—— =< Sg ee eas ete = ee et ae Math nat a ator at oho PL A al 2 en ee ber eee PP arene afer PROCEEDINGS Indiana Academy of Science 1914 ah LAG, ay Meith hint [ PROCEEDINGS OF THE Indiana Academy of Science 1914 H. E. BARNARD, Editor INDIANAPOLIS : CONTRACTOR FOR STATE PRINTI OR 1915 ee Ne Te te LISRAR NEW YOR TABLE OF CONTENTS. BOTANIC. GARDEN PAGE SLE SITOIOIN gw ols Sonpas ale o Spb iche Oe eee o oconelee abet eee a nO ro 5 2 os LODE Se 2 gO bU in cae oi COs ote: cS ee oN A ee i rr 7 ME PLOMnih LOMO Ola OU Lenn eae eek acids a cetlom 5 fio ane ths Saaciele' « 9 An Aet for the Protection of Birds, Their Nests and Eggs................ 9 Public Offenses—Hunting Birds—Penalty............................... 10 DELS, TOUTS SIS Ue eS ean ce tre ep oe Gao ae ee: 11 BEC Milieu © ONMnntiLe Ck rater. Paws amie is sade Lee ba ee eer eed oe 11 MOTI C OLS RNP TT ey cr nus ene SEE oe en teers ON eye ty en 11 Committees Academy of Science, 1915... 00.2.6 .. es ee ee 12 Officers of the Academy of Science (A Table of)............. tty Sekt Chane 13 MIGTENI DEIPS 5. J clea Belen Ge Rea Pod Ieee ek Eee Oe Sa a ga nee Pe isc ale LDISIILG TIS. ss age OS Se ee oe ek Pa prreetcrce ae ae rg ee et ee cee eee: ANGUS INTER XESS Bo pl ORES Bc taal cls Seen Ae eee RIPEN OE en 22 Nimutestorthesspnime. Meeting 0....2.68.00.6 Pek cd SO, Minutes of the Thirtieth Annual Meeting............................ &.— AS EPxogram-ot the Thirtieth Annual Meeting: ....:.......0.. 6.000.000.0006 50 Science in Its Relation to the Conservation of Human Life. Severance SES UNI ILELE: Ctr eae iP Waeue ena ri Men ete ce eM rg ev A. wcll Sha » BRN Pye: 55 A Family in One Neighborhood. Amos W. Butler.................. Ate 59 The Problem of Feeble-Mindedness. G.S. Bliss............... sited ae ol The Feeble-Minded and Delinquent Boy. Franklin C. Paschal.......... 63 The Feeble-Minded and Delinquent Girl. E. E. Jones.......... CLT Se aaa Feeble-Mindedness in the Public Schools. Katrina Myers............... 79 The Alcohol Problem in the Light of Coniosis. Robert Hessler. . PASS Cold Storage Is Practical Conservation. H. E. Barmard................. 101 Changing Conditions in the Kentucky Mountains. B.H.Schockel....... 109 Conservation and Civilization. Arthur L. Foley...................... . 133 Pe WorOur Birds Migrate? ID Wie Dennis: sis hin seed oes Ok es 145 Bicsorerotcetion i Indiana, -W. KK. Hatt... ....0....c505.- ke ee Pela. 149 An Apparatus for Aerating Culture Solutions. Paul Weatherwax......... 157 Antagonism on B. Fluorescens and B. Typhosus in Culture. P.A.Tetrault. 161 Notes Upon the Distribution of Forest Trees in Indiana. Stanley Coulter. 167 Corrections to the Lists of Mosses of Monroe County, Indiana, I and II. Midred Nethnaveland HS 1b. Pickett m2. Js cee) Jw en cate oe eka 179 The Mosses of Monroe County, Indiana, III. F. L. Pickett and Mildred INI@ MRE Nn seks eet gy cream wn re ab a ee 181 A New Enemy of the Black Locust. Glenn Culbertson.................. 185 A New Leaf Spot of Viola Cucullata. H.W. Anderson............. Re a allloy/ Beeuesminicnte init Pad. Pipeles sn y.c ihc, 25s oes ed ee sete eee 191 Plants New or Rare to Indiana. No. V. Charles C. Deam............. 197 4 PaGE Some Peculiarities in Spirogyra Dubia. Paul Weatherwax............... 203 Report on Corn Pollination 1V. -(Final.)) M_1i. Misher. -.. 2.4. 207 Stomataoimiriliinm: Nivales) ibe eM sAmdre ws). 9.2 eee eee 209 The Primrose-Leaved Violet in White County. Louis M. Heimlich...... 213 Continuous Rust Propagation Without Sexual Reproduction. C. A. APT Lipsy eee a ar eA a PARIS pace le rate ales halle Dnt eee Ont ee 219 Correlation of Certain Long-Cycled and Short-Cycled Rusts. H. C. PIMA e SS Citcas a ect ceive be cha siaigi hanes dase a > Sills > eae ee 231 Some Species of Nummularia Common in Indiana. Claude E. O’Neal.... 235 The Genus Rosellinia in Indiana. Glen B. Ramsey...................... 251 Somesuarve botanical Problems. Ga Gs Arthune..--. 47.40 sn eee eee 267 The Alba B. Ghere Collection of Birds’ Eggs Presented to the Museum OMleundueUniversiiye Eloward! He Hmderss eee. 2 ea. ee oe 273 A Note ona Peculiar Nesting Site of the Chimney Swift. Glenn Culbertson 279 Notes on Indiana Earthworms. H. V. Heimburger...................... 281 Notes on Orthoptera and Orthopteran Habitats in the Vicinity of Lafayette, inoianta. Weleniey POX = i).... nes ole oa id ou a5 > dma here Stee ee 287 Some Insects of the Between Tides Zone. Charles H. Arndt............. 323 The Snakes of the Lake Maxinkuckee Region. Barton Warren Evermann andudoward Walton! Clans: 5 ce.s memes a sul e e ecko ee ee 337 Stirring as a Time Saver in Gravimetric Analysis. W. M. Blanchard..... 349 The Alundum Crucible as a Substitute for the Gooch Crucible. George Cine GU rd es nates Oe, cee Me is Fotis hg Ree EN Et ORME oc 351 The Correlation of High School and College Chemistry. James Brown... 355 The Chemical Composition of Virgin and Cropped Indiana Soils. 8S. D. (CONNECT ey ete Hee, con TR eh ec ek Ee he ES, Sac he 309 Sewace Wisposal.. Charles Brossman... ..2.0505-.20- 1. Bs 0 365 Tar Forming Temperatures of American Coals. Otto Carter Berry...... 373 Shawnee Mound, Tippecanoe County, as a Glacial Alluyial Cone. Wm. AGENT CIB ete tects Seis Mn cnhoke ear be save, Mea slag aiden, 385 Correlation of the Outcrop at Spades, Indiana. H.N. Coryell........... 389 The Paleobotany of the Bloomington, Indiana, Quadrangle. T. F. Jackson. 395 The Flatwoods Region of Owen and Monroe Counties, Indiana. Clyde A. IVES Oiiee esrreh ake ts shio iv iec anand ees coc jetoyas nu ol Pad eet ee oe ae a 399 Mechanical Device for Testing Mersenne Numbers for Primes. Thos. IPE Sp IV Ua Orne 32 Feees Sctcas cesta kha tals te tara fobs, WPGaD cel sR ela a 429 Some Properties of Binomial Coefficients. A.M. Kenyon................ 433 Radioactivity ol wsprme Water. (RR: Re Ramsey.............. 94) eee 453 A Tornado at Watertown, South Dakota, June 23, 1914. J. Gladden NEMNAD GON Een xk hE hee toe eo: Son be 3.0 S ohthakaehe dio iekeLlle oak GRAS ae 473 A Simple Form of the Carey Foster Bridge. J. P. Naylor............... 485 Variation of the Emanation Content of Certain Springs. R. R. Ramsey. 489 The Construction of a Rutherford’s Electroscope. Edwin Morrison...... 491 CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. Section 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science ; to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of investi- gation and discussions as may further the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles. WHEREAS, The State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or of one of the several departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investiga- tion within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such investi- gation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLE II. Section 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fellows, non-resident members or active members. Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy; they shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected 6 from those who have been active members but who have removed from the State. In any case, a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect to membership. Application for membership in any of the foregoing classes shall be referred te a committee on application for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the eJection. Sec. 38. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceed- ing five in one year May, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the mem- bers of the Executive Committee for 1894 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special prominence in science, on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect. ARTICLE III. SEcTION 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press Secretary and Treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an HPxecutive Committee. The President shall, at each annual meeting, appoint two members to be a committee, which shall prepare the programs and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. Sec. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the Hxecutive Committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of the Executive Committee. The past Presidents, together with the officers and Executive Committee, shall constitute the council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not especially provided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. ri Sec. 38. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of the attending members of at least one year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report. 2. The President shall deliver a public address on the morning of one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office. 3. The Press Secretary shall attend to the secnring of proper news- paper reports of the meetings and assist the Secretary. 4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. 5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary. 6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. [Approved March 11, 1895.] WuHereas, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scientific association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it will, upon the request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the State 8 government, through the Governor, and through its council as an advisory board, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province, without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided only that the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the State; and, WHEREAS, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the several papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial anl economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form; and WHEREAS, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the General Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvement; therefore, SecTION 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year 1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the direction of the Commission- ers of Public Printing and Binding. Sec. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publication without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of such service, have any claim against the State for compensation. The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illustration of such reports shall be determined by the editors, subject to the approval of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall be published, the size of the edition within said limits to be determined by the concurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public Printing and Station- ery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be deemed to be appropriated for the year 1894. Sec. 8. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said reports shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who shall furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State, one copy to each university, college or normal school in the State, one copy to each high school in the State having a library, which shall make application therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as may be designated by the o Academy through its editors or its council. The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it may determine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of the Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manuscripts, drawings, etc., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the necessary shelving and furniture. Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and be in force from and after its passage. APPROPRIATION FOR 1913-1914. The appropriation for the publication of the proceedings of the Acad- emy during the years 1913 and 1914 was increased by the Legislature in the General Appropriation bill, approved March 9, 1909. That portion of the law fixing the amount of the appropriation for the Academy is herewith given in full: For the Academy of Science: For the printing of the proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science twelve hundred dollars: Provided, That any unexpended balance in 1915 shall be available in 1914, and that any unexpended balance in 1914 shall be available in 1915. AN ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS. SEc. 602. Whoever kills, traps or has in his possession any wild bird, or whoever sells or offers the same for sale, or whoever destroys the nest or eggs of any wild bird, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars: Provided, That the provisions of this section shall not apply to the following named game birds: The Anatidze, commonly called swans, geese, brant, river abd sea duck; the Rallidse, commonly called rails, coots, mud-hens, gallinules; the Limicolze, commonly called shore birds, surf birds, plover, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tattlers and curlew; the Gallinze, commonly called wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chick- ens, quails and pheasants; nor to English or European house sparrows, 10 crows, hawks or other birds of prey. Nor shall this section apply to persons taking birds, their nests or eggs, for scientific purposes, under permit, as provided in the next session. Sec. 603. Permits may be granted by the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game to any properly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain such permit the applicant for the same must present to such Commissioner written testimonials from two well-known scientific men certifying to the good character and fitness of such applicant to be entrusted with such privilege, and pay to such Commissioner one dollar therefor and file with him a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, payable to the State of Indiana, conditioned that he will obey the terms of such permit, and signed by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The bond may be forfeited, and the permit revoked upon proof to the satisfaction of such Commissioner that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nest or eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section. PUBLIC OFFENSES—HUNTING WILD BIRDS—PENALTY. | Approved March 13, 1915. Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That section six (6) of the above entitled act be amended to read as follows: Section 6. That section six hundred two (602) of the above entitled act be amended to read as follows: Section 602. It shall be unlawful for any person to kill, trap or possess any wild bird, or to purchase or offer the same for sale, or to destroy the nest or eggs of any wild bird, except as otherwise provided in this section. But this section shall not apply to the following named game birds: The Anatidie, com- monly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duck; the Rallidie, com- monly known as rails, coots, mud-hens and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallinze, commonly called wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails, and pheasants; nor to English or European house sparrows, blackbirds, crows, hawks or other birds of prey. Nor shall this section apply to any person taking birds or their nests or eggs for scientific purposes under permit as provided in the next section. Any person violating the provisions of this section shall, on conviction, be fined not less than ten dollars ($10.00) nor more than fifty dollars ($50.00). Indiana Academy of Science. Artur, J. C., Bieney, A. J., BLANCHARD, W. M., BLATCHLEY, W.S., Bopinge, DoNALDSON, BRANNER, J. C., BURRAGE, SEVERANCE, Butter, Amos W., CoasHat, W. A., Cou.TErR, JoHN M., CouLTER, STANLEY, IS OMUNN Nes oe tiles cs en oe, ENTOMOLOGY... HERPETOLOGY ) MAMMALOGY ‘ 15) edd thc ORO ORO Ue EO Taree ORNITHOLOGY | eI VOLOGN =. 5 te 2 PRESIDENT, Wiipur A. CoGSHALL. VicE-PRESIDENT, Wintutam A. McBeru. SECRETARY, ANDREW J. BIGNEY. ASSISTANT SECRETARY, H. E. ENDERS. PRESS SECRETARY, FRANK B. WaDE. TREASURER, Witt1am M. BLANCHARD. Epiror, H. E. Barnarp EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: CULBERTSON, GLENN, Dryer, Cuas. R., EIGENMANN, C. H., Evans, P. N., Dennis, D. W.., Fouey, A. L., lelise Oe Isp HessteER, RoBertT. JOuING JED. JorDan, D.5., CURATORS: OrFicers, 1914-1915. McBets, W. A., Mess, Cart L., Mortipr, Davin M., MENDENDALL, T. C., Naytor, JosepxH P., Noyes, W. A., Wann BB... Wanpo, C. A., Winery, H. W., Wricut, JOHN 5. JA CaeNR Tati: ....W. 8. BUuATCHLEY. A. W. BUTLER. Hi. C. E1IGENMANN. 12 CoMMITTEES ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1915. Program. Witt Scorr, Bloomington F. B. Wape, Indianapolis P. N. Evans, LaFayette Nominations. SEVERANCE BurRAGE, Indianapolis W. J. Moenxunaus, Bloomington A. S. Haruaway, Terre Haute State Library. W.S. Buaresuey, Indianapolis H. J. Banker, Coldspring Harbor, Me. A. W. Butter, Indianapolis Biological Survey. C. C. Dean, Bluffton H. W. ANpbErRSON, Crawfordsville Gro. N. Horrer, West LaFayette A. O. Cox, Terre Haute J. A. Nizuwuanp, Notre Dame Distribution of Proceedings. A.J. Braney, Moores Hill Joun B. Durcuer, Bloomington A. W. Butuer, Indianapolis W. M. BLancHarp, Greencastle Membership. H. E. Enprrs, West LaFayette Epwin Morrison, Richmond. Frep A. Mier, Indianapolis Auditing. E. B. Wittramson, Bluffton GLENN CULBERTSON, Hanover Restriction of Weeds and Diseases. Rosert Hesster, Logansport Amos Butter, Indianapolis J. N. Hurry, Indianapolis STANLEY Coutter, LaFayette D. M. Morrtrer, Bloomington Academy to State. R. W. McBripg, Indianapolis GLENN CULBERTSON, Hanover H. i. Barnarp, Indianapolis A. W. Butter, Indianapolis W. W. Wootten, Indianapolis Publication of Proceedings. H. E. Barnarp, Indianapolis C. R. Drystr, Ft. Wayne M. K. Haccerry, Bloomington R. R. Hype, Terre Haute J. 8. 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TEA DOLE Gene. GrandowoOrks. Ne Dake <6 3.0.60 20 2005.0 saree ore eielaner terete 71908 Professor of Chemistry, University of North Dakota. Chemistry. MEV RODeR Ede. OLONO, IMO. iei6.ct6 seis dis 6 clusiepend sos ais Olea «ae von a ehe meee 1898 President of University of Maine. Mathematics and General Science. Anderson. JH: W., 1 Malls Place, Crawfordsville, Inds. .-..:.5.6...2e8 1912 Professor of Botany, Wabash College. Botany. Andrews: HOM. 744 BoLhird St:.. Bloomington, Ind. +. 5...60...sm aca 1911 Assistant Professor of Botany, Indiana University. Botany. Arthur, Joseph C., 915 Columbia St., Lafayette, Ind.....:.......... 1894 Professor of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Purdue Uni- versity. Botany. Barnard, H. E., Room 20 State House, Indianapolis, Ind............ 1910 ‘Shemist to Indiana State Board of Health. Chemistry, Sanitary Science, Pure Foods. Beede, Joshua W., cor. Wall and Atwater Sts., Bloomington, Ind..... 1896 Associate Professor of Geology, Indiana University. Stratigraphic Geology, Physiography. Benton, George W., 100 Washington Square, New York, N. Y......... 1896 With the American Book Company. *Every effort has been made to obtain the correct address and occupation of each member, and to learn what line of science he is interested in. The first line contains the name and address; the second line the occupation; the third line the branch of science in which he is interested. The omission of an address indicates that mail addressed to the last printed address was returned as uncalled for. Information as to the present address of members so indicated is requested by the secretary. The custom of dividing the list of members has been followed. tDate of election. tf Non-resident. PSncyRPANGreWw Jee lOores) EMU WG ccc eis oie olleteelcir ele is'e es ses © 1S97 Vice-President and Professor of Biology and Geology, Moores Hill College. Biology and Geology. Bite sCatharme Golden, Washimeton, D.C... -...-2..-.-.....-..- 1895 Microscopic Expert, Pure Food, National Canners Laboratory. Botany. Biatchley, W. S., lob8 Park Ave, Indianapolis, Ind....7...5........ 1893 Naturalist. 3otany, Entomology and Geology. Bodine, Donaldson, Four Mills Place, Crawfordsville, Ind............ 1899 Professor of Geology and Zoology, Wabash College. Ihntomology and Geology. 3reeze, Fred J., care American Book Company, New York, N. Y...... 1910 With the American Book Company. Geography. sruner, Henry Lane, 324 8S. Ritter Ave., Indianapolis, Ind............ 1899 Professor of Biology, Butler College. Comparative Anatomy, Zoology. Burrage, Severance, care Eli Lilly Co., Indianapolis, Ind............ 1898 Charge of Biological Laboratory, Eli Lilly Co. Bacteriology, Sanitary Science. Buber AMmOos W.. 52 Downey Aye.. Inyimeton; Ind: .- 0.5.5.6 s.. see ee 1893 Secretary, Indiana Bonrd of State Charities. Vertebrate Zoology, Anthropology, Sociology. Cogshall, Wilbur A., 423 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington, Ind.......... .. 1906 Associate Professor of Astronomy, Indiana University. Astronomy and Physics. Gok elie Ne walls TUnS Wik Ne dis sis'c.c sta cie.c.2 eee coches ere.s. 3) sveliere aie 1902 Professor of Plant Pathology, Rutgers College. Botany, Plant Pathology, Entomology. > Head Department of Botany, Chicago University. Botany. Comteresuinlley. 2ia55) Ninth st. latayette, Inde... 5--e.cc cc we oe 1895 Dean School of Science, Purdue University. Rotany, Forestry. 16 CoxeaUilyssessO} 2 OnBox oi) Terre Haute mings ae ce ee oer eee hee 1908 Head Department Zoology and Botany, Indiana State Normal. Botany, Zoology. Culbertson Glenn, Hanover: Ud 0. 22.65 vstsis «ss sisieic sie eters saciid 1899 Chair Geology, Physics and Astronomy, Hanover College. Geology. Cumings, Edgar Roscoe, 327 E. Second St., Bloomington, Ind........ 1906 Professor of Geology, Indiana University. Geology, Paleontology. Davisson, Schuyler Colfax, Bloomington, Ind. 3.5. ...%....-.5 - eee 1908 Professor of Mathematics, Indiana University. Mathematics. WeammOharlesuC., wlio: MMG:s. 5.22 accis wvaye's s creveleiondetetaien etre hemes 1910 Druggist. Botany. laxenivarks,, Oeil A\Wworwrlope 1ku(clobssovaly Nhslsmgmasegomaemeomeare ps deooc. - 1895 Professor of Biology, Earlham College. Biology. Dryer charles R:, Oak Knoll) Mort Wayne, Inge. cc. ae « noe cue 1897 Geographer. Migenmann, Carl H., 630 Atwater St., Bloomington, Ind.............. 1893 Professor Zoology, Dean of Graduate School, Indiana University. Embryology, Degeneration, Heredity, Evolution and Distribution of American Fish. Hnders, Howard Hdwin, 105 Quincy St., Lafayette, Ind.............. 1912 Associate Professor of Zoology, Purdue University. Zoology. DNAS weeLevsNOLrtON, Woatavetce, DMG cc. <..c.0c om ae cree a «fac bone enneiene 1901 Director of Chemical Laboratory, Purdue University. Chemistry. HOLS vAPAT MU a) USLOOMIMe TOM. MMGee . ciccy-1ce «see siete etene te ey oueite oee 1897 Head of Department of Physics, Indiana University. Physics. COlLenray lee emcee tber WING. c.0 4 cketetedie.ctelge eeoeubiediatels. Oe ner eee 1899 Director of Laboratories of Vractical Mechanics, Purdue Uni- versity. Mechanics. ST GGSS, ANGIE in Diesen WS Widopborl JUNG 66 se oc6 So odes odie odo aoa s 1893 Dean of College of Engineering, University of Illinois. ere cerntiyaeMort ss LOOMIMOTOMs UME h.0s ccs ccs ste yecn evelotelstas eae aces aces 6 19138 Hathaway, Arthur S., 2206 N. Tenth St., Terre Haute, Ind........... 1895 Professor of Mathematics, Rose Polytechnic Institute. Mathematics, Physics. ess ere vOperiaw OLAS OG al Clerers.i onsets stereo ih o eramreier tera a sede ene eee 1899 Physician. Biology. Haliiards ©: NM Simmons College, Boston, Mass.......--..06-...:--- 1913 Eoikere Geos N- West lWatayette, Indias ceucnscicci scence ete s cs oe 1913 EMU IN: ANCaAnapoliss: Ima. i ckicw ccc sc cies essen siseiee ee ses eee LOMO Secretary, Indiana State Board of Health. Sanitary Science, Vital Statistics, Eugenics. EUS LOD eee At mING Vyail Ole (CU Yirrcenevarsiciavoves sofa tore a eseve\e eis eveisieter arene visi 1893 Nein ee ranks D> State Collese, Pass ate acts se aoe son en eis be kelas Sees s 1912 Professor of Botany, Pennsylvania State College. Botany. Lyons, Robert E., 680 HE. Third St., Bloomington, Ind................ 1896 Head of Department of Chemistry, Indiana University. Organic and Biological Chemistry. McBeth, William A., 1905 N. Highth St., Terre Haute, Ind........... 1904 Assistant Professor Geography, Indiana State Normal. Geography, Geology, Scientific Agriculture. FINEST REESE JOM SISE Halmiebegoy C1 awe eae s5 a aint ies 5 Saar: Cn te ene ee 18938 IMECESE Cael eReLre aces Gem aricrs = cite aetastarste hiatal tc ols Hatha cate: 1894 President of Rose Polytechnic Institute. PMileredohn Anthony. Swarthmore Pale. «accesses coe aca net aeae 1904 Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Swarthmore College. Astronomy, Mathematics. Moenkhaus, William J., 501 Fess Ave., Bloomington, Ind............. 1901 Professor of Physiology, Indiana University. Physiology. MIOCHE, lake eG! IBM ID eae, (Clos ae socmomoae Samos s co Uno O Omang Goo c 1893 With U. S. Bureau of Mines. Chemistry, Radio-activity. 2—4966 18 Mottier, David M., 215 Forest Place, Bloomington, Ind.............. 1893 Professor of Botany, Indiana University. Morphology, Cytology. Naor. bs Greencastle mds 4's tcc tite aesvtra a oncre, Stee st = 1905 Professor of Physics, Depauw University. Physics, Mathematics. WNOVeS) William: Albert, (Umbamas, Tl. 25. ssrccrs cteistererisnettie citeeeehe mens . 1893 Director of Chemical Laboratory, University of Illinois. Chemistry. Pohlman, Augustus G., 1100 I. Second St., Bloomington, Ind...... LO Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University. Embryology, Comparative Anatomy. Ramsey, Rolla K., 615 Eb. Third Se, Bloomington, Inds... 4). ..2 eae 1906 Associate Professor of Physics, Indiana University. Physics. tansom, James H., 323 University St., West Lafayette, Ind.......... 1902 Professor of General Chemistry, Purdue University. General Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Teaching. Rettger, Louis J., 31 Gilbert Ave., Terre Haute, Ind................ 1896 Professor of Physiology, Indiana State Normal. Animal Physiology. Ronirocks wOavid A’ Bloomington: Undine cis viene « sects bs « Ooh oat 1906 Professor of Mathematics, Indiana University. Mathematics. SCOUMAV UI ol OV Aber St-.. os LOOMIMOTON, WMG sy. sth siecior. alee cle cee 1911 Assistant Professor of Zoology, Indiana University. Zoology, Lake Problems. Silrannon,, (Charles Wi, Norman, Oblaics sisal cited sett. Geen 1912 With Oklahoma State Geological Survey. Soil Survey, Botany. Smith, Albert, 1022 Seventh St., West Lafayette................. .. 1908 Professor of Structural Engineering. Physics, Mechanics. yrsmith, Alexander, care Columbia University, New York, N. Y...... 1893 Head of Department of Chemistry, Columbia University. Chemistry. Smith, Charles Marquis, 910 S. Ninth St., Lafayette, Ind........ ewer 1912 Professor of Physics, Purdue University. Physics. DOM m VAG TOD eH yelbeatayether en! s.).cca6 cles > cce-ccis Giese «pecs ss eins 1893 President of Purdue University. Chemistry. MDW OSeph. Swarthmore, Wale. cesca cecec ce. es cco sees ee wee 1898 President of Swarthmore College. Science of Administration. Van Hook, James M., 639 N. College Ave., Bloomington, Ind......... 1911 Assistant Professor of Botany, Indiana University. Botany. 77 Waldo, Clarence A., care Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.... 18938 Thayer Professor Mathematics and Applied Mechanics, Washing- ton University. Mathematics, Mechanics, Geology and Mineralogy. MA CUSheI pny eVies INET STM OUGOM. MIG 5 chore: caedece ele Gre Leal hoy: ‘The Chief Reason for the Migration of Our Birds, 15 minutes.D. W. Dennis BACTERIOLOGY. An Aeration Apparatus for Culture Solutions, with charts, TQ) Aiea T OCIS Ui Oe ie tava ied ee Rie Py ace A aL eee Paul Weatherwax Autagonism of B. fluorescens and B. typhosus in Culture, OMIA CSAC eR Renee Mer Be a eg ma sPOVAS Vetraullt BOTANY. Notes on the Distribution of the Forest Trees of Indiana, I1EBS OTM OPES) ae ere uae Rae, plac ieee 0 Rn eae Ar Stanley Coulter A New Enemy of the Black Locust, 5minutes......... Glenn Culbertson The Parasitic Fungi Attacking Forest Trees in Indiana, MORO CSt pce weye et erm ee a, Sa ea aera ea RN Geo. N. Hoffer A New Disease of Viola cucullata, lantern, 5 minutes.....H.W. Anderons Gatomuaprnlndiana, 15 manutes: 2... . ec ei eee cee ge ewes bos ¥F. J. Pipal Zovecd weeds ip soul, JO minutes a! 2202 Foe cc et eee eo bipall Additions to Indiana Flora, 3 minutes................... Chas. C. Deam Some Peculiarities in Spirogyra dubia, 5 minutes....... Paul Weatherwax Stomata of Drilltom nivale, 10 minutes.................. IF. M. Andrews Final Report on Cross Pollination of Corn, 3 minutes.......M. L. Fisher The Primrose-Leaved Violet in White County, charts and, specimens) 1Oummubes wots. 26a halos. Snes. Louis F. Heimlich Continuous Rust Propagation without Sexual Reproduction, OSMAN TSS cern ie ek Se) oni bn teh 2): C. A. Ludwig Correlation of Certain Long-cycled and Short-cyecled Rusts, JUG) TET SS crore eh eR a H. C. Travelbee Some Species of Nummularia Common in Indiana, 10 minutes 6 FES BES Steha. pieces SNE NOR Oe a oe C. E. O’Neal.. The Genus Rosellinia in Indiana, 2 minutes...... ....Glenn B. Ramsey 48. Cultivating and Breeding Medicinal Plants, lantern, PA) BETTING ES eet a ek oe ede Fe hs state ies sce .Fred A. Miller Some Large Botanical Problems, 10 minutes.............. J. C. Arthur ZOOLOGY. The Alba Gehre Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the Museum of Purdue University, 10 minutes................. Howard E. Enders A Study of the Maturation Period in the Mole-Cricket, blackboard, i((0) TART RS Sk ie ah oe SOO OR a a el ee RRR er ear fy F. Payne Note on a Peculiar Nesting Site of Chimney Swift, F) TUS oae ho ob sol heey Ben ee ee eee ics Glenn Culbertson Mosaics in Drosophila Ampelophila, chart, 5 minutes..Horace M. Powell New Mutations in the Genus Drosophila and their Behavior Mmuvercauy, chant, 1Ominutes.. ......22... een: ... Roscoe R. Hyde Notes on Indiana Earthworms, 10 minutes............ H. V. Heimburger Insects of the Between-Tides Zone, 30 minutes........... Chas. H. Arndt Regeneration in Sagartia, 5 minutes........................ D. W. Davis The Relation of Birds to Aquatic Life as Exemplified by Observation and Studies made at Lake Maxinkuckee, 113} TROON TG Me Be ae eo Ae ee _............Barton W. Evermann The Reptiles and Batrachians of the Lake Maxinkuckee VE CTON 20 MMINIMNGC See eae a. tcc isshed ewok Barton W. Evermann A Physical and Biological Survey of Lake Maxinkuckee, MMIC apace Ae yrs ans ea ae ee ahs .....Parton W. Evermann CHEMISTRY. The Quantitative Determination of Copper, 5 minutes..W. M. Blanchard The Alundum Crucible as a Substitute for the Gooch Cmiciple souminutes. er nia seeks Seis Were _.George L. Clark Some Recent Work in Dairy Chemistry, 20 minutes......George Spitzer Analysis of Zirconium Minerals, 10 minutes................ James Brown Correlation of High School and College Chemistry, PAU) SGWHAYS (21s Peete Sea ee, hi ee Bane Pein Pee ... James Brown Chemical Composition of Virgin and Cropped Indiana Soils, LOmminubes.. .4s0ee. Hoe A RNR T Se (pak: MON ......5. D. Conner Sewage Disposal, lantern, 15 minutes............ ...Charles Brossmann Extension of Empirical Curve by the Addition of Estimated Values to a Series of Observations, charts, 20 minutes........Albert Smith 49. 50. oy. qr S) Tar-Forming Temperatures of American Coals, charts, 20 minutes ene ser ern Ey nan oh oer ic Sorat 's Naver ibst On as ong Te TAR ays ©. C. Berry. GEOGRAPHY. Shawnee Mound, Tippecanoe County, A Glacial Alluvial Cone, charts and photographs, 10 minutes............. William A. McBeth GEOLOGY. Stratigraphic Correlation of the Outcrop at Spades, Indiana, fl DSTUUN CC Sere eee ane teen ee eres ere titel rae les H. N. Coryell Pennsylvania Fossil Plants of the Bloomington Quadrangle, 5), TORAGRU SSIS as Peso hes eh ete Mc RNA REY Reh PRT emerge J. F. Jackson Preliminary Geological History of Dearborn County, 10 minutes », aaah ois BR Fe eae cae eee oe a on am ag nen teen A. J. Bigney Notes on the Cause of Asterism in ‘‘Starolite’’ (Asteriated Quartz), charts and specimens, 10 minutes.................... Frank B. Wade The Mississippian Section of Monroe County, charts, 15 minutes Perth as4 : Pe i et eae ee Beta oy PORNO Eee eV SES EO UG The Flatwoods Region of Owen and Monroe Counties, Indiana, PRIME SMP Rae ern. One ere ae nr es yk ne ae Clyde A. Malott MATHEMATICS. Mechanical Device for Testing Mersenne Numbers for Primes, OMMUMULCS aes tease eee See A ane oto! La Thomas li. Mason Some Properties of Binominal Coefficients, 20 minutes.....A. M. Wtwenyon METEOROLOGY. The Watertown, 8. D., Tornado of June 23, 1914, 10 minutes Rep onal ene seme _...3. Gladden Hutton PHYSICS. A New Lantern and Projector, lantern, 10 minutes......Arthur L. Foley Some Text Book Inconsistencies, 5 minutes.............4 Arthur L. Foley The Mechanism of Light and Heat Radiations, 10 minutes ji ep ecb, cok, cath toh CME Br OE See ee James EK. Weyant A Simple Form for the Carey Foster Bridge, lantern, 5 minutes re ae et Ve oa ie lsboad than eer Lae Nawlor The Change of the Radio Activity of Certain Springs, lantern, (0) saab), Aas owe OLR g oie ee oa ee RUS R. R. Ramsey Radio Activity of Beane Water, lantern, 10 minutes....... R. R. Ramsey A Radio-Active Electroscope, lantern, 5 minutes........ Edwin Morrison - Fy) - 4 = “ae m4 ial - = Oh a . a = : Ske» . a 7a - / a ; 7 @ Ae aa? i hy ie ar, prank ya "_¢t> Gan pa 7 ie ae a ii Hr _ 7 » A 1% a a ine iS ia ae mY OR i wit ul 7 Pee oP ke yor se ‘ i OT ‘ : ie on el s ” hth Temaeteed | ween tit eras , ~ We Le ‘ aya P| “ itt) @ae r ; ‘ sry = Lee > ‘ i . . ee | peers : P an s. a: a S 7 LT = e 7 ee vs Se ee. - é Ot =d s = © ON ScieNCE IN ITs RELATION TO THE CONSERVATION OF HumMAN LAFE. SEVERANCE BURRAGE. Nearly every branch of science has direct or indirect relation toward the conservation of human life. Unfortunately the appreciation of scien- tific work has been from the industrial rather than from the humanitarian viewpoint, and such researches as have resulted in discoveries that have commercial importance have been the ones to receive the plaudits of the public. Chemistry, physics, geology and biology in all of their subdivisions have undoubtedly contributed in the work of saving human life. For ex- ample, we have in chemistry the studies of the impurities in the air, water, food and drugs, practical applications on the purification of water and sewage, and so on. In physics and its various branches we have the prac- tical application of safety devices of all kinds, rescue apparatus for mines, the developments in rapid communication, climaxed by the invention of the wireless telegraph and telephone, most useful in the prevention of acci- dents, the various inventions which protect employes from dangerous machinery, the development of fire-fighting apparatus, and special pro- tective devices against floods, earthquakes, cyclones and other disasters. In geology, the selection of proper building stone, the dangers from the corrosion of building stone in different climates, the selection of proper building sites, and, indirectly the discoveries of coal, oil, and other things essential in many phases of human existence. In biology, particularly in the subdivisions, bacteriology, medicine and sanitary science, we find some of the most important discoveries resulting in the prevention of disease and death. Even in entomology—the life histories of various mosquitoes and flies have important bearing on the prevention of disease. In bac- teriology the discovery of the causes of transmissible diseases, through the research of Pasteur, Koch and others, methods in the rapid diagnosis of disease, protective inoculation against disease, resulting from the work of Jenner Von Behring and others, are familiar to you all. In medicine the application of asepsis and cleanliness to surgical methods has revolution- D6 ized this important branch of medicine and made it a most important fac- tor in the conservation of human life; the discovery of selective chemical substances for the treatment of specific diseases, such as quinine for Inalaria. Salvarsan for syphilis and most recently ipecac for amebic dys- entery and pyorrhea. In sanitary science the development has been most remarkable. This includes its practical applications in sewage and garbage disposal, street Cleaning and the sanitary construction of pavements, the sanitation of heating and ventilation of factories, workshops and schools, the medical inspection of schools, the sanitation of railway cars, and stations, and such special sanitary devices us individual drinking cups, dental lavatories in ‘ailroad cars, and the various applications of sanitation to the farmhouse and rural dwelling. The above outline, which is obviously incomplete, suggests some of the things which science in its various branches has done that have been and can be applied in the conservation of human life. Granting that science has done all of these things and many more, I would raise this important question: Is the public at large getting the full benefit of all of this scientific work? Is the public taking advantage of these discoveries of science? In my opinion it is not. Notwithstanding intensive efforts on the part of state boards of health, extension departments in our universities, instruction given before farmers’ institutes, educational activities of anti-tuberculosis societies and insur- ance companies, we find the death rate from preventable diseases decreas- ing very little if at all. In some communities the deaths from preventable diseases are on the increase. In our own State we find very little change in the last ten years in the deaths from |:reventable diseases. This Academy is of course particularly interested in Tudiana. Can not this Academy suggest or recommend ways and means to apply through- out this State the various developments of science relating to health and disease prevention in such a way as to create a healthier and longer-lived citizenship? A commission appointed recently in Massachusetts to inves- tigate the high cost of living stated— “The increased vital efficiency of the citizens of this State (Mas- sachusetts) which would result from a conservation of the present waste of health would, if expended in labor, increase the earnings of those whose health is impaired and also lessen the burdens of o ( those who are at present unnecessarily ill. This increase in earn- ings would thus tend to reduce the cost of living, increase the total earnings of the citizens and make the average income larger.” Thus conservation of health means higher wages, which enables the worker to keep ahead of the increasing price of the commodities of life. Surely this is worth striving for, and in my opinion Indiana can decrease the death rate and lengthen life and thus bring about this condition. To accomplish it I would urge the adoption of a law which would provide for a full-time health commissioner in every county in the State. This com- missioner must be especially trained in sanitary science and the various applications of the other sciences in so far as they affect the prevention of unnecessary deaths. If such a law were passed, and backed up by an intelligent public, we would have the healthiest State in the Union in a very short time. I state my belief because where such sanitary applica- tions have been thoroughly carried out, we have as a result healthful con- ditions. I would cite as an instance of this the Panama Canal district. While the names of Goethals and Gorgas will go down to posterity as con- structors of the Panama Canal, they skould receive more credit for the sanitary organization and administration which made the construction of the canal possible. They converted one of the most unhealthful localities in the world, where the death rate was over 70 per 1,000, to the most health- ful spot with the death rate of less than 6 per 1,000, a death rate lower that that of any other civilized community in the world. Another instance of the practical applications of sanitary science has been in our military camps. Reports show that out of 12,000 men in these camps there was not a single case of smallpox or typhoid fever for a period covering two years. Typhoid fever has long been one of the pests of camp life, but through improved sanitation and typhoid vaccination, this dis- ease has been absoluetly eliminated. Other diseases in these camps over which there was hot such perfect control showed a great reduction. With such fine examples of successfui sanitary administration it seems to me justifiable to make application to our own communities, with of course necessary modifications. I therefore would suggest that this Acad- emy at this session pass resolutions favoring the passage of a law at the next Legislature which would provide for a competent, full-time health com- missioner in each county in this State. I know of no way in which the Indiana Academy of Science can better further the best interests of the State with reference to the conservation of human life. all A) ‘4 . | _ re: ex . ee ee ., ii ue eet . a : Paid aise! * - = - ae be MS yD oh) . aan - . “ —- oo er we. iz = is «ee ‘ dest ns — e- re} Pe es oe i ; ' fay) aise : 2 »? : i ? ro cI wenueeer st! Sh, wae Sl wats ae 7 - Ae F - cca | | Kentucky Mountains. . | 1,156 $7,221 4,853 44 85 $8,347,993 $11,993,195 - | | Kentucky.......... 9,560, 10,886) 51,101 9,174 2, 687|104,070,791, 154,166 365 | The mills are small and are driven by water, animal, and hand power. Machine made goods from the outside have supplanted the linsey-woolsey cloth, counterpanes, and baskets formerly made in the cabins. But, recently, the ‘missionary and settlement schools have begun to sell such goods outside of the mountains for the people, to supply cash, and there- fore the industries are reviving, in part. The W. C. T. U. Settlement School at Hindman, for example, sold $1,800 worth of such goods last year. Distilling always has been a widespread industry in the mountains, since thereby corn, the chief crop, is converted into a product which can be marketed with profit, and since the custom has been inherited. Illicit dis- tilling increased greatly after the imposition of the liquor tax of the Civil 109 War. In 1877 the government began to suppress “moonshining” in the region. By 1882 the supremacy of the law had been established. But in 1894 the liquor tax was increased from ninety cents to one dollar and ten cents, which resulted in increased ‘‘moonshining”’. The counties have been voted “dry”, which encourages the illicit traffic. About the coal mining centers, “blockading” is increasing greatly, the whiskey being brought to town under vegetables and in milk cans. Transportation. Transportation is the basic problem of the region. Poor communica- tion within it has influenced greatly every phase of life always, and bad connections with the outside have isolated the country since 1850. 6. A primitive mill, near Cornettsville, Ky. Of a total of 17,452 miles of road, there were within the entire region, in 1904, eighty-three miles surfaced with stone, and four miles. with gravel. The present wagon freight is said to be about 44 cents per ton-mile. The average haul for a load of cross-ties is from eight to ten miles, and eight to twelve ties constitute a load. Logs delivered at the railroad for twenty dollars per load are said to consume sixteen dollars in transportation. From Buckhorn to the railroad is eight miles. A team will make this trip for four dollars in good weather. 120 The charges in this case are about 88 cents per ton-mile. The average cost of transportation in the United States by wagon is 23 cents per ton-mile. The old law that every man must work on the roads six days annually is enforced feebly. By a statute passed in 1894, road taxes can be levied by the county and a road commissioner appointed. But this new law is proving a failure in the mountains and is giving way to the old custom because the mountain county is too poor to pay the commissioner’s salary, and because the mountain man May pay the tax in work, a fact which introduces again the old problem of road-work enforcement. In 1904 the total expenditures upon the highways in a number of rugged mountain counties amounted to about $24 per mile. The average expenditure for the State, much less dissected, was $48.57. The history of the mountain roads emphasizes the inability of the people to provide themselves with efficient highways, and manifests the great need for outside help, state or federal. In general, road material would haye to be imported at great expense. The costs of roads steadily increase as the forest retreats towards the headwaters. In 1907 the United States Department of Public Roads, as an object lesson, built and macadamized in Johnson County, 5,780 feet of road, and constructed through Cumberland Gap, 12,300 feet of macadam pike, and graded 900 feet more, at a total cost of $7,050 per mile. This work demon- strates again that the construction of good highways in the mountain region, while possible, cannot be done without outside help. Besides the government routes there is a short stretch of macadam road (1 to 20 miles) in five marginal counties, of which, however, Boyd County alone lies strictly within the mountain region. The coal company at Jenkins has surveyed and built six miles of well-graded dirt road connecting Jenkins and McRoberts. Owing to the enforcement of the road laws in Knott County, a fairly good ungraded dirt road extends thirty miles between Hazard and Hindman. Immediately west of Pine Mountain in Leslie County, no wagon roads were attempted till 1890, and few exist now. Before the advent of railroads, highway improvements were negligible, but the past twenty years have seen progress. Numerous stretches of road, eight to ten miles in length, afford somewhat fair transportation for wagons to the railroads. Where the development of coal and timber has increased the wealth of the community greatly, substantial bridges have been built. Progress has been slowest in the rugged, extreme southeastern 121 section of the region, even though railroads have begun to penetrate. There the primitive saddle and sleds drawn by oxen are still in use. Except for lumbering, the streams are used but little. The North, Middle and South forks of the Kentucky River penetrate into the interior. They join at Three Forks, near Beattyville. Thence to Carrollton are 350 miles of good waterway. In 1853 some five locks were completed by Ken- tucky at a cost of $4,000,000, which assured good navigation for 300-ton steamers for a distance of over 100 miles. The Federal Government made improvements at the close of the Civil War. Since then the waterways have been declining. In 1887 there were passing Three Forks annually, 50,000,000 feet of lumber, in logs. Railroad building began in 1856, but made no headway until between 1870-90. The progress has been slow and confined to marginal counties until recently. Within the past five years it has penetrated the North Fork Kentucky River to McRoberts, a few miles west of Pine Mountain, and up the Poor Fork of the Cumberland River, by way of the gap at Pineville. The railroads have been built for the coal and lumber, and not primarily for general traffic. Since the advent of railroads, the conditions which have made possible “the mountaineer’ have been passing away. But in general the region is still landlocked. Population. In 1910 the total mountain population was 561,881, representing an increase of 18 per cent. over that of 1900. (Kentucky: 2,289,905; 6.6 per cent.) There was an average of 43.4 people per square mile (Kentucky: 56:9; Indiana: 74:9). The density is greatest along the main river routes and in mining sections. The people continue to be distributed as clans in valleys, which are surprisingly heavily populated. Of necessity the people depend upon the lower slopes of the hills to an extent equal to or greater than on the limited bottom lands, their “shoe-string farms” being found strung along little gullies as well as in broader valleys. A few farms are on the mountain sides, especially on benches or “coves” of somewhat gently sloping land, formed above some massive sandstone ledge. The average size of the mountain family is about 5.2. (Kentucky: 4.6; Indiana: 4.1.) The rural population increased 17.1 per cent. in the last decade. There was no urban population (towns of 2,500 or more) in 1870. In succeeding decades, as Ashland and Middlesboro developed as centers of coal mining, it numbered 3,280; 7,466; 17,428; and 24,004. These two 122 cities are unique in the region in having a population greater than 5,000; but they soon will be joined by Jenkins and Hazard, about which coal mining is developing rapidly. In 1910 less than one-half of one per cent. of the total population was foreign born. These people were chiefly skilled miners from England, Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland, who drifted in by way of Pennsylvania. In seven counties there were no farm- ers of foreign birth; and in only one county did the foreign born exceed 21. Recently, Southern Europeans have begun to come, particularly Ital- jans and Hungarians. By 1920 the number of foreign born will have increased greatly. In 1900 about two per cent. of the population were negro, and in 1910 two and one-half per cent. In three counties there were no negroes; and in sixteen, less than twenty. The problem presented in the region by the rapid increase in popula- tion with no corresponding increase in foodstuffs, probably is not greatly overdrawn in the following statements by a mountain graduate of Berea College: ‘The pioneer of 1850 who sat in his front door watching the deer rove the unbroken forest, today sitting in the same place can see acres of spoiled farm land. A few years ago the people produced enough on their farms to support themselves. Today one-half of the food con- sumed is brought in by the merchants. Twenty-five years ago our hill- sides produced forty bushels of corn per acre. Today the average yield of corn per acre is a little less than twenty-five bushels. (In 1909 it was 18.7.). The independent farmer of yesterday has been transformed in the last few years to a man dependent upon his staves and ties for support. Now, his farm has grown up in bushes, and his timber is almost exhausted. Such is the condition of a vast number of our mountain farmers.” There is an emigration of the mountain families, or of sons and daughters, particularly from the marginal counties, where a fringe of mountain territory has been put in touch with outside progress and human- ity, and where mountain peoples are buying adjacent lowlands. Some are moving to Oklahoma and the Far West. This in part accounts for a decrease in population of five counties. Public health is not as good as might be expected at first thought. The situation has been summarized by Miss Verhoeff (in “The Kentucky Moun- tains”) as follows: “HEndurance and muscular strength are common, but a strong constitution is exceptional. Bad housing and sanitation, ill-cooked and insufficient food, exposure to weather, and . . . . poverty, have 123 had their detrimental effects, which have been augmented by a close inter- marriage of families and by an inordinately large use of liquor.” In general the mountain man is quicker than the Indiana plainsman, but not as strong. A month's field work did not bring to note any of the storied giants of the hills, though there probably are some. Not all of the people are lank. About two generations ago trachoma penetrated into the mountains, and is spreading rapidly, despite the efforts of the state and settlement schools, and the Federal Government. Of over 4,000 people examined in five counties, 12.5 per cent. had this disease. A report from the W. C. T. U. Settlement School at Hindman names twenty-five per cent. for that locality. Adenoid and turbinate cases are common. Several clinics held at Buck- horn revealed that 90 per cent. of those examined were afflicted with hook- worm. Splendid work is being done, but the area to be covered is a vast one, and assistance is needed greatly. Superstitions that diseases are visitations of the Lord to be borne with resignation are disappearing slowly. The people continue to be poor. In 1900 land was worth $5.00 per acre, and in 1910 $9.66. (Kentucky: $15.24 and $21.83; Indiana: $31.76 and $62.36. The average value of all farm property per farm in 1800 was oa and in 1910 it was $1,359. (Kentucky: $2,007; and $2,986; Indiana : $4,410 and $8,396.) The average value of farm buildings per farm in 1910 was $247. (Indiana: $1,230.) Institutions. There is great need of education. In 1900, 24.8 per cent. of the voters were illiterate, and a decade later, 20.7 per cent. (Kentucky: 15.8 and 18; Indiana: 5.6 and 4.1.) In eight counties in 1900, the illiterate voters con- stituted from 30.5 per cent. to 35.8 per cent. of the total. In 1910, 61.6 per cent. of the children, ages 6 years to 20, were in school. (Kentucky: 60.8; Indiana: 66.) Corresponding figures for children from 6 years to 14 years were 73. (Kentucky: 76.) However, improvement is being made. In 1900, there were more than 20 counties without a local publication. Now, there are but few counties without a press, and several have more than one. Formerly, the term of school lasted but three months in the year. The teachers received no training except in the common schools. The buildings were tiny, two or three teachers in some cases teaching in the same room. 124 But now, the term lasts six months (closing at Christmas owing to bad roads.) Also, many of the teachers receive some training in the normal department of the settlement and missionary schools. Furthermore, there is but one teacher in each room, though in it is no library, few modern desks, and little equipment. In one mountain school visited by the writer in 1914, the pupils were sitting in rough board pews, the boys on one side of the room and the girls on the other. The walls, floors, and seats were dirty. Some of the children wore but one garment. Two of them were suffering from trachoma. The equipment owned by the school consisted of one wall map and three calendars. The only object on the desk was a small switch. The girl-teacher, who was a graduate of the institute at Oneida, had charge of 69 pupils and, besides, without pay, was teaching a “moon-light’”’ school of evenings, to which people of all ages were coming. She did not show any surprise or neryousness when our group of ten men in nailed boots filed in. Nor did the children pay much attention to the visitors. The third grade droned out its reading lesson, and then the second grade carried out its solemn program in spelling. There was a solemnity about it all which the outsider does not understand until he becomes acquainted with the gravity of these people in their gatherings. Progress was being made, though it seemed a pity that the children should have to learn the definition of some words which probably they never will have occasion to use. The day of the “shouting school” (in which the pupils indicate that they are studying by reading aloud) has passed in the mountains. In a second school, a girl, younger than the teacher above, was in charge. She had had no training beyond the common school. There were a few modern desks, but also some rough hewn pews. When I tip- toed to the door and took a photograph of the interior she showed less surprise than an Indiana school mistress would have exhibited, but she smiled when some of her children awakened to the situation. In some sections a holiday week is declared during the corn harvesting season. Mission and W. C. T. U. settlement schools are coming into the country, as at Buckhorn, Hindman, Pine Mountain Postoffice, and Blackie. Berea College, on the western margin of the region, serves as a uni- versity for the mountains, and is sending its extension department with wagon and camp into the remote sections. The reader is referred to the December, 1912, number of The American Magazine, for the story of the heroic foundation of Oneida Baptist Institute, and is reminded of Bulletin Number 530 of the United States Bureau of Education for the story of the 125 opening of “moon-light’” schools in the Kentucky mountains in 1911 for children, parents, and grandparents. When the feud breaks out, mountain mothers from the section in which blood is shed, anxious to get their sons out of danger, are wont to urge them to attend school at Berea College and elsewhere. Though in some sections enthusiasm for education is becoming great, in others there is great apathy, because of lack of interest on the part of the people, lack of practical teaching, illiterate teachers, poverty, poor roads, and political interference in school affairs. In some districts it is still thought by the school trustee that “the lickinest teacher makes the 7. ‘‘The telephone whispers through the silent hills,’’ near Booneville, Ky. knowinest younguns”’. Changing conditions are indicated by an incident in which two teachers appeared in the same schoolroom, each determined to become the sole teacher. The following among the pupils was about equally divided at first, but presently they moved away from the teacher using the “A. B. C.”’ method and grouped themselves about the more pro- gressive instructor who was following the sentence method. The broad effort is being made to teach the people how to work and live according to modern ideas, and yet to retain the desirable traits of their own civiliza- tion. This is a delicate task, involving much more than merely academic training. Religion is undergoing transition slowly. Formerly if a speaker did 126 not shout and gesticulate he might be termed a good speaker but not a good preacher, The early attitude towards the settlement workers was indi- cated in a mountain sermon in which the congregation was told to “beware of the fetched on women who come in here wearing gold watches, and their shirt fronts starched so slick that a fly would slip off and bust out his brains”. But, a year later, the same mountaineer said that since these women were administering to the needy under conditions so harsh that even the mountain people would not venture out, “I allow as how they are welcome to stay in the mountains as long as I live.” One mountain patriarch, who has given his farm and essentially his all in founding a set- tlement school in the valley of his home, gives some of his reasons as fol- lows: That there was much whiskey and wickedness in the community where his grandchildren must be reared, was a serious thing for him to study about. He heard two of his neighbors say that there is neither heaven nor hell. One of them said that when a man is dead he is just the sime as a dumb beast. Another said that he could not rear his large fam- ily of children to be as mean as he wished. The founder's idea was that a good school ‘‘would help moralize the country.’ Formerly the Presbyterian religion was most prevalent, but it gave way to the ‘‘Hardshell’ Baptist creed, since in the mountains the educational qualifications for the latter were less severe than for the former. The disciples of this religion have in turn given way before the ‘Missionary Baptists.’ Methodists are also numerous. The most vivid disputes in the mountains were wont to be about religion. But now there is a significant change toward toleration in that preachers frequently exchange pulpits with pastors of other denomi- nations, and that the use of a church is often tendered to another denomi- nation which temporarily is without a place of worship. The following ‘an be interpreted as a groan of growth: “The church in eour holler, hits about dade. Part ov the folks wants an eddicated preacher, an parts wants an old-timer, an so they don’t get nary one’. The funeral preaching had become the sole opportunity for social gathering until the recent advent of “camp meeting week’, and the coming of the extension school on wheels. Changing conditions have not yet affected greatly the political situa- tion in the mountains. Since the Civil War so many of the inhabitants have been Republicans that party arguments have been one-sided, and the contests have been within the organization. Unity of feeling gives the representatives considerable power in the State Legislature. Political discussions are said to be confined in general to stump speeches con- cerned with national issues, and hence are of little help concerning local problems. However, since the mountain men are good at politics, some make of the local contests a profitable business. Recently in some sec- tions such men have turned their attention to the school, for the sake of profit in the appointment of teachers. There the trustee runs for office upon a platform statement of which teachers he favors. In some sections the vote runs high in school elections, while it is light on other matters. An increasing number of women yote on school affairs. Another favorite field of the politician is the handling of road taxes. Deep seated prejudice, due to poverty, exists against taxation of any kind. In 1906 the per capita state and county tax was $4.62 for Woodward County, in the Blue Grass, while in the mountains it ranged from $0.40 in Elliott County to $1.75 in Harlan. Little returns are ob- tained by taxation of lumber and mineral resources. The feud was transplanted from Europe into the Blue Grass, the Kentucky mountains, and elsewhere. It survived among the isolated valleys of the mountains, where it was fostered by folk-song, the flaring resentment of the Indian fighter and pioneer, and the habits of thought natural in isolated communities where for a long time there was neither sheriff nor jury and where, even to this day, the government hardly has been able to inspire confidence or dread. The Civil War greatly increased and intensified the feud: Prior to 1860 few weapons had been used in the mountains, and few deaths had resulted. In the region in 1860 there were 10,098 slaves and 1,280 free colored people. The lines grew sharp between the Union and Confederate counties, as well as between opposing families, and between opposing members of a family. Modern arms were introduced into the region. The physiography of the land favored bush- whacking. During the war the Kentucky mountaineers suffered more sharply than the mountain people of any other State, except Tennessee. Also, many of the principals of the post-war feuds were boys during the Civil War, whose imaginations were filled with all of these horrors. It is said by the mountain people that the actual numbers engaged in the feuds has ranged from 10 to 60 on a side; that the duration has been from 1 to 40 years; that perhaps not 10 per cent. of the mountain people have had a personal difficulty sufficient to cause fighting; probably not 40 per cent. of them have gone to a court house to prosecute or defend a ease; and that half of the enlisted partisans never have faced the 128 music in a show down fight, the number actually having figured in the ambuscades being small. In some parts of the region, as about Oneida, education is causing the decline of the feud; but in other sections it flourishes, as near Pound Gap (Trail of the Lonesome Pine), near where, it is said, some eleven men were killed in three months during the spring of 1914. The home, also, is changing. One still can see the windowless log cabin with its “dog-trot’’; but some roofs are of shingles, and some of tin, while frame structures are appearing, and brick. Mountain simplicity and hospitality are illustrated by one man who said, “I want a good house; two rooms—one for the family and one for company, each big enough for a bed in every corner—and a lean-to cook room.” The following is a description from Professor Penniman’s unpublished tales of the mountains: “Three days are ample to build a log-cabin twenty feet square. The part before the roof is called a ‘pole pen’. This is run up in a few hours. ‘The trees sufficient to build a cabin complete are often standing on an acre. With the roof up, and stone chimney on the outside, and the big fireplace opening into the room, the young people can begin housekeeping. A few saplings will make a bed frame fastened to the logs in one corner, and a bed without a tick, two feet thick, of fresh pine needles, gives a sense of luxury to the newly married pair.” Customs and Habits. It must be remembered that there are all grades of society in the mountains, and that no general description can be applied to a_ specific case. Woman is inferior to man in both number and position. Not only is she a household drudge, but a field hand as well (out-of-door work in itself, of course, does not constitute drudgery). She still follows behind him as they trudge over the mountain. A mountain boy, upon being asked how many brothers he had, answered promptly: “Two.” But concerning the number of sisters, he drawled: “Oh, three or four.’ The modern woman movement hardly has penetrated into the hills, and when it does, it will meet orthodox opposition. However, women increasingly vote in school affairs in some districts. Furthermore, here and there a girl re- turns from Berea, or some other college, with ideas strange to her people. 129 Perhaps this explains the wide girdle, or other bit of modern adornment, now seen sometimes on the quaint costumes. We were pushing through a deep forest in toiling over a ridge. Be- fore us were two children, walking in single file, a boy of fourteen and a girl a year younger. Our youthful guide pointed in their direction and remarked, “They were married last spring. Some of us do get married that early hereabouts; but we who have been to the settlement school don’t calculate to get married that soon.” “Store clothes” have displaced the homespun garments, the result being unfavorable in the appearance of the men. However, the settle- ment schools are reviving the home-weaving industry to some extent. The belt is beginning to rival the suspender on “Sunday” garments. The quaint old English language also is disappearing, though slowly. It is becoming crystallized and is losing its flexibility whereby it was wont to be bent this way or that, to suit the fancy or fit the occasion. In a reminiscence of his boyhood, Professor Dizney tells of a minister in Dizney’s valley, who, in preaching about apostasy, took as his text: ‘If they shall fall away”, and who concluded in a high key: “ ‘If they shall fall away’, means that they cannot fall away, for anybody who knows anything about the English laguage knows that it is a verb in the im- possible mood and everlasting tense.’ There also comes to mind the following expression: ‘‘Law me, Honey, I’m glad to be back from the plains. Wooded mountains make the restinest place to lay your eyes on.” There is about to pass away a most interesting folk-song based upon English and Scotch ballads, and preserved verbally in the mountains with slight modification, from generation to generation. These songs of romantic love, hate, sacrifice, and revenge are sung in almost all of the log cabins. Thereby the visitor, who may have thought that the moun- taineers neither weep nor smile, learns with delight that their natures are intensely fluid. The songs are sung in slow time, and in minor tones difficult to express in written music. An effort is being made to collect the words and write the music before it becomes too late. The open hospitality, once common, is shrinking. An old man in his watermelon patch put it thus: “I used to raise melons for the whole valley, so that the folks would come to sit and talk with me on the porch while we ate them. But now too many foreigners have come in; they 9—4966 130 would eat me out of home.” Sometimes the mountaineer is disappointed in his hospitality to strangers. There is a kindly, affectionate courtesy for one another among the people, which, it is hoped, will survive. There is such a great need for improvement in sanitation that what has taken place is negligible. The native is accustomed to work in his fields by seasons, with periods of rest between. During an ‘off’ period in September but two men were seen at work in the field during eleven days of travel. It has been his wont to work during the favorable time, or when the larder is empty; or to rest during the unfavorable season, or while provisions are at hand. Therefore, in general, the population is unsuited to the routine of work in the mines, the manufacturing plant, and the lumbering camps, now appearing in the region under the control of outside capital. Fur- thermore, it is without a disposition to codperate. Hence such workers are at once the despair and menace of the employer and the labor union. Consequently, foreign labor is imported, and the mountain man is in the way, as was the Indian. He will not necessarily become happy if, to meet modern industrial conditions, he throws off lightly his old attitude toward life gained through centuries of adaptation in the mountains. A few of the most versatile natives are profiting by the rapid changes; but the great majority, formerly independent land-owning farmers, are not. Many are seeking employment in mill or mine, or are contracting to the head- waters. It is significant that the leaders in the mountains, native and mission, deplore the rapid advance of industry into the region, and that they are bending every effort to prepare a civilization over a century in arrears, to meet the rude shock of the worst of our culture. In the 1911 term of court, Perry County, being invaded rapidly by railway construc- tion, had nearly 600 cases; Owsley County, without access to railways, had less than 40 cases. A mountain guide in Pound Gap lamented, “The ’ deyil is coming into the mountains on wheels.’ Wight years ago I re- joiced with a clean cut, delightful, energetic man who was returning home from the Kentucky mountains buoyant because he had doubled his for- tune by securing some of the primitive forest at an absurdly low price. He was bringing wealth and good cheer to his northern family. Now, with those slopes in mind, deforested, gullied, scorched, and sold (‘“‘un- loaded’), I am glad that I did not smoke then, for I probably should have acceped some of his fine Hayanas. The rapid exploitation of the natural 131 resources of a region by outside capital tends to harm the native, es- pecially if his civilization is not modern. In this case the outcome is in the balance. THE FUTURE. If exploitation pure and simple continues, twenty-five years will bid fair t6 bring about the following results: The disappearance of this race of true Americans as a unit; the passing of the valuable timber ; numerous forest fires in the region slashed over; greatly increased erosion of the steep hillsides with their soil already thin; short periods of flood within and below the region; long intervals of low water within and below the region; the reduction of fish and game; the introduction of a foreign mining element, also a foreign manufacturing body; and a region of great natural beauty changed to a region of squalidness. Presently, with the increase of population and the value of land in the United States, the region may be reclaimed at great cost. Outside aid might do the following things: Regulate the exploitation of the coal and timber so that it will be gradual; aid the counties in building good roads; assist in educating the mountain people along broad lines to close the gap between them and us; help them to develop stock raising, fruit growing, scientific agriculture, and scientific forestry. Some of the results would be: The saving of the mountain race as a unit; the addition of a happy, prosperous, food supplying area to the United States; the prevention of the disasters of soil erosion and of flood, and the utiliza- tion of water power. It is being pointed out that men break down under the tension of modern industrialism, unless they, somehow, are brought into contact with the beautiful, and get away for frequent moments of change and recrea- tion. The government owls our national parks; but they are far out West, beyond the financial reach of the average worker. The government might also establish numerous small parks in the Southern Appalachian Highlands, which would become the recreation ground of millions of workers east of the Mississippi River. 133 CONSERVATION AND CIVILIZATION. ARTHUR L. FoLry, Head of the Department of Physics, Indiana University. Not until recently has man begun to think of nature’s resources in the light of the old saying that “one can not eat his cake and have it.” Today the subject of the conservation of these resources is being discussed by men of science in every Civilized country on the globe. Nevertheless it must be admitted that the full import of the question is not yet appre- ciated by many science men, while the public generally scarcely knows what the discussion is about. A few years ago the writer heard an address in which the speaker pointed out the importance of conserving the soil. A fellow citizen in speaking of the address said he did not under- stand what the speaker meant, that the earth is made of piud and that no one need be fearful of a shortage. The observation led to the reflection that people too are made of mud, some of it not very fertile. Perhaps our citizen did not know that the average productivity of the unfertilized soil of Indiana is but half of what it was when he was a boy. Perhaps he does not know that all animal life is dependent on plant life, and that plant life is dependent on a few soluble constituents of the soil which form but a small and diminishing per cent. of what he calls mud. Per- haps he does not know that the removal of timber and the cultivation of hillsides permit the rains to dissolve and carry away the soluble constituents and so impoverish the soil, and that every year thousands of acres of land, here in his own State, Indiana, are ruined in this man- ner. He does not know that every year the Mississippi River robs the Mississippi Valley of hundreds of millions of tons of that upon which its fertility depends, and that all other streams are doing relatively the same thing. But I am not to discuss the conservation of our soil, nor the con- servation of our timber or our food supply. I shall not discuss the con- servation of air or water, although the time has passed when we can say “as free as the air we breathe or the water we drink.” Good pure air is not free to everybody, by any means. If it were there would be no 154 “white plague.” Nor is good pure water free. Sometimes it can not be obtained at a price, as some of us well know. New York City is just now completing an additional water system, this last system alone costing one hundred and eighty millions of dollars. I wish to direct your attention to a phase of conservation that re- ceives less consideration than is generally accorded the conservation of timber, food, and soil. I wish to consider our fuel supply, and its relation to civilization. I shall begin by defining the word energy as the capacity for doing work; that is, the capacity for exerting force through space. Anything that ‘an do work has energy stored in it, the quantity of energy being measured by the amount of work the thing can do. For instance, a clock spring or a clock weight has energy which it expends as it runs the clock; a battery has chemical energy which it expends when it rings a bell or drives a motor; a head of water has ehergy which it expends when it drives a tur- bine; gasoline has energy which it gives out as it heats a kettle or drives a motor car; a chunk of coal has energy which it expends when it heats our home or produces the pressure to drive a steam engine. If we represent all the heat energy in the universe by the letter “h”, all the chemical energy by “c’, all the electrical energy by “e’, and so on, using a different symbol for each and every one of the many forms of energy, then we may express the law of the conservation of energy in the form of an equation—h+c+e+ all other kinds of energy—=a con- stant. This law expresses the fact that energy is indestructible. We can neither create it nor destroy it. What then do we mean when we say that we should conserve and save our energy? To answer the question we shall need to consider two other laws or principles of energy, known as the Principle of Transformation of energy, and the Principle of Dissipa- tion or Degradation of energy. By transformation of energy we mean the conversion of energy of one form into energy of some other form. For instance, the energy of the coal is transformed in the boiler into the heat and pressure energy of steam, the engine converts this into a mechanical energy of motion; this may be used to drive a dynamo which converts it into electric energy, this may be passed through a lamp and be converted into light energy or it may be used to drive a motor which converts it again into mechanical energy, and so on. There is known no kind of energy that man can not 135 transform into any other form of energy. He may change almost at will the relative value of the energy terms on the left side of his energy equation, but he can not change their sum. No energy is lost in any transformation. The total remains constant. ~In actual practice, however, when we attempt to transform or use energy, we find that more or less heat energy is generated in the process, and that this heat energy is dissipated through space. No machine is frictionless, no wire is without its electrical resistance. There is no motion of matter or electricity that does not result in the generation of heat which can not be utilized, heat which soon disappears forever in space. This energy is not destroyed, it is lost. It is easy to transform energy of any kind into heat energy, but it is impossible to transform all of any quantity of heat energy into energy of other kinds. Our best steam engines have an efficiency of some twenty per cent., the efficiency of the usual engine is not over ten per cent. This means that w waste from 80 to 90 per cent. of the coal and utilize from 10 to 20 per cent. Our best tungsten lamps give us only about 10 per cent. of the energy of the electric current required to operate them, and since the engine that drives the dyna- mo has an efficiency of, say 10 per cent., the tungsten lamp gives us as light only 1 per cent. of the energy of the coal, 99 per cent. being wasted in the form of dissipated heat. So we have the principle of the dissipa- tion of energy; however we transform energy, a fraction of it—usually ¢ large fraction of it—is always dissipated as heat and is forever lost. Thus while the total quantity of energy in the universe remains constant, the useful or available energy is rapidly diminisning. All forms of energy are tending to go into the form of heat, to run down hill as it were, as heat is regarded as the lowest form of energy. Consequently this Principle of the Dissipation is sometimes called the Principle of the Degradation of energy. It makes no difference what the final temperature of the uni- verse may be; when all other forms of energy have been transformed into heat the heat energy will be useless. We can not use heat energy except as it runs down hill, from points of high temperature to points of low tem- perature. It is doing this all the time. Diffusion is a property of heat, and must result sooner or later in a state of uniform temperature and con- sequently in the disappearance of all available energy. Perhaps you ask why we shouid worry about the condition of things a million years hence? The reply is that we need not do so, but that we may well take thought of what the condition may be before the twentieth 156 century shall have ended. No doubt the disappearance of all available energy is a matter of millions of years, perhaps of billions of years. But the disappearance of so much of our available energy that what remains may be entirely inadequate to supply the demands of a civilization such as we now have, is not a matter of millions of years, not even of thousands of years. The progress of man has been proportional to his mastery of, and use of, Nature’s resources. Thus we have the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and the Steel Age—the age of today. A 1914 model auto- mobile, if made of bronze or iron, would not run a mile. The invention of the automobile could not have preceded the invention of steel. Steel made possible the light weight engine of high power, without which flying machines would be impossible. Without steel most of the weapons, and instruments, and machines of today would be impossible. Without power they would be useless. So this has been called the Age of Power or the Age of Energy, or better still, the Age of Coal Energy, for coal supplies almost all the energies required to do the work of the world. King Coal reigns with a lavish hand. We feast at the table, apparently unmindful of the fact that we are nearing the dessert course of his final banquet. Our boasted triumphs over past generations are due to the fact that we have learned to use energy freely. We are not superior to those of earlier ages, in art, in architecture, in music, in intellect. We are vastly superior to them in our ability to make use of Nature’s mineral resources. I might even say in our ability to use coal, for without coal the production of iron and steel would be practically impossible and the mineral re- sources of the world would remain undeveloped. It is high time that we were awaking to the fact that civilization as we know it must disappear from the earth when the available energy has been exhausted. Concern over the social, intellectual, religious, and po- litical state of future generations is of secondary moment compared with the question of the existence of civilization itself. Each individual knows that he must die. But if he thinks the event somewhat remote he scarcely gives the matter a thought. He may even in- dulge in things that he knows will surely hasten the event. So with a race. We give no thought for the morrow, but continue to use and to waste Nature’s resources, knowing full well that the death of the race is the inevitable result, and that our prodigality is speeding the day. We make the mistake of supposing that the day is indefinitely removed. We 137 calm ourselves with the thought that the human race has inhabited the world for thousands, perhaps millions of years, and still Nature is bountiful. But we should remember that not until this century has there been any considerable draft upon Nature’s store of energy in the form of coal. Coal was not discovered in the United States until some two hundred years after the discovery of America. It was seventy years after its discovery before it was commercially mined. For many years the output of the mines was very small. Lately, the disappearance of our forests and the astonishing increase in the use of machinery have combined to make enormous demands on our mines. The coal used in the United States during the past nine years is in amount equal to the total con- sumption up to the year 1895. The output of the mines for the year 1912 was 535 million tons—about five tons for each man, woman, and child in the United States. The figures relating to petroleum are just as significant. The industry began in 1859, and it was twenty-four years before the entire output was equal to that of one year now. The output of the last eight years equals all that produced before. Natural gas is all but a thing of the past. When scientists foretold the speedy exhaustion of the supply and cried out against its criminal waste, their cry was unheeded and the waste went on. If all the gas wells had been properly cared for, and if all gas had been sold through meters, we should have had the blessings of natural gas for a century to come. People scoffed at the idea of natural gas failing. So did the newspapers through- out the entire gas belt. The introduction of meters was fought by papers and patrons, until the finish of natural gas was in sight. Instead of edu- ‘ating the people to economy and care, the papers incited them to extrava- gance and indifference. We are now passing through a somewhat similar experience with petroleum and coal. Many of our oil fields have been exhausted and abandoned. No wonder, when we note that the production of petroleum of a single year is a quarter of a billion barrels. This enormous pro- duction has been made possible only because of the discovery of new fields to replace the exhausted fields. The discovery of new fields can not continue indefinitely. Most of our territory has been explored. It is only a question of time, and hot a very long time, when oil too will have be- come a thing of the past. There will remain but one natural fuel, coal, to stand between us and a return to a primitive type of civilization. 138 The life of the coal beds has been variously estimated at from one hundred to five hundred years. The time will be longer or shorter, de- pending on our frugality or our prodigality. Yet our newspapers, among them the same ones that fought the use of meters for natural gas, fight the utilization of the power of Niagara Falls, calling upon state and national governments to preserve this wonder of Nature, the inference being that the use of the power of the Falls would mean the destruction of the Falls. Of course Niagara should not be exploited for the profit of individuals or corporations, nor should the Falls be destroyed. It might be arranged to permit, at certain times, all the water to go over the Falls for the delight of man. But in the opinion of the writer it is short-sighted, it is almost criminal, to permit millions of horse power of energy to go to waste, continually and continuously, merely for our en- joyment. Does the reader think it right to burn millions of tons of Coal each year that might be saved for future generations, all in order that we—some of us—may see the glory of Niagara? Who is sordid? The man who is willing to forego a magnificent spectacle for the good of future generations, or the man who would feast his eyes and let future genera- tions freeze? How does the Niagara waste differ in principle from the uncapping and lighting of a natural gas well with the gas under a pres- sure of hundreds of pounds per square inch, in order that people might hear the roar of escaping gas and see the heavens illuminated by a giant flame? I remember that when the American Association for the Advancement of Science met in Indianapolis in 1890, the committee on entertainment arranged for an excursion through the Indiana gas belt and a natural gas display. At one city pipes were laid in the river and the gas liberated under the water. We saw the river, in appearance, converted into a seething cauldron. The sight was grand, but not pleasing. A man of science could not avoid the thought that we were being entertained at a fearful cost to future generations. Recently the writer’s attention was called to the possibility of that display in the end conserving the gas supply instead of hastening its exhaustion. The display may have served to arouse sentiment against such wanton waste and consequently to hasten legislation prohibiting it. This may have been true in this par- ticular instance, for those who saw the waste were those to whom such a thing would make a strong appeal. But people generally saw reckless extravagance on every hand and were a party to it. The writer recalls 139 a gas well within six miles of his father’s home that was permitted to burn almost a year before the flow was stopped. The gas wasted from that well alone would be suflicient to supply a city of moderate size for a hundred years. Truly we are reaping where we have not sown, and are leaving but little of the harvest for future generations. To realize the truth of this statement you have but to consider the enormous de- velopment in the use of mechanical energy during this generation, and the necessarily enormous consumption of oil and coal required to supply that energy. The one-horse buggy has been superseded by the thirty horsepower runabout, the two-horse earriage by the forty-horse touring car, the two- horse wagon by the sixty-horse auto truck, the two-horse stage coach by the five-hundred horsepower locomotive. The horse car has given place to the electric car, the sail ship to the steamship or dreadnought, the ‘anoe to the motor boat, the bicycle to the motorcycle, the foot or hand press to the power press, the typesetter to the linotype, the tallow candle to the electric lamp. Once man ate what his own fields produced; now much of his food comes to him from the ends of the earth. Once man was content to worship in the little church at the cross-roads; now he must attend conventions in Boston or Los Angeles. Once he thought twenty miles a journey; now he travels a thousand miles to see a ball game. Now the house wife must have her electric irons and cookers, power washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. The farmer must have his feed choppers, shredders, threshers, and pumps, all operated by power, lately by gas engine power. The thousands of windmills that dotted the country twenty years ago have disappeared—replaced by gas motors. The grocer grinds the coffee by electricity and delivers it with an automobile. The ab- surd extremity to which we have gone in the application of power is illus- trated when an auto delivery wagon calls for and delivers a ten cent package of laundry. These things are little things, but they illustrate the spirit of the age. We do nothing ourselves that we can get Nature to do for us. We give no consideration to the fact that we are burning the condensed sunshine of bygone ages. Our only question is, ‘‘What does it cost?’ What does it cost ws? Not what it has cost Nature, or what it will cost future generations. The value of coal is fallaciously reckoned on what it costs to mine and transport it. The fact that coal represents energy stored by Nature 140 through countless ages of time is not given a moment’s thought. Figuring this way, if we can manufacture ice a penny a ton cheaper than we can harvest the natural ice, we proceed to burn coal to make it. Think of the waste. Burning coal to make ice, when all the ice we need could be had for the harvesting. You say that natural ice is not produced in the tropics. Neither is artificial ice, in any quantities. We flood our streets with oil, because we think it a cheap way of keeping down the dust; cheap only because we fail to consider the energy content of the oil and what it has cost Nature to produce it. The time will come when such extravagance will be prohibited by statute. The fact is that we fail to realize that oil and coal are a legacy that has come to us from bygone ages, deposited in Nature’s bank. We are spending our substance in riotous living, but unlike the prodigal have no place to go when it is all spent. Doubtless something will fall on our neck, but there will be no fatted calf. The writer has painted a gloomy picture, such a picture as would have been painted twenty years ago, with dark clouds hanging everywhere about the horizon. However, the picture needs but one change to represent the conditions today. There is a rift, a small rift, in the clouds; a rift that may close and leave us again with leaden and ever darkening skies ; a rift that may open wider and wider and leave us finally with the glorious sunshine of a cloudless sky. Whence the rift? The energy content of matter depends on position and motion, not only on the position and motion of the mass as a whole, but upon the po- sition and motion of the constituent parts. Experience tells us that the energy liberated during any change is relatively greater the smaller the parts taking part in the change. For instance: the energy required to change a gram of water into steam, a change of position of the molecules, is twenty times as great as the energy of a speeding rifle bullet of the same mass. To effect an atomic change, that is, to separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms which form the water molecules, requires five times the energy involved in the molecular change. When the atom itself breaks up, disintegrates, relatively enormous quantities of energy are liberated. Radium is a substance in which this electronic or sub-atomic change is going on continuously and spontaneously. It is continually throwing off or radiating minute particles, and so we say that radium is radioactive. A mass of radium gives off enough energy every hour to melt more than 141 its own weight of ice; and it does this day after day, year after year, and it will continue to liberate energy until the last trace of the radium has disappeared, a process that we have every reason to believe will require ages of time. Many other substances beside radium are known to be radioactive. All substances may be more or less radioactive, the difference being one of degree rather than of kind. However this may be, we now know that there is stored within the atoms of matter quantities of energy, intra- atomic energy, beyond the powers of man to estimate. This is the rift in the clouds. It was produced by the discoveries of Becquerel and the Curies. The rift in the clouds is not quite as wide as it was a few years ago, for so far man has failed absolutely to influence these radioactive processes in the slightest degree. Whether at the temperature of liquid air or the electric furnace, in boiling acids or alkalies, whether in a yacuum or at a pressure of a thousand atmospheres, whether inside or outside the strongest electric and magnetic fields man can produce, the rate of dis- integration and consequently the rate of liberation of energy appears to be absolutely constant. Perhaps we may not hope to be able to control a change in the atoms themselves, for have not the atoms existed through countless ages and successfully withstood pressures and temperatures in Nature’s laboratory exceeding any that man can bring to his service in the chemistry or physics laboratory? That this intra-atomic energy exists is not theory. It is a fact that is as well established as any fact in science. Man hopes some day, some- how, somewhere, to unlock this infinite storehouse of energy. Today Nature stubbornly holds the key. The probability of man being able to wrest it from her is anything but bright. But we should not be, we must not be, discouraged, for it is our only hope. If the secret is ever dis- covered and we succeed in tapping this supply of energy no mind can imagine the hights to which civilization will mount by leaps and bounds. If the secret eludes us civilization is doomed to return to a primitive state from which it can never emerge. Perhaps you urge that our estimate of the life of the coal beds is too short. If it were in error by one hundred per cent., and no authority claims as much, the depletion of our coal supply is simply moved forward a few generations. The ultimate outcome is unchanged. Perhaps you say that the writer has failed to consider the possibility 142 of using the energy of the sun’s rays. You should remember that some- times we do not have enough sunshine in Indiana in a week to supply heat for a cup of coffee. It is a fact that where heat is most needed, and when it is most needed, to heat our homes and run our factories, there and then is the least sunshine. Imagine London depending on sun- shine for heat and power. In winter when we heed the most heat the sun shines the fewest hours per day, the fewest days per week, and the sun’s rays are most oblique. Taking into consideration the necessarily low efficiency of any engine working between the temperature limits of an engine for using the sun’s radiation, and the very large surface from which the energy would have to be gathered, men of science are agreed that the prospect of a practical sunshine engine are exceedingly remote. Finally it may be argued that the writer has failed to see a rift in the clouds arising from the possibilities of water power. The answer is, there is no rift there. No doubt the use of water power will postpone the gathering of the clouds, but it will not disperse them. Leaving out of consideration the fact that water power is usually most abundant where least needed, that the available power varies greatly with the seasons, that the available water power is diminishing from year to year with the removal of forests and the draining of swamp lands, let us remember the fact that the total water power of the world is almost nothing compared with man’s demands. A single ocean liner burns fifty car loads of coal per day. To supply the power for such a liner would require ten such water power plants as the one on White River at Williams, near Bedford, which cost several hundred thousand dollars. Then, too, it would require all the ten plants to operate at full capacity, which the Williams plant can not do a con- siderable portion of the year, the supply of water being insufficient. The writer is informed that it is not using water power at all as this is being written. Every fifteen days the new automobiles marketed by a single manu- facturer of cars of low horsepower equals the entire water power de- velopment of the Mississippi River, at Keokuk. Tvery thirty days the new engines turned out by this one firm equal in power the total water power developed at Niagara. The total horsepower of the automobiles now reg- istered in the United States is greater than the estimated total available water power of the country. It would appear that one need not go further to show the utter 145 inadequacy of water power as a substitute for oil and coal. Those who think otherwise usually consider the question from the standpoint of factory power only, leaving out of consideration the enormous quantities of energy required to heat our homes, and to supply heat for such processes as ore smelting, cement manufacture, brick, tile and glass making, and thousands of others. To equal one ton of coal per month for heating purposes one would require the entire output of a fourteen horse-power plant, running twenty-four hours per day thirty days per month. If there are five hundred thousand families in Indiana and if each family con- sumes an average of two tons of coal per month during the winter season, the consumption is the heat equivalent of fourteen million horsepower. Remember, too, that Indiana is not a very populous State and that its climate is not severe. Professor Soddy states the facts in his little volume on ‘Matter and Energy” when he says that “the age in which we live, the age of coal, draws its vivifying stream from a dwindling puddle left between the com- ings and goings of the cosmical tide.” We are to “witness a race, a race between science on the one hand and the depletion of Our natural resources on the other hand.” This race will be run chiefly by pure science, not by applied science. Engineers and in- yentors make their reputations and their fortunes by devising new and im- proved methods of using our natural resources; they are not concerned with the atom, the latest and the greatest energy reservoir discovered by man. We must look to such scientists as Becquerel, Curie, Rutherford, Ramsay. We must look to the humble, overworked, underpaid scholar toiling away in his laboratory. If he fails us, darkness comes. ae ; A ae eo Po Otis” J Re Fahy a kis ‘oer. yz eal pak 's ts ee Pigeere | (nal? per PE As 2 a henge ts 6 Ghee inet qe a Eo ul se? ah 145 Wuy Do Our Brrps MIGRATE. D. W. DENNIS. It is insectivorous and “therefore” a migrant, is a common phrase in literature about migrants; it is the purpose of this brief paper to take the therefore out of of this sentence; to maintain that what a bird eats has bothing to do with the great bird movement from the south to the north in the spring and back again in the fall after breeding. The Pennsylvania reed bird, the bobolink, doubtless stops at the reed swamps in Pennsylvania for refreshments on its way south; the South Carolina rice bird, another name for the bobolink, takes toll of the rice swamps; but no one thinks that the reeds or the rice are the cause of the migrations. Surely if they had not wings, they could hardly fly from the equator to Manitoba, but this does not make their wings the ‘cause of the journey; nor is their food the cause. It is stoutly maintained that climate is the cause. ‘This, like wings and food, renders the journey possible; but it cannot in all cases cause it, for many water birds, like the gannet and the petrel, go to their breed- ing grounds from colder to warmer water and many from warmer to colder. They go to inhospitable, inaccessible rocks that they may nest in a place of safety, as I believe. I was impressed at Wood’s Hole in the summer of 1901 to see tern flying by in great numbers every morning. Later I visited their breeding grounds at Penikese; they were flying by Wood’s Hole to get food for the day; they had not come to Penikese for food, for they came in such num- bers that they overtaxed the fishing grounds for more than twenty miles to the eastward. They had not come for climate, for they had come from all available areas, colder as well as warmer. VPerhaps it is admitted that they came to lay their eggs and rear their young safe from destructive mammals, including boys. 10—4966 146 The facts about the blackpoll warbler sustain this theory almost as well as those about the ter tern, the gannet or any other water species. The Blackpoll. It winters south of the equator and nests north of the Arctic Circle; its journey to its breeding grounds is a 10,000 miles round trip. It passes through Richmond about May 15 and returns September 15; its movements as it passes by us are deliberate. It cannot spend more than two months in its northern habitat; these must be very busy months. Nest making and family rearing are its chief business during these two months. In a few minutes, or at least hours, the salmon prepares his nest and lays his eggs 1,000 miles up the Columbia from the Pacific, and we con- clude he came for this. In two months the blackpoll prepares its nest, lays its eggs, hatches its young, and rears them beyond the most critical periods of their exist- ence, and starts back. Did it come to eat insects on the way, or to dis- charge this race duty? It is a ground nester; on or near the ground in that high latitude its eggs and family are safe from nest-robbing reptiles which abound in the warmer districts where it makes its winter home. Does it not make it wisdom’s child, if it makes this long journey to nest in safety? If, as Aristotle said 2,500 years ago, the study of zoology is a study of fitness, it is real zoology to study the migrations of such birds as the blackpoll. This argument applies to the water birds, which in countless num- bers and numerous species fly over Indiana in early spring. The great majority of these nest on the ground near lakes and streams; some of them on floating islands in lakes, just the places where the eggs and young would be unsafe in their winter homes on account of reptiles. The young of these birds swim almost from the shell, and would be reasonably sure to be eaten in southern waters. The argument applies with almost the same force to all indefensible ground and low bush nesters, among which are the field sparrows, the vesper sparrow, dick-cissel, grasshopper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, bobolink, meadow lark, ground robin, brown thrasher, ete. Nearly all our migratory birds show protective coloration, or sexual dimorphism; these are a confession of inability to take care of themselves or their homes, in fight. Those that exhibit sexual dimorphism are— Bluebird, Robin, Redstart, Canadian warbler, Wilson’s warbler, Hooded warbler, Yellow-breasted chat, Maryland yellow-throat, Mourning warbler, Connecticut warbler, Kentucky warbler, Prairie warbler, Pine warbler, Kirtland warbler, Black-throated green warbler, Blackburnian warbler, Blackpoll warbler, Bay-breasted warbler, Chestnut-sided warbler, Ceru‘ean warbler, Magnolia warbler, Myrtle warbler, 3lack-throated blue warbler, Yellow warbler, Cape May warbler, Northern parula warbler, Parula, 147 Tennessee warbler, Orange crowned warbler, Nashville warbler, Golden-winged warbler, Blue-winged warbler, Prothonotary warbler, Black and white warbler, Summer tanager, Searlet tanager, Dickcissel, Indigo bunting, Blue grosbeak, Cardinal, Towhee, Junco, American goldfinch, Redpoll, Purple finch, Pine grosbeak, Evening grosbeak, Baltimore oriole, Orchard oriole, Redwing, Yellowheaded blackbird. Cow bird, Bobolink, Humming bird, fifty-four in all. The proof which al) of them furnish is the same which the blackpoll warbler furnishes. The have, perhaps, come a less distance in all cases, and stayed a somewhat longer time. All the balance of our migrating birds exhibit protective coloration, or are yery inconspicuously colored—a confession of inability to protect the nest and an argument that birds migrate to protect it. A few con- spicuous examples are: Meadow lark, Vesper sparrow, Little brown creeper, Field sparrow, Night hawk, Whippoorwill, Rails, Quail. 148 Our birds which build protected nests, or which are able to protect their nests are not migratory birds as a rule. I know of but one clear exception, the sapsucker. Our birds which build unsafe nests or which can- not protect them are migratory birds asa rule. I know of no exception that is clear. The Phoebe arrives when its food is scarce, and it leaves a land of plenty, a land of insects; food cannot be the attraction. That climate is not the compelling cause is shown by the fact that many birds arrive when the climate is very severe; it even kills thousands of them sometimes. That birds are indigenous in the north; that they are migrating in the fall instead of the spring; that in the spring they are just going to their preglacial home; and that nostalgia is the real cause requires us to believe that birds have a way of preserving a record of their lost Atlantis that we do not possess, and may be dismissed as wholly psychological. The salmon goes a thousand miles up the Columbia to spawn; the eel question has at last been solved; it goes to the deep sea to spawn. Sea- birds go to isolated rocks for the same purpose. It is the conclusion of this paper—there being no shred of evidence against it, and many weighty reasons for it—that our migratory birds go north for safety in nesting. 149 FLoop PROTECTION IN INDIANA. Wieser Eames Organized effort to study the causes and to lessen the effect of floods in Indiana begins with the appointment of the Indiana Flood Commis- sion by Governor Ralston on April 20, 1914. This commission is composed of ohne member from each congressional district and the personnel is as follows: Mr. BE. W. Shirk, Peru, Chairman. Professor W. K. Hatt, Purdue University, Lafayette, Chief Engineer. Mr. Frank C. Ball, Muncie. Mayor Benjamin Bosse, Evansville. Mr. William Cronin, Terre Haute. Mr. Stephen B. Fleming, Ft. Wayne. Mr. J. H. Frederick, Kokomo. Mr. S. J. Gardner, New Albany. Mr. Victor M. O’Shaughnessy, Lawrenceburg. Mr. Joseph C. Schaf, Indianapolis. Mr. W. N. Showers, Bloomington. Dr. Chas. K. Stoltz, South Bend. Mr. Herman Trichler, Brookville. The commission met first in Indianapolis, on April 30, 1914. The purpose of this commission is to consider the extent of damages due to floods in the State of Indiana, and to report to the Governor what measures should be taken to provide relief in the future. The commission expects to issue its final report in 1915. This report will contain a full presentation of the history of floods in Indiana, a sum- mary of the causes of floods, a collection of available data or rainfall, river discharge and topography, a discussion of flood protection works and a discussion of the principles of legislation to provide for flood relief. This present pamphlet is an abstract of the forthcoming report of the commission, prepared in non-technical style for general information. 150 Froop oF Marcu, 19138. The appointment of this commission was the direct result of the flood of March, 1915, in which 467 lives were lost and over $160,000,000.00 of property destroyed in the United States. The memory of this catastrophe is still fresh in the minds of the people of Indiana, in which State thirty- nine lives were lost, and over $18,000,000 of property destroyed. The total loss in the flood of March, 1913, can never be known. The interruption of transportation and of business, the destruction to farm lands by cutting of banks of rivers and covering of bottom lands with gravel, the loss of productive capacity of manufacturing plants, and the sickness following exposure, are not susceptible of exact computation. Professor Beede of Indiana University reports a total damage of ap- proximately one-half million dollars in seven counties in the lower White River basin, in which also nearly eight thousand acres of agricultural land were denuded of soil and some sixteen thousand acres of river bot- toms were covered with soil and silt. He estimates the loss to agricultural land in this region as nearly $250,000.00. The loss reported by county auditors to county roads and bridges alone, was over $3,000,000.00. Other tangible losses that have been deter- mined are shown in Table 1. It is probable that the loss during the flood of March, 1913, in Indiana, may be estimated at over $25,000,000.00. Indeed the catastrophe was so general over the Ohio Valley that it excited the sympathy and support of the entire nation. The Governor of the State of Indiana received $———— in subscriptions for the relief of flood sufferers in this State. PART OF DAMAGES SUSTAINED IN THE FLOOD oF MArRcH, 1913. LE BOoun tye miele ays +ANG DRIGSESa. 2 ant ctes ee oe coment crete $2,825,240 00 Pe emeEVAT ORCS SUGHII 1... tere woe a. c:051 t's: diate Whats eraberenemereiel Oren automate 5,299,810 00 eB LOCEELG SELLA VS x18 lade even. ¥ can crate riaia ests ee sien ae actome 788,000 OO . foe BUN GiINneS And personal Propervys uw... 2. toe te eee ee 8,104,250 00 DELLE PHNOM GAN GAvelEPT AN), see cicie aeeiieres oie arosctorskerattes oletemme aie 17,510 OO GARRY ORO care tei er ein rene as xiictiss nies Sie epar ever blay e's ayers orerecene eWeLabetier een cals 735,700 OO Thea | Ores Sh (0 6) cha? ene ere ee ee nas eS a yk Se ad 149,580 00 Spee MANTUA CLS ee art tare, wate eee Neher senate alcatel ors S-thsh stares Sue eye e ales sme 264,700 00 OA SUSPENSLOM Ob HWUSIUCSS =, sialeve-. coher Witla sie one teecane Gee ake ethene 582,000 00 . Pal ee fee AE 5A RA ae, Fo er 151 Counties not included in (1)—Cass, Clinton, Fayette, Floyd, Miami, Sullivan. Railroads not included in (2)—Central Indiana R. R., Chicago and Wabash R. R, Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton R. R., Toledo, Peoria & W. R. R., Toledo; St. L. & W. R. R. Blectric lines not included in (3)—Marion and Bluffton Traction Co., Bluffton, Geneva & Celina Traction Co., Central Indiana Lighting Co., Indianapolis Street Railway Co., Louisville and Southern Traction Co., Louisville and Northern Railway and Light Co., Vincennes Traction Co., Washington Street Railway Co. (5) Includes Indianapoiis Telephone Company only. Counties in flood districts not included in (4), (6), (7), and (9)— Adams, Blackford, Cass, Clark, Clay, Clinton, Fayette, Floyd, Fountain, Franklin, Gibson, Grant, Greene, Harrison, Howard, Huntington, Jay. Jefferson, Ohio, Parke, Perry, Putnam, Randolph, Ripley, Scott, Sullivan, Switzerland, Tippecanoe, Vanderburg, Vermillion, Vigo, Wabash, Warrick, Wells, White, Whitley. (8) Includes loss only in 230 miles of East and West Forks of the White River through Morgan, Owen, Greene, Daviess, Knox, Jackson, Lawrence, and Martin counties. First there are six main problems to be solved before our Indiana communities can protect themselves against floods. First PROBLEM. Flood Flow. First there must be proper information as to the amount of water carried safely in a channel. To determine this amount we must first know the rainfall that may reasonably be expected at a time not too remote, and the rapidity with which this rainfall runs down the watershed. In considering flood protection in Indiana we are barred at the out- set from a sure solution at present, first, on account of a lack of rainfall records over a sufficiently long time; second, by a lack of stream gagings to determine the amount of water which does run down our streams dur- ing heavy rains; and third, by a lack of surveys of watersheds. In other words, a heavier storm than any that has been recorded in the last thirty years of our rainfall records, may come in the future, but our records do not serve to determine the probable extent of this storm. 152 Again, we have not gaged our streams to know the relation between the runoff and the rainfall. Such records as are gathered in other com- munities will not apply to our peculiar conditions, that is, two water- sheds of equal area, one long, narrow and V-shaped, and the other broad and flat, will yield very different flows in the streams. Again, the char- acter of the surface, whether of rocky formation or swamps or farmland, will change the conditions. Therefore, to obtain an exact solution of our flood problems we must first of all get accurate surveys and determine the flow of our streams. This cannot begin too soon. For this reason, the Indiana Flood Commis- sion recommends an early beginning of this work of surveys and stream gaging. These suryeys are most important for another purpose, namely, to determine if the water of the upper reaches of the rivers can be held back for a time in reservoirs. For instance in the case of the Wabash River at Logansport, which carries the floods from the upper Wabash, the Mississinewa, the Salamonie, and the Hel River, we would like to know if it is possible to find reservoir sites in the valleys of these tribu- taries, so that the flood flows may be controlled. Each tributary flood might be held back to the proper amount, and for the proper time, so as to let these flood flows by Logansport one by one. For example, in Ohio, it was found that by reservoir control, flood protection could be obtained for the cities of the Great Miami Valley at a cost of $17,000,000.00, whereas the total sum of the cost of the indi- vidual protection schemes gotten up by each city acting separately was over $100,000,000.00. The study of reservoir protection for the Miami Valley was made by the use of the topographic maps of the State of Ohio from which reservoir sites were planned and preliminary estimates worked up. Later on, detailed surveys showed that the preliminary work was accurate to within one per cent. The topographic survey of Ohio is 87 per cent. complete, whereas the Indiana survey is only 9 per cent. com- plete. If we were fortunate enough to possess topographic maps of the State of Indiana, we could go ahead immediately to study flood protection in a more complete Manner. The topographic map of the State is not only necessary for complete flood protection studies, but it is of use in the following: 153 (1) Asa preliminary map for planning extensive drainage projects, showing areas of catchment for water supply, sites for reservoirs, routes of canals, etc. (2) For laying out highways, electric roads, railroads, aqueducts and sewerage systems, thus saving the cost of preliminary surveys. (8) In improving rivers and smaller waterways. (4) In determining and classifying water resources, both surface and underground. (5) In determining routes, mileage, location of road-building material, and topography in country traversed by public highways. (6) In classifying lands and in plotting the distribution and nature of the soils. (7) As base maps for the plotting of information relating to the geology and mineral resources of the country. Our first problem is therefore to gather reliable information as to stream flow and topography. The Indiana Flood Commission, however, realizes that critical con- ditions exist in several cities which can not wait the ten or twelve or fifteen years required for the completion of such surveys. The comumis- sion has therefore made the best solution it can, and has studied all available records, has computed rainfall and runoff, and determined to the best of its ability, the amount of water which an Indiana city may expect to take care of during future flood time. Briefly, the records of the heaviest storms in the Ohio Valley region have been studied and the relation between the drainage area and the inches of rainfall worked out for these storms. Several of these storms have been studied, notably those of October, 1910; January, 1913, and February, 1884. For instance, it was found that the center of the storm in January, 1914, was over Southewestern Kentucky; the center of the storm of March, 1913, was over a line from Mt. Carmel, Ill., to Richmond, Ind. It is reasonable to expect as a matter of chance, that similar storms in-the future will be centered fifty to one hundred miles from its former center. Cities must therefore reasonably expect to take care of such storms. The result of the study is equivalent to fixing a future expected rain- fall as equal to that of the storm ef March, 1913, plus one-third additional in the White River Valley, and one-fourth additional in the Wabash watershed. Small drainage areas are yet to be studied. The river dis- 154 charge resulting from the specified rainfall is determined from river gagings at selected points during the flood stages of March, 1913. Ad- justments are made for various rainfall and channel slopes directly as the rainfall and as the one-fourth power of the slope. To determine the area of channel or bridge opening to carry this flow, the commission suggests tentatively six feet per second as a_ flood velocity through an improved channel, and not over eight feet per second as a velocity through bridge openings. Jn any particular case, special study of channel conditions must be made. The Indiana Flood Commis- sion has thus proceeded with the compilation of recommended bridge openings throughout the various parts of the State, as an approximate solution of our present difficulties. A survey of actual bridge openings through the State accompanies this study. SECOND PROBLEM. Design of Works. The second problem is to design flood protection works to take care of the water which is recommended to be carried. This is not a difficult problems, invyolying only good engineering knowledge and judgment. These flood improvements will consist in improvement of the chan- nels of the rivers involving cleaning and straightening the river bed and lengthening the bridges, and removing obstructions, and secondly the building of levees to retain the flood heights. If proper surveys exist, reservoir control may be studied. The Indiana Flood Commission has gathered together a number of pians that have been drawn for the Indiana cities, and it is in a postiion to assist communities that desire advice en the nature of flood protection works. THIRD PROBLEM. Construction Work. After complete information kas been gathered, and the best engineer- ing skill has been operating, a third and most important step must be taken. There must be some organization to finance and build flood pro- tection works. In other words some legislative action must be taken, some so-called enabling legislation. In any community some agency must be created to determine the necessity of improvements, to direct their construction, and to estabiish an assessment roll for benefits and damages 155 within a district defined in advance. And this agency must be appointed and directed by the courts or by a State board. This is the crucial problem. It involves the coordination of several, at present unrelated agencies, as for instance the city government, the county commissioners, and the railways. Of what benefit is it to a city like Peru, to spend $350,000.00 on a levee, if this scheme demands for its proper action the lengthening of a county or railway bridge, when the county commissioners or railway officials refuse to codperate. It must also be remembered that we all have gone ahead creating new obstructions in the flood plain and in the channel which interfere with the flow of our flood waters. Railways, cities and county commissioners are responsible for the conditions. Channel obstructions must be removed, and either the State or the Federal Government must take action. Some control must be exercised over present as well as future constructions in the channels. FourTH PROBLEM. Valley Protection. When we take a wider view than that of the specific problem of a single city, we must consider a flood protection scheme from the stand- point of the watershed as a whole. One city in Indiana has made flood protection plans which deflect the water around the city, and throw it around in increased volume on its neighboring down stream. Cities often content themselves with sluicing the water through the cities and pile them up on communities below. Here is again the problem of state action to protect the whole people. Fortunately this is not merely an action of control, but means a wider viewpoint that may disclose a cheaper and better method of protecting the whole valley. FIrTH PROBLEM. Maintenance. After these works have been constructed, we have a fifth problem in their maintenance. It must be recollected that these works are built to protect against floods which happen only once or twice in a generation. Naturally such works as leeves and reservoirs will tend to be neglected during this unused interval. If people construct dwellings and operate industries in a space supposedly protected by improperly maintained reser- 156 voirs, or levees, they are in jeoardy. In this case the State must exer- cise some power to protect the people and see that these works are main- tained. SIXTH PROBLEM. Federal Action. In considering the question of floods the view is successively of City, of county, of watershed, of State; and finally the rights and duties of the Federal Government come into view. Our present problem is to delimit and properly apportion the action and responsibility as between the States and the Federal Government. At present the Federal Government controls all openings and obstructions in navigable streams. The logic of the situa- tion would extend this to the upper reaches, because what happens there will affect navigation below. For instance, if, due to obstructions, bars pile up on bridges and soil is washed down and creates bars below, there is a real counection between the upper reaches and the lower parts of the river. Again, the Weather Bureau is in the best position to take observations of rainfall, and the Geological Survey can best and does make the topo- graphic surveys, and the stream gagings. Thus in this problem, the complex question of the division of water control, as between the States and the Federal Government, is to be de- termined in the future. A watershed is a natural unit, and not a political unit. There should be some codrdination between the States in the Ohio Valley, whose problems are very similar. 157 An APPARATUS FOR AERATING CULTURE SOLUTIONS. PAUL WEATHERW AX. A number of experiments on various phases of plant physiology, in each of which it was necessary to secure a constant stream of «ir continuing for several days, has led to the construction of a very efficient piece of ap- paratus for that purpose. The apparatus used by Prof. D. M. Mottier sev- eral years ago for aerating artificial cultures of algse was modified by F. L. Pickett and used in a series of experiments on desiccation; ald the writer has made some further changes in the construction of the apparatus shown in the figure and described below. This is now being used very success- fully in the aeration of culture solutions. The princple employed is that of the Sprengel mercury pump (water being used as a liquid in this case) by which bubbles of air are entangled in a stream of liquid which flows into a closed vessel. The only thing that remains to be done is to separate the air and the liquid, which are under slight pressure, and convey them from the reservoir by separate tubes. The first problem is that of getting a stream of water that will flow uniformly. An attachment to a water pipe is usually sutticient for this. If this is not satisfactory, however, a siphon may be arranged to give a uniform flow. D, in the figure, is an ordinary battery jar provided with a siphon, B, which has an adjustable stopcock. A, which taps a water pipe and has an adjustable stopcock, supplies the jar with water a little faster than it is taken out by the siphon, B. Another siphon, C, removes the excess and keeps the water always at the same level, determined by its outer end, thus assuring an even flow, which should be just fast enough to cause the water to fall as a succession of drops. The funnel, E, made by fitting a stopper into the end of a short piece of glass tubing about 1 cm. in diameter, has the end of the slender tube, F, extending 2 or 3 mm. above the cork. By means of this arrangement the water dropping into the funnel is caused to descend through the tube as a series of drops separated by spaces filled with air. Thus, if no escape is allowed, the reservoir, K, is filled with water and air under a pressure 158 equal to that of the aggregate length of all the water drops in E at any one time. But the air escapes through H, under control of a pinchcock, and the water is forced out through G. The waste water escapes through J. The flow of air through H must be so regulated that water is forced out through G just a little faster than it enters from F. This provides for an occasional release of surplus pressure by the escape of air through G and prevents the filling of K with water, as will be the case if the air is allowed to escape too fast through H. The only irregularity of flow is at the time of the release of pressure through G; but the air stream is seldom interrupted for more than a few seconds, and by careful adjustment the frequency of these interruptions may be reduced to a minimum. Perfect adjustment would entirely eliminate these irregularities by allowing the water to escape through G just as fast as it enters through F; but, per- fection being impossible, it is better to have the interruption occur as an escape of air through G than of water through H. Theoretically the pressure of the air issuing from H, and consequently the depth to which a solution can be aerated, is determined by the vertical distance from the level of the water in K to the outlet of G. In practice, however, the apparatus fal!s somewhat short of this, due to friction of the air through H and the capillarity of the liquid to be aerated. The density of the culture solution is, of course, a determining factor also. The efficiency of the apparatus depends largely upon the nature of the tube F. If it is of too small bore, the friction is too great; and if it is too large, the water has a tendency merely to run down the inside surface and fails to carry any air with it. i a? co. - - rs _. ° ¥ 4 7 = . ’ f [ _ = z Ls —e + J - . : ae ¥ “oe . _ = ba = oi > ’ ; i J - . 167 Notes Upon THE DISTRIBUTION OF FoREST TREES IN INDIANA. STANLEY COULTER. It is recognized at the outset, that even in a restricted area, such as that under consideration, much of uncertainty is given to any conclusions drawn because of lack of exact data covering every part. The richness of the tree flora in a given county as contrasted with that of adjoining coun- ties, is usually to be explained by the presence of a skilled and persistent worker. It is very certain that no county in the State is entirely destitute of trees, in spite of the fact that not a single species may be reported as occurring within its bounds in any published report. It frequently happens, also, that reports covering certain counties have been based upon the work of untrained observers who have failed to dis- criminate closely related species or who have made incorrect determina- tions, in either case confusing the situation and necessitating a careful revision of the data. While effort has been made to eliminate errors arising from such causes it is more than probable that some have escaped detection, but in the main as regards the species discussed the data seem accurate and complete. Of the one hundred twenty-six indigenous species mapped in connection with this study, the larger part by far are probably of general distribution throughout the State. Variation in the density of the stand and in the size and form of individual trees are of course found, but the non-occurrence of any one of the species of this group in any county, under favorable condi- tions, would be more notable than its presence. A relatively small group is confined to the extreme northeastern counties of Lake, Porter and Laporte. Quite a large group is restricted to the southern counties or those lying in the first three tiers north of the Ohio River. \eliat- bare 172 CORRECTIONS TO THE Lists oF Mosses oF MONROE County, Inp1ana, I anp II. MILDRED NOTHNAGEL AND F. L. PICKETT. At the winter meetings of the Indiana Academy of Science in 1912 and 1913, the authors presented lists of the Mosses of Monroe County, Indiana. Since the publications of these lists, several corrections in identification have been made and these will be listed below. The correct names will appear first, the former name in parentheses after the accession number. Corrections to the 1912 list of Monroe County Mosses, I. Fissidens minutulus Sull. (44.) (F. bryiodes.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Orthotrichum lescurii Aust. (3). (O. porteri.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Brachythecium campestre B. & S. (16). (B. plumosum.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Burynchium hians (L.) B. & SS. (17). (Brachythecium rutabu- lum.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Plagiothecium geophilum Aust. (22). (P. deplanatum.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Corrections to the 1913 list of Monroe County Mosses: Barbula unguiculata (Huds.) Hedw. (71). (Didymondon ru- beillus.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Funaria hygrometrica (l.) Sibth. (79). (2. fiavicans.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Aphanorhegma serratum Sull. (122). (Physcomitriwm immer- sum. ) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Amblystegium orthocladon (Pb.) Lindb. (98). (A. fluviatile.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. 180 Amblystegium yarium (Hedw.) Lindb. (98). (A. serpens.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Hypnum curvifolium Hedw. (85). (H. fertile.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. H. curvifolium Hedw. (88). (#H. pratense.) Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Indiana University Botanical Laboratory. 181 THe Mosses or Monroe County, Inptrana, III. EF. L. Pickrerr AND MILDRED NOTHNAGEL. The collection and classification of the mosses of Monroe County, as has been reported by the authors at the winter meetings of the Indiana Acad- emy of Science for 1912 and 1913, was again resumed in the spring of 1914. The present list will include a few forms from Hamilton and Lake counties of Indiana, and Berrien County of Michigan. The 1914 list of mosses includes twenty-nine new species, from eleyen families and twenty-six genera, of which are representatives of one fami y and thirteen genera not reported in former reports. Material bas been prepared, as described in former lists and left in the herbarium of the Botany Department at Indiana University with notes as to time, place, and habitat of the collection as well as condition of specimens. The entire collection in the herbarium now contains specimens, many of them in duplicate from different collections of ninety-five species and five varieties, representing fifty-three genera and seventeen families of the Bryales. In this report, as in former ones, the numbers within the parentheses after the hame of the specimen is the accession number. A great number of the specimens collected this year have been sent to A. J. Grout of Brooklyn, N. Y., or to G. B. Kaiser of Germantown, Pa., for verification or identification and the credit of such will be given in the list. Order SPHAGNALES. Family Sphagnacea. Sphagnum aentifolium Ehrh. (189). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. In Swamps south of Gary, Lake County, Ind. Sterile. Order BRYALES. Suborder NEMATOLONTE.®. Family Burbaumiacee. Buxbaumia aphylla L. (134). Matures spores from December to April. On sandy soil in moist ravine, I. U. pond. Fruiting. Webera sessilis (Schmid.) Lindb, (145). 182 Matures spores in spring aud early summer. On clay in moist ravine, I. U. pond. Fruiting. Suborder ARTHRODONTE®. Family Dicranacee. Ceratodon purpureus (L.) Brid. (163, 199). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Matures in spring and early summer. On sandy soil about Gary, Lake County, Ind. Common. Fruiting. Dicranella heteromalla var. orthocarpa. (Hedw.) E. G. B. (136). Ver- ified by A. J. Grout. Capsules mature in November and December. On clay on hillside northeast of Bloomington, Ind. Fruiting. Dicranum fulyum Hook. (151). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Yellowish green mats on beech tree on south side of Griffy Creek, north of Bloomington, Ind. Sterile. Family Grimmiacee. Hedwigia albicans (Web.) Lindb. (142, 160). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Matures spores in spring. All material collected was sterile. In dark brownish green mats on decaying wood near I. U. pond. Grimmia doniana Smith. (130). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. In thin hoary patches on limestone, I. U. Campus. Family Tortulacece. Tortella cespitosa (Schwaegr.) Limp. (291). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Matures spores in spring. Specimen robust and fruiting. Found on moist rocks above spring, Clear Creek, Ind., Monroe County. Family Orthotrichacee. Drummondia clavellata. Hook. (120, 155). Matures spores in spring and summer. Found fruiting on bark of tree. Hamilton County and Monroe County, Ind. Orthotrichum porteri Aust. (123). Determined by Mrs. E. G. Britton. Matures spores in the spring. In black-green mats upon limestone. Fruiting. Rare. Orthotrichum schimperi Hamm. (173). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Matures spores in spring. In dark green cushions upon trees and stumps in dry places. Family Bartramiacea. Philonotis fontana (L.) Brid. (186). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. 183 Matures spores in May and June. Found on moist rocks above spring, Clear Creek, Monroe County, Ind. Family Bryacee. Mniobryum albicans (Wahl.) Limp. (178). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. In thick green mats or tufts on rocks hear water, northwest of Har- rodsburg, Monroe County, Ind. Sterile. Fruits infrequently. Bryum caespiticium. L. (172). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Spores mature in spring. On a decayed log in tufts. Bloomington, Ind. Common. Family Leskeacee. Anomodon minor (P. B.) Fiirn. (183). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile specimen. Found on retaining wall along north pike, Bloom- ington, Ind. Family Hypnacee. Rhytidium rugosum (l.) Kindb. (141). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile form. In dense light green masses on stone, Harrodsburg, Monroe County, Ind. Brachythecium riyvulare B. S. (152, 185). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile, never found fruiting here. In very moist places or in water. Bryhnia graminicolor (Brid.) Grout. (154). Determined py A. J. Grout. Sterile form, rarely found fruiting. On moist clay and stones just above water line in Griffy Creek, northeast of Bloom- ington, Ind. B. Novae-angliae (S. & L.) Grout. (197). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. On edge of swamp, north of Gary, Ind., in loose light green mats. Sterile. Cirrophyllum boscii (Schwaegr.) Grout. (138, 181, 182). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Spores mature in autumn. Found on soil in moist ravine in bright green mats. Sterile form. Cratoneuron filicinum (L.) Roth. (179). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile specimen found in bluish green tufts just above water line in shaded spring. Amblystegium irriguum (Wils.) B. HS. (180). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile specimen. Found just above water line in shaded spring in deep olive to blackish green mats on rocks and clay. 184 Hypnum molluscum Hedw. (166). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile form. On soil on wooded hillside, I. U. dam. H. patientiae Lindb. (176). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Matures spores in spripg. Fruiting. Yellowish green mats on decayed log, near Buchanan, Berrien County, Mich. Plagiothecium deplanatum (Sch.) Grout. (170). