the Sweet-Reid's Yellow Dent cross, in which 7 out of 12 ears were pure. In the experiments of 1908 yellow showed itself dominant to all other colors, consequently it would contain not only the dominants but the hybrids and such a condition manifested itself in the various selectloi from yellow seed. A notable exception was from a row planted with yellow seed from a twin ear. Every self-pollinated ear from this row was pure yellow. 5. From the Sweet-Reid's Y'ellow Dent cross two types arose, on?' with whitish kernels and white cobs, like the original Stowell's Evergreen, and the other with yellowish kernels and red cobs. These two types were planted in 1011 on the grounds of the Horticultural Department, Purdue University. The sea.son being backward the crop was not large, but enough was obtained! to show that the ty]ies were lixed and would breed true. rurdue Univcrsitif, LaFayettc, Ind. 285 New and Notable Members of tite Indiana Flora. E. J. Grimes. The following notes deal with the distribution and the ecological condition of the species mentioned. They pertain for the most part to the flora of Putnam County. The determinations have been verified by authorities, and the speci- mens are deposited in the National Herb., Gray Herb., and my herbarium. The nomenclature follows the Vienna Code as exemplified in the seventh edition of Gray's Manual. The seventeen species and varieties that are recorded as new to the Indiana flora are marked with an asterisk (*). Ophioglossuni viilgatum L. Putnam County. Four miles south of Russellville a large colony of this plant was found June 4, 1911, on a wooded hillside along Raccoon Creek. The plants were very thrifty, from 24 to 32 cm. in height, the leaves 3.5-4 cm. wide, and 0-7 cm. long. The sterile regments were attached below the middle. Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Putnam County. Grows sparingly on sandstone ledges. September 4, 1911. Aspidium noveboracense (L.) SW. Parke County. Low woods in moist soil. Small colony was found one mile north of Ferndale. September 11, 1910. Asplenium Thrichomanes L. Putnam, Parke and Montgomery counties. Frequent on dry sandstone ledges, found with Polyodium vulgare. *MarsiIea quadrifolia L. Putnam County, south of the Vandalia station at Greencastle in an old pond. This species is quite abundant on one side of the pond, but is rapidly disappearing, due to the draining of the i>ond and the subse- quent encroaching of the vegetation, which is filling up the pond and eventually choking out the Marsilea. This plant was first detected by Dr. Banker of De Pauw Inlversity in 1904. Possibly introduced by some botanist. 286 *rasiialuiii straiiiiiieuni Xasli. rutnaiu County. Oi)en. dry hillsides and alonj? railways, October 4, r.)n. The range as given in Gray's Manual is Nebraska to Missouri and southward. I'anicnni huaclnu-ae Ashe. I'utnam County, dry o])en hillsides, June 11, lUll. Ileported from Indiana at Clarke Junction (Bebb), Gibson (Hill), (Hitchcock and Chase.) — (X. A. Species of Panicuin, p. 210) ■ Aristida tuberculosa Nutt. rutnani County, along old liig Four Kailway. .Viigust S, I'Jll. "In sandy soil along the lake beach. Lake (Hill)."— (State Catalog, p. G33.) Diarrhena diandra (Michx.) Wood, liich soil in a wooded ravine along Raccoon Creek. Putnam County. July '.). IDll. Reported only from counties bordering the Ohio Iliver and lower Wabash. Bromus purgans L. rufnam County, rich hillside along Eaccoon Creek. First detected :is a nieniher of our flora by G. W. Wilson. — (Proc. Ind. Acad. Scl. 190."), Cyiierus aristatus Rottb. Southern part of Putnam Cuunty on wet sandy shore of Mill Creek. August 10, 1911. *Eleocharis palustris glaucescens (Wilid.) Gray. Putnjim County, one mile east of Russellville. in ditch aloug C. H. iV: D. Railway. In flower May 22, 1911. Carex cristat;i Sehwein. Putnam County, three and one-half miles south of Russellville, in llverniitn's Swamp along Raccoon Creek, June 11, 1911, with Carc.c stipata, (I. <■< iilKilojihora and Scirpiis rdliihis. '■C.ni'ex viiesceus Sw.inii I'^ernald. Puln:im County, on rocky, wooihil hillside .at Fern, .\ugust S, 1911. *.Tuncus effusus solutus I'ei'nald and Weigand. Putnam ('ounly. near l.iinedale. in .-in aliaiulniu'd rock (piarry, Oc- tober f), J911. M.-iiantlicimim canadensis 1 >esl'. I'litnaiii Ciiuulv, Iwn miles unrllieast of Bainbridge. on dry liillside, assng, p. 757.) Conriui^ia orientalis (L. ) Dumort. rutnam and Montgomery counties, along the Monon R. R. In flower May C. 11)11. First reported by G. W. Wilson.— (I»roc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1000; 171.) Becoming more abundant each year. *Sisymbrium ofliciiiale leiocarpum DC. Putnam County in cultivated grounds with the type, but far more al)undant. *IIesperis matronalis L. Montgomery County, along roadside near Crawfordsville, August 11, 1911. *Hydrangea cinerea Small. Posey County, July 7, 1910 (C. C. Deam) ; Montgomery County (Deam and Grimes), July 23, 1911. Putnam County, two miles northeast of Bainbridge. on Knobstone shale along Walnut Creelv. In flower August l.j, 1911. Flowering later than H. arborescens, this is the predominating species wherever found. The range in Gray's Manual is South Carolina and Georgia to Tennessee and Missouri. *Pyrus loensis (Wood) Bailey. Putnam County, two miles west of Greencastle, on embanlvment of old Big Four Railway. Fruit was collected from a single individual about eight feet tall, August 27, 1911. *Crataegns pruinosa (Wendl) K. Koch. Putnam County, on dry wooded hillside along Raccoon Creek. This is tlae first species in our area to ripen its fruit, mature fruit having been collected July 30, 1911. *Geum flavum (Porter) Blcknell. Putnam County, four miles soutli of Russellville, In moist wooded ravine near Raccoon Creek. Taken at only one other station. Infrequent, July 10, 1910. Rosa blauda Ait. Putnam County, near Greencastle, on dry bank along Big Four Rail- way, in full flower June 4, 1911. "In a few localities in the rocky hjJJs of the southern counties." — (State Catalog, p. JS^,) 288 l!osiii,iiitliiis illiiiocusis (Miclix.) MmcM. I'utnam County, on embankment of old Big Four Railway, west of Greencastle, August 8, 1911. Well established at two stations along the railway. "I have seen specimens from no other region (Clark County). In my opinion the form is (if rare occurreTK-o in the southern and south- western counties. If lOuiid it would ])n)bably I)e <>u alluvial banks or in prairies." — (State Catalog. ]>. sin.) Possibly a migrant in Putnam County. Stni])liostyl('s i>aucit1()ra (P.cnth.) AYats. IMitnam Connly, near Fern, almig tiit> old P.ig Four Kaihvay. This interesting si)ecies is frcijuonl iilong the rDadsidc f(ir ahnu) a (piarter mile, where it is associated with Eupliorhia Jtctcr oitlnjUn. Mi (llcdgo saliva an I Aristoiht tuhcrcnlom. The leaves varied from 2-4. ."» cm. long, the pods wcio from 2 to 2.5 cm. long and 5 mm. wide. Stiimles 3 nun. long. The peduncles varied from 2 to 10 cm. long, the seeds were grayish brown in color and 3.-3.5 mm. long. The most northern station known in Indiana, having been reported only from Gibson and Posey counties, where Dr. Schneck reconled it as rare. Croton glandulosns se])tentri(inalis Mnell. Arg. Putnam County, three miles west of Greencastle on right of way of old Big Four Railway. Flowering and fruiting spe<'imens collected Au- gust 27, 1911, Local and rare. Previously reported only from Daviess County, Croton monanthogynus Michx. Putnam County, frequent five miles wes( of Greencastle along old 1-ig Four Railway. August S, 1911. Hypericum Ascyron L. Putnam, Parke and Montgomery counties, in alluvial soil and itn baid indi\idu;il about one nicti'r tall, grows on tile very dry ledge, associated with 'I'siiiiu ninitdi iisis. *liigustrum vulgarc L. .Moidgoniery County, along roadsides .-ind in waste places. June 25, 1!>11. 289 *Asolei)ias Sullivaiitii Kngelm. Putiiaiu County, one mile west of Bainbridge, in a pasture. In full flower, June 25, 1911. Two additional stations liave since been detected near Russellville, associated witli A. si/iiaca, Verliena angustifolia Miclix. Putnam County, in a ditch along the C, U.' & D. Railway near Russell- ville. In flower July 10. 1!>11. *yerl)ascum Blattaria albiflorum Ktze. Putnam and Montgomery counties. Comm

  • ;u";itus previously mentioned have given striking results in the early stages of seedling growth as shown by the accompanying photo- graphs. The following data will indicate the accuracy of this method of seed selection and the uniformity in the seeds separated. It also demon- sti-ates the practical value of the method if applied to the commercial production of digitalis leaves. Seeds collected from the foregoing plants of Digitalis purpurea L. were separated into light, medium and heavy. The extreme smalluess of these seeds made it necessary to use tive hun- dred seeds from each separation for weighings. Seeds of Digitalis grandi- tiora Lam. obtained from Henry A. Dreer of I'hiladelphia wei'e also sep- arated, weighed and tested. These were hetivy enough to be weighed in one hundred lots and were of such uniformity that they were only sep- arated into light and heavy portions. The following tal)le includes the results of these separations and weighings : DiyitaUs purpurea. Light. Medium. Heavy. 500 seeds 500 seeds 500 seeds 0.0217 gm. 0.0253 gm. 0.0341 gm. Diyifalisi grdiuVipora. Light. Heavy. 100 seeds 0.0168 gm. 100 seeds 0.0215 gm. 100 seeds 0.0167 gm. 100 seeds 0.0223 gm. 100 seeds 0.0161 gm. 100 seeds 0.0223 gm. 100 seeds 0.0161 gm 100 seeds 0.0215 gm. 100 seeds 0.0164 gm. 100 seeds 0.0217 gm. Total 0. 0S21 gm. Total 0. 1003 gm. In conclusion it is only necessary to say that the application of these methods of breeding and the possibilities in drug plant improvement herein suggested should be extended until they include such valuable forms £^s 320 cnimnliis indi.n. liclliuioiiiiM. hucliu. and otlu-rs. Hardy iirndiictive vari- eties i-e it liatli ruiiiie t(ii) larre; most men do wholly cut away as much as is fretted with the ("anker, and then dresse it, or wet it with vinegar, or Cowes dunj; and urine, etc., until it be destroyed, and after healed a^'aine with your salve before appointed * * *." Hales (17;il2)- wrote in regard to the manner in wliich canker spreads. Marshall? (1799)'' says: "'I'he canker is a disease that originates chiefly in the soil, pervades the .juices of the plant, and finally operates towards its dissolu- tion." Other workers have discussed canker, but I'addi:c-k CDS)' was first to present anything definite regarding the New York apple tree canker. Maugiu ('02)" and Delacroix ('()3)'' described an apple dfsease. ITntil recent years there has been confusion as to the cause of the leaf-spot or "frog-eye" disease, but Scott and R)' there seems to be a distinct produftion of cellulose in the cell-wall of the apple, and also .'1 prodn<-ti(>n of stardi in the invaded cells. The walls become thick and the fi'uit is temixiraril^' in a state of preservation. ETIOLOGY Tile disease is caused hy a fungous para.site, Spha-eropsis malurunu Its general nature is that of a wound parasite, tliougli it fi'equently fol- lows bliglit, thus acting as a saprophyte. Its pathogenicity has been es- tablislied by Paddock ('00)- and by 8cott and Rorer (1. c, p. 49). The writer has confirmed the work of these men, but at present the results are not entirely satisfactory. In few cases has the canl^er been produced by artificial inoculation even under tlie most favorable conditions. Tlie only explanations at liand are that the fungus is strictly saprophytic or that tlie work was not done at the riglit season of the year. Where maxi- nuun sterile conditions were maintained and where tlie inoculations werf made in early summer the writer has failed to reproduce the canker dis- ease. Further experiments may show, how'ever, that infection is possible if done at earlier seasons, perliai)s at the time of the ri.se of sap. Leaves have been inoculated in all coiiceival)le manner, but only where spores were sprayed on the under side were we able to produce "frog eye." i n these cases al)uiidant fruit bodies appeared. Extended discussion, as re- gards the p.'ithogenicily of the organism cannot be taken up hcrr. hut it may be said that the present state of our knowledge is very unsatisfactory and many exi)erinients will be ne('ess;iry to clear up these ix^ints. Hi/iKiiioni!/. — In literature we tiiid tlie fungus referred to as Sphacr- op.si.s malornDi IJerk. and »S'. iniiloruiii I'k. Other names have been apiilied to llie same s])ecies, so that it is only l)y making a careful outline of the work (Idue. ti'aciiig it (lom its discovi-ry to tlie ]»resent lime, that the sit- uation may become clear. r.ei'keley (';i(i)'' found .-i ruiigus wliicli he called Siiliinriii niiilonnii. He described it as follows: "(dobusc en- subgloliosc, covered with a black- ened cuticle; stroma blackisli. cuticle erumpent, more (tr less strongly ''06. Danduno, J. H. A Stiiuuhm lo ih,- I'ldiluctiim of (VIJiiNw mikI Sliircli. Ui-pt- Midi. Acad. Sci. 8:40-44. inoo. >'00. Paddock, VV. The Now York Apple Tivc ("anker (Socond Kt-port) X. V. aii'iieva) Arp. Exp..Sla. Bui. 18.'>:205-2i;<. 1900. »'30. lierkidey, M.J. English Flora 5:257. l«3fi. 331 Iiiipilhe furni. On upple.s I,viiiy on ground, Winter King's Cliffe, Norths, liov. IM. J. Berkeley. Asci broadly elliptic, septate filled with yellowish green granular " Why he should say "Asci septate," etc., is not known. In his Outlines ('GO)^ he changed the name to Sphacropsis ma- luniin Berk, listing i^phaeria lufiloniiii in synonoiny. Since the spores of Sphaerojhsis malorum are brown when mature, and those of Phoma are greenish, Saccardo ('84)- used the name PJioiiki iiki- Jorum (Berk.) Sacc. for Berkeley's fungus. In 1SS(!, the genus J'Iidhki was divided, the basis of separation being the size of the spores. Species (if the genus Phoma with spores less than 15 microns long were retained in that genus, while those species with longer spores were placed in tlie genus Macro phoma. Consequently, Saccardo's Phoma malorum (Berk.) Sacc. was renamed by Berlese and Voglino ('86)^ as Macrophoma maloriini (Berk.) Berl. and Vogl. Meanwhile Dr. Peck ('78)* found a black rot fungus on apples which had brown spores. He lielieved it to be Berkeley's fungus, and so called it Sphaeropsis malorum Berk. But Saccardo ('84)'' bflievefl that, since the spores were brown, Peck's fungus was new and used the name sphaeropsis malorum Pk. » Paddock ('99)" ix)ints out that Hphacropsis malt Westd. and S. cin- crea (C &E.) Sacc. are identical with S. malorum Pk. In his second re- port (1. c pp. 211-212) he states, as a result of inoculation work, that »S'. malorum Pk. occurs on apple trees, pear trees and hawthorn trees, and on apple, pear, and quince fruits. From this it seems that the species of Sphaeropsis on these different hosts ai'e all identical with S. malorum Pk. O'Gara ("02)^ records that Sphaci'opsls rhoina (Schw.) Starb. on Rhus glabra is identical with S. malorum Pk. Unfortunately it seems that species of Sphaeropsis have been con- fused with species of Diplodia. The two genera are almost identical, the chief distinction being that the spores of the former are usually 1-celled. while the latter embraces species with 2-celled spores. But both genera fail in their cliief distinction, so that mycologists have frequently been >'60. Berkeley, M. J. Outlines of British Fungology (Lovell Reve, London). 1860:316. «'84. Saccardo, P. A. Sylloge Fungorum, 3:152. 1884. • '86. Berlese, A. N. and Voglino, P. Atti. Soc. Veneto-Trentina 1886:184. *'78. Peck, C. H. Report N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 31:20. 1878. ''84. Saccardo, P. A. Sylloge Fungorum, 3:294. 1884. «'99. Paddock, W. The New York Apple Tree Canker. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull, 163:202. 1899. ''02, O'Gara, P.J. Notes on Canker and Black Rot. Science n.s. 16:434-435. 1902, :«2 misled on this point. Fuclvol ('(i2)' (lescrilx'd IHjtlodia iiuilonon and D P'icudo-Diplodia on tiio branclu's of aiiplc. and according to his descrip- tion iS'. iiiiil'innii is identical with Uu^e. Dohicroix ("0:^)= states tliat. since /S. Dtulontnt I'l<. is only a s])ecies. which was formerly observed by L'nckel and descriixMl l)y liini mider the name Diplodia pseudo-DipIodiu. the name »S'. maloniut I'k. should disappear. As a substitute for all pre- vious names be says that the loi^ical name should be Sphaeropsis pseiido- Iilplodia (Fuckel) Delacroix. Scheweiuitz ('34)^ in bis treatment of the North American Funsi de- scribed a fungus which be called SpJiarria Sumachi. Cook and Ellis ('70)* evidently recognized this organism as a Sphaeropsis, for they listed it as Spha crops is Sidiiadii (Schw.) C. & E. giving Sphaeria Sumachi Schw. as a synonym. According to their description and figures, this organism is identical with N. iiinloriiiii I'k. If this is ti'ue. then Sphacropsis Su- iiKichi (Schw.) ('. i>i: E. is most ancient, and should stand. Scliweinit/, (1. c.. ji. 2ls) described a fungus, calling it SpJiacria rlinind. Starback evidently considered this fungus as a Sphacropsis for Sa<-cai'(l<» ("li-")" lists it as ^'////(fc;■o/^s•/.s• rhoiiiii (Schw.) .Starb. ; Itut we have not seen Starback's original description. 0"Gara (1. c. pp. ■434-43")). as we have pointed out. has shown that .S'. rlioimi (Schw.) Starb. and S. iiialoriiNi I'k. are identical. We lind again that Schweinitz (I. <•.. p. U't'.ii descriJH'd a fungus which he called SjiJiaciia pomonnn. ("onke ("tfJ).'' after having examined Schweinitz's collection, states that it should l>p classed with the s])ecies of Sphacropsis. and that it is prolialily identical with S. miiloniiii I'k. At this ])oint it mi^ht lie stated that the writer has collected species of Sphacropsis on several diffcient hosts, all of which agree morpbologi- Crtlly with the Sphacropsis mttJoniin of I'eck; so that in order to clear up this confusion, these '69. Fuckel, L. Symbolae Mycoiagicju-. 1869:!!)r). ''0.3. Delacroix, G. Sur ridontitc reollo i^ph.ii'ropsi.s iiKiloniiii I'ccU. Bull. Soc. M,\c. Friincc 19:350-352. 1903. •'34. de Schwoinitz, I^. D. Synopsis Funiioriiiu .Anii'iica lioivali iiu-iiia (ioni'iiliuiii. Trans. Ainier. Phil. Soc.n.H. 4:205. 1834. «'7fi. Cook. M.C. and Ellis, J. n. New Jor.soy Kunici. (bvv.5::U. ISTC. •'95. Saccardo, P. A. .SjIIoko Kunnorutn. 11:51'-'. ISil.i. •'92. Cooke, M.C S|)liaaf Iniperfcctac Cognilao. Circv. 20:Sli. IS')'.'. 333 tijiiliinn: Peach twics ; I'car (bark and fruit); Quince (fruit and leaf); 7'///'/ Ioili(i i)siiilii(liii I'"ckl. 8ym. Alyc. 18()9::i!»;5. Di/iloilid iinilontiJi l'"ckl. Sym. Myc. 1869:305. Sph(tci(ii)sis f^imtachi (Sclnv.) ('. i^; K. Grev. 5:31. 1S7G. M ncraiilodin t to say that the mature spore is binucleate. 'I'lie most noteworthy difference in size of si)ores is that they are larger on fruit and in culture than on limbs or leaves. There is also sliu'-bt variatiou with host-plants. Sjiores readil.v LCeniiiiiale in water (I'M;:. V,), about six hours being recpiired, tiiougli we have observed L,'eniiiiiat ion after ibree hours. The tiil)e lii-st aiijiears as a slii;hl swelliui,' at one end or the side. Two-celled 337 spores frequently put out two germ tubes. Those kept in the laboratory tor a year have been found fa]>ahle of germination. Alicro-co nulla have been found frequently in cultures. They are pro- duced near the tips of young mycelial threads and will reproduce the fungus when sown in pure culture. They are colorless and measure 3.6-G.3 X 7-14.5 microns. Fi^. 6. Spores. Germinated in water after a few hours. Fig. 7. Chlamjdospores produced in culture after tear months. Germinated in water alter a few hours. Clilfnmjdosporcs are also quite common (Fig. 7). The first notice of these bodies was made in agar cultures about three months old. Their formation seems to be brought about as a result of certain mycelial cells becoming rich in protoplasm and becoming delimited by transverse walls to form the chlaraydospore. which later acquires a thick membrane. In older cultures, oil drops have been seen in the chlamydospores. These germinate readily in water (Fig 5). [22—29034] 338 The Mycelium. — The germ-tube as it branches lo develop the mycelium is at first hyaline, but soon becomes darker. In old cultui'es it is very dark brown. The conlciits ;uv tiranular, glycogen frequently being in-escut. Its diameter ranges Iroin 4-li) microns; averaging about 7 microns. The ascogonous form lias been reported by Shear ('10)/ who sowed ascopores of Melanops quercuum (Sehw.) Rehm forma tit is Sacc. and obtained brown pycnospores which agree morphologically with those of »S. malorum Pk. and Diplodia pseudo-Diplodia Fckl. Pure Cultures. — The fungus grows and fruits well on any of the media which we have used, including several vegetable and fruit decoc- tion agars. Growth is at first cottony, the colonies effuse and radiating. The brown color characteristic of the older threads soon spreads through the aerial hyphjie until only the extreme surface threads remain a light gray color. The production of pycnidia in culture has never failed in our expei-ience, and at present we liave about fifty different strains growing. Wlietlier or not certain strains will not fruit in culture remains to be tested. CONTROL Preventive measures have not been carefully worked out, though a few general suggestions can be given. So far as an immediate remedy is concerned it seems that eradica- tiun, protection and inuaunizntion are points most worthy of (•d out and this done carefully. Whether this is practicable or not depi'uds upon the energies of the grower. In one or- chard of about 400 trees which we call to mind, the work was done ef- fectively at a cost of about twenty-five cents per tree. In removing can- kered sj)ots, all diseased bark should be removed, the wiuiiids disinfected with c(»rrosive sublimate (1-1000) and painted witii coal gas tar. Tools which W(> have found convenient are those which any farmer has. namely, a draw-shave, a farrier's kiufe for trinnuiiig the margin of the wound, and the necessarv coal tar and disinfeclant. In jierfornnng these opera- tions, as well :is when picking the fiMiit. it is i-econunended tlie work- men usi' cai-e ;di(iui lirciiking (he hark. .\ny such wounds are only an oi>en door for (lie fungus. ''10. Shear, C. L. Life History i>f ^filanoim tiucrruuni iS-lnv.'i Rohm, /orwa vilis S^cc. Scionco n. 8. 