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Sterile. On limestone in open ravine north of Bloomington, Ind. Amblystegiella adnata. (Hedw.) Nichols. (170, 184). Determined by G. B. Kaiser. Matures in summer. Specimen sterile. Found on limestone and on base of tree in dark green mats, about Bloomington, Ind. Family Leucodontacea. Leucodon brachypus Brid. (152). Matures spores in winter. Specimen sterile. In blackish green mats resembling Hedwigia albicans. Found on log north of Blooming- ton, Ind. Forsstroemia trichomitrium yar. immersum (Sulliv.) Lindb. (204). Verified by G. B. Kaiser. Matures spores in summer. fruiting. On tree in ravine southeast of I. U. dam. Indiana University Botanical Laboratory. 185 A New ENEMY oF THE BuAcKk Locust. GLENN CULBERTSON. During the latter part of June and during July of 1914, the leaves of the greater number of the locust trees in Switzerland, Jefferson, Clark, and Floyd counties, of southern Indiana, were observed to be losing their greevish appearance, and upon closer examination the chlorophyll of the leaflets was found to have been largely consumed. The foliage appeared as though dried up as a result of a severe drouth. Here and there indi- vidual trees, at a distance from groves, were unaffected, but the trees of practically every grove, at least among the hills of the Ohio and tributaries were seriously affected. So evident was this that the brown and sere appearance of the groves was noticeable as far as they could be seen. The infected trees were found to be alive with a small beetle, which Professor Enders of Purdue classified as Chalepus dorsalis of Blatchley’s “Coleoptera of Indiana”: “This beetle is from 6 to 6.5 mm. long, wedge shaped and rather broad, bluish black, thorax red, with black sutural stripe. Found throughout the State, but much more abundant in the south- erl counties. Occurs on flowers of black locust, in the leaves of which the larve mine. Hibernates beneath the locust bark.” On striking the trees the beetles could be heard falling to the ground by the scores. They could be seen in large numbers on the foliage, as many as five were counted on a single leaflet. The eggs of this beetle are deposited late in April or early in May, and by the 20th of May the young larvae are at work between the coverings of the leaflets, destroying all the inside portion. In some cases several larvae may be seen at work within a leaflet. When mature the larvae stop eating and remain enclosed within the leaf coverings until metamorphosis is com- pleted, when they emerge, usually about the 20th or 25th of June, and for several days feed upon the upper leaf surface of any green foliage that may remain. The writer is of the opinion that many of the locust groves in the northeastern part of Jefferson County were badly infected with this beetle 186 during the summer of 1913, and possibly previous to that, as several groves of that region were observed with foliage that seemed to be drying up, as though injured by a serious drouth. The infected area seems to be rapidly increasing, and the annual defoliation of the trees must in time prove a serious injury, since the foliage on the majority of the infected trees was practically useless by the first of July and in many cases even earlier. What the favoring circumstances have been that have caused this remark- able increase in the numbers of this insect is at present a mere conjecture. It may be that the unusual heat and drouth of May, 1914, and of the sum- mer of 1913, may have caused their rapid multiplication, or that the rela- tively rapid increase of locust trees, their favorite food supply and breed- ing place, has augmented their numbers. What the future may bring no one knows, but if this beetle continues in as great numbers in succeeding years, they will prove a very serious inenace to locust groves, and the fence and telephone post industry of southern Indiana. Judging from the undoubted rapid increase in the past, the future is not promising. As a remedy Professor Enders and others recommend spraying with arsenate of lead or other arsenical compounds. This no doubt would be in a measure effective, if applied within a few days after the emergence of the mature beetle June 25th to July 5th, and could be done on level or moder- ately level ground, but since the tens of thousands of volunteer locusts are on slopes so steep that they are almost inaccessible, it would prove a difficult task indeed to get at them with a spraying outfit. It is not probable that the pest, if it proves to be a serious one, will be eradicated in that way. It is very difficult to get farmers to spray orchards, much less locust trees scat- tered far and wide over rough, hilly land. It is to be hoped that an efficient remedy may be provided, for, if not, this defoliator, in addition to the borer, will probably end the locust industry. A New Lear Spot oF VIOLA CUCULLATA. H. W. ANDERSON. A leaf spot on Viola cucullata has been prevalent in Indiana and neighboring States for a number of years. It is especially noticeable dur- ing the early spring months. Collections of leaf spots on this host in different parts of the country have been made from time to time and have been filed away in the herbarium without being classified or wrongly labeled as the Phyllosticta leaf spot. A careful examination during the past year has revealed the fact that this particular leaf spot is caused by a Colleto- trichum which has never been described as occurring on this species. Since this disease is widespread it was thought worth while to make a careful study of the causative organism. Of the violets which occur in this region only Viola cucullata has been found to be attacked by this particular fungus. It is interesting to note that while this species is attacked V. palmata is apparently immune. V. cucullata was formerly considered a variety of V. palmata and the im- munity of the latter emphasizes the specific difference. However, only a limited number of plants of V. palmata have been observed and these in a region where the disease was not common on the other species. Cultivated violets have been examined only in the local greenhouses. It is probable, however, that all cultivated species are immune, otherwise the disease would have been observed and reported by those especially interested in violet diseases. Macroscopical Appearance—The fungus produces a typical leaf spot. The earliest indication of infection is a pale area with a definite dark green border. Later the area in the center of the spot dies, turns white, grey or light brown, a dark brown ring appears about the edge, forming a definite, regular spot. At an early stage the acervuli appear as dark brown dots on the lighter central area. They are irregularly arranged and occur on both sides of the leaf. The dark color of the acervuli is due, in part, to the numerous setz. Later the center of the spot becomes very thin and papery and may fall out, thus giving a shot hole effect. When badly in- 188 fected the spots are occasionally confluent. Usually there are only a few spots on a leaf. Etiology—The fungus gives rise to numerous aceryuli, which are dark brown or black, irregularly scattered, varying greatly in size (50-200 microns). They are beset with dark brown setze. The setze are numerous, arising from any part of the acervulus, 1-4 septate, dark brown, sharp- pointed, straight or slightly curved above the base. The base is usually bent or curved in various ways. The spores are hyaline, non-septate, slightly curved averaging 4.5x25 microns. They are borne on short, hyaline conidiophores. In some cases at germination a delicate septum was observed in the middle of the spore. This is by no means always present. Nomenclature—There has been, in the past, some confusion in regard to the limits of the genera Colletotrichum, Vermicularia, Volutella and Cheetostroma. This has been due, largely, to the lack of care exercised by investigators when species of these genera have been studied. Sections ‘arefully made clear up generic confusion very easily. The fungus de- scribed above is undoubtedly a Colletotrichum since there is no pycnidium, the spores being borne on short conidiophores in a setose aceryulus. In 1899, Dr. Ralph Smith! described a leaf spot of pansy caused by a Colletotrichum. The type material of this fungus has been examined and found to differ from the Colletotrichum under discussion in the size and shape of the spores, the shape of the setie and the character of the spot produced. Dr. Peck? in 1878 described a leaf spot of Viola rotundifolia as follows: “Vermicularia concentrica Peck and Clinton n. sp. VPerithecia small, black, beset with straight, rigid bristles, concentrically placed on arid, orbicular spots; spores oblong, slightly curved, pointed at each end, color- less, .OUOS’-.001’ long. “Living leaves of Trillium erythrocarpum. Vine Valley, Clinton, July: “The tissues at length fall out from the affected spot, leaving apertures through the leaf. The perithecia are less regularly disposed near the cen- ter of the spots. Judge Clinton also sends a variety on the leaves of Viola rotundifolia in which the concentric arrangement of the perithecia is not at all preceptible, but I detect no other difference.” 4 (1) Botanical Gazette. 27: 203-204, Mar. 1899. (#) Report of the N. Y. State Botanist 1878. 29th Annual Report of the N. Y. State Museum of Natural History, pps. 47-48. 189 In his “Sylloge”’, Saccardo* changed the specific name of the fungus to Peckii. His nomenclature is as follows: “Vermicularia Peckii Sace. V. Concentrica Peck, 29th Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 47-48, 1878. (Not Ley., Ann. Soc. Nat. 66. 1845.) “VV. Peckti var. Viola rotundifolia Sace.” Through the kindness of Dr. H. ). House, State Botanist of New York, I was able to secure authentic specimens, collected and determined by Dr. Peck subsequent to his description of the fungus. These specimens were from Trillium erythrocarpum Michs. (7. undulatum Willd.) and from Viola rotundifolia. A careful examination of these specimens, togeth- er with some recently collected material from Dr. House, was made. Some of the spots were embedded in paraffin, sectioned and stained. From these examinations it was concluded that the fungus occurring on Viola rotundi- folia was not a Vermicularia but was identical with the Collefotrichum occurring on V. cucullata. The spore measurements and general charac- ters of the acervulus, setze and conidiophores of the fungus on Trillium were also identical but, as stated by Dr. Peck, the acervuli of the former occur in definite concentric circles in the spot, while in the latter no such arrangement is noticeable. Whether or not the species on Viola cucullata is identical with the one on Trillium can only be determined by cross- inoculation. Up to the present time the author has not had an oppor- tunity to complete his investigations along this line. It would be unusual, however, to have a fungus of this type parasitic on hosts so widely sepa- rated as Trillium and Viola. The identity of the fungi on the two violet species can hardly be questioned. The nomenclature of the fungus on Viola rotundifolia is so awkward and incorrect that a change should be made. However, this is not advisable until the relationship to the fungus occurring on Trillium is definitely settled. Life History of the Fungus—tThe field observations of this fungus have been limited to a single year. The disease appears at a very early period in the spring on leaves that have evidently lived over winter. The earliest collections were made in the first week in April before the plants had time to develop leaves. It is probable therefore that the fungus lives over wilter on the old leaves of the plant, although it has not been ob- served during the winter months. (#7) Saceardo, P., Sylloge Fungorum. 3: 232. 1884. 190 The spread of the disease in the early spring is evident from an obser- yation of an infected plant. nea Oat Smut IN INDIANA. 1 diy Ene, In the winter of 1914, the writer, representing the Botanical Depart- ment of the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, conducted, in co- operation with the Extension Department of Purdue University and the county agricultural agents, a series of meetings at which demonstrations were given of the formaldehyde treatment of seed oats and potatoes. The meetings were held in Benton, Lake, Porter, Jasper, Pulaski, Laporte, Elk- hart, Grant, Madison, Randolph, Clinton and Montgomery counties, which are among the largest oat-growing counties in the State. According to the report of the last census these twelve counties raised over thirty-two per cent., in acreage, of the entire oat crop of the State. It may be of interest, therefore, to report some facts resulting from these meetings, since they furnish fairly reliable data as to the oat smut situation through- out the State. A most striking thing has come to light in connection with this cam- paign. It has been learned that out of 3,168 persons reached through the meetings less than a dozen farmers previous to that time had ever used the formaldehyde treatment for their seed oats. The use of formaldehyde as a general disinfectant and a specific fungicide for potato scab was originated, about eighteen years ago, in the Botanical Department of the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, by Dr. J. C. Arthur. It was then applied as a disinfectant for oat smut and the stinking smut of wheat by Professor H. L. Bolley, formerly assistant to Dr. Arthur. It remains to the present date the simplest, cheapest and most effective seed grain dis- infectant in use. A large majority of the farmers of the State, however, evidently have not, for some reason, taken advantage of this discovery, and still allow the smut disease to reduce the oat yield by several million bushels every year. One of the reasons for this neglect evidently is the fact that most farmers do not fully realize the extent to which the oat smut occurs in their crops. About thirty years ago, Dr. Arthur, then a botanist for the 192 New York Agricultural Experiment Station, at Geneva, demonstrated that oat smut is not readily visible to the unpracticed eye unless ten or more per cent. of the crop is affected. The smutted stalks are, to a large extent, considerably shorter than the sound stalks, and can not usually be seen except upon close examination of the field. And again, most of the smutted masses are blown away by harvest time and only bare stalks remain, leaving nothing conspicuous to indicate the amount of damage done. Dr. Arthur found nine and one-half per cent. of smutted plants in fields at the Geneva Station in which the presence of smut could scarcely be detected without close examination. In the third annual report of the New York Experiment Station he remarks in this connection: ‘The appearance of smut as one passed through the fields was no greater than is usually to be seen in any part of the country, * * * and the result of the count * * * is as much a surprise to the writer as it will doubt- less be to others.” EE. S. Goff, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, estimated the loss from oat smut in that State, in 1896, at about nine per cent. Jowman and Burnett, of the Iowa Experiment Station, found, in 1907, an average of seven and nine-thenths per cent. of smutted heads in twenty fields examined. Kellerman and Swingle estimated, in 1888S and 1889, that Kansas lost annually over eleven per cent. of the oat crop from smut. In bulletin No. 37, of the Ohio Experiment Station, J. F. Hickman says: “In passing through one of our oat fields last summer I observed what seemed to be a smutted head here and there, but upon careful ex- amination I found more than seven per cent. of this variety smutted.” In order to demonstrate the importance and the value of the formal- dehyde treatment as effectively as possible the county agents in a humber of counties made arrangements with some of the farmers to treat all their seed oats except a small portion to serye as a check on the treatment. It may be well to state here that most of the farmers who agreed to make the tests were under the impression that their oat crops of the previous seasons were comparatively free from smut. The test fields were distributed over Madison, Grant, Laporte, Pulaski and Benton counties. When the oats headed out the county agents counted the smutted heads and figured out the percentage of smut on the treated and untreated plots. In Madison County, where the writer assisted the county agent, 193 Mr. W. R. Butler, in this work, counts of smut were also made in several fields where no treatment had been tried. The following table shows the results of the tests as reported by the county agents. TABLE 1. RESULTS OF THE FORMALDEHYDE TREATMENT FOR OAT SMUT ON TEST FIELDS IN FOUR COUNTIES. Average Average Number Per Cent. Per Cent. County. of Test Reported by. of Smuton | of Smut on Fields. Treated Untreated Fields. Fields. ivi ayo BUSOST Ae ORs a PR ROS eee ere ree ee 15 W. R. Butler... as 12.0 (CREM os 3 a ache higs ACR ee Ole re OnE 4 OF @raneter..-k :8 | 13.0 TETUULE PSS es ES fg ce 7 Wir Viele a sil yey BRemMtOs ncn ok ea eae 6 J.W. McFarland 57 11.0 ANSTO 8 Mara RAINES leet Cali dy ie el i oc eer eee a ae 3 11.9 | In Laporte County, Mr. L. B. Clore, the county agricultural agent, arranged for a test of the formaldehyde treatment on the county poor farm. The manager of the farm was very reluctant at first to make the test, claiming that there never had been any oat smut on the farm. When the smut was counted, however, it was found that fifty-two per cent. of the crop was smutted on the untreated field and only about one per cent. on the treated field. The results demonstrated to the farmers beyond any doubt the value of the treatment. The treated fields were practically free from smut, while those not treated had, individually, from one to fifty-two percent. of the crop destroyed by the disease. Three fields in Madison County had thirty or more per cent. of smutted heads, and one field in Pulaski County Showed a loss of forty-five per cent. The average percentage reported from Madison, Grant, Pulaski and Benton counties correspond closely, in- dicating that the prevalence of oat smut is fairly uniform throughout the sections these counties represent. 13—-4966 194 In addition to the data obtained from the test fields further reports on the prevalence of oat smut were received from seven counties as shown in the next table. The figures submitted in these reports were secured by the county agricultural agents and other men who made, in most Cases, careful observations and counts of oat smut in their respective counties. TABLE 2. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF SMUT FOUND IN THE OAT CROP OF 1914 IN SEVEN COUNTIES. County. Reported by. Average Per Cent. of Smut. Randolph. . SW MGeAS Mahan’ * Berth, cite. 15 Whitley. . 5) WaG bitte: 01 Montgomery ..| R. A. Chitty : : a 15 Starke...... ..| H. R. Smalley : ‘ 7 10 Lake... eal he av Cherie Nester. ; ry. 20 Gibson. yo Pelee uke ne 10 Jefferson G. Culbeertson st 15 Average oe ete ame : ae 13.5 As shown in the table the average per cent. of smut reported from the seven counties corresponds closely with the average figures from the counties mentioned in Table 1. Leaving out the report from Laporte County, which can not be considered representative owing to the high per cent. of smut obtained in the single test, the grand average for the counties under consideration is practically 15 per cent. This no doubt is a fairly accurate figure representing the loss from oat smut in the State. It corresponds closely with the estimate of Dr. Arthur who placed the loss in the State, figured from general observations, from eight to twelve per cent. According to the crop statistics, compiled by the United States De- partment of Agriculture, Indiana devotes annually about 1,755,000 acres (average of 1909 to 1913 seasons) to the production of oats. The average yield for the State has been about thirty bushels per acre. It may be considered, therefore, that the average annual production of oats in In- diana is, in round figures, about 52,000,000 bushels. Considering that smut destroys about thirteen per cent. of the crop the above yield represents 195 only eighty-seven per cent. of the full crop. Figuring on this basis the an- nual loss from oat smut amounts to 7,770,115 bushels. This is more than the total yield of Benton, Allen and Tippecanoe, three of the largest oat- growing counties in the State. At the average price of oats of thirty-five cents per bushel the loss in cash value equals $2,719,539. The cost of treating seed oats with the formaldehyde solution would be about two cents per acre, or $34.00 for all seed sown in the State. The net profit resulting from the treatment would be, therefore, considerably over two and one-half million dollars. To gain this amount every year by practic- ing the treatment is certainly worth the effort, and practical instructions and demonstrations along this line in all oat growing sections of the State are highly desirable. The formaldehyde treatment of seeds oats, as recommended by the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, is briefly as follows: Spread out the seed on a floor and sprinkle with a solution of one pint of 40 per cent. formaldehyde to 50 gallons of water until thoroughly moist. Shovel over repeatedly to distribute the moisture evenly, then shovel into a pile and cover with sacks or canvas for at least two hours. The seed may be sown as soon as dry enough to run without clogging the drill. If to be kept longer than one day, grain should be dried as rapidly as possible by spreading in a thin layer and stirring occasionally with a rake. Avoid reinoculating with smut from smutting sacks or bins after treatment. One gallon of the solution will treat a little more than one bushel of oats. In order to facilitate the work of treating the grain, machines have been invented which much simplify the labor and enable one to treat large quantities of grain in a comparatively short time. Several types of these machines are now on the market selling for twenty dollars or more each. If total destruction of the oat crop in three counties occurred, it would arouse the farmers of the State to action. Why should not the loss of more than two and one-half million dollars distributed over the State do so? If all farmers in Benton County treated their seeds oats they would save enough in one season to build at least eight township schoolhouses, each costing not less than twelve thousand dollars. And then they could Save ehough every year to pay the salaries of all their school teachers. Many other counties in the oat-growing sections could do equally well. 196 In some townships the formaldehyde treatment would save the farmers enough money to pay for the building of miles of stone roads. Should not these facts stir the farmers to some concerted action by which they would banish the smut disease from the State? The grain treatment is simple, cheap and easy of application. It is up to the oat growers in the State to make up their minds and do the right thing. A man in Madison County, on whose farm a test of the formaldehyde treatment was made this spring, was very much pleased with the results, and he said in sub- stance: ‘Why it’s a very simple thing. There’s very little work con- nected with the treatment and the cost can almost be disregarded. I treated my seed for less than twenty cents. I wonder why I haven't been practicing it long before.” ton Piants New or RareE To InpDIANA. No. V. Cuas. C. DEAM. Specimens of the species reported are deposited in my herbarium under the numbers indicated. The Gramineze were determined by A. 8S. Hitchcock ; the Carices by K. K. Mackenzie; the Juncus by H. H. Bartlett; and the Antennarie by M. L. Fernald. Panicum Werneri Scribn. Floyd County, June 8, 19138. No. 13,256. In a sterile white and black oak woods on the “‘knobs’” about one mile west of New Albany. Muhlenbergia foliosa Trin. Grant County, September 4, 1914. No. 15,279. Low border of the lake located about five miles northeast of Fairmount. Whitley County, August 23, 1914. No. 14,562. Low border on the west side of Round Lake. The only reference to this species occurring in the State is in Rhodora, Vol. 9:19 :1907, in an article by Lamson-Scribner on ‘Notes on Muhlen- bergia”, in which he refers to “No. 68, by H. B. Dorner from Indiana.” Apera spicaventi (L.) Beauy. Orange County, August 1, 1914. No. 15,561. Frequent over an area of five or six acres about one mile west of Leipsic. Reported by Prof. M. L. Fisher of Purdue University. Bromus arvensis L. Jefferson County, May 28, 1911. No. 8,486. In a woods along the road- side about one-half mile south of North Madison. Bromus hordeaceus L. Laporte County, May 28, 1913. No. 13,031. Frequent along the road- side east of the water works at Michigan City. Carex Leavenworthii Dewey. Shelby County, June 8, 1913. No. 13,193. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a dry woods one and a half miles west of Morristown. 198 Vermillion County, May 8, 1910. No. 5,819. In dry soil in a wooded ravine about one mile northwest of Hillsdale. Carex louisiana Bailey. Gibson County, June 10, 1913. No. 13,297. In a low flat woods on the east side of Foote’s pond. Carex projecta Mack. Hendricks County, July 13, 1918. No. 13,677. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a swamp about five miles northwest of Danyille. Carer suberecta (Olney) Britt. Noble County, June 26, 1914. No. 14,550. Low border of Engle Lake. Shelby County, June 8, 1915. No. 13,204. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in the Milburn Swamp about one mile west of Morristown. Tipton County, May 24, 1913. No. 12,909. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a low place along the Lake Erie Railroad about two miles west of Goldsmith. Carex picta Steud. Brown County, May 21, 1910. No. 6,412. Somewhat frequent on the oak ridges between Helmsburg and Nashville. This sedge has the habit of growing in bunches. When established for some time it advances in the form of a circle, the center of which is bare. Areas two feet in diameter have been noted with a ten-inch bare center. Morgan County, August 12, 1913. No. 15,958. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam on a wooded hillside about one and a half miles northeast of Martinsville. Gray’s text-book of botany gives this species as occurring in a ravine near Bloomington upon the authority of Dudley. Carex impressa (S. H. Wright) Mack. Allen County, June 14, 1914. No. 14,258. Creek bottom about seven miles south of Ft. Wayne. Gibson County, June 9, 1913. No. 13,339. In a low flat woods about four miles west of Patoka. Grant County, June 16, 1907. No. 2,057. Along a creek about two miles northeast of Van Buren. Hamilton County, May 19, 1912. No. 10,549. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a swamp near Carmel. Hancock County, June 2, 1912. No. 10,892. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a ditch along the C., H. & ID. Railroad near Reedsville. 199 Huntington County. July 4, 1907. No. 2,141. In a wet weods about two miles north of Buckeye. Johnson County, June §, 1912. No. 11,088. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam along Young’s Creek south of Franklin. Marion County, May 30, 1911. No. 8,522. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a ditch near Irvington. Posey County, May 24, 1911. No. 8,850. In a wet woods near Goose Pond. Wells County, May 22, 1908. No. 3,040. Abundant in a wet woods just south of Bluffton. Curex atherodes Spreng. Tipton County, July 9, 1913. No. 13,682. Collected by Mrs. Chas. C. Deam in a prairie habitat along the Lake Erie Railroad about two miles west of Goldsmith. Juncus brachycarpus Kngeln. Crawford County, July 13, 1899. In a valley near Wyandotte Cave. Marshall County, July 2, 1911. No. 9,021. Ina ditch along the railroad about one mile south of Culver. Alsine graminea (.) Britt. Laporte County, May 22, 1910. No. 6,440. On the bank of an open ditch through the prairie just west of the State Prison. Ranunculus cymbalistes Greene. Floyd County, April 20, 1918. No. 12,565. Type locality about one- half mile south of the Southern Railroad on the top of the first wooded ridge west of New Albany. Associated with Pinus virginiana Mill. and Quercus Prinus L. Physocarpus opulifolius var. intermedius (Rydb.) Rob. Starke County, September 1, 1914. No. 15,152. sh J ae oc) oe | w ate thes fier FW om pas . 7 = — j ad. ee net, Aes % gga be iit ay eit. 7 -) “Ad J om Te 6). a ¥ 7 . 7 ni ai a ie ne tr “Koaeke oe" ato it: see ‘tee pS Ente Cre . aS | ! ae yeris tin TS . _— _ a “| vec wy (in y & Mal = a4, 4 pee ao ont 7 aa i “atti | ove 1 a 203 SOME PECULIARITIES IN SPIROGYRA DUBIA. PAUL WEATHERWAX. A form of Spirogyra found on the campus of Indiana University early in the spring of 1918 has shown, in its natural habitat, as well as when subjected to new physiclogical Conditions, some phehnomenn of growth that are not only irregular for Spirogyra but also seem to be confined rather closely to the one species. The piant does not agree exactly with the description of any species given in the literature available, but it conforms fairly well with the «e- scription given by Wolle (1) and also the one given by Collins (2) for N. dubia Ke. This species, according to these descriptions, has two spirals, ’ or “more rarely three”, and the fruiting cell is described as being slightly inflated. The plant observed here had regularly three chloroplasts, and the fruiting cells were not at all swollen. Wood (3) notes this same difference in the sporangial cell and suggests other variations but con- cludes that these characteristics are not sufficiently different to justify the description of a new species. A form showing a physiological peculi- arity similar to one shown by this plant, and probably from the same general location, is identified by Pickett (4) as NS. elongata (Berk.) Ke. When first found the plant formed a thin, green coating on a piece of rusty sheet iron lying in runbing water. Most of the filaments were only one to three cells in length and were probably developing from zygotes, but the striking thing noted was the highly differentinted basal cells (Tig. 3) by which the filaments were attached to the mud on the iron, and, in maby cases apparently to the rough surface of the iron itself. Sonditions were favorable for rapid growth, and ten days later the filaments were three or four inches in length and composed of many cells, but still as firmly attached as would have been filaments of Cladophora of the same size. The root-like basal cells had grown very much longer znd had assumed a variety of peculiar shapes. Their walls had thickened, and their coutents were just beginning to show signs of decomposition (Bie: 5): 204 205 A quantity of the material was put into a shallow dish of distilled water and placed in a north window in an attempt to cause it to con- jugate, but indications of an unhealthy condition soon became apparent. As a first indication of this condition the chlorophyll bands became more slender and the pyrenoids very prominent. Soon after this the filaments began to break up by the decay of some of the cells, so that but few seg- ments could be found that were more than seven or eight cells in length, and the majority of them were made up of but one or two cells. In the meantime these cells that seemed to have greater vitality began to develop a number of branches as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The cytoplasm usually followed out into these branches, often taking a loop or an end of a chloroplast with it. In many filaments that showed the peculiarity the branches all arose from the same end of the cells, suggesting a continua- tion of the condition of base and apex that was made so evident by the highly specialized basal cells of the younger plants. So far as was ob- served, the branches always remained continuous with the cells from which they arose, no new cells being cut off on branches. Filaments of other species of Spirogyra often broke up into segments on being put into similar conditions, but no branching was observed. The decay of the plant was probably started, in some instances at least, and very evidently greatly aided, as soon as the vitality of the alga had been slightly impaired, by the growth of a fungus, Aphanomyces phyco- philus De Bary, one of the few parasitic forms of the Saprolegniacee, which has already been described (5). Other species of Spirogyra seemed immune to the attack of this fungus. ~ In some conjugating material of this same species of Spirogyra similar physiological peculiarities were noted. This latter material had been preserved for class use, and the exact locality of its collection is not known, but it was probably found in the same general locality as was that first mentioned. The filaments of this material showed also, but in a less marked degree, the same unhealthy condition. Some typical branches found are shown in Fig. 4. These branches seemed to serve as “hold- fasts” for attaching the filament to other filaments of Spirogyra or prob- ably to other things in the water. Any attempt to get at the meaning of the branches found in either instance must maintain a degree of consistency with two or three promi- nent points observed. The branching described is associated with a pathological condition and is characteristic of this to a more marked 206 degree than of any other species of Spirogyra that was tested. Since the phenomenon was observed once in a physiological condition that had been made favorable for conjugation and again where conjugation was actually taking place, it was at first thought that the branches were exag- gerated attempts at conjugation, and, in some instances, this may have been the case. But the filaments were usually close enough together that such long tubes would not have been necessary, and no actual union of gametes as a result of any such activity was at any time observed. Moreover, the filaments shown in Fig. 4 illustrate a condition noted in two or three cases, where filaments having mature zygotes in some of their cells were attached by these branches to others also containing zygotes. The filament shown in this figure as holding to another by means of the foot- like branch was a long one and had at another place mature zygotes that had been formed as a result of Conjugation with some other filament. If these branches were modified conjugating tubes, a relation of this sort would be out of harmony with the tendency toward bisexuality that is usually exhibited by the plant. Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. LITERATURE CITED: (1) Wolle, Rev. Francis. Fresh water alge of the United States. 1887. (2) Collins, Frank S. Green alge of North America. Tufts College Studies, Vol. II, No. 3. 1909 (3) Wood, Horatio C. Jr. A contribution to the history of the fresh water algw of North America. Smithsonian Contributions, No. 241, Vol. 19. 1872. (4) Pickett, F. L. A case of changed polarity in Spirogyra elongata. Bul. Tor. Bot. Club, Vol. 39. 1912. (5) Weatherwax, Paul. Aphanomyces phycophilus De Bary. Proc. Ind. Acad. of Se. 1913. 207 REPORT ON CoRN POLLINATION IV. (FINAL). M. L. FISHER. The work under this head has been reported in the 1908, 1910, and 1911 proceedings. The reports have dealt mostly with Cross-pollinating with pollen from a variety of a different color or race. One of these crosses sweet, male, and Reid’s Yellow Dent, ftemale—wnrs selected to be carried out to the end to see if a new variety could be produced. In the third year two types of sweet corn were distinguishable, one a large ear with whitish kernels and white cobs like the original Stowell’s Evergreen, and the other, a smaller ear with yellowish kernels and red cobs. These two types were planted the season of 1911, but through poor management no seed was saved. Enough ears were obtained to see that the types were fairly well fixed. Old seed was used in 1912 and hand pollinations were made on each type. A few good ears of each kind were obtained. The kernel and cob characters came true to the original selec- tions. Upon beirg cooked as roasting ears, both types were found to be of excellent quality—the yellow kernel and red cob type being slightly sweeter. The mature ears showed some dent kernels, but not many. A good quantity of seed was obtained. It may be said further that the yellow-kernel red-cob type was somewhat earlier than the white-kernel white-cob type, the latter inclining to be late. In the season of 1915 three plantings were made, one in the writer's garden, another in the garden of the foreman of the Station Experimental plats, and the third in the trial gardens of D. M. Ferry & Co., Detroit, Mich. In the two garden trials, the white-kernel white-cob type was used on account of its promising greater prolificacy. The corn in the writer’s garden was almost ruined by a hail storm, and that in the foreman’s gar- den was somewhat injured. Such ears as were obtained for use as roasting ears were declared to be of superior quality. The writer saved no seed, the foreman was able to save a good quantity and planted again in 1914. The corn planted on the plats of Ferry & Co., was reported on as fol- lows: 208 “The salient features of our reports are to the effect that neither of your selections seems as yet well enough fixed in type to be ready for presentation. Both show a large percentage of reversion to plain parent stock. They are both late and half of the ears in our trial were irreg- ularly and poorly filled. Quality seems excellent, but the color of the red cob shows badly in cooking. From a seedsman’s standpoint we do not believe the strains to be as yet of any value.” The foreman mentioned above planted a small patch the past season (1914), but drouth and hot winds ruined the entire planting. However, enough seed remains for another planting and a replenishment is hoped for. Although results have been somewhat discouraging, it is believed that a successful and fixed variety may yet be developed. STOMATA OF TRILLIUM NIVALE. F. M. ANDREWS. Giimbel! was the first to make known the presence of twin stomata. Since that time Pfitzer*? and others have shown the presence of stomata in groups of two or more on the leaves of various plants. In Sawrifraga sar- mentosa stomata are aranrged “in circular groups’* in considerable num- ber. In various species of Begonias, as De Bary states* in Begonia mani- cata, B. spathulata, B. Dregei and B. heracleifolia two or more stomata are arranged over one respiratory cavity. This occasional grouping of the stomata in certain plants is even more strikingly shown in Trilliwm nivale. The stomata are often found on the leaves in pairs over a common respiratory cavity, but frequently in num- bers up to ten or more. In opening and closing they act just as a single stoma does. The presence of more than one stoma over a common respiratory cavity is also shown on the sepals and petals. Figure 1 shows part of a sepal of Trilliwa nivale in which the stomata are in pairs in one case and in threes in another case over a common respiratory cavity. These arise from the successive division of a common mother cell. The stomata on the sepals and petals are frequently lateral or diagonal as regards one another, but in every case their origin from one mother cell is the same. The arrangement in groups of as many as ten or more over one respiratory cayity on the sepals or petals is also met with. Figure 2 shows a case, taken from the outside of a sepal, where only one guard cell, A, is fully formed. There is only a remnant of a second guard cell, B. The same thing has also been observed on the inside of the petal. \Giimbel. Jahr. fiir wiss. Bot. Bd. 7, p. 551. *Pfitzer, E. Jahr fiir wiss. Bot. Bd. 7, pp. 532-560. ?Treviranus. Verm. Schriften, IV. 30. Quoted from DeBary, A. Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns. 1884 p. 47. ‘Vivani. Quoted from DeBary as above. 14— 4966 210 In Figure 3 a pair of stomata is shown in which only three guard cells were formed. In this case the apertures are closed by the movement of the two outer guard cells only. These deviations from the general order, position and number of stomata in Vrillium nivale also obtains, but to a less extent, in other spe- cies of the genus Trillium. It is also in keeping with other deviations, for which the genus Vrilliwm is noted. such as monstrosities in the leaves themselves and in the parts of the flower. Interesting questions are con- nected with the twin, triple and grouped stomata of Trillium nivale and other plants as to their complete development. the real Causes of their arrangement and their physiological reactions. Frc. 1. Trillium Nivale. Stomata from outside of sepal showing double and triple groups Over one respiratory cavity. x ca. 100. eat Fie. 2. Trillium Nivale. Stoma with only one fully developed guard-cell x 46 Fic. 3. Trillium Nivale. Stomata from sepal. x 45). Ture PRIMROSE-LEAVED VIOLET IN WHITE CouUNTY. Louis F. HEIMLICH. On the afternoon of June 2d last, I started out from Reynolds, Indiana, to add a few specimens to my herbaruim. Following the Pennsylvania lines east, I noticed many familiar plants, among them being Viola lance- olata L., the lance-leaved violet, growing in great abundance in the wild grass along the right of way. A goodly number of Viola sagittata Ait. were often close neighbors to lanceolata. After digging up a few very fine specimens of these two violets I climbed over the fence and went up on one of the sand ridges so charac- tristic of the country about Reynolds. I had crossed this area very often and knew that Viola pedata L., the bird-foot violet, grew here. Only a few of their flowers remained, the seedpods on some being already of good size. Passing over the edge of this oak-forested sand ridge, I descended into what was once a swamp area. The soil suddenly becomes mucky, mixed with sand and late decayed leaves. Here, to my surprise, I discovered a violet which I had never seen before. I knew it was a violet. I felt sure of that, and so remarked to my two companions. We looked and found more of them nearby. They spread from the lower limit of the sand ridge out to a little beyond a fence-row, covering an area of about 40 by 125 feet. These violets, which I later found to be Viola primulifolia I., the primrose-leaved violet, seemed to seek the shade. Most of them grew along the fence-row in wild grass, together with some weeds and small brush. Those which grew out in the open short grass were low spreading and less succulent plants. The season for flowering was about over and the cleistogamous capsules were making their appearance. Viola primulifolia V.., varies from about 5 cm. to 20 cm. in height, bearing from a few to a dozen or more primrose-like leaves. The plant is stemless, the leaves rising from a medium sized rootstock or runner. The lower leaves are oval to almost round. The upper, larger leaves are ovate, Van 4 “Primal olin Ly —DRAWN FROM MOUNTED SPECIMEN 215 some oblong-ovate, with acute apexes and long tapering bases. Some of the leaves may be somewhat sub-cordate. Both lower and higher leaves are more or less crenate, mostly glabrous, with slight pubescence along the midrib and the edges of the petiole. The flowers are small, the largest being hardly a centimeter in width when full blown. The petals are white with several purple stripes on their inner surfaces. The pedicels may be 15 cm. or 18 cm. long or as long as the leaves. One or two small bract-like leaves appear about half way up the pedicels. If two are present they may be opposite each other or a little apart. The various botanies do not mention these structures nor does the illustration in Britton and Brown show them on this particular violet, although they are shown on a number of the other accaulescent species. Stolens are common and give off vigorous new plants. The small reddish-brown seeds are scarcely more than a millimeter in length. Viola primulifolia L., occurs in the eastern United States. Its range is given in the various botanies as in moist or almost dry soil from New Brunswick to Florida along the coast. In so far as I know it has not been reported in any other place in this botanical region. How it happened in White County, Indiana, or how general its distribution here is, 1 do not know. Mr. Deam, who later visited the place with me, thought it might occur also farther north in the State. I have looked for it, specifically, SOME DETAILS CONCERNING VIOLA PRIMULIPOLIA T,. —- a N m(vo i 4 Seed- pod al: | buysted, + 1 Twice NATURAL Size, G=7-3A Bract- 6 like tenves on Pédicels - vavy- | ™7@ Fromito3 | in num bey. A Zed Lomicoey leaves- Showing Variation tn outline NATURAL SizE__. . os | ; i CO os ih ia a 8. Deeds “ Coloy: Yeddish-browy Four Times NATURAL Size 5, /Pedvect and flower. Flowey-white with Purple Stripes. WATURAL size, 3 i | 1 Characteristic i leaf ~ showing pu- bescence. narunar. Size, 9. taled - Showing J oymation of a new iA JF Heimlich 14 ~NOv-17- 1914 - / 217 several times since in different localities where I thought it might occur, but so far have not found it. It was rather abundant in the very limited area during the early summer, but the drouth which followed killed every one of them. At present I have several potted specimens growing nicely along with several other species of violets. This paper does not aim to give a complete study of the plant. It is intended to give merely a brief account and description of the plant as I know it, and to announce definitely that Viola primulifolia L., does occur in Indiana. 219 Continuous Rust PRopAaGATION WiTHOUT SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. C. A. LupDWwiIc. With the demonstration of hetereecism in the rusts, the teliospore came to be looked upon as primarily a resting spore, for hetercecism was first proved for the black rust of grasses, in which the teliospore is a true rest- ing spore. It was therefore believed by implication, indeed often stated, that the teliospore is the means of carrying rust fungi over unfavorable weather conditions and is especially equipped structurally for that fune- tion. The other spore forms and the mycelium, except in the comparatively rare cases of a mycelium diffused through and perennial in the tissues of the host, were not supposed to be able to survive such adverse conditions. Later when modern cytological methods were applied to the rusts, it was found, as some leading uredinologists had already suspected in a rather vague way, that the essential feature of the teliospore is that it is the structure in which is begun the series of nuclear phenomena which close the sporophytic stage and precede the gametophytic stage with its resulting sexual fusions. With this latter idea goes the rather common belief that ho type of life, plant or animal, except perhaps the very lowest, can long maintain a high degree of vigor without at least occasional sexual fusions. It is this idea that has given rise to the belief held in many places that if all the barberry bushes could be destroyed, the black rust of cereals would not be able to maintain itself more than a few years. Thus we have super- imposed one upon the other in the minds of many men these two ideas: (1) that the teliospore is necessary to the continued existence of the rust because it is the means of passing the winter or other unfavorable season, and (2) that it is necessary to the vigor of the fungus because it is the structure in which are initiated those changes which culminate in sexual fusions and without which such fusions would not take place. The con- tinued prevalence early in the season of the grain rusts at great distances from any possible «cia of the species, however, led some investigators to doubt the validity of the beliefs just recorded. In consequence, a number 220 of investigations were made which showed, as suspected, that the rusts in question do have other means than the teliospore of surviving the winter and that in all likelihood they are able to propagate themselves indefinitely in an asexual manner, and that without serious impairment of vigor. In this paper it is proposed to give the results of this work and to present some field data, chiefly trom Indiana, which was made available to the writer by his access to the Arthur herbarium. This data goes to indicate that what is true of the grain rusts is equally true of some others which because of their lack of economic importance have thus far escaped this sort of investigation. DURATION OF VIABILITY OF UREDINIOSPORES. Before entering on the discussion proper, however, it seems best to treat here two points which have a bearing on what is to follow; namely, the duration of the viability of urediniospores. and the distance to which they may be blown and produce infection. As to the duration of germina- bility in the urediniospore, more work has been done with the grain rusts perhaps than with any other. In the case of Puccinia graminis Hunger- ford reports’ finding germinable urediniospores at Madison, Wis., on timothy in October, November, December, January, and March; but it does not seem to be at all certain that the spores used on the last named date were wintered spores. On the contrary, it is altogether possible that they were but recently produced. Mercer,? however, was not able to find germinable urediniospores of the same rust on the same host during the winter in North Dakota; and Eriksson and Henning,’ as the result of several experi- ments with the rust on different hosts, came to the conclusion that the fungus does not pass the winter in the uredinial stage in Sweden. They also came to the same conclusion in regard to P. glumaruwms Bolley’ reported the germination of 8-15% of urediniospores of P. graminis after twenty-one days in dry air in August. The same investigator has shown’ that the urediniospores of the leaf rust of wheat can be used for successful infection material after thirty days’ exposure to the outside air in July, while Freeman and Johnson consider it possible for urediniospores of P. graminis and P. rubigo-vera to survive the winter in Minnesota, North ‘Phytopathology 4:337-338. 1914. 21. ec. 20-22. *Die Getreideroste 38-47. 1896. 41. c. 153-159. ‘Centralblatt for Bakt. Par. und Infekt. 42:893. 1898. *Agricultural Science 5:263. 1891. 221 Dakota, and Wisconsin.’ Fromme has shown’ that the period of viability in the leaf rust of oats, P. coronata, may be as extended as eighty-four days. The spores in this case were stored dry in a gelatin capsule. Marshall Ward’ succeeded in securing germination of unrediniospores of P. dispersa which had been for sixty-one days in dry air in the diffused light from a north window. Thus, while urediniospores are capable of germinating as soon as mature, they are capable under proper conditions of maintaining their viability for a period of two to three months and probably more. One of these conditions seems to be dryness. Probably the most common limiting factor to long life of urediniospores in nature is a combination of warmth and moisture. In such a case germination probably takes place, thus of course forestalling any long duration of life in the spore. ‘There Seems to be no good reason, however, if germination can be avoided, why urediniospores might not survive the winter. That coldness of weather does not destroy ability to germinate is attested by the fact that a number of investigators—Hungerford,”, Ward," Carleton,” and others—have col- lected viable urediniospores of various grass rusts during the winter months. DISTANCE WHICH WIND BLOWN SPORES TRAVEL AND PRODUCE INFECTION. It seems to be a fact, although from the nature of the case not fully proved, that urediniospores of the rusts may travel long distances by the wind and produce infection. This, of course, is to be expected of a struc- ture which can stand drying for so long a time and is so light in weight. Klebahn™ calls attention to a sand storm which arose in northern Africa and progressed northward over Europe, transporting various mineral particles to various places in Europe. He adds that without doubt the rust spores, which are much lighter than the mineral particles, are much easier transported by air currents. Under the circumstances they would remain suspended much longer and could be carried at least as far and perhaps farther than the mineral particles. The same investigator proved the presence of spores in the air high off the ground by constructing traps for the spores and exposing them in trees and on buildings. He was able in 7Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 216:52. 1911. sBull. Torrey Club 40:518. 1913. “Ann. Mycol. 1:138. 1903. Phytopathology 4:337-338. 1914. Ann. Mye. 1:132. 1903. “Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bull. 16:44. 1899. 13Die wirtswechselnden Rostpilze 68. 1904. 141. ¢. 68. 22). this way to capture a large number of spores, many of which were uredini- ospores of the rusts. It is clear, therefore, that urediniospores may be carried many miles in the air; and there is apparently no reason for thinking that they may not then start infection. Doubtless they do start infection and in this way produce a number of isolated areas of rusted plants. As for epidemics, however, there is evidence that they are not caused by spores brought from a great distance. One item of this evidence is fur- nished by Pritchard,” who was unable to capture any urediniospores of P. graminis at Fargo, North Dakota, in a series of trials extending over a period of nearly a month, until the rust was common on wheat in the neighborhood. Pritchard’s trap was a dish set on a five-foot post and containing a little water. Another item is the fact that in the spring, as described by Christman," the earliest outbreak of leaf rust on wheat is a rather heavy one on the old, wintered leaves. The old leaves then die and a period of approximately four weeks follows in which little or no rust can be found, followed by another free infection. If the epidemic were ini- tiated by spores blown from far away, we would not expect a heavy infec- tion early in the spring. Instead we should expect a very light early infec- tion increasing gradually to the full epidemic later on. Further evidence of the limited distance to which spores blow in anything like sufficient quantity to produce an epidemic is found in recorded observations where it was possible to know the source of the spores producing the infection. Perhaps the species which are most limited in this respect so far as obser: vations recorded up to the present time go are Uromyces andropogonis, Puccinia andropogonis, and P. ellisiand, all of which, according to observa- tions made by Long” are limited to an area within six feet distant from the wcia. These observations are in harmony with our own general experience in collecting rusts near Lafayette and elsewhere. The seciospores cause free infection to a distance from their source depending upon the height of the source from the ground, but the distance is almost always small. As to the distance to which zeciospores of P. graminis blow in considerable quantity there are published observations by Arthur,’ Pritchard,” Mercer,’ Bot. Gaz. 52:183. 1911. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 15:106. 1905. Jour. Agr. Res. 2:303-304. 1914. Phytopathology 5:170. 1912. “The ecidium as a device to restore vigor to the fungus. Proc. 23rd meeting Soe. Prom. Agr. Sci. p. 3. 1903. “Bot. Gaz. 52:178. 1911. 2»Phytopathology 4:22. 1914. 223 aud others. The greatest of these values is that reported by Pritchard, whose statement is here quoted: “The rust was abundant within 25 yards of the barberry bushes, but practically disappeared at a distance of 60 yards. The most persistent searching was required to discover a single pustule beyond S80 yards.” Another observation by Pritchard” indicated that urediniospores of P. graminis are carried only short distances in suffi- cient number to cause an epidemic. We have the published record, how- ever, of rust spores having been blown as much as a mile and producing infection; and, strange as it may seem, the spores in question are the smallest, most delicate ones in the life cycle of the rusts if we omit the non-functional pycniospores, namely, the basidiospores. FE. T. Bartholo- mew gives a table which shows that 59.1% of the leaves on apple trees near cedars were infected with rust. A quarter of a mile away it was 55.4% and a mile away it was 6.5%. All this does not show, of course, that rust spores are not carried by the wind for long distances in a vigorous condition, but it does show that the distance for abundant infection from any spore producing center is not great. With this as a basis it should be possible to obtain an idea of the maximum distance a rust might be expected to progress in a season. The greatest distance recorded above is one mile, but those spores would doubt- less travel a mile and a half farther (or two and a half miles) and pro- duce infection. As a factor of safety, let us double this value; and as a further factor of safety, let us double this latter value. This gives us ten miles. A rust generation, according to Freeman and Johnson,” takes eight to twelve days, and more in cold, bad weather; and our own results at the Purdue Experiment Station agree very well with those figures. Assuming, then, ten days for a rust generation, ten miles of migration per generation, 2 growing season from the middle of April to the middle of October, ap- proximately 180 days, and good weather with no interruption to the growth of the fungus, we should expect it to migrate for a distance of 180 miles. This value will be used presently in comparing the telial distribution of some of the rusts with their possible vecial distribution. PROPAGATION OF INDIVIDUAL SPECIES. The black rust of grasses was among the first to be observed living, and apparently thriving, at long distances from any of its wcia. There 71Bot. Gaz. 52:184 1911. Phytopathology 2:255-6. 1912. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 216:45. 1911. 224 seems now not to be the least doubt but that it can pass the winter in the uredinial stage; in fact, McAlpine* claims that in Australia the cia of the rust do not exist and that the rust will not infect the barberry. As to the exact method of wintering there is some difference of opinion. The contention by Pritchard” that teliospores or mycelium in the seed grain have something to do with its propagation in wheat is different from all the others in the suggestiveness that a sexual process may be involved even in the absence of the cium. All other theories which have been advanced assume a strictly asexual propagation, and probably Pritchard’s theory does not really assume otherwise either. Perhaps the most famous theory is Henning’s now discredited mycoplasm theory. The real means by which the rust passes the winter is probably mycelium in the leaves of the host plant. The presence of this mycelium during the winter months has been shown by Hungerford” and by Johnson” in the leaves of timothy. That the leaf rust of wheat is carried through the winter in*the same way is shown by the findings of Bolley,* Carleton,” and Christman.” This method of carrying the fungus over accounts satisfactorily for the heavy early infection, followed by a period of little or no infection, which is in turn followed by the epidemic proper. The old leaves, which are infected from the autumn, carry the first epidemic and then die, the mycelium, of course, dying with them. In the meantime the new leaves have been in- fected; and in about four weeks, which as has been shown by Freeman and Johnson,” and by Christman,” is the approximate incubation period for that time of year, the uredinial stage breaks out freely on them. Aside from the work with the grain rusts, not much has been done in the way of determining the method of passing the winter by rusts in regions remote from their «cia. Carleton,® however, states that Puccinia montanensis on Elymus winters in the uredinial stage, and calls attention to the situation with regard to the bluegrass rust. This rust, Puccinia Poarum, is found over most of North America. Only in the far west, however, does it produce teliospores, and so oniy in this region can it have “Rusts of Australia 66-67. 1906. *Bot. Gaz. 52:169-192. 1911. Phytopathology 1:150-154. 1911. Phytopathology 4:337-338. 1914. 27Bur. Plant Industry Bull. 224:12-13. 1911. 2sMicroscopical Journal Mch., 1890: 59-60. Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bull. 16:21. 1899. wTrans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 15:98-107. 1905. “Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 216:56. 1911. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 151:106-107. 1905. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 63:20. 1904. 229 wecia. It is so common throughout central and eastern regions early in the season, as well as later, that the idea of any seasonal migration from its region of possible cia is clearly absurd. It must pass the winter in the uredinial stage, and it probably does so as mycelium in the leaves of the host. We have here a case of a rust which certainly maintains itself in a fair state of vigor for some years without the intervention of cecia and probably maintains itself indefinitely. Of course it is possible that it is constantly being renewed in vigor in the west by the presence of the «cia, and that the fungus thus renewed in vigor is slowly but continuously migrating eastward; but such a hypothesis strikes one as being fanciful rather than likely to be true. Puccinia Sorghi, the corn rust, is another species with a wide distri- bution. It is usually not difficult to collect in any field of corn after tassel- ing time. The infection is usually not heavy, however. The ecia occur on Oxalis, but they occur so seldom that they seem to have little to do with the actual propagation of the rust. It is probably carried over from one year to the next by urediniospores which survive the winter or by the uredinial stage in living plants in southern regions. The latter source of infection seems more likely for this rust than for wheat rust because of its later appearance and less severity. Puccinia Asperifolii, the leaf rust of rye, is a rust which has no known recia in this country. Its case in America is therefore comparable with that of the bluegrass rust in this region or of P. graminis in Australia. It has to maintain itself by the sporophytic stage only. Uronyces caryophyllinus on carnation is another rust which has no wcia in this country. There is no direct evidence that it can maintain itself over winter, for it usually appears in greenhouses; but it must have passed through thousands of uredinial generations since it was introduced, yet it seems to show no particular loss of vigor. Puccinia Chrysanthemi is a Japanese species which has been introduced into America and Europe. It attacks cultivated chrysanthemums, chiefly in ei enhouses. It has now been known in this country for about a decade and a half, and during this time it has never, so far as is known, produced a teliospore, although in northern Japan and in the mountains of Japan they are common. During this time no great impairment of vigor seems to have taken place, although chysanthemum growers are able to keep it in check by the use of resistant varieties and by the exercise of care in watering. 15—4966 The rusts so far considered are some of the more ordinary species, belonging to the Aecidiacee. There are species in both the Uredinaceze and the Coleosporiacee, however, which seem to have the same ability to maintain themselves indefinitely in the uredinial stage. Among the Uredinacee two of the most Common rusts are’ Welampsora Meduse on Populus and M. Bigelowii on Salix, both of which have :ecia on Larix, The wecia are so much alike that it is impossible with our present knowledge to tell them apart. It seems well here, therefore, to consider the two species together, although there are definite morphological charac- ters in the urediniospores which mark them as clearly distinct from each other. The collections of I. Bigelowii in the Arthur herbarium show its presence in nine counties of the State, the first collection being made in 1887 and the last one in 1914, both in Tippecanoe County. The rust is common and the epidemic is usually severe. The only explanation which seems reasonable for not having collections from all counties in the State is in the lack of collectors being at work in those not represented. J/. Meduse@ is represented by collections from five counties in Indiana, and the same remarks as to prevalence and severity that were applied to MW. Bige- lowti apply to this species also. Both of these rusts have a range also far to the southward and westward of this region. Their wcia, to the present time, have not been collected nearer this region than New York and Wis- consin. However, it is likely that they do occur nearer because the larch has a range extending as far south as northern Illinois and northern Pennsylvania. It also occurs occasionally as an ornamental tree at various places in the State. The w#cia probably occur within the hundred eighty nile distance from the northern half of the State and perhaps from all parts of the State. It does not seem reasonable to think, however, that wcia occur within several hundred miles of the southern range of the fungi. The natural assumption is, therefore, that they are able to pass the winter in the uredinial stage. Bubakia Crotonis, on Croton monanthogynus, has been taken four times in Indiana, from at least three counties, and over a period of time extending from 1896 to 1912. It also extends as far north and west as Nebraska. No cium is known for the rust, but the nature of the fungus suggests a Pinaceous host and a Ceomoid cium. Ceoma strobilinum on Pinus palustris and Pinus teda has been suggested by Arthur.“ Neither of *Bull. Torrey Club 33:519. 1906. these species of pine, according to Sudworth,” has a range extending far- ther north than the southern border of Tennessee. This distribution is well outside the 180 mile limit established earlier in this paper. Two other species of pine, ?. echinata and P. virginiana, have a distribution which might possibly meet the requirements, but there seems to be no evidence other than their distribution that they carry the iecia of this rust. Since Cronton monanthogynus is an annual, the evidence seems to favor the idea that the urediniospores are able to survive the winter. Two species of Pucciniastrum occur in Indiana, P. Agrimonia, on Agrimonia, and P. Hydrangea, on Hydrangea. The former has been taken in five counties in the State at various times since 1896, and usually the infection is severe. P. Hydrangew has been taken three times in Tippe- canoe county only. No zcia are known as yet for either of these species, but the «ecia of the different species of Pucciniastrum, so far as known, are species of Peridermiwm on leaves of Abies and Tsuga. Judging by the dis- tribution for these trees given by the manuals, Indiana is propably just outside of a 180-mile zone south of their distribuion. These trees are often planted for ornament, however, and the possibility exists that the zecia are to be found in the State. The rust occurs, however, as far south and west as the state of Mexico in the country of Mexico, and it is not to be expected that a species can travel so far in a season. Among the Coleosporiacex, there are at-least four species which have been collected in the State under conditions which lend color to the idea that they were carried over the winter in the uredinial generation. The rusts of the genus, Coleosporium, haye their uredinia and telia on various broad Jeayed plants. Their :ecia are leaf inhabiting species of Peridermi- um on pines. Coleosporium Terebinthinacew was collected in the autumn of 1912 and 1914 on Silphiuwm terebinthinaceum in a restricted area near Lafayette. In the latter season, the species was limited to a patch a few rods in extent; other Silphiwm plants in the same patch were unaf- fected; and no affected Silphium plants could be found across a small ravine, although unaffected ones occurred in abundance. Other plants a mile or so away in two directions were examined but were found unin- fected. The ecial stage of this rust is not known, and so it is impossible to Say positively how near to this locality the cia may approach. The near- est collection of Peridermium on pine leaves to be found in the Arthur her- barium is an undetermined collection on Pinus virginiana from Mammoth %Forest Atlas. Geographic distribution of North American Pines. Part 1, Maps 25 and 35. 