31:748. igid. 339 Sprnyiiii; for canker is iinictieed ; but do not iiiisniiderstaiKl what is nu-ant. If the organism is established tlien it is lil^ely tliat spraying will not be effective, but trees can l)e protected against infection. It is often stated tliat canlcer is not found in well managed orchards, but this has not been our observation. Even in some of the best cared for orchards we have found the most cankers. In these cases, either the fungus gained entrance to the cambium in only a few instances, or if it did pierce this layer, the limbs w^ere cut off just back of the diseased area and a new slioot allowed to form. It has been noticed for a number of years that not all varieties are attacked. We have in mind an orchard in which three rows were the Twenty Ounce variety. Other varieties on either side were unaffected. Just why this difference? Is it due to the virulence of the fungus or does it depend uixm increased susceptibility of the host, this in tui'n to be at- tributed to some subtle clumge in nutrition, soil condition, or some other overlooked factors of environment? Soil conditions were apparently uni- form, so that some more remote factor nuist have contributed to this phenomenon. Is it possible to inject Into a tree a substance which would render it imnume? It is claimed by some that such a thing is possible. After all, then, just how far is the canker fungus res])onsible for the destruction of the host? May not its invasion be the result of changes from some of the causes suggested rather than the direct work of the parasite? The ques- tions are only to he answered by hoping that future investigation will reveal some of these remote, yet interesting, questions to such an extent that economic conditions generally will be benefited. TTfl&ff.s/i CoUeye, Vrairfor(]s:riUc. Ind.. June 1911. 341 Value of Fertilizing Constituents op Weeds of Indiana. Analysis of Ironweeds. By Fkank INIatiifrs and Miss Gail M. Stapp. This paiiei" is the bL'.i,'iiiniii.::; of work to determine tlie value of weeds. Ironweeds, wliich grow everywhere in great abundance, were selected for analysis. .Samples were collected from the university campus on Sep- tember 29, 1911. They were cut into small pieces and dried for several days in the air. Finally the material was dried for several hours at about 90°. The analysis was made upon this dried sample, but the results were calculated to the air dried material. The loss on drying was 14 per cent. The analyses' of several other substances are given in this table for com- l)arison. Ironweed.-i Blue gra,s.s . . . Oxeye daisy Wheat straw Foxtail Corn stover* Timothy hay Red top ... Red clover Per Cent of Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. Value per Ton.* 1 1 1.29 1.28 1.19 0.28 0.59 1.54 1.01 1.26 1.15 2.07 0.66 0.63 0.40 0.44 0.12 0.44 0.29 0.53 0.36 0.38 0.95 0.98 1.57 1.25 0.51 1.99 1.40 0.90 1.02 2.20 1 ?6 SO 6 65 3 28 2 87 8 45 (fodder) 5 76 6 24 4 14 10 54 *The values used for N, P2O5 and KjO are 18, 6 and 6 cents per pound respectively. These calculations do not consider the value of the organic matter, which is really the thing of greatest importance in manures and soiling crops. The values assigned represent the cost of a commercial fertilizer containing the same amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 'Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 20: 611 (1896). ;m2 The object (if this wurk is {<> pdiiit out the v.ihie of weeds and to call attention to tiie possihilities <■!' utili/.iuii these waste products for increashig the fertility of the soil. Many tons of ironweeds grow each summer in the pasture fields of the State. In sdhic cases the weeds ai"e cut hut are n^t \\s('(\ in an\ way. 'J'he cust nf cutting. I'aking. hauling and scattering these weeds ui)on some field under cultivation would be only a small part of their value. If there were a market for ironweeds at say $2.50 j»er tnii. farmers would hai'vi-st the entire crop. 'J'hen why are the ironweeds not waed by the farmer himself, since they are worth $().")(• to himV The value of chjver as a fertilizing material is recognized by everyone, but iionweeds, wliich are worth i'i) per cent, as nnich as clover, ure uever considered of any vahie whatever. Indiana Viiircrsifj/, Bloomington. 343 The Prevalence and Prevention op Stinking Smut in Indiana. By O. R. Orton. In bringing before tlie Academy tlie subject of "Stiuliiug Smut" the writer wislies to impress upon its members the fact that this disease is of considerable economic importance, and that so far little, if any, sys- tematic effort has been made to eradicate it. It is hoped that the im- portance of this disease will soon be brought before the wheat growers and agriculturists of Indiana, and since the disease is one which has been proved, both experimentally and practically, to be easily and cheaply prevented, that active measures will be taken to check its further spread iu the State. There is little doubt that stinking smut has been present in Indiana since the introduction of wheat growing in the State, and that In some years comparatively small loss has been occasioned, but it is not a mat- ter of doubt that in some years a very severe loss is reported which amounts to startling figures when represented in monetary values. There have been several bulletins^ issued from the Purdue Experi- ment Station in years past concerning this disease, but none which have given any definite information regarding its prevalence throughout the State. In the fall and winter of 1910-11, Dr. Frank D. Kern, Associate Botanist at the Purdue Experiment Station, sent out from that Depart- ment about 1,2(M> interrogatory letters, oi'e of which is here reproduced, to the leading elevators and grain dealers throughout the State, each county being represented. "Name Postofflce County Did stinking smut of wheat occur in your vicinity the past season? 'Arthur, J. C. S nut of Wheat and Oats. Bull. Agr. Exp. Sta. of Ind. 28:1889. Arthur, J. C. Treatmsnt of Smut in Wheats Bull. Agr. Exp. Sta. of Ind. 32, 2:1890. Arthur, J. C. and Johnson, A. G. The Loose Smut of Oats and Stinking Smut of Wheat and their Prevention. Circular Agv. Exp. Sta. of Ind. 22. 1910. 344 If so, to what extoiit? (Oeneral, local, or occasional.) About how many hnshels <»f smutted wheat from the past season's inion how may these be overcome?" The following statistics are compiled from 503 replies to tiiese let- ters: Five counties were not heard from. KeiKtrters from lienton County replied that no wheat was raised in that county. Klght counties reported tbat stinking snuit did not occur with them, and eight counties reported it as occurring. Imt did not I'epoi-t the auKMint of snmt estimated present or actually iiurchased. Tliis leaves seventy counties from which we com- pile our statistics. From these seventy counties 422 reports were re- turned, of which piactically all slated that stinking snnU occurred locally or generally with them, showing that it is thoroughly disti-ilmted through- out the State. Of these 422 rei)orters who rei(lie.srt. Con- sirvative to esti- malc the actual loss from stinking snmt to be tliree times that reported, or about .$L'1!."..(>(M» for the State. 345 DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNGUS. It is not the purpose of the writer of this article, in the treatment of the subject-matter at hand, to attempt a technical description of the fungus poi)ulaii.v called "stinking; snuit of wheat," or known scientifically us Tillctia foctciis (B. & C.) Trel. It is in order that those not acquainted with the disease may recognize it that a brief descri])tion is here included. The fungus belongs to a family of the smuts whic'h form their spore masses usually within the ovaries of various grains and grasses. In this particular it differs materially from the so-called "loose smut" of oats, wheat and b;irley. The spores when mature render the seed coat brittle and it is soon ruptured. The spores in dissemination become attached to the sound seed and remain there until planted. Germination of the smut spores takes place about the same time that germination of the wheat kernel occu.rs. This is an especially favorable time for the vegetative growth (mycelium) of the fungus to invade the soft tissues of the wheat seedling, and their growth and development goes on simultaneously. When the wheat plant has attained its growth and is forming its seed, the fungus has also attained to its maximum mycelial development and pro- duces its spores within the maturing kernel of the wheat. These spores soon mature and form a greasy mass of dark brown color which gives off a disagreeable odor if the seed coats become ruptured. They are soon disseminated liy various agents. Thus the wheat, instead of growing sound heads, produces heads v.'hich are light and chaffy and worse than worthless, for any appreciable amount of them ground together with sound seed produces an unmarket- able flour. They are also a very grave source of further contamina- tion and infection of seed wheat. A field infected with stinking smut or a bin of wheat containing a very small per cent, of stinking smut is readily detected by the strong disagreeable odor it gives off. Thus it is that grain dealers and elevator men instantly detect stinking smut in the wheat they buy. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. From the nature of the disease and its habit of gi'owth it is readily understood that a contact fungicide shcmld be effective in controlling this disease. It has been conclusively demonstrated by several experimental workers, including the Purdue Experiment Station, that the following treatment of seed wheat will entirely prevent it and at a very low cost. 346 This is (luitc clciirly ))r(iii,i;lit out in the rppdrt. Of tlu' five hundred and three repoi'lers, only forty-fonr knew of tlio forniahlehyde treatment beint; tried for stinkinu; smut, and forty-two of these bad been successful. The two failures rei)orted could easily have been caused by c.ireless methods of treatment or iierliaps by storing' in contaminated vessels after treat- ment. The fonuaidciiydc treatment Cdusists in spreadini; the seed (m a ti^lil floor or canvas and sprinkliuiu; until tborousbly moist with a A'', I'drmaldc- hyde solution (made by adding one jxnind of 40% ctjunnercial formaldehyd ■ to about 50 gallons of water). The t^rain should be shoveled over several times during the sjn-inklirg iiroccss in order that the formnhleliyde may b ■ evenly distril)uted. It shouUl then be shoveled into a pile and covered with canvas, or some closely woven material, for nlmut two hours. The covering should then be removed and the grain either planted inunediately or else dried by shoveling or spreading the seed into a thin layer and stirring occasionally. It may [lien be stored, care being taken to th(n'()ughl.\ disinfect the bins or sacks in which the treated whe:il is placed. Tlie cost of treating the seed re(piired to plant the croj) of 1010 is estimated as follows: I'.y nudtiplying the number of acres planted i;i wheat, or 2.( L'T.oik*. liy oih> ;ind one-ipiarter bushels, or the amount of seed planted jier :icre, we obtain .'>,i:>.'!.7."i> Imshels of seed re(iuired to raise a crop e(pial to that of 1010. Figuring that forinaldeliyde costs 10 cents per jMiund. and tiiat oiu^ pound mi.xed with HO gallons of water will be suliicieid to disinfect mi bushels of seed, we have a cost of the formaldehyde for treating one bushel, of apjiroximately one-hiilf cent. Then the amount of seed riMpiired, or .".,2^.'>,7riO bushels multiplied by one-hall cent, gives .$l(i,-Hs.7."i, or the cost of the formaldehyde for treat- ing all Ihe seed whe;il iilanted in the Slate. This sum sublracted from the estimated loss of .*2-_'."'..(i(«), leaves ,$20S.r>,"atirg the setMl wluvit with fornialdebyde. These lignres need no emphasis. The whole subject is one which is now in the hands of the farmer. It is I'oi' him to decide wbethei- he wanis lo prexcnt this hea\y loss or not. The I'nrdue Ivxperi- incnt Slat ion is anxious to .-issist. in every possible wa\'. those interested ill this work. I'ltiihir I ' III nisll II, Liifinirllc, liiiliitiia, 347 Indiana Fungi-II, J. M. Van Hook. The collecting of fleshy fungi during the months of July antl August was almost a total failure, due to the extreme dry weather. On the other hand, the continued rainfall during September and October was pro- ductive of a great many species common to the fall mouths. Many of these lind not been met with during the four years previous to 1911. It i.s interesting to observe during such seasons how the rains will awalven apparently dormant myeelia which produce immense quantities of sporo- phores. Moreover these seem most abundant on dry exposed hillsides, which under ordinary conditions produce but few mushrooms. One plant not previously observed was Armillaria nardosmia Ell. This species grew in abundance in sevei'al places in Brown and Monroe counties in October. It is one of our most attractive mushrooms (Fig. 1). In color and general appearance it reminds one of the soft feathers of our native pheasant. Likewise specimens of Lactarius sonlidiis Pk. were abundant in sit- uations commonly very dry. (Fig. 2.) One of the most interesting things ever observed by tlie writer was a most splendid fairy ring formed by Clararia fonnosa Pers. This ring was complete ; about twenty feet in diameter and composed of "bunches" for the most part six or eight inches in heiglit and two to four inches in diameter. One species collected the year before and resembling in its manner of growth Institalc maxima, which is occasionally found on the hymenium of the common Fomes applanatus, was found on the hymeiaium of a re- supinate form of Fomes conchatus. Specimens of this were sent to Dr. Peck, who describes it in the New York State Museum Report for 1910 as a new species, 8i)orotriclium chryscum Pk. Tlie following is his English description : "Hyphaj slender, 3-4 microns thick, continuous, long, intri- cate, hyaline, forming a soft, thin, subrosy separable membrane, golden yellow lieneath ; spores abundant, minute, globose, 2.5-3 microns in diam- eter." 348 349 350 "On the Iiyiiiciiium of :i rosupiii:ite form of Fames concJiatus (Pers.) r"r.. I'.looiniiijilon, I iidiniiM, J. ^l. Van Hook." Most of the fiiiij^i collected diiriii;; the year have as yet not been Ideutlfied. The list for 1011 includes only species new to Indiana Uni- versity herbariuui and coilecti'd in the State. The Myxoniycetes, omitted from hist year's list, are here included. All specimens nut otherwise marked were determined by myself and col- lected in 1011. I'STILAGINE^. L'stilago nnomala J. Kniize. On I'olyiioiuun scandens. Coll. F. T.. I'ickett, Monroe County. October. I'OLYPORACE^. Boletus cyanescens Bull. (iround, rich leaf mold, woods. Clark County, September 8, 1010. J. M. V. I'olyporus berkeleyi Fr. Growing from the ground but attached to the root of an oak stunii*. Monroe County, July 15. Cue. AGARICACE^. Agaricus abruptus I'k. Monroe County. October 4. Meier. Amanita caesarea Scop. Ground, campus, September 27. Armlllaria nardosmia Ell. Ground, Monroe County, October 4. Det. I'k. (See Fig. 1.) J. M. V. Collybia zonata I'k. (Jround. Monroe County, October 4. J. M. \'. Cortinarius cylindriiics Kaut't. (iround, Monroe County, October 4. J. M. V. Hygrophorus prateiisis (I'ers.) Fr. Ground, forming a fairy ring. Monroe County, October lo. Kdmondson. Eactarins camphoriitus (Bull.) Vv. (iioniid. .Monroe ('onnt\, October (1. .7. :\r. V. I.cpiola consiMircila (Willd.l .Morg. Kich huiinis, caniiius, under trees, October 0. .1. .M. V. J>eiiio(a viresccns (Spej;.* Morg. (iround, a\\ii, Monroe County, October 12. J. M. V. Russula leiiida Fr. Woods, ground, July 12, Brown County. J. M. V. Russula sordida Pk. Low wet ground, beech woods, Brown County, July 12. J. M V LYCOl'ERDINE.E. Lycoperdon cruciatuni Itost. (iround, between cement blocks, Kosci- usko County, September 2S. Elder. Tylostoma verrucosum Morg. On very rich leaf mold, campus, Octo- ber 2. Woolery. ASCOMYCETES. Didymella lophospora Sacc. & Speg. On living leaves of Quercus rubra, i\ronroe County, November 3. Sutton. Duthidella ulmea (Schw.) E. & E. On fallen leaves of Ulnius ameri- cana, canipas, December. J. M. V. Erysiphe graminis DC. On old wheat straw, Monroe County, August 'J. Pickett. • Erysiphe polygon! D(/. On Polygonum aviculare, campus, August 17. J. M. V. Ili'lvella huunosa Afz. Ground, tup of hill, Monroe County, October 21. J. M. V. Ilypoxylon atrupurpureum Fr. On beech, Monroe County, November 12. 1910. Owens. Det. Pk. Ilypoxylon effusum Xitschke. On elm, Monroe County, January 7, 1910. Owens. Hypoxylon marginatum (Schw.) Berk. On oak, Monroe County, No- vember 25, 1910. Owens. Hypoxylon multiforme Fr. On Iteech, Monroe County, November 12, 1910. Owens. Ilypoxylon perforatum (Schw.) Fr. On ash. Monroe County. January, 1910. Owens. Hypoxyhin rubiginosum (Pers.) Fr. On elm, Monroe County, January 28, 1910. Owens. Det. Pk. Ilypoxylon f;assafras Scliw. On sassafras. INIonroe County. February n. 1911. Owens. Nummularia mica-ophica B. & C. On sassafras, Monroe County. Jan- uary 28, 1911. Owens. 352 Nummularia ropanda (Fr.) Nitsch. On elm, Monroe County, November 25, 1911. Owens. Rhylisma ar-orhuiiu (I'crs.) Fr. On livinj; leaves of Acer rubrum, Monroe County, October. Sutton. Kosellinia subiculata (Scliw.) Sacc. On stuuii> <>i' Liriodcndrdu tulipi- fera, Clark County, November 2. 1908. J. M. V. Valsaria exa.siierens (Ger.) Sacc. On beech bark. Monroe County, No- vember 18. Owens. Det. Owens. SPH^ROPSIDALES. Phyllosticta cercidicola E. & E. On living leaves of Cercis canadensis, ;\Ionroe County, October. Sutton. riiyllosticta cruenta (Fr.) Kick.x. On livini; leaves of Smilax rotundi- folia, Monroe County, August 17. 190il Shekell & Culp. Phyllosticta faginea Pk. On living leaves of Fagus ferruginea, Mon- I'oe County, August 17, ltMi9. Shekell & Culp. Phyllosticta labruscae Tlniem. On living leaves of Vitis cordifolia. August 17, 1909. Monroe County. Shekell & Culp. Phyllosticta solitaria E. & E'. On INIaiden Blush apples, fall of 1909. Clark County. J. M. V. Septoria erigerontis P. & C. On Erigeron sp., Monroe County, August 11. 1909. J. M. V. & Culp. MEEANCOXIALES. Colletorrichum trirolii Pain. On red clover, Monroe County. Juno ti, 19(18. .7. M. V. Cylindrosi)oriuni toxicodendri (Curt.) E. & E. On living leaves of Rhus toxicodendron, Monroe County, fall of 1910. J. M. V. Oloeo.sporium septorioides Sacc. On living leaves of Quercus rubra. ^Monroe County, August 17, 1909. Shekell & Culp. (Some .spores appear one-septate. This is Marsonia . J. M. V. Cercospora violae Sacc. On living leaves of Viola cucullata, campus, August 11, 1909. J. M. V. (Spores as much as 250 microns long. Conidio- phores up to 150 long.) Sporotrichiim chryseum Pk. On the hymenium of a resupinate form of Fomes conchatus. In Monroe County or Brown County. Exact location not known. Data temporarily lost. Fall of 1909 or 1910. J. M. V. MYXOMYCETES. Arcyria denudata (Linn.) Sheldon. October 28. 1901, Monroe County. IMutchler. Dictydium caneellatum (Batsch.) Macbr. Mutchler. Diauema depressum List. Mutchler. Fuligo ovata (Schaeff.) Macbr. On bark of rotten hickory log, Mon- rne County, November 11, 1908. .7. M. V. Hemitrichia clavata (Pers.) Post. Monroe County, October 29, 1901. ^lutchler. Hemitrichia leiocarpa (Cke.) Macbr. Monroe County, October 29, 1901. ^lutchler. Hemitrichia stipata (Schw.) Macbr. Monroe County, October 25, 1901. Mutchler. Hemitrichia vesparum (Batsch.) Macbr. Monroe County. November 4, , 1901. Mutchler. I i Lamproderma scintillans (P.. & Br.) List. On oak bark, Brown County, I August 25, 1908. J. :\r. V. Lycogola eiiidendruni (Buxb.) Fr. Montgomery County, November 3, 1908. Wood. Oligonema niteiis (Lib.) Rost. Monroe County, October 25, 1901. Mutchler. Perichaena variabilis Rost. Monroe County, October 20, 1901. Mutch- ler. PlasuKxIioplKira Iii':issic:e Wor. (No data as to county.) Stemonitis ferruginea Ehrenb. Monroe County. October 25, 1901. Mutchler. [23—29034] 354 Stemoiiitis fusca (Ttotli.) Rost. Brown County, Octol)or 22, 1008. Oil rotten log. J. M. V. Stemonitis smitliii Macbr. Winter 1897. Copeland. Monroe County. Trichia contorta Rost. Monroe County, October 25, 1901. Mutcbler. Trichia decipiens (Pers.) Macbr. Monroe County, October 22, 1901. Mutcbler. Trichia favogiuea (Batsch.) Pers. Monroe County, October 30, 1901. Mutcbler. Trichia persimilis Karst. Monroe County, October 25, 1901. Mutcb- ler. Trichia scabra Rost. Monroe County, fall of 1908. J. M. V. Indiana University, Deccnihcr 1. 1911. 355 Diseases of Ginseng Caused by Sclerotinias. By Geo. A. Osner. The diseases of giiiseug may be divided into two luain classes ; first, those which attaclv primarily only the part above ground, and second, those which directly affect the root of the plant. Of the former clas.^, the two most destructive diseases are the Alternaria Blight and Phytoph- thora INIildew. Of the latter class, four or five of the most important ones may be mentioned, among which are: Wilt, End or Fiber Rot, Soft IJot, and those diseases caused by Sclerotinias — the Blaclv and Crown liots. It is with tlie two last named diseases that this paper deals. 5^ Fig. 1. Photograph of a portion of a ginseng garden, showing a spot in one of the beds killed by Black Rot fungus. 356 The Sderotiiiias ni'e chanicteiizcd diu-iiig the vegetative stage by the formation of sclerotia. Tlie sclerotia are wliite when first formed, but soon tlie outer celluhir layers become blaciv and more or less roughened. These sclerotia are usually formed abundantly on the diseased root, es- pecially during tlie later stages, thus affording an easy means of dis- tinguishing these diseases. There are two distinct types of Sclerotinial diseases of ginseng ; one In which the entire root becomes black and covered with hard black sclerotia and the otlier in which the root retains its natural color, but in v.'hich a number of blark sclerotia are developed on the outside. The fcu'iner type is known as Black Rot and is familiar enough in those gar- dens infested by it. The diseases of the latter tyi>e have collectively gone under the name Grown Rot, although it is by no means certain that the various diseases given this name have all been caused by the same or- ganism. It was with the object of determining the name and characteristics of each organism connected with these diseases and of finding some means for successfully combating them that the present investigation was under- taken. The work during the summer of 1910 was carried on at Cornell University under the direction of Prof. II. II. Whetzel, to whom grateful acknowledgments are due for the use of his private notes collected during his work on ginseng diseases. The work was continued during tlie past winter in the laboratories of the Botanical Department of Wabash Col- lege under the direction of Prof. M. B. Thomas. BLACK ROT. The first recorded mention of this disease was by Van Hook ('04) from a ginseng garden in New York. However, witli the increased culti- vation of ginseng it has spread, until last sununer it was reported not only from several counties in New York but from other States as well. While to the author's knowledge, its destruction has been extensive in only a few cases, it is well worth while to be on the lookout for it, as this dis- ease is very difficult to eradicate when once it obtains a foothold. Roots attackt'd liy P.lack Rot are coal blaik in color when dug. chang- ing to a dirty m'liy when dried. 