1913. 228 Cave, Ky. Mammoth Cave, as well as can be told by scaling on the map, is approximately 215 miles from Lafayette. It is conceivable, of course, that a wind-borhe spore from such a Peridermium could have started the in- fection of Silphiwm plants each year; but when we consider the likelihood that the two species do not belong together, and the fact that the rust was found in practically the same place both times, together with the fact that the host is a perennial plant, it seems more reasonable to think that the original infection was started by a stray spore, and that its further propaga- tion and carrying over the winters was accomplished in the uredinia! stage, either by surviving spores, or by mycelium in the living host. A somewhat similar case is that of Coleosporium Ipomoew, which has been collected repeatedly in Tippecanoe County since 1895 on Ipomoea pandurata. It occurs in great abundance and is doubtless to be found in practically all parts of the State where this host is found. The same thing is true for this species as for the preceding regarding the alternate stage and the possibility of the epidemics being started by seciospores, with this addition, that because of the more general distribution and greater common- mess of the fungus, it is much less likely to be started each year by seciospores. Voleosporium Vernonie, on different species of Vernonia, has for its wcial stage Peridermium carneum on Pinus Blliottii and P. palustris. It has a very wide distribution in the State, being represented in the Arthur herbarium from eight counties. The hosts of the secia according to Sud- worth” and Small” are both confined to an area south and east of central North Carolina and the north third of Alabama. This distance from Lafayette, as scaled on the map, is approximately 430 miles, a distance about 2.5 times as large as our maximum distance which we might expect a rust to migrate in a season. Moreover, it has been collected at Lafayette in different years as early as July 18 and July 24, which dates are early enough in the season to render it even more unlikely that the infections were developed, even indirectly, from seciospores of the same season. Coleosporium Campanule is a species occurring in Indiana on Campa- nula americana. The zcium is known as Peridermium Rostrupi and occurs on Pinus rigida in eastern Ohio. The closest approach of the range of the host to Lafayette, according to Sudworth’s map is in eastern Ohio, which is 3°], c. Map 35. 37Flora of the Southeastern United States 33. 1913. Forest Atlas. Geographic distribution of North American Pines. Partl. Map 26. 1913. 229 approximately 250 miles distant. That the fungus at least sometimes win- ters over is evidenced by the fact that it has been collected in the vicinity of Lafayette on rosettes of the host as early in the season as May 6. There is little or no doubt that it had wintered in the unredinial stage, probably as mycelium in the living leaves of the host. Perhaps the clearest indication of the survival of the winter by uredi- niospores Or mycelium outside of the Aecidiaceze occurs in Coleosporium NSolidaginis, on Solidago, Aster, and a few other Carduaceous hosts. This species is very widespread throughout the United States and is exceedingly common. Its exceeding commonness is attested by the fact that its Indiana distribution is represented in the Arthur herbarium by 44 mounted collec- tions and a few unmounted ones, from 10 counties, and extending over a period of time from 1890 to the present. The cial stage, Peridermium acicolum, occurs on Pinus pungens and P. rigida, with a distribution from Massachusetts and central New York to central North Carolina. According to Sudworth’s maps*® Pinus rigida is the one of these two zcial hosts which is hearer this section. Its nearest approach, as already shown, is eastern Ohio, which is approximately 250 miles distant from Lafayette. This is a greater distance than we would expect the fungus to migrate in one grow- ing season; but the fungus extends also much farther to the west and northwest, so far, in fact, that it seems almost absurd to think it could have spread so far from its cial base in a season. Turthermore, the writer on the first and second of July in 1912 made collections in eastern Indiana which show that the species was already well established for the season in a region a mile or more in extent. For such an infection, spores must be present in some quantity or must be present very early. But this is not the most convincing evidence at hand. There is a collection from Lafayette on Solidago ulmifolia, made June 25, 1896, and one on SNS, serotina made May 15, 1901. There is also one on Aster cordifolius made May 30, 1896, and one on Aster sp. indet. made May 12, 1902. This last collection is on the rosette leaves of the plant which were practically in contact with the ground, and the rust is well developed. The collection was actually made earlier in the season than any cial collection of the rust at hand except one, which was made at Durham, N. C., May 3, 1910. The range for the cial collections is May 3 to July 6; and it was clearly impossible for this specimen to have resulted from infection tracing back to seciospores of the same spring. The circumstance seems to be much more easily ex- 391, c. Maps 26, 30. 230 plainable by assuming that some urediniospores or mycelium survived the winter. It seems fair, then, to judge from the foregoing that a good many rusts can pass the winter and propagate themselves for a long time, and probably indefinitely, without the intervention of sexual reproduction. This is in line with the experience of Freeman and Johnson, who carried Puccinia graminis, P. rubigo-vera, and P. simplex through 52 uredinial generations Without apparent degeneration, and of Fromme," who similarly carried P. coronifera on oats through thirty-seven uredinial generations, and of car- nation raisers generally, who still find the carnation rust an ehemy to be fought although it has in all probability never produced an iecium on this continent. The evidence, therefore, which is to be gained from the behavior of the rusts concerning the question as to whether or not a plant species can long Inaintain a high degree of vigor without sexual reproduction is quite definitely in fayor of the idea that it can. True it is that in the long cycled rusts an effect of stimulation follows the stage in which the sexual fusions take place, but this effect becomes dispelled by one or two uredinial genera- tions, so that the rust is then back at the old level of vigor; and it remains there through an indefinite number of uredinial generations. Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana. “Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 216:34. 1911. “Bull. Torrey Club 40:510-511. 1918. ot CORRELATION OF CERTAIN ]LONG-CYCLED AND SHORT- CycLep Rusts. H. C. TRAVELBEE. When in 1897 Dietel, in his work ‘‘The Uredinales” for “Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien”’ of Engler and Prantl, pointed out the remarkable simi- larity between the teliospores of Puccinia Mesneriana Thiim., on Rhamnus and those of Puccinia coronuta Cda. and Puccinia coronifera WKleb. on grasses, which have their wecia on Rhamnus, he established the first obser- vation on correlations between rusts of widely different species. He also called attention to the fact that a similar condition obtains between the teliospores of Puccinia ornata Arth. & Holw. on Rumex and the teliospores of the grass rust, Puccinia Phragmitis (Schum.) Korn. which has Rwmesxr for its zcial host. In both of these cases we note the teliospores of a short- cycled rust appearing on the ecial host of a long-cycled hetercecious rust. The teliospores of the two species are morphologically alike although appearing on host plants of quite different families. About this same time (1898) Fischer stated* that quite independently of Dietel, he found by his researches a list of similar relationships. He reported five hetercecious species of Puccinia, two of Chrysomyxa, one of Melampsora and one of Coleosporiwm, all haying short-cycled forms ap- pearing on their ecial hosts, agreeing with their teliospores. He also listed three Uromyces and one Puccinia which show this sort of a relationship with certain micro- or hemi-forms. It is worthy of note here that the complete life history of all the forms correlated in this manner were known at the time the observations were made. When in 1903 and 1904 Tranzschel connected into a hetercecious life history two rust forms which until that time had never been suspected of bearing any relationship to each other, he made a wonderful advance along the line of this sort of investigation. His method was as unique as it was important, and on account of the interesting field it opens for investigators is worthy of detailed mention. He had an unconnected Aecidium, A. punctatum Pers., on Anemone ranunculoides, and was endeavoring to find its alternate host. He observed that on Anemone nemorosa there appeared a short-cycled Puccinia, P. *Beitrage zur Kryptogamenflora der Schweiz. 1:109. 1898. 232 fusca (Pers.) Wint., whose morphological aspects were strikingly similar to those of the Aecidiwm, i. e., the sori of the two rusts were arranged in the same manner; the effects on the host plant were the same, and the macro- scopic characters of the two were alike. He concluded that the two forms were closely related phylogenetically. Then his problem was: How find the alternate stage of the Aecidium form? On examining the teliospores of the short-cycled form microscopically he found them to possess very striking features, having a roughly warty wall, and being strongly constricted at the septum. A careful examination of his unconnected Puccinias revealed one having spores similar to those of the short-cycled form on Anemone, Puccinia Pruni-spinose Pers., the plum rust. He cultured the seciospores from Anemone on the leaves of plum and peach trees and grew the uredinia and telia of the plum rust. In his inves- tigations at this time he combined, in this way, five hetercecious species. Three of these species he proved by cultures; namely, 1. Puccinia Prini-spinose Pers. with Aecidium punctatum Pers. 2. lUromyces Veratri (DC.) Schroet. with Url leernes ese Dasystoma 5 Puccinia pustulata (Curt.) Arth...... Andropogon...... Comandra eal PICU TONG ONNOILA NCE Mae Cat errr ers Comandra (Arabis gee . Keleria | Parrya Puccinia monoica (Peck) Arth........ IESE TEN oy) ence eee 6 ( ) | Trisetum | Schenocrambe ; mee se : | Smelowskya Puccinia Holboellii (Horn.) Rostr.... Arabis ss y 7 | Puccinia Agropyrt Ell. & Ev... ... AGRO DYGON see Anemone *\Puccinia DeBaryana Thuem....... Anemone ry. ane Rheum JPANCCUDHT TUIDAUT INTE 5.85 o'55000 oo O8 < Phragimitise sane: { Rhe f 8 | Rumen IG iiites Opa ING (ss \al5 Seago nooeede Rumex 9 Puccima rhamni Wettst.............. AW EN One eee LUROITns “*\Puccinia Mesneriana Thuem.......... Rhamnus The last two combinations in this list are the ones noted by Dietel. 234 Orton’ dealt with quite a different type of correlation when he reported in detail the similarities between six species of hetercecious Uromyces and six species of hetercecious Puccinia. He also extended this study to include autcecious species of Uromyces and Puccinia. In every instance the host plants of the two rusts are of the same species, or of species closely related morphologically and phylogenetically. Because of the cellular difference in the teliospores (Uromyces, one-celled; Puccinia, two-celled) Orton laid special emphasis on the agreement of the microscopic characters of the zeciospores and urediniospores of the two rusts, remarking only in a gen- eral way similarities between the teliospores. When we consider the differences in the number of spore forms in the life cycles of the various species of rusts, and take into consideration the morpbological variacion of the analogous spores, it is apparent that the possibilities of correlation are numerous. There are many problems pre- sented in connection with such correlations. The choice of host plants, the similarity of analogous spore forms, and the like effects on the host all point to a Common ancestor. What then is the primitive form? What is the evolutionary history of the derivative species’ How great a range may be expected in the variations of correlated species? These and similar questions arise when a theoretical consideration of the condition is under- taken. The practical application of knowledge gained by correlation studies wiil be along the lines of culture work, especially in forecasting the alter- mate host plants of unconnected :ecial or telial forms. Mycologia, IV: No. 4, July, 1912. Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 239 SoME SPECIES OF NUMMULARIA COMMON IN INDIANA. CLAUDE IE. O’ NEAL. The difficulty of distinguishing the various species of Nummularia, and even the genus itself from the genus Hypoxylon, is quite evident to anyone who has made any attempt at their classification. In a paper en- titled “A Monograph of the Common Indiana Species of Hypoxylon”’,* C. KE. Owens, by the aid of plates and an artificial key, sets forth the charac- teristics of the common species of the latter genus. The purpose of this paper is to do a similar work with the available species of the genus Nummutlaria. In the study of Nummularia, attention is first directed toward the stromata, which appear as blackish or brownish incrustations on the dead trunks and limbs of our common deciduous trees. In form, the stromata vary greatly, but in general, they belong to two types, one of which may be described as cup-shaped, and the other as convex. The former type is usually orbicular or elliptical in shape, while the latter may be either orbi- cular, elliptical, or broadly effused with an irregular outline. The stromata arise beneath the epidermis of the substratum where they may remain concealed for some time, but sooner or later, the epidermis is broken through and the spore-bearing surface is exposed. Sometimes in old specimens the entire epidermis may be removed and the erumpent characteristic overlooked. In some cases the entire cortex may decay and fall away, leaving the stromata standing out on the decorticated surface. Again, some of the more resistant ones may be found in good condition on a log that is ready to drop to pieces from decay. In width the various Indiana species range from a few millimeters in the cup-shaped forms to several centimeters in the broadly effused types. The thinnest ones that the author has found have been about one-half milli- meter thick while some of the cup-shaped forms may have a thickness of *Proceed. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1911, p. 291. 236 half a centimeter or more. In the early stages of development in the spe- cies described the stromata may be lightly colored, but when the sporidia are mature the color of the fertile layer is black. Sometimes the substrat- um is stained by the fungus. One species is readily recognized by the characteristic orange color imparted to the wood beneath the stromata. Another species gives a peculiar ring-like marking to both wood and bark. If a stroma be cut through, the flask-like perithecia are found deeply embedded in it. They are arranged in a single row and open by minute pores (ostiola) on the upper side of the stroma. ‘The ostiola in some spe- cies may be rather promineutly raised giving the fertile surface a pimpled appearance, or they may be sunken; while in some forms they may be so obscure as to be passed over unnoticed. The edges of the stromata are usually sterile. The perithecia contain many eight-spored asci. ‘These asci are cylin- drical in shape and bear the spores in a single row. ‘They are readily dis- tinguished from the paraphyses with which they are found by their shorter length and the spores which they contain. The spores of the Nummularias vary greatly in size, color, and shape. The largest ones that the author has observed were about 16 microns long and one-half as broad, while the smallest were about 5 microns long and about 24 microns wide. The shape varies from elliptical to orbicular. When the spores are young they are usually hyaline, but as they become older, they turn brown and in some species they finally become opaque. In general, the Indiana species of Nummularia are saprophytic in habit and consequently have but little economic importance. Under cer- tain conditions, however, V. discreta* becomes parasitic and causes consid- crable damage to poorly kept apple trees. To many fruit growers it is known merely as apple canker; others distinguish it as the blister canker. The fungus gains a footing in a wound or in a decayed portion of the tree and spreads to the living parts. The stromata arise upon the mycelia be- neath the epidermis of the host. The overlying epidermis shortly becomes dry and papery and sooner or later it is torn and drops away leaving the *Canker of Apple—Hasselbring, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bull. 70. Fungous Diseases of Plants—Duggar, pp. 282-284. Apple Blister Canker and Methods of Treatment—W. O. Gloyer, Ohio xp. Sta. Cir, 125. The New York Apple Tree Canker. Bulls. N. Y. Ag. Ex. Sta. Nos. 1f3 and 185. Paddock. The Control of Canker in the Orchard—J. R. Cooper, Neb. Hort., Vol. 3, 1913. cankerous stromata exposed. Since a great deal of damage is done before the stromata are formed, it is necessary to identify the disease from other characteristics. The remedy for this parasite is obviously the proper treatment of wounds and the removal and destruction of affected parts. Care in pruning would in many cases prove a sufficient preventive. This fungus has been reported on several other hosts including Ame- lanchier but in these cases the economic importance is insignificant. KEY TO THE COMMON INDIANA SPECIES. I. Stroma cup-shaped with perithecia opening on the concave side. (A). II. Stroma convex or plane. (B). A. Stroma prominent, orbicular, with a thick, raised margin; stroma 4 to 7 mm. across; spores globose or subglobose, 10-16 mi- GEONSE Mere tester secu crers he have tuts Mors ss atheists a Suesenoter a Sse. ore -l. WN. discreta. A. Stroma erumpent-superficial, either orbicular or elliptical; margin not so thick nor so regularly bulging as in the preceding species ; concave part + to 1 em. across. Spores subinequilateral, 10-15x5-G TMT CROMS trayeta <.co tate key eieteedia ome esceneraitie Clee le Ps Sa os .2. N.repanda. B. Stroma dull black, orbicular, elliptical, or broadly effused; ostiola rather prominently raised, 3-5 per linear mm. Spores 12-16x6-S TINT TOOT Shasey terre resem rcv ecter = (ota eers ae RIONeRe LS colo rdl'e! iors Soheteaveyeee 3. N. bulliardi. B. Stroma shiny black, more or less furrowed, staining the wood of the substratum orange color. Spores 12-16x5-7 microns. .4. . tinetor. IB. Stroma thin, orbicular, suborbicular or linear; ostiola depressed ; ‘anging from 3 to 1 cm. across. Spores 43-5x2-23 microns........ Ait A per ee cise ONE CEP hee Se ACRE RRR eta ROR AC ERE ec 5. N. microplaca. DESCRIPTIONS. 1. \Nummularia discreta, (Schw.) Tul. Plates I and II. Sphaeria discinola, Schw. Syn. Car. No. 63. Sphaeria discreta, Schw. Syn. N. Am. 1249. Sphaeria excavata, Schw. 1. ¢. 1250 (Sec. spec. in herb. Schw.) Nummularia discreta, Tul. Sel. Carp. II, p. 45. Stroma erumpent, circular or subcircular, sometimes uniting to form elongated patches, cup-shaped when mature, with a thick raised margin; ashen or grayish yellow, becoming black; the concave surface at first white 238 punctate from the minute ostiola which are hardly visible when mature. The bark and wood beneath the stromata are marked with a black circum- scribing line. Perithecia arranged in a single row, oval or ovate-cylindrical, about one millimeter long, usually rather abruptly contracted above into a short neck and extending to the base of the stroma. duced. ) igure 2. Same natural size. Figure 3. Same before the bark has fallen away. (Natural size.) Figure 4. Under side of a piece of bark showing white stains of the fungus. (Natural size., PATE QUES Figure 1. Nummularia Bulliardi on beech, showing a common form of stroma. (Natural size.) Figure 2. A stroma of a fungus (Diatrype) very similar to N. Bulliardi. (Natural size.) Figures 3 and 4. Orbicular stromata of Nummularia Bulliardi on beech. (Natural size.) Figure 5. Stroma taken from a log which was falling to pieces. (Natural size.) ition ayo a Sr 248 PLATE IV. Figure 1. Nummularia tinctor. (Natural size.) Figure 2. Same showing section of the wood beneath stroma. The dark colored parts are a beautiful orange. Figure 3. Same showing furrowed stroma. (Natural size.) Figure 4. Numuinularia microplaca on Sassafras. Closely resembles Hypoxylon Sassafras. (Natural size.) <= pe 251 THe Genus ROSELLINIA IN INDIANA. GLEN B. RAMSEY. In this paper it is the author’s purpose to present the genus Rosellinia as found in Indiana. Limited means for collecting and the unfavorable weather conditions during the past year for the growth of this class of fungi render an exhaustive treatise on the genus Rosellinia impossible. Only those species that have been found in Indiana, together with their descriptions and an account of their habits and habitat have been in- cluded. A description of some of the more common parasitic species has also been appended. There are now over one hundred seventy species described, the most of them being saprophytic. As in other genera of the Pyrenomycetes, Rosel- linia has a vegetative phase which is found in the substratum or host. The white thread-like mycelium may readily be found in decaying logs and stumps. There are, however, some species that seem to flourish in wood that is quite firm. In most cases the actively parasitic stage is found on the roots and consists of a great abundance of white mycelium which does the greatest harm to the plant. This mycelium growing into the root sys- tem stops up the xylem cells, prevents the roots and rootlets from perform- ing their functions, thus finally starving the plant to death. The fruiting parts of Rosellinia do not develop until late in the season, the conidial stage being found in late summer or early autumn, with the perfect or ascigerous stage following and maturing in late fall or early winter. The perithecia with their abundant asci and filiform paraphyses are found in good condition for collecting from October to February. The spring rains and warm weather, together with the frost action during the Winter, cause the perithecia to disintegrate rapidly when spring comes. Most of the specimens at hand were collected during the early winter months. In Rosellinia the perithecia are more or less crowded or gregarious and superficial, but often haying the base sunken in the matrix. Perithecia ovate to sub-globose, papilliate, sub-carbonaceous, black, bare 252 or bristly, with a distinct ostiolum. The asci are cylindrical, eight spored. Spores continuous, broadly ovate, elliptical, oblong or fusiform, brown or black, with or without hyaline appendages. Paraphyses filiform. Stroma tomentose, often wearing off with age and exposing the perithecia as round, brownish black heads with their papilla-like ostiola in the center. In studying the species of Rosellinia we are confused at times when we find forms which closely resemble certain forms of the genus Hypoxylon. In such cases a clear distinction seems impossible, yet these two genera are clear cut in their separation by botanists, being separated on the ground of the presence of a stroma in Hypoxylon, and the absence of a distinct stroma in Rosellinia. To anyone that has made a study of either of these two genera, the superficiality of this basis of separation is quite evident. Students of the genus Hypoxylon know that the perithecia of certain forms become scattered, and especially with age, the stroma is wanting. The genus Rosellinia is placed under the Spheriacew by both Lin- dan and Ellis and Everhart. This separates it widely from Hypoxylon. Saccardo puts it under the brown spored one-celled forms of Aylariaceew along with Hypoxylon. The author likes this position on account of the great similarity of spores, asci and perithecia, as well as the above men- tioned similarity of forms where the absence of stromata is noticeable. Variation within a given species often makes it almost impossible to formulate a key that will hold in all cases. In order to eliminate this dif- ficulty the species are made to run in two ways. The species R. subiculata for example has in the earlier stage a decided waxy sulphur-yellow subiculum and the perithecia are scattered, but as it grows older the subiculum finally disappears so that one might readily confuse it with other species that never have a subiculum. The ascis and spore measure- ments are probably the most constant and reliable in forming a basis for a key. The second key, it is hoped, will prove helpful in determining any doubtful species that do not run satisfacorily in the key of external characteristics. The accompanying figures from photographs will assist in deterimining the species. In order to get the greatest contrast possible, time ex- posures were made in a subdued light and a special contrast developer was used. The description of species have been adapted for the most part from the original descriptions as given by Ellis and Everhart in “North Ameri- can Pyrenomycetes”, and Saccardo’s “Sylloge Fungorum.” Practically all of the descriptions have been rewritten and additional data added from specimens at hand. All measurements are original. Where asci and spore measurements by Ellis and Everhart differ, their figures are also given. KEY TO SPECIES. (Based on external characteristics. ) I. Perithecia large ({-14 mm.), seated on a subiculum. A. Subiculum usually prominent. 1. Brown or purplish brown, persistent.............. 1. R. aquila 2. Sulphur-yellow, evanescent .................. 6. R. subiculata Subiculum scanty. : 1. Dark brown, perithecia crowded.............. 2. R. medullaris 2) black, perithecia ‘confluent .2............ 3. R. mammiformis Subiculum wanting, perithecia more or less scattered. 1. Base glandular-roughened .................. 4. R. glandiformis PemNOt San Gular=nOusMened! cc) ese/evslene) eneta ol Pegs ies eue ois 5. R. mutans II. Perithecia small (4-4 mm). INe Perithecia gregarious, often crustaceous, not bristly.7 R. pulveracee B. Perithecia usually scattered, bristly. dark brown....8. R. ligniaria (Based largely on microscopic characteristics. ) A. Perithecia large ({-14 mm). B. Spores more than 18 microns long. C. Asci more than 150 microns long................ 1. R. aquila CC. Asci less than 150 microns. DS ANG (es ike ROMS) AWA RG on coeondomowod soc 2 R. medullaris DD; Asci- 8-10 microns) widest. ..25 5.22. - 3. R. mammiformis BB. Spores less than 18 microns long. C. Asci more than 95 microns long............ 4. R. glandiformis CC. Asci less than 95 microns. 1D ea CLLbNeCIAw sae EUINS roi! niayeietovekede otc clelens o's ots ovale 5. R. mutans DDS Perithecia aai emmy so. oasis Sis st ene os stone's 6. R. subiculata AA. Perithecia small (4-4 mm). Bo Asc more than 70lmiecrons lone... 50.2 2c of te «0 7. R. pulweracee Bb Aci less than 7O microns lone...) 22.2... 2. .s-- 8. R. ligniaria 204 1, &. aquila (¥Fr.) De Not. Sphieria aquila Ir. Spheeria byssiseda Meck. Rosellinia aquila De Not. Perithecia large, globose, 1-1.25 mm. in diameter, gregarious, crowded or sometimes confluent, with a distinct black, conie-papilliferm ostiolum ; dark brown at first with a thin tomentose coating, finally becoming bare. Subiculum rather thick and prominent, dark to purplish brown, nearly en- veloping the perithecia at first but finally disappearing to a greater or less extent. Outer walls ef the perithecia thick, brittle and carbonaceous. Inner wall coriaceous. Asci long, cylindrical (p sp.) 10-12.5 x 165-190 mi- crons. Spores uniserrate, oblong, brown, 10-11 x 22.5-27.5 microns. (E & E) giyes asci (p sp.) 810x 100-180 microns. Sporidia 6-9 x 16-27 microns, with or without a short, obtuse, hyaline apiculus, 2-2.5 microns long at each end. Common on decaying and fallen limbs, near Bloomington, Ind. Speci- mens at hand are on Fagus, Acer, Quercus and Juglans. 2, Rk. medullaris (Walls) Ces. & De Not. Sphreria medullaris Walls. Rosellinia medullaris Ces. & De Not. Rosellinia macouniana EH. & FE. Perithecia more or less erumpent, large 1-1.5 mm. in diameter, ovate to sub-globose, covered at first with a pruinose-pubescent coat of a dull red or brick color, becoming black with age; loosely adnate, apex con- vex to conie-papilliform, surface dirty-roughened with a finely powdered sooty covering; very fragile. Wall double and intermediate in thickness between R. aquila and R. thelena. Subiculum slight. Spores 7.5-12 x 20-25 microus. KE. & I. give asci (p sp.) 7-8 x 100-120 microns. Sporidia 6-7 x 19-20 microns; ovoid, somewhat acute, brown, broader but not pointed as in R. mammiformis. On Cercis canadensis and Juglans, Monroe County, Ind. On examining a great number of perithecia the most of them were found to contain a white, granular mass such as described in R. medul- laris by Saccardo, but close observation showed this material to be a fine powder of wood that had been brought into the perithecia from the bottom by a smail larva that probably feeds upon the contents of the perithecia. 255 3. R. mammiformis (Pers.) Ces. & De Not. Spheria mammiformis Pers. Hypoxylon mammeeformee Berk. Hypoxylon globulare (Bull.) Fekl. Rosellinia mammiformis Sace. Perithecia gregarious, crowded or confluent, globose, large, 1-1.5 mm. in diameter, fragile, black and bare but not shining. Ostiolum abrupt, paliliiform. Asci (p sp.) 8-10 x 100-115 microns (BH. & EF). Spores 10-12 x 20-25 microns, oblong, elliptical, sometimes slightly curved. H. & EE. give sporidia 7-9x 19-25 microns, without any distinct apiculus. It can be easily dsitinguished from R. aquila by the blacker, thinner walled and more fragile perithecia and the lack of a decided subiculum. On bark of Acer, near Bloomington, Ind. 4. R. glandiformis BE. & E. Perithecia scattered, the base sunk in the wood about one-fourth, ovate-globose, roughened with glands, with a reinforcement around the lower half similar to the cup of an acorn. This thickening is, however, sometimes reduced to a mere granular coat. Ostiolum papilliform, small, sometimes obsolete, the apex being evenly rounded. Asci not present in specimens at hand. EH. & E. give (p sp.) 810 x 100-114 microns; paraphyses abundant. Spores 7-10 x 13.75-17.5 microns. EH. & E. give 7-8 x 14-15 microns. Common on Loriodendron Juglans and Fraxinus, Monroe County, Indiana. 5. R. mutans (C. & P.) Sace. Spheria mutans C. & P. Rosellinia mutans Sace. Perithecia more or less crowded or gregarious, rather small, about .5-.75mm. in diameter, at first clothed with a thin, tawny, evanescent tomentum, finally becoming smooth, black and shining; mostly globose with a papillate ostiolum. In the specimen at hand the region about the ostiola showed a distinct tendency to depress. Asci subcylindrical (p sp.) 6.5-7.5 x 80-92.5 microns. Spores uniserrate, elliptical, brown, 4.25-5.5 x 9-12.5. Common on decaying Juglans, near Bloomington, Indiana. 6. R. subiculata (Schw.) Sace. Spheria subiculata Schw. Hypoxylon subiculosum Berk. Rosellinia subiculata Sace. Perithecia thin, usually gregarious or crowded but often more or less scattered in the early stages; globose, brownish-black and shining, mostly superficial, about .75-1 mm. in diameter. Ostiolum small and papilliform. Perithecia seated on a sulphur-yellow, waxy-pruinose subiculum which disappears with age leaving the black, shining perithecia closely resembling R. mutans. Asci cylindrical (p sp.) 6.25 x 90 microns. Spores inequilateral, elliptical, brown, 5-6.25 x 10-12.5. Ellis and Everhart give asci 6-7 x 80-90. Spores 5-5.5 x 10-12 microns. Common on Quercus, Loriodendron, and other rotten deciduous wood near Bloomington, Ind., and Jolietville, Ind. 7. Rk. pulreracea (Ehr.) Fekl. Spheeria pulveracea Ehr. Sordaria Friesii Niessl. Rosellinia pulveracea Fekl. Rosellinia Friesii Niessl. Sphreria millegraria Schw. Sphreria transversalis Schw. Perithecia very small and minutely roughened, about + mm. in diameter, densely gregarious, often forming a continuous crustaceous layer or scat- tered and tending to follow the check marks in the wood. Ostiolum papil- liform, soon perforated. Asci cylindrical (p sp.) 9-10 x 70-75 microns. Spores elliptical, brown, 7.5-8.75 x 11-13.25 microns. KE. & E. give asci 10-12 x 60-70 microns. Sporidia 6-9 x 8-15 microns, mostly 7-8 x 10-12. Sommon on water beech and sycamore near Joiletville, Ind. Normally found on decorticated wood while it is yet more or less firm. 8S. R. ligniaria (Grey.) Nke. Sphreria ligniaria Grey. Rosellinia ligniaria Sace. Perithecia gregarious or crowded, sometimes forming a crust similar to R. pulveraceze and in some cases tending to follow the check marks in 207 the wood. Perithecia ovate-conical, very black and superficial, about 4 mm. in diameter, clothed with very minute black bristles about 20-30 microns in length. Asci (p sp.) 8-10 x 65-70 microns. Spores 7-8.75 x 10-14 microns. Common on Fraxinus and Ostrya hear Bloomington, Ind. Found on decorticated wood and underneath loosened bark. ROSELLINIA AS A PARASITE. Unlike Hypoxyllon and Nummularia, Rosellinia is of great economic importance on account of several of its species being active parasites. Of the one hundred seventy species now described, at least eight are known to be injurious and destructive to living plants. No doubt many other species will be found to be parasitic when a more thorough study is made of them. The following is a brief account of some of the most destructive species : Rosellinia quercina Hart. Perithecia scattered, seated on a_ black mycelium, black globose, about 1 mm. in diameter. >... 5. Phalacrocorax penicillatus. Order VII. HERODIONES. Family Ardeide. LOPS UCA Stab titern cit aa be cea oe Ardetta exilis. 1)6. AmericanPyret..2 2... aoc... oe% Herodias egretta. 1975 SNOMY, ELErONy. e-.--. ee. ...Mgretta candidissima. IGG), Lowery Ie Weiro, San cae ese esuceue Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis. D0Om Little BluetHieron. 2. .5..55..4.-. Florida coerulea. Olea Green Meron. =... sat acldnte dae Butorides virescens. 202. Black-crowned Night Heron......Nycticorax nycticorax naevius. Order VIII. PALUDICOLAE. Family Rallide. 22, — MATA ATE HS) 1 Eerie Rallus virginianus. Piso GarolinawwalleSOras secise 4 seas: Porzana carolina. isemeunrpleGallimules: .9- 5 «sens ee Ionornis martinica. AI CICA © OOtm sea ane ekee oc Fulica americana. Order IX. LIMICOL. Family Phalaropodide. 224. Wilson Phalarope.................Steganopus tricolor. Family Scolopacide. 261. Bartramian Sandpiper............ Bartramia longicauda. 263. Spotted Sandpiper................4 Actitis macularia. Family Charadride. OO mena Wil Dit Aes. Mee, el Re a) Vanellus vanellus. 274. Semipalmated Plover............Aegialitis semipalmata. Zee WWEISOM PLOVER. coo mca ns Rood ye oS Octhodromus wilsonius. Order X. GALLINA. Family Tetraonide. Ae), “LEX Ants aewomeere eases oe eae oe Colinus virginianus. Order XI. COLUMB. Family Columbide. 315. {Passenger Pigeon; Wild Pigeon... .Ectopistes migratorius. 319. White-winged Dove...............Melopelia leucoptera. Order XII. RAPTORES. Family Cathartide. 325. Turkey Vulture; Turkey Buzzard. .Cathartes aura. +Its measurements and diagnostic characteristics seem to correspond with the descriptions given for this species. 276 390. we 412. 412a. Family Falconide. Red: MailledWawkss 4 2202 ese see Buteo borealis. Red-shouldered Hawk.......... .Buteo lineatus. Preah tl awiye.. 7 s-2 ace. se fade Falco columbarius. Sparrow. Elawit 2532. ee at nsf Falco sparverius. American Osprey; Fish Hawk.....Pandion haliaetus carolinensis. Family Strigide. BarniOwiltis.- 6 Ace. = See car Strix patrincola. Family Bubonide. American Long-eared Owl.........Asio wilsonianus. Short-eared Owl..................Asio aceipitrinus. Great Horned Owl....... — _. Bubo virginianus. Order XIV. COCCYGES. Family Cuculide. Yellow-billed Cuckoo............. Coccyzus americanus. Family Alcedinide. Belted Kingfisher.................Ceryle alcyon. Order XV. PICT. Family Picide. Undetermined species. Southern Flicker...... : ..Colaptes auratus. Northern Flicker. . Soe ..Colaptes autatus luteus. Order XVI. MACROCHIRES. Family Caprimulgide. Nighthawk.......................Chordeiles virginianus. White-throated Swift............. Aeronautes melanoleucus. Family Trochilide. Ruby-throated Hummingbird... .. Trochilus colubris. Black-chinned Hummingbird... ...Trochilus alexandri. Anna Hummingbird...............Calypte anna. ? ? 488. 497. ela 506. 507. 519a. 546. 552a. 584. 585. 598. 601. 612. 613. 619. 631. ae 683. 277 Order XVII. PASSERES. Family Tyrannide. Flycatcher. WOOGd PEWEG nici. cusc cen ake cus et oe Contopus virens. Alder Flycatcher.......... ......Empidonax traillii alnorum. Measiviliyicatchetyss ays. cn. ween Empidonax minimus. Family Alaudide. Larks, undetermined. Family Corvide. AIMETICAnl CrOWeissee cee ee Corvus americanus. Family Icteride. Yellow-headed Blackbird......... Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus. CO IOLGS evel eas. ce teas Undetermined. Onchandi@rioleme an ase soe ....leterus spurius. Baltimore Oriole............ _...leterus galbula. Family Fringillide. Crimson House Finch......... ...Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis. Grasshopper Sparrow............. Coturniculus savannarum passerinus. Western Lark Sparrow............Chondestes grammacus strigatus. Swap SPALkOWe een. ese ee Melospiza georgiana. HOXaSPaALhOWeres. tse. oe ... Passerella iliaca. ImdtcopBuntimge...2)-. 5.6.04. ne Cyanospiza cyanea. Painted Bunting; Nonpareil.......Cyanospiza ciris. Family Hirundinide. Platte Swallow ts7.earas< ove ook 4 Petrochelidon lunifrons. Bangs wallow eee eae sae Hirundo erythrogastra. Family Ampelide. Cedar Waxwing 8s 90 hassel se. Ampelis cedrorum. Family Vireonide. White-evyed VineO.cs 22. 2et ohio. Vireo noveboracensis. Unidentified species. Family Mniotiltide. Yellow-breasted Chat.............leteria virens. Family Troglodytide. HUB Woe atv orinGl, sesend assosncon saben Mimus polyglottos. (05. eBrownehhrasheres =). se eee Toxostoma rufum. 3 se @achusaiteney ert ere Heleodytes brunneicapillus. (OS Carolina eWitenesa.. eee eee Thryothorus ludovicianus. U2) STLOUSE WEEN es oer aae Sere cha <: Troglodytes aedon. (P= ANSTO EAC GO cle ollretae ot sa memene Olbiorchilus hiemalis. 724. Short-billed Marsh Wren..........Cistothorus stellaris. 725. Long-billed Marsh Wren.......... Telmatodytes palustris. Family Turdide. 758. Russet-backed Thrush............ Hylocichla ustulata. fAnil, Jshinavsinichin IMO}o ly eae a gee og oe Merula migratoria. 761a. Western Robin........ Ey he ae toh. Merula migratoria propinqua. (obsee Bluebirds): see Jeb eea plaliaisialis: 767. Western Bluebird...... ....,.....slalia mexicana. 768. Mountam Bluebird. (7.2..2...° .-. Sialia arctica. Unidentified, about thirty species, chiefly of the common native birds. Purdue University, West Lafayette Ind. 219 A Nore on A Pecunttar NESTING SITE OF THE CHIMNEY Swift. GLENN CULBERTSON. As an illustration of the ability of birds to adapt themselves to new conditions, the chimney swift is a striking example. Driven from the hollow tree as a nesting site by the woodman’s axe and fires, the swift adapted itself to the broad open chimneys of the settlers’ cabins, and later to the narrow flues of a later day. The projecting spines of the tail feathers fortunately answered the same purpose in a soot-lined chimney that they had done in the soft decayed wodd of a hollow tree. During the past summer the writer's attention was called to a still greater change in the nesting site of a pair of swifts. Near the residence of Mr. James Storie, one and one-half miles north of Moorefield, Switzerland County, a pair of swifts, being excluded from the chimneys by wire net- ting, have nested for two seasons in an old-fashioned dug well walled with stone. The well is some twenty feet deep and three feet in diameter, and has over it a square curb about three feet high, one-half of which was per- manently left open. The nests were built in each case at a distance of some seven or eight feet below the level of the ground, and at approxi- mately the same distance above the water. The young were matured and brought forth in safety both seasons. > 4s ‘oon a ' = - ‘ - Pic ‘ , m : fi 7 i * -# ,' . “= \ 1 t i iy is ee & ' , id en s est es 7 ~ 4 ; a . < z Peis . w= « ae oir ae £ j , aS hae *, io "he ‘ - be 4 = » . t : , oe aan , - “s er ~aPA' 7 £ * > . =, 4 ‘ * npery nn, say eas ai {fh : as eh Bae =u oe Ss i J - - ; is - Dy ’ i ul ‘ul ged 9 -. ' . = a os ; i . : oe ie at = " 7 7 x . er “ - ore ; an J ; * , Ff 4 < i « sg Ss bs (rene Larne,” he . —e ae ary te 5 i> ¥ * ; c iy GUE © ~ oe | or My , ’ i ' m4 ~ i o i ® , ’ : ' - ‘ Notes on INDIANA EARTHWORMS. H. V. HEIMBURGER. The great group of animals known commonly as earthworms, com- prises four families of the order Oligochaeta: the Moniligastride, the Megascolecide, the Glossoscolecidze and the Lumbricide. Three of these families are represented in our fauna. At the present time there are more than a thousand well recognized species of earthworms known. By far the larger number of these species have been described during the last twenty years. Most of the work on this group has been done by Europeans, chief among whom is Michaelsen of Hamburg, whose publications make up the bulk of the recent literature on the group. Professor Frank Smith of the University of Illinois has worked on the group in this country and Hisen, a Swede who lived for several years in San Francisco, has worked on West and Central American species.’ Very little is known of the earthworm fauna of the Central States. Only about fifty species are known to occur in the United States, this scarcity of forms being due in part to lack of study and partly to the actual scarcity of species.* It has been pointed out by Beddard’ and Michaelson* that the earth- worms are in important group for the Zodgeographer. Arldt,° in a recent paper, shows the value of the group for the paleo-geographer and gives many of the facts of distribution now known as well as indicating the yalue of the group in theoretical considerations within the fields of geography and geology. The Moniligastride is a small family limited to Borneo, Ceylon, Southern India and neighboring islands. This family is regarded as the most ancient of the group. 1Hisen; American Oligochetes with special reference to those of the Pacific Coast and Adjacent Islands. Proceedings Calif. Acad. Science Vol. II, No. 2, 1900. 2Frank Smith; Earthworms From Illinois. Trans. Ills. Acad. Science. 1912. 3Beddard; A Textbook of Zodgeography. Cambridge, 1895. ‘Michaelsen; Die geographische Verbreitung der Oligochaeten. Berlin, 1903. sArldt; Die Ausbreitung der terricolen Oligochaeten in Laufe der erdgeschichtlichen Entwicklung des Erdreliefs. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. f Syst. Geog. u Biol. Bd. 26, pp. 285-318. 1908, 282 The Megascolecidze are supposed to have arisen from the same root as the Moniligastridze but at a later period, and dates back at least to the Triassic. This is the largest of the earthworm families and con- tains more than half the known species. The family is widely distributed, chiefly in tropical regions and the southern hemisphere. But one genus, Diplocardia, is represented in our fauna. According to Michaelsen, this gelus probably appeared in Mexico or Central America during the Juras- sic. Derivatives from this genus have spread into Africa, but the genus it- self spread northward and is known from Mexico, Lower California, Texas, Florida, Nebraska and Illinois. The Glossoscolecidze seem to have developed as early as the Jurassic in the northern continental area. The genus Sparganophilus of this fam- ily is found in Mexico and yarious parts of the United States. Related forms are known from Central and South America, where many species are recognized. The Lumbricid is recognized as the most recent family of the group and is derived from the Glossoscolecidie, probably in southwest Asia. The family is thought to have invaded Europe in the Eocene and North America in the Oligocene. But few endemic species are known from the United States. In the glaciated regions of the world, it is probable that the endemic species have been destroyed during the Ice Age. These regions have been repopulated by species which have migrated from the south and the earth- worm fauna in such places is largely composed of forms carried in by man. In the southern part of Europe are found many endemic species while northern Europe is occupied almost wholly by forms also found further south. The line separating the northern territory with peregrine forms from the southern territory with endemic forms, corresponds very closely to the line of the most southern extension of the glacial ice sheet. It would be interesting to know if a similar condition exists in America. Last year, under the direction of Professor Frank Smith of the Uni- verstiy of Illinois, I began a study of the earthworms of Illinois and Indiana. I received, last fall, some material from Mr. C. E. Allen, of Wabash College, and some from my brother at Kewanna. During the past summer I made some collections in several counties of the State but was unable to make as extensive collections as are desirable. The ma- terials I have coutain some forms that may have to be described as new species and I believe that careful collecting in the State will disclose 285 several species new to science. It is my intention to make several col- lecting trips through the State during June and July, 1915, but the task of making a complete collection for the State is not to be completed in a few weeks by one man. Harthworms are easy to collect and no great difficulty is experienced in caring for the collections. The most interesting forms are to be ex- pected in uncultivated areas such as woodlands, stream banks, and the margins of Swamps and lakes. Many interesting forms may be taken under logs and under the bark of old logs. The worms are especially easy to collect in the spring when driven from their burrows by the heavy rains. At such times they may be picked up in large numbers from roads and sidewalks. I wish to gain a more extended knowledge of the distri- bution of Diplocardia in the State and to know what forms are found in the unglaciated areas of the State. If any members of the Academy will aid in securing materials, I shall be very glad to have the material and to return named specimens in exchange. I shall be glad to correspond with any ole who may be interested in such work. Following is a list of species I have taken in Indiana together with some notes as to the habitats in which the worms were found. The space of this paper is not sufficient for descriptions of the species. The monograph by Michaelsen is the most authentic single work on the group.' The homenclature used in this list is that of Michaelsen’s monograph, except Where the nomenclature has been modified in his later papers.- Family MEGASCOLECID. Genus Diplocardia (Garman). 1. Diplocardia communis var. typica Garman. This form is quite common about Urbana and in other parts of Illinois. I have not found it in Indiana. D. communis var. singularis Ude. Collected under logs in recently cleared land near Culver, Marshall County. I have other specimens collected in Putham and Vigo counties, which are very similar to singularis but very much larger and differing in minor points. 1Michaelsen; Oligocheta. Vol. 10 in Schulze’s Thierreich. Berlin, 1900. *See particularly. Michaelsen;-Zur Kenntnis der Lumbriciden und ihrer Verbreitung. Ann. Zool. Mus. Imp. Acad Sciences, St. Petersburg. 1910. 284 2. Diplocardia riparia F. Smith. Collected at Terre Haute in a wooded pasture land. 3. Diplocardia udei Eisen. Collected at Terre Haute together with riparia. The speci- mens are somewhat larger than Hisen’s species and differ in details of setal modifications. If not wdei this form is probably to be regarded as a variety of udei. The species was described from North Carolina and has not been reported outside that State. I have other specimens of Diplocardia from Indiana, of which the classification is still uncertain. Family GLOSSOSCOLECID. 4. Sparganophilus eiseni ¥. Smith. This species is amphibious, and is found in very wet mud or among the roots of aquatic plants. Collected = at Culver, on roots of Eel grass and in mud at margin of Lake Maxinkuckee. Very abundant in mud of small stream near Kewanna, Fulton County. Family LuMBRICID. 5. Helodrilus tetraedrus var. typicus Say. Collected at Culver, in vegetable drift at edge of lake. An amphibious species found usually in wet soil along mar- gins of streams or among vegetable detritus in very moist places. 6. Helodrilus roseus Say. Collected at Culver, Greencastle, Terre Haute. This spe- cies is probably to be found in all parts of the State. it is very commonly found in lawns and cultivated fields. My specimens were collected in woods and along stream banks. 7. Helodrilus constrictus Rosa. Collected at Kewanna, under logs at handle factory: Culver under logs in woods. 8. Helodrilus subrubicundus Visen. Collected at Culver and Kewanna, under logs. The identi- fication of this species is not absolutely certain as no sections have been made. However, this form is fairly well determined from external characters. 289 9. Helodrilus chloroticus Say. Collected at Culver, Lake Maxinkuckee, in moist soil at edge of lake. Greencastle, in moist clay soil in abandoned quarry hole. Crawfordsyvilie, in moist clay soil, banks of small stream. 10. Helodrilus foetidus. Say. Collected at Kewanna and Culver. This is the common eyil smelling, barnyard or manure worm. Collected at Cul- ver in decaying straw near ice houses. At Kewanna this wort was found in large numbers, in moist soil along a stream just below the outlet of a sewer. The whole locality was quite offensive because of the sewage. 11. Helodrilus caliginosus Say. Collected in Fulton, Marshall, Putnam, Madison and Vigo counties. This is perhaps our most cosmopolitan species. It is a Huropean species that has spread wherever Euro- peans have settled. Perhaps 90% of any random col- lection in the State would consist of this species. 12. Helodrilus longus Ude. Collected at Greencastle, in woods. 13. Helodrilus zeteki Smith and Gittins. (Mss.) Collected at Kewanna, Culver, Summitville. All of my specimens were collected in loose sandy loam under logs, and under the bark of logs. In June I took about thirty- five specimens of adult worms in a woods near Kewanna. At this time I obtained many cocoons of the species, the worms being in the height of sexual maturity. This species was described by one of Professor Smith’s students from specimens collected in a woods near Urbana, Ill. The description of the species is not yet in press. 14. Octolasium lactewm Oerley. Collected at Crawfordsville, Culver, Greencastle, Summit- ville, Kewanna. My Crawfordsville specimens were sent me by GC. E. Allen, and were collected in the banks of Sugar Creek. This species is very common under logs and in moist soil everywhere I have collected. It is very widely distributed throughout the world. I have never found it in cultivated fields. 2 c 281 NOTES ON ORTHOPTERA AND ORTHOPTERAN HABITATS IN THE VICINITY OF LAFAYETTE, INDIANA. HENky Fox. (Assistant, Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations, U. S. Bureau of Entomology.) Between September 3, 1912, and November 30 of the following year 1 was stationed in pursuance of official duties at Lafayette, Tippecanoe County, Indiana. At intervals during my stay there I made a series of observatious on the Orthoptera and Orthopteran habitats of the surround- ing country which, incomplete as they are, nevertheless constitute a distinct positive contribution toward an accurate knowledge of the faunal fea- tures of the region. My earlier studies on the distribution of Orthoptera in Pennsylvania and New Jersey’ had impressed me with the importance of detailed local lists of species in a scientific study of distribution. The usual distribution as given in most works of reference is entirely too gen- eral for accurate study, no regard being paid to local peculiarities of distribution or to the relative abundance of the species in different parts of its range. Take, for example, such a form as Psinidia fenestralis. Its range, as usually given, extends from Massachusetts to Florida, Texas, northern Indiana and southern Minnesota. Such a statement would incline one to think that the entire region south of say a line drawn from Cape Cod to the southern extremities of the Great Lakes and thence to the southern border of Minnesota would be characterized by the presence of this species. As a matter of fact such is very far from being the case. In the Hast, for instance, Psinidia fenestralis is regularly found only in the low sandy belt fringing the coast, while in the interior it is of extremely local occurrence, being met with only on widely scattered, isolated deposits of loose sand. All positive data on this species indicates that its distribution is conditioned by the presence of areas of loose sand. 1Data on the Orthopteran Faunistices of Eastern Pennsylvania and Southern New Jersey. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei., Phila., 1914, pp. 441-534. 288 Wherever these are lacking the species is absent. In southern New Jersey where sandy deposits are of practically universal occurrence Psinidia is common, while on the opposite side of the Delaware River in Pennsylvania it is unknown. here at intervals throughout the summer. ‘The species were much the same as those occurring in the cultivated areas, but in addition a number of species were taken which were absent or very rare in the latter. In this waste land most of the collecting was done in the timothy, which had recently been cut, a circumstance which made it relatively easy to capture he grasshoppers. J/elanoplus fenur-rubrum, Melanoplus atianis, Eneop- olophus sordidus and Concocephalus strictus were here abundant, while soth Syrbula admirabilis and Arphia ranthoptera were of frequent oceur- rence. Early in July MWelanoplus femoratus was fairly Common in this tract, but it soon ceased to be an evident component of the fauna. Two og of Orphuletiila speciosa were taken on July 22; repeated search failed to reveal any additional specimens of this apparentiy very rare species. A single male Scudderia terensis was also catured here the same date. In the Llymus patch a solitary male Conocephalus fasciatus was taken also on ihe same date; while much later in the season—September 13-—a sma ] colouy of Conocephalus nemoralis was found in a place where the Llymus was encroached upon by the sumac thickets. IMJelanoplus differentialis was also frequent here. Outside of these three species, the forms in the HLlymus area were the same as those in the timothy with the exception of Arphia xauthoptera which appeared to be limited to the latter. The fox- tail growth formed the favorite habitat of Orchelimum vulgare. The same grass also yielded a female of Stenobothrus curtipennis. A short distance west of this lot in the adjoining field, which had been 299 planted in clover, I captured a female specimen of Schistocerca alutacea, The capture was made close to the railroad, along which there was a mixed growth of elder (Sambucus) and white melilot (Welilotus alba). The latter formed a yery rank growth in some abandoned gravel pits on the opposite side of the railroad. The color of this specimen was much duller than that of examples from the New Jersey sphagnum bogs, being an olive brown or pale leather color with hardly a trace of green, and with the dorsal stripe, although easily recognizable, by no means con- spicuous. 4. At this point some roadside collecting was done. The place is on the slope leading from the “second bottom” at West Lafayette to the upland immediately north of the town. The roadside vegetation consisted in the dryer parts of a mixture of blue grass and timothy and in the gullies of a rank growth of Mlilolus alba. The Orthoptera were all of common types. Melanoplus femur-rubrum swarmed everywhere, while its congener, WM. differentialis, was almost entirely limited to the thickets. In the blue-grass-timothy areas Conocephalus strictus was common, while Si/r- bula admirabilis was of frequent occurrence. 5. This place, locally kuown as “the tank’ from the preserce of the storage tank of the West Lafayette water company, is on the edge of the upland at the head of a deep ravine known as Happy Hollow. It over- looks the Wabash bottoms, “second bottoms” being absent from this point north. The soil is Miami silt loam. The land was untilled the past season and had evidently not been in cultivation for a long period. It was open, but at its southern edge where it meets the steep slopes leading flown into Happy Hollow was bordered by the relatively dense woods which clothe these slopes. The open areas were closely covered with blue grass with which were locally intermixed small areas or scattered clumps of wiregrass, Poa compressa, and foxtail, Chaetochloa glauca. There were also considerable clover and some low trailing briers. Close to the woods the blue grass became rather sparse and grew only in short scattered clumps with open places between where the bare soil was exposed or where certain hardy herbs, mostly composites, grew. In one or two places on the higher land where the blue grass was very thin, were formations of Andro- pogon scoparius with A. furcatus as a minor constituent. At one place immediately adjoining the woods was an extevsive patch of J'ridens flava. Within the outer edge of the woods on some level stretches where the less eroded parts of the bluff project out into the ravine, were a few scrubby 300 ‘areas containing only scattered grasses, but with many low saplings and some herbaceous undergrowth. The woods on the upper portions of the ravine slopes adjoining the upland were of the mixed hardwood type. The dominant tree was the white oak, but with it were many hickories, elms, sugar maples, lindens, red oaks, beeches and dogwoods. Collections were made in the Open fields above the woods, along the borders of the woods and in the woodland scrub areas. In the more open areas, farthest from the woods, wherever the blue grass or its congener, Poa compressa, was thick and luxuriant, common species were Jelanoplus feomur-rubram, Enceoptolophus sordidus and Conocephalus strictus; Syrbula admirabilis was of frequent occurrence. Where the grass was shorter and coarser with some interspaces a number of additional species were com- mon such as MWelonoplus allanis, Arphia xanthoptera, Dissosteira carolina and Hippiscus rugosus. Of Arphia ranthoptera and Hippiscus rugosus both the yellow-winged and the red-winged types appeared to be about equally frequent. Both of these secies were common in the more barren areas along the very edge of the woods, where they were associated with Spharagemon bolli and Melanoplis luridus, each of which was of frequent eccurrence, but did not appear to spread any appreciable distance from the immediate vicinity of the trees. Within the woods in the scrub areas pre- viously referred to the two last-mentioned species were the only ones found. Other species occurring at this locality were Chortophaga viridifas- ciata and Orchelimum vulgare, long-winged phase. Nymphs of the former were frequent in some areas of dwarfed blue grass in spring and again in the fall, while a smaller number of the latter were found in a scrub area along the borders of the woods. 6. This includes the outer edge of the Wabash bottoms a short dis- tance south of West Lafayette. The outer edge of the bottoms at this point is marked by a gently sloping bluff which leads up to the second bottoms of West Lafayette. Near the base of the bluff is a road and below the road, between it and the level surface of the present bottom, is a short slope which was partially wooded, the common trees being cottonwoods, honey-locust, hackberry, elm and shingle oak. The woodland here formed au narrow fringe and beyond it, occupying all the level areas, were the usual corn fields of the bottoms. Beneath the trees was a fairly dense undergrowth of shrubs and tall grasses of which species of Hlymus were most frequent, especially FH. virginicus. The soil was a mixture of the gravel derived from the material of the bluff itself and alluvium depos- 301 ited by the river during periods of overflow. Owing to its position, the presence of the rank vegetation and of the resulting humus the soil was in most places moderately damp. but not actually wet. This, however, was not the case in one spot where the ground was perpetually moist on account of the constant seepage from the bluff. The substratum at this spot was a black or dark grey muck with much gravel in its deeper levels. Trees were absent from these wetter areas and they were accordingly occupied by a rank growth of the usual herbaceous swamp plants the more conspicuous of which in this swamp were Typha latifolia, Homalocenchrus oryeotides and Ambrosia trifida. South of the swamp was a small bit of open woodland in which there was a rich undergrowth of grasses. Of these the species of Hlymus, chiefly LE. virginicus with some canadensis, occupied the better lighted areas while in the more shaded spots such forms as Homalocenchrus virginicus, Muhlenbergia apparently M. tenuiflora, Nory- carpus arundinaceus and Hystrix hystrix were common. Adjoining this woodland on the south was an open pasture in which there was a good stand of Tridens flava. Quite a number of interesting Orthoptera were taken in this locality. {n the drier situations the patches of Hlymus canadensis yielded such spe- cies as Dichromorpha viridis, Melanoplus viridipes, Melanoplus atlanis— an unusually humid environment for this form—ZJ/clanoplus femur-ru- brum, Melanoplus femoratus, Amblycorypha rotundifolia and Conocephalus nemordalis. With the exception of MWelanoplus femur-rubrwm none of these were common or widespread, being in most cases represented only by scattered individuals or an occasional colony. Other grasses besides the Hlymus were searched for Orthoptera, but, excepting 7'ridens, proved to be barren. In the dense thickets of ragweed, Ambrosia trifida, surrounding the more boggy spots Melénoplus femur-rubrum and Melanoplus differentialis were abundant, while in the same tracts a few examples of Melanoplus scuddcri were also taken. In the swamp the Orthoptera were most numer- ous in the Homalocenchrus oryzoides and the immediately adjoining thick- ets; they were apparently quite infrequent in the cat-tails. The most abundant swamp species were in order of relative numbers J/elanoplus femur-rubrum, Conocephalus bevipennis, Melanoplus differentialis, Or- cheliimum nigripes, Orchelimum vulgare anid Conocephalus nigropleurum; in much smaller numbers were found such species as Oceanthus fasciatus, Occanthus quadripunctatus, Scudderia furcata Neoconocephalus palustris, Orchelimum gladiator, Conocephalus fasciatus, Conocephalus nemoralis 302 and Conocephalus attenuatus. In the pasture in which 7ridens flava was a common plant Syrbula admirabilis and Conocephalus strictus were of fre- quent occurrence along with larger numbers of the ubiquitous MWelanoplus femur-rubrum. Close to the border of the same field, where there were some extensive patches of Elymus virginicus, several examples of Dichro- morpha viridis were observed. 7. This was a level tract of very open woodland located on top of the bluff overlooking the bottom lands included in locality 6. The ground here had been used for pasturing cattle and the herbaceous vegetation was accordingly quite short and scanty. Orthoptera were scarce. Each Melan- oplus atlanis and Melanoplis femur-rubrum were frequent, while in one place where there was considerable slope and a fair amount of scrub growth a few examples of Spharagemon bolli were seen. Late in June Atlanticus testaceus occurred in small numbers, several being captured one night on low shrubs and tall weeds. 8. This locality was a small open grove at the top of the highest line of bluffs at the north end of a ravine situated nearly half way between West Lafayette and the mouth of Indian Creek. The soil was the Miami silt loam which in this exposed situation was quite dry and barren and had a decided sandy appearance. Along a recently cut roadside I found at this point a young specimen of the black-jack oak, the presence of which natur- ally indicates the barren character of the location. The soil here at the time of my visit—August 24th—was formed of blue-grass sod with oceéa- sional patches where the ground was bare or but sparsely covered with vegetation. In such places the common woodland Panicum, ?. huachuca, was frequent. In two or three places erosion had worn slight gulleys from which most of the finer soil particles had been washed away leaving a very hard and stony soil on which very little vegetation had as yet obtained a foothold. These gulleys were the favorite habitats of the more geophilous Orthoptera such as Arphia canthoptera, Spharagemon bolli and Dissosteira carolina. Only about a half hour was spent in collecting at this spot, during Which examples of the following species were tiken or identified: Syr- bula admirabilis, Arphia wvanthoptera, both yellow-winged and orange- winged types, Hncoptolophus sordidus, Sphragemon bolli, Dissosteira caro- lina, Melanoplus femar-rubrim and Melanoplus luridus. 9. This locality is about half a mile southeast of Battle Ground in a region covered by Miami fine sand. vractically the whole country is under 303 cultivation. The only collecting was done in a limited bit of roadside where the banks were occupied by a mixed growth of two tall bunch- grasses, T'ridens flava and Andropogon furcatus. My visit to this spot was made August 30. At that time the following species were taken or ob- served, all being fairly frequent: J/elanoplus femur-rubrum, Melanoplus atlantis, Conocephalus strictus, Dissosteira carolina, Syrbula admirabilis and Arphia xanthoptera. 