'I'licx arc (lc\oid of all llicir small librous ('04) Van Hook, J. -Af. Diseases of Oiusoii^'. New York (Coniolli .\;,'r. K.vp. Sta. Bui. 219: 1. c. 181-1S12. 1004. 357 roots aiut al'e covered with many black protuberances or sclerotia. The disease is caused liy a soil fungus wiucli jienctrates tlie epidernus of tlie root, attackiu.i; and Iircaking down the tissue, wliicli is replaced by fl tangled conipact mass of niycelial threads. The fungus is apparently abl3 tc gain entrance iuto auy part of the root, as some infections were found which had started at the crown while others seemed to liave originated in the smaller roots. The outer tissue is first attacked* the mycelium gradiially turning black and giving the root its chanlcteristic Appearance. At this stage the ceuter of the root still retains its natural color, hut in- stead of being compact and brittle is rather soft and watery, while the whole root is tough and pliable. Infected roots which have lain in the soil two or three years gradually become black throughout and finally decay. One of the peculiar things about this fungus is that its period of attack is during the winter. Healthy roots with well-formed buds, when set in the fall in infected soil, f.-ul to send up shoots the following spring, and on examination are found diseased with Black Rot, the blackening by this time usually extending one-fourth of the way to the center. After the plants come up in the spring, Avith the return of warm weather, there is no further spread of the disease until the next winter. In working with the fungus in pure culture in the summer, an ice-box is necessary, as it will not grow at the ordinary temperature. The organism causing this disease is a new species of fungus belonging to the genus Sclerotinia. The mycelium is septate, branching, and when old becomes more or less blackened. In pure culture it grows luxuriantly on almost any medium if kept at a temperature of 40° Fahr. On nutrient agar or potato agar, sclerotia are produced in three to six days. The sclerotia are at first white compact masses of tangled mycelium, which soon become black on the outside. They are for the purpose of producing the perfect stage and carrying the fungus over imfavorable periods for growth, being able to withstand submersion in boiling water for three minutes without having their germinating power destroyed. I'nder favor- able conditions of moisture and temperature, these sclerotia send out germ tubes .iust as do spores. Under other conditions they may give rise to the perfect stage, although this has never been obtained in pure cul- tures. However, last spring, (1910), the perfect stage' was found in one I 1 Note. — A tecliniual description of tins fungus is to bo published in an early number of Phytopathology by Mr. W. H. Rankiu. 358 Fij;. 2. Ginseng roots attacked by lilack liot and showing sclerotia. ;]59 of the ginseng gardens in New York. This perfect stage developed from sclerotia on roots which liad lain in the garden during the winter, very near the surface of the ground. In the spring short stalks were sent up, bearing large cup-shaped apothecia containing the asci with their asco- spores. These spores when mature are shot up into the air to be dissem- inated by the wind and rain. Fig. 3. Black Rot. Cross and longisections of root and bud of diseased and healthy plants. The blackening of the diseased roots will later extend to the center of the diseased root. Section of health}- plant on right. (,A.fter H. H. Whetzel.) When once established in the garden the parasite apparently spreads by the mycelium growing through the soil from one plant to another, kill- ing all that come in its path. It is also spread by the tools used in weed- ing or si)ading the beds, especially in the fall. Its distribution from one garden to another is probably brought about by infested soil or perhaps by spores being carried on the shoes of people visiting the various gardens, or by the importation of diseased roots. A number of experiments were performed to determine if possible gonje raethod of eradicating this disease b^ soil treatment. It w^s foun^ 860 Hint the riiimiis wdiild i;r(i\v ('(|ii;illy well (Ui alkaline and acid media in any stren^xtli whieji could lie used on the snij. From this it seems prob- ahle that changing the acidity of the snji wonhl he nf no benefit here, as It is in the ease of some otlier Lcinseng diseases. T'ntil some other means lor Its control is found, it would be ad\isal)le to keep a sharp h)okout for black roots when digging In the fall, and to examine all spots where plants fail to come up in the s])ring. If any diseased roots are found, search the area carefully and remove and liurn all of them. The soil in the in- fested area should tlien he sterilized with formalin, diluted 1-100. care being taken not to injure the adjacent healthy roots, or if suitable appa- ratus is at hand, steam sterilization may be used. If the .garden becomes too badly infested, the only remedy is to move the seedlings to another garden, carefully sterilizing all tools with formtilin or corrosive sublimate before using them in the new garden. Y.an Hook ("04) cites a case where a grower had set roots in a bed from which black roots had been taken six or seven years before. The roots failetl to come up in the spring, and on being examined were found to be infected with Black Rot, thus show- ing that this fungus is aiiparentl.\' capable of remaining in the soil as a saiirojihyte for several years. CROWN ROT. This disease has been Known to ginseng growers for several years, but except in a few cases it has not been found vei'y abundant. The first mention of it was by J. II. Koehler ("O.'!)^ in a letter to Special Crops. Since then it has been reported from various counties in New York and from States as far west as Wisconsin. 'IMiere aie two different types of the disease^; one in which it attacks the u])per p.aii of the stem, and the otluT in which it .attacks tlH> ro(»t at or near the crown. In the latter type, the org;inisni causing the trouble seems to gain entrance into the plant throu,gh the base of the st(Mn near the surface of the ground, or in some cases through the upper p.ut of the I'oot. It works slowly \\\) tlie stem and quite rapidly down, soon entering and rotting the root. The stem loses its green color and the tissue be- comes shrunken, so th.it tlie fil)ro-vascular-l»undles st.md out shai'iily as long strialions or lidgcs. The stem soon lu-conies hollow and inside arft found largi' l.l.ack sclcrolia. 'Chese an> also t" Ivlilor. S|).fi:il rrops •_' : 1 IS. Sept. lOO:?, * 3G1 mycelinm is abundant throughout the diseased tissue and seems to travel between flie cells, dissolving the ini(hlle bunella. In case the disease attacks the upper part ot the stem, ttie first effect noticed is that the petioles all droop, or the leaflets droop from the petiole. The leaves soon fall off, and on examination the stallv will be found to contain several black sclerotia. In one garden, examined by the writer last sununer the plants had been attacked by this disease in June after they had attained their growtli, and when examined in August the leaves Fig. 4. Black Rot of ginseng showing apothecia. (After Rankin. Iiad fallen off, leaving only the straight dead stems containing sclerotia. In this type of injury the root luay send up a new static the next year, but in the year of the attaclc no growth is addetl. From observations in tlie diseased gardens it would seem that tlie trouble is increased liy the presence of too nnicli nidistuie; that is, if the fungus occurs in the soil with these conditions present it will produce the disease. One man, whose garden was troubled with tliis disease, stopped it almost immediately Iiy removing the shade and aerating the enclosure. The cup fungus, Sclcrotinia Uhertiana Fucliel, has been connected with this disease. This is a soil parasite which is widespread and com- mon on other plants such as hemp, rape, cucumber, tobacco, many forced 362 vcm'tabli' and l)iill)i)iis plants. The niycoliiini is soptale. irregularly brauch- in,!^, and rn'(iiu'ntiy very iniicli vaiiiolalcd. It ^Tdws fi'iim the cracks in the root as a wliite felt, later givini; rise to large, hard, Mack sclerotia. When first formed, thes^e are white, but later they change to brown, and linally black. Mature sclerotia are white or dirty-white within, of densely woven threads and with a black cellular outer coat. As in the case of the Black Kot fungus, they are for the purpose of carrying the organi.sm over ]ieriods unfavorable to growtli and for giving rise to the perfect Fig. "). Crow.i Rot of ginsL'ng sliowin'g largi", well tk'vc'lopt'd sclerotia. (After Whetzel.) stage. I'nder suitable moisture and temperature conditions, tliey send out germ tubes directly, just as the Hlack Unl I'uimus. The perfect stagi^ iias never been obtained by the writer in pure cullure. although during tile jiast winter an elTort was made to do so. .V large numl)er of sclerotia, giduii on various media, were placed out of doors in sterile sand, con- tained in earthen jiots, and this si)ring one-half of them were brought into the greenhouse. Some of (be jiots containing the sclerotia were kept very 363 moist, sdiue fairly moist, and otlicrs ratlior dry. but in no case did any riuiting stage apiieai-. However, in tlie spring of 3910, in a ginseng garden near Apulia, X. Y.. the perfect stage was found, having developed from some old sclerotia which had lain near the surface of the soil over winter. Specimens of this perfect stage sent to Dr. E. J. Durand of Cor- nell University were pronounced by him to be ScleroHnla lihertinia Fuckel. It is possible that some of the diseases reported by ginseng growers and described as Crown Rot have been caused by other species of Sclero- tinia. During the past winter, the writer has grown several different Fig. 6. Crown Rot showing scierQtia inside the old dead stems. In this case the roots were not diseasecj. 364 smiins iif lliis Crown Itdt fmit^us — secured rmiii vnriniis parts of the ((iiiutry — on culture media in an effort te distributed by iuijilements used in spading or weeding the beds. The spores may be scatteied by the wind and rain or they may may be carried on diseased seedlings or on the shoes and clothes of peo- ple visiting the various gardens. As stated before, this fungus grows on a luimber of ]ilanls otlier than ginseng .and it may .also gain entrance to the ginseng garden directly from these other plants by any of the agencies given above. The growth of this fungus does not seem to be affected by any change in the acidity or .-ilkalinity of the soil which could be brought about in the field. I'litil some better means of combating it is found. tJie old lotted I'ools should be carcfuliy dug and luii'iied so as to remove the i'angcr of infection from the cup stage in the sjiring. The attacked stems should also be removed ;Mid linrped as soon as noticed. Spraying with bordeaux nii.xtiire will ]ii'oliably lessen the injury to tlie stems above irronnd. In addition to tliis the garden should lie well-di-ained. and if the disease becomes \ ci-y prevahait. it would be well to remove part of the over-bead coveiing and loosen tlie si il around tlie jilanls so as to allow tl)eni to dry out. WflJKIsIl CdlJCf/C. Cniirfordsrinr. IikL, -I iiii< /7, IdU. i 365 Additions to the Flora op the Lower Wabash Valley, By Dr. J. Schneck. By Chas. C. Deam. Among some volumes which I recently purchased from the library of the late Dr. J. Schneck is a copy of "The Flora of the Wabash Valley Below the Month of White Bivor. by Dr. J. Schneck," published in the 7th report of the Indiana Geological Suiwey, 1S75, in which Dr. Schneck made numerous annotations and additions. Believing that these notes and additions are of sufHcicnt interest and value to justify their publica- tion at this time, the following list has been prepared, which excludes those reported in the Botanical Gazette. Volume 1, page 83. The nomen- clature adopted is that of Gray's Manual, 7th edition. Cystopteris bulbifera (L. ) Bernh. Hanging Rock. Potamogeton follosus Raf. Potamogeton pusillus L. 1SS7. Zanchinella palustris pedunculata J. Gay. In muddy water at Grand Rapids, August 18,'- 0. Na.ias flexilis (Willd.) Rostk. .& Schmidt. October IS, 1880. Tripsacum dactyloides L. July. Paspalnm laeve Michx. Paspalum mucronatum Muhl. Panicum anceps Michx. Panicum dichotoraiflorum Michx. Leersia lenticularis INIichx. September 25, 187S. Mnhlenbergia Schreberi J. F. Gmel. Mnhlenbergia sobolifera (Mnhl.) Trin. Mnhlenbergia sylvatica Torr. Sporobolus asper (Michx.) Kunth. Sporobolus vaginiflorus (Torr.) Wood. Agrostis perennans (Walt.) Tuckerm. Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. Sphenopholis pallens (Spreng.) Scrlbn. 1887. 366 Eragrostis luegastacliya (Kocler) Link. Glyceria canadensis (Michx.) Trin. Festuca octoflora Walt. Bromus cillatus L. Agropyron Smithii liydb. Embanlcment of the Soiitliern Railroad, east of Mt. Carmel, June 25, 1900. Cypei'us filiculmis Yalil. Dnlicliinm arundinaccnm (L.) Britt. Eleocharis acicnlaris (L.) R. & S. Margin of Burnett's pond in Gib- son County, Indiana. August 11, 1S91. Eleocharis olivacea Torr. Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. & S. Eleocharis rostellata Torr. Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) Gray. Carex alata Torr. Carex bromoides Schkuhr. Carex cauescens L. Carex Davisii Schwein. & Torr. Carex filiformis L. Carex Frankii Kunth. Carex hystricina Muhl. Carex lanuginosa Michx. Carex lurida Wahl. Carex lupulina Muhl. Carex pallescons L. Carex pennsylvaiiicn Lam. Carex retrofle.xa Mulil. Carex ripnria W. r'nrtis. Carex rosea radiata Dcwoy. Carex stricta Lam. Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth. Lonnia trisulca L. Cypress pond. Wolffia Columbiana Karst. 3801. Juncus cffusus L. .Tunctis nodosus L. Luzula camposfris (L.) DC. Sfenanthium gramiiioum (Kor.) Kunth. 367 Allium viueale L. 1896. Yucca filitomentosa L. Escaped from yards and cemeteries. Smilax pseudo-china L. Smilax Walteri Pursli. In low, damp woods about Dan's pond in Knox County, Indiana. August 13, 1900. Orchis spectabile L. Habenaria flava (L.) Gray. Border of Foote's pond in Posey County, Indiana. July 14, 1877. Quercns Miclianxii Nutt. Gibson County, Indiana. Quercns texaua Buckley. Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Chenopodium Botrys L. Anycliia canadensis (L.) BSP. Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill. Cerastium nutans Raf. Silene regia Sims. July 2, 1S79. Dianthus Armeria L. Xymphae advena variegata (Engelni.) Fernald. Not rare, in all de- grees of dark purple to yellow. Kanunculus circinatus Sibth. Ranunculus laxicaulis (T. & G.) Darby. Cocculus carol inus (L.) DC. Papaver dubium L. In Shannon's lot. June 5, 1879. Sisymbrium cauescens Nutt. May 20, 1887. Sisymbrium Thalianum (L.) J. Gay. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. In Harrington's meadow. 1904. Arabis dentata T. & G. Cleome serrulata Pursh. 1888 and 1894. Saxifrage virginiensis Michx. This may be pennsylvanica L. Gillenia stipulata (Muhl.) Trel. June 10, 1879. Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. Potentilla monspeliensis norvegica (L.) Rydb. Geum canadense Jacq. 1879. Prunus angustifolia Marsh. French or Chicasaw plum. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. Desmodium viridiflorum (L. ) Beck. Lespedeza procumbens Michx. 368 Vigiui sinensis (L.) End). Escaped, 1S9S. Aniphicarpa I'ilclieri T. &. G. I'olygala verticillata L. Crotou capitatus Michx. Euphorbia Cyparissias L. Eupliorbia humistrata I']ngelm. Callitriche deflexa Austrina (Engelm.) Hegelm. May, 1870. Rhus copallina L. Vitis ciiierea Engelm. Vitis palmata Yahl. Viola lauceolata L. Didiplis diandra (Nutt.) Wood. In a pond along the Southern Rail- road east of Mt. Carmel. July 24, 1S97. Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne. Rare. October, 1SS8. Oenothera laciniata Hill, lu sandy soil near Lyles Station in riibsim County, Indiana. July 10, 1895. Oenothera speciosa Nutt. 1893. MyrioiDhyllum heterophyllnni Michx. Sanicula canadensis L. Thaspium barbinode (Michx.) Nutt. Near the mouth of White River. Not rare there. May 22, 1887. Hottonia inflata Ell. Lysimachia thrysiflora L. May, 1881. Vinca minor L. About ojumi and grassy iilaces. Asclepias amplexicaulis Sni. Cuscuta Cephalanthi Engelm. Cuscuta Coryli Engelm. Cuscuta Epithymum Murr. On clover on the Keene farm. Cuscuta obtnsiflora IIRK. Hydroiiiiyllum canadense Ij. June 4, 189f». EUisia Nyctolea L. Near ('yi)ress pond. ]88,s. liithospermum arvonse L. May 1;", 1879. Lithospermuiii cinescens (Michx.) Lehm. Trichostema dichotonnim L. In Wabash County, Illinois. Lamium amplexicaulo L. A])ril, 1878. Sal\in a/.urcM gi'iiiHlillma llciitli. < Mi llic I'nnu of M.irtin Myt>r. June 30, 189(i. 369 Melissa ofliciiialis L. Along streets and old roads. June-Sept. riiysulis subglabrata .Mack. & P.nsh. July 2S, 1SS2. Datura iNIetel L. Occasionally spontaneous. Bacopa rotundifolia (Miclix.) Wettst. August, 188S. Gratiola spliaerocarpa Ell. Gerardia aurioulata Micli-x. Utricularia cleistogama (Gray) Britton. In mud where there had been several feet of water. Gibson County, Indiana, October 9, 1901. Utricularia gibba L. In pond along the Southern Railroad, about three miles east of Mt. Carmel. Orobanche ludoviciana Xutt. Plantago aristata Michx. June, 1SS3. Plantago elongata Pursh. Plantago lanceolata L. Galium tritlorum Michx. August 5, 1887. Eupatorium altissimum L. Kuhnia eupatoides L. Chrysopsis villosa Nutt. August, 1878. Solidago speciosa Nutt. Aster laevis L. On the Walter farm. October 9, 187S. Polymnia canadensis L. Xanthium echinatum Murr. Piver bottoms. 1877. Kudbeckia speciosa Wenderoth. Bidens discoidea (T. & G.) Britt. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L. Senecio glabellus Poir. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. 1SS7. Cirsium spinosissimum (Walt.) Scop. June 18, 1878. Tragopogon porrifolius L. Sonchus oleaceus L. Lactuca Scariola L. Found for the first time near the shops of the Big Four Railroad. July 31, 1891. Bhifffoii. Iiidiana. [24—29034] 371 Plants New or Rare in Indiana. By Chas. C. Deam. Specimens of the following species are deposited in the writer's lierbarium and in the larger herbaria of tlie United States. The number cf specimens in all cases lias been ample for correct determinations, which liave been checked by specialists. Elymns australis Scribn. & Ball. Knox County, September 2s. 1010. Frequent on the north bank of White River near its mouth. Carex laxiculmis copulata (Baily) Fernald. Noble County, June 20, 1910. In moist, rich woods about six miles southwest of Rome City. Muscari racemosa (L.) Mill. Harrison County, April 17, 1911. Common in a clover field of about , 1905, on the north side of Clear Lake, asso- ciated with Quercus veliitina. Noble County, June 20, 1910, on a wooded hillside just northwest of Home City. Elkhart County near Middlebury. Prenanthes altissima cinnamomea Fernald. Wells County, October 2, 1904, and later in Allen, Clark, Dekalb, Mor- gan and Steuben counties. The writer has not seen Prenanthes altissima in the State and it is believed that only the variety occurs in our area. Bhiffton, Indiana. :i75 The Unattached Aecial Forms op Plant-rusts in North America. By a. G. Johnson. Ever since the definite establisliment of lieteroecism iu tlie Uredinales by DeBary in 1864 and 18(35, many diCt'erent aecial forms liave been, one by one, properly connected with their respective telial forms, so that now the proper relationships are definitely Icnown for a large number. Ou the otlier hand, there still remain a considerable number of aecial forms whose telial connections are still unknown. The aecial forms of Uredineae are included mainly under the form- genera of Caeoma, Perklcrmium, Roestelta and Aecidium. In this paper the treatment will be limited to the last named form-genus, viz : Aeci- dium. The genus Aecidium. was established by Persoon iu Linne, Systema Naturae 2 :1472. 