10. This locality is on the east side of the Wabash about three miles north of Lafayette and a mile southwest of Wild Cat Creek. At this point there is a well-marked bluff marking the dividing line between the upland, here formed by Sioux sandy loam, and the Wabash bottoms. At the base of the bluff is an extensive marsh, shown on the Bureau of Soils map as a crescent-shaped patch of muck. The upland immediately bor- dering the bluff is occupied by a cemetery in which there are many large ivees, the whole forming an open grove with no undergrowth except the oidinary blue-grass sod. In this cemetery, frequenting the relatively dry blue grass were numerous examples of Jelanoplus scudderi and Melano- plus luridus along with the usual Melanoplus femur-rubrum and Encopto- lophus sordidus. On the steeper slopes, where there was a considerable amount of herbaceous undergrowth and some patches of Andropogon fur- catus, a few examples of Spharagemon bolli were seen and, hear the base of the slope, in a shallow depression, where there was a thick growth of a bright green, succulent grass, a small number of Stauroderus curtipennis were found. DPissosteira caroling was as usual common on paths and drive- ways both on the upland and in the bottom. The swamp at the base of the bluff was quite open and was of the type usual to the bottoms with rice cut- grass, Homalocenchrus oryzoides, forming the dominant vegetation of the wetter areas. On the side toward the bluff this growth was bordered by a thicket formed mostly by tall herbaceous plants among which sunflowers and goldenrods were conspicuous; while on the opposite side toward the open bottom lands it was bordered by a weed vegetation in which a tangled growth of smart-weed (Volygonum) predominated. In the rice cut-grass the common Orthoptera were JMZelanoplus femur-rubrum, Cono- cephalus brevipennis, Orchelimum nigripes, Orchelimum vulgare and Jlela- noplus differentialis. Both of the last-named species and also Conocepha- lus nigropleurum were frequent in the surrounding thickets, while O7- chelimum vulgare and Melanoplus femur-rubrum swarmed in the Polygo- num areas. In addition to the two forms last mentioned other species tak- 504 en in the bordering thicket in fair numbers were MJelanoplus obovatipennis and Conocephalus nemoralis, With them were found occasional examples of Dichromorpha viridis, and Melanoplus fenoratus. In the Homalocen- chrus oryzoides two specimens of Veoconcephalus palustris and one each if Scudderia terensis (a & apparently this species) and Orchelimum vulgare long-winged type were taken. Collecting was done at this place on Sep- tember 6th. 11. At this place collections were made on July 19 and October 3. The locality was the low alluvial tract along the Wabash at the mouth of Wild Cat Creek. Most of the land is under cultivation, but there is some open woodland on the adjoining bluffs. Along the roadside were the usual weedy tracts inhabited by JMJelanoplus atlanis and Melanoplus femur-rub- rum, the latter being by far the most abundant. In the ranker herbage and weedy tracts Jelanoplus differentialis was of frequent occurrence. On the bare paths and in the plowed fields Dissosteira carolina was common. The remaining species were few in number and were found only in grassy depressions Close to the river. In one of these which contained an almost pure stand of Llymnus virginicus a few examples of Stéuroderus curtipen- nis were observed on July 19; in the same place a single specimen of each of the following was taken: Weldnoplis walshii, Orchelimum gladiator, Conocephalus fasciatus and Conocephalus nigropleurum. Tn another de- pression, examined on October 3, the dominant growth was a species of Vuhlenbergia; in this Orchelimum vulgare and Conocephalus brevipennis Were common, a single specimen of Conocephalis nigropleurum was also taken here. 12. While on an inspection trip on the upland between West Lafayette and Montmorenci on August 12 I made a rapid examination of several small areas in which the ground was more or less damp and covered either with thick succulent blue grass or species of Carex. Orthoptera did not appear to be very common in such places, except such ubiquitous forms as Mela- ioplus femir-rubrum and Orchelimum vulgare. In one rather wet depres- sion, where there was a nearly pure growth of Carex, Conocephalus fas- ciatus Was rather common: it also occurred, though in small numbers, in blue-grass depressions. In one of the latter bordering a small grove a small number of Stauroderus curtipennis were observed. A male Scud- devia furcata was taken near here in some thick grass at the side of a small stream. 18. This was a very limited tract on the edge of the bluff overlook- U0 ing the Wabash valley about three miles southwest of Lafayette. Col- lecting was done only along the right of way of the Wabash Railroad. This locality was visited only once, and that on October 12, when many species had died out or become very scarce. Only five species were noted, four of which were common in the waste lots adjoining the railroad. They were VWelanoplus femur-rubrum, Enceoplolophus sordidus, Dissosteira car- olind and JMelanoplus atlanis, the last-named being the least frequent. The only other species observed on this trip was a male Schistocerca amer- icana which was found in a local growth of Andropogon furcatus. 14. This was a very interesting undrained depression of considerable size situated in an open field on the upland about two miles northwest of West Lafayette. The substratum in the depression was a dark muck. At the time of my visit, October 13-14, it was quite dry and crisp at the sur- face, but within a fraction of an inch below was still quite moist and sticky. The centre of the swamp was nearly devoid of vegetation; doubt- less in times of normal rainfall it is submerged. Surrounding this is a wide fringe of reedy vegetation formed of cat-tails, Typha latifolia and a tall species of rush, which was similar in general aspect to Juncus cffusus, though owing to the lateness of the season I was unable to certainly iden- tify it. Intermixed with both of these was a luxuriant growth of rice cut- grass, Homalocenchrus oryzoides. Surrounding these again was an outer thicket of tall herbaceous plants, such as asters, goldenrods, iron-weeds, sunflowers and their associates. The Orthoptera of this swamp were unlike any found elsewhere in the extreme abundance of two Tettigoniids, a peculiar color-phase of Orcheli- mii nigripes and Conocephalus attenudatus, both of which simply swarmed throughout the Typha-Homalocenchrus areas although they largely avoided the rush and were entirely lacking in the herbaceous margibal thicket. The large numbers of Conocephalus attenuatium in this place was surprising, for, although it has been known for a long time to be-native to the state, I had, previous to my discovery of this marsh, been able to procure only a single example in the region about Lafayette and was accordingly inclined to look upon it as a very rare species in this particular part of the State. Other species associated with the two species just mentioned in the cut- grass-cat-tail formation were Conocephalus nigropleurum, Conocephalus saltans and a small Orchelimum which Mr. Rehn has assigned to O. agile. All of these were quite scarce at the time I examined the place, only a 20—4966 306 single example of each of the last two species being seen and only a single pair of Conocephalus nigropleurum. Noteworthy was the entire absence in this marsh of the two most frequent marsh “long-horned” grasshoppers of this region, Conocephalus brevipennis and the typical phase of Orehelimion nigrVipes. In the herbaceous thickets forming the marginal vegetation of the marsh Orthoptera were not very common, the only species taken there being Melanoplus differentialis and Melanoplus oboatipennis, both of which were only moderately common. In the open clover field surrounding the marsh the only species observed was J/elanoplus femur-rubrim. 15. This was a small lateral ravine which opened into the valley of indian Creek close to where it empties into the Wabash. It was visited June 28. Orthoptera were very scarce at this time, but on a steep wooded slope where there was much bare ground with scattered growth of the woodland Panicum, P?. huachuca, 1 captured a male Melanoplis fasciatus. ‘The woods here were denser than usual and were cool and shady with only few scattered openings where the direct rays of the sun reached the ground. The soil at this spot is mapped as Miami silt loam. 16. This includes the east bank of the Wabash and the adjoining bot- toms about 24 miles southeast of Battle Ground examined August 30th. The river bank here slopes very gently and at the time of my visit was cov- ered next the river with a growth of sedge, apparently Scirpus americanus, and landward of this by Homalocenchrus oryzoides. Above this on higher ground was a fringe of woodland with a dense undergrowth of Makhien- bergia. Beyond this were the flat cultivated lands of the bottoms. At this point the bottoms are about a quarter of a mile wide. At their outer edge—the edge away from the river—they are characterized by the usual line of high bluffs forming the edge of the neighboring upland. At the base of the bluffs was the usual seepage zone, which at this place was repre- sented by an extensive marsh in which Homalocenchrus oryzoides tormed ihe buik of the vegetation. Bordering it were the accompanying thickets of tall composites. The Orthoptera of the river bank at this place were disappointingly scarce. The only species at all common was Orchelimum nigripes which wis observed only in the cut-grass. A single specimen of Neoconocephalus palustris was taken in the sedge, but it had apparently strayed there from the cut-grass areas. No other species were noted on the river margins On the cultivated parts of the flood plain there were in several places rank 307 growths of common weeds and in these Melanoplus femur-rubrum and Melanoplus differentialis were abundant. The best collecting from the standpoint of variety was afforded by the marsh at the base of the bluffs. Here in the cut-grass I found considerable numbers of Paroxrya hoosieri, the only place where I obtained this interesting species. With it were large numbers of Orchelimum nigripes, Conocephalus brevipennis and Cono- cephalus nigropleurum. In the marginal thickets were observed such forms as Melanoplus differentialis, Conocephalus fasciatus, Melanoplus scudderi and Melanoplus obovatipennis. 17. This was a small open groove on rather dry barren soil. It is located on a gentle slope just above the Wabash bottoms on the west side of the river about three miles southwest of West Lafayette. The soil is Sioux sandy loam. In the groove at this point it supports a rather weak growth of blue grass. In the driest parts the blue grass is sparse and in such places Panicum huachuca@ becomes a noticeable constituent of the herbaeous flora. The Orthoptera taken here were the usual species of dry open woodland. In July and early August Spharagemon bolli was quite frequent whiie later in the season Melanplus scudderi and Mclanoplus luridus were common. ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES.! Diapheromera femorata Say. A single specimen, a male, taken in low woods on Burnett Creek near Battle Ground (2), August 9. Acrydium (Tettix) ornatus Say. Moderately frequent in spring on dry hillsides and in stubble fields on the upland near West Lafayette. Truxalis brevicornis (Linnzeus). Two specimens; a female nymph taken July 27 in upland deciduous woodland about one mile northwest of West Lafayete (1) in a grassy tract a short distance from a bog domi- nated by buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis; a mature male taken August 9 in low woods along Burnett Creek (2) near Battle Ground at the edge of a bog containing cat-tail (Typha latifolia), sedges (species of Carer, Scirpus atrovirens), NSagittaria, Panicularia nervata, Helianthus spp. Species apparently quite scarce as no other examples were seen. Syrbula admirabilis (Uhler). Of frequent occurrence in all relatively dry grassy areas at higher levels and locally at least, where conditions are suitable, not uncommon in bottom lands. The species is prevailingly cam- pestral in its habitat, being especially fond of open grass Innds; less fre- '1The nomenclature used here is that given in an unpublished list of unsynonymized terms com- piled by Mr Morgan Hebard. 308 quently it may occur along the grassy borders of open woodland. I have taken it in areas occupied by blue grass (Poa pratense), timothy (Phleuwm pratense), ved-top (Tridens flava) and bunch-grass (Andropogon scopa- rius and furcatus). I have the following records: July 28, 2 nymphs in dense patch of Bromus on Purdue Experimental Grounds (3); July 26, hymphs fairly frequent in timothy stubble on Purdue Experimental grounds (3); August 1, adults, especially males, frequent and nymphs common in grassy roadside patch (timothy-blue grass) on upland slope (4) north of Lafayette; also in dry blue grass and l’oa compressa in field at “the tank” (5); August 20, several males in open field dominated by Tridens flava along outer margin of the Wabash bottoms below West Lafayette (6); August 24, frequently within the borders of dry open woodland on the top of the bluffs at the head of a ravine (8S) about half- way between West Lafayette and the mouth of Indian Creek, chiefly in dry blue-grass, and associated with Arphia «anthoptera, Spharagemon bolli, Encoptolophus sordidus and Melanoplus luridus; August 30, fre- quent in roadside and fence-row grasses, especially in a patch of T'ridens fara and Andropogon furcatus about a half mile southeast of Battle Ground (9); September 1, of Common occurrence in grassy uplands at head of “Happy Hollow” (5) occurring in blue grass, wire-grass (Poa compressa) and Andropogon furcatus and scoparius ; October 4, appears to be getting scarce now on the Station grounds (8); October 26, a single female seen in dense patch of Poa compressa in locality 5; October 381, a dead female found on cement sidewalk on Experimental Station grounds (3). Orphulella speciosa (Seudder). Apparently very rare, only four speci- mens having been seen or taken throughout the entire season. These occurred in dry, open, grassy tracts on untilled land. July 22, two females taken in timothy stubble in waste lot on Purdue Mxperimental Grounds (3); in both of these the tegmina are longer than the abdomen and their tips reach the tips of the hind femora. One female has the discoidal area of the tegmina occupied in part by a double row of cells, a character of its congener pelidna; the specimen, however, is un- questionably speciosa, August 1, a male taken in Poa compressa in a field at “the tank” (5). September 1, a male taken in patch of Andropogon on upland at the head of Happy Hollow (5). Dichromorpha viridis (Scudder). Appears to be only moderately fre- quent and is largely restricted to damp situations within or along the 309 edges of open woodlands. It is more frequent in bottom lands than in more elevated tracts. July 27, frequent in grassy and sedgey spots in bumid upland woods (1); August 9, in small numbers in low woods and thickets along Bur- nett Creek (2); August 20, occasional in a low field along the outer edge of the Wabash bottom near West Lafayette (6) occurring in Tridens flava and Elymus virginicus; September 6, occasional in the undergrowth on a wooded slope near a Hom«locenchrus oryzoides marsh (10); September 13, a female taken in low woods along Burnett Creek (2). Chiealtis conspersa Harris. Occasional in grassy spots in damp wood- lands; very local. July 27, several males and one female observed in humid upland woods northwest of West Lafayette (1), in a grassy clearing where the preyailing herbaceous vegetation consisted of Carer, Elymus and Hystrix ; September 13, a single male taken in low woods along Burnett Creek (2), at the edge of a cat-tail bog. Stauroderus (Stenobothrus) curtipennis (Harris). Apparently only moderately frequent and rather local, occurring in humid tracts well coy- ered with succulent grasses. July 19, in small numbers in the bottoms near the mouth of Wild Cat Creek (11), in dense growth of Hlymus virginicus; August 12, a female taken in patch of fox-tail (Chetochloa viridis) in a waste lot on the Pur- due Experimental Grounds (3); July 12, a small colony in a moist grassy depression along the edges of woodland on the upland between Lafayette and Montmorenci (12); September 6, quite scarce in grassy areas on a wooded slope south of Wild Cat Creek (10). Arphia sulphurea (Fabricius). Found only once in late April in a sparse growth of blue grass (Poa pratense) at the top of a high bluff at Happy Hollow (5). It was at this time in the nymph stage. No others were observed during the season, but it is doubtless more frequent in the spring months than my very meagre field observations made at that sea- son would indicate. Arphia canthoptera (Burmeister). Frequent in untilled areas in nu- merous dry situations, chiefly in upland localities. Both yellow-winged and orange-winged examples occur in nearly equal numbers. The species appears to occur only occasionally on fully cultivated land. August 1, frequent on the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5); occurring in dry grassy areas and on bare ground on the gentle inclines 310 adjoining the wooded ravine slopes. Both sexes were represented, also yellow-winged and orange-winged examples in approximately equal num- bers: August 24, several examples of both color types observed in open woodland at the head of the ravine between West Lafayette and the mouth of Indian Creek (8), occurring in blue grass areas and in a dry gulley; August 28, several of the orange-winged type observed in timothy stubble on a waste lot of the Purdue Experimental Grounds (3); August 30, sev- eral observed in an open clover field on dry sandy ground about a half mile east of Battle Ground (9): September 1, both yellow-winged and orange- winged individuals nearly equally common on the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5); October 4, scarce in cultivated ground on Purdue IiXxperimental Grounds (3). Chortophaga viridifasciata (DeGeer). Only moderately frequent. chiefly in dry upland grass lands. Nymphs were observed in late Apri, adults from early May to late June and nymphs from early October to the end of November. The species appeared to be most frequent in sparse blue grass areas on the barren slopes at the top of the bluffs. Encoptolophus sordidus (Burmeister). Abundant in all open dry areas or in quite open woodland. July 22, nymphs common in timothy stubble in a waste lot on the Pur- due Experimental Farm (3); August 1, nymphs common in dry blue grass and Pou pratensis areas on the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5); August 19, adult males observed today for the first time on the Purdue University Farm (3) in blue grass areas; August 24, occasional in open wood!and on the bluffs at the head of a ravine between West Lafavette and the mouth of Indian Creek (8) in blue grass: September 1, both sexes common in open grassy fields on the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5); September 6, occasional in an open grove on bluffs (10) near Wild Cat Creek; September 13, common in blue grass borders of paths and fences on Purdue Experimental Farm (3); October 4, common on Purdue Experimental Farm (3); October 12, common in waste ground along Wabash Railroad south of Lafayette (13); October 25, occasional on road- side vegetation at the outer edge of the Wabash bottoms near West Lafay- ette (6): October 26, November 2, small numbers in grassy fields at head of Happy Hollow (5). Hippiscus rugosus (Seudder). Common in one locality, but not ob- served elsewhere. It was found August 1 and again on September 1 on the tall bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5) where it ocurred on untilled ol] ground in short blue grass and Poa compressa areas in dry fields and alovg the edges of woodlands. It was represented by both yellow-winged and vermilion-winged individuals, the two forms being present in appar- ently equal frequency. Spharagmon bolli (Scudder). Frequent in dry open woodland in scrub- by and grassy clearings; also along woodland borders, but never in open country. July 12, a few observed on a hillside covered with open scrub near the borders of woods south of West Lafayette (7); July 23, moderately fre- quent in an open oak woods south of West Lafayette (17); August 1. frequent along the borders of woods on the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5) in sparse grass and scrub areas; August 9, a male taken in low, humid woods on Burnett Creek (2), probably a stray example from the neighboring upland; August 24, several, in open woodland on the bluffs at the head of the ravine between West Lafayette and the mouth of Indian Creek (8); September 1, several observed in clearings in the woods on top the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5); September ¢, few seen in a dry grassy area, largely occupied by Andropogon furcatus, on a wooded slope (10) hear Wild Cat Creek. Dissosteira carolina (Linneus). Common everywhere on bare ground and in dry grassy areas, where the grass is short, with patches of bare earth intervening. Appeared as adults about July 7 and persisted until the end of October. Schistocerca americana (Drury). Of sporadic occurrence from late March until at least the middle of October, apparently most frequent in early fall. March (late), a male taken on a building lot at West Fafayette, in blue grass (3); July 22, a female taken in a field of soybeans on Purdue Experimental Farm (3); September 10, observed a female on Purdue Experimental Farm (3) in blue grass; September 30, a male observed on Purdue Experimental Farm (3); October 4, a male observed on roadside in West Lafayette (8); October 12, a male observed in bunch grass, An- dropogon furcatus, on bluff along Wabash bottoms south of Lafayette (13). Schistocerca alutacea (Harris). Evidently very rare and sporadic. I captured a female on August 5 in a field on the Purdue Experimental Farm (3) near the Lake Erie and Western R. R., at a point where there was a fence border growth of elder (Sambucus) and melilotus (1. alba). 312 Subsequently, September 24, another specimen, also female, was taken near the same spot by Mr. P. W. Mason. The specimens were of a much duller tint than those which I have taken in the New Jersey cedar bogs. The latter are typically a bright greenish-olive with a very conspicuous bright yellow mid-dorsal stripe and purplish tegmina. The Lafayette specimens were of a dull olive-brown or leather color with a distinet, but not especially conspicuous, mid-dorsal stripe of pale yellow. The place where the specimens were taken was rela- tively quite dry. Melanoplus scudderi (UNler). Moderately common, at least, locally, in grassy tangles and herbaceous undergrowth in or near woodland. July 27, nymphs common in grassy clearings in upland woods (1), northwest of West Lafayette: August 9, an adult male taken in low woods in a thicket at the edge of a bog on Burnett Creek (2): August 20, a male taken in tall herbaceous thicket near a bog at the outer margin of the Wabash bottoms near West Lafayette (6); August 30, a male taken in open thicket at the edge of a bog at the base of a bluff on the outer mar- gin of the Wabash bottoms opposite Battle Ground (16); September 6, frequent in blue grass in an open grove on the bluff near Wild Cat Creek (10), associated with J/. luridus; October 4, several observed in the grassy thickets of roadside adjoining an open patch of woodland (17), south of West Lafayette; October 26, two females observed in grassy fields on the bluff at the head of Happy Holiow (5). Melanoplus viridipes Scudder. Apparently very local, only a single specimen, a male, having been taken on June 24 in a patch of HLlymus virginicus in the fringe of trees marking the outer limits of the Wabash bottoms near West Lafayette (6). Melanoplus obovatipennis (Blatchley). Frequent locally in the herba- ceous thickets surrounding marshes or damp spots generally. August 9, an adult male and female and four nymphs taken in the thickets surrounding a small bog in low woods on Burnett Creek (2): August 30, a male taken at the edge of a marsh chiracterized by Honialo- cenchrus oryzoides, Impatiens and Ambrosia trifida at the base of a bloff at the outer edge of the Wabash bottoms opposite Battle Ground (16) ; September 6, fairly common in herbaceous thickets (goldenrod, sunflow- ers, etc.) along the edge of a Homalocenchrus oryzoides marsh at the base of a wooded bluff near Wild Cat Creek (10); September 15, a pair taken in swamp border thicket. (Lupatorium purpureum, Solidago spp., ete.) in 315 low woods on Burnett Creek (2); October 15-14, frequent in herbaceous thickets (asters, goldenrod, ragweed, etc.) surrounding a cat-tail marsh on the upland northwest of West Lafayette (14). Melanoplus gracilis (Bruner). Apparently moderately frequent locally in moist or slightly humid woodland locations, frequenting grassy and sedgey tangles and herbaceous thickets in the vicinity of bogs. July 27, males moderately frequent in grassy and sedgey areas and surrounding thickets in humid upland woods northwest of West Lafayette (1); August 9, adults of both sexes found in small numbers in a bog occupied by Homalocenchrus oryzoides, Carer spp., Scirpus atrovirens, Saygittaria sp., Salix thickets, ete., in low woods on Burnett Creek (2) ; September 13, a female taken in a bog border thicket in the same locality (2), associated with J/. obovatipennis. Melanoplus fasciatus (Walker). Probably quite rare. A single male specimen was taken June 2S in an exceptionally dense bit of woodland near the base of a steep bluff not far from the mouth of Indian Creek (15). The ground where it was taken was quite bare, except for a few scattered plants of Panicum hudchuce and a few other forms not deter- mined. My determination of this specimen was kindly verified by Prof. Blatchley. Melanoplus walshii Scudder (M. Blatchleyi Scud.). Only a_ single specimen, a female, was taken July 19 in a dense growth of Blymus vir- ginicus on the fiood plain of the Wabash near the mouth of Wild Cat Creek (11). Melanoplus atlanis (Riley). Abundant, though somewhat local, in open grassland in relatively dry situations. Most frequent in upland localities, but it also occurs in small numbers in the bottoms wherever the conditions allow the formation of dry grassland. The species reaches maturity the latter part of June and persists through the summer and well into the fall. The adults appeared to be most abundant about July 20; they apparently decreased in numbers in late summer and early Septem- ber, but in some places they seemed to increase again in early October. At the latter period a number of copulating pairs were taken and the individ- uals were found in localized groups, facts which would perhaps indicate the recent maturing of the specimens and the possibility of a second or fall brood of adults. It is conceivable at least that some of the earlier laid eggs might under favorable conditions hatch out in the fall and thus pro- 514 duce the apparent increase of adults at this time. Mature examples of this species were seen as early as June 16 and as late as October 25. Melanoplus femur-rubrum (DeGeer). The most abundant grasshop- per, swarming everywhere, except in woodland locations and on very dry and barren ground. Its predilections are for relatively humid areas, and it is in consequence especially abundant in the bottom lands, and about ditches and other moist spots. It avoids dense herbaceous thickets and favors open grasslands and clover fields. It reached maturity by the last of July and was found continuously from then until frost. The last record I have is November 2. Melanoplus luridus (Dodge). Of regular occurrence, though not al- Ways common on grassy spots in dry woods or in their immediate vicinity. Usually associated with Spharagemon bolli. August 1, a male taken in blue grass close to the edge of the woods on the bluffs at the head of Happy Hollow (5), nymphs also found here: August 24, several of both sexes found in mixed blue grass and Panicum huachuce in open woods on a bluff at the head of the ravine (38) be- tween West Lafayette and the mouth and Indian Creek: September 1, a small number in a clearing in the woods on the bluff at the head of JIlappy Hollow (5): September 6, frequent in blue grass in a dry open gvove on the bluffs near Wild Cat Creek (10), associated here with Jfelanoplus scudderi. Melanoplus bivittatus (Say). heite ¢ le 4615 12,773 4,080 12,063 Phosphorus (Atcia soluble). 65.6.2. a Seda ose lee ac rs dese 1,046 1,221 959 1,221 WalciumiCActdsoluble)) © ao ou. came nae sacsns dears ces 6,864 9,724 6, 864 14,586 Magnesium (Acid soluble).......... | 4,953 14,496 4,832 14,496 Memooanese (AICIdisOlUp le): 4). oc eenw seccleee hs a eicatuesisied o « | 2,016 2,304 1,008 2,592 Stuilfalavane (CANGRG LCoS YIE))Ss Hee Se MA yas ene se ome one nse 480 800 480 640 MiMVestone Tequinren CACIGIGY)) 2... csumnes tones cle wee oe 60 2,600 100 1,120 Table II gives the pounds of the different elements in the plowed soil of 2,000,000 pounds per acre, and in the subsoil of 4,000,000 pounds per acre. It shows the same relative differences as given in Table I, but in different terms. The writer wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. J. C. Beavers of the Soils and Crops Department, also of Mr. J. B. Abbott, formerly of the same department, who collected most of the soil samples analyzed. 365 SEWAGE DISPOSAL. CHARLES BROSSMANN, Consulting Engineer, Indianapolis. Civilization and education has been accompanied by a wondertui erowth of cities and has made the problem of sewage disposal one of civic, state and national importance. Sanitation becomes of greater importance as communities become more congested. It is only of late years that this question has received proper atten- tion, the greatest progress having been made in the last few decades. ‘Lhe combined efforts of the scientist, chemist and engineer have been Called upon to help solve this problem of ever-increasing importance. Improper disposal of sewage has caused directly or indirectly a large percentage in the typhoid mortality rate. The gathering of large numbers of people calls for additional safe- guards and means of sanitation. In some instances sewage can be dis- posed of by dilution, discharging direct into large bodies of running water: but most streams are as a rule not of sufficient size, or are already so polluted that additional sewage would increase the burden already too large. Generally sewage is diluted with the entire water supply of a city and is a dirty appearing water, containing a greater or less percentage of organic matter. There is usually enough organic matter present to make it disagreeable and to cause odors. The presence of various disease germs also make it a source of pollution to water bodies. In general all methods of sewage treatment employ the principal of reduction through microscopic organisms. Bacteria of various kinds at- tack the organic compounds reducing them to simpler forms, doing so through successive stages. Reduction takes place through two classes of bacteria, hamely aerobic (thriving in the presence of oxygen), and anae- robic (thriving in the absence of oxygen). These two processes occur in septic, Imhoff or other tanks and in yarious forms of filters. The most prevalent form of getting rid of sewage is by dilution. Where the stream is sufficient in size to allow proper oxidation the sewage 366 will be properly taken care of without objectionable odors. Such a stream however should have a flow of about 300 cubic feet per minute for each 1,000 inhabitants. Instances where disposal by dilution alone is sutlicient are not many and usually some additional treatment is necessary, suitable to local conditions. If the stream into which the sewage is to be discharged allows of par- tial dilution, treatment by some properly designed form of tank may be Sledge blowoff pipe Valve Septic Tank Inletsewer Plan Chas Brossmann Engineer Indianapolis ae aS EaT Sey Pee Section Fra. 1. Type of Septic Tank Suitable for Ordinary Dwelling. suflicient, but tank treatment alone will not always suffice. Tank treat- ment is but a step in the purification of sewage and should usually be fol- lowed by some form of filtration or after treatment. Various forms of tanks can be used but the type and size that insures the best results can only be determined after proper investigation of all conditions—as the number of people, amount of sewage, the rate and the time of flow, the 367 location of adjacent property and the size of the water course into which the treated sewage is finally discharged; all are important and enter into the proper solution of this important question. ? Tank treatment, therefore, is essential as the first step in sewage reduction, and is necessary in order to retain and break down the solids, but it must not be supposed that it purifies the remaining sewage liquor. The tank treatment is necessary in preparing the sewage liquor for fur- ther purification. Such tanks can be made in the form of plain settling tanks, a septic tank, or a combination of both. The public will universally call any tank (even a cesspool) a septic tank, and usually they believe that a septic tank absolutely purifies the sewage. Such is not the case, a reduction from thirty to sixty per cent. of Underdrains Sub-sorl tile Onderdrain Fig. 2. Septic Tank and Natural Sand Filter for Small Installations. suspended matter and around thirty per cent. in organic matter is usually what takes place. The tank will not take care of very fine particles or col- loidal matter. Such matter (colloidal) being in condition just between suspension and solution. The best results are obtained when the solids are taken out or retained as quickly as possible and the subsequent liquor remaining immediately treated. It is important that liquor be not retained too long or it will become in a toxic condition. Time is an important element in the proper design of a tank, also the state of the sewage in reaching the tank. Septic tanks are usually designed for a rate of flow, of from eight to sixteen hours. The more modern type of tank with two compartments, one for settling and one for sludge digestion, are usually designed with a rate of flow of half (or even less) than the above. 368 The septic tank is usually a rectangular shaped chamber with several battle boards, extending across to break the flow of the sewage. Such tanks should be covered as the organisms that break down the solids (known as anaerobic bacteria) thrive best in the absence of air and light. Septic tanks usually take some time to become operative, a scum mat forming at the top and sludge at the bottom. At intervals such tanks must be cleaned of the sludge. It was formerly supposed that just as much solid matter was turned to liquid and gas to offset the amount of solids x Imhof{ Tank / Sexe ; : “y \ 0 “. Sand Filler ite toe o YS v LAV PU E Sena sesto"y / ms, Sand Filler v.02. : / / Sand Fillers Chas Brossmann, Engineer ~~ Indianapolis Fic. 3. Imhoff Tank and Sand Filters Installed at Indianapolis Country Club coming in, however, it has usually been found necessary to clean out the resultant sludge at intervals. (See figure 1.) The Imhoff type of tank consists of two chambers, one for settling and one for the deposit and digestion of sludge. Such a tank, while somewhat more expensive than the plain tank is smaller and will give more uniform ~ results, besides offering better means for after-treatment of the liquid and assuring a better solution of the sludge problem. (See figure 4.) This type of tank has an upper settling chamber with a slotted opening at the bottom. The sewage in flowing through the upper chamber deposits 369 the solids into the sludge chamber below. In the sludge or digestion chamber below, the solids and organic matter is gasified and liquified inde- pendent of and without disturbing the settling matter above. The gases of decomposition and the constant agitation in the lower part does not disturb the sewage in the settling chamber, furthermore albu- men from the fresh sewage is not constantly added to the septic sludge; hence there is less odor and the sewage liquor is delivered in a fresher condition for after-treatment. The sludge from this type of tank dries out quicker, is in better condition for disposal, has less water content, and has different characteristics than sludge from a shallow tank which is kept in Fira. 4, Imhoff Tank, Julietta, Ind. Note Formation of Sludge on Sides. constant contact with the sewage. Such double tank sludge soon becomes spadable like garden compost. The tank treatment should be followed by dilution or some form of filtration. In some cases the sewage liquor from tanks can be discharged into a water-course. Usually it is necessary to use some form of filter or nitrification bed. This can be done in the following manner: (1) In small plants by discharging the sewage into tile laid near the surface of the ground. Such ground must be suitable for the sewage to percolate through to a subdrainage system below. Such ground should be gravely or of sand. (See figure 2.) (2) By discharging the sewage into contact beds, viz., a water-tight bed, filled to a depth of several feet with broken stone or other hard 24—4966 370 material, the sewage being automatically discharged on to the bed, re- tained a fixed period, and then discharged from the bed. In such a bed absorption and oxidation of the organic matter is accomplished by aerobic bacteria, viz., those which thrive in the presence of air. (See figure 5.) (3) Sand filters: As the sewage from tanks can be discharged on sand filters—automatically dosed as in contact beds. Such sewage covers the surface of the bed and gradually works through to the underdrains below, the action being that of filtration and nitrification. If a very pure effluent is desired the sewage can be discharged from the tank to the con- Fie. 5. Contact Beds, Julietta, Ind. tact bed and then be treated through the sand filters. In a properly de- signed plant this will give a very clear effluent. (See figure 6.) Sprinkling Filters: In the larger plants sprinkling filters are largely used. These consist of beds of broken stone, usually of a depth of six feet or more and are arranged for good underdrainage. The sewage is auto- matically discharged over the top of the bed by sprinkling nozzles; trickles down through the stone and out through the underdrains. Such beds can be worked at a higher rate than any of the preceding methods, hence a smaller area is required, which makes this method more adaptable for large installations. atl DISPOSITION OF SLUDGE. The real problem in sewage disposal plants is the sludge problem. En- gineers are just learning how to make sludge but in most cases have not found a satisfactory solution in disposing of it. In larger plants the sludge question is the stumbling block. Sludge may be roughly divided in two classes, that from shallow tanks and that from deep tanks. Sedimentation tank sludge is a black semi- Fie. 6. Sand Filters, Julietta, Ind. liquid mass which on being exposed to the air becomes offensive, giving off much gas and odor. The water contained from such sludge is usually 90 to 95%. The sludge from septic tanks ranges all the way from 8 to 45 cubic yards per million gallons of sewage. Septic sludge which has been re- tained in tanks for a number of months undergoes a great change. The organic matter is attacked and partly gasified and liquified, which re- duces the amount of sludge. Such sludge in well operated tanks is a con- al2 centrated mass containing from 80 to 90% of water; there is not as much odor to septic tank sludge as to the fresh sludge from the plain settling tanks. The above outlines the principal methods of sewage disposal. It must however be borne in mind that the proper method is wholly decided by local conditions. Care must be exercised in order that the various factors affecting the problem be carefully considered. A fuller realization of the sewage disposal problem is being evidenced throughout the country as the years go by, both by the state and health officers and city officials. The State has done a great deal of preliminary work in the way of sanitary surveys and this work should be heartily indorsed and commended. However, there is still much to be done, and Water Fowl! in Stream, Julietta, Ind., 100 Feet Below Sewage Plant. Photo taken 2 years after plant was installed. Formerly all waterfowl died from drinking water. undoubtedly some method of maintaining public control of the streams will have to be devised before the question of pollution can be properly taken care of. There are so many different factors entering into this question that the best solution can only be worked out with a proper organization which will take into Consideration every phase of the question and which can reach every district, affected, whether this territory be in ohne or more States. The state authorities should be given the power to pass upon every sewage disposal problem and they should have the proper means and support for doing this. Gontact Bens / i Sanp Fitters Serriwe 9 Tanw / 7 1/ vA // fe Sy JULIETTA SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANT <= GnAs. BrossMANN ConsuttiIne ENoINEER eres fa rel Fig. 8. General Plan. Section of Julietta Sewage Plant Showing Imhoff Tank, Contact Beds and Sand Filters. Tar FORMING TEMPERATURES OF AMERICAN COALS. Orro Carter Berry, Assistant Professor of Experimental Hngineering. The material presented in this paper is the result of a series of inves- tigations started in the laboratories of the University of Wisconsin and later continued at Purdue University. In form the paper is a brief of a part of a bulletin of the University of Wisconsin published by the author in 1914, with the addition of the results of the subsequent work. The nature of the volatile matter in bituminous coal is attracting con- siderable attention at the present time. This is due not only to the enor- mous amount of conl annually used in the United States, but also to the important part volatile matter plays in determining how the coal must be handled in order to obtain the best results. One of the most important and troublesome constituents of the vola- tile matter is tar, especially when the coal must be used in boiler furnaces or in power gas producers. The investigations to be discussed in this paper had in view: (1) the determination of the temperature limits between which tars are dis- tilled from the various classes of coal; (2) the temperature limits of the maximum rate of evolution of tars; (3) the relative quantities of tars distilled from the various general classes of coal; and (4) the lowest tem- perature at which one may be certain that the last trace of tar has been driven off from the coal. Briefly stated, the results show that the temperature at which the first trace of tar appears will range from about 200°C. to about 885°C. usually falling quite near 300°. The maximum deposit will start at a temperature =» varying between 330° and 450°C. and will end between 430° and 550°C. The last trace of tar will appear between 530° and G80°C. The amount of tar produced seems to vary not so much with the amount of volatile mat- ter in the coal as with the ratio of the carbon to the hydrogen as shown by the ultimate analysis of the coal. When fresh coal is supplied to a furnace the volatile matter com- mences to distill off and if properly mixed with air and burned there is no ol4 heat loss. The tarry products do not give trouble in gas producers when the gas is burned hot in ovens or furnaces. If however, the gas is allowed to cool, these products condense and stop up the piping, and unless re- moved, will clog up the engine valves if used for power purposes. The removal of these tarry products not only involves special and expensive apparatus and the expenditure of power, but also results in a loss of the available heat from the gas. The problem as here presented is the outgrowth of an attempt to adapt the suction gas producer to the use of bituminous fuel. The type of pro- ducer used is what is known as the re-circulating producer such as is rep- resented by the Whitfield and Pintsch patents. In this type of producer an attempt is made to draw off the tarry vapors from the top of the fuel column and introduce them agin into the fire at the very bottom of the producer. The finished gas is drawn from the central portion of the fuel column. This location must be chosen with at least three points in mind: (1) It must be far enough down in the fuel column to be below the point at which the last trace of tar is driven off from the coal. (2) It must not be any farther down than is necessary, or the loss due to the sensible heat in the gas will be excessive. This loss, in per- centage of the total heat value of the coal, will equal approximately the number of hundreds of degrees F. at which the gas leaves the producer. Thus, if the gas leaves at 1,200°F., the loss will approximate 12 per cent. of the total heat value of the coal burned. (3) The point of exit must be high enough above the bottom to allow ample opportunity for the CO, and H.O resulting from the com- bustion of the distilled volatile matter to be reduced to free H, and CO. To fulfill these several requirements, it is necessary to know exactly when each factor is operative. The depth of the incandescent zone that is necessary for a producer of a given size and capacity, and the precautions that are necessary to prevent a concentration of draft at any part of the producer, are fairly well known from practice. The most important item that is left for investigation is therefore to ascertain the exact tempera- ture at which the last trace of tar is driven off from the coal. An attempt was made to follow the temperature conditions met with in the gas producer, in these laboratory tests. This made it necessary to place the following list of requirements on the laboratory apparatus: (1) The coal must be heated very slowly and at a uniform rate. (2) The heat must be conducted from the outside to the center of 379 the body of coal by some good conductor, as the coal itself is a very poor conductor of heat and all particles in the body of coal must always be at a uniform temperature during the heating. (3) The temperature of the coal must be accurately known at all times. (4) The gases driven off from the coal must be swept out as soon as formed. (5) The gases must be cooled down and continuously tested for tar. (6) g eS ia H t i) 1 i} \ ig Mi Sunman | i} i} I eueseaecese Batesville Ae 9 3° /8 ee 4 re g (SsburY sas a CORRELATION OF THE OUTCROP AT SPADES, INDIANA. / H. N. CoryELtL, INTRODUCTION. The collections forming the basis for the present paper were Gare- fully made by the Rey. T. A. Bendrat, M.S., during the autumn of 1918, from the exposure one mile west of Spades, Indiana. His careful deserip- tion of the outcrop has been of considerable value in the correlation. The identifications of the species were made in the laboratories of the Department of Geology of Indiana University under the supervision and direction of Professor E. R. Cumings and Dr. J. J. Galloway. Their assistance and suggestions have been of great value. THE PRESENT DIVISIONS OF THE RICHMOND. Richmond— Elkhorn (Platystrophia moritura zone). Whitewater (Homotrypa wortheni zone). Saluda (Tetradium minus zone). Liberty (Strophomena planumbona zone). Waynesville (Dalmanella meeki zone). DESCRIPTION AND STRATIGRAPHY. The reconstruction of the Cincinnati Division of the C., C., C. & St. L. Railroad through Ripley County, Indiana, in 1902-04 made available for study a section of strata high in the Cincinnatian one mile west of Spades. The exposure at present is from five to six feet high and in places partially covered with debris, leaving, however, distinct ledges out- cropping. The strata are approximately horizontal. The limestone at the base of the exposure weathers to a bluish-gray; it is very variable in texture, some portions being very finely crystalline, others containing quite large calcite crystals, as well as geode formations and iron concretions. Above this limestone the strata become more argillaceous, thinly bedded and present a distinct shaly structure. 390 This section possesses a distinct similarity to the upper part of the Whitewater section exposed at Richmond, Indiana, in being a very nodular, shaly limestone. Though similarity in lithology is not a conclusive proof that two or more separated sections are parts of the same formation, yet the fact that there is a distinct resemblance does tend to lend favor to that decision. A detailed description of this locality is given in the following section, taken from “The Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Cincinnati Series of Indiana.’’* SECTION ALONG THE West FORK OF WHITEWATER RIVER AT RICHMOND, INDIANA. (Number 1 is at the top of this section. ) 1. Exposures in the bank above Thistlewaite Falls on the west fork of Whitewater River, about one and one-quarter miles north of the National road bridge across Whitewater River. Thin, lumpy limestone. Rhynchotrema dentata (aa). Several species of gastropode, including Salpingostoma richmondense (¢). Stro- phomena sulcata (r)...... RMON CUS TAI tal Sets cheno eu otasont torheta 8 cra ore nite .- 8 feet. 2. Layer in the breast of the falls. Heavier layer at the top. Limestone. Monticulipora epidermata (¢). Platystrophia acuti- lirata senex (c). Homotrypa wortheni............... Mirveper ore ose §6© LeCT 3. West side of creek just below the falls. Bryozoa (aaa), Monticulipora epidermata, etc................... eye eros a” sabe aeeete > oOreer 4. Just north of the ©. R. & M. R. R. bridge. Thin, shaly limestone, Rhynchotrema capax, the highest specimens. Plectam- DONITESPRELICCUS, (CEL). ..c.ctoe sere om natale Os ela ShaUeteaNs ieee SES EN rhe -* © Leet. 5. Just south of the C. R. & M. R. R. bridge. Rhynchotrema Ghiochs (EE) Sa5me goose etaers anatase operate cocetistaie baeietere APO PREECE EO Gre er EC .4 ft. 8 in. 6. About one-eighth of a mile north of the road bridge across Lie west; fonk.,, Ptylodictyarplumaria, ‘etGrn.css «sock oaneeee ee ee 5 feet. 7. A short distance north of the junction of the east and west forks of the river. Limestone and intercalated shale. Hallopora, very similar to H. rugosa. No specimens of Rhynchotrema dentata 4 feet. *Prof. E. R. Cumings. Indiana Dept. Geology and Nat. Resources, 32d Ann. Rept. 1907. aol RELATION OF THE SPADES SECTION TO Cur 18 NEAR WEISBURG. In all parts of the Tanner’s Creek section there is a general dip of five feet to the mile, and we may ,assume that this dip holds over the five miles from Weisburg to Spades. This places the base of the White- water, which is exposed in the cut 18 just north of the station at Weis- burg, seventy-five feet below the railway grade at Spades. In the Rich- mond section of the Whitewater, where the whole of the formation is exposed, a similar thickness is found, leading us to conclude that the outcrop one mile west of Spades represents the upper strata of the Whitewater. The position of the latter outcrop in reference to the Whitewater in the Ripley County locality is shown on the accompanying chart. The lines of dip have been extended to Batesville, five and one- half miles northwest of Spades, where there is sixty feet of Whitewater, portions of which are exposed in the stream gullies a few miles south of Batesville. RANGE OF THE SPECIES FOUND AT SPADES, INDIANA.* Byssonychia grandis Ulrich, Upper Richmond. Byssonychia obesa Ulrich, Whitewater. Calymene callicephala Green. Common throughout the Cincinnatian, especially at the top of the Waynesville. Dalmanella meeki (Miller). Corryville-Arnheim and Waynesville. Platystrophia laticosta (Meek). McMicken, Maysville and Richmond. Lophospira trophidophora (Meek). Whitewater. Platystrophia acutilirata (Conrad), Waynesville, Liberty and Whitewatcr. Platystrophia acutillirata senex (Cumings). Upper Whitewater. Platystrophia laticosta (Meek). McMicken, Maysville and Richmond. Protarea richmondensis (Foerste). Waynesville, Liberty and Whitewater. Rafinesquina alternata (Hmmons). Throughout the Cincinnatian. Streptelasma rusticum (Billings). Waynesville, Liberty, Saluda and Whitewater. Arthropora shafferi (Meek). Throughout the Cincinnatian. Bythopora delicatula (Nicholson). Coryville-Arnheim and Richmond. Dicranopora emacerata (Nicholson). Maysville and Richmond. Hallopora cf ramosa. Richmond. Helopora elegans Ulrich. Liberty and Whitewater. *See ‘Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Tanner’s Creek Section of the Cincinnati Series of Indiana.”’ 392 Heterotrypa sp. undescribed. Upper Whitewater. Homotrypa wortheni (James). Richmond and Whitewater. Homotrypella hospitalis (Nicholson). Waynesville to Whitewater. Nematopora cf lineata (Billings). Middle and Upper Ordivician. Rhinidictya lata (Ulrich). Waynesville. Rhombotrypa sp. undescribed. Upper Whitewater. Stigmatella sp. SPECIES FROM NUMBERS ONE AND T'Wo OF THE WHITEWATER SECTION AT RICHMOND, IND. (See section above.) * Anomalodonta gigantis Miller. Byssonychia grandis Ulrich. *Byssonychia obesa Ulrich. Byssonychia suberecta Ulrich. Ischyrodonta modioliformis Ulrich. Pterinea demissa (Conrad). *Protarea richmondensis Foerste. *Streptelasma rusticum (Billings). Cyclonema bilix (Conrad). *Lophospira tropidophora (Meek). Salpingostoma richmondensis Ulrich. Cytoceras sp. Amplexopora sp. *Bythopora delicatula (Nicholson). Bythopora meeki (James). Ceramoporella ohioensis (Nicholson). Corynotrypa inflata (Hall). *Dicranopora emacerata (Nicholson). Hallopora subnodosa (Ulrich). Heterotrypa prolifica Ulrich. Heterotrypa subramosa (Ulrich). Homotrypa austini Bassler. Homotrypa flabellaris Ulrich. Homotrypa flabellaris spinifera Bassler. *Homotrypa wortheni (Janes). Monticulipora epidermata Ulrich and Bassler. Peronopora pavonia (d’Orbigny ). *The species marked with an asterisk are found in the section at Spades, Indiana. we) Se) Homotrypella rustica Ulrich. Rhombotrypa crassimuralis (Ulrich). Dinorthis subquadrata (Hall). Hebertella occidentalis (Hall). *Platystrophia acutilirata (Conrad). *Platystrophia acutilirata senex Cumings. *Rafinesquina alternata (Hmmons). Rhynchotrema denatatum (Hall). Strophomena vetusta James. Strophomena planumbona (Hall). Strophomena sulcata (Verneuil). Zygospira modesta (Hall). In comparing the fauna of this cut with the numbers, one and two, of the Richmond type section, we find that many species that appear in the type locality are not found at Spades, but those that do appear at Spades are undoubted Whitewater species. Those that are limited to and charac- teristic of, the Whitewater, are: Homotrypa wortheni (James?) Platy- strophi aacutilirata senex, Cumings. Byssonychia obesa Ulrich, and Lophospira trophidopora (Meek). Twenty-four species were identified from Spades, three of which are new abd undescribed. The description and discussion of their morphy logical structure will be given in a subsequent paper. 395 THE PALEOBOTANY OF THE BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA, QUADRANGLE. T. KF. JACKSON. The fossil plants herein discussed are, with three exceptions, Penn- sylvania forms and were collected principally from two localtiies in the Bloomington, Indiana, Quadrangle. The greater part of them were ob- tained from a shale bed about one-fourth mile southeast of the Yoho School. This bed was made up of a succession of thin, bluish-gray clay- shales interstratified with thin sandy layers, with nodules of iron ore irregularly distributed throughout the entire bed. The shale layers were very soft and plastic when wet and both the shale layers and sandy layers were rather hard and very brittle when dry. One of the shale layers was very highly impregnated with iron oxides, and from this layer the best fossils were obtained. The entire bed attains a thickness of eight to nine feet. The remainder of the Pennsylvanian forms were obtained from a thin, ferrugineous sandstone layer and an overlying sandstone layer, about one-fourth mile southeast of Cincinnati. Molds and casts of Lepidodendron and Calamite forms were collected from the latter. The ferrugineous sandstone layer contained a number of Trigonocarpon and a few Carpo- lithes forms. Loose sandstone fragments of fossil plants, apparently of Pennsyl- vanian age, were hoted in a number of places in the southwestern part of the Quadrangle, but, as their exact horizon could not be ascertained, those forms are not included in the following lists of species. A few fragments of Mississippian forms were noted in the central and northern part of the west half of the Quadrangle. Those plants were yery poorly preserved and at but one place were fossils obtained in a state of preservation such that identification was possible. Three species in a fair state of preservation were found in a sandstone layer a few feet above the Mitchell limestone, about one-half mile west of Whitehall. 396 Although a few of the Pennsylvanian plants examined represent new species and several others differ more or less from previously described forms it is not thought to be advisable to figure and describe those new forms at this time inasmuch as it is planned to include them in a later paper on the flora of the entire Pottsville section as represented in the State. List of plants from the Yoho School locality : Sphenophyllum cuneifolium (Stb.) Zeill. Sphenophyllum bifurcatum Lx. Sphenophyllum tenerrimum? Ett. Asterophyllites erectifolius And. Asterophyllites gracilis Lx. Calamostachys sp. Lepidodendron clypeatum Lx. Lepidodendron sp. Alethopteris Eyansii Lx. Alethopteris grandifolia Newb. Alethopteris lonchitica (Schloth.) Brongn. Alethopteris sp. Pecopteris plumosa? Brongn. Pecopteris sp. Neuropteris Elrodi Lx. Neuropteris Jenneyi? D. W. Neuropteris sp. Neuropteris fimbriata Lx. Neuodontopperis? sp. Pseudocopteris decipiens Lx. Sphenopteris sp. Sphenopteris communis Lx. Zeilleria sp. Cardiocarpon annulatum Newb. Cardiocarpon cornutum Dn. Cardiocarpon pachytesta? Lx. Cardiocarpon sp. Rhabdocarpus sp. Carpolithes sp. 397 A mere casual inspection of the above list will show the Pottsville aspect of the plants. Of these forms Sphenophylum cuneifolium, 8. bi- furcatum, S. tenerrimum?, Asterophyllites erectifolius, A. gracilis, Ale- thopteris Evansi, A. grandifolia, A. lonchitica, Neuropteris Elrodi, N. fim- briata, N. Jenneyi, Pseudocopteris decipiens, Shenopteris communis, Car- diocarpon annulatum, ©. cornutum, C. pachytesta?, have not been re- ported. I believe, from formations younger than Pottsville age. Of those Pottsville forms Sphenophyllum bifurcatum, Alethopteris Eivansi, A. lonechitica, Neuropteris Elrodi, N. fimbriata, and Cardiocarpon cornutum were reported by White* as being confined to the Upper Lykens Coal group of the Pottsville type section. Sphenophyllum cuneifolium and Cardiocarpon annulatum were reported from both the Upper Lykens Coal group and the Upper Intermediate group of the type section. Alethopteris grandifolia was reported from the Lower Intermediate group in the type section. The vertical range of several of the remaining forms is either not definitely known or is too great for correlation purposes; the rest of the forms are too poorly preserved. for specific classification. Therefore only those forms reported from the Pottsville type sections are considered of value for correlation. A comparison of the list of Pottsville plants from the Yoho School locality with the list of plants from the Pottsville type section indicates that the Pennsylvanian of the Yoho School area represents an horizon in the upper part of the Middle Pottsville of the type section. List of plants from the Cincinnati locality: Calamites approximatus Schloth. Calamites sp. Lepidodendron clypeatum Lx. Lepidodendron sp. Neuropteris lunata? D. W. Lepidophloios sp. Of the above listed forms Calamites approximatus and Neuropteris lunata? have been reported from the Upper Lykens Coal group of the type section of the Pottsville. Lepidodendron clypeatum has too great a ver- ticai range to be of value as a horizon marker. The other forms were too *White, David. The Stratigraphic Succession of the Fossil Floras of the Pottsville Formation in the Southern Anthracite Coal Field, Pennsylvania. 20th Ann. Rep’t. U.S. G.S. Part II. 1900. 398 poorly preserved for accurate classification. Considering only the forms first irentioned it would appear that the Pennsylvanian of the Cincinnati locality would fall within the Middle Pottsville of the type sectoin. Three Mississippian fossil plants, Lepidodendron Volkmannianum St., Lepidodendron sp., and a yariety of Stigmaria ficoides were obtained from the Chester sandstone a few feet above the Mitchell limestone, about one- half mile west of Whitehall. Sounty, mut two study. several jie tex- at the » basin. ing the le most d there and out nto the uliform at the he Flat- sewhere, uddenly he slope abrupt. iscussed x. This at seven * Wietts- de basin, > W., the ' ' i | 2 - ji ! S ' ' 2 ! DO Bee ee Se = ee | D> = re z« =< } ' = o Sige | Zu65 3 = | =u = eel z ! ! 