1791, by the following brief generic description : "Theca (membranacea) utrinque glabra seminibus nudis non cohaerentlbus plena." As now most generally accepted the diagnostic characters of the genus are : a more or less cupulate peridium, rupturing at apex, within which spores are boi"ne in chains. The genus was at first considered distinct and independent by the early botanists, yet practical farmers had for a long time observed and recognized the connection between rusted barberry bushes and rust on wheat in the fields, and were very certain that the former was a direct cause of the latter. To the end of protecting wheat from the disease due to this origin, a strict law providing for the destruction of all barberry bushes in Massachusetts was enacted as early as 1755, the same to take effect in 17G0 and be in force for practically four years. Following this, various observations were made and experiments performed by different men, with varying degrees of conclusiveness. While observations and experiments had been previously made by Schroeter in 1816, DeBary was the first to show conclusively the exact succession of spore-forms in the life history of a heteroecious rust. He showed definitely by experiments 376 thiit aec-iospores were produced on Berhciis froin intVclious from telio- 8i)ores of Pucciniw jHjculifonnis lidiii wheat, and thus definitely estab- lislied heteroecism in the T'redineac in 1n(!4. lie also showed that uredi- uiospores followed by teliospores were produced on wheat by sowing aeclo- spores from the barberry. DeBary's radical discovery was rather slow- in. being accepted by many other botanists, yet his evidence was indis- putable and his interpretation prevailed. Oersted, working independently and contemporaneously with DeBarry. established similar alteration of spore forms on different hosts between the genera (Jiniinosiwrang'mm on cedars and Rocstelia on the apple family. This was epoch-making work in this line and showed the necessity for accurate observations and most careful cultures to show the definite relationships of the different aecial forms. This work was taken up by botanists both in the old and new world and is still being carried on with nuich success. Early workers in Europe, beside DeBary and Oersted, were Fuckel, Magnus, Schroeter, Wolff, Eostrup, Winter, Xielsou, Reich- ardt, Ilartig, Kathay. C(U-nu and Plowright. More recent workers of the (lid world are Fischer, Ivleltahn. Tranzscliel, von Tuheuf, Wagner. Bubak, Juel, Ilennings, Eriksson, Dietel, Liro and others. In America Farlow and Tliaxter did pioneer work, follnwcd later, and with greater success, in this line by Arthur, Kellerman, Clinton, Kern and others. The work of Dr. J. C. Arthur stands out prominently above all others. The methods used by the different workers are, in the main, very similar, viz: germinable spores of one stage are placed on sterile phmts of the suspected alternate host. Conditions of heat and moisture being kept as favorable as possible throughout. In the methods ust^l by l)r. Arthur, the i)erfectly healthy potted plants are kei)t covered with bell- jars for three days after the spore sowing is mad(\ Each day the bell- jars are removed for five minutes or so to allow llie entrance of a fresh sup])ly of air, after which they are sprinkled within and replaced over the plants, and the plant thus covered is left in a shaded place until about a day after the bell-jar is removed. The inoculated leaves are then kept well moistened and kept out of too strong light and carefully watched for spore developments, ('specially after the first week. If the culture is successful the first simre structure will usually be evident in ;i week or ten days, followed latei- by the second sjiore structure, wIumi that is pres- 377 eiit, and thus shuwiiig detiiiitely that the two alternate phases on wholly different plants belong to the same species of fungus. Thus a large number of aecia have been properly assigned to their telial connection, and still many others remain to be thus connected. At first the species of Aecidiuin were placed in groups largely accord- ing to hosts, but as they were studied more closely, both microscopically and in cultures, it ^Yas found that often tliere occurred many forms on the same family of host plants, and often on the same host genus, several distinct species could be segregated. Even on the same liost-species it was not infrequent to find more than one species of Aecidiuin. As cer- tain of these aecia were properly referred to their telial connections, these were separated as carefully as possible from the unattached forms and flu- latter remained to be studied further. In certain cases the definite morphological characters of the forms that are properly connected with their telial stages have made it possible to segregate definitely the at- tached forms from the unattached forms. In other cases where the mor- phological differences are less distinctive, and where certain physiological differences exist, the separation between the attached and unattached forms lias been less definite, and in some cases it is impossible to make such separation with certainty until further cultures are made in order to help decide tlie matter. In making such separation of attached from unattached forms it is clear then that it is necessary to take into con- sideration not only the morphological characters of a species but also its physiological behavior in cultures. It has been the purpose of this study to make such separation, farther than it had already been made, and to determine as far as possible the number of forms still unattached and to work out clues for probable con- nection wherever possible. The forms of aecia whose telial connections still remain unknown, are arranged and follow in the form of an annotated list preceded by a provisional key, for convenience of reference. Under each species are given as far as possible the citation of the original description and dat? of publication, the hosts inhabited, the states and provinces in whicli the species has been found on each host, the type locality, type host, general distribution, and reference by number to siiecimens published in sets o'' exsiccati. Notes follow in most cases, especially where the form is es- pecially striking, or where there are clues to relationship, or where there 378 is some question as to tlie defiuitcness regarding the placement of the form in the unattached list. Notes are also added in some other cases. The arrangement in the list is according to host families and genera in the sequence used in Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora of the Northern States and Canada, supplemented by Eugler and Prantl's Natiir- liche Pflanzen-familien in cases where the host is not within the range of the former work. The provisional key precedes this list and follows in this connection. KEY TO THE TTNATTACHED SPECIES OF AECIDIUM IX NORTH AMERICA. I. Aecia scattered, arising from diffused mycelium : Host belonging to ITrticaceae A. lihcrtum 10 Host belonging to Chenopodiacae A. Eurotiae 12 Host belonging to Caryophyllaceae A. Cerastii 15 Host belonging to Fumariaceae I. Dicentrae 27 Host belonging to Malvaceae: Aeciospores with thin walls : Peridia fugacious, aecia more or less clliiitical in outline 1. tiihcrviihitinn 4s Peridia less fugacious, aecia practically circular in outline 1. sp. 49 Aeciospores with vei'y thick walls 1. iiitcrvoiiciis '>0 Host belonging to Iloloragidaceac t. rrosipiiiaccac 59 Host belonging to Boraginaceae 1. Mi/o.'iotidis G9 Host boloiiging lo Solonacoae 1. I'Jn/salidift 72 Host belonging to Scr()i)hulariaceae -1. ColUusiac 77 Host belonging to Valcrianacoae 1. ^'nlr)■iancUac S(i Host belonging to Cichoriaceae 1. Cohnnliiciisc 90 II. Aecia gregarious, arising frou) a limited mycelium: Host belonging to Scheuchzeriac(\ae 1. '/'rinluvliinis 1 Host belonging to Melanthaccac 1. I'ndariac 2 Host belonging to Liliaceae: Of the genus Leucocrinum A. sp. 'i Of the genus Anthericuni 4. sp. i Host J)olonging to C<)nvallariacoa(> A. Trillii 5 379 Host belonging to Amarylidaceae A. Zephranthis 6 Host belonging to Iridaceae A. Iridis 7 Host belonging to Myricaceae A. Myricatum 8 Host belonging to Urticaceae .1. Bochmeriae 9 Host belonging to Lorantbaceae A. sp. 11 Host belonging to Allioniaceae : Of the genus Abronia A. Ahroniae 13 Of the genus Mirabilis A. MiraMlis 11 Host belonging to Ranunculaceae : Of the genus Caltha A. sp. 16 Of the genus Actaea, or Cimieifuga .1. Cimicifiigatum 17 Of the genus Delphinium A. Delphinii IS Of the genus Aconitum : Aecia in rather large groups, not crowded..!. Aconiti-NapeUi 10 Aecia in small crowded groups A. circinans 20 Of the genus Anemone A. Anemones 21 Of the genus Viorua A. occklentale 22 Of the genus Ranunculus : Aecia crowded in dense groups 4. R a II H nciilacearum (in part) 23 Aecia less crowded 1. I! an ii nciilacearum (in part) 24 Of the genus Thalictrum A. Thalictri 2'\ Host belonging to Berberidaceae A. Fendleri 2(5 Host belonging to Saxifragaceae A. sp. 28 Host belonging to Pamassiaceae A. Parnassiae 29 Host belonging to Caesalpinaceae A. sp. 30 Host belonging to Fabaceae : Of the genus Baptisia A. Kellennamii 31 Of the genus Psoralea A. Onohrychidis 32 Of the genus Parosela A. Daleae 33 Of the genus Petalostemon A. Pctalostenionis 34 Of the genus Lupinus A. Lupini 35 Of the genus Apios, or Falcata A. Faloatae 30 Host belonging to Geraniaceae A. violascens 37 Host belonging to JNIalpighiaceae A. Brysonimatis 38 Host belonging to Rutaceae A. Xanthoxyli 39 Ho.st belonging to Polygalaceae A. polygalinum 40 380 Host beloiigiiii? to Eupborbiacefle : Of llic j^eiins Croton, or Crotoiiopsis 1. crotonopnidiH 4t or the geiins Ai'githniiiiiia ■. I. Anjithamniac Vl Of the geiuis ^Mo/.iniia ( .latroplia) ; A. sp. 4;^ Of the genus Sahastiana, or Stllliiigia i 1. StilUnf/iac 44 Ht)St belonging to Hippocastanaceae ......: A. AescuU 45 Host belonging to Vitacfeae : Of the genus Cissus : Aec-iosporos rather large . . . .A. Mcxlcanutn 4f) Aeciospores ratlier small . . ; A. Cissi 4t Host belonging to JNIalvaceae: Of the genus Sphaeralcea .1. Sphacralccac 51 Of the genus Gossypium .4. Gossypii 52 Host belonging to Fouquiei'iaceae A. Cannonii .^3 Host belonging to Tassifioraceae .4. passi/loricola 54 Host belonging to Thymelaceae I. Iii/noideum 55 Host belonging to Elaeaguaceae A. Allcnii 56 Host belonging to Lythraeeae A. Xcsaeae 57 Host belonging to Onagraceae A. Anograe 58 Host belonging to Primulaceae .1. Lyshnavhiac GO Host belonging to Apocynaceae : Of the genus Macrosiphonia A. Icporinuin (H Of the genus Apocynuni : Aeciospores small A. Apociini fi2 Aeciosi)ores large A. ohcsitin On Host beldiiging to AscleiJulaceae A. Brandcyci (i4 Host belonging toHydrophyllaccae : Of the genus Hydrophyllum 1. Jl i/droiilinlli L'5 Of the genus I'liacelia A. I'fiacvUac GO Host belonging to Heiiotropiaccae I. (ltiiil())i(ilcn' .4. juihcrulcntmn 84 Host belonging to Caprifoliaceae A. Trlostei 85 Host belonging to Cichoriaceae : Of the genus Lygodesmia A. Lygodesmiac 87 Of the genus Crepis A. crepidicolum 88 Of the genus Hieraciuni A. Hieraciatnni 89 Host belonging to Ambrosiaceae A. sp. 91 Host belonging to Carduaceae : Of the genus Laciniaria A. Liatridis 92 Of the genus Boltonia A. Boltonlae 93 Of the genus Clibadium A. CWbadii 94 Of the genus Montonoa A. Montonoae 95 Of the genus Wedelia A. Wedeliac 9;i Of the genus Bahia, or Eriophyllum A. Bahiac 97 Of the genus Senecio : Peridia sliort, not lacerate : Aecia rather small A. Scnecionis 98 Aecia rather large A. sp. 99 Peridia long, coarsely lacerate .1. Hcrreriamim 100 Of the genus Coleosanthus, Chrysogonuni, Chrysothamnus, Dugaldia, Helenium, Po- lymnia, or Rudbeclvia A. cuDiiiosilaiKHi 101 1. Acciditiiii Tri(jlochini.. & II. Hot. Gaz. 24 :;'.T. 1S07. On ALLIONIACEAE : Mirahilis sp.. Mexico. TYPE LOCALIIY : Itio Hondo, near City of Mexico, Mexico, on Mirahilis sp. DISTRIBUTION : Known only from type locality. No specimen seen. 15. Aeoidium Cerastii Wint. Jour. Myc. 1 :126. 18S5. On CARYOPHYLLACEAE : Ccrastinm nutans Raf., Missouri. TYPE LOCALITY: Perryville, Missouri, on Ccrastinm nutans. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from Missouri. A rare species of the tyi^ical perrennial type .iudging from the descrip- tion, no specimen has ever been examined. IG. Aecidium sp. On RANUNCULACEAE : Caltha Icptosepala DC, British Columbia. DISTRIBUTION: Only one collection known. Probably followed by the telial stage, (Puccinia ), on the same host, only not yet collected. This is doubtless a new species collected by Professor E. W. D. Hol- way on north moraine, Mt. Sanford, Glacier, British Columbia, July, 1910. 17. Aecidivm Cimicifufiatum (Schw.) Berk. Grev. 3:60. 1874. Caeoma (Aecidium ) Clmicifugatum Schw. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. II. 4:293. 1832. Aecidium Actaeac Authors. Not Opiz. On RANUNCITLACEAE : ('imicifufiu rarciiKj.sa (L. ) Nutt. (Aiiuca raccmosa L.), Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, "\'irginia ; Ontario. [25—29034] 386 Actaca alba (I;.) Mill., Iowa, Minniu'sota, Ohin. Wiscdusin. Actaea rubra (Alt.) Wllld. CI. siticata vultni .Vit.), New York. TYPE LOCALITY: Bethlehem, Peiinsyhania, on Ciinicifiif/a raccmosa. DISTRIBUTION: I'nited States east of the Mississippi Itiver, especially northward. EXSICCATI: Ravenel, Fungi Car. 1:94; Sydow, I'red. 13>,3; Rab.-Wint. Fniigi Kiir. 3-Y20 ; Kellerm. Ohio Fungi Gl ; Ellis, X. Am. Fungi 227. 18. Accidium Dclphinil Barth. Jour. Myc. 8:173. 1902. AcckUuiii Batcfiianinn Barth. Ellis & Everhart's Fungi Columb. 20:19(11. 1904. On KAXrxCrLACEAE: Delphinium albescens Rydb., Nebraska. Delphinium bicolor Nutt., Montana. Delphinium Carolinianum Walt. {D. a.ziiniim .Miehx.), Colorado. Dclpliinium cucuUitum A. Nelson, Montana. Delphinium (jcraniifolium Rydb., Colorado. Delphinium Oci/eri Greene, Colorado. Dclpliinium N el soni Greene, Idaho. Delphinium robust um Rydb., Colorado, Nebraska. DISTRIBUTION: Colorado and northward. TYPE LOCALITY: Steamboat S])rings, Colnr.-ulo. on Dvlphiniu)n scnpu- loruin, later referred to D. (jcraniifolium. EXSICCATI: Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. VJ'U ; Clements. Crypt. Form. Colo. 15]. This Accidium becomes very alnnidanl in Colorado some years. Its telial coimection is probably some grass-inhabiting Puccinia. In 1907, Dr. J. C. Arthur and Mr. F. D. Kern found it "growing intermixed with Ely- vms condcnsuhis covered with I'uccinia munhtncnsis," .-uid this may prove to be the connection. 19. Aecidium Aconiti-Xapclli (DC) Wint. Die I'il/.e p. 2ltS. ISSl. On RANIINCULACEAE : Aconitum Columbianum .Niitt.. Cdinradt). Aconilum s])., Cdbirado. PISTRIBUTION: Known fmm Colorado only. 387 EXSICCATI : Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 2^12. This Acrid i mil is very siniiljir to Aecklium DcJpJilnii Barth. with which it may ultimately iirovo to be identified. 20. Aecklium circinaiis Erikss. Bot. Centralbl. n. 36:297. 1891. On RANUNCULACEAE : Aconitum DeJphinifoliinn DC, Ahiskri. Type locality: Sweden, on Aconitum Lijcoctonum L. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from Alaska. Also hi Eul'ope. Little is known regarding this Aecidluni. It may prove to be the aecial stage of an autoecious Vmmyces similar to Uromijces Aconiti-Lycoc- t>ml (DC.) Wint., the aecial stage of wliieli it ^'reatly 1-esembles. 21. Aeeidium Anemones Am. Authors. On RANI'NCULACEAE : Anemone nareissicjlora L., Alaska. Anemone Vii;/!niana L., Indiana. Iowa. Wisconsin; Ontario. DISTRIBUTION: Northern Mississippi and northward. 22. Aeeidium occidentale Arth. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31 :7. 1004. On RANUNCULACEAE : Viorna DougUisii (Hook.) (Clematis Dourjlasii Hook.), Idaho, Wash- ington. Viorna Wi/etliii (Nutl.) Rydb.. Montana, Washington. TYPE LOCALITY: I'ullman. Washington, on Clematis Dougla.sii. DISTRIBUTION: Montana to Washington. 23. Aeeidium Ranunculaccamm DC. (in part). On RANUNCULARACEAE : Ranuncultis elUpticus Greene, North Dakota. Ranunculus glahenimus Hook.. Idaho, Montana, Washington. Ranunculus sclcratus L., North Dakota. DISTRIBUTION: Northern Mississippi valley west to Washington. The aecia on the above named hosts resemble very closely the Aeeid- ium on Oxygraphis Cymhalaria (Pnrsh) Prantl. which belongs with Puc- cinia einerea Arth. on Poa, and may be shown by cultures to belong with it This is especially likely since its range practically coincides with that of this Puceinia. 388 24. AcciiUmn RaniiiK i(J(ir( anon DP. (in pMi't) Oil KANrXCrLACIOAK: Ci/iiorh i/ik-Iki nniiiiifiiliiKi Niitt.. ('ol(ir;i(lu. Ndiuiiiciihis hiilbosiix L., Couiiectlcut. lianuncalii.s reciiriutiis Poir., Missouri. DISTRIBUTION: Conncctic-ut west to Colorado and Missouri. Tlaese differ slightly from the preceding by the peridia being nuicli less crowded and the substratum not being thickened. They may prove to be different. 25. Aeckliinit. TJiaJirtri, Am. Authors. On RANUNCULACEAE : Isopi/rum hiternatum (Raf.) T. & G., Iowa. Syndesnion thalictroides (L.) Hoffm., Indiana, ^Missouri. TliaUctruin lUoicmii L., Massachusetts, Minnosnta, Vermont. 'J'lialirtnim polygamum Muhl., Colorado. 'J'iKilictnnii pKrjmrasccns L., Nebraska, South Dakota, Wisconsin. '/'Juilictniiii fli i/rsoidctnii Greene, North Dakota. ThaJktniin sp., Idaho; Newfoundland. DISTRIBUTION: Northern United States and Canada. EXSICCATI: Barth. Fungi Columb. 2'iO.J ; Brenckle, Fungi Dak. 10',: Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. 1390; Rab.-Wint. Fungi En. S-Ml ; Rab. Wint.-Paz. Fungi Eu. SRSG. The aecia on 'llKilictiiiiii and related hosts are very closely related. and cultures are necessary to segregate them with certainty. These placed together here are slightly different as to form and hal>it from those al- ready connected with linninis and .l,r//-o/)//ro//-inliaI)il ing I'licc'nmr. 20. AecUVium Fciidlcri Tracy & Karle. I'l. I'.aker. 1:17. 1!K)1. On BKRP.ERIDACEAE : licrhcris Fciidlcri A. <;i:iy, Cohirado. TYPE LOCALITY: :SIancos. Colorado, (in Hrrbvris Fciidhri. DISTRIBUTION: Known (.iiiy Inun Colorado. This differs slightly in habit frtmi .\cci. P.iOT. On FABACEAE: Pctaloslemon ciniditlns (Willd.) Midix., Kansas, Nebraska. Petalosicmon )niilli/l<>rus Null., Kansas. 391 I'ctalostoiion oliijioplii/llKs (Torr.) Itydb., Nebraska. Pctalostcmon purpureas (Vent.) Rydb. {P. violaceus Michx.), Kan- sas, Nebraska. Fetalostemon viUosus Nntt., Colorado, Nebraska. TYPE LOCALITY: Manhattan, Kansas, on Fetalostemon candidns. DISTRIBUTION: Nebraska and Kansas west to Colorado. EXSICCATI: Earth, Fungi Columb. 2296, 2-',97, 260-',, 2903; Clements. Crypt. Form. Colo. 5.95; Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 18 ',5. Similar to Aecidium Daleae K. & S. in general habit, but has thinner walled and slightly smaller aecispores. It is no doubt distinct and b.eteroecious. 35. Aecidium Lupiiii Peck, Rep. N. Y. State Mus. 46 :33. 1S93. On FARACEAE: Lupinus perennis L., New York. TYPE LOCALITY : Karner, New York, on Lupinus perennis. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from the type locality. This form differs somewhat from the aecia common in the western mountains belonging to Uromyces Lupini B. «& C. The type locality is within a few miles of Albany, and it is difficult to explain why it has not been met with a second time. 3G. Aeeidinni Falcatac Arth. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 33:32. 1906. On FABACEAE: Falcata coniosa (L.) Kuutze (Anipliicarpa monoica Ell.), Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin. Apios Apios (L.) MacM. (A. tuherosa Moench.), Iowa, Minnesota, Ne- braska. TYPE LOCALITY : Decorah, Iowa, on Falcata comosa. DISTRIBUTION: Upper Mississippi valley. EXSICCATI: Barth. Fungi Columb. 2303; Barth. N. Am. Ured. 1; Ellis, N. Am. Fungi 11,36. A distinct species, probably of some Uromyces connection. 37. Aecidium riolascens Trel. ; Sacc. Pk. & Trel. Harriman Alaska Exped. 5:37. 1904. On GERANIACEAE: Geranium eriantJium DC, Alaska. .392 "J'YPE T.OCAlvlTY : Kadiak. Alaska, on Gcraiiinm orkintlmm. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from Alaska. This differs from AecMlum sariffuinoJentuin Lindr., which belongs with Puccinia pohjgoni-umphiUi Pers., in having the peridia less exsertec* ^nd less recurved, and in having larger spores. 3S. AcckJ'mm ByrsonUnatis P. Ilenn. Hedwigia 34:101. 1S95. Aecidium hyrsonUnaticola P. Henn. Hedwigia 34:.322. 1895. Lmlophyllum singulare Diet. & Holw. Bot. Gaz. 31 :33G. 1901. Aecidium Byrsonimae Kern & Kellerm. Jour. Jlyc. 13 :24. 1907. On i^IALPHIACEAE : Byrsonima crmsslfolia (L.) DC, Guatemala, Jalisco. TYPE LOCALITY: Goyaz, Brazil, on Byrsonima sp. DISTRIBUTION: Central Mexico and southward. Also in South Amer- ica. A strikingly characteristic form with conspicuous poridia ; often pro- duces hypertrophy. 39. Aecidium XantJwxyli Peck, Bot. Gaz. 6 :275. 1S81. On RUTACEAE: Xantlioxylum americanum Nutt., Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska. Xanthoxi/lum Clava-Herciilis L. {X. Carolinianum Lam.), Texas. Xantlioxylum Clava-Iiercxilis fniticosum (A. Gray) S. Wats., Ala- bama. TYPE LOCALITY: Decorah, Iowa, on Xanthoxylum americanum. DISTRIBUTION: Iowa and Nebraska south to Texas and Alabama. EXSICCATI: Carleton, Ured. Am. G; Barth. N. Am. Ured. 102: Ellis. N. Am. Fungi WIS; Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. i'/77; Rab.-Wint. Fungi Eur. 292S; Sydow, Ured. 15 'iS. A characteristic species, probably belonging with some grass-inhabiting Puccinia. 40. Aecidium polyc/alinum Peck, Bot. Gaz. 6 :27.">. 1S81. On POLYGALACEAE : Polyyala Senega I^. Iowa, Michigan. ^Yisco^sin. TYPE LOCALITY: Ann Arlmr. Michigan, on I'nliigahi Senega. KISTKIBI'I'IOX : l|ipci- :Mississi|iiM valley. 398 EXSICCATI: Ellis, X. Am. Fungi 1009; Rab.-Wiiit. Fungi. Eur. 3.J/.9; Sydow, l^red. 1306. A distinct .species ol' ratlier limited range. 41. Acciditnn crotonopsidis Burr. Bot. Gaz. 9:190. 1S84. AccUUiim splendciis Wint. Rab.-Wint. Fungi Eur. 32.3'/. 1S85. On EUPHOEBIACEAE: Croton nionantliogyiiHs Miclix., Illinois, Missouri. Crotonopsis linearis Miclis., Illinois. TYPE LOCALITY : Johnson County, Illinois, on Orotonopsis linearis. DISTRIBUTION: Central Mississippi valley. EXSICCATI: Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 1S2',; Rab.-Wint. Fungi Eur. 322 'i; Roum. Fungi Gall. Exs. 3S60. No doubt a heteroecious species. 42. Aecidium Argithunniiac Artb. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 33:33. 1906. On EUPHORBIACEAE : Artjitliauinia Schicdiaiiu Miill.-Arg., Hidalgo. TYPE LOCALITY : Trinidad, State of Hidalgo, Mexico, on Argithamnia Sch iediana. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from the type locality. 43. Accidinm sp. On EUPHORBIACEAE : Mozinna spathulata (Miill.-Arg.) Ortega (Jairopha spathulata Miill.- Arg.), Guanajuato. DISTRIBUTION: Only one collection known. Doubtless a distinct species of heteroecious connection. 44. Aecidium StiUingiac Tracy & Earle, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 26:492. 1899. On EUPHORBIACEAE: tiebastiana Ugnstrina (Michx.) Muell.-Arg. {StiUingia Ugiistrina Michx.), Mississippi. StiUingia sylvatica L., Florida. TYPE LOCALITY: Wisdom, Mississippi, on "StiUingia Ugiistrina." DISTRIBUTION: MLssLssippi to Florida. 394 45. Aecddiiim Aescidi Ellis & Kcll. r.ull. Torr. Rot Club 11 :ll4. 1SS4. On HIPPOCASTANACEAE : Aesculus arguta Buckley, Kansas. Aesculus (jhihra Willd., Kansas, Nebraska. TYPE LOCALITY : ^Manhattan, Kansas, on Aesculus (jhihra. DISTRIBUTION: Central Mississippi valley. EXSICCATI: Bartb. Fungi Columb. 2301; Ellis, N. Am. Fungi l',20: Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. 1296; Kell. & Swingle, Ivans. Fungi 1; Roum. Fungi Gall. 3865; Sydow, Ured. 1198. Bartbolomew (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci. 16:180.) reports tbat tbis strilving Aecldluni was so abundant on several small trees of A. ainutii in Rooks County, Kansas, in 1S97, tbat it became quite destructive. 40. Aceidium mexicanuiii D. & IL Bot. Gaz. 24:30. 1S'J7. On VITACEAE: Cissus sp., Mexico. TYPE LOCALITY : Near City of Mexico, Mexico, on Cissus sp. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. Distinguisbable from Aec. Cissi Wint. by liaving larger spores. 47. Aecidiwm Cissi Wint. Hedwigia 23:108. 1884. On VITACEAE: Cissus sicyoides L., Guatemala, Jamaica, Porto Rico. 'lYPE LOCALITY : Near Sao Francisco, Brazil, on Cissus ''Sijciaefolius." DISTRIBUTION: West Indies and Guatemala; also iu Soutb America. 48. Aceidium tuhcrculatuin Ellis & Kellerni. Juur. Myc. 4 :2(i. 1SS8. On MALVACEAE: Callirrhoe alceoides (Micbx.) A. Gray, Colorado. Callirrhoe involucrata (T. & G.) A. Gray, Kansas, Nebraska. Sidalcea Candida A. Gray, Wyoming. TYPE LOCALITY: Rooks County, Kansas, on Callirrhnc iiirolucnitti. DISTRIBUTION: West central Mississippi valley. EXSICCATI: Carlel..n. Ured. Am. 31; Kellerm. & Sw. Kans. Fungi 30; Rab.-Paz. Fungi Eur. Ji239; Sydow, Ured. 1199. An especially cbaracteristic species. Its telial coinuM-liou is d(tubtles.=i somodiing oIIht llian a grass- or stMlgc-iiilialiil in:,' rust. 395 49. Aecidiuin s\). On MALVACEAE: Althaea rosea L., Nebraska. Sidalcea Candida A. Graj', Colorado. Sidalcea Neo-Mexicana A. Gray, Colorado. DISTRIBUTION: Colorado aud Nebraska. A distinct species formerly confused with Acciditim interveniens Pk. {A. roestelioidcs E. & E.) and Aecidiuin tiihcrculation E. & K. Its thin- walled spores I'eadily distinguish it from the former and the form of its aecia, which are circular in outline, distinguish it from the latter. 50. Aecidiiim interveniens (Peck) Farl. Bibl. Index N. Am. Fungi 1 :5S. 1905. Roestelia interveniens Peck, Bull. Torr. Hot. Club 10 :74. 1SS3. Aecidium rocstelioides E. & E. Jour. Myc. 1 :93. 1SS5. On MALVACEAE: Callirrhoe alceoides (Michx.) A. Gray, Nebraska. CaUirrhoe digitata Nutt., Texas. Maivastrum ma r nil) io ides Dur. & Hilg., California. Malvastriini Tliurhcri A. Gray, Lower California. Sidalcea asprella Greene, California. Sidalcea Candida A. Gray, Washington. Sidalcea del pJiinJ folia (Nutt.) Greene, California. Sidalcea liumilis A. Gray, California. Sidalcea malvaefolia (INIoc. & Seese) A. Gray, California. Sidalcea yco-Mexicana A. Gray, Colorado. Sidalcea rivularis, Washington. TYPE LOCALITY : Lower California, on Maivastrum Thurberi. DISTRIBUTION: Nebraska south to Texas, west to Lower California and Washington. EXSICCATI: Barth. Fungi Columb. 2-'i01, 3201; Clements, Crypt. Form. Colo. 600. A strikingly characteristic species readily distinguishable by its very thick-walled spores and deeply lacerate peridium. The names Aecidiuin roestelioidcs E. & E. and Aecidium interveniens (Pk.) Farl. are here considered as synonyms. Type material has been examined and the two species are thought to be the same. The latter species name has priority, hence becomes the accepted species name. 306 51. Aecidiiim Sphacralccac E. & E. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 22:36-1. 1895. On MALA' ACEAE : Sidalcea canflida A. Gray, Colorado. SpJiaeralcea anyuslifolla Don., New Mexico. TYPE LOCALITY: Las Graces, New Mexico, on SpJiaeralcea auyiistifolia. DISTRIBUTION: Colorado and New Mexico. EXSICCATI: Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 3S',r>; Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columh. 871. There is no definite evidence that this form belongs with Puccinia t^'l)]iacralceae E. & E., with which it sometimes occurs and with which it lias been listed. It has the appearance of a heteroecions form and is s regarded here. Its telial form is likely to be a Puccinia on some grass. It may possibly belong with Puccinia DocJimia B. & C. 52. Aecidium GossijpH E. & E. Erytli. 5 :G. 1S97. On MALVACEAE: Gossypiiim hei'haccum L., Texas. Gossypium sp., California, Lower California ; Mexico. TYPE LOCALITY : California, on Gossi/piurn sp. DISTRIBUTION: Texas to California, south to .Alexico. A rarely collected species. It may possibly belong with the aecia of Puccinia Dochmia B. & C. 53. Aecidium Cannonii (U-\\\\ Bull. Toir. Bot. Club 34:210. 1907. On FOUQUIERIACEAE : Fouqniera splendens Engelm., Arizona. TYPE LOCALITY: Sabino Cafion, Santa Calaliiia niouutaius. Arizona. on Fouquiera splendens. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. A characteristic species with long peridia. 54. Aecidium passifloricola P. Ilonn. Ilodwigia 43:1(l^^. 1904. On PASSIFLORACEAE : T'assi flora rvhra L.. Jamaica, Porto Rico. '.I'VI'E LOC.\T>ITY : Tarapoto. Peru, on Passiflora sp. DISTRIBTTFOX: West Indies, also in South America. 397 55. AcchliiiD) Jn/diioidcuin B. & C. Grev. 3:0]. 1874. On THYMET^ACl^AE : Direa palu.stris L., Alabama, Iiuliana, Iowa, iNIaiiio, Mic-liigan, Minne- sota, Missouri, New Yorlc, Ohio, Wisconsin. TYPE LOCALI'J'Y: Alabama, on Dirca palustris. DISTRIBUTION : New Yoiic west to Minnesota, south to Akibama. EXSICCATI: Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 1816; Rab.-Wint. Fungi Eur. 3011; Ravenel, Fungi Car. i:9',; Roum. Fungi Gall. 3862; Thiim. Myc. Univ. 1120. There are no definite clues as to relationship for this characteristic, conspicuous AccuVnnn. It is of the t.vi)ical heteroecious type and may pos- sibly belong with some heteroecious telial form, within its range, on a host other than a grass or sedge. 50. Accidiitiii AUciiii Clinton, Peck, Ann. Rep. N. Y. Mus. 24:93. ISTl'. On ELAEAGNACEAE : Elacafinus arf/ciitea I'ursh, Montana, North Dakota ; Assiniboia. Lepargyraea nrgcvtdtc (Nutt.) Greene. Colorado, Nebraska, Wyoming. Lcpar(/!/raea Canadensis (L.) Greene [SJicpIio-dia Canadensis L.), Colorado, Michigan, Montana, New Mexico, New l^ork. South Da- kota, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming ; Alberta, I'ukon. TYl'E LOCALITY: Buffalo, New York, on Shcp]icrdia Canadiiisis. DISTRIBUTION: Northern United States, western Canada to Alaska. EXSICCATI: Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 1S15; Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. 1702; Griff. ^Y. Am. Fungi 291; Rab.-Wint. -I'az. Fungi Eur. 'i030, Roum. Fungi sel. -'t'il2. From field observations, I'rof. E. W. D. Holw.iy is reasonably certain that this Aecidiuni belongs with a coronate Pnccinia inhabiting Af/roiiii- II, n and Elijiniis in the Canadian Rockies. Later Mr. E. Bethel found th,' same coronate form on Bromiis and CaJamagrostis in the mountains of Colorado intimately associated with the same Aecidiuni. From the geo- graphical distribution of these alternate forms, this connection seems very likely. 57. Aecidiuni Kesaeac Ger. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 4:47. 1S73. On LYTHRACEAE : Dccodon veriicilJaius (L.) Ell. {^'csaea verticillata H. B. K.). Deia ware, Massachusetts, Michigan. New York, Ohio, Wisconsin. 398 'lYl'K LOCALI'J'Y: l'oii.i;likc'oiisi(>, New Yurk. on ycsacd rcrticilhita. DISTRIBUTION: New York aixl Massa(luis(>tts, west to Michigan and Wisconsin. KXSICCATI : Ellis. N. Am. Fungi JOI-l; Kills ^ Kv. Fungi Colnnib. /.';7 ; Kellerni. ()liio Fungi 01; Rab.-Wint. Fungi Fur. 301!). No telial form is known on this host. I'liccinUi Xcsaeac E. & E. was (loscTibed from material erroneously supposed to he on Xacsea verticillntu. but subsequently ascertained to he on Ludirinia iioh/rarpa, belonging to the family Ona;ii(i(<'uc. The form is prohal)ly lieteroecious. 58. Aecidiiim Anoijrac Arth. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 28 :(i(!4. ItlOl. On ONAGKACEAE: Anogra pallUla (Lindl.) I>ritton, Nebraska. TYPE LOCALITY: Long IMne, Nebraska, on Anourn itullida. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from Nebraska. EXSICCATI : Barth. Fungi Columb. 2601. Distinguishable from Aecklium Pcckii, DeT. which belongs with I'ik- ciiiia J'eclii, (DeT.) Kellcrm. l)y having larger and rougher spores. 59. Aecidium Proseiiiiiiaccac B. & C. Grev. 3:(;0. 1874. On IIALORAGIDACEAE: I'roscrphiacca sp., Alabama. TYPE LOCALITY" : Alabama. ('U leaves of I'roscrpiiiacea. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. CO. Aecidium Jj/.siiiKicliidc Schw. Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1 :()7. 1822. On PRIMULACEAE : Lysimacliia quadrifolia L., Connecticut, New York. North Carolina. Lysimacliia terrestris (L.) B. S. P. (L. stricta A. Gr.), Connectiiut. Delaware, North Carolina. Pennsylvania. 'lYPE LOCALITY: Salem, North Carolina, on Li/siiiKirliia (luadrifidiu. LISTRIP.UTIOX: New York south to North Carolina. EXSICCATI: Ellis, N. Am. Fungi l'i.l); Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi l'i2'ih. Possibly belongs with some C(//-c.r-inhabiling I'licciitiii. 01. Accidiiihi Iciinriitiiiii Arlh. r.ull. Torr. P.ol. Club 37 :r.7S. 1!»1(). On APOCYNACEAE: Macro.siplioiiia braclu/siidiiiii (Torr.) A. Gray. Chihuahua. 399 TYPE LOCALITY : Guayanoba Canon, Sierra Madre Mouutaiues, State of Chilnialuia, Mexicii. (in Macro.siplioiiid hi'dclt i/siplioii. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. 62. Accidium Aiwcijiii Sclnv. Selir. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1:68. 1822. On APOCYNACEAE : Apocynum cannahunim L., District of Colnmljia. Apocynum piihesccns R. Br., Delaware, New Jersey, North Carolina. TYPE LOC.AIvITY : Salem, North Carolina, on Apocynum canuahinum. DISTRIBUTION: New Jersey south to North Carolina. EXSICCATI : Ellis & Ev. Fiuigi Colnmb. 1295. An eastern species characterizeun., Idalio. Mertensia Sibirica (L.) Don., Oregon. TYPE LOCALITY: Near Lolo Creek, Idaho, on Mcrteihsia imnk-uhila. DISTRIBUTION: Idaho and Oregon. In many ways this species is very simihir to tlie preceding. 72. Accidium PhysaUdis Burr. Bot. Gaz. 9:190. 18S4. Aecidium Solani Am. Authors. Not. Mont. On SOLONACEAE: I'hysalis heicrophylla Nees., Indiana, Nebraslva. riiysalis htiiccolatu Miclix., Colorado, Kansas. N('l)raska. PhysaUs loiKjifolia Nutt., Nebraska. PItysaUs Viryiniana Mill., Colorado, iNIissonri. Phymlls viscosa L., Illinois, Texas. TYPE LOCALITY: Lrbana, Illinois, on Pliy.saUs riscosa. DISTRIBUTION: Mississippi valley from Nebraska to Texas. EXSICCATI: Ellis & Ev. N. Am. Fungi 3L',T, 2992; Ellis & Ev. Fungi Columb. 1578. While it is considered by some that this Accidium belongs with Puc- cinia Physalidis Peck, there is no definite proof to tliat effect either by cultures or otlierwise. However, the fact that the two forms are largely co-regional and also that they resemble each other in general habit might be taken to reinforce the above supposition, but cultures are necessarj' to pi-ove or disprove it definitely. No doubt the better way to make the cul- ture is to sow fresh aeciospores on a sterile plant of their own host. The species is distinguishable from Accidium Solani Mont, by its sniall aecio- spores and its revolute and more coarsely lacerate peridium. 73. Accidium sp. On SOLONACEAE: Cham(tci that of lliis is limited. 71. Accidium luhuhisuiii I'at. .V: Caill. Hull. Soc. Myc. p. 1)7. ISSS. Accidium llleanum I'a/.scliUe, iledwigin 31:!M. 1S02. 403 On 80LANACEAE: Solanum Hartircgl Benth. {S. torvum Sfhlecht.). Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Kico, Mexico. TYPE LOCALITY : Venezuela, ou a spinose Soh.inaecoKs plant. DISTIUBUTION: Mexico and West Indies. 75. Accuiinm Chclonis Ger. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 5:40. 1874. Ou SCROPHULARIACEAE : Chelone glahra L., Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York. TYPE LOCALITY: Pouglikeepsie, New Y'ork, on GheJonc (jlahra. DISTBIBUTION: New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut. EXSICCATI: Ellis. N. Am. Fungi 1.^33; Bab.-Wint. Fungi Eur. 3018; Shear, N. Y. Fungi 322. 7G. Accidium I'almcii Ands. Jour. Myc. 6:122. 1S91. On SCROPHl LAKIACEAE : Poitstoiion rirgatus A. Gray, Arizona. TYPE LOCALITY: Willow Spring, Arizona, on Pcntstcmon virgatiis. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. Distinguishable from Aeckliuin I'ottsteinonis Scliw., which belongs with I'HCchiia Andrupogoiiis Schw., by the relative thickness of the outer and inner walls of the peridial cells, and from the aecia of the autoecious I'uccinia Palmeri D. »& H. by the persistent and more cylindrical peridia. and the smaller spores. It is possibly connected with some western grass- inhabiting Puccinia. 77. Accldiitm CoUiiiskic Ell. & Ev. *BuIl. Washb. Lab. 1:4. 1SS4. Accidiiini ToncUac D. & H. Erythea 3:77. 1S95. On SCROPHULARIACEAE : CoUinmi parviflora Dougl.. Washington. Collinsia Rottanl A. Gray, Washington. Tonella teneUa (Benth.) Heller, Washington. TYPE LOCALITY: Falcon Valley, Washington, on Collinsia parviflora. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from Washington. Distinct from aecia of Puccinia Colli nsiae P. Henn. which arise from a limited mycelium, that is, are in groups. * Not verified from original description. 404 78. AccidiuDi Ocrardiac I'cck. Ann. liep. X. Y. ^lus. 25 :92. 1873. Ou SCliOPPIULARIACEAE : Afzelia macropJn/Ua (Nutt.) Kuntzo, Nebraska. Danystoma flara (Ij.) Wood {Gcrardia flcira L.), Alabama. 1)(isijKto)iia rinj'ni'ica (L.) Britton (flcrardia- qucrcifolia Pursb), Cnu- nectlciit, INIichigan, North Carolina, New Jersey. TYPE LOCALITY : Near Cold Spring, New York, ou Gcrardia qucrcifolia. DISTRIBUTION : Nebraska and Michigan, Connecticut south to Alabama. EXSICCATI: Barth. Fungi Columb. 3302; Ellis & Ev. N. A. F. 2770; Roum. Fungi Sel. 'iHlS; Thiim. Myc. Univ. J 225; Seym. & Earle, Econ. Fungi Suppl. B30. This Accidiuiii is very similar to the one on I'oifstciiton. which be longs Avith Puccinia Andropogonis Schw. and probably also belongs with this Puccinia. This supposition is strongly reinforced by a field observa- tion made by Rev. J. M. Bates in 1910. After observing aecia in June on a plant of Afzclia riiacrophijUa, he later found Puccinia Andropogonis de- veloped close by. Since Pciitstcmon, Dasystoina, ami Afzclia all belong to the same family, it is very lilcely that the similar aecia on tlicm have the same telial connection, viz: Puccinia Andropogonis Schw. 79. Aecidium niici-opiinciinn E. & E. Jour. Myc. 6:119. Is91. On SCROPHULARIACEAE : CastiUeja coccinca (L. ) Spreng., Iowa. CastiUcja intvgrifolia Colorado. CastiUeja scssiliflora Pursh, Iowa, Nebraska, Soutli Dakota. TYPE LOCALI^'Y: Pine Ridge, Nebraska, on CastiUeja [stcssiliffora]. DISTRIBUTION: Iowa, Ncbiaska and South Dakota. From field obscrx alioiis in Xebraska. Rev. J. M. I'ates suggests that this Accidinin belongs with J'uccinid Pllisiana Thuem. on Andropogon. 80. Aecidium sp. On SCROPHULARIACEAE : jMcldinpi/rii in Uncarc Tiam. (1/. inncricainnn Miclix.). Connecticut. Del- aware, Massachusetts. IMS'l'Kir.r'I'IOX : Southern Xcw Ijigl.iiid Slates. 'I'liis Aci-idiinn. while similar lo, is probably dit'l'iTrnl froiu AcriiUuni Mclainpgri Knnt/e vV; Sdiuni. of 10iiroi)e which belongs with Viiv^-inia 405 B/oIi Iliac Tul. on Molinia cocrulca, especially since that rnst is not yet recognized as American. The American AccUlium probably belongs with some other grass-inhabiting Piiccinia. It is donbtless a distinct species. 51. Accidmm Tracyanum Syd. Hedwigia 40 : (129). 1901. On ACANTHACEAE: Colophanes ohlongifolia (Michx.) Don. {RaeU'ia oMongifoIia Michx.), Florida. TYPE LOCALITY: Braidentown, Florida, on RiielUa [ohloiigifolia]. DISTItlBLTIOX: Known only from type locality. Distinct from aecia of Piiccinia latcripcs B. & R. 52. Aecidiiim OhlciihnnJiainnn Ellis & Tracy. Jour. Myc. 7:43. 1S91. On RUBIACEAE: Houston ia minor (Michx.) Brit ton, Alabama. Houston ia 'purpurea L., Mississippi. TYPE LOCALITY : Starkville, Mississippi, on "Houstonia coeruJea,'" error for H. purpurea L. DISTRIBUTION: Gnlf States. Distinct from Accidiuin Houstoniutuni Schw. which belongs with Uuro- mijces on Sisijriiicliium, by aecia being produced from a limited mycelium. 53. Aecidiuin Bourardiac D. & H. Bot. Gaz. 24:36. 1S97. On RUBIACEAE : Bouvardia liirtclla PL B. K., Guanajuato, Queritaro. Bouvardia tripliijUa Salib., Mexico. Bouvardia sp., Guanajuato. TYPE LOCALITY: Rio Hondo, near City of Mexico, on Bouvardia tri- pJiylla. DISTRIBUTION: States of Guanajuato, Queritaro, and Mexico. Distinct from the aecia belonging to Uromyccs Bouvardiae Sydow. 54. Aeddium pulverulentum Arth. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 33:521. 1900. On RUBIACEAE: Randia sp., Morelos, Jalisco. TYPE LOCALITY: Cuernavaca. State of Morelos, Mexico, on Randia sp. DISTRIBUTION: Morelos and Jalisco. 406 85. AccM'ntm 'J'riosici Artli. Ituil. Torr. Bot. Club 33:32. 190G. On CAPRIFOLTACEAE : Triosteum anguHtifolium L., Missouri. TYPE LOCALITY: I'erryville, Missouri. l S'i'KI r.l'TIO.X : Known only from type locality. 409 OG. Accidiiim Wcdeliae Earle. Mnhl. 1 :ir.. 1901. On CARDUACEAE: Wedelia carnosa Pers., Porto Rico. ■J'YPE LOCALITY: IMayaguez, Porto Rico, on ^VcdeU(l carnosa. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. 97. Aecidium Baliiae B. & C. Grev. 3 :(;0. 1S74. On CARDUACEAE: Baliia sp. Erioplnilhun stacJiadifoIiiiDi Greene, California. TYPE LOCALITY: (North America) on Baliia sp. 08. Aecidium Scnecionis Authors. Aecidium compositarum Scnecionis Authors. On CARDUACEAE: Senecio aureus L., Iowa, New Hampshire, New York, Wisconsin. DISTRIBUTION : New Hampshire west to Wisconsin and Iowa. 99. Aecidium sp. On CARDUACEAE: Senecio praccox DC, Mexico. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from State of Mexico. A very characteristic form, no doubt a distinct species, doubtless be- longing to some grass- or sedge-inliabiting telial form. 100. Aecidium Herreriamim Arth. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 33 :520. 1906. On CARDUACEAE: Senecio salignus DC, Hidalgo. TYPE LOCALITY: State of Hidalgo, Mexico, on Senecio saligmis. DISTRIBUTION: Known only from type locality. A strikingly characteristic form, on account of its conspicuous perid- ium and large, thick-walled, dark colored spores. Doubtless heteroecious and possibly belongs with some telial form other than a grass- or sedge- inhabiting one. 101. Aecidium Compositarum Autliors. (The following closely related forms, which have not been properly assigned to their telial connections and regarding which little is known. 410 are placed lOgether under this (Hil' .ijciicral "catcli all" name, which has no particular signifioanee. Field observations and cultures, aloni,' with further microscopical work, are necessary to segregate these forms. No doubt som.; of them will be found to belong with aecial forms ah'eady connected, while others of these forms will doubtless be found to have new heteroe- cious connections.) On CARDUACEAE: Colcosanthus grand iflorns (Hook.) Kuntze (BrickcUia gnindiflora Hook.), New Mexico. Vhrysoyonum virgiiiiaiiKiii ilcntatiiin A. (hay, Disti'ict of Columbia. Chrysothumnus Parnjl (A. Gray) Greene {Aplopapinis I'arrtji A. Gray) New Mexico. Dugahliu Hoopsii (A. Gray) liydb. {Ileloiiuni lluopxii A. Gray), Col- orado. Ilelenium autumnale L., Colorado. Polymnia canadensis L., Iowa, Wisconsin. Rudbeckia hirta L., Nebraska. Rudheckia laciniata L., Iowa, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Wyoming. Rudhcckia trilaha L., Delaware. ACIvXUWLEDG MENTS. The writer wishes here to express his sincerest thanks to all who have assisted in any way in the pursuance of this study. The kindly attention and critical suggestions of Dr. J. C. Arthur, under whose direction the work has been done, has been greatly ai)preciated throughout. Acknowl- edgments are especially due Dr. Arthur U>v the free use of his exceptinn- ally large private collection of plant rusts, as well as for free access to his extensive private library on this sub.1ect, without either of which this study would not have been i)ossible at this time. Free use was also made of his private card indices and manuscri])t sheets on the subject, which very greatly facilitated the use of both the library and the herbarium, and where much iid'ormation was already brouglit together in available form. Sincere; (hanks are also extended to the other members of the botan- ical department of the Indiana ]'l\])erinient Station, viz: to Dr. I'rank D. Kern, .Mr. C. It. Orion, Miss lOvelyn Allison and Miss Mary .\. Fitch, for kindly assistance in vai-ions ways. 411 INDEX OF SPECIES OF AECIDIUM. Abroulae *13 Aconiti-Napelli 19 Aesculi 45 Alleuii 56 Anemones 21 Anograe . . . . < 58 Apocyni 62 Argithamniae 42 Bahiae 97 Boehmeriae 9 Boltoniae 93 Bouvardiae S3 Branclegei 64 Brysonimatis 38 Cannonii 53 Cerastii 15 Chelonis 75 Cimicifugatuni 17 circiaans 20 Cissi 47 Clibadii 94 columbiense 90 Collinsiae 77 Compositanini 101 crepidicola 88 Crotonopsidis 41 Daleae 33 Delphinii 18 Dicentrae 27 Eurotiae 12 Falcatae 36 Fendleri 26 Gerardiae 78 Gossypii 52 guatemaleusis 67 Herreriauum 100 Hieraciatiuu 89 Hydrophjili 65 hydnoidenm 55 interveniens 50 Iridis 7 Kellermanni 31 leporinimi 61 Liatridis 92 libertiini 10 Liipiui 35 Lygodesmiae 87 Lyslmacbiae 60 Mertensiae 71 mexicaniun 46 mieropunctum 79 Mirabilis 14 Moutonoae 95 JVIyosotidis 69 Myricatnm 8 Nesaeae 57 obesum 63 occidentak' 22 Oldenlandiaimiii 82 Onobrycliidis 32 Onosmodii 70 Palmei-i 76 Parnassiae 29 passifloricola 54 Petalostemouis 34 Pbaceliae 66 Physalidis 72 polygalinum 40 Px'ospiuaceae 59 pulverulentum 84 Ranuncidaceaniin 23, 24 Senecionis 98 List number. 412 Sphaerakoae 51 Stillingiao 4-1 Tlialictri 2T> Ti-acyanum SI Triglochinis 1 Trillii 5 Triostei 85 tnbereulatum 48 Species umiaiiicd :5. 4, 31, 10, 28, .10. IM, -4!), (!S, 73, 80, !t1. '.»'.» tnbulosuiii 74 IJvulariae 2 Wileriaiieilae So violascens 37 Wedeliao 90 Xantlioxyli 30 Zephranthis 0 GENERIC IXDl Abrouia *13 Acouitiim 19, 20 Actaea 17 Aeseulus 45 Afzelia 78 Althaea 49 Ainphicarixt 36 Anemone 21 Anogi-a 58 Antherienin 4 Aplopuppu^ 101 Apoeynuin 02, 03 Argithaniiiia 42 Asclepias 04 Bahia 97 Baptlsia 31 Bcrberis 26 Boehnunia 9 Boltoiiia 93 Bouirerla OS Bouvardia S3 lirickdlid 101 I'.yrsoiiiiiia 3S Collirrhoe 4S, 50 Caltlia K; Cassia 30 X OF HO ST 8. Castilleja 79 Cerastium 15 Chamaesaracha 73 Chelone 75 Chrysogonum 101 Chi'ysothaniHus 101 Cimicifnga 17 Cissus 40, 47 Clcinati-s 22 Clibadiuni 94 Coleosantbos 101 Collinsia 77 Colopbaues SI Crepis SS Crotou 41 Crotonopsis 41 Cyrtorliyncha 24 Daica 33 Dasj-stoiiia 7S Decodon 57 Delphinium IS Dicentra 27 Direa 55 Diigahlia 101 E'laoagmis 50 lUlisia 05 Accidimii miiiibcr in list. 41;; Eriophylluiii 97 Eiirotiii V2 Fiileatu 30 Fouquiera 53 Gerauinm 37 Gerardia 78 Gossypium 52 Heleniiim 101 Heliotropiuni G7 Hieracium 89, 90 Houstonia 82 Hydroiihyllnm 65 Iris 7 Isopyruiii 25 Iva 91 Jatropha 43 Laciuiaria 92 Lepargyraea 56 Leucoerinum 3 Liatris 92 Lithospermnm 70 Loranthus 11 Lnpiuus 35 Lygodesmia 87 Lysimaebia 60 MacTocalyx 65 Macrosiphonia 61 Malvastrnm 50 Melampyriiiu 80 Mertensia 71 Mirabilis 14 Mitella 28 Montaiioa 95 Moziniia 43 Myosotis 69 ^Myi-ica 8 Xesaea 57 I iirdiic Uiiircrsiti/, Lnfayettc, Indiana. Ouosmodiuui 70 I'aruassia 29 Parosela 33 Passiflora 54 Feutstemon 76 Petalostemon 34 Phacelia 66 Philibei-tella 64 Physalis 72 Polygala 40 Polymnia 101 Proserpina cea 59 Psoralea 32 Pvandia 84 Rauuucnlus 23, 24 Rudbeclda 101 lUiellia 81 Sebastiana 44 Senecio 98, 99, 100 Shepherdiii 56 Sidalcca 48, 49, 50, 51 Solanum 74 Spbaeralcea 51 Stilliiigia 44 Syndesmou 25 Tbalictruin 25 Tonella 77 Triglocbin 1 Trillium 5 Triosteum .' 