7 O Ea 2 sas : ! y/ Ss 2 oe as I CR y E ba neem y VEN ce Sve. Shae F Spa, oh Ue ime Su az ro =e ey ge 5 2 : ae | ! aa 3 Ec == : , ie Eh a ee I Soa Re epee. Chie ID ows i Bia "ee hie ' s x = BEE z3 ! y =<“ @ SO aS | 1 She | ie x | Sz. Y Ae ° a ae : A---- ----- -1-- Ufpy az x (eu, 23 | = : = F 1 u\ é 3 z cS vi Ys \ “ZZ ALNnOD J04NOW Ye ALNnOD Nao YY \ OWEN CoukTY | CREENE CouNTYy reo----- i TION, 399 Tor Fuatwoops REGION OF OWEN AND MONROE CouNTIES, INDIANA. CLYDE A. MALOTT. EXTENT AND TOPOGRAPHY. Lying between Ellettsville, Monroe County, and Spencer, Owen County, Ind., is a strip of territory some six miles long and averaging about two miles wide, which has been the object of considerable curiosity and study. It is a low level basin nearly surrounded by higher land, yet having several openings in the surrounding periphery of hills. The surface of the region is mainly an ash-colored soil of a fine tex- ture, containing very little sand. It is in reality a silt region at the surface, and its outline is clearly discernible at the margin of the basin. This silt region, or its outline, is the principal means of determining the margin of the region, as indicated by the map. It coincides for the most part with the foot of the hills surrounding the basin. Here and there in the basin a hill rises out of the silt region somewhat as an island out of the water, and frequently a hill-like peninsula protrudes out into the region, rising high above the ash-colored silt margin. The silt margin lying about the foot of the hills is rather uniform in height, averaging close to the 760-foot contour line, excepting at the northeast margin, where it extends much higher. This region of the Flat- woods area is also exceptional in regard to the periphery. Elsewhere, except at the openings, the hilis surrounding the area rise rather suddenly above the basin; but here the margin is scarcely discernibie, as the slope is very gradual and seems rather to fade out instead of being abrupt. This phnomenon is one of considerable importance and will be discussed later. Lying in the long axis of the region is McCGormicks Creek. This stream drains about nine-tenths of Flatwoods. Its head is about seven hundred fifty feet above sea level, one and one-half miles west of Elletts- ville. The first few miles of its course is over the flat plain of the basin, Which gvies it but little fall. After leaving Section 36, T. 10 N. R. 3 W.. the 400 fall increases slightly, and soon after entering Section 26, T. 10 N., R. 3 W.. the stream has cut down to bed rock. The road leading east and west along the north side of Section 26 is practically the margin of Flatwoods in this vicinity. On this road a shallow ford crosses the creek on the 700-foot contour line, over a solid rock floor. From the source of the stream to this ford, a distance of about five miles, the stream has a fall of about tifty feet. It enters White River about two miles below, at an elevation of 540 feet above sea level. Thus the last two miles of the stream have a fall of 160 feet. Practically the entire last two miles of the course is over a solid rock bed. The region presents some of the most rugged and beautiful scenery in the State. The stream courses down a veritable gorge which is but little wider than the stream itself. Many cascades occur, and about a mile below the ford a fall of about 12 feet occurs. In low water the stream cascades over this fall, but when the water is high it rushes over with a roar that can be heard for some dis- tance. Above the falls the floor of the gorge is swept clean of debris, but below, the gorge is wider, and in many places is chocked with the rock debris that has been carried from above or has fallen from the almost vertical walls on either side. Just east of the source of McCormicks Creek is the source of a small branch which leads northeast through an opening in the rim of the basin and empties into Jacks Defeat Creek. This stream drains but little of Flatwoods, as indicated by the map. Its source is about the same height as the McCormicks Creek source, and its mouth, one and one-third miles northeast, comes out at about 670 feet above sea level, thus giving it a fall of eighty feet. Another break in the rim of the basin occurs in Section 30, T. 10 N., R. 2. W., about two miles southwest of Stinesville. This opening is nar- row and its surface is below the 760-foot contour jine. To the north of the narrow opening is a wide flat plain similar to the Flatwoods, hay- ing a silt surface of the same nature. This flat is drained into Big Creek. The narrow opening itself is practically bed-rock at the surface. Sinks occur in it. A small portion of Flatwoods is drained into a deep sink near the northwest part of this section. The water that goes into this sink undoubtedly passes under the narrow opening and comes out into 3ig Creek below, as several springs occur in the upper part of this creek. Just to the west of this narrow opening is a high hill capped with sand- stone, which is at least sixty feet higher than the opening. The silt line 401 can be distinctly seen on practically all sides of this hill, coming slightly above the 760-foot contour line. About one and one-half miles southwest of Ellettsville in the south- east corner of Section 8, T. 9 N., R. 2 W., is a sink which has a small stream entering it, and draining about one-half square mile of Flatwoods. This stream has lowered this corner of Flatwoods considerably below the general level. The water that goes into the sink flows out about a half mile to the southwest from a couple of large springs which drain into Raccoon Creek. Perhaps the most interesting opening in the periphery of the basin occurs in Section 1, T. 9 N., R. 3 W. This opening leads into a tributary of Raccoon Creek, and is at least a third of a mile wide. To the east of it is a high hill or ridge attaining a maximum height of 910 feet, and on the west another ridge reaches above the 880-contour line. The floor of the opening itself is twenty-five feet or more below the silt-line on the sides of the hills. This opening is really a connection between Flatwoods proper and a continuation of it in the Raccoon Creek Valley. Consideration will be given it later. There is yet another outlet to the Flatwoods region, which at first was very puzzling to the writer. At the western extremity of the basin Allistons Branch reaches into it by many deep and narrow tributaries. These tributaries are almost invariably headed by seepage springs which come out into the sandy material in which the tributaries are cut. The basin itself is some higher at this western part. The basin cannot be said to have a margin at this western limit; it ends more or less abruptly in the tributaries of Allistons Branch. If it ever had a peripheral margin at this end it has been effaced by the V-shaped valleys leading into Allistons Branch. The writer intends to prove that this western end never had a distinct margin, that is, like the so clearly identified ones on the southern and northern periphery of the region. From the silt line at the foot.of the hills, the slope of the basin is generally inward toward the mathematical center. The lowest part of the basin (not considering the valley and channel of McCormicks Creek) is along the Monroe-Owen County line, between sections 31 and 36, T. i0 N., and branching off from this along the southern part of section 31 and and along the northern part of section 36. This region is very fertile, being almost entirely a black loamy soil. The white silt of the bordering 26—4966 402 regions passes under this black soil. But farther out into the black soi.. the silt underneath almost pinches out. The low region containing the black soil was undoubtedly the centre of the basin in former times, even as it is now. This low-lying, fertile region is very near the 720-foot cou- tour line; thus it is some forty feet below the silt line at the foot of the hills surrounding. It was said that the slope of the basin is generally toward the mathe- matical center; this is not true specificaliy, as there are some excep- tions. Several places considerably elevated occur. The large one in Section 31, T. 10 N., R. 2 W. reaches to the height of 795 feet, approxi- mating the peripheral regions. A well shows that bed rock is near the surtace of this old monadiock. In section 36, west of the above, a long arm-like island projects out into the basin, and near the south of the middle of the section a notch occurs in the arm, which almost separates tie north end, leaving a round-like knob projecting some forty feet above the basin. This elevation also has bed-rock in it near the surface. Section 25, T. 10 N., R. 3 W. has two elevations some twenty feet above the gen eral level of the basin. It was not determined whether these had bed-rock near the surface, but indications are, especially in the western one, that it is there at a shallow depth. The elevation on the section line between sections 26 and 35, T. 10 N., R. 38 W. is a rounded knoll about twenty-five feet above the general level of the basin. Indications are that it con- tains no bed-rock. The northern part of Section 6, T. 10 N., R. 2 W., con- tains a slight elevation, perhaps twelve feet above the low-lying area adjacent. A deep well proves that it contains no bed-rock. Southeast in section 5, und entering section 8, is a long elevation parallel to the long axis of the basin and about twenty feet high. A well proves that this one also contains no bed-rock. While dealing with the irregularities of the surface of the basin, at- tention must be called to the depression at the scuthwestern edge of Flat- woods, on the section line between sections 2 and 3, T. 9 N., R. 3 W. This depression, containing about two acres, is the site of a small lake which is being rapdly filled by in-wash and vegetation. The elevation of the sur- face of this small lake, bearing the name of Stogsdill Vond, is about 770 feet. It is enclosed on three sides by sloping banks which reach tiurty feet above the water. It is open on the north. The south bank of Stogsdill Pond is the lowest opening to a sort of an adjunct to the Flatwoods basin. The surface of this adjunct slopes 405 vraduially from the bank of the pond for about one and one-fourth miles to the south, and in its lowest place, a series of sinks jutting against the bed-rock hills at the south, comes down to the 7O00-foot contour line. This adjunct basin is about as broad as long. It is drained mainly by two southward extending streams that come to the series of sinks at the south end. A third but much smaller southward flowing stream drains the western side. It also disappears in a sink in the southwest corner of the region. The western edge, near the middle of sections 38 and 10, ends abruptly in the rapidly headward-etching streams of the headwaters of McBrides Creek. The eastern rim is the ridge of highland which jas been mentioned as the western rim of the opening extending into the Rac- coon Creek Valley. This same ridge turns to the west and forms the southern rim of the adjunct basin also, and beneath which the waters of the region flow in their underground passage. This small adjunct basin undoubtedly once had a smooth and gentle slope from the southern rim of the western part of Flatwoods proper te the high ridge at the south, but subsequent drainage through sinks at the southern end has eroded it into three main grooves with many smaller tributary grooves. The slope be- gan at the north at an elevation of more than SOO feet, and ended at the southeastern corner at 740 feet. The west part of the southern end was somewhat higher, perhaps 760 feet. It was lowest at the southeast corner, because at this place there is an opening in the bed-rock ridge, which leads to Raccoon Creek. This opening will be called into account later. We are now ready to go back to the broad opening in the middle of the southern periphery of the basin, and see the extension of the Flatwoods basin to the south. As has been said before, the floor of this opening is slightly below 740 feet, and that the silt line extends as high as 760 feet. Soon after leaving the opening, the silt line on the side of the ridges be- comes more or less indistinct, since erosion has either erased it or covered it over. Still farther south not only the silt line is removed, but much of the one-time basin-flat itself is removed. The flat, however, can be traced for four and one-half miles south and some west down the valley, or rather above the valley of Raccoon Creek. The creek here turns abruptly and flows to the northwest, at a right angle to the course above. Modified portions of the old flat are distinct for two or more miles north- west of the sharp turn. It is understood, then, that this Raccoon Creek addition is very much eroded by the present stream and its tributaries. But it is important to 404 notice the elevation of the flat itself. Where it leaves Flatwoods proper, it is somewhat below the 740-contour. The slope is gradually downward from this place to the south. Im the vicinity of Freeman the elevation of the flat is 700 feet. This makes a gentle slope down the valley southwest of a little less than ten feet to the mile. The Raccoon Creek addition ex tends up the creek almost as far east as the eastern margin of Flatwoods proper. ‘The old flat is recognizable for three and one-half miles up Little Raccoon Creek, which enters Raccoon Creek from the southeast near Freeman. The extent and shape of the addition can be seen by consulting the map. It contains in all about eight square miles. Thus this addition and the adjunct south of Stogsdill pond make an area approximating that of Flatwoods proper. While dealing with the Raccoon Creek addition of the Flatwoods basin, it must be emphasized that it occurs only in remnants. There are, however, quite large areas, sometimes a quarter-section or more, that have suffered little erosion. In such cases, or in cases where much smaller areas are preserved, there occurs the same flat, ash-colored, crawfish soil that is so characteristic of Flatwoods proper. Second to these flats, the most striking physiographic feature is the terraces resulting from the streams cutting down into the flat. The terraces begin almost immedi- ately after entering the gap from Flatwoods proper. Here they begin at zero, but soon become quite a distinct feature. They grow higher very rapidly, so to speak, as the stream cuts down into the flat to the south. At Freeman, four and one-half miles below the gap, the stream has cut down one hundred feet below the old flat, and the terraces are accord- ingly one hundred feet above the stream, 3ut in this vicinity there are many places where the terraces are indistinct, as they are so eroded that they no longer appear as terraces. This condition occurs in the immediate vicinity of Freeman. Beyond a slight bed-rock hill to the east of TFree- man, however, the flat is distinctly discernible, and the terraces show beautifully above the small tributary streams that are etching their way into it. UNDERGROUND INFERENCES AS REVEALED BY WELLS AND BORDERING REGIONS. Having dealt somewhat with the extent and topography of the Flat- woods region, we shall now turn to a slightly different phase. Perhaps the most interesting particulars of the region are the underground infer- ences as they are revealed by the wells of the region and by the places along the western margin, which have suffered erosion by the rapidly 405 encroaching streams from the west. Data from shallow wells, while re- yealing interesting sub-surface particulars, are not sufficient to give the shape of the pre-existing basins of the region. The deep wells, the wells which reach bed-rock, are important in this respect. ‘There are only a few such wells; enough, however, were found to reveal an intelligent idea of the shape of the pre-existing basins, and the character of the material filling them. These things are of the utmost importance for working out the history of the region, which was the chief reason of time and attention being given to the area. The easternmost part of the region is very probably not filled to a great depth. The sinks that abound indicate that bed-rock is near the sur- face. Sections 4, 9 and 8 contain sinks; these sections are at the eastern margin, and it might be easily deduced that the bed-rock is near the sur- face. Well No. 1. Out some distance in the basin, on the southern line of Section 5, T. 8 N., R. 2 W., near the headwaters of McCormick’s Creek, is a well at Mr. Fife’s which is twenty odd feet deep. This well furnishes a copious supply of water which comes from sand underlying a shallow surface stratum of soil. This well proves that the elongated elevation is a product of the forces which made the topography of the region, and not a remnant or hill in the former basin. Well No. 2. This well is situated in the middle southern part of Sec- tion 6, T. 9 N., R. 2 W., and is on the edge of the silt line at the foot of the hill. It is sixteen feet deep and reaches solid stone. The material through which it passes seems to be entirely the outwash or talus from the hill rising up behind it. Well No. 3. Middle northern part of Section 6, T. 9 N., R. 2 W., at W. Stone’s. Surface elevation 730 feet. The depth of this well was not ascertained but reports indicate that it is of considerable depth to bed- rock. Well No. 4. Southwestern part of Section 31, T. 10 N., R. 2 W., at H. Heady’s. Surface elevatoin, 728 feet. Depth, 14 feet. Soil, with streaks of yellow and blue containing fine sand, 12.5 feet. Caked sand, of a yel- lowish sugary appearance when wet, becoming like brittle sandstone upon drying, 1.5 foot. Well No. 5. This well is in the high hill to the north of well No. 4. It reaches bed-rock at a shallow depth. Well No. 6. On the county line, middle eastern part of Section 3&6, 406 YT. 10 N., R. 3 W., at Mr. Whitsell’s. Surface elevation, 720 feet. Depth, 12 feet. Under a shallow surface soil occurs a blue clay which contains very fine, angular sand grains. These grains are invisible to the eye, though they may be felt when the dry material is rubbed between the finger and thumb. This very fine sandy clay is very tough, tenacious, and slightly sticky when wet, and of a distinct blue color. On exposure to the air it takes on a brownish-grey hue. When dry it is an ash color. Ap- plicaton of muriatic acid shows that it is highly charged with calcium carbonate. (This detailed description is given because this material is often encountered in the lower parts of wells. Hereafter it will be desig- nated as blue clay. It will be further discussed iater. ) Well No. 7. One-fourth mile north of well No. 6, at the residence of B. Smith, is a well which reaches bed-rock at a depth of 12 feet. The sur- face elevation is 720 feet. Well No. 8. One-eighth mile northeast of well No. 7, N. W. corner of Section 31, T. 10 N., R. 2 W., at C. Wampler’s. Surface elevation, 720 feet. PO Oh ipeeicie Pie role ta, ais ie heii eicla de ceeteaehe eeere 17 feet. Trmbfed ded Moss se. er soa eee ee 1 foot. OITA Sites te emt RO a oie Ards Se See 8 feet. (Cuienyrellats witch Cth n\s laos peer ierclecorcioinicickcia cia ator, Bic 1 foot. PAIMESTONE setae ik oer ae Sst e eek oie vee Well No. 9. One-eighth mile north of No. 8S, southwest corner of Section 80. Surface elevation, 720 feet. Depth to stone, 51 feet. SOM PAT CR CLAY o..0e%. 5. acres inks ota oleate ere SEA aioe 18 feet. SANG AMG STAVE... craletet cists oie utinve oP ercL eats 4 feet. SUMO SCID WA rors. stole tuekctse 4 fect) Seat tenet er ete 29 feet. LIMESTONE % a, Soest ieee. a8, Haleme nasi Sete eee In the northwest corler of Section 25 and leading far into Section 24, T. 10 N., R. 3 W., is an arm or extension of the Flatwoods basin, which is filled very little. Sinks are very numerous, showing limestone in many places. The general elevation of this extension is 740 feet. Well No. 10. In the northwest part of Section 26, T. 10 N., R. 3 W., co at Frank Marshall's. Surface elevation, 725 feet. Depth to stone, 47 feet. Sand VaclavAsOul oes. we ols a cteetas ee eRe ares 40 feet. SANGMAnNG “PTAVel.. vA... sae noe cree 4 feet. Olle ts cue niete onion neater (OEE, Sacre ei SOR: 5 feet. MSUIMESLOMES <5 Src cesta earth tern oe eediore a 407 Mr. Marshall also has a dug well; it is twenty feet deep. It seems to be in clay soil except near the bottom, where sand occurs. A stick was found in this sand. Some twenty-five rods east of Mr. Marshall’s drilled well is the ford on the road across McCormicks Creek, where rock outcrops at 700 feet. Bed-rock was struck at least twenty-two feet lower than this in the Mar- shall well. Farther up McCormicks Creek, about three-quarters of a mile, bed-rock is to be seen in the Creek bed, and just above, two remark- ably large springs pour forth clear, cool limestone water, indicating that bed-rock is near the surface. Well No. 11. Middle western part of Section 26, one-half mile south- west of No. 10. Surface elevation, 740 feet. Depth to stone, 110 feet. SOR pork. boas roentgen. Where ene PA eyes oe or reheated s OGL: SANG! rherctes so cubte lore ees O ayeosr ech eealewsistahiSene stents 16 feet. 1 BSD KS2a 6) CN Rena act cen ERE Ct ot aeons cea Ee 74 feet. PAINE SCON Gis srsk thao cy cians ese Acasa ces se enane hols 21 feet Well No. 12. Northwest corner Section 35, one-half mile south of No. 11. Surface elevation, 740 feet. Depth to stone, 74 feet. Well No. 18. Past of the center of Section 35, T. 10 N., R. 3 W. Sur- face elevation, 735 feet. Depth, 22 feet. This well seems to be entirely in a reddish sand. Well No. 14. Center of Section 35, one-eighth mile west of No. 13, at John Leonard’s. Surface elevation 7385 feet. No stone reached at a depth of 116 feet. STOTT LP eR ORR OP eo EN CR Tene fcr os Cera Etna ary entree 1 foot. White sand, with small pebbles infrequently. .80 feet. BUG e Glayor. cs) har. c oie e ee ole wietatn an aavalclacre dee ge eo LeCL. Well No. 15. Southwest corner of Section 35, one-half mile south- west of No. 14, in an open field. Dug well. Surface elveation, 745 feet. Depth, 41 feet. Well No. 16. One-eighth mile east of Stogsdill Pond, Section 2. Sur- face elevation, 820 feet. This well is 40 feet deep, and is entirely in a reddish sand containing some water-worn gravels. This well con- tain no water. Well No. 17. One-sixteenth mile south of No. 16. Surface elevation, 795 feet. This well was reported by two persons to be 80 feet deep, in a reddish sand its entire depth. The writer is inclined to believe there is some mistake regarding its depth. It is not likely over 50 feet deep. 408 Well No. 18. One-eighth mile southeast of No. 17, at Geo. Myers’. Surface elevation, $25 feet. Depth to stone, 25 feet, in seemingly -the residual limestone soil. Well No. 19. One-fourth mile southeast of No. 18, on high, rounded hill, at Amos Barker’s residence. Surface elevation, 860 feet. This well encountered Chester sandstone at a shallow depth. Well No. 20. One-fourth mile northeast of No. 19. Surface eleva- tion, 825 feet. This well penetrates almost pure sand to a considerable depth. Well No. 21. Middle of southeast + Section 3, T. 9 N., R. 3 W., at A. KHvans’. Surface elevation, TSO feet. Depth, 42 feet. OOM seed oy sires Bl akatolishinys adey ore eve eisai See rel eer ee ena 1S feet. RedGish Sal Cin COUUCKSHEG) in. tenetsieseciere 24 feet. Well No. 22. One-fourth mile south of No. 21, at C. R. Ellis’s. Sur- face elevation, 775 feet. Depth to stone, 51 feet. Wihitentouyellowesolllepcjercrs cyecttecters are asters 18 feet. Water-worn gravel and sand............. 6 feet. OUMLCKSAN Gy Atociecc tie sea ria eee 27 feet. Fea TV OS Bhat vat oes, Md eter as Deleon 92 feet. Well No, 23. Middle of northern one-half Section 10, one-half mile south of No. 22, at the County Farm. Surface elevation, 765 feet. This well penetrates soil and sand nearly fifty feet. Well No. 24. Center of Section 23, T. 9 N., R. 2 W., at A. O. Collins’. Surface elevation, 690 feet. Depth to stone, SS feet. Red esandirang: Claiv cnt. 0s eee ierie ae fiescres 55 feet. BIT CLEViwcte: sisters: sus ate ever Gl ie oseieke tic nerene ieee ORCC Ue ]EalrerY¥eSj (0) 1s See pee Ee Stas ruck ee ein ole tho Bic PAC 1 foot. This completes the number of wells from which data was secured. The reader can see at once that the greater number of them reveal the fact that Flatwoods was in former times a basin much deeper than it is now. It seems that the basin was rather deep at the northern part of Section 6, as indicated by well No. 3. This deep portion extended north- west, entering Section 36, and thence northward, but went northward for only a short distance, along the present channel of McCormicks Creek, until it turned westward as indicated by the shallow bed-rock in well No. 7. Wells No. 8 and No. 9 indicate that a tributary channel passed near the southwest corner of Section 80. This channel probably entered the 409 main channel near the northern middle of Section 36. The bed-rock outcrop along McCormicks Creek in the southeast part of Section 26 indicates that the region to the northeast was high, very probably a divide between the tributary just mentioned and the one that undoubtedly came from the northeast of section 24. Wells Nos. 10, 11 and 12, by their depth to bed- rock, reveal a channel region running south and southwest from section 23, from near where McCormicks Creek leaves the Flatwoods region. » ohe-ai tes S Te arbre 2) Pon fale: ee re FY ad oii > 4 IQ ap 2 433 SOME PROPERTIES OF BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS. A. M. Kenyon. 81. The binominal coefficients of the expansion k\ k k\) k— k\ k-2 9 k) k (a + yy = (oz -b i}e 'y + 5a! aid > .B SE fi yh were known to possess a simple recursion formula ; (k) ES a eta eel set 8) eae (1) eed ae ste fin = 0,1) 903" by means of which Paseal’s Triangle* ) g FO te — Me en 2 tee ee) Gio - | kaa) 1 eal 1 1 k=2 1 2 1 | Se 1 3 3 1 | k=4 il 4 6 4 1 | etc = = = = = = | could be built up, before Newton showed that they are functions of k and n: (2) (| ae 0 eee hens Wench Sue aint t) nt ee ee k = ri | Des] . n| fell n=0 A great number of relations involving binomial coefficients have been discovered**; some of the most useful of these are ee ees ha et | k Pid ile a wee, Obes *See Chrystal: Algebra I, p. 81. **See Chrystal: Algebra II, Chaps. XXIII, XXVII. Hagen: Synopsis der hoeheren Mathematik, p. 64; Paseal: Repertorium der hoeheren Mathematik I, Kap. II, See. 1. 28—4966 454 From (1) and (3) it follows that bal satisfies the linear difference equation mp l)i@t 1) @w—k) fm) = 0 It is well known that the sum of the coefficients (x + yy is 2° and that the sum of the odd numbered coefficients is equal to the sum of the even num- bered ones; the following are perhaps not so well known: (4) If, beginning with the second, the coefficients of (« — y) be multiplied bye 5 (20) 2 (BE) y esx (ke)" respectively; c being arbitrarily chosen dif- ferent from zero, the sum of the products will vanish for n = 1, 2, 3, ..... k—1 but not forn Ss k, e. g. k=8 —§8, 28, —56, 70, —56, 28, —8s, Il ee: a File 6". et 10", ee 14”, 16” The sum of the products vanishes forn =1,2...... 7; but not for n > 7; for n = 8 it is 10,321,920. (5) If the first k coefficients of (c= yee be multiphed term by term, with k", (k—1)", (K—2)",..... Dea lligen GAGE, coi aPe nous Tee ) the sum of the products will be k+n (—1) ii eon and (k + 1)!-1 Mee (eet in particular k (k+1) i . k (k Bip | —&—D co) er ae al e. g. take & = 5. 1, —6, 15, —20, 10, The sum of the products is +1, —1, +1, —1, +1, 719, for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, respectively. Both (4) and (5) are special cases of (6) If the coefficients of (x — y)*, (k = 1, 2, 3, ...) be multiplied term by term by the nth powers (n = 0, 1, 2, ...) of the terms of any arithmetic pro- gression with common difference d = 0, the sum of the products will vanish if n5; for 2 = 6, it is (—1)® (6!) = 720; and for n = 7, it is 720(44+3+2+1+0—1— 2) = 5040. The third conclusion of (6) shows that if China + (a +d) -- (vst eds SIE? oi pane + (a + kd) and an) [oje*— [i] @ +a + (5) @+20'—... + Ht (A) @ + aah be multiplied term by term and the (/ + 1) products be added, the result will be the same as though (II) be multiplied through by the terms of (I) in suc- cession and the (& + 1)? products be added; e.g. take k = 4,a = 1,d = 2 (I) 1 ; 3 ‘ 5 ; 7 9 (IT) fh ea , 654 oe hein il 94 9725 Se ssa — Gees. 50040" = “O60 Vit —-=4° 34 654 474 1°94 1 iP een 3750 — 9604 6561 384 3 35. == 979 11250" 28819 19683 1152 5 5 —1620 18750 —48020 32805 1926 7 7 -=9968 26250 —67228 45927 2688 9 9 —2916 33750 —86436 59049 3456 D5e S100 +93750 —240100 +164025 9600 §2. The properties noted above, and many others, can be made to depend upon those of the sum k A Sc n=o (1 (F) Fh eR) eee i=0 It is readily shown that (2) S(k, n) vanishes for k>n n (3) S(k, n) = —k > a S(k — 1, i—1) =k one Onan Se nae —_——_-—--_ 436 whence S(k, n) is divisible by k/ and in fact S(n, n) = (—1)" n! Also, since S(1, n)<0, it follows that for fixed k, S(k, n) preserves a constant sign (or vanishes) for all values of n; and this sign is the same as that of C05 These numbers possess a recursion formula (4) S(k, n) = k[S(k, n— 1) —S(k—1, n—1)] n, k = 0, 1, eee by means of which may be constructed, A TABLE OF VALUES OF S(k, n) | | r=ok=11 k=2| h=8 | k=4 | k=5 | k=6 | k=7 | B= | | _ | | 20) | | n=1') 0|-1| neo a | 2 n=3 | O|-1] 6 | -6 n=4 | O|-1|] 14 | —36| 24 n=5 | O|-1| 30 | —150| 240 | —120| n=6 | O|-1| 62 | —S540/ 1560 | —1800| 720 | n=7 | O}-1| 126 | —1806 | 8400 16800 | 15120 | —5040 | n=8 | 0|-1) 254 | —5796 | 40824 126000 191520 —141120) 40320 Subtract any entry from the one on its right, multiply by the value of k above the latter. n n (5) pe S(k, n) = (—1)" p> S(k, n) = 1+ cos nx k=0 k=2 (6) vy Sth, n) _ 9 n= 23. k=1 (7) > [" Z z S(k,i) = (kK+1)2 | S(k, i) i=k * i=k * (8) > ("| sc, i) = S&, n) — SE +1, 2) i=k : Setting m = k + 1 in (7) we obtain (k Ly ree 3 | Si, k) (9) S(k,k +1) = and similarly we can express S(k, k + 2), S(k, k + 3), ete. in terms of S(k, k). From (4) Rikon = Si. i n) — 1 Skt oes ken = 0,4 By applying this m times, we obtain Ma oO (10) S(k,n) => (1) A; Sie + m,n +i) v HAG) (Owls PA sate, ra one REIT Oe tl pO iene soo one where H; is the sum of the products of the fractions 1/(k + 1), 1/(k +2), 1/(k +3), _.....1/(K +m), takeni at a time; Hp = 1. The proof of (6) $1 is as follows. If the first term of the arithmetic progression is zero, Gal i (F] (di)" = d" S(k, n) Il Me 0 and this vanishes if n C1) 4 (x + i) i=0 : expand (a + i)” by the binomial formula and reverse the order of summation, we obtain n (11) f(n, x, k) = = 4 ght S(k, i) i=0°* Therefore f(n, x, k,) = 0 when nk In particular, when n = k + 1 Fé + 1,2; %) = @-+ Ls ) (k + 1)S(k, k) and on putting a/d for z, i ofr c. b= d Stk Ele Ge d)b @-P2d) Eo oS. + (a+ kd) and from these follow the three conclusions* of (6) §1. *Chrystal: Algebra II, Sez. 9, p. 183, gives the proof of a slightly less general theorem. Cauchy: Exercices de mathematiques, 1826, I, p. 49 (23), obtains as a by-product the second conclusion of the theorem for the case d = — 1, and remarks that it is well known, 438 §3. In finding the sum of certain series by the method of differences** it is convenient to express positive integral powers of x in terms of the poly- nomials (1) 2” = 2(2— 1) (GE 2) ae (cr —n-+ 1) n=l 203 aoe gh tes If we set (2) 2° =A(o, n)2+4 ACA, noi +..... + A(k, n)o™+ .... + Aan) o™ it is easily shown that (3) A(k, n) = S(k, n)/S(k; &) whence (A) erAl (ear) peak — 10), Seg De ete vanishes if nk> 0; in particular A(n, n) = 1; and the following relations come from those given in §2 for S(k, n): n = s (n—1 : =" if (5) A(k,n) => ee AkK—1i—1) => 2 1725) Ae i=k i=k The recursion formula (6) A(k,n) =k A(k,n—1)+ A(kK—1,n—1) by which may be constructed A TABLE OF VALUFS OF A(k, n) k=0 k=1 k=2|k=3 | k=4 | k=5 | k=6 | k=7 ee | | in ee | n 0 | 1 | n= 1.| 0 1 w= 2 (0) 1 1 fae = 3 0 1 3 1 | n=4 0 1 7 6 1 | n= 5 0 1 15 25 10 be) n = 6 0 1 | 31 | 90 65 fo.) tan | | | n=7 0 1 | 63 | 301 350 140 | 21 1 | n= 8 | 0 1-27 | 966 1701 1050 | 266 | 28 1 To any entry add the product of the one on its rizht and the value of k above the latter. **See for example Boole’s Finite Differences, Chap. IV. 439 v mn 4 A(k, i) = A(k +1,» +1) ASOD): 2, i=k n i «> AK, 2) SE—1,4— 1) = 0 mee An rad iu Inversely, since eT Y= e(¢—1) (29 —2) Eo Ne if (x — n) op); Seem sen ee if we set (9) i Ne a|B(o, n)x” — BCI, DE ARs ek aby Bik, nya * 4 ee: ee oko + (—1)" Bin, n)] int Sevag emtnulates (Oy 7) = Ie — 0. 2 eek) = the sum of the products of the numbers 1, 2, 3,..... n, taken k at a time; in particular cen) ee — yt S(k, k) and B(k, n) = 0if k>n. For convenience define B(p, n) = 0, if p is a negative integer. If we multiply both sides of Phones = Bin ——1)e 4 CK) Ba = ha 19] os we obtain the recursion formula by « — n, and equate the coefficients of x” — (10) Bik, n) = Bik, n—1) +n B(k — 1, n —1) by means of which may be constructed A TABLE OF VALUES OF B(k, n) k=0 | kal] k=2|k=3 | b=4] b=5| b=-6 | k=7 | b=8 n= 0 1 | | n=1 1 | 1 | n= 2 1 3 2 | n= 3 BN) | Bich itd | a6 | | | n= 4 te tO Bl 85) | 50) Bed | | n= 5 i 1) GG RPA Soe is| oo ers | n = 6 1 | 21 | 175°) 735 | 1624| 1764] 720 n=T7 1 | 28 | 322 | 1960 | 6769 |13132| 13068) 5040 | n= 8 1 | 36 | 546 | 4536 |22449 |67284 118124 | 109584 |40320 Multiply any entry by the number (n+1) of the next row, and add to the entry on its right. nt+k ,, (11) B(k,k+n) => | Bkt+n—i,k+n—1) Rone On ae a = 440 The equation Bn 8 ms ee eee ee bn, 2) = 0 asl eo wore tees ss n, for roots. If we set Sp Sa oe ae et + nt Se vl and solve Newton’s formulae* we obtain ea wad 0 Oo eer ae 0 | S» Si 2 0 <, Sones, eho Le 0 | S3 S» Si 3 wusietke, telco 0 B(k,k) Bien) S4 S3 So Si ENS Cia c 0 k,n — i De oe a Sh Sp—-1 Sp—9 S,-3 ey S1 This determinant vanishes when k > n. Inversely, Bin) B(O,n) OC Rr Woh ts ee ees 0 PATEL) — SEX) BOM Pts eek 0 3B(3,n) B(2,n) UEID\ M kecete Peon eo, 0 See Me ore) gears) Lacks doce eee ate kB(k,n) B(k—1,n) B(k—2,n) ........ B(1,n) heii ll 2, coh (CVEMalieh n> 071) These sums of the powers of the first » natural numbers are connected by the following relations, in which /(//2) signifies the integral part of k/2: I(k2) , k Sred (anh * ok—la k = 2b 1) Sap—1—a= 128 — I(k 2) > 2k+1-21 (k k—lo k < Y ¢ . Y S eS gop 9 = (ot) 2. Dye ee A whence k = ee 2k+1-1 os = te i| So,—~= 0 where ¢;= = ee when 7 1s even 1=0 = —(2n+1) when is odd *See, for example, Cajori’s Theory of Equations, pp. 55-S6. tStern, Crelle’s Journal, Vol. 84, pp. 216-218. 441 Also k > | SGA i=0 Relations between the A’s and the B’s: m . 2” = > Ai, m) m=. i=1 . il . . 29 > (-19Bj,i—1)2° 2 i = 1, 2, 8, j=0 Therefore m al ; : i => AG. m) > 1 BG,i— bite i=1 j=0 ' the coefficient of x” on the right is m—k : y (-1)' Atk +i, m) BG,k+i—1) i=0 and this must vanish k = 1, 2, 3, ...... m—l, and be equal to 1, for k = m. Whence, setting n for m — k, e k= 0.5 25: > (—1)' A(k+i, k+n) B(i,k+i—1) = 0, - a= 1,2, 3, or, setting 7 for k + 7, and n for m, is ; be. 2.. .n—i eee C21) Ae BE =k) 0. ‘ ee N= MND iS 5 Similarly, starting from m—l1 a™ — > (1) BG, m—1) x” * i=0 we obtain ae i ; 5 [ssi 0 ag a (13) & (—1) A(k, k+n—1) Bi, k+n—1) = 0, i= pb PB 6 onc This relation may be generalized as follows: Set n . C(k,n,p) = > (—1)' A(k, k-+n—i) BG, k+n—p) i=0 **Prestet, Elements de Mathematique, p. 178. 442 then directly and by (13) (a) C(k,o0,p) = 1 (OS Awan tae oy oaes Oe Des ae Ce) e—20 es RO eo ee yer Oe making use of (10) we obtain The left side vanishes when p = 1; therefore C(k,n,0) = —(k+n) C(k,n—1,0) By repeating this (n—1) times and noting that C(k,0,0) = 1, we obtain k = 0, 12, 00m (c) C(k,n,0) = (—1)"(K+1) (k+2) . . . . (k+4n) | n = 1,2,3,. Sinaia jy =, ay th bo be n, in (b), we find (d) C(k,n,p) = 0 LOT Dv ose ke n ate when p =n+1 Therefore for all values of k = 0,1,2,..... ANC: — len es Oly ce eee n (14) > (—1)' A(k, k+-n—i) B(i, k-n—p) = (—1)"(K+1) (+2)... . (K+n) i=0 when p = 0 = 0 when p= 1, 2,3. en = k” when p=n+l1 Example illustrating (14) fork = 2, = 3. Oe es | A(2,5—i)| 15 | —7 3 | —1 | sums of products p=0| B(i,5) 1 LB i) GSoel 22a Ol) 4b p=4| BEA | ox |) 10 Pes. 4) Soo 0 p=, UR Gayee!| nd a 6 | 0 p= 3 | B@,2) 1 3 2 |) p=4| Bil) 1 1 0 | 23 In particular, when p = n, Y (-1)' Atk, k+-n—i) B(i, k) = 0 i=0 443 or, setting n—k for n n—k (15) > C1)'A(k, n—i) BG, k) = 0 i=0 E ' provided n>k = 0,1,2,3.... + C41)'A(k, n—i) Bi, k) = 0 i=0 The two sums are equivalent since for i>k, B(i,k) vanishes and for i>n—k, A(k, n—?) vanishes. From (15) k A(kn) = = (—1)'*' A(k, n—i) B(i, k), n>k =0,1,2,.. i=1 whence k B(kn) = > (-1)'*' Bi, n) A(n, n+i), n>k =0,1,2,.. i=l Solving for the successive A’s and B’s, and for brevity writing Ai, A» for A(n,n+1), A(n,n+2) ete., and Bi, Bo, for B(1,k), B(2, k) ete., A(k,k) = 1 A (k,k-+1) = B, Ah k-=2) = BB, Aleks) = Bo — 28 Bs B; Aha) = By abe B, 2B Be — Bye Bs, Ate heb i= 8, — 4B! 8, 9B, 9B By B, 1-38. By— 2B iB, etc., etc. Bn) =1 B(,n) = A, Bom == A, BEw a= A OAy AL SA ete., etc., in exactly the same form as the B’s. S(k,n) satisfies the linear difference equation of order k, (16) S(k,n-+-k) — B(1,k) S(k,nt+h—1) +... + 1)’ BG B) S(k,n+h—i)4+... _..+ (1)* Bik) S(k,n) = 0 of which the characteristic equation has for roots 1, 2,3... . k; and the conditions S(k, n) = 0; n = 1, 2,3....4—1; S(k, &) = (—1)' k! 444 are exactly sufficient to determine the constants. These two equations, therefore, completely characterize k S(k,n) = > 1) , i" i=0 In like manner, the difference equation (17) A(kn+k)— B(1,k) A(k,n+k—1)+..... ++ Cas B(i,k) A(kn+k—1) +....+ (1) Bik) A(k,n) = 0 and the conditions AU a1) a= 10 eile O ro) ee eg lhl (Ken) en wae (k) ae . i Se ae cee iy eu 1 v n completely characterize A (k,n) S(E,E) a 1) i} ? B(k,n) satisfies the difference equation of order 2k + 1, Gein Bi athe), ees Bien 428) © cee + Cay (ae Btk,n+2k+1—i1) +...... — Btk,n) = 0 of which the characteristic equation is (r— 1+! = 9 Whence B(k,n) is a polynomial of degree 2k in n, but the k + 1 obvious conditions BE, n)-=0, n= 0; 1, 2,3, -.-: 2. k= 1,9 Bk) =F are not sufficient to determine the constants. It is possible, however, by the successive application of the method of differences, since A Bik, n) = (n+1) B(k—1, n) to determine these constants for any particular value of k. Thus: B(1,n) = 4 (n+1)n 1 B(2,n) = DA (n+1)n(n—1) (8n+2) RGn) = a (sient) es etc., etc. 445 $4. The properties of i k = i(k -\n . finye,k) = = (1) (8) @t4) §2 i=0 : i(k) 1 and an application of > (—1)' 7] Parr in the theory ot gamma functions i=0 : suggests the generalization: ke . (k) (1) f(tx,kyn) = (1) |} @+0 i=0 FT ODES on eet Qu Ieee 8 Whence 7 0.7,k,n) = S(kn) eyes (seller ers care Mad S ichycs ceases (3) f(t,z,0,n) = a! when n = =a) when n > 0 (4) Fier) a — ao (x+1)! when n = 0 - —=(¢-E1) when n > 0 When ¢ < 0, this function has poles at x = —1,—2,...... —k, and also whenn + ¢ < 0, atx = 0. LS a Since f(t,x,kyn) = & (—1)' [yy oti ™ ti)” i=0 we have the recursion formula ls ( : (5) f(t,r,k,n) = > i ax f(t—m,z,k,m+n—1) i=0 Oe rans cute ea el aeons) ee aan cai CUTE — Lacy thee oceans If t is not negative, we have on setting ¢ for m in (5) t (ey (6) fli,z,kn) = > Li 2 S(t+n—i) kw i0 be 35. i=0 lfe0 n; therefore f(—m,z,k,n) satisfies the linear homo geneous difference equation of order m: m , ; (10) BS F | x f(—m,2,k,n+m—i) = 0. =0 ice — 0 al eee Di — Nee tee ae of which the characteristic equation is (eg) =.0 whence the complete solution is (11) f(—m,z,k,n) = (co tem+...... + Cm—1 a) (—2)" m= 1,23 ....}n=0,1,2, 2... . kl; not forash however, the equation (10) itself will give f(—m,vz,k,n) for For m = 1, we have f(—1,2,k,n) = co (—2)" = 06 E23, eee k. and setting n = 0, we determine Co = f(—1,2,k,0). setting ¢ = —1 in (8) P f(—1,2,k,0) : [S(,0) + kf(—1,2-+1,k—1,0)] ll — — —= when 4 — 0 re = f(—1,2+1,k—-1,0) k=1,2,3... 447 whence by repetition, and noting (3) k! —l,27,k,0) = - Bt FO) a 1489), GEE) and vay "| a (—a2)" k! k. att ay 7A Cre) eaereee (x+k) eH 4 Example: 4 , a(e-+1) (+2) (e+3) (+4) 2 (—1)' | ae = wu when n = 0 i=0 a: = yh n= 1 = 247? n=2 = —24z3 n= 3 = D4r ee but = 24024 + 840x? + 12002? + 5162, n = 5 To find the value of f(—1l,2,k,n) for n > k, set m = 1 in (9) and multiply through by | (x+1)(a+2).... (wt+k)/S(k,k) = > BU k)x* /S(k,k) i=0 and set k g(—1,z,k,n) for f(—1,2,k,n) > BG,k)x* */S(k,k): — k g(—1,2,k,n+1) = A(k,n) > B(i,k)x* '— xg(—1,2,k,n) = IST — BOF NER 2 eae ees cee a Setting n = k, k+1, we verify that mw ke Re Ge) 6 gelakkin) => 1) A@kina) > BGs j=1 ij holds for n = 1, n = 2; and a complete induction shows, on taking account of (14) §3, (p = n), that it holds for all positive integral values of n. On *See Chrystal: Algebra II, Ex. 26, p. 20. 448 changing the order of summation and replacing g(—1,2,k,n) by its value, we have Ls > 2 > C1)! Be Jj+ik) S(k,n—) =1 i=1 ral Ger rol 8 ed ene Bee lee (a+k) (14) fC—-L2.km) = ! the numerator being a polynomial arranged according to ascending powers of zx; on arranging this in descending powers of z, taking account of (14) §3, k—1 a : > A> C4) BiH, k) S(k,n4+4) (15) (‘kn == Z(c-+-)) (G2E2) 2 ees ee (c+k) a>k=0;1,2,3°:2 .. ae It is obvious that (14) does not hold for ee k, since in that case S(k,n—i) vanishes, 1 = 1,2,..... n; on the other hand, noting that B(k,n) and S(k,n) both vanish if k > n and taking account of (15), §3, it results that in the numerator on the right side of (15), when Te k, the coefficient of every power of x vanishes except that of x" and this turns out to be (—1)*™ B(0,k)S(k,k) = (—1)"k! which agrees with (12). Therefore, k—1 fj i é = tI S (1)! BiH k) S(k,n+1) (6) > (41) ;| oS —_— i=0 Se roe dee (ed) 2) oo ne oe (a+k) kin, =o, 2,00. 2 eee but for the case where n = k, (12) is simpler. Setting m = 2 in (11) (17) f(—2,2, k,n) = (Co == cn) (—z)" nm = 0; A se < #, B atta ee k—1. Put n = 0, n = 1, and determine Co = f(—2,2,k,0) c= — + f(-22,k,1)—f(22,k,0), whieh by (7) - * f(2c+1k—-1,0) — f(—2,2,k,0) 449 In (8) set i = —2,k = 1 2,1,0) = f(—1,2,1,0) + f(—2,2+1,0,0) af eae, 7-9 whence by (12) and (3) 1 il Tes ey [OY ae Ree f( 2,2,1,0) = x 2(x+1) 5\= a(a+1)2 1! : - > 3h . . 1 See Ey eS Le) tah) FT epic aN gee aaa Again, setting k = 2 in (8) y f(—2,2,2,0) = = f(—2,2,1,0) + = f(—2,2+1,1,0) 2! z a. > = St BQ-i.2 PCr CE teen aaa ali 2) 2 Assume k! : 18 = 2, ae — = a } B(k—i,k a I ED) aod (ea ol ea ee (ck)? fe =e eee and a complete induction, on taking account of (11) $3, shows that this holds for all positive integral values of k. Therefore: k! £ .= : Zl B(k—i,k Syaee tas eee ame cee k k! Ss 1 bse as. Bepeeoe ik) & and (19) f(—2,z2,k,n) = (ope S (1t+i—n) B(k—i,k) 2 ip (a ell) eae oe GEA) =o ip = (00 th 2 Pat (Jean BARS ars ete prea k—1 On computing, by means of (10), the values of f(—2,x,k,k) and fC2, z, k ,k +1), we verify that. (19) holds forn=1,2,3....... k+1 but not for n>k+1, Therefore, k (ke) in (—x)" k! . 20) Seay - = 1+i—n) B(k—i,k eae Gan Per Gah. je a0) Slee Deedes etn Sue OSL ph ee Steg os k+1; not n>k+1 29—4966 450 The corresponding results for n = k+2,k+ 3, ete., may be found by putting these values successively for n in (21) f(2,2,k,n+2) = S(k,n) — 22 f(—2,2,k,n+1) — x? f(—2,2,k,n) which results from setting m = 2 in (9). The general result may be put into the form 2-2 kd c Sak F S DGji,k) Skin) (22) f(—2,2,k,n) = 3=2 ze kan = 1, 23 7d oes lL) Pe a (a+k)? in which the coefficients D, are independent of n: OER) — st whens: — 0 = 0 fe NO a acy ee tae io D(0j,k) = > B(t, k—1) B(j—t, kK—1) j= 1, 2,300 t=0 but I have not been able to determine a general formula for D(i,j,k) by means of which to calculate the coefficients of f(—2,z,k,p), p>k+1, without first calculating successively those for n = k+2,k+3,..... p—i. By making use of (10) § 2, (21) may be reduced to 2 I Digest oS E(i,j,k) S(k,n+7) j=0 i=0 (23) f(—2,2,k,n) = kin = 1,-2) 3a with which compare (16) Example: 4 a?(x-+1)?(2+2)2(2+3)2(x+4)? > (—1)' i=0 {= (4 qn = 8 8 li] tai)" S(4,n) x + (12 S(4,n) + 8 S(3,n)] 2? + [58 S(4,n) + 76 S(3,n) + 36 S(2,n)] 2° + (144 S(4,n) + 272 S(3,n) + 288 S(2,n) + 96 S(1,n)] x5 + [193 S(4,n) + 460 S(3,n) + 780 S(2,n) + 720 S(1,n)] 24 + [132 S(4,n) + 368 S(3,n) + 840 S(2,n) + 1680 S(1,n)] 2? + [36 S(4,n) + 112 S(3,n) + 312 S(2,n) + 1200 S(1,n)] x? wat Sn ke as 451 also: = §(4,n) x8 + [20 S(4,n) — 2 S(4,n+1)] 27 + [170 S(4,n) — 40 S(4,n+1) + 35 S(4,n4+2)] 2* + [800 S(4,n) — 340 S(4,n+1) + 60 S(4,n+2) — 4 S(4,n+3)] o® + [2153 S(4,n) — 1350 S(4,n+1) + 335 S(4,n+2) — 30 S(4,n+3) Ja4+ [3020 S(4,n) — 2402 S(4,n+1) + 700 S(4,n+2) — 70 S(4,n+3)]x3?+ [1660 S(4,n) — 1510 S(4,n+1) + 476 S(4,n+2) — 50 S8(4,n+8) |x? ieee OMe AoAamt These results are consistent with (20) for n = 1, 2, 3, 4,5 and for n = 6 give 1560 x8 + 14400 x? + 51672 x + 59520 x + 100320 x4 + 57600 x3 + 13824 x. Purdue University. 7 453 RADIOACTIVITY OF SPRING WATER. R. R. RAMsey. Since the discovery of the Becqerel rays in 1896 by Henri Becqerel a great amount of work has been done on radioactive bodies; i. e., bodies which give out a radiation which, among other things, renders the air con- ducting. Madam Curie discovered polonium and radium in 1898. After the discovery of radium a great many workers contributed to our knowledge of radioactive bodies. Radium and polonium are now known to be transforma- tion products in the radioactive series headed by uranium. Besides the uranium-radium series we have the thorium series, the actinium series, and the potassium series in the radioactive list. Very early in the history of radioactivity, tests were made on ordinary matter to see if all matter is radioactive. Although there is some evidence to show that all matter is radioactive, i.e., is disintegrating, it has been found that a great part of the effect is due to slight traces of radium and other radioactive substances which are mixed with matter. Thus the surface of the earth is covered with slight traces of radium. The exact distribution of radium on the surface of the earth is not known, determinations having been made in a relatively few localities. Besides the scientific interest in the distribution of radium there is another. It has been found that a great many of the celebrated European springs and baths show an unusual amount of radioactivity. The theory has been advanced that the curative proper- ties of these springs are due to the radioactivity of the water. Table I gives a partial list of the measurements made on noted springs also a short list of ordinary springs, etc. 454 TABLE I. Raproactivity oF NoTep Sprincs, Etc. Kings well, Bath, Wing. 6 2ccce open ca sate cies ecm oa 173. X10-?2?Gm. Ra. per liter. Brempach: (Saxe!) oon. sss. ceases oe eee as ec ecee es 36000. to 720000, X10-12 Curies per liter. Schweizergang, Joachimsthal..................20.eeeecee0 98000. iiake Balaton; Hungarys-..c..7- ---c 2 -s oor teee cae ce eon see 10300. to 36000. Potable waters of Mulhause (alee) aay ee a eee 2800. PIVANKeS- DAMS ait o2 soe eee eiiereas close recession cee 1060. to 2340 Pywix-les-Bais Pass ee) saan ioe Soo ee wis ceivew ise seme ee 3440. to 80090. Japanese NGL SAUER | a. ee G cen a Sel eos oe Seco 237. to 13800. Colorade sprinss WM amtol.) so... cera sae 7 oe daceeeiew ses « 120. to 4730. Colorado Sprmps, Manitou, £98... 2.22 2 --22-- wees seen acess « 470. to 20500. West Canada, Fairmount, Sinclair..............-...---.-.- 3500. to 4000. Mellowstone Pane 3.5 ee eee tate ee ie dass ents tete 2.26 to 10.4 Mache units. Mello wsione Pat G88 cor Joe cio ccc Mt 2c 5% c.ccras actress eis 6.25 to 118.3 Mache units Sixt ys prime ig rol ser af ets ool ts ee aaaraine etctais ie we -06 to 89. Mache units. Sarsiors, IN ovo. SPTMNGS co. «hos Seas) ss cae mee eed 39. to 880. X%10-? Curies per liter. Samtors, WN-e'c BprIneSs CAS, MAK. 2 A. 555-5 oe aoe eons 847. Wailltsasiwit Bran ete fo ns ese ota see ota eee 13. to 216. Millbanidtcwmm Mans ran. 5 oo. bbe oo ee Sere oe eco iaioiae 759. to 7290. Caledonian Springs, near Ottawa, Can.................... ie Sie dieawrence: iver..iee . jostle Were. eee: See eideles oe oe 2 to 1.1 Sea water. UN rg =o ee te eens Oe Es Sit : 9 Air, Moaieen! ‘Cambridge! PLCeee cies 1 One Mache unit equals 364.X10 -** (Curies per liter). The radioactivity of water may be due to traces of radium salts dis- solved in the water. It may be due to some other product of the uranium- radium series, to radium emanation, usually, or to some product of the tho- rium or actinium series. The greater amount is usually due to radium or radium emanation dissolved in the water. In the uranium-radium series (Table No. 2), it will be noted that when one substance changes into another a radiation of a, @, or ¥ rays, in some cases all three, are given off. This radiation ionizes the air and renders it conducting. The conductivity of the air becomes a measure of the radio- activity of the substance. This is proportional to the rate which a charged body loses its charge. The ionization produced by the three sets of rays is about in the fol- lowing proportions: z = 100%, @ = 1.%, » = .01%. The penetrating powers are in the inverse proportion. Electroscopes for radioactive measurements are known as z ray electroscopes, ~@ ray electroscopes, ” ray electroscopes according to the amount of material that must be penetrated by the radia- tion in order to get into the electroscope. Thus in an z ray electroscope the substance tested is placed in the electroscope or very near to a window covered with a very thin sheet of aluminum or paper. The rays pass in Sh oy ee 170 /&0 50 60 Fo vo 90 /d0 M0 /20 130/40 1% /b0 Minutes, 10 20 30 40 Poagume: ys 456 without absorption and practically all, at least 99%, of the ionization is pro- duced by the « rays. In the @ ray electroscope the radiation must pass through .05 mm. aluminum, which absorbs all the alpha rays and the ioniza- tion is produced by the @ rays. In they ray electroscope the radiation must pass through 2 mm. of lead, which completely absorbs the « and @ radiation leaving they rays to produce the ionization. Thus for very weak radioactive bodies the x rays are used, to produce the ionization. TABLE 2. Uranium RapiumM SERIES. | | Absorption Coefficients. Half- Transforma-| Range of ~ SUBSTANCE. Radiation. value tion Con- rays in ems. Period. stant sec. | (15° C.). 6 rays Jj rays | |Alum. em~.| Lead em". | Uranium 1.... a g |5<10*years.| 4°610- 2°50 Uranium 2.... , z% 2X10*years.} 1110-4 Uranium X... ae 6,9 24°6 days.| 3°26107 14°4 and 510, 72 (Uranium Y)..... 6 | 1 5 days.| 5°34X10- 360 WON: aa es) 7 210% years.| 1°1X1073 | 3 00 | RAC 3). re ano = : a, 6 2000 vears.| 1 1107 3°30 200 Radium Emanation... || og 3 85 days. 12°085 10-5 4°16 Radium A... gd. | 3 Omin. | 3 85x10 4 75 Radium B. ... @,y | 26 7min. | 4°33x<10-« 13 and 91 | 4-6 Radium (). a,@,y | 195 min. | 5°93x10- 6 94 13 and 53 50 (Radium Cy). 6 14min. | 825x107 13 Radium b..... ; 6 16 5years. 1°331079 very soft. | Radio e. fas. 6 ; 6, y 5 days.) 1 6010-6 43 | very soft. Radium F (Polonium).. a 136 days.| 5 901078 Sa The substances in parentheses are products not in the direct line of transformation. Makower & Geiger’s Practical Measurements in Radioactivity. One notes in the radioactive series (Table 2), that the disintegration product of radium is emanation, a gas, which gives off an « particle and changes into Rad. A. This emanation is a gas and obeys all the gas laws. Rad. A has a half value period of three minutes and gives off an « particle and changes into Rad. B. Rad. B has a half value period of 26.8 minutes and gives off @ andy radiation and changes into Rad. C. Rad. C has a half value period of 19.5 minutes, gives off z, @ andy particles and changes into Rad. C, and Rad. D. Rad. D has a slow half value period of 16.5 years. This is so slow that the ionization produced by this change can be neglected in com- 457 parison with the others. Thus some time, about three hours, after the em- anation has been placed in a vessel we have Rad. Em. changing through the intermediate products into Rad. D. giving off three « particles, one from Rad. Em; one from Rad. A; and one from Rad. C. This complex radiation has after the first few hours the half value period of the longest of the series, which is that of Rad. Em., 3.85 days. Thus if a quantity of radium emanation gas is placed in an electroscope the rate of “‘leak’’ of the electroscope in- Fie. 2. creases for three hours and then slowly decreases, dropping to one-half value of the maximum in 3.85 days from the time it reached the maximum. The rise of activity during the first few hours is shown by the curves in Fig. I. These curves are plotted from data given in Rutherford’s Radio- active Substances and Their Radiations, and in Makower & Geiger’s Practical Measurements in Radioactivity. The final values (4 hours) are based on the number of ions produced by z particles from the various products. Thus 458 Rad. Em., 29.1%, Rad. A, 31.4%, Rad. (B) and C, 39.5%. Total, 100%. The line marked Rad. Em. starts initially at 30.% and in four hours has diminished to 29.1% according to the half period of 3.85 days. Rad. A. initially is zero, because initially emanation alone is placed in the chamber. Curve A rises to half value in three minutes and in 20 or 30 minutes becomes in equilibrium, that is, it disintegrates into Rad. B as fast as it is formed from the emanation. The latter part of the curve is practically a straight line parallel to the curve for emanation. Rad. B does not give off a particles. The ionization due to the @ radiation can be neglected. Rad. B changes into Rad. C whose half period is 19.5 minutes. Thus the curve (B) and C depends upon the amount of Rad. C present. This initially depends upon the formation of Rad. A and B. The . » S Fic. 3. curve starts from zero and reaches its equilibrium in about four hours. The total ionization depends upon all three, so the current in the chamber, assum- ing that all ions capable of being produced by the « particles are used, increases according to the curve Em.+A+B-+C, which is formed by summing the ordinates of the three curves. This reaches 100% in about three hours. In a chamber of smaller dimensions the effect of the slower electrons will be greater than the above, since a greater number of the high velocity ones will be absorbed by the walls of the chamber before they have produced their maximum number of ions. The quantity of emanation gas associated with or occluded in, or in equilibrium with, a quantity of radium has been found to be directly pro- portional to the mass of radium. This is so true that the amount of emana- tion in equilibrium with one gram of radium has been measured very exactly and is called the curie. Thus one gram of old radium contains or is in equi- librium with one curie of radium emanation gas. The volume of this gas under standard conditions is .62 cu. mm. To collect this ga the radium is put into solution, boiled and the gas diluted with air is collected over mercury and then introduced into the elec- troscope. The radium solution after standing one month is again in equi- 459 librium with the emanation and can be used again. By noting the ionization current or the “‘leak’’ of the electroscope other samples of radium can be compared with the first by putting sample No. 2 through the same process. The Bureau of Standards at Washington is prepared to standardize radium solutions by comparing them with a standard in its possession. If no standard is at hand the electroscope can be standardized by using Duane’s empirical formula. (Le Radium Vol. XI, P. 5, 1914; Ann. der Phys. Vol. 38, P. 959, 1912; Compt. Rendus Vol. 150, P. 1421, 1910; Jour. de Phys. Vol. 4, P. 605, 1905), which is, lo e = curies. 2.49 X 10* (1I— 0.517 S/ V) or, Imax. A= curies. 6.31 X 10® (I— 0.572 S/V) Where, e = amount of emanation in the electroscope. ip = initial current, expressed in E. 8S. units. Imax = Maximum current (current at end of three hours) expressed in E. S. units. 5S = inside surface of ionization chamber of electroscope. V = volume of ionization chamber. This equation applies to a cylindrical ionization chamber with a central rod. The volume of the chamber must be about one liter and the height is from one to three times the diameter. The ionization chamber can be a cylindrical metallic chamber with an insulated rod extending through the center. This rod can be connected to an electrometer or to an electroscope in order to determine the potential of the rod. For very delicate measurements of small amounts of emanation a sensitive electroscope is better than an electrometer. In an electroscope the ionization current, i, is measured by knowing the capacity, C, of the elec- troscope; the change of potential, dV, of the insulated rod, in the time, t; according to the equation, (C) GY t In order to measure a small current in a short time, C, the capacity of the electroscope must be small and dV, the change of potential, must be 460 small. Therefore we wish a sensitive electroscope of small capacity. The cylindrical chamber is in reality a cylindrical condenser. Therefore we want the diameter of the rod small compared to the diameter of the cylinder, also the collar holding the insulating material should be short and have a large diameter compared to the rod. In short the dimensions of the insulated system should be as small as rigidity and other considerations will permit. To make the electroscope sensitive the ‘‘gold leaf’? should be very light and narrow. With Dutch leaf a strip between one and two millimeters wide will give a change of one mm. for a change of potential of five volts. By P L using a reading microscope with graduated eye piece a fraction of a volt can be detected. The electroscope should be made of brass tubing the thickness of whose walls is one mm. or more. Where such material is not to be had sheet tin can be used and will give satisfactory results, especially if used in a laboratory free from penetrating radiation. I will describe one which I made at a cost of a few cents and have found to give consistent results when compared with one made in Germany which cost $50. The cylinder A, Fig. 2, is a 1 lb. coffee can. B, is a tin can made in a local tin shop, 3x3x5 inches with a lid at the top. The lid of the coffee can and the lid of the rectangular can are soldered together and a short cylinder 461 of brass, 5, is soldered in a hole in the center. In this short cylinder the central rod system, which can be made of two or more sections, is insulated by pouring melted sulphur into the cylinder while the rod is supported in proper position by a cork, Fig. 3, which extends a short distance into the cylinder. After a few hours the cork can be removed, leaving the sulphur plug. In melting the sulphur care must be used not to get the sulphur too 110 Vt Fie, 5. hot or to burn it. The melted sulphur should be a clear amber liquid. If the sulphur takes the waxy condition it should be discarded. The leaf is attached to a narrow plate which is attached to the lower end of the rod. The leaf which is a narrow strip of Dutch foil should be attached to the plate so as to be straight and to swing freely bending at a point near the plate. The deflection of the leaf is observed through a small window at one 462 side. A similar window should be placed on the opposite side to admit light. To read the amount of deflection a scale 8, as shown in Fig. 4, is mounted on one side on or near the back window. A strip of cross-section paper stuck to the glass with paraffin while hot will answer. The paraffin serves two purposes: it sticks the paper and renders the scale translucent. Half way between the scale and the plane of the leaf system a mirror, M, is mounted. Through the front window one sees in the mirror images of the plate, P, and the foil, L, at P! and L'. These images are in the same plane as the scale, S, which can be viewed by looking over the mirror, M. The position of L! can be read on the seale, 8S, and at the end of a convenient interval of time its position can be noted again. By comparing the two positions with the calibration curve of the electroscope the change of potential, dV, can be obtained. The system is charged by means of a rubber rod through the charging system, C, Fig. 2. This consists of an insulated rod with a bent wire con- nected so as to be in contact with the central rod while charging. While not in use this rod is rotated so as to break connection with the rod and then to come into metallic contact with the case of the electroscope. Two 14-inch brass drain cocks are soldered to the emanation chamber to admit the emanation. The data of the following experiment, Table 38, carried out by two students using the ‘‘tin electroscope’’ and a Schmidt electroscope made by Spindler & Hoyer, Géttingen, will give an idea of the accuracy of this elec- troscope and also the accuracy of Duane’s formula. TABLE 3. Electroscope. .. ‘ é ; Pato Ah | pL ects ereetete eters Schmidt. Observer..... = are BSc Hote oll ie hore tetera of tee a en Dente Diameter of che eaier: SA ee OL, 10.8em... ‘ ..| 7.8¢em. ieVSroliqaeitd tin ley Oo cn ar RP eReE Gr Monee ate a ya eee sh Piss Volume of chamber.... er Rn RAS, AA RO a UM PAT ORAS AP .| 968 cc. Surface of chamber.......... Fa pene ee sete §94.sq.cm.......... ....| 586.6 sq. em. Capacity of electroscope.......... PT ce PU eh AY cr 0s Re Re ae ee 6.3 em. Observed emanation, Curies per liter, ae lope t site > _.| 206000. X1072 ............| 200000. X10-12 The two electroscopes were connected together and connected to a vessel containing emanation and pumped causing the air and emanation to pass in a circle through the three chambers until the three contained emana- tion of the same density. 463 Calibration of Leaf.—The instrument can be calibrated by connecting to known potentials and noting the deflections of the leaf. A storage battery of three or four hundred volts is convenient. Readings should be taken for every few volts from 0 to the maximum and a curve plotted. X = deflection, Y = volts. Ifa large voltage battery is not at hand a 110 volt D. C. circuit can be used making connection to a resistance as in Fig. 5. The voltmeter, V, should be read at the same time that the deflection of the leaf is read. A calibration curve from 0 to 110 volts can then be obtained. For the higher points proceed as follows: Charge the leaf to maximum voltage by means of a rubber rod. A body of small capacity, small compared to the capacity of the electroscope, 1 or 2 cm., say, is mounted on an insulated handle. A coin on a small rubber rod will answer. This is first grounded and then touched to the charged system. The gold leaf falls. The capacity is re- moved, grounded, and the position of the leaf noted. The operation is repeated until the leaf falls to 0 on the scale. If Cis the capacity of the electroscope, and c is the capacity of the coin, Q, the quantity of electricity, WreVonslst. 2nd. a 2... potential of the leaf, Oli Gln its} liste, PAMol 4 5 & 6 & deflections of leaf, then, Q: = CV; = (C+ c)V;2 . Q, = CV. = (C+ e)V: @, = CV, = CL OVarn Ce Vi Ve Wes C V2 V3 Vice 1) The last three or four deflections should be on the part of the scale already calibrated. That is, the potentials should be less than 110 volts. If V, and V, 4, are known by comparing with d, and d, 4 1 on the calibration curve. Since, Vn ap Vn then, V,—1 can be calculated. V,—, being known, then V,,» can be determined. In like manner all Vs can be determined up to Vi. Knowing V and the cor- responding deflection, d, the curve can be extended up to the maximum deflection. 464 Determination of Capacity—In the same equations if ¢ is known, that is, if ¢ is a cylindrical condenser, then C can be obtained. Note that C is the capacity of the “‘leaf’’ system plus the charging system. Knowing the sum, the capacity of the ‘‘leaf’’ can be had by getting the ratio of the two by an operation similar to the above. Removing the Emanation Gas from the Solution The emanation can be removed from a solution by the boiling method. The solution is boiled, driving off the dissolved gases with the steam. The steam is condensed and the gases are trapped in suitable glass tubes over mercury. The ionization chamber is then evacuated and the emanation is sucked into the electroscope. The entire amount of emanation is placed in the chamber by washing the glass tube with air until the pressure of the ionization chamber of the electro- scope is at normal pressure. This method is accurate but requires elaborate apparatus which can be used only in the laboratory. Where the greatest accuracy is not wished Schmidt’s shaking method can be used. (Phys. Zeit., Vol. 6, p. 561, 1905.) This method admits of determinations being made at the spring with apparatus which easily can be carried by the observer. The shaking method consists of taking a known volume of water and shaking it vigorously for two minutes in a closed vessel with a known volume of air. Then the emanation which was originally dis- solved in the water is mixed in the air and water in a known proportion, de- pending upon the temperature of the water, Then this air is pumped through 465 rubber tubing from the shaking vessel into the ionization chamber and back again to the shaking vessel until the emanation is mixed through the air of both chambers in the same proportion. Knowing the constants of the elec- troscope and the observed change of deflection of the leaf, the amount of emanation in the ionization chamber is known. Knowing this and the various volumes of air and water the amount of emanation per liter of water can be calculated. The shaking vessel is made of a can with two brass stop cocks soldered into it. One cock is placed near the top the other is placed on the side about half way up. For convenience the position of the lower stop cock can be calculated so that the vessel will hold a certain quantity of water when the vessel is filled full and then placed on a level stand with both stop cocks open. In this manner the volume of the water is determined easily and can be made the same in each experiment. The volume of the air above the water can be had by determining the total volume of the can. To pump the air around a rubber bulb pump such as is used in pyrography outfits answers well. The volume of the air in the tubes and pump must be esti- mated and used in the calculations. The formula for calculating the amount of emanation per liter, which can be derived easily in connection with Fig. 6, is as follows: I V2 == v4 Vi V> == V; ain Va EK =- ( ee ) e, Vi Vi Vi. Where V, = Volume of water in shaking can, expressed in liters. V. = Volume of air in shaking can, expressed in liters. V; = Volume of bulb, pump, and connection tubes. V. = Volume of ionization chamber. = Absorption coefficient of water for radium emanation. R e = Amount of emanation in chamber, V4. E = Amount of emanation per liter of water. The quantity alpha, z, has been determined experimentally and has been found to depend upon the temperature. The value at any temperature ean be had by referring to the curve (Fig. 7). The data for this curve is taken from M. Kofler (Akad. Wiss. Wien, Ber. 121, 2a pp. 2193; Sci. Abs. Vol. 16, 1742, 1913), and Boyle (Phil. Mag., 22, p. 840, 1911.) As a test of the above equation the following will serve (Table 4). Three tests were made at the spring under the ordinary conditions. The 30—4966 - 466 same electroscope was used, but two shaking cans were used, the larger of which had three stop cocks so that two volumes of water could be had. TABLE 4. C.J.S. Spring. August 5, 1914. Temperature of water 12.5° C. Temperature of air 30° C. ile 10 108k Minve OLD eeANNING eecreee eames eee Osi ae by s-y- here R46 fas. sane 2.00 p. m. Volume of watern: cock: he see cas eee BOW CCTS tps SL OOMGER See 5.00 liter. Voltinxe Of/ ait och nate cre sacs ones act SOAK evade nile ors AEM Oe ke crcinoebsoraete 2.10. @uries 21022iper liter... 4. eae oe ADD EXGLO=1Se cies ss ASH X10-125 ah. oe 443 X10-!2. These observations were taken every minute and the mean deflection from 15 minutes to 20 minutes from the time of putting the emanation in the ionization chamber, was used. By referring to an experimental curve (Fig. 8), the maximum deflection per minute or the deflection at the end of three hours was calculated. A better agreement could have been obtained if the interval from the end of one experiment to the beginning of the next had been three hours or more. Fig. 8 is a curve showing actual observations during a period of three hours taken with a sample of water from Hottle Spring. The observations have been reduced to a scale of 100% for the maximum. The curve marked “Decay A and C”’ is made by observing the deflections after the emanation has been pumped out. By means of this experimental curve observations at any time can be reduced to the maximum or three-hour values. For exact work the emanation should be placed in the electroscope and allowed to stand for three hours and several observations made and the mean used. The curve is for all practical purposes horizontal from three to four hours. In all these observations the deflections have been corrected for the natural leak of the electroscope due to the natural ionization of the air. Before giving results, I shall speak of some factors which may influ- ence the results. Since the emanation gas is dissolved in the water and is removed by boiling or by shaking, care should be used in filling the shaking ‘an. Immerse the can in a pool as close as possible to the source and allow the water to flow in gently. Filling by dipping and pouring with a smaller vessel removes some of the gas. If before the water issues from the ground it trickles over rocks in the presence of air which is not charged with emana- Absorption Coefficient, O. ab) on] NEE Temperature, Cs 468 tion it must lose some of the emanation. This may explain the variation of springs in the same locality. Observations made at the spring simply show the emanation content of the water. This may be due to three things. The emanation which is continually forming from traces of radium in the soil and rocks through which and over which the water passes is dissolved in the water and passes out with the water. It may be due to radium salts dissolved in the water. Or it may be due to some product of the thorium or actinium series. In the first case the water will show radioactivity by the emanation method and after stand- ing in a closed vessel for a month will not show any emanation. In the second case it may show radioactivity the same day as taken from the spring and after standing a month in a closed vessel it will show more or less emanation than at first. In any case the emanation content after standing one month is equal to the amount of radium dissolved in the water, since one curie is the amount of emanation which is in equilibrium with one gram of radium. All the observations given below are for the emanation content of the water as taken from the spring or well. These observations were taken from time to time on various springs and wells in Indiana and Ohio. The date of observation, approximate location of the spring, and temperature of the water at the spring is given. TABLE 5. SPRINGS. Curies, NAME. Loeation. Date. |Temp. C. Per | | Liter. : | : lll. Cent........| Bloomington Mar. 4, 1914. 12.5° |600.X10-12 Youno... Brown County, Indiana Mar. 6, 1914. 16.° 355 aGupns | Two miles southeast of Bloomington Mar. 13, 1914. 10.3° (430 J.C. S. Old....| Two miles southeast of Bloomington Mar. 14,1914. | 11.5° |660 FCS sseker te Two miles southeast of Bloomington May 16, 1914. | 115°) |170 ill. Cent... Bloomington. . re a May 23, 1914. 12.2° 1265 Stone .... Two miles southwest of Bloomington. May 23, 1914. | ie 77 y/2imer.. . Three miles southwest of Bloomington May 23,1914. | 12.3° |175 flottle.........| Bloomington. . . Sept. 24, 1914. | ied 650 South. . Morning San, Ohio. Aug. 24, 1914. ie 420 Cc. MeQ... .| One mile southeast of Morning Sun Sept 2, 1914. 16.° |560 WES es sind One-half mile west of Morning Sun . Sept. 7, 1914. | 2 OO C. D. McQ.. .| One mile west of Morning Sun... . Sept. 7, 1914. 15.8° |250 C. D. MeQ.....| (Wood) one mile west of Morning Sun Sept. 7, 1914. 19.5° (300 W. P. McQ .| One mile west of Morning Sun : Sept. 7, 1914. l7.° 1610 [Ce eRe .| Two miles west of Morning Sun. . Sept. 7, 1914. 19.5° |140 fal. No. 1......| One mile northeast Col. C.O.. Sept. 7, 1914. ly faa 350 Tal. Upper... | One mile northeast Col. C. O.. | Sept. 7, 1914. 17.° 1350 | Crry WATER. Curies Location, Date. Temp. C. Per Liter. Bloomington, Ind......... ; ne 2. 522)| Heb, 24, 1914, oe 27.X10-2 Bloomington, Ind............. : fe eo Mian 2, Lore: Hot. 41. Indiana University. ... ; .....| Mar. 2, 1914. Dies aoe @Oxford'Ob10...2...5..2... ELIA 93 ; Aug. 12, 1914. 19° 70. WintoniOrty iM. 2.2 5. eet PEL: | Aug. 18, 1914. 19° | 45. (Ceilits), Oli toler as an eaoee eRe ears aay et: sip | Aug. 20, 1914. PANS NC | WELLs. i Sem iMoming Sum) OWIO).... 0. <2 oe cca n ee ae San EE a ae Aue eer. tO1e | jays 95. J.S. R., Farm. One mile north Morning Sun, Ohio.... Aug. 27, 1914. !. ae A LOS C. McQ. One milesouth Morning Sun, Ohio........... Sept. 2, 1914. 13° |200. Forest Park. Six miles east Union City, Ind...... . Aug. 18, 1914. | 12° {185 AIDE C ESO MANN ENLEL atl fatusdsicdasncysleise ya aatkeises earae ns aa RPE Seas : 6. “Ey 0 Slovo at i at Oa et pee Pinel Se ee oe ..| 00. In some papers the radioactivity of springs is given in Mache units. One mache unit = 364. X 10-™ curies per liter. (Le Radium, Vol. XI, p. 5, 1914.) In several papers higher ratios have been used, 500. X 10-!2 in some cases. The radioactivity of these springs is not great, but it is high compared with ordinary springs of some localities. There is a great deal of variation from spring to spring, but this may be explained by assuming that some em- anation has been given up before issuing from the ground. The variation of the same spring from time to time is dealt with in another paper. Department of Physics, Indiana University, December 21, 1914. ae HE See + peseees cet eguaaannt eeeeesens £61 Sensess seuaseeeessaces 2 Latte PERE iaegeeeees t See teetetta tet fe tt tg + oe ees tH H+ EEE EEE EEE aaa eesessesesesassss aaesnst + 4 I H§ et iggeeee SSeSeeeeeseeeeesees Cases! AE jeeesesensseaeeesees seneees f + ORSRSESSs RORSReRaSs CaResseensSeeeeess ce be te fee ++ jeaeessseeeeeeeenees Coase aenees ise Reeeses RSeeeeeees saees : Sooo eee easeseene seassssnes tt tet tated isiuseeon Ta inboosee Saneseaead ecsiseeos sanaaae c jeanuaanee pesesnent jeeseseeses ines eet tet ty lt. joanne Ioome SSS eneeRAseee. oe eensasenaseenss SeeGsessRaeese angesnensns\ 471 bo ao A Tornabo AT WATERTOWN, SouTH Dakota, JUNE 1914. J. GLADDEN HUTTON. A tornado occurred at Watertown, South Dakota, late in the afternoon of June 23, 1914. A large number of dwelling houses and barns were de- stroyed, telephone and telegraph poles were razed and many gardens ruined. More than a score of people were more or less seriously injured and a number of others were slightly hurt by flying debris. No-one was killed outright, though one child was reported to have died of its injuries. The writer was passing through the city on June 25th and spent the day collecting data relative to the storm. Had more time been available, further information could have been secured. However, it seems worth while to give a brief report of the tornado, notwithstanding the fact that the data are incomplete. The Watertown Daily Public Opinion issued June 24th said: ‘‘People watched the approach of what looked like an ordinary thunder storm following a hot day* yesterday afternoon. Wind clouds formed about 6:30 o'clock and gradually developed into a heavy line to the north. The first indication of the formation of a cyclone was noticed in the continuous change of the light wind. Those watching next turned their attention to clouds forming fast in the northwest, and as a twister was developing the approach of the cyclone which went through the city was noticed. “The path of the storm embraced an area about three blocks wide the entire length of the city east and west. The worst section in the south part of town was in the three blocks north and east of the corner of Seventh avenue and Maple street S. From there the cyclone took a course east and a little northerly sweeping everything in its path and wrecking homes and barns between Third and Fourth avenues and Fifth and Sixth streets almost entirely. It continued across Seventh, Highth, Ninth and Tenth streets E. and between Ninth and Tenth streets reached as far *Mr. R. Q. Wood cooperative observer at Watertown reported the maximum temperature for June 23. 