85 Urtica 10 Uvularia 2 Valeriaiiella 86 Viorna 22 Wedelia 96 Zaiithoxylum ;- 9 Zeplirautbes o 415 CONIOSIS-. (Abstraci By Robert Hessler. This paper relates to an experiment on the part of Nature, one that is going on all ahout us on a large scale, namely adapting man to live in cities overhung with smog clouds, in other words, changing man from an open air animal to an indoor air animal. Take all of Nature's adaptative processes, this one is attended with great loss of life. The outcome is still a matter of doubt. It seems that besides destroying individuals there is also a tendency to destroy the species. To what extent man can counteract this weeding-out process is an interesting as w^ell as vital question. Besides great loss of life there is much misery and ill health, all of which may be regarded as a reaction to an abnormal environment. In the evolution of living matter we find organisms adapted to all sorts of surroundings : lichens in the cold arctics and alga? in the almost boiling hot water of geysers ; animals in water and on laud, in deep caves and high in the air. The naturalist and the evolutionist see a life and death struggle everywhere, plants fighting for possession of the soil, animals destroying life and seeking to avoid destruction. Nothing is at peace, war every- where, a struggle for existence with a survival of the fittest. Nature is constantly at war with man, and civilized man himself is at war with Nature trying to counteract her. Man as a species of animal is still undergoing the process of adapta- . tioi), the law of the survival of the fittest is still in active operation. Man has not even outgrown destroying his own kind ; the annual expend- iture for war or being prepared for war is a burden that threatens to ruin many a nation. Man as a species has adapted himself to a variety of surroundings from pole to pole. In some regions there is perpetual winter, in other places there is perpetual sunnner. In the temperate zone there is an alternation of half a year winter and half a year summer. Man indigenous to the temperate zone is adapted to these changes in temperature. Indi- 416 viduals from oxtromes, from the frisirt and tDrrid zones, are not adapted to changes. If the Eskimo and the South Sea Islander exchanixed phices they would quickly perish. In his evolution man has passed through different stages of civiliza- tion, or as some one has said domestication. At first ho was a hunter and fisher, living an outdoor life like the animals about him. This was fol- lowed by the pastoral stage. Then came the agricultural in which for the first time he had a fixed home, and that meant to keep alive his old and decrepit and sick ; many house diseases now found favorable opportunity for propagating themselves. In the handicraft stage where men were confined indoors the conditions for the propagation of house diseases be- came still more favorable. During the present industrial stage man has actively counteracted the ravages of many specific diseases, has prac;i- cally banished some, but many still flourish unchecked. Common ill health that can not be dignified by the name of disease is perhaps more prevalent today than ever. Many people are not adapted to domestica- tion, to a life under indoor conditions, in short, to an artificial climate. In many regions of the globe man still leads the simple outdoor life (in the interior of Africa, Australia, South America), in others men ar>' massed in cities. City life means a many-sided contact with all sorts of causes of ill health and disease and the weeding-out process. The process of adaptation is attended with great loss of life, as just mentioned. Here again we see a survival of the fittest, those best able to live under un- sanitary environment. But fittest does not mean best — the iidiabitants of overcrowded filthy Chinese and East Indian cities do not head tlie list of best men, most highly civilized. Dismissing far away people and confining ourselves to man at home. we again see how the process of adaptation has been at work in i)nidn(in4 the fittest, but not necessarily the best. We trace our ancestry to Europe. Parentage goes liack cither to country or city ancestry. The ancestors of some of us have always led a quiet isolated rural life, others were more or less in contact with city life. A few have ancestors who U>v gi'nc rations lived under crowded city conditions. City life means a many-sided exi»osure to all sorts of weeding- out factors. The man anmng us whn lias peiliaps inid('r;j;nne llie wecding-out process attending city life uinsl t Imrnnu'lilx is the .Tew who traces his an- JIT cestry to the sliettoes of old fortified Enroiteaii cities; his susceptible allhV The jihysician con- stantly meets people who have ill health and yet no diseas(>. In general it may be said that health results from country life, ill health from city life. When we study the lixcs of city peojile who (•(iniphiin nuich of ill health we may lind that their bodies are ■■healthy" enougli but that there is a reaction to an .•ibnornial environment, particularly abnormal air con- ditions; there are all sorts of symptoms of ill health. If we carefully study life histories of indi^idujiis who have had uiiicli ill lu'alth we may liud that although they had ill health in the city they lived comfortably under simjile country lite CMiiditions. We m;iy cdine lo llie conclusion that symptoms of ill health unist b<' regarded as \v;ii"uiiigs from nature to be heeded. Formerly it was assumed that ■■neuralgia is a cr\ for i)ure l»lo((d ;" today we may safely assume that most symjitoms of ill health ii! city people ;ii'c iries fur pure air. Wlial distinguishes cily from cnnnlrx life? < >ne could (piickly make n long list of antitheses, beginning witii <-i'o\vding in the city and living 419 iji isolation in tlie country. Many conditions are so extreme tliat the reader lias no ditliculty in deterniinin.i,' wliere a mention a])plies : pnre food, contaminated food; .t,'ii(id water, polluted water; pure air, impnre air; smog clonds overliead, lilue sIvy overliead. Crowding, food, water liave all for a long time I'eceived attention and great efforts have been made to improve conditions. lUit not nntil re- cently have air conditions been given attention. Black smoke clouds re- ceive f refluent mention in the public press. The dust problem is likewise receiving moi'e and more attention — if the people knew to what extent it is a factor in jtroducing ill health aud disease and death they would soon make a determined effort to alter existing conditions. What are the effects on a pnre air man when he goes into the large and dirty city overhung with smog clouds? Dust makes him feel dirty, his hands and clothing are soiled; he "blows blacli" into his handlier- chief and spits black ; there is more or less free production of mucus, followed perhaps by pus formation, and he will speak of having catarrli ; in attempting to liawlv up morning phlegm he may become nauseated and even vomit ; dust particles reach his lungs and become imbedded, the lung becomes black (in old city residents it is coal black, pneumokoniosis) ; he experiences all sorts of disagreeable sensations, symptoms of ill health so-called, symptoms shade oft" into aft'ections, minor maladies and disease; infective particles are locked up in tlie lymphatics, forming "kernels" in the neck and tumors along the windpipe and in the lungs and these burst- ing pro light of biology' (In answer I may say that several years agti I lodked upon the reactioi: as a disease and published a impel- based on d;ita then at liand.1 Tn this \):\\ti'\- 1 shiill consider the subject in the liglit of a reaction tC an abnoi'nial environment, as a pi'niileni in iiiology. I shall consider sympij toms as warnings from nature. If the warnings are heey an irritation of mucous membranes ; vague \\anderlng pains tliroughout the body, mostly referable to the muscles or ligaments; lassilude, headache, feverishness and anorexia, up to vomiting, marked nervous dis- turbance, and severe localized pain. The manifestations may vary considerably in different individuals, and the symptoms may be wholly subjective. It is often fol- lowed by other, specific, diseases." A.t that time I had assumed that the term Coniosis was preoccupied. 422 Here is nii illustr.-ition whicli T ar times use in diseussious with dust victims. A man becomes the possessor of an aut<>ni()liil(>, he learns how to run it but knows little or nothing about its internal arrangements. On the road the machine begins to run badl.\'. he knows there is something wrong but can not locate the trouble; he may or may not make an attempt to learn what is wrong; he may conclude to nui tlie machine as long as possible and then turn it over to a master-mechanic to have the ditticulty corrected, lie may bp sutRciently interested to learn about the "iuternal anatomy and physiology" of his machine and just what to do the next time there is trouble, indeed knowing tlie nature of the machine he may look it over at short intervals to avoid trouble on the road. Shall we say that dust in the carbureter is a frequent cause of trouble? Any one who has ridden with an experienced and with an inexperi- enced automobilist will appreciate this illustration : He probably noticed the direct method of the one in looking for the source of difficidty on the merest indication of abnormal working of the machinery, and he can not avoid noting the utter helplessness of the inexperienced man when his machine balks ; the latter usually does more hai'm than good in his bung- ling with wrench and hammer trying to make the machine go. A dust victim may be regarded as a mtichine that becomes clogged witli dust. Dust iiiterfei'cs in some way with the proper working of the machinery, in time the uiachine may refuse to run. Like the automobilist. he may in time learn much about the signihcance of symptoms, of warn- ings that something is wrong, and he avdids hreaUdnwiis. attacks of ill health and disease. Dust Victims. — Individuals wiio react more or less markedly to dust may be regarded as dust victims. In studying a large number of such one can make a composite description of the effects of inhaling dust, of C'oniosis as defined alyove — but in proportion as a brief composite descrip- tion includes inany individuals it nmst be more ov less vague. .\n individual as a rule reacts very nuich the same each time under similar exiiosure. Individual reactions howcn-er may differ greatly, so much so that one can speak of tyjies.' > In 1004 I (Ifscrihod sovoral tyix's of dust victims, as far as I then under- stood the sulijc'ct. Since then I have been ;r!inn rinu more data, more case reports, but I am not yi-t in a imsitlon to brins tofrether all my data for a complete state- ment. This paper. like all others, must bo regarded as provisional, subject to changes and corroclions. I ll 42:-} It needs scarcely be added tliat nature makes transitions and natural- ists make divisions, and that divisions overlap. A reaction of the body may become so marked that we speak of the presence of disease. More- (A-er some organ or part of the body may be weakened and here the first evidences of abnormal functioning, or ill health or disease, may appear. Types of Coniosis oe Dust Infection. — Coniosis can be considered as an entity. It shades off on the one hand into health and on the other into disease. By studying a large number of "dust victims" one can distinguish ctrtain more or less well-defined types or varieties, briefly characterized about as follows : liespiratory Type: This tyjie manifests itself mainly by symptoms or conditions that we commonly regard as colds and catarrh ; in more ad- vanced cases with more or less active inflammation by affections with all sorts of names, rhinitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, tracheitis, bronchitis, pul- monitis. (Often there is nmch adventive tissue in the upper air passages — adenoids, hypertrophied tonsils, etc; removal of such tissues may greatly benefit.) Peripheral T.vpe : This is marked by the appearance of more or less ill defined pains and aches, at times by acute pains, especially at the site of an old injury. The pain is variously referred to as rheumatic or neu- ralgic. Pain may occur in any part of the body but may be localized in the arm or leg or toe or in the head or chest. (So-called living barome- ters are often dust victims who react acutely to dust influences.) Alimentary Tract Type: T'nder such a head may be grouped indi- viduals with more or less marked digestive tract disturbances, notably by conditions commonly regarded as dyspei)sia and constipation. In some there is an excess, in others a deficiency of hydrochloric acid ; nuicus may be gi'eatly in excess. (In studying the life histories of individuals one may find that what at first was an excess of free H CI in time becomes a deficiency, there may even be a total absence. So-called laboratory examinations become liighly important.) Where dust infection manifests itself as more or less constant constipation during the closed door season attention to diet, to exercise and the use of a proper laxative become imperative. (The best laxative and the best tonic or alterative is pui*e air — something many can not afford.) Nervous Type: Here one can distinguish between nervous and men- tal symptoms. The inii)ortan(e of symptoms is largely dependent on the 424 life an individual leads. The brain worker may be disabled by symptoms that niiijht not be at all noticed by a conimon manual laborer. A headache disables the one, a backache the other. The nervous type is difhcult to define briefly, but if we will keep in mind the avci'a.iic individual who is called "neurasthenic" or "hysteric" or as being "imagin.ary ill"' we will have some idea of what is meant. It is sometimes said that "the com])laints of the neurasthenic are innumerable," but they are enumerable, an of symptom-complexes or syndromes and are diagnosed thereby'. .Symptoms are evidences of abnormal functioning. Symptoms can be regarded as warnings that something is wrong. In this volume I am speaking of symptoms not as evidences of the presence of disease but as an evidence of a reaction due to inhaling dusty air. The individual who does not react to his environment is exceptional. At the other extreme are the very susceptible, to these a study of mesology and ecology may be of advantage. Symptoms in great variety occur in Coniosis. IMany of the connuon ones accompany the general type, others are more or less limited to the special types. Pain, in its widest sense, is a very common symptom. Cough is connnon in the respiratory type; headache is conunon in the nervous type; albuminuria, an-ytliniia, edema, palpitation in the cardio- vascular, etc. I am here making (inly brief references. Symptoms emiblo us to classify or group. SuscEPTiBiLiTy. — This varies greatly and is determined by a large num- ber of factors, such as the phylogenetic history ; the ontogenetic history ; the place of residence, whether city or country; tlie amount and intensity of the exposure; the air conditions before and after exposure; the state of nutrition, whether over- or underfed ; the ability to take a day, a week or a montii otf when not tceling well; etc., etc. The very suscei)tible indi- vidual may really sulfi'r less by living within limitations than the less sus- ceptible who is heedless. It needs scarcely be added that an individual can largely u'liard hiniseir against envii-onniciilal iiilluenccs but less against heivditary tendencies. Some individuals who read acutely are constantly watching theni- srlves, arc "exceedingly carcfnl,'" and yet if llicy do not laiow where the 427 danger lies are eoiistautly snflVriiig. A knowledge of Conio.sis is of great valne to them. For a man who has king helieved he had consumption or was con- stantly on tlie verge of it, or that lie liad cancer of the stomacli, or Bright's disease, or heart disease, not to spealc of ()ther diseases and affections, to know that he is "only a dnst victim," that his fears are perhaps wholly groundless, is certainly a great relief. But the prudent man will take care to avoid exposures, knowing that disease may follow an acute attack of dust infection, emphasized in the warnings of the patent medicine man, "Beware of a cold." At the other extreme is the man in "robust nealth" who is constantly exposed but who, because he does not complain, is assumed not to react. Yet he may be reacting all the time, as by gradually developing a high blood pressure and then suddenly going to pieces prematurely. Coniosis may be looked upon as a "Protean disease" with which the general practitioner of medicine is very largely concerned, not to speak of peo]tle who "doctor" tliemselves. Perhaps the great ma.iority of the "dis- eases" for which the patent medicine men advertise their nostrums and cure-alls fall within the scope of Coniosis. If we understand that Coniosis is a reaction to an abnormal environment, w"e at once see the uselessness of attempting to cure by drugs. Drugs however may palliate — alcohol, opium, cocaine, acetanilid are largely interchangeable; all are habit pro- ducing drugs. When marked symptoms, as of ill health, appear then Coniosis be- comes a medical subject — and then the best advice to a dust victim is to seek the services of a competent physician, one who will properly investi- gate, if necessary by lalxn-atory methods, and who will discuss findings freely. Usually good advice rather than medicine is needed in such cases, but we should not forget that drugs may palliate, may modify severe symp- toms. (Here is a very practical point: Pay the physician for advice rather than for medicine — or in self-defense he will dispense medicine or write a prescription for a tonic in order to get his fee. Tlie practice of medicine is after all a bread and butter profession. The physician who makes time-consuming examinations in competition with symptom-pre- scribers often has difficulty in maintaining himself.) Results of Exposure. — What constitutes an exposure? This is a mat- ter in which personal experience largely enters ; each must learn for hirn- 428 sell' how iiuKli (If how little he cau bear. Exposure to extremely liad aii" coiulitions, as going to a political meeting with spitters all about or riilin'j; ill a dirty car, may bring on a prompt reaction, or the reaction may appear under continued exi)osure to relatively good air. Since infected dust is a variable quantity there is more or less danger of complications and Coniosis proper may ultiniately develop into what !he physician regards as disease and perhaps well-detined specific disease. CoNiosis vs. Disease. — It seems a trait of human nature that the uk;- nient a name is given to a thing or a phenomenon the mind is satisfied and makes no further inquiry, except the scientitic mind. The physician con- stantly sees this in dealing with his patients. What is the matter? h^' will be asked by his patient, who often enough has his own diagnosis and merely comes for a "little medicine." If told he has a cold, or bronchitis or rheumatism, or stomach trouble, or heart or kidney trouble, etc.. he usually asks no further, still more rarely about causes. If he does ask about the cause or causes and is told his trouble is due to "cold" he thinks he understands and rarely indeed asks further. And yet the physi- cian has great difficulty in defining a "cold," just as he has difficulty l;: defining nearly all the names current among the people or used in patent medicine advertisements. As long as we look upon every reaction of the body as a disease, or that a certain combination of symptoms constitutes a disease, the average individual will make no effort to find the reason why he is not feelina: well, nor will he make any radical attempts to get well. There are not lacking those who denj" there is such a thing as disease, that it is all imaginary; they must be taught that .iust as there is a reaction when th > i,nnd is jiut info hot water or when irritating smoke is inhaled, so there will be a reaction on inhaling dust. rerhai)S we had best not speak of disease at all, only of a reaction, and that this reaction moreover depends on what may bo called individual susceptibility, varying from slight to marked. When the subject is once understood ea<'h one can determine for himself to what extent he is susceptible; a good ithysician will help him. especially to rule out other I'cacticuis, so-called diseases. Some individuals or ])atients nuist be keiit under observation for soni ' time before a physician will venture on a diairnosis. some constantly, "light for time." Kiseases that can be readilv and aciiiralely diagnose I and about which the opinions of different men will not vary greatly ar;> 429 conipjiratively few. States of ill health where no accurate diagnosis can he made are many. Some physicians hesitate to make a diagnosis when tliey know the patient has already had a variety of diagnoses and likely will receive more after leaving him. Some "cases" are as easy to "treat" as they are difficult to diagnose. Physicians liave an old saying. Any one can prescribe, the difliculty consists in making a proper diagnosis. It sliould be kept in mind that Medicine like everything else is an evolution and that it has not yet reached a stage where it can properly classify the things with which it deals — ^with reactions and states of the body variously termed disease, maladies, affections, symptoms. Much is still to be learned about the common ills of the common people. Primitive Medicine included all the sciences, as knowledge developed sciences crystalized out and each pursued an independent course; some have now little connection with Medicine proper. We need only think of chemistry, as an outgrowth of alchemy, and the search for the elixir of life and the transmutation of metals, or of the herbalist changing into a botanist and more recently into a bacteriologist concerned with microscopic plants. In short, sciences formerly studied by medical men have now developed to such an extent that the practitioner of medicine can not ac- quire more than a smattering knowledge of them ; and that means in pro- portion as men specialize they must limit their field of work. A specialist in one department of Medicine may scarcely know what is going on in other departments. There are topics that are of interest to all, such as the life conditions imder which we live and the search for the favorable ones and avoidance of the unfavorable. Favorable conditions tend to what we call health, unfavorable ones to ill health, disease and death. Extinction may come suddenly or slowly ; it may not appear for several generations — in what is called race suicide. Differential Diagnosis. — Just where reactions, or symptoms shade off into disease is often difficult to determine, in fact is impossible because there is no exact definition of the very term disease.^ In order to diag- nose Coniosis properly one must rule out other more or less related condi- tions, especially diseases, socalled. For the puiiioses of this paper it may ^ Di.spases thomsplves arp vai'iously classifiable. A common division is into rarasitic klue to invasion of parasites of ali kinds) and constitutional (due to de- fects in tlip body, congenital or acquired). Anotjier general classification Is struC' }.ur^l and functional. -130 suffice to divide tlie laltcr into tliri-c ,i;r(Hi]is: 1. Diseases jiroper, due to specilic or definite i)atlin,i,'enic causes; they are as a rule self-limited and run a more or less well-defined course. 2. Diseases due to alteration in structure and usually incurable when once fully established; some are favoraI)ly inlluenced by surgical i>rocedures. li. Diseases due to altera- tion in function or temiiorarily altered functionini,'. more or less prevent- able or modifiable. 1. Specific Di-srascK, those due to definite causes, as ]iathoi.'enic micro- orjjanisms. The reaction of the body in its efforts to rid itself of the enemy is manifested by signs and symptoms, and the syndrome or symp- tom-complex is designated as disease, in other words, diseases are made up of symptoms. In the absence of symptoms one would scarcely speak of the presence of disease (although a disease may exist and not manifest itself for a long time). Nosologists are attempting to classify diseases by fheir causes, but so far only a good beginning has been made; much work remains to lie done. To make fuM statements regarding the diseases of our State would re(piire the iiossession of data, dillicult if not im])ossi)tle to obtain. The ju'oper nutliod of studying the specific diseases of a counti'y woidd be to consider them in the order of their appearance and how they dominated other diseases .ai'.d iirevaliMit ill health. Here I can only briefly refer to a few diseases. Malaria. This disease or its cause came early. Formerly our State was very ■•unhealthy" on account of the presence of malaria. It domi- nated everything. With the clearing up of wet places where mostpiitees ))reed and by the f i ee use of (piiniue malaria has i)ractically disaiipeared. Afalnrial f(>ver is to be ruled out in dust infection. Many physicians still suspect a ■•malarial element"' in many cases of connnou ill health, at times referred to as a "touch of malaria." 'I'rue malaria yields readily to Plas- modium malari:e nor is it transmitted by the bit(> of mosipiitoes; it is t'-ansmitted tlirongli infected i]\\si. It is. in short, dust infection m- Coni- fsis. Some writers believe thai the ci\ili/.alion of ancient (ireece aiul itmne passed away on account of the presence of malarial fever, in altering 431 mail's environment to sneli an extent that he couhl no longer llonrish. ^lalaria literally means bad air, but In the case of malarial fever we know that this Is really not Irne. IJegardiiig the air eonditioiis of our cities we can properly speak of mal-aria. We can even speculate to what extent bad air is a factor In destroying our own civilization, shall we say by killing off the desirable and leaving the city to the undesirable V Tuberculosis: This is the great Indoor air disease which is actively weeding out those imt adapted to city life or to life indoors under bad air. Individuals whose ancestors liave long been exposed to the ravages of tuberculosis are largely immune, succumbing only when conditions are unusually bad or prolonged. It is well known that the descendants of European ghetto Jews are largely iininune while iLUssian rural Jews are not. The descendants of southern mountaineers are very susceptible, rhthisophobiacs are often dust victims whose fears can be allayed. Pneumonia is another great indoor disease, now I'auking with tuber- culosis. It is a disease of the wellfed rather than of tlie poor. Individuals subject to high blood pressure seem especially prone to pneumonia. An acute "cold" (dust infection) may terminate in pneumonia. Influenza is a disease that appears periodically, after an interval of years, and attacks practically everybody. After a pandemic subsides there may be sporadic cases for a short time. Cases of "grip" after the sub- sidence of epidemic influenza are usually cases of dust infection. Influ- enza manifests itself by several cpiite well marked types, indeed, the simil- arit5- to dust Infection is quite marked. The best treatment for Influenza, in reducing the number and severity of symptoms to a iminimum and avoiding a fatal termination, is the pure air treatment. This enumeration of specific diseases can not be continued but there should at least be a mention of Cancer. Cancer : Although the active cause of cancer is still unknown it is regarded as a definite or specific disease, running a more or less well- defined course, usu.illy fatal in a short time. Cancer in its various forms or kinds is to be ruled out. especially in dust victims of the alimentary tract tyiie; to do that projierly requires the use of laboratory facilities. 2. Diseases Due to Alteration in Stnietiire, to enlargement or atro- phy, to altered Innervation or imperfect nutrition or circulation, to the presence of scar tissue, to adhesions, etc. This condition is often due to injury or to the presence of disease which produced alteration, with an 482 altt'i-atiou 111 function. I'.ut the allci'cd fiim-tionint,' of an (irgan may be perfectly natural for such an altered oriian. it could not be otherwise. The presence of an acute disease may so modify "the normal action of an abnormal organ" that at tirst sight a case may seem very mystifying — hence the need of studying an individual not alone when comidaining but when in apparent health. A gcwd family physician in time learns much about his patient and knows just what to do in case of an acute disturb- ance. Alterations in organs and tissues are veiy common in peoiile much exposed to infective matter, especially in the air they inhale. There may be at tirst mere irritation, followed by active intlaniination and then scar tissue. Ill proportion as there is scar tissue there is alteration of func- tion, finally reaching a stage where well marked symptoms appear. Whether to speak of disease or reaction is often a matter of doubt ; one may not be able to decide until the reaction has ceased or the pathological proces-; has run its course. (One is reminded of "How to distinguish mushrooms from toadstools." ) If one were to enumerate systematically the diseases, maladies, or affections to be ruled out in dust victims, oue would have to begin at the nose and mouth where the inhaled infection first shows its effects. Infection reaching the sense organs may produce all sorts of disturb- ances, acute and chronic, as impairn>ent of abolition of the sense of smell and taste, or impaired hearing and sight. A host of affections or "diseases" of th(> respiratory system would have to be considered, such as rhinitis, laryngitis, tonsilitis. tracheitis, bronchitis, pulmonitis, etc. Infection may travel down the esojihagus with the ])roduction of con- ditions designated as iibaryngitis. esoi)Iiagitis, gastritis of many varieties, and intestinal disturbances iij variety, one marked form being attended with the iiroduction of large (|uantiti(>s of unicus. Here I can not consider the intluence on oilier and distant organs, the kidneys for instance, or the nervous sy.stem. 3. Di.scasis hue In Mh rill /'iiHcHnniii!/. more ov less transient, and more or less bound up with conditions described above. Here might be cited a numl»er of conditions that can n()t pro|terly be called diseases at all — such as the more or less transient elTect of much or too litth^ food; the use of too i ji ur too lilllc llnid : or I'ooils that lu'oduce a reaction, 438 perhaiis mi intoxication; tlie excessive use of condiments; tlie intinence OL heat or cold, etc. To what extent to speak of diseases, of symptoms or of reactions is at times a difficult matter to determine, there are no hard and fast lines, no more than between species, subspecies and varieties. Opinions vary. What is in dust that produces the condition described as Coniosis? This is really a question for the pathologist and bacteriologist, for men who study causes. For our present purposes all we need to know is that there is something to which the body reacts. In illustration might be mentioned malaria: all we need to know to protect ourselves from ma- laria is to keep from being bitten by the mosquito which transmits tlu' disease, and indeed we need not fear its bite at all if there is no malaria about. We know what the active cause of malaria is but in the case of Yellow Fever transmitted by another species of mosquito we do not know, and yet keeping the mosquito under control and avoiding being bitten means to prevent the ravages of Yellow Fever. In the case of Coniosis as defined above we need only consider kinds of dust, whether in part it came from man, particularly expectoration and whether sterilized by age or sunliglit. The inhalation of country dust may be disagreeable but it is not the kind of dust that produces Coniosis. We at once see that infected dust is very common in backward cities, less in clean cities and wholly absent in the isolated country. We see an analogy in ix)llenosis or hay-fever. This occurs where the p/ollen of certain plants abounds. The hay-fever victim no longer expects to be cured by the use of drugs ; he knows that he will feel miserable as long as he is exposed to the particular pollen to which he reacts. To get relief, he "changes climate;"' he goes where the air is free from this irri- tating dust— just as people who are educated regarding Coniosis will also make a change. "Precokls" under exposure to "exciting causes" result in "colds." Colds are commonly although not necessarily always attacks of Dust In- fection. To what extent the body protects itself and to what extent man makes an effort to protect himself are very practical questions, but they can not be considered in this brief abstract. People are often "exceed- ingly careful" in their attempts to avoid ill health and sickness, but not ] 28— 29034] 434 kiKiwin,^ \\lH'rt' the iviil (l;iiii,'('r lies tlicy art' onci'cm refill aIniijLC some lines and mil sullicicntly so in others. Some nmst consider the dnst fa<-tor in order to survive. Dnst victims and observant jieople i;enerall\ often liave a stock of tinfornmlated knowledge (obtained tliionudi bitter experience) that is of more value to them than tlie advice and medicine of the yonni; pliysician who in coUeu'e is taught aliont diseases but little or nothing about the common ills of the common people. The physician like everybody else learns much in the school of practical experience, and he often U'arns from old chronics, if hi' .irains their confidence. Related data may be formulated by com]iarin.ir the experiences of many. (>ften all sorts of apparently isolated facts are explainable by a theory. Indivi(hials who are designated as "old cliKinics" often have "tried everythini,'" and beini,' still nncnred have lost faith in drui^s and in the science (or should I say artV) of Medicine. A iihysician may indiiie some to look upon their ill health in a new lit^ht. Some readily take up with the idea or theory of Cnniosis — to them it may become a woi'king theory, a guide that enal)les them to reduce symptoms to a iniuiniuiii. Couiosis moreover is a snb.iect that can be studied by any one. no medical education is necessary although desirable. It is moreover a study that should be tiiuglit in a jiractical manner in the schools, not as mere liook learning. liike all theories relating to com] ilex biological problems the theory of Coniosis should not be ai)plied too rigidly, for the case under considera- tion may be wholly exceptional. 'I'he practitioner of medicine must con- stantly bear in mind that he is dealing with fellow-creatures win* have wants and needs; he must consider all sorts of causes and factors. There are any luimber of problems regarding dusi iulluences that still seek solution. The dust victim who will study himself and keep a record of himself and his varying surroundings can greatly assist his physician, and if he iierchance has a iihysician who is not a student he may deem it advisable to make a change; he may even conclude to go to a community where peojile exi)ect more from physicians than merely handing out medi- cine. The (piestion. What makes dnst dangerous, what is the noxious mat- ter".' is a jirobleni that is lieyond the scope of the ordinary physician. It itMpiii'es lalioi-attiry facilities and unbonnded time. The need for .a speci;il institution for studying details is imperative. 435 What tiik Theory of Comosis Explains. — In tlie light of present data the following statements seem .iustitied: Coniosis explains many cases of common ill health, cases that can not be definitely diagnosed as disease, cases about which differences of opinion among doctors are proverbial. It explains the prevalence of our "Triad of National Diseases" — ^ca- tarrh, dyspepsia and nervous prostration. It explains why much of the "prevalent ill health" is incurable, but preventable. It explains why there is a seemingly endless succession of nostrums advertised in the newspapers and medical journals; all may have some merit in palliating symptoms — but as to curing that is another question. It explains the prevalence of patent medicine advertisements and their seasonal variation. It explains why our nation is a land of fads in medicine and quack remedies (mainly because we tolerate the chewer and spitter). It largely explains the discrepancy of opinion between city and country doctors regarding typical and atypical cases. It explains the ordinary ills of the school child and the seasonal prevalence of some specific diseases. It explains the "degeneration" of school children and the supposed influence of "overwork." (I'sually there is an overworking of the de- fences of the body.) It largely explains why poor people who nuist work under crowded conditions perish prematurely and why old chronics able to take care of themselves live on indefinitely. It explains why many foreigners fail in our cities, some physically, others mentally. (Innnigrants not adapted to city life should be encour- aged to settle in the country and not in cities and certainly not in slums.) It explains the prevalence of tuberculosis in low pressure individuals and of heart and kidney diseases in high pressure individuals. Coniosis gives a clew to the chronic ill health of men and women whose biographies are full of references to ill health. It puts a new interpretation on the old saying, Acquire an incurable disease and live long. It teaches us to make sharp distinctions (or attempt to do so) be- tween symptoms or ill health and real diseases. 436 It shows the need for "ciise reports'' extending over ye;irs and not merely over a few weeks or a few mouths. It shows wliy many people need good advice rather than a "little medicine." It shows the value of a seventh day of rest and of an occasional vacation and an annual vacation in the country. It shows wliy hospitals .should be located in the suburbs ratlier than in the heart of large cities. It teaches why many of tlie common ills or symptoms are to be looked upon as blessings in disguise — as warnings to be heeded. It puts a different interpretation on the old saying, A sound mind in {I sound body. It shows the need of full co-operation between patient and pliysician and that free discussion is necessary to arrive at the truth. This list could be extended indefinitely. Perhaps needless to say it takes time to go over accumulated data and digest facts and draw con- clusions. General sanitation is the duty of the conununity and of the State but there will always be problems that are purely personal. Every one should have sufficient education to properly choose a private medical adviser. The family physician still has a place in our civilization. He must "super- vise health" and advise his patients how to i)revent ill health and diease. In the case of actual disease he may be able to direct his patient to the proper specialist, and he nuist constantly stand between his jtatient and the operator. Tlie the()ry fif ("onlnsls allays the fears of specific diseases and on the other hand it creates a pure air conscience. A sensible man does not become an alarndst. The mere ability to live uiidei- bad air conditions, to tolerate, is not synonymous with adjustment or adaptation. A •■return to the simple life' can scarcely be considered a remedy; few care to return to sndi a life after having lived a complex city life. The projier I'eniedy is to make the city sanitary. .\Hhoiigh sanitary science h;is markedly decreased the i)revale".ice of many siiecilic diseases, the de<'rease of connuon ill health is less noliceabl(>. We must distinguish between individual and connnunal effort; some conj- 437 niniiities are backwMnl and some iii(li\ iduals are heedless. (Shall we g) a step further and say our cities will not be properly cleaned until women are given a voice in the management of municipal affairs?) Coniosls needs to be taught, it should be tauglit in the schools. It shows why schools should be located under sanitary surroundings and why cities should clean up and keep clean. 439 The Kegenerated Scales of Fijndulus Heteroclituus Linne' WITH A Preliminary Note on Their Formation. By Will Scott. The work of Hoffbauer, 'UU, on the scales of the cari) established the fact that, lip to the third year, tlie ase of tliis tisli could be determined l>y the sculpture of tlie scales. Jolmston 'Or>-'08-'10 has shown that not only can the age of the salmon be detennined by the sculpture of the scale, but the emigration of the young salmon (parr) from river to sea and each return to spawn of tlie sexually mature leave an indelible mark upon the scale. These marks have been rendered perfectly intelligible by the work of .Johnston and that of his associates on the Scottish fisheries board. Hutton, "10, in working on the scales of the Wye River salmon ob- served, occasionally, scales quite different from the normal ones and sug- gested that these scales might be the result of regeneration. If this sug- gestion be true then it would be possible, by scale ex.amiiiatioii, to deter- mine the wounds received by and. in a general way, the hazards encount- ered by any individual. To add this additional index to the life history of a tish these experiments concerning tlie regenerated scale were performeit. L'Cth Kop. Scot. Fish. P.d. I't. TI, App. II. "OS. The scales of salmon. 2(;th Kep. Scot. Fish. Bel. Pt. II, App. 111. MO. The scales of salmon. 28th Rep. Scot. Fish. Bd. Pt. II, App. III. Snmner, ^ B. 'OG. The physiological effects upon fishes of changes in density and salinity of water. Bull. U. S. Fish. Com., Vol. XXV. 445 A Catalogue of Scientific Periodical Literature on File in Various Libraries of the State.* Compiled by Hoavard J. Banker and Will Scott. Abbreviations used — Bold faced figures = number of volume. + after volume number = all succeeding numbers on file and current numbers received. Indices = numbers of an incomplete volume. Used in Academy list. * = incomplete volume. o.s. = old series. n.s. = new series. Roman numerals = series. The year (e.g. '95) = date of volume. Used where volumes are not num- bered serially or number of volume was unknown. N.D. = Notre Dame. W. = Wabash. D. = DePauw. R.P. = Rose Polytechnic. S.N. = State Normal School. F. = Franklin. P. = Purdue. B. = Butler. E. = Earlham. Acad. = Indiana Academy exchanges deposited in the State Library at Indianapolis. I.U. = Indiana University. *At the meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1911 the compilers of this catalogue were appointed to collect and publish in the proceedings of the Academy a list of the Scientific periodical literature on file in the college and university libraries of the State, together with the exchanges of the Academy deposited in the Indiana State Library at Indianapolis. The lack of uniformity in the lists submitted, the incomplete statement of titles, and the occasional inexact use of the terms "complete' ' and "current" have probably resulted in some errors. This list may be made the basis of a very complete and exact catalogue. Committee. 446 CATALOGUE. Abhaiulluiigen (l(;r Koniglich Preusschcn Akadcinie dcr \\ isscnschaftei). I.IJ. 1 + . Abstracts of physical papers. P. 3. Academia nacional de cicncias. Cordoba, Argentine Kepublic. Adas. Acad. 5'-'. Boletin. Acad. 7>•3•^ 8' ^ 9, 10. IV *, 12--\ 13\ 14''=, 15'"', IG'-". Academia de (-iencias medicas fisicas y iiaturales de la Habaiui, Havana, Cuba. Armies. Acad. 36^ ''^-^''^^ Academie des sciences; Comptes rendus. I.U. I. Academie imperiale des sciences, St. Petersburg, Ru-ssia. Bulletins. Acad. IV. 361 2, V. 1-5, 6' ^, 71' 2, lOS 11-14, IS'S 16'', 22-25. Academy of natural sciences of Philadelphia, Pa. Proceedings. N.D. 62+: B. "56-'86, '88-'93, '95 + : Acad. 58+: I.U. 1 + . Acetylene journal. N.D. '08-' 10. Acta mathematica. I.U. 1 + . Advanced therapeutics. P. 23*, 24*. American academy of arts and sciences, Boston. l'roccedin(,'s. P.P. 1-7, 9-16: S.N. 34-37: P. 40*, 41*: Acad. 34 + . Memoirs. P.P. n.s. 1-9: P. 13*. American academy of medicine. I.U. 6 + . American anthropologist. I.U. 1+. American antiquarian and oriental journal, Chicago, 111. Acad. 3-, 6\ 11\ 14'. American architect. R.P. 21 + . American association for the advancement of science. Proceedings. W. 45 + : R.P. 1-41, 43-55, 59-61: S.N. 1-44: P. 29 + : I.U. 1 + . American botanist, Joliet, 111. N.D. 15 + : D. 1+. American chemical journal. N.D 17+: W. 1 + : D. 1 + : R.P. 17 + : P. 1 + : B. 8 + : E. 39 + : I.U. 8 + . American chemical society. Journal. N.D. '76 + *: W. 15, 16. 24 + : D. 15+: R.P. 15 + : P. 1 + : I.U. 28. Review of American chemical jrsearch. P. '03-'06. Chemical ahstracls. N.D. 1 + : W. 1 + : D. 1 + : P. 1+. Pro- ceedings. I.U. 31+. American chemist. W. 1-4: R.P. 1-7. American city. P. 1+. American druggist . P. 14 + . American elect liciaii. P.P. 11-17. American elect ro-clieiuicai society. Transactions. P. 1+. American epliemeris ot materia medica. P. 1 3. American engineer. R.P. 9-21. 447 American engineer iind railroad journal. R.P. 71 + . American fern journal. N.D. '10+. American torostry, Washington, D. C, (see Conservation). D. 16 + : P. 16+. American forestry association. Proceedings. P. 10*, 12*. American forestry congress. Proceedings. P. 4. American garden. P. 1-10. American gas institute. Proceedings. R.P. 2+. American geographical society, New York. Bullclin. S.N. 34 + : Acad. 14*, 1.5'. W, 17''-''''', 18--S 19'-'', 20'-^ I.U. 1+. Journal. S.N. 28-33. Continued as the Bulletin. American geologist (continued as Economic geology q.v.). W. 11-26: S.N. 12 36: E. 29 + : B. 10-24. American health. P. 1, 2. .\merican homes and gardens (continuation of Scientific American, building edition). R.P. 1 + . American horticulturist. I.U. '85-'86. American institute of the city of New York. Transactions. P. 6. American institute of electrical engineers. Proceedings. R.P. 24 + . Trans- actions. R.P. 20-21, 28, 29. American institute of mining engineers. Transactions. R.P. 1+. American journal of anatomy. S.N. 1 + : P. 5 + : I.U. 1+. American journal of archaeology. D. 1-11; II. 1 + : I.U, 1+, American journal of conchology, P. 1-7. American journal of diseases of children. I.U. 1+. American jovu'nal of mathematics, Baltimore, Md. W. 15 + : D. 1-16: P. 1 + : I.U. 1. American journal of medical science. I.U. 133 + . American journal of microscopy and popular science. New York. D. 1, 2: R.P. 1-5. American journal of pharmacy. R.P. III. 1-18; IV. 1, 2: P. 54, 55, 58 + . American journal of physiology, Boston. D. 15-20: S.N. 1 + : P. 13 + : I.U. 1 + . American journal of psychology. S.N. 1 + : P. 19 + : E. 2-6, 12, 14, 16, 17: I.U. 1 + . American journal of public hygiene. P. n.s. 1+. American journal of science. W. 1-150, n.s. 1-28: R.P. 1 + : S.N. 100 + : P. 1 + : B. III. 11-16, 19-50; IV. 1 + : E. 27^ : I.U. 1 + . American journal ot science and arts. New Haven, Conn. D. 10, 11, -MS American machinist. R.P. 6+. American mathematical montlily. W. 5 + : S.N. 4 + : P. 1-8, 12+: I.U. 1+. American mathematical society, New York. Bulletin. W. 8+: D. II. 1-6: S.N. 1, 3 + : P. TI. 1 + : I.U. 1 + . Transactions. P. 1 + : I.U. 1 + . American medical association. Journal. P. 1-3, 9-22, 36, 38, 40+*: I.U. 41+. American microscopical societj', Decatur, Io\va. Transactions. W. 18 + : D. 30+. American midland naturalist, Notre Dame, Ind. N.D. 1, 2. American monthly magazine. t N.D. '17, '18. American monthly microscopical journal, Washington, D. C, X.D. 1 + *: D. 1, 10-15, 18-23*: R.P. 1-2: P. 2. American museum journal. N.D. '09 + . American museum of natural history. New York. Bulletins. P. 8: Ac.\d. l'-8. Reports. Acad. '70-89. American naturalist. N.D. 1 + : W. 1-34, 36-39, 43 + : D. 1-5, 20 + : S.X. 1 + : F. 1-4, 11-13: P. 1-8, 10*, 11 + : E. 1-4, 7, 40 + : B. 1-6, 11 + : I.U. 1 + . American pharmaceutical association. Bulletin. P. 2 + . Proceedings. P. 7. 10,14,15,32 + : I.U. 02+. American philosophical society, Philadelphia. Proceedings. R.P. 1744-1S38, '76-'90: Acad. 27-38, 47, 48, 51-156, 158, 197, 199-201. American physical education review. I.U. 1 + . American ciuarterly microscopical journal. R.P. 1-3. American society of civil engineers. Transactions. R.P. 43, 44, 60+. American society for psychical research. Journal. S.X. 1, 2, 4 + . Proceed- ings. S.N. 1 + . American society of mechanical engineers. Transactions. R.P. 1+. American society for testing nuilcrials. Proceedings. R.P. 2-8. Analyst. P. 8 + : I.U. 1-10. Analyst (Math.) continued as Annals of mathematics (j. v. P. 1-10. Anatomical record. S.N. 5+: P. 1 + . Anatomischer Anzeiger. B. 13 + : I.U. 1+. Annalen der Chemie (Liebig). W. 285-350: D. 1 + : P. 301+. SuppUvtent. D. 1-8. Annalen aus deni hiinanatuniischer Institute in Ziirick: I.U. 1 + . Annalen der Physik und Chemie. W. 16 + : P. III. 1 + : LIT. 284. Beihlatter. P. 31 + : I.U. 17+. f Contains wrilinns of Halincsquo. 449 Annales do i-lieniic (^1 do physiciuc. X.]). "Og-'OG: J5. 73: I.U. VI. 28, 30; VII. 2 30, VIII. 1 + . Annales de geographic. S.N. 8 + : I.U. 7 + . Annales historico-iuitvirales musei luitionalis hungarici, Budapest, Hungary. Acad. 1-8. Annales de L' Institute Pasteur. I.U. 20 + . Annales de paleontologie. I.U. 1 + . Annales des pouts et chaussees. R.P. VI. 1.5 + . Annales des sciences naturelles botanicjue. W. VII. 19, 20; VIII. 2 14. Annali di mathematica. I.U. III. 17 + . Annals of botany, London, Eng. W. 7: D. 1-7, 20+: S.N. 1 + : P. 1 + : I.U. 1 + . Annals of mathematics, Charlotteville, Va. (see Analyst, math.). W. 1-12, n.s. 1-9: D. 1-6: R.P. 1 + : P. II. 1 + : I.U. o.s. complete, n.s. 1+. (L) Annee biologique. I.U. 1 + . (L) Annee psychologique. I.U. 1+. Annual record of science and industry. D. '71-'73. Annual report on the progress of chemistry. B. 5-7. Annual of scientific discovery. D. '50-'62, '65, '68-'71. Arboriculture. P. 1-8*. Arbeiten aus der kaiserlichen Gesundheitsante. I.U. 24 + . Archiv fiir Anatomie und Physiologic. I.U. '77 + . Archiv fur Entwicklungsmechanic der Organismen. I.U. 1 + . Archiv der Mathematik imd Physik. P. 9 + : I.U. 1 + . Archiv fiir die gesammte Physiologic des Menscheii und der Thierc. D. 27, 28: P. 106 + : I.U. 1 + . Archiv fiir microscopisclie Anatomie. I.U. 17 + . Archiv flir pathologische anatomie und Physiologic und fiir klinische Medicine. I.U. 1 + . Archiv der Pharmacie. I.U. "00 + . Archiv fiir Rassen-imd Gesellschaft — Biologic. I.U. 1+. Archive fur Schul Hygiene. I.U. 1+. Archives de Biologic. I.U. 11+. Archives de Medicine experiment ale. I.U. 18 + . Archives de Parasitologic. I.U. 10+. Archives de Zoologie experimentale. I.U. 9-10. Archives of psychology. I.U. 1 + . Arkansas geological survey. Report. P. 88-92*. [29—20034] 450 Art aiiiatciir. H.P. 17-45. Asiatic society of Bengal, Calcutta, Bengal. Proceedings. -Ac.vD. '85"''*"'''. •861-4,6.81-0^ 'ST'-'o, '88-91, '92'-^ '93--'' •«->",' 94'-"', '95, '96, '97'-« '-", '98'-", '99. 00' >. Association of engineering societies. Journal. R.P. 1 + . Astronomical journal. W. 13 21: 1). 7 + : I.U.I-}-. Astronomical society of the Pacific. I.U. 1-|-. Astronomiche Gesellschaft. I.U. If. Astronomische Nachiichten. I). 113M3S: W"-. 55 58, 107, 111-118, 121-122, 124 +. Astronomy and astro-physics. W. 11-13: D. 11-13. Astrophysical journal. W. 1-6, 17 + : D. 1 + : P. 7, 19 27, 29-h: I.U. 1-f . Atti Delia Reale Academia dei Lincea. I.U. '11-f. Augustana library i)ublications. P. 4-6. Auk, The, Cambridge, Mass. Acad. 26'. Australian association for the advancement of science, Sydney, Australia. Re-port. Acad. 7-12. Belfast natural history and philosophical society, Belfast, Ireland. Report. Acad. '85-'88, '96-'01, '04-' 06, '08-' 10. Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft. W. 13-15. Berichte der Saechsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften Math. I. U. 63+. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft. N.D. '96-1- : W. 1-I-: D. 7+: P. 1+. Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift. I.U. '06-I-. Bibliographia physiologica. P. 1-I-: I.U. 1-I-. Bibliographia zoologica. I.U. 1-I-. Bibliographic geographique annuelle. I.U. 1 + . Beiblatter zu den Annalen der Physik und Cheniie. I.U. 17-f. Beitrage zur Psj^chologie und Philosophic. I.U. \ + . Biological bulletin. Woods' Hole, Mass. D. 1 + : S.N. 1 + : F. IS 20: V. 14 + I.U. 1 + . Biochemisches C'cntralblatt. I.U. 4 + . Biometrica. I.l". 1 i . Biological society of Washington, D. C. ProcecdiiKj.^. .\<\i). 1 23*. Hiologisches (Jentralblatt, Lei|)sig, Gcnii.Miiy. O. I 30: 1.1". 1 !. Bird lore. W. 3 + : P. 12 + . Birds and nature. S.N. 1-21. Bollelino della arboriculttira Ifaliana. X.I). 09 + . 451 Boletino del comite regional del Est ado Durango, Mexico. N.D. "10 + . Boston journal of natural history. R.P. 1-6. Boston society of natural history. Memoirs. Acad. 5*. I'ruceedijig^. Acad. 3P, 34'. Botanical gazette, Chicago, 111. W. 1-f : D. 12+: S.N. 1, 2. 4, 6, 8 + : P. 1 + : E. 13-30, 33 + : B. 26-50: I.U. 13 + . Botanical magazine. X.D. 12, 13, 15, 18, 27. Botanical society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland. Transacliuna. Acad. 22'-3, 23i-S24',25 + . Botanische Zeitung. W. 51-59: I.U. 1 + . Botanischer Jahresbericht (Just's). W. 1-20: D. 1-32. Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin, Germany. Verhand- lungen. Acad. 36-52. Botanisches Centralblatt, Jena, Germany. W. 49-60, 89 + : D. 1 + : I.U. 1 + . Botanisches Centralblatt-Beil-iefte. D. 1 + : I.U. 9 + . Botaniska notiser, Sweden. X.D. '09- . Brain. S.X. 13. 15 + : I.U. 12^. Brazil museu Goeldi. Boletrn. P. 4, 5*. Breeder's gazette. D. 55. Brickbuilder. R.P. 9 + . Bristol naturalist's society, Bristol, England. Procceding>^. Acad. 1-'^ 2''-. British association for the advancement of science. R.P. '31-r. British medical journal. I.U. '06+. British patents, abridgements. R.P. 1588 + . British journal of psychology. P. 2 + . Brown University. Studies from the biological laboratory. I.U. 1 + . P>ryn Mawr college. Monographs. Acad. 1=^^, 5-7, 9. Bryologist. X.D. 12 + : D. 1 + . 'Buffalo society ot natural sciences. Bulletin. P. 1, 2: .\cad. 1-4, 5'' = '\ 6, 9*. 'iuUetin astronomique. W. 1.5-17: I.U. 14+. " Bulletin de L'Institute Pasteur. I.U. 3+. 'Bulletin de jardin botanique de L'etat a Bruxelles. X.D. '09 + . Julletin of pharmacy. P. 14 + . bulletin ties sciences mathematique ct astronomicnie. I.U. 1 + . bureau of American ethnology. Report. P. 1 + : BidUiin. P. 33 + . 'alifornia academy of sciences. Bulletins. Acad. V. 2'' *. Memoir.'^. Acad. 4, 5'. Occasional papers. Acad. 1-9. Proceedings. Acad. II. 1''-, 2, 3''=, 4''=. 5' •-. 6; III. bot. V-'", 2' ."; geol. 1'-'", 2'-=; math, and phys. U-s; zool. U'-, 2'-", 3>-'^ 4'-^ IV. 1, 3. ■152 California state board of forestry. Bulletin. P. 1. Biennial reports. P. 3. California university chronicle. P. 11 + . Canada commission of conservation. Report. P. 1 + . Canada geological and natural history survey. Sutnitiary reports. P. '85-'87, '89, '91, '05, '06. Canada geological siu-vey. Annual reports. P. n.s. 1 + . Report of progress. P. 20-27. Canada, interior department, forestry branch. Bulletin. P. 1 + . Canada, superintendent of forestry and irrigation. Report. P. '09-' 10. Canadian entomologist, London, Ontario, Canada. D. 24-30*: P. 39 + . Canadian forestry association. Report. P. 11 + . Canadian institute, Toronto. Reports. Acad. '86-"91. Proceedings. Ac.\d. 3- S 4i'-, 5''-, 6''-, 7'; n.s. 1'", 2'". Tranmctions. Ac.\D. !'•=, 2' '2, 4=, 5''--, 6''=, 7'-', 8'-*, 9'. Canadian record of science. l.U. '96-'05. Carnegie institute. Annual reports. P. 1 + : Ac.\D. '98+. Annals. Ac.vd. '01 + . Memoirs. Acad. 1, 2, 3', 4'"'. Celebration of founder's day. Acad. '98-'00, '02-'05, '07 + . Prize essay contest. Acad. '99-'04. Cassier's magazine. R. P. 5-33, 36 + : S.X. 13 + : F. 39 + : l.U. 6 + . Cellule, I>a. X.D. 1 + : l.U. 22 + . Centralblatt fiir normale Anatomic und Microtechnik. l.U. 1 + . Centralblalt fiir Bakteriologie. P. 36 f . Centralblatt liir allgemeine und <>\perinientclle Biologic. T.U. 1+. Centralblatt fiir Electrotechnik. H. P. 7-10. Centralblatt fiir Physiologic. W. 6: P. 19 + . Central Park menagerie. New York. Reports. Acad. '88-'90. Central states medical monitor. P. 5 11*. Chemical abstracts. l.U. 1 + . Chemical engineer. X.D. 1 + : P. 1 + . Chemical engineering and jihysical chemistry. B. 1 + . Chemical news. X.I). 79 + : \V. 1 6: I). 161: P.P. 71^: S.X. 39-52, 61-63, 68 + : P. 33 + . Chemical society. London. Journal. X.D. 16%: W . 6"> ' : I). 24 + : P.P. 28 + : B. '06 I . Reports. I). 1 6: 1'. 1 + : B. 10. Chemisches Centralblatt. X.l). 77t: P.P. 04 i : P. 47 i : l.U. 52 + . Chemist and druggist. !'. 70 ) . Chicago academy of sciences, liiilliliu. .\cad. 1' '", 2- ', 3' •'. Reports. Acad. '95 '97. Hullctin of Hit natural history surrey. .Vcad. l-tl. 7'. 453 Chicago entomological society. Memoirs. Acad. 1'. Cincinnati lancet-clinic. P. 16-24*. Cincinnati societj- of natural history. Journal. Acad. 11, 12'^', 15'' ^ IG^"*, 17-19, 21' 2: I.U. 1-2. Cincinnati university studies. P. II. 1+. Civil engineer's journal. R.P. 1 25. Colorado scientific society. Proceedings. P. 9 + . Colorado college, Colorado Springs. Studies. P. science ser. 13-20, 23-26, 30-32, 39 + : Acad. '91, '94. Colorado scientific society, Denver. Bulletin. Acad, 'g?'"-", '98', '99'' S '00=. Proceedings. Acad. 1. 2' ^ 3' ^ 5-9. Colorado university. Studies. P. 1+. Columbia university. New York. Bulletin. P. 1-20. Quarterly. P. 1 + . Ernest Kempton Adams fund for physical research, publications. P. 1. Comite geologique, St. Petersburg, Russia. Bulletins. Acad. 17-28, 29'"''. Memoirs. Acad. 2\ 7, 8'-\ 9'-\ lO^-^, 12', 13=-^ 14, 15'"*, 16''-, IT'', 18' -^ 19, 20''=, n.s. 1-38, 40-52, 56, 57, 59. Commissao dos trabalhos geologicos, Lisbon, Portugal. Communicacoes. Acad. 1-5, 6'. Compressed air. R.P. 9-11. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires del'academie des sciences. R.P. 104 + : P. 140 + : I.U. 1 + . Connecticut academy of arts and sciences, New Haven. Transactions. Acad. 8, 92, 10-16. Connecticut, state geological and natural history survey. Bulletin. P. 1+. Connecticut, commissioners of fisheries and game. Report. P. '09, '10. Connecticut, shell-fish commissioners. Report. P. '09, '10. Conservation (continued as American forestry q. v. See also Forestry and irrigation). P. 14, 15. Cuerpo de ingenieros de minas, Lima, Peru. Boletin. Acad. 1-21, 25-54, 56-59, 62-74, 76. Curtis' botanical magazine. X.D. 1-12, 22, n.s. 6. Denison university, Granville, Ohio. Bulletin of the scientiHc laboratories. Acad. 2-5, 6', 9-", 10, 11' », 13' ^ 14' '«, 15, 16' '•. Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Xatiu- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens, Tokio, Ja|)an. Mitteilungrn. Acad. 9' supp. =, 10'" 3, 11'-", 12''=, 13' ■■'. Deutsche Chemische-Gesellschaft zu Berlin-Berichte. I.U. '04 + . pie landwirtschattlichen Versuch-stationen. I.U. 35-47, 49 + . 454 Dingler's polytechnisches journal. R.P. 259-262, 267-319. Economic geology (see American geologist). S.N. 1 + : E. 1,,^: l.U. 1+. Edinburg mathematical society. Proceedings. I.U. '04+. Electrical engineer, London. R.P. 1-32*. Electrical engineer, New York (combined in 1899 wilh the ]']lt'ctric;il world q. v.). R.P. 7-27. Electrical review, London. R.P. 26+. Electrical review. New York. R.P. 31 + . Electrical world. D. 3-4, 19+: R.P. 24+: S.N. 23+: E. 16, 17, 24, 25: LU. 11+. Electrician. D. 28-37: R.P. 47 + : LU. 51+. Electric journal. R.P. 2 + . Electrochemical and metallurgical industrj'. See Metallurgical and chemical engineering. Electrotechnische Zeit.schrift. R.P. 6, 7, 12 + . Elisha Mitchell scientific society of the university of North Carolina, Chajjcl Hill, N. C. Journal. Acad. 1-3, 4', 5 + . Engineer. R.P. 1-28, 41, 69, 70, 97 + . Engineering. R.P. 3-42, 47+. Engineering and mining journal. R.P. 20-36, 49 + : I.U. 53 + . Engineering digest. See Industrial engineering and cngiMcering digest. Engineering magazine. R.P. 2+: S.N. 1 + : F. 27-32: LU. 1 + . Engineering news. R.P. 13 + : LU. '00+. Engineering record and sanitary engineer. R.P. 12 + : E. 51-60. English mechanic and world of science. R.P. 45-77. Enseignement mathematique. P. 5 + : LU. 11 + . Entomological news, Philadelphia, Pa. W. 9 + : 1). 1 + . Entomological society of America. Annals. W. 1 + . Entomological society of Ontario. Reports. S.N. '78, '81-'89. '91 "99. 00 09. Entomologiska foreningen, Stockholm, Sweden. Entoniologisk (idskrift. .\v.\i). 13' -^ 18-25, 26'-\ 28-30, 31' ^ Ergebnisse der Anatomie und l*]iil \vick(>l\iiigsgcscliichtc. 1.1'. 1+. Ergebnisse der Physiologic. S..\. 1 | : I'. 1 5: LU. 1 i. Essex institute, Salem, Mass. Hulhlin. Ac.\i). 19' ', 20' '■'. 21 2:?, 21' ■'•"-'=, 25, 26' '■-. 27' ^ 28 30'"', Report, .\c.\n. '99. '00. Field Cohuuhiaii mui.scuiu of iialiu'al lii.sloiy, Chicagi), 111. lu junls. .Vcau. 1, 2^-^ 3, 4'. Exchange cataloijuc. Xvw,. '96 '98. /'ul^liatlions. X.l). hot. ser. 1 i : I*, aiilluop. ser. I + ; hot. scr. I i-; gcol. ,scr. 1 t ; oriiith. 455 ser. 1 + ; report ser. l + ; zool. ser. 1 + : Acad, anthrop. scr. 2' ^~'', S'''', 4-6', 7': bot.ser. l'-3,s, 2''3"", 3-; geol. scr. l'--^", 2--< ''•"•, 3'-9, 4'; ornith. ser. 1' -■"; zool. ser. is-s'i-i?^ 2=, 3'--'S 4''=, 5-10. Flora. I.U. 86 + . Folia haemtologica. I.U. 3 + . Folia seralogical. I.U. 1 + . Forester. P. 4-7. Forestry and ii rigation (codI imicd as C<)ns('r\ atioii 7. r.). I'. 8-13. Forestry quarterly. W. 3 + . Forschungs Beriehte aus cler biologisches Station zu riiin. von Di'. Otto Zaclia- rias. Stuttgart. I.U. 1 + . Fortschritte dor Physik. P. 4 + . Fort Wayne medical journal. P. 2, 22, 27, 28*. Franklin institute. Journal. R.P. ,5 47, 49 51, 86-97, 115 + . Gas engine. R.P. 4 + *. Geographische Zeitschrift. I.U. 5+. Geographical journal. S.N. 1 + . Geographical society of America. Bulletin. S.N. 1 + . Geographical society ot Philadelphia, Pa. Bulletin. S.N. 7 + . Geological magazine. I.U. 1 + . Geological society of America. Bulletin. E. 13 + : I.U. 1 + . Geological society of London. I.U. 60+. Geologisches Centralblatt. I.U. 1 + . Georgia forest association. Forest, fish mid game (formerly Southern wood- lands). P. 2, 3. Georgia geological survey. Bulletin. P. 24, 25. Report. P. '93. Giornale di Mathische. I.U. 1 + . Guide to nature. N.D. '09 + : F. 3 + . Gulf biological station, Cameron, La. Bulletin. P. 3, 4, 0, 7, 9-11, 13 + . Hamburgische botanische staatsinstitute. Jahresberichte. N.D. '05 + . Hamilton .scientific association, Hamilton, Ontario. Journal ami jjrocccdings . Acad. V, 14-19, 21-23, 25, 26. Harvey society, New "\'ork. Lectures. P. '05 + . Harvard university. Puttlications from the Jefferson j>Jn/yinil latioralory. P. 4, 6 + . Contributions. E. 1 + . Havana university. Revisla de lafacultad de Ictras y ciencias. P. 3 + . Hawaii agricultural experiment station. Report and bulletin. N.D. '10 + . Histologisches und Histopathologische Arbeitenund die Grosshirnrinde. I.U. 1+. 456 Historical and sc-ientific society of Manitoba, Winnipog. Manit()l)a. Rcjmii.s. Acad. '97-'06. Transactions. Acad. 51-72. Horticultural society of London. Trunsaclions. X.D. 1-4. Hygienisches ccntialblatt. I.U. 1 + . Illinois state geological survey. Bulletin. V. 3 + . Illinois state laboratory of natural history. Bulletin. N.D. '04+: S.X. 1-7: Acad. V'-'\ 2''''^'''8, S^"'-, 6', 7"-"', 8'-^, 9' ••. Illinois university, state water survey. Bulletin. P. 1 + . Illinois university. Studies. P. 1 + *. Imperial journal of arts, science, etc. F. 1-4. Index Medicus. I.U. 3 + . India, inspector-general of forests. Review of forest adniinistralion. P. '07-' 10. Indiana academy of science, Indianapolis. Proceedings. N.D. 24 + : 8.N. 7-9, 14+: P. 7 + : I.U. 1 + . Indiana geographical congress. Reports. S.N. 3, (>. Indiana horticultural society. Transactions. D. '79. Indiana medical journal. P. 3-27*: I.U. 7 + . Indiana medical association. Journal. P. 1+. Indiana pharmaceutical association. Proceedings. P. '9(), '99. Indiana state board of forestry. Report. D. 6, 7, 10. Indiana state medical society. Transactions. P. '79, '80, '91, '93, '95. Indiana university. Studies. P. 1 + : I.U. 1+. Indianapolis medical journal. P. 12+. Industrial engineering and engineering digest. R.P. 3 + : E. 3, 4. Industries. R.P. 1-15. Inland architect. R.P. 30-52. Insect life, Washington, D. C. D. 3-7*. Institut international de bibliographie, Brussels, Belgium. Biblioqrapkia physiologica. Acad. 1''^, 2''=. Instituto medico nacional, Mexico City, Mexico. Anales. Acad. 11'"'. L'Intermediaire des mathematiciens. P. 18 + : I.U. 1+. Internationale Monatschrift fiir Anatomic und Physiologie. I.U. 1+. International journal of microscopy and natural science. D. 2. Internationale wochenschrift fiir Wissenschaft, Kunst, und '["cchnik. I.U. 1+. Ion. \V. 1. Iowa academy of sciences, Des Moines. Proceed irig.my of science, Norman, Okla. Proceedings. Acad. '09. '10. Oklahoma geological survey. Bulletin. P. 1-3, 5 + . Circular. P. 1+. Oklahoma university. Researeh bulletins. P. 1 + . Oregon conservation coinmission. Report. P. '09 f. Oregon university. Bulletin. P. n.s. 3*. Ornithologische (lesellschaft in Baycrn, Munich, (ItMinany. .\( ad. 5 10. Ornithologisches jalnbuch. Ilallein, Austria. Acad. 9. 12, 13. 15, 17. 19. 21. Ottawa naturalist. ()tt;i\\;, Canada. X.I). '09+: Acad. 1-15*. Oxford, Cambridge .ind Dublin messenger of mathematics, Cambridge, luig- laiul (continui'd as Messenger of mat hematics (/.r.). I). 1-5. 4Ge Paginas ilustradas, San Jose, Costa Rica. Acad. 2, 3, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 30, 34-37, 47, 50 53. Peabody museum of American archaeology and ethnology, Cambridge, Mass. Papers, Acad. 1'". Memoirs. Acad. 1'~=. Reports. Acad. '89, '90. Pennsylvania forestry department. Report. P. '01, '02, '05 + . Pennsylvania geological survey. Report. P. 1-3. Pennsylvania university. Contriljuiioris from the zoblogieal laboratory. P. 1*. Pharmaceutical era. P. 1-8, 13-21, 23, 25 + *. Pharmaceutical journal. P. 41 + *. Philadelphia medical journal. P. 8. Philippine Islands ethnological survey. PutAications. P. 1*, 4*. Philippine journal of science. P. (all ser.) 3 + . Philosophical magazine and journal of science. W. 5 + : R.P. V. 1-4, 14 + : P. V. 25+. Photo era. R.P. 6-8, 24 + . Photographic bulletin, Anthony's. 1\.P. '00*. Photographic times. R.P. '87-10*. Photo-miniature. R.P. 1-3, 10 + . Physical review. W. 24 + : D. 1 + : R.P. 1 + : H.N. 8-18: P. 1 + : E. 24 + : LIT. 1 + . Physical society of London. Proeeedings. LU. 1 + . Physikalische zeitschrift. R.P. '05 + . Phytopathology, Ithaca, N. Y. W. 1 + : D. 1 + : LU. 1 + . Plant world, New York and Tuscon, Ariz. P. 11 + : Acad. 6i-», 7-, 8^ 13': LU. 8 + . Pomona college journal of entomology. N.D. '09 + . Pontificia accademia romana dei Nuovi Lincei, Rome, Italy. Atti. Acad. 51-57, 582 ^ 59 63 Popular astronomy. D. 11, 12*, 20 + : F. 10+: E. 1 + : LU. 1+. Popular mechanics. F. 15 + . Popular science. F. 1-55, 63 + . Popular science monthly. W. 1 + : D. 1 + : R.P. 1 + : S.N. 1 + : P. 1 + : E. 1-12, 15-19, 24-29, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37. 40. 41, 43-65, 67 + : B. 1 + : LU. L Popular science news. W. 21-24. Popular science review. R.P. 1-13. Portland society of natural history, Portland, Me. Proceedings. Acad. 2'1. 5> 8-9 Post graduate. P. 19-21*. [30—29034] 466 Power. R.P. 14 + . Practical druggist and pluuniaceutical review of reviews. P. 1-6*. Practical engineer. R.P. 13 + . Prince Edward Island forestry commissioners. Report. P. '04. Princeton university. Contributions to philosophy. P. 1*. Contributions to psychology. P. 1*, 2*. Progressive medicine. I.U. 9 + . Psyche. S.N. 2 4. Psychological bulletin. P. 5 + : E. 1 + : I.U. 1 + . Psychological clinic. S.N. 1 + : P. 4 + : I.U. 1 + . Psychological monographs. S.N. 6 + : I.U. 1 + . » Psychological review. D. 1 + : S.N. 1 + : P. 15 + . Psychologische Arbeiten. I.U. 1+. Psychologische Studien. I.U. 1+. Psychotherapy. I.U. 1 + . Pure products. P. 4 + . Quarterly journal of microscopical science, London, England. D. n.s. 34-36, 38: R.P. o.s. 1-8; n.s. 1-14: B. 22-25: I.U. 32-45. Quarterly journal of pure and applied mathematics, London, iMigland. W. 28: D. 1-25: R.P. 1 + : I.U. 1 + . Quebec department of lands and forests. Report. P. '08. '09. Queensland museum, Brisbane, Australia. Annals. Ac.vn. G-0. Quekett microscopical club, London. Journal. R.P. 1-5. Radium (Le), I.U. 1+. Railroad and engineering journal. R.P. 61-68. Railway age gazette. R.P. 17 + . Real academia de ciencias y artes, Barcelona, Sjjain. liolctin. Ac.vd. l'«-3n^ 2''3-'>, 3'''^ Memoirs. Acad. 3, 4''-'«-''», 5'"", 6'-'=, 7'-", 8'-=', 10". Real academia de ciencias exactas fisicas y naturales, Madrid, Spain. Memoirs. Acad. 12, 13' \ 14, 15' •\ 18', 20, 2r-, 22-25, 26''-. Anuario. Acad. '89. '08, '11. Revista. 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'^- .Jfr iS .1 i ^4 4.4 ;!.,« .!* .« J J-.:« t ^'i js^.l 'I.* «.«,i . , :«■':« ' > • • ■ :• « t I n 'f « "^ f * >^ I ■* -. - % .« ■« ,1^ t •« « i f 'M^.M t'i .€".'l:« I 1 ^ J.« -^ 'ia w^ f ■{ i ^ ■! ■4_-, _.. .. ., ,* it -f!* J. If.* '>» -« -» ■ 1:1 :i,.l,J«.^«„;l. ■f '4 I ft k. » V ... , , , ,- ,. Si f I I f .1 ,* ■«::t ^f ;«/» f i^'« 'r~^l 't I "^-t '-4 '4i :fii "€ -^i ■* M'-^ I -* i?i .a .a ■& J! .,.«■ .^-- .iF .js .^- -.41 AH • •,-- ' -■- • ^^ ^ -- ^l- T^' ^% ■f '4 m t :«^''t .'i' i^"'li ;^ :| M 'M #"'# ""# "^ "^ "*^" M. :k. * * i » » t ,1. % % *. !;■ *,,*.*.,».,*„«. '■ "- I » »• »■ »■ * i I * I, i:. *■„*..*. i; ». f I .* # I * * *. >-. ■ i-. * : i ■r t r I- 'f % i"* * » I, I # #-. f * »■ t ■»■ I I 9 'XXJJJ^JX^J^J i t. »:, «,. »„t'.,.%,.f.^*, * * » ,*, I, I, I, #^ |:_,.j !f: r *"l'* ¥ f «' t I. i. ft, ■* < *■ 1^ i. !£, » it. « t 1 .%X3:xxj-x.K} r * -f . t: * ^.t |. .fr,. i » * 1^ |; »■ , ; % f ^ %: W f f. It- 1 J i * r.^ *■ » t * f » t- :i » ** *■ 1 i f ? 1 : t'*,W i^f I' »'■» I . I # f »:■ f, . « " «" r *:^f i » fr f ■ - I 4 «■ i fir: i f I'. » % - ■ ■ • \ A », *■ *vl. », I .p.- I-J..* k..* - - - . ■> K 1 1;. I.. I %XJJ-„^J ' »:.|i .1. I-- »: I. >, !■ •*,*., I '■ — ■ - X t r »,, » I i. % , .. , ">.' f ' ■»■■ f * ■*"i- ' ''; 1 »s 5. t .^ 1^ IS- ?• .!U , •■. ■ " f f fe"'«- 1,1- ?■ *^ Jv :■ *'J *•..*■ t « i! * ' r. }' ;■ XX XX XX.. XXJXJ / $? r *' 1^' i »• fe"'^ v ji;' c f- fc n^'..*-;* .1 r * I w 'm -^ M'^ ^" ■■^■*4:€2C1' 'It.t-^'n ^% f M W4 M.AM. l.,.i:li «,f :i:j J t 'i f ?f :<:t ■i:€ f ■# t I' f * if 1 -f « t « * « 'I *■ i * « :« « * - ' , -, -v: ..V --^ ^ ^- ^'^ mi. m:m 1 f t 't « f 1 'f "^ "^' i ' 9. "'^,M *«! ' '-.^ ' '-.-.«S- ■;._.i,i. '^. .li! ^ , "11 "ft f_i "€:«:« « ■■■¥ . « *^ ^ ^ •.- 1;t.:f.;«.«. i ^« '"< t'f-'t , ^^ 4.4..* ;t..i i..i * i..fi €.«:.* i:;- ^.^ f ,1. t..,%.,:f ^f J^. ^.,.^.^-,,,^:.fl^,..S.,^^^ ^/i, ....