1914, as 83° and the minimum temperature 54°. ‘uoTyeuBldxe IO] 4X0} 90G “FIGI ‘EZ ouNL JO OpBUIOZ Jo YyeVd SuIMOYS “CT “Gg ‘UMO}IOZEAA JO dey | nn he NMOLULIVM 40 ALID DIG f 473 north as First avenue N., badly wrecking homes on First avenue and Kemp avenue E.” In the issue of the same paper for June 25th there is a brief account of the storm at Goodwin, fourteen or fifteen miles a little south of east of Watertown where houses and barns were damaged. Some damage was also reported at Altamont, about ten miles south of east of Goodwin. Mr. Ray stated that a thunder storm was approaching against a light east wind. At about 6:30 p.m. some hail fell, after which the tem- perature rose and a light east Wind was blowing. About thirty minutes after the hail ceased falling, he noticed a great turmoil in the clouds and a funnel formed which struck the earth near the South Dakota Central roundhouse. (From this point the course of the tornado is indice ited on the map shown in Fig. 1.) When the tornado passed through the city Mr. Ray was at the Elks’ Hall, four blocks north of the path of the storm. He stated that there was no wind where he was standing. After the tornado passed the wind changed to the northwest and blew hard. Fifteen minutes later a heavy shower occurred. The tornado passed through the city in ten or fifteen minutes. Mr. Ray had previously witvessed storms of this kind in Iowa. Mr. Mitchell, agent for the Rock Island Railroad, stated that he first observed the storm over Pelican Lake, about one mile southwest of Watertown. It was traveling in a northeasterly direction and was drawing up water from the lake. Rock Island train No. 417 was pulling into town from the east at 7:05 p.m. The epgineer saw the funnel and backed his train hoping to miss it. The train, however, was caught in the storm and had twenty-five panes of glass broken and the coaches were unrooted. One passenger who jumped from the train was injured by flying debris. The storm struck the city at 6:50 p.m. and was twenty minutes in passing through the city, a distance of one and one-fourth miles. A number of persons corroborated these statements as to the length of time required for the tornado to pass through the city. Mr. H. Dietz stated that the hail came while a gentle southeast breeze was blowing and that there was little or no wind just before the tornado appeared. He saw the twister coming like a black smoke and it appeared to be about ten feet in diameter at the bottom. There was no rain or thunder or lightning accompanying the storm according to his testimony and this statement was verified by other persons questioned concerning it. There were varying statements as to the presence of more than one 474 “UOSOIpIV “H “AI AQ JojtIM oYy 10} poddeyy *}x0} 944 UI 0} Padojar [OUUNY puodes 9Y4 JO YQed ayy sjuosoido1 AZ10 oY} JO Arepunod useysvo oY} 4B OUT] AAVOY 94} Sutssoio oul] JoyYSI~ YW “Opwusog [edioutd oyy jo yyed oy soayRorput UBdT[Od OHV] JO pud JSvoY}LOU OY} 4B Dutuursoeq oul] Yavp AAvoy oy, “Opvus0y jo YZed Surmoys “q “g ‘AquNOD uoSurpoH useysve jo deyy °“Z ‘OT eer tions Le iy Tad “ CRO NS. Sai2y 0009, Baty | DY SIA Ud by sacplgy. Cawl Funes 475 funnel, though a number of people said they observed one or more fun- nels which did not reach the earth. Mr. Dietz said that after the funnel left the city there was another one southeast of it which was white instead of black and that it dipped up and down but did not reach the earth. Mr. Mathiesen, who prepared the map of the storm’s path through Coding- ton County (Fig. 2), said that there were two funnels and his map shows the path of the second one, which, peculiarly, seems to have crossed the path of the main storm. He was at his farm about three miles east of Watertown and witnessed the storm as it passed by. Mr. J. B. Kintsley saw the cloud just before it reached the city and he said that it seemed to be about the size of a box car and looked like a Fic. 3. View showing wreckage of house in southwest part of Watertown, 8. D. General character of houses indicated. whirling column of mud. After the tornado passed by all of the clouds in the sky seemed to be rushing after it. The writer carefully examined the path of the storm from the point where it entered the city to the point where it left the city and passed out into the open prairie. The two outside lines shown in Figure 1 indicate the boundaries of the zone of damage, while the middle line is the locus of points where the greatest destruction occurred. The small arrows indi- cate the direction in which objects moved as assumed from their position before and after the storm. The writer is aware of the fact that in cases where objects were moved for some distance the arrows may not indicate the direction of movement, but where houses were only moved sligntly 476 from their foundations, and in similar cases, the arrows indicate the actual direction of movement. On the right of the axis of the path objects seem to have moved forward and to the left, while on the left side of the path they moved generally backward and to the right with reference to the advance of the tornado, although there are exceptions to this general statement. Houses on the edges of the path had their chimneys damaged. In fact the outside lines might be designated the chimney lines. ; Inside the chimney lines, shingles were removed in patches and usually on the side of the house nearest the axis of the storm. Farther in more shingles were removed, porches were blown away, roofs entirely removed and in Fic. 4. House with end blown outward. the middle of the path total destruction occurred, though not at all points. Greater destruction seems to have occurred on the right side of the storm path than on the left, and at some points the axis lies to the left of the middle of the path. The destruction seems to have been greatest where the storm entered the city and where it left it. The light construction of many of the houses in the part of the city traversed seems partly re- sponsible for the damage. (See Fig. 3.) The following incidents are of interest and may be briefly noted: The violent expansion of air in closed buildings was observed everywhere. Shimgles were blown from roofs by the sudden expansion of air in the garrets. Windows were blown outward. Mr. Kintsley, who was in a cellar, said that the southwest window was the first one to blow outward. 477 Hollow e¢ylindrical porch posts were split in at least one instance. Walls or foundations made of hollow cement blocks or hollow tile failed in many instances. (See Figures 9 and 10.) The entire end of the house shown in Figure 4 was blown outward. The end of the house may be seen lying in the foreground. Figure 5 shows a similar condition, though the house was greatly damaged otherwise. Two boys who were in Oak Park in the southwest part of the city just outside the path of the storm said that when the funnel passed by it Fic. 5. House in east Watertown, S. D., showing explosive effect of air during passage of tornado. looked like an elephant’s trunk and that hot and cold blasts of air passed over them “sometimes hot enough to roast them and sometimes cold enough to freeze them.” At Goodwin, east of Watertown, clouds of soot rushed from the ehini- neys “as if everyone had a rouring fire.’ Here ‘tthe storm appeared to stay higher up in the air, though chimneys toppled and smaller buildings were overturned.” Figure 6 is from a photograph taken by Mr. Ward Carr who was at a farm house three miles west of Watertown. The tornado is moving toward the left and seems to be at the forward point of a crescent-shaped cioud. The writer does not know whether this is the squall cloud of the thunder storm or not. The hour-glass shape of the tornado is notable. 478 Figure 7 is from a photograph said to have been taken by a traveling salesman at the corner of Maple street and Second avenue south. ‘his point is about four blocks north of the axis of the storm path. The other photographs were made by the writer. The weather map of June 23, 1914, reproduced herewith (Fig. 8), shows the weather conditions prevailing on the morning preceding the storm. Gomis Bet | 380. Aug. 5 12.5° 495. Pa aa ae are oer Sept. 24 13 and 13° sh ; 650. 445. Oct. 9 15° 530. Saftey | miles Oct. 16 13 and 12.8° ; 695. | 166. Oct. 23 13.3 and 13° et 700. ' 120. Oct. 30 13 and 12.7° iS ae 665. 20. Nov. 6 13 and 12.6° 650. 40. Nov. 13 13 and 12.6° - a 705. | 20. Noy. 20 13 nd 13° ae al 520. ie Nov. 26 13 and 13° Rh ne Ae te 550. 33. Dec. 3 i fStandelsis |e Nae eee ot sph) 60. Dee. 11 13 and 13° : Pe eee | 510. | 20. Dec. 18 13 and 13° Beene ee ee tae 450. | 00. | 490 The Hottle Spring has remained almost constant, while the Illinois Central has fallen from 600. X 10- curies to almost zero. Four readings taken on another (J. C. S.) spring are added. Taken all together it is noted that in May there was a low value and an increase during Sep- tember and another decrease October and December. In a rough way an increase coincides with a season of rain and a decrease with dry weather. It may be that due to a small flow there is more splashing and trickling over rocks near the mouth of the spring and the emanation is lost. Indiana University, December 21, 191}. 491 THE CONSTRUCTION OF A RUTHERFORD’S ELECTROSCOPE. EDWIN MorRISoN. INTRODUCTION, At the suggestion of Dr. R. A. Millikan the author recently undertook the problem of constructing an electroscope for general laboratory work in radio-active measurements. The general outlines and plans suggested by Dr. Rutherford in his originai papers published in the Philosophical Magazine and in his work entitled Radio-active Transformations have been followed. Suggestions have also been taken from the following works: Studies in Radio-activity, by Bragg; Conduction of Electricity Through Gases and Radio-activity, by McClung; and Practical Measurements in Radio-activity, by Makower and Geiger. The purposes have been, first, to show, in greater details than the original papers give, the methods of constructing a successful electroscope ; and, second, to embody in one instrument as wide a range of experimental work as possible. CONSTRUCTION. A diagram of the electroscope is shown in Fig. 1. The dimensions of the gold leaf chamber (FE) are 10x10x10cm. This chamber is con- structed from sheet brass 1.7 mm. in thickness. The four plates for the sides, top and bottom are first carefully jointed by means of a file and then soldered together as shown in Fig. 2 (A). To facilitate the process of soldering two right angle pieces of metal are joined together forming a right angle frame as shown in Fig. 2 (B). When two pieces of the box are to be joined together they are carefully adjusted upon the frame, a few small pieces of solder and soldering fluid are placed along the joint and a ‘pointed flame is directed along the joint in the inside angle until the solder is thoroughly fused. In this way the parts of the electroscope box can be joined together square and straight. The front side of the electroscope box is a hinged door. This door has a window in it 6.5 cm. square covered with mica. Through this window the gold leaf may be observed by means of a reading microscope. A dia- 49? gram on the back side of the door is shown in Fig. 3 (A). The mica is held in place by means of four pices of brass, 1.7 mm. thick and 1.5 cm. wide. These pieces are screwed onto the door in such a way that they not YT, = 2 BY Fa AY only hold the mica in place over the window but they also form a close fitting rabbeted joint of the door to the box. The back side of the electroscope is constructed like the front side, with a mica window of the same dimensions for illumination. This side may be either hinged to the box or it may be held in place by means of two little hooks. 493 Using the same methods as described abov-e, the ionisation chamber (T) is constructed. No mica windows are needed in the front door or the back side of (this ionisation) Chamber. The dimensions of (I) are 12 x 12x 12 cm., and the thickness of the walls is 1.7 mm. With the exception of the mica window the door to the ionisation chamber is constructed like that of the door to the gold leaf box. The front door should be hinged to the box and the back side can either be permanently soldered to the box or it can be fastened by means of hinges. The two boxes (E) and (1) are fastened together by screws, the right hand sides being flush with each other as shown in Fig. 1. This arrange- 494 ment places the condenser in the center of the ionisation box and the gold leaf support is on one side of the box thus giving more free space to the gold leaf. Through openings in the top and bottom of the electroscope box (1), and the top of (I) a brass rod (ID), about 4 mm. in diameter is adjusted being insulated from the boxes by means of two amber plugs (R) and mh : (S). The upper end of the rod (D) is covered by a metal cap (C). The upper opening of the cap is closed by means of an ebonite plug (G). The cap can be removed for charging purposes. The rod (D) may be extended and enlarged by fitting to the upper end a brass cylinder (H). This eylinder acting with the metal cap (C) forms a condenser which in- creases the capacity of the electroscope. Upon the side of (D) a brass 495 strip (S), which is about 6 mm. in width, is fastened by means of a small screw at (F). To this strip the gold leaf is fastened by means of wax or shellac. The rod (D) is terminated at its lower end by means of a el Fie. 4. disk (A), which is 8 cm. in diameter. This disk is screwed onto the end of (D), and larger or smaller disks may be used, thereby varying the capacity of the electroscope. Supported upon a screw (T) which passes through the bottom of the ionisation chamber is a disk (B) the same 496 size as that of (A). By turning the screw (T) the position of (B) can be made to change through a range of about 8.5 cm. Its distance in cm. or mm. from (A) can be determined by reading the position of the disk (Q) with reference to the scale (Z). To the bottom of the ionisation chamber four brass rods 1.2 cm. in diameter and 15 cm. in length are securely fastened by means of screws for legs. Leveling screws are adjusted to the lower ends of these legs. The electroscope can be converted into an emanation electroscope by placing stopcocks (M) and (N) in the sides of the ionisation chamber. The active gas can be admitted to the electroscope by exhaustion through one stopcock and attaching the source of gas to the other stopcock. Or the active gas can be forced into the ionisation chamber by means of a pres- sure bulb. In testing active gases it is usually necessary to reduce the capacity to the lowest amount possible. This can be done by removing the cylinder (H) and the condenser plate (A). A small rod should be screwed onto the end of (1D) in place of the disk (A). Figure four shows the instrument mounted ready for use. The instrument can be changed into one for measuring the “Variations of the ionisation produced by an alpha particle along its path,” by en- closing the condenser plate (A) in a metal box which has a number of short, small, brass tubes passing through the bottom. (See Makower and Geiger’s Practical Measurements in Radio-activity, article 32, page 46.) A drawing of the box is shown in Fig. 3 (B) and a cross section in Fig. 3 (©). After a thorough test it has been shown that this one instrument with its attachments can be used for a wide range of radio-active measure- ments, and that it is well adopted to general laboratory work. Physical Laboratory, Barlham College. 497 PMGHIWEs NEGIMIDCES) «5 srclers crete: sve erotes wu. ote 5 este CR OER OEE OI OR ee Alcohol Problem, The, In the Light of Coniosis. Robert Hessler...... 85 Alundum, The, Crucible as a Substitute for the Gooch Crucible. George Ths, GIG inl kee taeerona cue ieeoact eke Ga Pree a cbctttot Se ORS ee ee BR ceis Coen 3D1 Apparatus, An, for Aerating C culture Solutions. Paul W eater Wax. 157 ANjojcojomeneom more IEA AS he so eo ooe c Eyelet ciohs Hestaisee sesh ec 9 B B. Fluorescens and B. Typhosus, Antagonism on, in Culture. TP. A. Ae ERI DIRE cieto arto eect Okoseunctocctc SRR Rep eardee ASME otecoeds, 3 Na eels hie Gh 161 3inomial Coefficients, Some Properties of. A. M. Kenyon............ 433 Birds’ Eggs, The Alba B. Ghere Collection ef, Presented to the Museum OL eLurduesOmiversiby “Howards Es BING ersety nmi cla) ses lo 3irds, Public Offenses—Hunting Wild,—Penalty..... re oT ee nC 10 Birds, Their Nests and Eggs, An Act for the Protection of............ 9 IBCs, Vitae 1OXey Obie, Wateauren IDS \iYo IDyesmanlse Sh onoeoe sooo ea on oe ena ac 145 Black Locust, A New Enemy of the. Glenn Culbertson.............. 5 Als Bommcalmeroplems, Some Wbarcens da Ol eAnbintire .ctrecletcrs + - «pl cone ws ene 267 RHEE RESSiG iy IB CO Ie eee yma bloom amido BG Coe Goan ot sire 40 TVELAIWIS? 52 51 cc sine oe bre auenate tee ab aermere siaievas sleon Ok. ohelaharererees ifevae shes acer sas aeiees 7 C. Carey Foster Bridge, A Simple Form of the. J. P. Naylor............ 485 Chemistry, The Correlation of High School and @allese: James Brown 355 Chimney Swift, A Note on a Peculiar Nesting Site of the. Glenn CiNWELESOMe mem ern PA se Mineo Re Os eat eee een noe AY) Civilization, Conservation and. Arthur L. iisley. OG oo eRoR io cad oiee 35 Coals, Tar Forming Temperatures of American. Otto Carter Berry... 373 Cold Storage is Practical Conservation. H. BE. Barnard.............. 101 Committees, Academy of Science. 1915...... Ey stee yt Stcy SMeDsL c Heisaiters seks BS ous aoe 12 @onservation and) Civilization. Arthur Wm: HPoley..............0..---- 133 Conservation of Human Life, Science in its Relation to the. Severance JER DCI Wren lahat ols o Eatnancrcha Dat Crore olcuc RNR cae ed aas racane eves en spevtieie pare eheuslemeteushave DD (CME DT AC) al: eS aigta eloioe Ge ee cIntE IG cholo mucaresyatr Bisst is nickcro- el Meo ororc oi nia 5) (Ooms, ANOS It GaecasauaacsogaccupDec NR iiese atest ate) e,s0ene Oe Bia: ai Se are) 3 Corn Pollination, Report on, IV. (inal). M. Tie MR SWOT Sy 3 serrate erie A 207 @uratorsi a. - ae ST Eee ete BR Ae ace 2 TI cee a Be es i et Sa ee SIT ie irs 11 498 BE. PAGE Harthworms, Notes on Indiana. H. V. Heimburger.................. 281 Electroscope, The Construction of a Rurtherford’s. Edwin Morrison.. 491 Emanation Content, Variation of the, of Certain Springs. R. R. Ram- SEY) Malev ai ite ree cre ee Pogeratic cat iare ole aa iol, 1s seuel Soave ole ip’ elas ohoveteve tokens eicten ap ke neem 489 EEX GEMELV | OOMMMEGLORL atc crkowtnie cities tiene teece Rie ore OTe an nee ee ee ala F. Feeble-minded and Delinquent GirJ, The. E. E. Jones............... q(t Feeble-minded and Delinquent Boy, The. Franklin C. Paschal....... 63 Feeble-mindedness in the Public Schools. WKatrina Myers............ 79 Heeble-mindedness: ‘The Problem’ of. “G. So BSS... ..2 2 0c cssin sees 61 LOW Saree earoke eter oan ao oa okey Cea ee Peels rie akawais a Goel steve eieie ie vele ects Siccs ie’ terete neem 14 Flatwoods Region, The, of Owen and Monroe Counties, Indiana. Clyde HAC VASAT OT rey tate, 2 ose es 2S a ELA eee toile te lo ote ae eifac cient he sep Sas tne) Sere a 399 KloodProtection Im Indiana, WK. Hatt... 2.2 qc. s0n.<10s 005 en eee 149 Forest Trees, Notes Upon the Destruction of, in Indiana. Stanley OTH eect oo Soe ether ea dae Slere Sranate, whe Tella taiith 5 0) seats ante ene eee 167 G. Genus Rosellinia, The, in Indiana. Glenn D. Ramsey................ 251 Gravimetric Analysis, Stirring as a Time Saver in. W. M. Blanchard. 349 i Insects, Some, of the Between Tides Zone. Chas. H. Arndt........... 323 Ks Kentucky Mountains, Changing Conditions in the. B. H. Schockel.... 109 M. IMGRADIOTS.. Acc .ac ale orcas tea ape a ace eee gis Rita.a: Sine esata oy aaah ete cMoveteiet al oto ss) atone heme ne ne 14 MICIN DOTS: A CUIVE:|: 5c. sonrorayete sh ere! ehaSceheup ne tei "ake tele St MMaBB Tote munis tos ena ean ge cet 22 Mersenne Numbers, Mechanical Device for Testing, for Primes. Thos. We MASON: 2 oh, oc 3 oie creo cutee ie eos PSEA csi tesere ata oetie ovate Pats < eigs eto ee eee 429 Winttes Oo: the Sprine Meeting: eo. acc cei os tote cderavs sone) ote eee 39 Minutes ‘of the: Dhirtieth Arma WeCtimMesec.c1. cc's wise eso cuinnclare cucletstst umes 45 Mosses, Corrections of the Lists of, of Monroe County, Indiana, I and i; Mildred Nothnagel and’ We Wy.-Picketts. 3. 3: loc co. 6 asc cuie eee 179 Mosses, The, of Monroe County, Indiana, III. F. L. Pickett and Mil- dred Nothnagel Me in cas aay Son ais nalan Or retails ae hale seacts ae She ne een 181 N. Nummularia, Some Species of, Common in Indiana. Claude E. O’Neal. 235 499 O. £ PAGE SEMMESTEUT Is aly MIN CUAL ac. tA cle Fed Usd texte sake stone ic arenewetsrdlieninickes, sue eae eleshens a's 191 @incers: 1914-1915 2.2.5 2.65. poke charwars Se I ea sary enone teh Kon bee ts ial Officers of the Indiana Academy of Science, 1885-1915................ i133 Orthoptera and Orthopteran Habitats, Notes on, in the Vicinity of iamayette: indiana: Henny “HOxXs az sr sts ce crower. cists « od wt ea He erneyee 287 Outcrop, Correlation of the, at Spades, Indiana. H.N. Coryell........ 389 12. -aleobotany. The, of the Bloomington, Indiana, Quadrangle. T. F. TI) SY CRS CTI Rt se Re re oR OR eae eG Rice Sear te ee Caer een Seen aS 59D Ranis New or Rare to Indiana, No: V. Chas: © Deam.......:...... 197 maooraimvot che hirtieth Ammial Meetings: . 45 a2. 2:2 cdern cc ose co ae ce 50 Public Offenses—Hunting Wild Birds—Penalty...................... 10 Re FraAGlOccivity, Ob Sprinec, Water, Ro IR: WamSey..2 2c. ase aces. sss. ADD Rust Propagation, Continuous, Without Sexual Reproduction. C. A. ATURE UT Vs stereo teens Vs, Sieskre screcede eiray as aibastapieter 2) a Sells nic) SSL eOuIS Mehatere Seven b's 5] el ecm eat aIe 219 Rusts. Correlation of Certain Long-eycled and Short-cycled. H. C. MiG) ime ie hit ane oh ieee ha) aeteatia a ca sactagir testa lbio cree ys cluelnee eo als 231 S. Science in its Relation to the Conservation of Human Life........... 5D SEMA ISHOSAl.. COhASy By LOSSIM AIIM retaliate wee le.e) see ceys\era 0 ede eva saree 3069 Shawnee Mound, Tippecanoe County, as a Glacial Alluvial Cone. Wil- Dee eC GLa rata tek -tayesopons ke creeks ie orekees one rele ere, See a eublcetnue wus 585 Snakes, The, of the Lake Maxinkuckee Region. Barton Warren Ever- Tinie pavel Jeena Wyerillieoral SC CHRW Ee ats ais a aeup e oeeein Ghatnic Gleiee a oir amie Goes 33T Soils, The Chemical Composition of Virgin and Cropped Indiana. S. D. (CHOUMTTVET Ea Bs Bec Beg Gaeta or err DRL Ek Orn Re REMUS SR eERY at on tee PEner en 559 Spirogyra Dubia, Some VPeculiarities in. Paul Weatherwax.......... 203 Springs, Variation of the Emanation Content of Certain. R. R. Ram- SEY Nia Gaia oadne cididedina, Od OeRGre Ohen Git d OOO. U mio UNG GINO Des ORne-CncnEac ten CeeKeese eens che 489 SPAM VWiiter, Radloactiviiy ob IR. Ry Ramsey. : s..00.65-.6ccencees- A453 Av iaplewoL. Contents: .. 42.264. BUS Ue ebay GIO ICAL ER COCHOC CRTC RE OREI ES Leen ice mere ea 3 Tornado, A, at Watertown, South Dakota, June 25, 1914. J. Gladden iBT AOI. Geom crerpen ope es Capretencraraed 15 OOo: 5 OORZO UE CNRS Oc SEAS AIC REE ata ORAS 471 RCMIMON Ie: stomeuta Ob, (He IME CAMGTeCWS®, . cranes ee cls v0 stone es cs cle 209 Ve Viola Cucullata, A New Leaf Spot of. H. W. Anderson.............. 187 Violet, The Primrose-leaved, in White County. Louis F. Heimlich.... 215 PROCEEDINGS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE I915 PROCEEDINGS Indiana Academy of Science IQI5 H. KE. BARNARD, Editor TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE CO BIST TRITON AT SA, 6 ta Gt Ae aT RENE De sbere OD NO Ter ic UA MP tr Ai OOD BE a) TB’Sy=] DRS Biclabvon, o°0, CE RACE ire BO Soe eine arta i So a a a SLO Mtcbom Lot NOU VOLS oh. 5.0 ss Bo eae eee fees Gl epoca wrt la au a An Act for the Protection of Birds, Their Nests and Eggs............ 9 Public Offenses—Hunting Birds—Penalty.......................... 10 ican lO ATOM ee yeas Coe 12. aewace Sear nec... ies, enon 20), Venu 2 11 Ee CAM ulyen CO MaKAN COO Maen. scr scuee OPE a ck MOR A Nene woud aus hoes sar each eeaee 11 (CHNTRUHOIES Seo ecu ueteee HEME te SIT aTe cet OC eae ee coe eer 12 Gonnmitiees:Academyrot Science, 19NGs 2245.54. aes see. eee 12 Officers of the Academy of Science (A Table of)..................... 14 }\tlesea OTHE Regen Oda eke eee, CEM Pho ito eCnGIN Ochi Ter ena Ie ne rane Se 15 EVI OWS Pepe oer ae ue new Ah eee SER ae eae tee ls eR ml iy 15 ENGIN, INAS OMN oye shai aN le? Ss a rec SCE. TENE ee oN en RO eC eee 24 MiinniiiestofathensprinesMeetinetz..w. non o< 4112 Ses. . cee le sake 41 Mimnmhesvof the Dhiriy-tirst Annuall Meetings. .0...42..2..55.... 343 Program of the Thirty-first Annual Meeting........................ 49 CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. Section 1. This association shall be called the Indiana Academy of Science. Sec. 2. The objects of this Academy shall be scientific research and the diffusion of knowledge concerning the various departments of science; to promote intercourse between men engaged in scientific work, especially in Indiana; to assist by investigation and discussion in developing and making known the material, educational and other resources and riches of the State; to arrange and prepare for publication such reports of investigation and dis- cussions as may further the aims and objects of the Academy as set forth in these articles. Wuereas, The State has undertaken the publication of such proceed- ings, the Academy will, upon request of the Governor, or one of the several departments of the State, through the Governor, act through its council as an advisory body in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province as stated. The necessary expenses incurred in the prosecution of such investigation are to be borne by the State; no pecuniary gain is to come to the Academy for its advice or direction of such investigation. The regular proceedings of the Academy as published by the State shall become a public document. ARTICLE II. Section 1. Members of this Academy shall be honorary fellows, fellows, non-resident members or active members. Sec. 2. Any person engaged in any department of scientific work, or in original research in any department of science, shall be eligible to active membership. Active members may be annual or life members. Annual members may be elected at any meeting of the Academy;*they shall sign the constitution, pay an admission fee of two dollars and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar. Any person who shall at one time contribute fifty dollars to the funds of this Academy may be elected a life member of the Academy, free of assessment. Non-resident members may be elected from those who have been active members but who have removed from the 6 State. In any ease, a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect to membership. Application for membership in any of the foregoing classes shall be referred to a committee on application for membership, who shall consider such application and report to the Academy before the election. Sec. 5. The members who are actively engaged in scientific work, who have recognized standing as scientific men, and who have been members of the Academy at least one year, may be recommended for nomination for election as fellows by three fellows or members personally acquainted with their work and character. Of members so nominated a number not exceed- ing five in one year may, on recommendation of the Executive Committee, be elected as fellows. At the meeting at which this is adopted, the mem- bers of the Executive Committee for 1894 and fifteen others shall be elected fellows, and those now honorary members shall become honorary fellows. Honorary fellows may be elected on account of special prominence in science, _ on the written recommendation of two members of the Academy. In any case a three-fourths vote of the members present shall elect. ARTICLE III. Section 1. The officers of this Academy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and shall hold office one year. They shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Press Secretary and Treasurer, who shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective offices and in addition, with the ex-presidents of the Academy, shall constitute an Executive Committee. The President shall, at each annual meeting, appoint two members to be a committee, which shall pre- pare the programs and have charge of the arrangements for all meetings for one year. Sec. 2. The annual meeting of this Academy shall be held in the city of Indianapolis within the week following Christmas of each year, unless otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee. There shall also be a summer meeting at such time and place as may be decided upon by the Executive Committee. Other meetings may be called at the discretion of the Executive Committee. The past Presidents, together with the officers and Executive Committee, shall constitute the council of the Academy, and represent it in the transaction of any necessary business not especially pro- vided for in this constitution, in the interim between general meetings. ff Sec. 3. This constitution may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by a three-fourths majority of the attending members of at least one year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be decided on the day of its presentation. BY-LAWS. 1. On motion, any special department of science shall be assigned to a curator, whose duty it shall be, with the assistance of the other members interested in the same department, to endeavor to advance knowledge in that particular department. Each curator shall report at such time and place as the Academy shall direct. These reports shall include a brief summary of the progress of the department during the year preceding the presentation of the report. 2 2. The President shall deliver a public address on the morning of one of the days of the meeting at the expiration of his term of office. 3. The Press Secretary shall attend to the securing of proper newspaper reports of the meetings and assist the Secretary. 4. No special meeting of the Academy shall be held without a notice of the same having been sent to the address of each member at least fifteen days before such meeting. 5. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary. 6. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. 7. Ten members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of busi- ness. AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORTS AND PAPERS OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. (Approved March 11, 1895.) Wuereas, The Indiana Academy of Science, a chartered scientific association, has embodied in its constitution a provision that it will, upon the 8 request of the Governor, or of the several departments of the State govern- ment, through the Governor, and through its council as an advisory board, assist in the direction and execution of any investigation within its province without pecuniary gain to the Academy, provided only that the necessary expenses of such investigation are borne by the State; and, Wuereas, The reports of the meetings of said Academy, with the several papers read before it, have very great educational, industrial and economic value, and should be preserved in permanent form; and, Wuereas, The Constitution of the State makes it the duty of the General Assembly to encourage by all suitable means intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvement; therefore, Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That hereafter the annual reports of the meetings of the Indiana Academy of Science, beginning with the report for the year 1894, including all papers of scientific or economic value, presented at such meetings, after they shall have been edited and prepared for publication as hereinafter provided, shall be published by and under the direction of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Binding. Src. 2. Said reports shall be edited and prepared for publication without expense to the State, by a corps of editors to be selected and appointed by the Indiana Academy of Science, who shall not, by reason of such service, have any claim against the State for compensation. The form, style of binding, paper, typography and manner and extent of illustration of such reports shall be determined by the editors, subject to the approval of the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery. Not less than 1,500 nor more than 3,000 copies of each of said reports shall be published, the size of the edition within said limits to be determined by the coneurrent action of the editors and the Commissioners of Public Printing and Stationery: Provided, That not to exceed six hundred dollars ($600) shall be expended for such publication in any one year, and not to extend beyond 1896: Provided, That no sums shall be deemed to be appropriated for the year 1894. Sec. 3. All except three hundred copies of each volume of said reports shall be placed in the custody of the State Librarian, who shall furnish one copy thereof to each public library in the State, one copy to each university college or normal school in the State, one copy to each high school in the State having a library, which shall make application therefor, and one copy to such other institutions, societies or persons as may be designated by the 9 Academy through its editors or its council. The remaining three hundred copies shall be turned over to the Academy to be disposed of as it may determine. In order to provide for the preservation of the same it shall be the duty of the Custodian of the State House to provide and place at the disposal of the Academy one of the unoccupied rooms of the State House, to be designated as the office of the Academy of Science, wherein said copies of said reports belonging to the Academy, together with the original manu- seripts, drawings, ete., thereof can be safely kept, and he shall also equip the same with the necessary shelving and furniture. Sec. 4. An emergency is hereby declared to exist for the immediate taking effect of this act, and it shall therefore take effect and be in force from and after its passage. APPROPRIATION FOR 1915-1916. The appropriation for the publication of the proceedings of the Academy during the years 1915 and 1916 was increased by the Legislature in the General Appropriation bill, approved March 9, 1915. That portion of the law fixing the amount of the appropriation for the Academy is herewith given in full. For the Academy of Science: For the printing of the proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science twelve hundred dollars: Provided, That any unexpected balance in 1915 shall be available for 1916, and that any unexpended balance in 1916 shall be available in 1917. AN ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS. Src. 602. Whoever kills, traps or has in his possession any wild bird, or whoever sells or offers the same for sale, or whoever destroys the nest or eggs of any wild bird, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than twenty-five dollars: Provided, That the provisions of this section shall not apply to the following named birds: The Anatidae, commonly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duck; the Rallidae, commonly ealled rails, coots, mud-hens gallinules; the limicolae, commonly called shore birds, surf birds, plover, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tattlers and curlew; the Gallinae, commonly called wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails and pheasants; 10 nor to English or European house sparrows, crows, hawks or other birds of prey. Nor shall this section apply to persons taking birds, their nests or eggs, for scientific purposes, under permit, as provided in the next seciton. Sec. 603. Permits may be granted by the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game to any properly accredited person, permitting the holder thereof to collect birds, their nests or eggs for strictly scientific purposes. In order to obtain such permit the applicant for the same must present to such Com- missioner written testimonials from two well-known scientific men certify- ing to the good character and fitness of such applicant to be entrusted with such privilege, and pay to such Commissioner one dollar therefor and file with him a properly executed bond in the sum of two hundred dollars, payable to the State of Indiana, conditioned that he will obey the terms of such permit, and signed by at least two responsible citizens of the State as sureties. The bond may be forfeited, and the permit revoked upon proof to the satisfaction of such Commissioner that the holder of such permit has killed any bird or taken the nest or eggs of any bird for any other purpose than that named in this section. PUBLIC OFFENSES—HUNTING WILD BIRDS—PENALTY. (Approved March 15, 1913.) Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana, That section six (6) of the above entitled act be amended to read as follows: Section 6. That section six hundred two (602) of the above entitled act be amended to read as follows: Section 602. It shall be unlawful for any person to kill, trap or possess any wild bird, or to purchase or offer the same for sale, or to destroy the nest or eggs of any wild bird, except as otherwise provided in this section. But this section shall not apply to the following named game birds: The Anatidae, commonly called swans, geese, brant, river and sea duck;the Rallidae, commonly known as rails, coots, mud-hens and gallinules; the Limicolae, commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodeock, sandpipers, tattlers and curlews; the Gallinae, com- monly called wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, quails, and pheasants; nor to English or European house sparrows, blackbirds, crows, hawks or other birds of prey. Nor shall this section apply to any person taking birds or their nests or eggs for scientific purposes under permit as provided in the next section. Any person violating the provisions of this section shall, on conviction, be fined not»less than ten dollars ($10.00) nor more than fifty dollars ($50.00). Indiana Academy of Srieuce. ARTHUR, J. C., Bienny, A. J; BuaANcHARD, W. M., BLATCHLEY, W. S., BRANNER, J. C., BURRAGE, SEVERANCE, Butter, Amos W., CoGsHaLL, W. A., CouutTEr, Joun M., CouLTER, STANLEY, OrFicEers, 1915-1916. PRESIDENT, ANDREW J. BIGNEY. VICE-PRESIDENT, Amos W. ButTuEr. SECRETARY, Howarp E. Enpmrs. ASSISTANT SECRETARY, E. B. WILuiaAMson. Press SECRETARY, FRANK B. WADE. TREASURER, Wiuuiam M. BLANcHARD. Ep1ror, H. EK. BaRNarp. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: CULBERTSON, GLENN, Dryer, Cuas. R., EKIGENMANN, C. H., Enpers, Howarp E., Evans, P. N.., Dennis, D. W., Popa, A, Dee Ae Oy ue Hessiter, RoBpert, VIOHING apes Ds: JORDAN, D. S., (11) McBern, W. A., Mess, Cart L., Morrtrer, Davin M., MENDENHALL, T. C., Nay tor, JosEpH P., Noyes, W. A., Wane, F. B. WiarDOme. Ae Witey, H. W., Wixuuramson, HW. B., WRIGHT, JOHN S. 12 CURATORS: HERPETOLOGY IMIFASMNTAST © Gay uae EES he ee ORNITHOLOGY J NCHTEY OLOGY ernest hone oe F Rete Baas LR ad J. C. ArrHuUR: Be Re iL EG aie W. S. Buatrcuuey. Be es soc tia Ane eae A. W. Burier. a8 mg ete H. C. K1GeENMANN. COMMITTEES ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 1915-1916. Program. STANLEY CouLtTER, Lafayette L. F. Bennerr, Valparaiso SEVERANCE BurraAGE, Indianapolis Nominations. Membership. KE. R. Cumminas, Bloomington Epwin Morrison, Richomnd H. L. Bruner, Indianapoils Auditing. Witpur A. CoacsHaui, Bloomington J. P. Naytor, Greencastle W. A. McBeru, Terre Haute A. S. Haruaway, Terre Haute Stale Library. W. S. Buarcuiey, Indianapolis A. W. Burxier, Indianapolis James Brown, Indianapolis Biological Survey. C. C. Dram, Bluffton H. W. Anperson, Crawfordsville GLENN CULBERTSON, Hanover Restriction of Weeds and Diseases. Roperr Hesster, Logansport Fr. M. ANprEews, Bloomington J. N. Hurry, State House, Indian- apolis STANLEY CouLtTEeR, Lafayette D. M. Morrier, Bloomington Academy to State. R. W. McBripe, Indianapolis GLENN CULBERTSON, Hanover Georce N. Horrer, West Lafayette H. E. BarNnarp, Indianapolis U. O. Cox, Terre Haute J. N. NrrEuwLAND, Notre Dame A. W. Buruer, Indianapolis W. W. Woo..en, Indianapolis 13 Distribution of Proceedings. Publication of Proceedings. H. E. Enprers, West Lafayette H. EK. Barnarp, Editor, Indianapolis Joun B. DutcHer, Bloomington C. R. Dryer, Fort Wayne A. W. Butturr, State House, In- M. E. Haaaerry, Bloomington dianapolis R. R. Hype, Terre Haute W. M. Buancuarp, Greencastle J. S. Wriaut, Indianapolis 14 “posva00d « “paeyourld “WW “paeyourld “[ ‘Teysso) “V ‘sneyyuso0yy “f ‘sneyyuooyy “f° “sneyyueoyy “f “sneyyuooyy “f* “WGP W °V WORN “V OCW “V WOW “V WOW “V “OPW “V “WORT “VAN TAOS VL ‘f T12A009 AL ‘f TPA099 AL ‘f TPPA00G AL ‘f {PeAoog Lf ‘uouuRrys “qd “M “uouuRys “qd “M ‘uouurys ‘dq “M ‘uouueys “qd “MW “OpIRM “VO ‘OPIRAA ‘O 'V ‘sULpUO “d “O ‘sULpUo’ “d “O ‘subjuet “d “O ‘sul “d “O ‘subpuo’ “d “O ‘suLpuef “d “O ieecereeteereee “OpeM “a “Ope M “a ‘opeM “A” “OpeM “Au “-q7enys “A OTN “qaengg “HL OTN SUB POOM “M UYyOLr poqqy ‘VO . H00IV “VD Sets OAs Vie) “yIRIO “Y sopreyy --MOGqy “WD “-qoqay “¥ ° Db e EO OGSUY ea “* moJuUEg “AA “*-moyuUEg “MM “* TOjJUEg “MM “uo UEg “MA "-moJUEg “MM “OOr) OOF) Oor) OOF) “MOSTURTTIILM “GO “-*"srepury “WH “+++ -sgapug “MH - -WQTUIg “TAO “UOSUIBITTILM “A “OL “WOSUIRTT[LAA “GO ae, wee ‘ KouSTY “cf “V aust cate * OUST oT “VW *: AOUSIG (“WV “**"trosuey “H ‘f° ““ulosuey “H f “mosuey “Hf *"*-trosuey “H dUuLpog uOSp[Buo(d oulpog wosp[euod “OZ NYS “VY “OW aZyNYyS “VW “Wf ay ie IS "VY Kousig “(VW ae - Sousig oe ‘AousIg “[ “V eae * OUST “ "Vv ‘*UBULION “MM “MM (uRULION “MA ‘MA | LoTURYS | | Lo}NOD ! ‘sdopug “a paevaro fp] ‘AouSIg “( °V Aousig ‘[ °V Aousig *( “V Aousig “{ °V Aousig ‘{ °V “-mOJUIG “AA “O8H *,*"mmOsuey “HL “**"qosuey “H ‘f ‘WaT[NIVOPY “q UUAry UdT[NIVOPY “Gq UUATT “UdT[NIVOP “Gq UUATT ; “*“9qst MS Uyor “TTeYssoD “V INQTIM “OSRLING WURIOAVG ,uIpog UoOsp[euo(d eas 2 TOM TG a “SUVA “N ‘d *ASTOY TV UOS}AOq]N,) USS) * TIVO “WW 'd “Lo]sso}] Woqoy “VYSLEM “SG UYOL sees Tggaqaqr TO 9T6I-SI6L SI6I-FI6BI FIGI-EI6L El6L-GI6I GI6OL-TI6L LI6L-OI6T OT61-6061 6061L-SO06I SO61—-Z061 ZO61-906T 9061-SO6T CO6IT-F061 FOGI-E061 ST “UA ASV AY, “AUVLAUIAS SSaud “HONGIOS AO AW “AUVLAUOAS “LSsy "ASTM ‘'§ gor Beat sane ‘SM | SO6I-CO6T “VY SlIM “S Uyor AOTLM “MA AvATeH | GOGI-TOG6T “qys Ay “S UyOoL ‘** semou ‘gd “IW | 1061-0061 a eee ‘g uygor “"-stuusq “MM ‘Cd | OO6I-668T “ QUSLLAA “S UyOL “UURULUOSIT “EY” 6681-8681 “VSIA “S UyOr i “OPIRM “V SGSIT-L681 Aiyaaiite, Seth ace teem 1912 Professor of Botany, Pennsylvania State College. Botany. Lyons, Robert E., 630 KE. Third St., Bloomington, Ind.............. 1896 Head of Department of Chemistry, Indiana University. Organie and Biological Chemistry. McBeth, William A., 1905 N. Kighth St., Terre Haute, Ind.......... 1904 Assistant Professor Geography, Indiana State Normal. Geography, Geology, Scientific Agriculture. SMSO RS Vico or Selle Oe Gey on eats pes cweec noe. j208 Se as Ach ane 1893 MecsCralien herresklamte wim. anmcemyt-Geuliecae es cme Aan de Gos inane 1894 President of Rose Polytechnic Institute. Middleton, A. R., West Lafayette, Ind Professor of Chemistry, Purdue University. Chemistry. Muller, Jolin cindnorny, tsyyeheplouaorme, IRA, 5a nsonuanb sooo aun se oenes 1904 Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Swarthmore College. Astronomy, Mathematics. Moenkhaus, William J., 501 Fess Ave., Bloomington, Ind........... 1901 Professor of Physiology, Indiana University. Physiology. Moore, TRavelaguiel 18.- IDeranwerrs (Olly, 225 cccope ducccoucc vou buen eo aor 1893 With U.S. Bureau of Mines. Chemistry, Radio-activity. Morrison, Edwin, 80 8. W. Seventh St., Richmond Professor of Physics, Earlham College. Physies and Chemistry. Mottier, David M., 215 Forest Place, Bloomington, Ind............. 1893 Professor of Botany, Indiana University. Morphology, Cytology. INailOonedieymoreencastlesilm ew, jl aie wotec. bem tre chee teeckeh oie) sya tarenaeetats 1903 Professor of Physics, Depauw University. Physics, Mathematies. Nieuwland, J. N., The University, Notre Dame, Ind... ............ Professor of Botany, Editor Midland, Naturalist. Systematic Botany, Plant Histology, Organie Chemistry. TNGwesy, Waillignca wNlloyertir, Whieloia, IMM Sec. ton see oooeocbeoa4suaaos 1893 Director of Chemical Laboratory, University of [linois. Chemistry. Pohlman, Augustus G., 1100 E. Second St., Bloomington, Ind........ 1911 Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University. Embryology, Comparative Anatomy. 20 Ramsey, Rolla R., 615 E. Third St., Bloomington, Ind.............. 1906 Associate Professor of Physics, Indiana University. Physies. Ransom, James H., 323 University St., West Lafayette, Ind......... 1902 Professor of General Chemistry, Purdue University. General Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Teaching. Rettger, Louis J., 31 Gilbert Ave., Terre Haute, Ind.:.............. 1896 Professor of Physiology, Indiana State Normal. Animal Physiology. Rothrock, David A: Bloomington: Ind. e.-.0e ee eee eee 1906 Professor of Mathematics, Indiana University. Mathematics. Scott, Will, 731 Atwater St., Bloomington, Ind..................... 1911 Assistant Professor of Zoology, Indiana University. Zoology, Lake Problems. Sizatinon, ‘Charles: W.,.. Norman: Okla ::..3.. i760. 4« <3 Po. 3 eee 1912 With Oklahoma State Geological Survey. Soil Survey, Botany. Smith, Albert, 1022 Seventh St., West Lafayette................... 1908 Professor of Structural Engineering. Physics, Mechanics. 7iSmith, Alexander, care Columbia University, New York, N. Y..... 1893 Head of Department of Chemistry, Columbia University. Chemistry. Smith, Charles Marquis, 910 S. Ninth St., Lafayette, Ind........... 1912 Professor of Physies, Purdue University. Physies. Stone, Winthrop: &.. Lafayette, Tad. se os Leche gn Se ae 1893 President of Purdue University. Chemistry. TTewain, vosepli, Swarthmore, Pass v5.62. 0 a ne os SEE eee 1898 President of Swarthmore College. Science of Administration.. Van Hook, James M., 639 N. College Ave., Bloomington, Ind........ 1911 Assistant Professor of Botany, Indiana University. Botany. Wade, Frank Bertran, 1039 W. Twenty-seventh St., Indianapolis, Ind. Head of Chemistry Department, Shortridge High School. Chemistry Physics, Geology and Mineralogy. +t+Waldo, Clarence A., care Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.... 1898 Thayer Professor Mathematics and Applied Mechanics, Washing- ton University. Mathematics, Mechanics, Geology and Mineralogy. Tm ebster wh) Miaensine tome Wid yi. ss oh: Actas senses O's Sle ote Cheb 1894 Entomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Entomology. Westland, Jacob, 439 Salisbury St., West Lafayette, Ind............ 1904 Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University. Mathematics. Wiley, Harvey W., Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C................ 1895 Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, George Washington Uni- versity. Biological and Agricultural Chemistry. Woollen, William Watson, Indianapolis, Ind.................. 1908 Lawyer. Birds and Nature Study. Wright, John S., care Eli Lilly Co., Indianapolis, Ind............... 1894 Manager of Advertising Department, Eli Lilly Co. Botany. NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS. Ashley, George H., Washington, D. C. Bain, H. Foster, London, England. Editor Mining Magazine. Branner, John Casper, Stanford University, California. Vice-President of Stanford University, and Professor of Geology. Geology. Brannon, Melvin A., President University of Idaho, Boise, Ida. Professor of Botany. Plant Breeding. Campbell, D. H., Stanford University, California. Professor of Botany, Stanford University. Botany. 22 Clark, Howard Walton, U.S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa. Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. Botany, Zoology. Dorner, H. B., Urbana, Illinois. Assistant Professor of Floriculture. Botany, Floriculture. Duff, A. Wilmer, 43 Harvard St., Worcester, Mass. Professor of Physies, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Physies. EKvermann, Barton Warren, Director Museum. California Academy of Science, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, Cal. Zoology. Fiske, W. A. Los Angeles, Cal., Methodist College. Garrett, Chas. W., Room 718 Pennsylvania Station, Pittsburgh, Pa. Librarian, Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburgh. Entomology, Sanitary Sciences. Gilbert, Charles H., Stanford University, California. Professor of Zoology, Stanford University. Ichthyology. Greene, Charles Wilson, 814 Virginia Ave., Columbia, Mo. Professor of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Missouri. Physiology, Zoology. Hargitt, Chas. W., 909 Walnut Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. Professor of Zoology, Syreause University. Hygiene, Embryology, Eugenics, Animal Behavior. Hay, Oliver Perry, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Research Associate, Carnegie Institute of Washington. Vetebrate Paleontology, especially that of the Pleistocene Epoch. Hughes, Edward, Stockton, California. Jenkins, Oliver P., Stanford University, California. Professor of Physiology, Stanford University. Physiology, Histology. Jordan, David Starr, Stanford University, California. President Emeritus of Stanford University. Fish, Eugenics, Botany, Evolution. 23 Kingsley, J. S., University of Illinois, Champaign, Il. Professor of Zoology. Zoology. Knipp, Charles T., 915 W. Nevada St., Urbana, Illinois. Assistant Professor of Physics, University of Illinois. Physies, Discharge of Electricity through Gases. MacDougal, Daniel Trembly, Tucson, Arizona. Director, Department of Botanical Research, Carnegie Institute, Wash- ington, D. C. Botany. MeMullen, Lynn Banks, State Normal School, Valley City, North Dakota. Head Science Department, State Normal School. Physies, Chemistry. Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, Ravenna, Ohio. Retired. Physies. ‘‘Engineering,’’ Mathematics, Astronomy. Moore, George T., St. Louis, Mo. Director Missouri Botanical Garden. Newsom, J. F., Palo Alto, California. Mining Engineer. Purdue, Albert Homer, State Geological Survey, Nashville, Tenn. State Geologist of Tennessee. r1eology. Reagan, A. B. Superintendent Deer Creek Indian School, Ibapah, Utah. Geology, Paleontology, Ethnology. Slonaker, James Rollin, 334 Kingsley Ave., Palo Alto, California. Assistant Professor of Physiology, Stanford University. Physiology, Zoology. Springer, Alfred, 312 East 2d St., Cincinnati, Ohio. Chemist. Chemistry. 24 ACTIVE MEMBERS. Aldrich, John Merton, M. D., S. Grant St., West Lafayette, Ind. Zoology and Entomology. Allen, William Ray, Bloomington, Ind. Allison, Evelyn, Lafayette, Ind. Care Agricultural Experiment Station. Botany. Anderson, Flora Charlotte, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Botany. Arndt, Charles H., Lafayette, Ind. Biology. Atkinson, F. C., Indianapolis. Chemistry. Baderscher, J. A., Bloomington, Ind. Anatomy. Baker, George A., South Bend. Archaeology. Baker, Walter D., N. Illinois St., Indianapolis, Ind. Care Walderaft Co. Chemistry. Baker, Walter M., Amboy. Superintendent of Schools. Mathematics and Physies. Baker, William Franklin, Indianapolis. Medicine. Baleom, H. C., Indianapolis. Botany. Baldwin, Russell, Richmond, Ind. Physies. Banker, Howard J., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. Botany. Barcus, H. H., Indianapolis. Instructor, Mathematics, Shortridge High School. Barr, Harry L., Waveland. Student. Botany and Forestry. Barrett, Kdward, Indianapolis. State Geologist. Geology, Soil Survey. Bates, W. H., 306 Russell St., West Lafayette. Associate Professor, Mathematics. Beals, Colonzo C., Russiaville, Ind. Botany. Bell, Guido, 431 E. Ohio St., Indianapolis. Physician. Bellamy, Ray, Worcester, Mass. Bennett, Lee F., 825 Laporte Ave., Valparaiso. Professor of Geology and Zoology, Valparaiso University. Geology, Zoology. Berry, O. C., West Lafayette. Engineering. Berteling, John B., South Bend. Medicine. Binford, Harry, Earlham. Zoology. Bisby, Guy Richard, Lafayette, Ind. Botany. Bishop, Harry Eldridge, 1706 College Ave., Indianapolis. Food Chemist, Indiana State Board of Health. Blew, Michael James, R. R. 1, Wabash. Chemistry and Botany. Bliss, G. S., Ft. Wayne. Medicine. Blose, Joseph, Culerville, Ind. Physies. Bond, Charles 8., 112 N. Tenth St., Richmond. Physician. Biology, Bacteriology, Physical Diagnosis and Photomicrography. Bourke, A. Adolphus, 1103 Cottage Ave., Columbus. Instructor, Physics, Zoology and Geography. Botany, Physies. Bowles, Adam L., Terre Haute. Zoology. 25 26 Bowers, Paul E., Michigan City. Medicine. Breckinridge, James M., Crawfordsville. Chemistry. Brossman, Charles, 1616 Merchants Bank Bldg., Indianapolis. Consulting Engineer. Water Supply, Sewage Dispasol, Sanitary Engineering, ete. Brown, James, 5372 E. Washington St., Indianapolis. Professor of Chemistry, Butler College. Chemistry. Brown, Paul H., Richmond. Physies. Brown, Hugh E., Bloomington, Ind. Bruce, Edwin M., 2401 North Ninth St., Terre Haute. Assistant Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Indiana State Normal. Chemistry, Physics. Butler, Eugene, Richmond, Ind. Physies and Mathematies. Bybee, Halbert P., Bloomington. Graduate Student, Indiana University. Geology. Canis, Edward N., 2221 Park Ave., Indianapolis. Officeman with William B. Burford. Botany, Psychology. Caparo, Jose Angel, Notre Dame. Physies and Mathematics. Carlyle, Paul J., Bloomington. Chemistry. Carmichael, R. D., Bloomington. Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Indiana University. Mathematics. Carr, Ralph Howard, Lafayette. Chemistry. Carter, Floyd R., Frankport, Ind. Botany. Caswell, Albert E., Lafayette. Instructor in Physics, Purdue Unviersity. Physies and Applied Mathematics. Chansler, Elias J., Bicknell. Farmer. Ornithology and Mammals. Clark, George Lindenburg, Greeneastle, DePauw University. Chemistry. Clark, Elbert Howard, West Lafayette. Mathematies. Clark, Jediah H., 126 Kast Fourth St., Connersville. Physician. Medicine. Clarke, Elton Russell, Indianapolis. Zoology. Collins, Jacob Roland, West Lafayette, Purdue University. Instructor in Physics. Conner, S. D., West Lafayette. Coryell, Noble H., Bloomington. Chemistry. Cotton, William J., 5363 University Ave., ludianapolis. Physies and Chemistry. Cox, William Clifford. Crampton, Charles, Bloomington, Ind. Psychology. Crowell, Melvin E., 648 E. Monroe St., Franklin. Dean of Franklin College. Chemistry and Physics. Cutter, George, Broad Branch Road, Washington, D. C. Reti ed Manufacturer of Electrical Supplies. Conchology. Daniels, Lorenzo E., Rolling Prairie. Retired Farmer. Conchology. Davis, A. B., Indianapolis, Ind. With Eli Lilly and Company. Chemistry. 28 Davis, D. W., Greencastle. Biology. Davis, Ernest A., Notre Dame. Chemistry. Davis, Melvin K., Anderson. Instructor, Anderson High School. Physiography, Geology, Climatology. Dean, John C., Indianapolis. Astronomy. Deppe, C. R., Franklin. Dewey, Albert H., West Lafayette. Department of Pharmacy, Purdue University. Dietz, Harry F., 408 W. Twenty-eighth St., Indianapolis. Deputy State Entomologist. Entomology, Eugenics, Parasitology, Plant Pathology. Dolan, Jos. P., Syracuse. Donaghy, Fred, Ossian. Botany. Dostal, Bernard F., Bloomington. Physies. Downhoour, 2307 Talbot Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. Geology and Botany. Drew, David Abbott, 817 East Second St., Bloomington, Ind. Instructor in Mechanics and Astronomy. Astronomy, Mechanics, Mathematics and Applied Mathematies. DuBois, Henry, Bloomington, Ind. Duden, Hans A., 5050 E. Washington St., Indianapolis. Analytical Chemist. Chemistry. Dunean, David Christie, West Lafayette. Instructor in Physies, Purdue University. Dutcher, J. B., Bloomington, Assistant Professor of Physies, Indiana University. Physics. Earp, Samuel E., 243 Kentucky Ave., Indianapolis. Physician. Easley, Mary, Bloomington, Ind. Edmonston, Clarence E., Bloomington. Graduate Student, Physiology, Indiana University. Physiology. Edwards, Carlton, Earlham College, Earlham. Ellis, Max Mapes, Boulder, Colo. Instructor in Biology, University of Colorado. Biology, Entomology. Emerson, Charles P., Hume-Mansur Bldg., Indianapolis. Dean Indiana University Medical College. Medicine. Essex, Jesse Lyle, 523 Russell st., West Lafayette, Ind. Chemistry. Evans, Samuel G., 1452 Upper Second St., Evansville. Merchant. Botany, Ornithology. Ewers, James E., Terre Haute. Instructor in High School. Geology. Felver, William P., 3253 Market St., Logansport. Railroad Clerk. Geology, Chemistry. Fisher, Homer Glenn, Bloomington. Zoology. Fisher, Martin L., Lafayette. Professor of Crop Production, Purdue University. Agriculture, Soils, and Crops, Birds, Botany. Foresman, George Kedgie, Lafayette, Purdue University. Chemistry. Frier, George M., Lafayette. Assistant Superintendent, Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue University. Botany, Zoology, Entomology, Ornithology, Geology. Fulk, Murl E., Decatur. Anatomy. Fuller, Frederick D., 215 Russell St., West Lafayette. Chief Deputy State Chemist, Purdue Experiment Station. Chemistry, Microscopy. bo Ko) 30 Funk, Austin, 404 Spring St., Jeffersonville. Physician. Diseases of Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat. Galloway, Jesse James, Bloomington. Instruction, Indiana University. Geology, Paleontology. Garner, J. B., Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. Chemistry. Gatch, Willis D., Indianapolis, Indiana University Medical School. Anatomy. Gates, Florence A., 3435 Detroit Ave., Toledo, Ohio. Teacher of Botany. Botany and Zoology. Gidley, William, West Lafayette. Department of Pharmacy, Purdue University. Gillum, Robert G., Terre Haute, Ind. Glenn, E. R., Froebel School, Gary, Ind. Physics. Goldsmith, William Marion, Oakland City. Zoology. Gottlieb, Frederic W., Morristown. Care Museum of Natural History. Assistant Curator, Moores Hill College. Archaeology, Ethnology. Grantham, Guy E., 437 Vine St., West Lafayette. Instructor in Physics, Purdue University. Graybook, Irene, New Albany, Ind. Botany. Greene, Frank C., Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines, Rolla, Mo. Geologist. Geology. Grimes, Earl J., Russellville. Care U.S. Soil Survey. Botany, Soil Survey. Hamill, Samuel Hugh, 119 E. Fourth St., Bloomington. Chemistry. dl Hammerschmidt, Louis M., South Bend. Science of Law. Happ, William, South Bend. Botany. Harding, C. Francis 111 Fowler Ave., West Lafayette. Professor of Electrical Engineering, Purdue University. Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry. Harman, Mary T., 611 Laramie St., Manhattan, Kansas. Instructor in Zoology, Kansas State Agricultural College. Zoology. Harman, Paul M., Bloomington. Geology. Harmon, Paul, Bloomington, Ind. Physiology. Harvey, R. B., Indianapolis. Heimburger, Harry V., 701 West Washington St., Urbana, II]. Assistant in Zoology, University of Illinois. Heimlich, Louis Frederick, 703 North St., Lafayette. Biology. Hendricks, Victor K., 855 Benton Ave., Springfield, Mo. Assistant Chief Engineer, St. L. & S. F. R. R. Civil Engineering and Wood Preservation. Henn, Arthur Wilbur, Bloomington. Zoology. Hennel, Cora, Bloomington, Ind. Hennel, Edith A., Bloomington, Ind. Hetherington, John P., 418 Fourth St., Logansport. Physician. Medicine, Surgery, X-Ray, Electro-Therapeutics. Hinman, J. J., Jr., University of lowa, Iowa City, Ia. Chemist, Dept. Public Health and Hygiene. Chemistry. Hoge, Mildred, Kirkwood, Bloomington, Ind. Zoology. Hole, Allen D., Richmond. Professor Earlham College. Geology. 32 Hostetler, W. F., South Bend. Geography and Indian History. Hubbard, Lucius M., South Bend. Lawyer. Huber, Leonard L., Hanover, Ind. Zoology. Hufford, Mason E., Bloomington. Physies. Hurd, Cloyd C., Crawfordsville, Ind. Zoology. Hutchins, Chas. P., Buffalo, N. Y. Athletics. Hutchinson, Emory, Atwater St., Bloomington, Ind. Zoology. Hutton, Joseph Gladden, Brookings, South Dakota. Associate Professor of Agronomy, State College. Agronomy, Geology. Hyde, Carl Clayton, Bloomington, Ind. Geology. Hyslop, George, Bloomington, Ind. Philosophy. Ibison, Harry M., Marion. Instructor in Science, Marion High School. Iddings, Arthur, Hanover. Geology. Imel, Herbert, South Bend. Zoology. Inman, Ondess L., Bloomfield. Botany. Irving, Thos. P., Notre Dame. Physics. Jackson, D. E., St. Louis, Mo. Assistant Professor, Pharmacology, Washington University. Jackson, Herbert Spencer, 127 Waldron St., Lafayette, Ind. Botany. Jackson, Thomas F., Bloomington. Geology. 33 James, Glenn, West Lafayette. Mathematics. Johnson, A. G., Madison, Wisconsin. Jones, Wm. J., Jr., Lafayette. State Chemist, Professor of Agriculture and Chemistry, Purdue Uni- versity. Chemistry, and general subjects relating to agriculture. Jordan, Charles Bernard, West Lafayette. Director School of Pharmacy, Purdue University. Koezmarek, Regedius M., Notre Dame. Biology. Keubler, John Ralph, 110 E. Fourth St., Bloomington. Chemistry. vonKleinsmid, R. B., Tueson, Ariz. Koch, Edward, Bloomington. Physiology. President University of Arizona. Krewers, H., Crawfordsville, Ind. Chemistry. Liebers, Paul J., 1104 Southeastern Ave., Indianapolis. Ludwig, C. A., 210 Waldron St., West Lafayette, Ind. Assistant in Botany, Purdue University. Botany, Agriculture. Ludy, L. V., 229 University St., Lafayette. Professor Experimental Engineering, Purdue University. Experimental Engineering in Steam and Gas. Malott, Clyde A., Bloomington. Physiology. Marshall, E. C., Bloomington. Chemistry. Mason, Preston Walter, Lafayette, Ind. Entomology. Mason, T. E., 226 S. Grant St., Lafayette, Ind. Instructor Mathematics Purdue University. Mathematics. McBride, John F., 340 S. Ritter Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. Chemistry. 5084—3 34 McBride, Robert W., 1239 State Life Building, Indianapolis. Lawyer. McCartney, Fred J., Bloomington. Philosophy. McClellan, John H., Gary, Ind. McCulloch, T. S., Charlestown. McEwan, Mrs. Eula Davis, Bloomington, Ind. McGuire, Joseph, Notre Dame. Chemistry. Mance, Grover C., Bloomington, Ind. Markle, M. S., Richmond. Miller, Daniel T., Indiana University, Bloomington. Anatomy. Miller, Fred A., 3641 Kenwood Ave., Indianapolis. Botanist for Eli Lilly Co. Botany, Plant Breeding. Molby, Fred A., Bloomington, Ind. Physies. Montgomery, Ethel, South Bend. Physics. Montgomery, Hugh T., South Bend. Physician. Geology. Moon, V. H., Indianapolis. Pathology. Moore, George T., St. Louis, Mo. Director, Missouri Botanical Garden. Botany. Morris, Barclay D., Spiceland Academy, Spiceland. Science. Morrison, Harold, Indianapolis, Ind. Mowrer, Frank Karlsten, Interlaken, New York. Co-operative work with Cornell University. Biology, Plant Breeding. Muncie, F. W. Murray, Thomas J., West Lafayette. Bacteriology. Myers, B. D., 321 N. Washington St., Bloomington. Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University. Nelson, Ralph Emory, 419 Vine St., West Lafayette. Chemistry. North, Cecil C., Greencastle. Northnagel, Mildred, Gary, Ind. Oberholzer, H. C., U.S. Department Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Biology. O’Neal, Claude E., Bloomington, Ind. Graduate Student, Botany, Indiana University. Botany. Orahood, Harold, Kingman. Geology. Orton, Clayton R., State College, Pennsylvania. Assistant Professor of Botany, Pennsylvania State College. Phytopathology, Botany, Mycology, Bacteriology. Osner, G. A., Ithaca, New York. Care Agricultural College. Owen, D. A., 200 South State St., Franklin. Professor of Biology. (Retired.) Biology. Owens, Charles E., Corvallis, Oregon. Instructor in Botany, Oregon Agricultural College. Botany. Payne, Dr. F., Bloomington, Ind. Peffer, Harvey Creighton, West Lafayette. Chemical Engineering. Petry, Edward Jacob, 267 Wood St., West Lafayette. Instructor in Agriculture. Botany, Plant Breeding, Plant Pathology, Bio-Chemistry. Phillips, Cyrus G., Moores Hill. Pickett, Fermen L., Bloomington. Botany Critic, Indiana University Training School. Botany, Forestry, Agriculture. Pipal, F. J., 11 S. Salisbury St., West Lafayette. Powell, Horace, West Terre Haute. Zoology. 35 36 Prentice, Burr, N. 216 Sheetz, West Lafayette. Forestry. Price, James A., Fort Wayne. Ramsey, Earl E., Bloomington. Principal High School. Ramsey, Glenn Blaine, Orono, Me. Botany. Reese, Charles C., 225 Sylvia St., West Lafayette. Botany. Rhinehart, D. A., Bloomington. Anatomy. Rice, Thurman Brooks, Winona Lake. Botany. Schaeffer, Robert G., 508 E. Third St., Bloomington. Chemistry. Schnell, Charles M., South Bend. Earth Science. Schultz, E. A., Laurel. Fruit Grower. Bacteriology, Fungi. Schierling, Roy H., Bloomington. Shimer, Dr. Will, Indianapolis. Director, State Laboratory of Hygiene. Shockel, Barnard, Professor State Normal, Terre Haute, Ind. Showalter, Ralph W., Indianapolis. With Eli Lilly & Company. Biology. Sigler, Richard, Terre Haute. Physiology. Silvey, Oscar W., 437 Vine St., West Lafayette. Instructor in Physics. Physies. Smith, Chas. Piper, College Park, Md. Associate Professor, Botany, Maryland Agricultural College. Botany. Smith, Essie Alma, R. F. D. 6, Bloomington. Smith, E. R., Indianapolis. Horticulturist. Smith, William W., West Lafayette, Genetics. Biology. Snodgrass, Robert, Crawfordsville, Ind. Southgate, Helen A., Michigan City. Physiography and Botany. Spitzer, George, Lafayette. Dairy Chemist, Purdue University. Chemistry. Stech, Charles, Bloomington. Geology. Steele, B. L., Pullman, Washington. Associate Professor of Physics, State College, Washington. Steimley, Leonard, Bloomington. Mathematics. Stickles, A. E., Indianapolis. Chemistry. Stoltz, Charles, 530 N. Lafayette St., South Bend. Physician. Stoddard, J. M. Stone, Ralph Bushnell, West Lafayette. Mathematics. Stork, Harvey Elmer, Huntingburg. Botany. Stuart, M. H., 32283 N. New Jersey St., Indianapolis. Principal, Manual Training High School. Physical and Biological Science. Sturmer, J. W., 119 KE. Madison Ave., Collingswood, N. J. Dean, Department of Pharmacy, Medico-Chirurgical College of Phila- delphia. Chemistry, Botany. Taylor, Joseph C., Logansport. Wholesale merchant. Terry, Oliver P., West Lafayette. Physiology. 38 Tetrault, Philip Armand, West Lafayette. Biology. Thompson, Albert W., Owensville. Merchant. Geology. Thompson, Clem O., Salem. Principal High School. Thornburn, A. D., Indianapolis. Care Pitman-Moore Co. Chemistry. Travelbee, Harry C., 504 Oak St., West Lafayette. Botany. Troop, James, Lafayette. Entomology. Trueblood, [ro C. (Miss), 205 Spring Ave., Greencastle. Teacher of Botany, Zoology, High School. Botany, Zoology, Physiography, Agriculture. Tucker, Forest Glen, Bloomington. Geology. Tucker, W. M., 841 Third St., Chico, California. Principal High Sehool. Geology. Turner, William P., Lafayette. Professor of Preatical Mechanics, Purdue University. Vallance, Chas. A., Indianapolis. Instructor, Manual Training High School. Chemistry. Van Doran, Dr., Earlham College, Richmond. Chemistry. Van Nuys, W. C., Newcastle. Voorhees, Herbert S., 2814 Hoagland Ave., Fort Wayne. Instructor in Chemistry and Botany, Fort Wayne High School. Chemistry and Botany. Walters, Arthur L., Indianapolis. Warren, Don Cameron, Bloomington. Ind. Waterman, Luther D., Claypool Hotel, Indianapolis. Physician. Webster, L. B., Terre Haute, Ind. Weatherwax, Paul, Bloomington, Ind. Weems, M. L., 102 Garfield Ave., Valparaiso. Professor of Botany. Botany and Human Physiology. Weir, Daniel T., Indianapolis. Supervising Principal, care School office. School Work. Weyant, James E., Indianapolis. Teacher of Physics, Shortridge High School. Physies. Wheeler, Virges, Montmorenci. Whiting, Rex Anthony, 118 Marsteller St., West Lafayette. Veterinary. Wiancko, Alfred T., Lafayette. Chief in Soils and Crops, Purdue University. Agronomy. Wicks, Frank Scott Corey, Indianapolis. Sociology. Wiley, Ralph Benjamin, West Lafayette. Hydraulic Engineering, Purdue University. Williams, Kenneth P., Bloomington. Instructor in Mathematics, Indiana University. Mathematics, Astronomy. Williamson, EK. B. Bluffton. Cashier, The Wells County Bank. Dragonflies. Wilson, Charles E., Bloomington. Graduate Student, Zoology, Indiana University. Zoology. Wilson, Mrs. Etta, 1044 Congress Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. Botany and Zoology. Wilson, Guy West, Assistant Professor Mycology and Plant Pathology, State University, Iowa City, Ia. Wissler, W. A., Bloomington. Chemistry. 39 40 Wood, Harry W., 84 North Ritter Ave., Indianapolis. Teacher, Manual Training High School. Wood, Harvey Geer, West Lafayette, Ind. Physics. Woodburn, Wm. L., 202 Asbury Ave., Evanston, III. Instructor in Botany, Northwestern University. Botany and Bacteriology. Woodhams, John H., care Houghton Mifflin Co., Chicago, LIl. Traveling Salesman. Mathematics. Wootery, Ruth, Bloomington, Ind. Yocum, H. B., Crawfordsville. Young, Gilbert A., 725 Highland Ave., Lafayette. Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University. Zehring, William Arthur, 303 Russell St., West Lafayette. Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University. Mathematics. Zeleny, Charles, University of Illinois, Urbana, II. Associate Professor of Zoology. Zoology. Zufall, C. J., Indianapolis, Ind. LG OOS nen ns beso er ae a, 5 Ae we ers See SO MACINHGRS, CACHIVORS von s bate. Ot toe Ate ee ae aoe eee 277 Whe pars NON-UESICGMi tse. 6 ao. oites o o.oo dale vores Cite eto ie 29 4] MINUTES OF THE SPRING MEETING INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA, THURSDAY—SATURDAY, May 20-22, 1915. The Spring meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held at Bloomington, Thursday to Saturday, May 20-22, 1915. The first session was held in the Physics Lecture room in Science Hall at 8 o’clock P. M. May 20th to listen to a lecture on Electrical Discharges by Dr. A. L. Foley, Head of the Department of Physies in Indiana University It was fully illustrated. It was very interesting and instructive and greatly appreciated by the crowded house. After this lecture, the Faculty Club of the University entertained the Academy with a “Get-Acquainted Hour” which was very pleasant. The annual tramp had been planned for eight o’clock the next morning, but on account of a heavy rain we could not start until ten o’clock. The remainder of the day was beautiful. The route was up Rocky Branch to Griffey Creek, then up that creek and one of its branches to the University Reservoir. Examining the reservoir and pumping station was full of inter- est. A special committee of the University Faculty arrived in advance with a picnic lunch. The meat was roasted over the blazing fires. The fifty-one persons present testified to the superior quality of this pienie dinner. After lunch, the Academy was met by automobiles which took them to the stone district south of Bloomington. Visiting some of the quarries and mills was particularly instructive. At seven o’clock the members had a complimentary dinner at the Com- mons. The members lingered till a late hour telling stories and making speeches. On Saturday morning a number of the members took the train at 6:20 for Cave farm near Mitchell. On arriving at Mitchell, they encountered a severe rain-storm which continued until noon. This prevented them from going to the farm. ANDREW J. BIGNEY, Secretary. 43 Minutes or THE TuHirty—First ANNUAL MEETING INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, CLaypoot Horst, INDIANAPOLIS, IND., December 3, 1915 The executive committee of the Indiana Academy of Science met in the Moorish Room of the Claypool Hotel and was called to order by the President, W. A. Cogshall. The following members were present: W. A. Cogshall, W. A. McBeth, A. W. Butler, Glenn Culbertson, Stanley Coulter, A. L. Foley, Severance Burrage, R. W. McBride, Will Scott, F. B. Wade, W. M. Blanchard, C. R. Dryer, J.S. Wright and A. J. Bigney. The minutes of the executive committee meeting of 1914 were read and approved. The President called for reports from the standing committees: Program—Will Scott, chairman, reported work performed as indicated by printed program. On motion, $100 was appropriated for the services and traveling ex- penses of Dr. C. B. Davenport of Cold Spring Harbor, New York, the princi- pal speaker at the evening session. Treasurer—W. M. Blanchard reported as follows: Regaine ingore “bireesyuirere Ge IMG ok cra uo soko e $241.02 Collecteds TOM revere a. ute Peseta oan 225.00 PROG rte) eye (A Neeaech See bel o paee a wiaeaes Pee EB $466.02 HespendiGures—— lL: mire nes haath Cora 2. eee 139.02 Scilla Gey erie tice ae Meee i pees Set ea ESE ene a, ke 327.00 $466.02 State Library—A. W. Butler reporting—Some progress had been made toward binding exchanges. Two hundred fifty copies of the Proceedings go to Libraries. Many copies had to be returned. On motion, the committee was ordered to go over the list of applications for Proceedings so as to ascer- td tain those who are in good standing, and such could receive copies. F. B. Wade reported a set of Chemical Journals at City Library. After much discussion, on motion, the committee decided that as far as possible the Proceedings should be sent only to those who pay their dues. Biological Survey—No report. Distribution of Proceedings—A. J. Bigney reporting. The copies were in the hands of the State Librarian and would be mailed in a few days. Copies would be sent to the meeting so the members present could receive them. Membership—Report to be made at general session. Auditing—No report. Restriction of Weeds and Diseases—No report. Relation of the Academy to the State—R. W. McBride reporting. The appropriation of $1,200 had been made by the State. Publication of Proceedings—Kditor was not present. Dr. C. R. Dryer reported that the work had been done and that they were ready for distribu- tion. On motion, it was decided that no paper should be received for publi- cation after February Ist. Attention was called to the Pan-American Scientific Congress that would be held by the U. 8S. Government in Washington beginning December 29, 1915. The incoming president, later, appointed C. H. Eigenmann of Blooming- ton as delegate, and A. W. Butler of Indianapolis as alternate. GENERAL SESSION—1:30. ASSEMBLY Hai, CLAyrpooLt Horen, December 3, 1915. The Indiana Academy of Science met for its regular program, W. A. Cogshall, President, in the chair. The minutes of the Executive Committee were read and approved. Dr. H. E. Barnard, Editor, reported that the Proceedings for 1914 had been pub- lished. He stated the great difficulty of securing the papers from the members. On motion of A. W. Butler, the following resolution was adopted: Wuereas, the Scientific investigations and accurate records kept by representatives of the United States Fish Commission, concerning Lake Maxinkuckee, Ind., in our opinion make the report that has been made by 45 Dr. B. W. Evermann one of the most valuable compilations that has been prepared, and Wuereas, we learn that the Commission is unable to publish it out of its funds, therefore Ber IT RESOLVED, By the Indiana Academy of Science, in regular session, that we express our belief in the great value of this work, in its importance to scientific students, not only in America, but throughout the world, and in the desirability of havyingit published at an early date so as to be accessible, and Ber IT FURTHER RESOLVED, That a committee of five (5) members be appointed to represent the Academy in an endeavor to secure the early pub- lication of this report. On motion, the Academy appointed the following Committee: Amos W. Butler, Dr. Charles B. Stoltz, C. C. Deam, D. M. Mottier, and Glenn Culbertson. The General Papers were then called for; “1” to “6” responded, after which the Academy went into Sectional Meetings as follows: Section A.—Chemistry, Geology, Mathematics, Physics. W. A. Cogs- hall, Chairman, A. J. Bigney, Secretary. Section B.—Anatomy, Bacteriology, Botany, Zoology. Stanley Coulter, Chairman, H. E. Enders, Secretary. Adjourned at 5:30 for dinner at the Claypool at 6:15 at which the Pres- ident’s address was read on the “Origin of the Universe.” 9:00 A. M. December 4. GENERAL SESSION. Business— On motion of W. M. Blanchard the following resolutions was adopted: RESOLVED, as the sense of the Indiana Academy of Science that the Commission having in charge the matter of adequate and proper celebration of the State’s Centennial, could do no more fitting and practical thing in the way of a permanent memorial of the one hundredth anniversary of the State’s admission to the Union, than to inaugurate at this time and carry to consummation a plan to purchase, through action by the General Assembly several tracts of land in Indiana for public park purposes for the people. On motion the following committee was appointed to carry out the pro- 46 visions of the resolution: Stanley Coulter, W. W. Woolen, and R. W. Me- Bride. As the Historical Commission was in session in the State House, the Committee at once presented the resolution to the Commission, also to the County Chairmen of the Commission, which was also in session. It was heartily endorsed by both bodies and the Academy thanked for its interest in the proposed Centennial celebration. A copy of this resolution to be mailed to Mr. Harlow Lindley, Depart- ment of Archives and History, Indiana State Library. Prof. L. F. Bennett, of Valparaiso College, extended an invitation to the Academy to hold the Spring meeting of 1916 at Valparaiso. On motion, the invitation was unanimously accepted. On motion of A. W. Butler the Academy urged that all members and all organizations with which they are connected, use their influence to prevent any legislation for changing our present Fish and Game Laws. The Membership Committee reported the following new members: Dr. John Merton Aldrich, S. Grant St., W. Lafayette, Ind., Zoology and Entomology. Russell Baldwin, Richmond, Ind., Physics. Colonzo C. Balls, Russiaville, Ind., Botany. Guy Richard Bisby, Lafayette, Ind.. Botany. Joseph Blose, Culerville, Ind., Physies. Eugene Butler, Richmond, Ind., Physics and Mathematics. Charles Crampton, Bloomington, Ind., Psychology. A. B. Davis, Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis, Ind. Chemistry. Elizabeth Downhour, 2307 Talbott Ave., Indianapolis, Ind., Geology and Botany. Jesse Lyle Essex, 523 Russell St., W. Lafayette, Ind., Chemistry. Leonard L. Huber, Hanover, Ind., Zoology. Cloyd C. Hurd, Crawfordsville, Ind., Zoology. H. Kremers, Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind., Chemistry. John F. McBride, 340 S. Ritter Ave., Indianapolis, Ind., Chemistry. Burr N. Prentice, 216 Sheetz, W. Lafayette, Forestry. Charles C. Rees, 225 Sylvia St., W. Lafayette, Ind., Botany. Robert G. Schaeffer, 508 E. Third St., Bloomington, Ind., Chemistry and Botany. Ralph W. Showalter, Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis, Ind., Biology. Rex Anthony Whiting, 118 Marsteller St., W. Lafayette, Ind., Veterinary. 47 Mrs. Etta Wilson, 1044 Congress Ave., Indianapolis, Ind., Botany and Zoology. Herbert Spencer Jackson, 127 Waldron St., Lafayette, Ind., Botany. Emory Hutchison, Atwater St., Bloomington, Ind., Zoology. Harvey Geer Wood, West Lafayette, Ind., Physics. Floyd R. Carter, Frankfort, Ind., Botany. Irene Graybook, New Albany, Ind., Botany. Paul Harmon, Bloomington, Ind., Physiology. Mildred Hoge, Kirkwood, Bloomington, Ind., Zoology. On motion they were elected. The Committee on the nomination of officers, Severance Burrage, Chair- man, reported as follows: President—Andrew J. Bigney, Moores Hill College, Moores Hill. Vice-President—Amos W. Butler, Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary—Howard EH. Enders, Purdue University, West Lafayette. Assistant Secretary—K. B. Williamson, Bluffton. Treasurer—W. M. Blanchard, Greencastle. Press Seeretary—F. B. Wade, Indianapolis, Ind. Editor—H. E. Barnard. On motion the report was adopted and the officers elected. On motion of Prof. John M. Aldrich the following resolution was adopted: WHEREAS, Thomas Say was one of the great entomologists of the world in his time, prominent among the men who made New Harmony, Ind., the scientific center of the United States about 1825, his grave at that place is one of the shrines of Indiana history, the Indiana Academy of Science there- fore feels an especial interest in the project to establish a memorial to Say’s name in the form of a publishing foundation for works in entomology. It is an ideal memorial to an unselfish and deserving scientific man, and at the same time promises great value in the cause of entomology for the present and future. THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED, That we commend the plan of the Say Foundation to the consideration of the people of Indiana as especially worthy of consummation in the Centennial year of our state. Sections A and B then continued their programs until they were com- pleted. : W. A. CoGSHALL, Adjourned. President. A. J. BIGNEY, Secretary. 49 PROGRAM OF THE THIRTY—-First ANNUAL MEETING INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, CLAYPOOL HOTEL—INDIANAPOLIS FRIDAY AND SATURDAY DECEMBER 3 AND 4, 1915 GENERAL PROGRAM. FRIDAY MEETING OF THE EXEmcUTIVE COMMITTEE.................... 10:30 A. mM. AGEPAUENEO TERS SONIA. 5 Pye coca eest a ats ee Veen ER: ete PA Awe og A re 1:30 P. mM. SIE OMIELOINCAC VINRNEM TING See) Saget 8 fe ok ie yar een ee ane Cal een a shad Naot one VENOM RIAU IO TININIRH Re se = ee o15 an Gea a eee ae Dene 2 a. 6:00 Pp. M. DML OSTUM TON MEH REDITY )) 20s Roms ee oe ey 8:00 P. m. SATURDAY CCTEENIENEU AT OTIS SILO ING Cer 4 tenere otetege pws ta heen a Re By opie al 9:00 a. mM. SUS CCAM SPATE LIAM [1D OUD) ON CIS) Se pee non HEINER rd Uke c, v< al re Ue ea 9:45 a. M. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS The address of the retiring president, Winpur A. CoasHauu, will be delivered at the informal dinner. THE SYMPOSIUM ON HEREDITY A Resumé of the Work on Heredity. Dr. C. H. Erarnmann, Dean of the Graduate School, Indiana University. Fifteen years of Mendelism; Mendelism, the Key to the Arehiteeture of The Germ-plasm. Dr. Roscor R. Hype, Professor of Zoology, Indiana State Normal School. , Heredity in Man. Dr. Cuarues B. Davenport, Director of the Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, New York. 5084—4 50 1. *) ~t “J 19. PAPERS TO BE READ GENERAL A Memoirot DonaldsomBodime.=.-- eects oe eee H. W. ANDERSON a Memoirol Josiahw it Scovel. 20) min 3p ee es cee CuHarRLeEs R. DryErR Twelve of Nature’s Beauty Spots in Indiana, 45 min., lantern, Epwarp BARRETT Concerning the Report of the Survey of Lake Maxinkuckee, ACOETTRDYA Pee Gan parce A eae Bey ce Sete sts om Oe a NS Amos W. BuTtLER . A Field Trip in General Science, 15 min............ B. H. ScuocKEn 3. The Tobacco Problem (abstract) 20 min............ Ropert HEeSsSLER ANATOMY . Histological Changes in Testes of Vasectomized Animals, IO Riga vh ek gh een kooee en ies eee. Oe SNR ER, ae, Teen MPa. ye Burton D. Myers BACTERIOLOGY . The Minimum Lethal Infecting Dose of Trypanosomes, SEIU eee an 2 1ce RM ee ee ee ee ee tae) eet ce C. A. BEHRENS . Tolerance of Soil Bacteria to Media Variations, 20 min...H. A. Noyrs BovTany . Some Methods for the Study of Plastids in Higher Plants, PURE is go ace fades tos 2 PE OW meio os ORE ee D. M. MortiEr . The Morphology of Riecia fluitans,5 min.............. FreD DoNAaGHy Plants not Hitherto Reported from Indiana. VI. MADE hastens te os SEE os ete eM Met tge pace ie te SU Che PE Cuas. C. DEAM Pndiansypemeit-s! Tiles i nrnitine occ Sree eee ee J. M. Van Hook . The Second Blooming of Magnolia soulangiana, 5 min..D. M. Morrrer 5. Additional Notes on Rate of Tree Growth, 10 min. .STaNLEY COULTER . The Effect of Centrifugal Force on Plants, 15 min...... F. M. ANDREWS . Some Preliminary Notes on the Stem Analyses of White Oak, LOMMINA ee en. cee nee hae tas eee: Bure N. PRENTICE . Botanic vs. Biologic Gardens. Illustrated by Specimens, LO panies oo seek ote ee elm ce. aera Rospert HESSLER CHEMISTRY Soluble Salts of Aluminum in Water from an Indiana Coal IVINS ESE: oes cee co ae ee ee eee et ee S. D. CONNER ol . Detection of Niekel in Cobalt Salts, 8 min., A. R. Mippieton and H. L. Minune 21. The Use of the Spectrophotometer in Chemical Analysis, MOTE set be es eel os GrorGE SpiTrzeR and D. C. Duncan 22. The Different Methods of Estimating Protein in Milk. .Grorar Spirzer GEOLOGY 2a. A New Cave Near Versailles, 5 mim..........7.......A. J. Bienny 24. Loess Deposits in Vigo County, Indiana, 10 min....Wm. A. McBuru 25. Volume of the Glacial Wabash River, 10 min...... Wn. A. McBetu 26. A Geologic Map of the Terre Haute Region, 5 min....B. H. ScuocKen 27. A Bibliography of Geographical Material, 10 min. ......B. H. ScHocKen 28. Settlement and Development of the Lead and Zine Mining Region of the Upper Mississippi, 20 min................ B. H. SHocken 29. A Few Science Wonders of the Cement Age, 15 min., Lerner et Se Petar he Lie a at ee F. W. Gorriies 30. The Fauna of the Trenton and Black River Series of New BYZO 1 Koei ey eee ts AN Se ed 2 ae ge H. N. Coryenn MaTHEMATICS 31. Gamma Coefficients with Applications to the Solution of Dif- 34. ference Equations and Determination of Symmetric Func- tions of the Roots of an Equation in the Terms of the Cochieients, 2 mnie 8s. sua 25 Pee ee ae ARTHURS. HATHAWAY . Some Determinants Connected with the Bernoulli Numbers, Kk. P. Win.iamMs . Some Relations of Plane to Spherie Geometry, HOR rratins Senet eeepc Boar, WP bee PORE hn age me ce Davin A. RorHrock Puysics Some Notes on the Mechanism of Light and Heat Radiations, US MSTIN TLS: PAN Ace co gNPe AO ki. ONL he ee ly J James EH. Wyant 35. A Standard for the M easurement of High Voltages, Orta ae 6 awe ees tee ena carne a. el, Ae C. Francis HarpDING . Ionization Produced by Different Thicknesses of Uranium OXAG 6s, MAT eee ee A | 8 Oe ea Epwin Morrison . Radioactivity of Richmond Water, 5 min.......... Epwin Morrison 40. 41. 45. 44. 46. 47. ds. 49. 50. . A Student Photographic Spectometer, 5 min., LSPS 5, Tekan ae eck ae a en epee Wi eee EKpwin Morrison . An Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Sound Waves of Different Intensities, 10 min., lantern..ArTHUR L. FotEy A Simple Method of Harmonizing Leyden Jar Discharges, PRT POGUE Soc RNR EEE Bg 00: Mee ON se at SOS nce ArtTHuR L. Foury An Electroscope for Measuring the Radioacticity of Soils, OS mins wlamibenn:. <0, 5. caster eens) oe ener R. R. Ramsey 2. Some Photographs of Explosions in a Gas, 10 min., emnitierrete Ae eek he eee ene SM pice ich Delt (Sia Joun B. Dutcumr The Cause of the Variation in the Emanation Content of Spring Wiktar uO\ names tenants myc tlc ciate urate = aun ands R. R. Ramsry A Standard Condenser of Small Capacity, 10 min., Ja peRE = 7 ta Re A Te oe NG coat ened re R. R. Ramsey 5. A Comparison of Calculated and Experimental Radii of the Ring System by Diffraction and an Extension of Lommel’s Work in Diffraction, 10 min., lantern.......... Mason E. Hurrorp SOILS Rate of Humification of Manures, 15 min................ R. H. Carr ZOOLOGY An Instance of Division by Constriction in the Sea-Anemone, HAUCGELI ICIS: — 6. MINE eas. sR. Fete epee. Phe Pee Donatp W. Davis Data on the Food of Nestling Birds, 15 min. Witit Scorr and H. KE. EnpEers Two New Mutations and Their Bearing on the Question of Multiple Allelomorphs, 5 min................ Rosconm R. Hype A Study of the Oxygenless Region of Center Lake, 10 min Witt Scorr and H. G. Imeu . The Lakes of the Tippecanoe Basin.................... WILL Scorr ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. Witpur A. CoGcsHALh The question of Evolution has long occupied the attention of scientists. Especially has this been true in biological lines, and we are apt to think of the probable (or certain) changes that have taken place, either in plants or animals, in connection with the word evolution. As soon as biological investigation had proceeded to a point where significant differences and likenesses were well established among certain forms, the laws underlying the changes were sought, and are being sought. We have now a more or less satisfactory theory built up based on certain fundamentals, though it contains in part some elements of the speculative and the probable. One of these truths that seems established is that some organisms have existed in the very remote past, in a quite different form from what they now have, and that it is very probable, if not certain, that they will change their forms, habits, ete., still more as time goes on. In a little broader way we may say that evolutionary changes are just as certain in the earth as a whole, or in the entire system of plenatary bodies, or for that matter, in the whole visible universe. This conclusion 1s based on several physical laws which man has discovered and believes to be true. If the law of conservation of energy is true, then we have no alternative but to believe that the continued radiation of heat from the sun and the earth will eventually result in these bodies coming to a lower temperature, and that the sun will at some future date become dark, cold and dense. We must also believe that its power to radiate heat and light was very different in the remote past from what 1t is now. In as much as the sun Is not essen- tially different from a million other stars nm the sky, it seems very probable that the whole visible universe has undergone very great changes in past time, and will undergo changes just as great in the future. There is really no more reason to suppose that the stars and the moon have always been as we see them now, than to suppose that because an oak “tree has stood for a year without sensible change it has always been that way and will continue so indefinitely. The oak goes through its life history, or certain phases of 1t, in so short a time that we can see its whole history in less than a life time, but the changes in the tree while faster, are no more certain than those in the sun or earth. 54 There have been many attempts to formulate a theory of evolution for the earth, the solar system, and indeed the whole siderial universe. Un- fortunately, most of these were based on comparatively little scientific data and any actual proofs of reliability or truth were lacking. Most of them might better be called speculations, pure and simple, and were produced largely from analogy. For example, we have known for some three hundred years that the planets circulate about the sun in nearly the same plane, the ones near the sun moving faster than those farther away. The visible universe is apparently arranged more or less in one plane or at least is very much extended in the plane of the Milky Way, the solid figure that would enclose the solar system not being greatly different, except in size, from the one which would enclose all the stars. What would be more matural then than to suppose that the whole universe was built up on a large scale much as the planetary system, the sun being in revolution with many others about some distant center. These, in turn, perhaps, revolving about another center till the whole Universe is accounted for. Some such idea was advanced by Kant who had only the Law of Gravitation upon which to base his speculations. Unfortunately he knew nothing of the distances of the stars. At that time no one knew from actual observation that the stars had any real motions of their own through space. We know little enough of these things now, but a few facts have been established with certainty in the last hundred years, indeed most of our accurate knowledge of the stars being attained in much more modern times. It was not till 1839 that we knew the distance of a single star in the whole sky, and only in the last fifty years has it been possible to measure their motions in any very precise way. Following the above general theory it was supposed for a while that the central point about which the whole siderial system revolved had been lo- cated in Aleyone, the brightest of the Pleiades. It is sufficient to say that there is not a particle of evidence to sustain this conclusion, or the conclusion that the stars, as a whole, revolve about any center whatever. As far as we know the stars move in all sorts of directions and with all sorts of veloci- ties. We are lacking now as much as a thousand years ago any theory of the evolution of the system of the stars, which is based upon observed changes in the stars themselves. The theories and speculations regarding the origin and history of the planetary system are more numerous and in some cases as improbable and impossible as those regarding the universe, The best 59 known of these and the one which has had the most influence on philosophic thought is known as the Nebular Hypothesis of La Place. It was first announced about a hundred years ago and has been accepted as probably representing planetary evolution until recent years although based largely on assumptions. La Place was one of the greatest of astronomers and mathematicians since the time of Newton and doubtless his name alone car- ried conviction where a little independent investigation and reasoning would have been more profitable. It is quite evident that La Place never regarded this theory as seriously as it was regarded by others after his death. You are all familiar with the main outlines of the theory. It assumes that the matter now composing the sun, the planets and their satellites was once diffused though a sphere perhaps as large as the present orbit of Nep- tune, that in some way (unknown) the mass started to revolve and therefore to flatten at the poles and extent at the equator, and that with the radiation of heat and consequent shrinkage in volume, the revolution had been has- tened and soon a point had been reached where the gravitational force at the equator was balanced by the centrifugal force due to the revolution. At this point, according to the theory, a more or less broad ring was abandoned by the revolving mass. It went on shrinking, and increasing its velocity of motion till the same process was repeated. Each ring was then supposed to collect into a sphere and go through the same process in a small way, thus accounting for satellite systems of the various planets, although there was no investigation to establish the way in which this was done, or even to show that it was possible. No doubt this whole scheme was suggested by the planet Saturn which shows a ring system very much as La Place supposed existed around the sun, but which we now know differs very materially from any of his hypothetical rings. As stated above, this theory implies that the planets should all be very nearly, if not exactly, in one plane, that they should travel in the same direction around the sun, that the satellites of each planet should all go in the same direction and in one plane, and that the periods of revolution of the satellites should be longer than the rotation periods of their primaries. These conditions seemed nearly fulfilled at the time of La Place, but since then we have had the discovery of Neptune with its satellite very much inclined to the orbit of the planet, and revolving backward at that, we have had the discovery of the satellites of Uranus also revolving retrograde and very much out of the planet’s plane of revolution. We have had, moreover, 56 the discovery of the two satellites of Mars, one of which revolves very much faster than Mars rotates on its axis. A theory that perfectly explains all the known facts may get a hearing and acceptance without any great amount of demonstration, but when many important facts appear at variance with a theory it becomes necessary to show how these facts may be accounted for by the theory, or to look with suspicion on the theory as a whole. There are many other facts than those just mentioned which cause distrust. Take for example the probable density of the ring that is supposed to have formed Neptune. If all the matter now in the Solar system were expanded till it formed a sphere the size of the orbit of this planet its average density would be about o1eumr non the present density of the sun. The density at the center would probably be many times that at the equator, which would make the density of the abandoned ring much less than 21 Gos ban th of the present density of the sun. This would be many times as rare as the best vacuum yet obtained. To suppose that any such mass of matter, spread out in a ring whose diameter must have been at least thirty times the diameter of the earth’s orbit, ever collected in one place to form Neptune is a very great tax on the imagination. As a matter of fact it can be shown that this is physically impossible. This process involves long intervals of time and would make the outer planets much older than the earth, and other nearer planets. There is no observational data to support this idea; all that there are directly contradict it. On the supposi- tion that the sun has radiated heat in the past as it does now, and that the shrinkage of the sun is responsible for the development of its energy, it is possible to tell how many years ago the sun was large enough to fill the orbit of the earth. The earth must therefore be younger than this. All evi- dences in the earth itself point to an age of a least sixty million years, and on the above assumptions upon which the theory of La Place rests, the sun, sixty million years ago, was much larger than the earth’s orbit. The prob- ability is then that the assumptions are wrong. Other more technical ob- jections, some of which are even more conclusive, | must pass over. Another theory of Evolution based on tidal relations among sun, planets and satellites has been elaborated in more recent years, and either by itself or in connection with the foregoing has heen used to explain our present system. The application of this theory to the Earth—Moon system has been elaborated by Professor George Darwin. He supposes that the earth 57 and moon were originally one fluid mass, that oscillations set up in the mass by the tidal effects of the sun resulted in the separation of the mass into two parts, that the two parts raised tides each in the other and thatthe friction of these large tidal waves resulted in the separation of the two bodies to their present distance and the lengthening of their rotation periods to their present values. It is, no doubt, true that tidal friction does tend to lengthen the period of rotation of the earth, and, if the fundamentals of mechanics are to be trusted, this effect must result in an increased distance between the two bodies. Some observational data in support of this theory appears in the fact that the period of revolution of the moon about the earth coincides with its period of rotation, and that probably the two planets nearest the sun keep the same face to the sun. On the other hand we know that tidal fric- tion or any other force has failed to change the length of our day by one-tenth of a second in five thousand years. There has more recently come into gen- eral favor another and a totally different theory, from Professors Chamber- lain and Moulton, of the Departments of Geology and Astronomy, of Chicago University. They suppose that the solar system took its form from a nebula, but from a spiral and not from a spherical or spherodial nebula. Observationally this supposition is sound. There is not in the sky, as far as I know, a nebula of the sort assumed by La Place. There are thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands of the spiral sort. Of all the nebulae that have any regular shape the spirals outnumber all others. There are a few so called planetary nebulae which in the telescope look spherical, but which in a long exposure photo- graph show some other form. Some of them may be hollow spheres, but none appears as La Place’s nebula was supposed to be. There are a few in the form of a ring with a star at the center, but again it must be remarked that this form in not the required form. In a spiral nebula the matter forming the arms of the spiral is usually the smaller part of the whole mass, the greater part being at or near the center. If the law of gravitation holds among them, and we have never found an exception to it, then the particles in the arms of the spiral must be in motion in elliptical orbits about the central mass, the parts nearer the center moving faster than the more remote parts. This means that the arms must with time become more closely wrapped about the central mass and that any one 58 particle is, in time, bound to come close to many others, and eventually to collide with many. If any one particle were large enough to start with, it would therefore grow by collision with other particles, and the more it grew the more power of growing it would have by reason of its increasing mass. It seems likely then, that loose, widely extended nebulae of this sort must eventually come into a system of small bodies revolving about a large central mass. It can be shown that a mass revolving in this way and suffering collision with other masses must move in an orbit whose eccentricity is continually diminishing. We should therefore expect to find, if our system has been formed in this way, that the more massive planets have the least eccentric orbits and that the smaller ones have the greatest eccentricity. As a matter of fact all of the large outer planets have low eccentricity and the smaller planets a higher amount. The greatest eccentricity is found among the planetoids, or asteroids, many of which are only a few miles in diameter. It has also been shown that a close approach of two masses in the arms of the spiral might not result in collision, but under conditions which might easily arise, the smaller might be made to revolve in an elliptical orbit about the larger, thus giving rise to a satellite or system of satellites, and these satellites might revolve in one direction as easily as another. We can therefore account for the retrograde motion of the satellite of Neptune, those of Uranus, for the fact that Jupiter has some going in one direction and others in the reverse direction, for the widely scattered zone of the Asteroids and even for the very rapid motion of the inner satellite of Mars. These, and many other features are not speculations as to what may have happened. They have all been made the subject of rigorous mathematical calculations, and with the supposed initial conditions are all entirely possible. As to whether these initial conditions that we have supposed, actually existed or not—whether or not our earth and the other bodies revolving about the sun ever developed from a spiral nebula, we can not be so sure. Here it is a question of what is most probable. We are practically certain that it did not come about as La Place supposed. There are too many things mathematically impossible about that. By this theory, the develop- ment into the present system was entirely possible, and certainly no more probable evolution has been proposed. La Place did not and could not account for his nebula. On this plan we can. I have said that the spirals far outnumber any other class in the sky. 59 It has been shown that it is entirely possible for a spiral to be formed and that it is probable that more spirals would be formed than any other kind. Here we approach the speculative a little closer and I would remind you that we have no record of any permanent form of nebula ever being formed. Of course the time over which we have any accurate record of the nebulae is very short, only the last few years in fact. Very few of these objects can be recognized in the telescope, and it is only since the invention of the rapid photographic dry plate, and the perfection of the large reflecting telescopes, that their true form and number have been found. Even with our present equipment and resources if one should be recorded on a plate tonight it might be impossible to say that it was there a year ago, or that it was not, unless it should be exceptionally bright. With this class of objects then we will not expect much observational confirmation. From mathematical investigation we know that it is possible for a spiral nebula to be formed from the close approach of two stars. We know of about two hundred million stars in the sky and there are probably many more that we can get no direct evidence of. We know that they are all in motion with velocities ranging up to 300 or even 400 miles per second. Under these conditions we will at times have collisions. These will be relatively rare because the average distance between stars is large, thickly as they seem to be sown in the heavens. Days 14 Days. (2 g. Pa a5 PVE UES AO A a RSS ote cas SIO. sires ny SER on a ee Rete os eee 4 {1 — 1 —- (2 @. 2. INGie, PSTD EET aL 1g: cea eine econ eRe ROR SACs aes Set on ea ae Me. (1 — 1 — (2g. 27g; Scovlli (SRsLHR (Quine) aYEC royce | heel een Rene Emerg aS oahu 4 (1 — 1— : {2 8. 2 g. RUE NcLew AUGO GLA VCs i) ns ou crs, rede tte OL tere a chet eciielecs 4 {1 — 1 — (2 g. 2g. MEED 2. GUO CE: SAA AE eae ie RPO Pee, AMY Noon Pe HON So need cua { {1 — 1 — Summary 5 Day Results. ZOSIRAMSTeLSGO AT Cs USAT Neo we hate tows k: (MEE ote tee cas AER eek 18 made growth. PA RUE ALIS LOLS SOOM INGA, AST Ua: ves cheese Me Ate Me eat ce, na alten i MERE eA Javre 18 made growth. PORN AISLErS FOU Oleh. ((UMMeated))im sere tes op te Aci ceetr ne erersneiens = 18 made growth. POUGAMSLOLS! LOOM Ext. CaulOClaved) meu css a> ovine) aks aeaee eens 18 made growth. PD SECA SersshOwA Par ALON Gwe k ie a occ shed PARR e Oe, Se ee eee ee ee Se ee been 20 made growth. BOBUCARSTOLS LOCA SAT AICsISOllner. ya ANEkailcte ris Ste meorains peai eh. er aii & 17 made growth. Summary 14 Days. ZURULANSLORS LOM ATIC: Sta P ais, AeA ses ite cod ihe eia cine coh thats 18 made growth. PORrANSlers: GOL INA MASP \ AGATA cdo, wort) ee etek ca hearin he clea cia © 19 made growth. POULANSTCLS HOLS OM OXtry (UMBEDLEM Ate om ce Gieneb ye cha emia teunyauces late aks! ¢ 21 made growth. 94 25 transters tovsoil ext. (awboclaved)) i... sie nies caret a eapeiete rene lteter 20 made growth. A>ibranstersitO-ACAar AONE sot sts heredeheak tece She Featss ae sues ole weet eee eleee everett 20 made growth. 2 SIUrAMSLECS MOPS ALY ATG TSO Mec susteye tay oieee serous fe ewes comtakie amie cere lie teem dee « 19 made growth. Notes. When’ tubes of organisms grown originally on same media were put side by side the following differences were noted. (1) Agar alone supported very poor growths. (2) Agar and soil supported fully as poor growths as agar alone. (3) The two extracts acted about the same, although the heated extract grew the organisms originally grown on Na. asp. agar a little the best. (4) L. and B. agar and Na. asp. agar supported good growths. (5) From any macroscopic test the growths on the L. and B. agar were far superior to those on the Na. asp. agar. Tose Mepia Test II. Samples of 6/14, 1915. Samples from Tree VI—24. Plot C. Laurel. One ee. portions of the 1-400,000 dilution of the sample were plated on the following media: Lipman and Brown agar. Conn’s sodium asparaginate agar. Agar alone. Soil and agar (Purdue soil). Soil extract (unheated) and agar. Soil extract (autoclaved) and agar. (15 gms. agar in all media.) Transfers were made from best colonies on each media to slants of other media. Tables give results of growth on these agar slants at end of 5 and 14 days’ incubation at 22° C. 8 Colonies from L and B agar to 95 5 Days. 14 Days. ae (es EES TRUS AD rcrcy stint aes oo) a cas sicebeaen tS) MRS ay Sect Mpls ete soaid teas 1 — 1— 6 g. 15) PEEING Xa UETLN OA LOG) tact ibs «cra oR ocr tehalh chaiie Beha te Suctyet 2— 2 5 5 g. 6 g. CREO KoA HOCIA VCO) eras «to sens, horde oi sutton: cote estates! Giser apes, athe (3 — 2— 4g. 6 g. EX TINP BIOTIC ig SR Seto eRP RE etna ORO cary he arc th arc Oe, one eee 4 4 — 2 —— 4g 4 g. PAMELA CES OL recs tereyi cS cei eee eee aren Deka > cuchamen ane ReneS 4 — 4— § Colonies from Na. asp. agar to 5 Days. 14 Days. ITO MEE AAD tcc ch ayeycie sth oh cnn east ayrne, cht oaeeees Sones een ase. ate eeh 8g 8 g. (ee 6 g. SIsime Suse (UMM EATEGI) so ctis aoc witteos te aration at ty gopacote ona cyeeg eat 6 1 — 24 MOtmeRU(AILUOClAVEG)icc-tr. oct cadae o Guelele Gnlalidisg's ote fel ee we wie 8¢g 8g. PMO AETH OM O ena aeweate ai chske costs a deters ie Be eine se tetera mene ete teste asi as 8 g. 8 g. : 8 g. 6 g. PEAT RANA CES Olea eweach. 212 Avie tae, eke Pe halt eas e Groin EME ARLDC ENG ate Te etalon 2 — 8 transfers to 8 transfers to 16 transfers to 16 transfers to 16 transfers to 16 transfers to 8 transfers to 8 transfers to 16 transfers to 16 transfers to 16 transfers to 16 transfers to Wena) Braet ss 2 sy metusen ck chau s cliche cicueremmiceeheh ol teageta te ais INAS ASD ee UATE cor oe cetera cr hae Ae Tia cena ote; 2 ah Soilvextan (umn Cave wast iGo alec cast carte ye cakes ers Ge ee = Sollexta (autoclaved) Ramee. sCstciseleutes alain nates PAG QAI ON Cy ag ees ysis N yc, CURL cee y OOR RGMON OR KeF ae) 6 UAE EV EW AKG shar ee eescpema cal 22h Sa MCRD caret) APOE CPOE EPR EES Summary 14 Days. Lipretrai(e Dl Sere Oo atte ect S ORCI NOG EEDA Tere eaceee eae ce IN A ASD eA Ie rec: Meee ME fines ts. cast l Meg aasteece wee ne oe. gh fork favs ‘Koy lfey-qr (Guinn afer ivst 61) tae, cla ENE amen PCH ONe Ene BOS .ES taco ence cece Soiullexty (AnItOClLave)) ta eases aco a.nd Silo Rep Ce olelaisyauar Siete. ASAP SBONC eae se Sebo Math OTS, a ont heed cattle Meas ors Agar and soil 14 made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. made growth. .....10 made growth. 96 Notes. When tubes of organisms grown originally on same media were put side by side the following differences were noted: (1) Agar alone supported very poor growths. (2) Agar and soil supported fully as poor growths as agar alone. (3) The two extracts acted about the same, although the heated extract grew the organisms originally grown on Na. asp. agar a little the best. (4) L. and B. agar and Na. asp. agar supported good growths. (5) From any macroscopic test the growths on the L. and B. agar were far superior to those on the Na. asp. agar. Tuse Mepia Test III. Samples of 6/25, 1915. Sample No. 6. Rye Plot. Cover Crop Investigations. One ee. portions of the 1 to 400,000 dilution of this sample were plated on the following media: Lipman and Brown agar. Conn’s sodium asparaginate agar. Agar alone. Soil and agar (Purdue soil). Soil extract (unheated) and agar. Soil extract (autoclaved) and agar. (15 gms. agar in all media.) Colonies developing well on first two media listed were put on other media and growth noted at end of 5, 11, and 15 days’ ineubation at 22% C, From 4 Colonies on L and B agar to 5 Days. 11 Days. | 45 Days. as = = | = : 3 g. | 4 g. 4g. AAS DCA errs care nie wes ape nae ; 1 2g. org. 3g. Soiuloxt: Moimneahed) iy. = occ. ts 2. ssterer eee ‘ 2— 2 1 — | é 3g 32. 3¢g Led Felis aie: ek yd SOG Eo ln el or ee eS 1 = 1 — 1 — From 4 Colonies on Na. asp. agar to : — —— = 5 Days. 11 Days. 15 Days. MANOR AR AD a tkhecdie acu a ate BS ea a 4g. 4g. 4g. : (2 g 3 2. 4g. SoOLsexos (UMMeAtTCG): act. ccs. ns cece esc ee lo oy ee ) 8 g 3 g. 3g LETITIA (CEE ARE ater a a sei cra Ae i i 1 — Summary 5 Days. ABE MSLeLUSAuOUls AT Gps Lae Aly. toes cho sole oe theme ae se ePeeue nine sees s 4 made growth. Manan Ser snuOl Nanas Dara saleta einen s, Paminis na erate Saris oe oo made erowth: Secransters: to) soil ext.) (umheated |)... = is... a6 «hes ees eo ss ese Sue 4 made growth. SEURAIISEEESULOmAP Alea OMG sacs crag a fate cusuc ac) Sse ate, cs = Sane Boars ote 6 made growth. Summary 15 Days. PALA STOrs sO meal Cas a@al aces «octal eae. aad kale ates todeoe ora Gina ere aan 4 made growth. MBEAN STeLSRUOM Na HAS Da Sal nek eae cece eee teione ots = se ieiee iA ronanencht 4 made growth. Saran stersslOus Olle xs (Umea ted))itace., suns etelotes oe sted Nevin ci shaencleie = < 7 made growth. MERA SLCESEUOPACATSALOTIO see inte ene kn ey Aer ee oer es eek Bete 6 made growth. Notes. When tubes of different media containing the same organism from the same original colony were put side by side, the following was noted: (1) The growth on agar alone, soil and agar or on soil extract (unheated) was small. (2) The soil extract carried a better growth than the soil alone. (3) L. and B. agar and Na. asp. agar carried a good growth. (4) There was more development of distinguishing characteristics as to form of streaks and chromogenisis present, with the L and B agar. Tust Mepia Test IV. Samples of 6/25, 1915. Sample No. 7. Clean Culture Plot. Cover Crop Investigation. One ce. portions of the 1 to 400,000 dilution of this sample were plated on the following media: Lipman and Brown agar. Conn’s sodium asparaginate agar. 5084—7 98 Agar alone. Soil and agar (Purdue soil). Soil extract (unheated) and agar. Soi] extract (autoclaved) and agar. (15 gms. agar in all media.) Colonies developing well on each media were transferred to slants of other media. and 15 days. Incubation at 22° C. From 4 Colonies on L and B agar to Tables give results of growth on these agar slants at end of 5, 11, Shown in- 5 Days. 11 Days. 15 Days. Plate (2 gr. 2 er: 3 gr. I ING ASD AA Danance ee Wee vs sok 2 ; (2 — 2— {= (3 in 3 gr. 3 gr. A AM aLOMPs eye haere ns ae ee ee ‘ {1 — 1— 1 — 2 gr 3 gr. 3 gr. Soil ext. (unheated).......... 2 1— 1 — From 4 Colonies on Na, asp. agar to 5 Days. 11 Days. 15 Days Plate. RAM MBNA AL a aa cat ete kes 4 g. 4g. 4g. IL (3 g. 3 2 3 g. AP ATIALONEGS cy anteal M iches a { (1 — 1— 1 — ek. (3 g. 4 g. 1g. Soil ext. (unheated).......... ‘ {1 — From 8 Colonies on Plain Agar to Days 11 Days. 15 Days (2 g. 2g. 2 g. LORE VG lel REG ate Re get ee, eee oft gt Be ea : (1 — i— 1— {2 g 2g: PAs ah INidies USD rele ave eater gsi score, ef ects {1 — | — 1— (2 Is 21 2) Bs Soil ext. (unheated). ... ‘ i pe 1 99 From 8 Colonies on Soil and Agar to 5 Days. 11 Days. 15 Days. 22. 22. 2g. WANG ae ar. ise 2.5 1 — 1 — 1 — 2 g. 3 g. 3 g. INES D par ala es heater ochre setrertints ele ated ; MOLBE Kon (UMNOAtTEG),. icc e ee eieeecn se cosew oe ate SHS 3¢g 3 g. 2g. 3¢g ores BATCH TE A LOC MAE MAY wen Sereagrrah WALLA Cai abs BPs Gets ee Sih J From 3 Colonies on Soil Extract (unheated) to 5 Days. 11 Days. 15 Days. Eur Clams AE acre NT each igeactie fet eet he's: Oe See one ideo INTE DIS OG EET INS a ate ne NET ENS i a AN 3 g. 3 g. 3} ENO PAA OMOU A crete ete: ott eto SS 33 (Ss 33 3 g. From 8 Colonies on Soil Extract (autoclaved) to 5 Days. 11 Days. 15 Days. Panu yaar ra. i ome ee or). eae Ore 3) 3¢g NBs SOME ie ee ena ae ee ee ar 3 2. BR 3 is (2 g. 2¢ 2g PUTA ONG wets reece hr Pike ey cheat Beicroes: onsiin la — — 1 NOUMKEXb an (UMMEACC) slew 4.2 nia. cis cite ste 3 g. Suet 3 g. Summary (6 Days Results). HOMULATISTEN STOO MUsANGPEYAP ALY! MRMIA (ys ciNe uae Cs iyccth teem ats Gog erat) delle s 14 made growth. NGStranslersLOMNia aS Da Sare cree oe hee ski teste atest ak poets onda eek 12 made growth. MUR ATISLELSS COME aim ua Sat way resis Wen tien clea sin Jey Eni et eee s 13 made growth. imiraisters tO Sol Exte (umbeated) ace 5 tad eae ae eee aa 13 made growth. Summary (15 Day Results). 16 transfers to L and B agar............. iS Becottte ate OLA Rican eee 14 made growth. MOBGRANSTELS OWN A eASD sta Sabena eed ek, onc Se eee etnares so eb 13 made growth. i@pransterstvoOvelainvacartr yest sic aerate iene N Seen ake Pete sateen 6 14 made growth. imran sSlersitO. SOMLextrs (UmMMGATeG)\< 7. aoe seis preteens ote 15 made growth. 100 General Notes. When tubes of different media containing the same organism from the same original colony are put side by side, the following is noted: (1) The growth on agar alone, soil and agar or on soil extract (unheated) is small. (2) The soil extract carries a better growth than the soil alone. (3) L. and B. agar and Na. asp. agar carry a good growth. (4) There is more development of distinguishing characteristics as to form of streaks and chromogenisis present, with the L. and B. agar. Tusre Mepia Test V. Sample of 7/16, 1915. Sample No. 8. Millet Plot. Cover Crop Investigations. One ce. portions of the 1 to 400,000 dilution of this sample were plated on the following media: A. Wheat straw extract. Leaf extract. . Starch. . Agar alone. . Ammonium nitrate. . Conn’s sodium asparaginate. . Soil. . Soil and starch. Lipman and Brown agar. Ammonium nitrate and starch. (15 gms. agar is basis of all media.) Colonies developing well on each media, plates II] and IV, were transferred to slants of other media. Tables give results of growth on these slants at end of 6, 10 and 14 days’ incubation at 22° Centigrade. 101 4 Colonies from L and B agar to Shown 6 Days. 10 Days. 14 Days. jin Plate iP g. 3 g. 3) gs V WahGat Straw Hixt.. so .5.% |. < Shee ne de ae ee .23 mg. DAE DAP- ATG, 55.0 oP eek ns eee ce ee .O9 mg. These figures do not adequately convey the relative merits of the three . methods, for it should be noted in addition that the Liebig method requires a confirmatory test to make the result trustworthy; the Treadwell method failed to show the stated minimum amount of nickel when so little as 231 times as much cobalt as nickel was present, while the silver method appears 7a to retain its full sensitiveness in presence of any amount of cobalt; and that it has been shown to increase the effectiveness of dimethylglyoxime about eight times and to be able to deteet within 24 hours less than 0.002 mg. of nickel in a volume of 50 ee. SUMMARY. 1. A modified method of using dimethylglyoxime for detecting traces of nickel in cobalt salts is proposed which (1) avoids the use of large amounts of the reagent; (2) makes possible the detection of considerably smaller : quantities of nickel than has been possible heretofore. 2. The sensitiveness of the test is shown to be unaffected by the presence of cobalt even in large quantities. The proposed method increases the ordin- ary sensitiveness of dimethylglyoxime about eight times and is capable of detecting about one-fifth the amount of nickel detectable by any of the pre- viously known methods. Chemical Laboratory, Purdue University. Ture DiIFrreERENT Metuops oF ESTIMATING PROTEIN IN MILK. GEORGE SPITZER. It is often desirable to estimate the proteids in milk other than the official method. This is especially true in cheese factories where it is desirable to know the percent of casein in milk, since it is the casein in milk that gives it its nutritive value, as far as the proteins are concerned. It is frequently desirable to know the protein content in milk for infant and invalid feeding. With the present method of determining the fat by the Babcock method, which is quite accurate and can be done in all creameries, a rapid method for estimating the percent of casein and fat in milk gives us the necessary data to control the ratio of casein to fat in milk for feeding. Frequently a chemist is requested to determine the fat and casein in human milk where a physician has reason to beleve that there exists an unbalanced ratio of fats and proteids. There are three methods for rapid estimation of casein or proteids in milk, all of which possess merits worthy of consideration and could be used in a great many laboratories that are equipped with the apparatus necessary to determine the proteids by the official method. Although such equipment is at hand, when only a few determinations are to be made, the methods reviewed in this paper save time and the results obtained are sufficiently accurate. For the volumetric estimations of milk proteids, two standard volumetric solutions are required, besides a few beakers and flasks, apparatus found in any laboratory, or if one wishes to fit up for this purpose only, the expense is quite nominal. In discussing the different methods, the order in which they are taken up, is no indication of their priority. Since 1892 various attempts have been made in devising a volumetric method for the estimation of casein in milk, but most were unsatisfactory, either owing to the extensive equipment or to the complicated indirect methods used. The main characteristics that a method should possess are: first, it should be accurate; second, it should require only a short time in making an estimation; third, the apparatus should be simple; fourth, materials and apparatus used should be easily obtainable. 174 L. L. Van Slyke and A. W. Bosworth in 1909 published their volumetric method (Technical Bulletin, N. Y. Ag. Exp. St.). The method worked out in their publication mentioned is briefly as follows: ‘‘A given amount of milk, diluted with water, is made neutral to phenolphthalein by the addition of a solution of sodium hydroxide. The casein is then completely pre- cipitated by the addition of standard acetic acid, the volume is then made up to 200 ce. by the addition of distilled water and then filtered. Into 100ce. of the filtrate a standard solution of sodium hydroxide is run until neutral to phenolphthalein. These solutions are so standardized that 1 ec. is equivalent to 1 per cent. casein, when a definite amount of milk is used. Therefore, the number of cubic centimeters of standard acid used, divided by 2 less the amount of standard alkali used in the last titration gives the percentage of casein in the milk.” This method is based on the well known facts in chemistry and shows quite clearly the cascin molecule has a constant molecular weight. First, uncombined casein is insoluble in milk serum, water or very dilute acids. Second, it has properties of an acid and combines with alkalies to form definite chemical compounds, neutral to phenolphthalein. Now, if we know the molecular weight of casein or its equivalent in terms of a standard alkali, we can at once devise a definite method for estim- ating the casein by titration. Casein exists in milk in a colloidal condition combined with bases, upon addition of an acid sufficient to combine with salts in combination with casein, free casein is formed, insoluble in the serum (it must be remembered that casein and other albuminoids are soluble in excess of acids, the solubility depends on the kind of acid and tempera- ture). There exists a definite relation between the amount of acid required to form free casein and the amount of casein present. It has been found that one gram of free casein neutralizes 8.8378 cc. of N sodium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide neutralizes .11315 grams of casein. From this 1 ce. of 7 data the molecular weight of casein can be calculated. From the above facts it is easy to determine the quantity of milk re- quired, so that each ce. of \ acid used shall correspond to percents or fraction of a percent. Since 1 ec. of NaOH neutralizes .11315 grams of casein, it must require an equivalent amount of acid to set free the casein from its original combination in milk. If we wish to know the quantity of milk to be taken so that 1 cc. of acid used to separate the casein from its combinaion shall equal 1 per cent. of casein, we make use of the above equivalent, i.e. ee ee ——— 175 N 10 casein is capable of neutralizing as much alkali as 1 ce. of a acid, so if we take 1 ce. acid = .11315 grams casein, or in other words .11315 grams of 11.315 grams of milk we see from the relation above that every ce. of N 10 we need only change the normality of our acid. acid used equals 1 per cent. casein. By using different quantities of milk If by using 11.315 grams of milk (or 11 ce.) where each ce. of Be acid corresponds to 1 per cent., by using a greater or larger quantity of milk the normality would have to be correspondingly less or greater. When we use 8.75 cc. or 9 grams of milk the normality would not be X but 795 ce. AN acid plus water to make 1,000 ec. which equals Upon the above < 12.56 +. facts the volumetric method of Van Slyke and Bosworth is based. Procedure in carrying out in detail the volumetric estimation of casein: ‘““A given amount of milk, diluted with water, is made neutral to phenolpthalein by the addition of a solution of sodium hydroxide. The casein is then completely precipitated by the addition of the standardized acetic acid; the volume of the mixture is then made up to 200 cc. by the addition of water, thoroughly shaken and then filtered. Into 100 ce. of the filtrate a standard solution of sodium hydroxide is run until neutral to phenolpthalein. The solutions are so stand- ardized that 1 ce. is equivalent to 1 per cent. of casein when a definite amount of milk is used. The number of ce. standard acid used, divided by two (since only 100 ce. of the 200 ce. is used), less the standard alkali used in the last titration gives the percentage of casein in the milk examined.” When 17.5 or 18 grams of milk are used the strength of acetic acid and alkali are made by diluting 795 ce. of N to 1,000 ce. The same normality as was derived above. Since only 100 ce. of the 200 cc. were titrated this then represents the acid required to liberate the casein in 8.75 ce. or 9 grams of milk. Like- wise by using 22 ce. cr’*22.6 grams of milk treated as above, then 1 ce. of cat acid equals 1 per cent of casein. By the use of a factor any con- venient quantity can be used. Example, by the use of 20 ce. of milk and - solution, adjustment is made by multiplying the final result by 1.0964. Apparatus and reagents necessary to carry on the volumetric estimation of casein in milk are, first, two 50 ec. burettes, graduated to 1/10 ce. or better 1/20 ee., these must be accurate. One of the burettes should be supplied with a glass stop cock for the acid, and one with a pinch cock for the alkaline solution. Second, flasks, volumetric, holding 200 ec. At least two of these are needed and where a number of estimations are to be made more are required to do rapid work; ten to twelve are necessary for rapid work. The 1¢6 necks of these flasks should have an. internal diameter of at least three- fourths of an inch. The reason for this diameter is necessary if the milk is neutralized in the flask. This neutralization can be done in the beaker into which the milk is weighed, if weights are taken. Third, pipettes, a Babcock milk pipette accurately graduated to deliver 17.5 cc. of milk, when 17.5 ce. or 18 grams of milk are used. When 22 ce. or 22.6 grams of milk are used it will be necessary to have a volume pipette graduated to deliver the above amounts or a 25 ec. Mohr pipette graduated into 1/10 ee. will be required. Fourth, one 100 cc. pipette or a volumetric flask graduated to hold 100 ce. Fifth, beakers of convenient sizes holding at least 200 ce. Sixth, if standard solutions are to be made, measuring cylinders or volu- metric flasks holding 1,000 ce. are needed. In regard to the making of the solutions it is best to prepare both the so- dium hydroxide and the acetic acid as tenth normal. The accuracy of the succeeding work depends primarily on the correctness of the standard alkali and acetic acid. When it is desirable to make dilutions for different quantities of milk it can be made from the tenth normal stock solution. The phenolpthalein solution is prepared by dissolving one gram of phenol- pthalein powder in 100 cc. of 50 per cent. alcohol. This should be neutralized by the use of a few drops of a NaOH to a very slight pink color. Carrying out the operation. Weigh out 22.66 grams of milk, or measure out 22 ce., neutralize in the beaker in which the weighing has been made, using only enough alkali to give a very faint pink, then transfer to a 200 ce. flask and wash out beaker with 75 to 80 ce. of distilled water, free from carbon dioxide, shake and warm to 22° to 25° C. At this point observe the color of the diluted milk. Frequently on dilution the pink color becomes quite pronounced; if so, add a few drops of N acetic acid to a light pink. N N’ acetic acid, frequently shaking, for milk Run in from a burette 25 ce. of a | rich in casein it would require 30 to 40 ce. of acid. Then fill up to the 200 cc. mark, insert stopper and shake thoroughly. After standing for 5 or 10 minutes, filter, after filtration pipette or measure 100 ce. of the filtrate into a 250 ce. or 300 cc. beaker and titrate to a permanent faint pink color, record the ec. used. Since 25 ce. were added to the total volume and only one-half titrated, we only take 12.5 ce. into consideration. From what has \ acetic acid has been used in forming been said a portion of the 25 ce. free casein, therefore the difference between 12.5 cc. and the amount of N NaOH used to neutralize the acid in the 100 ce. filtrate equals the number 10 LAr of ec. acid used in liberating the casein. Since a quantity of milk has been taken so that each ce. of acid used equals 1 per cent. casein, then each ce. represents 1 per cent. of casein in the sample of milk. For example, it required 9.4 cc. to neutralize 100 ce. of the filtrate, and since it represented 12.5 ce. of the acid added to the 200 cc. of the diluted milk, we have 12.5- N 9.4 = 3.10 per cent. casein. Below are some of Van Slyke’s results obtained by this method in com- parison with the official method. PERCENT CASEIN. Voh metric Method (Van Slyke-Bosworth). Official Method. 3.00 3.00 3.40 3.36 3.30 By PAN Se) 3.16 2.90 2.95 2.70 2.60 The second volumetric method which I wish to consider is that of E. B. Hart, of the University of Wisconsin, published in Research Bulletin, No. 10, 1910. For speed and accuracy this method offers no advantage over that of Van Slyke’s and Bosworth’s, just mentioned. However, the method is unique and sound in principle. The fact that free casein has the properties of an acid and can combine with an alkali in a definite proportion, it seems rational that if we dissolve casein in excess of alkali and the uncombined alkali is estimated by titration, using phenolpthalein as an indicator, we are in a position to calculate the casein equivalent per cc. of standard alkali used. This is true, and upon this principle rests Hart’s volumetric method. Hart found the casein equivalent for each 1 ce. X| KOH to be .108 grams. Therefore, if we titrate the casein obtained from 10.8 grams of milk, we see that each ce. of alkali used must represent 1 per cent. of casein. Details of the method. Measure 10.5 ce. or weigh 10.8 grams of milk into a 200 ec. Erlenmeyer flask, add 75 ce. of distilled water at room tem- perature and add to this 1 to 1.5 ce. of a 10 per cent. solution of acetic acid. The flask is given a quick rotary motion, usually 1.5 ec. of acetic acid gives 5084—12 178 a clear and fast filtering separation, but if the milk is low in casein a little less acetic acid should be used. The separated precipitate is now filtered through a filter (9-11 cm. filter), the flask rinsed out thoroughly and poured on the filter, preferably cold. If a strong stream of water is directed against the filter, the casein washing is facilitated. About 250 to 300 cc. of water should pass through the filter to insure the removal of all traces of acetic acid. The precipitate, together with the filter paper, is now returned to the Erlenmeyer flask in which the precipitation was made. To this is now added 75 ce. of distilled water, free from carbon dioxide, and then a few drops of phenol- pthalein and 10 ce. of zs ‘ potassium hydroxide. A rubber stopper is placed in the flask and the contents shaken vigorously. Complete solution is easily indicated by the disappearance of the white casein particles. After solution the stopper is rinsed off into the flask with carbon dioxide free water and Ni 1¢ It is necessary that a blank be run parallel with the determination. For immediately titrated with acid to the disappearance of the red color. example, suppose it required 7.20 ce. of acid to make the pink color just disappear and the blank amounted to .2 c¢., the percent of casein would be 10 — 7.4 = 2.60 per cent. casein. Precatuions necessary. First, water free from carbon dioxide, must be used. Second, the titration should be made as soon as solution of casein has taken place. This will be from half an hour N to an hour after adding the alkali. Repeated shaking hastens solution. Results obtained by Hart as compared with the official method. PERCENT CASEIN. Volumetric Method Official Method. (Hart). sere = a) ahha be 3.05 2.87 2.85 1.90 1.85 2.30 2.25 PAR iff 2.30 The next volumetric method to be considered is the Formol titration method. This is perhaps the most rapid method of the three volumetric methods, for estimating the proteids in milk. It was pointed out in 1900 by Hugo Schiff that when formaldehyde was added to amino acids, the acid 179 properties of the acid were developed and could be titrated as any organic acid. S. P. L. Sorensen worked out the details and made it possible to estimate amino acids quantitatively by means of formaldehyde. It is well known that amino acids, such as are formed by the hydrolysis of proteins, especially milk proteids, are neutral to phenolpthalein, have both an acidic group, earboxyl and a basic (amino) group. These exist in the same molecule and being the alpha amino acids neutralize each other, or in other words we have an amphoteric molecule, but as soon as formaldehyde is added, it reacts with the alkaline or basic group forming a methylene compound and leaving the acid group free to act. For example: /NH, i CH, CH, CH + iC0.2 = CH, — CH, EO COOH COOH (Alanine) (Formaldchyde) /N = CHe pit = Gil. CH; — CH + KOH = Cu; — Cr + 29 COOH CoCr. From Emil Fisher’s researches on protein and polypeptids there is no doubt that the protein molecule is conposed of amino acid units. The carboxyl group (—COOH) of one amino acid is combined with the amino group (—NH,) of another amino acid, forming peptids, di, tri, ete., to poly- peptids. For example, glycyl-glycine composed of two units of gyleine. CH: — CONQI CH, — COOH CH: CO — CH: — COOH | | = | | + HO HUN HY— N —H H.N NH (Glycine) (Glycine) (Glycil-Glycinc) Likewise different units may combine, as example, alanyl-glycyl-tyrosine From which we see that each peptid has one carboxyl group (—COOH) . ,@ e acidic and one amino group (—NH)) basic. Now if the protein molecule is built up from amino acids, we can expect it to split up into simpler mole- 180 cules, by hyroloysis either with an acid or ferment into peptones, etc. Then we would expect the formol number to increase, double, if each protein molecule were split into two simpler ones. This is true, so formol titration gives a measure of the hydrolytic cleavage. We know that the proteids of milk are neutral to indicators, but on the addition of the formaldehyde become decidedly acid to these indicators. Now if we can determine a factor or equivalent of the acidity produced on the addition of the formaldehyde to milk proteids, we can at once deter- mine the percent of proteids in milk by titrating the acidity with a standard alkali. In 1912, E. Holl Miller, of England, worked out a method for estimating the proteids in butter, and the same method is used in determining the proteids in milk. Directions for estimating the proteids in butter. Weigh into a tared beaker exactly 10 grams of butter, which is placed in a water bath at 60° to 70° C. - until the butter is completely melted. Twenty-five cc. of carbon dioxide free water is then added at about 60° C. and 1 ce. of phenolpthalein solution. The contents are well agitated. Run in te NaOH until a faint permanent pink color is formed. It is found that the end point is masked by the yellow color of butter fat, the contents of the beaker should be allowed to settle and the bottom aqueous layer observed, and the addition of alkali continued until the pink tint is obtained. Five ec. of formaldehyde (40 per cent.) is added. The formaldehyde must either be neutralized before addition or its 5 ce. obtained and afterwards deducted. After the N NaOH run in until a permanent faint pink color is produced in the aqueous layer. N at equivalent to the acidity of the formaldehyde. No deduction is necessary acidity equivalent for formaldehyde has been added the beaker is well shaken and again The number of ce alkali used in the second titration less the amount if the formaldehyde was neutralized before being added to the butter. Now the number of ce. aa alkali used to neutralize the acidity produced on the addition of the formaldehyde is proportional to the protein present. One ee. of N alkali is equivalent to .01355 grams of protein nitrogen or .0864 grams milk protein, assuming a definite proportion of casein and albumen. 0864 X 100 Xce. Then to calculate the percent of protein we have 10 = per- cent protein if 10 grams of butter were taken. 181 The following table shows the percent protein in butter by the Formol titration and official method: Official Method. Formaldehyde. 165 .59 48 AT 46 .42 .48 31330) 60 68 45 42 42 .40 41 4] 49 spe Procedure to estimate the protein in milk. To estimate the proteids in milk, weigh out 10 or 20 grams, preferably 20 grams, in a tared beaker, about 150 to 200 ce. capacity. Add 1 ec. of phenolpthalein solution, then run in from a burette Ey NaOH until decided pink color is produced, a little practice will enable one to carry the shade of color in mind. Then add 10 ce. of neutralized formaldehyde, stir with a glass rod, when well mixed add io NaOH until the same shade of pink is produced as that before the form- aldehyde was added (note this last addition of alkali). For example, if 7 ce. of X NaOH were required to neutralize the acidity produced on addition of formaldehyde to 20 ec. of milk, then as in the case of butter: .0864 X 100 X7 20 If we wish to estimate the casein alone and assuming the casein and = percent protein = 3.024 albumen are in proportion of 3 per cent. casein and .5 per cent. albumen, then by using the equivalent of .075, we have as above: 075 X 100 X7 tae, Oa The following table gives the results of the three volumetric methods = percent casein = 2.62 compared with the official methods on the same sample of milk: PERCENT CASEIN. Official. Van Slyke-Bosworth. | - Hart. Formol Titration. 2.98 3.05 2.95 | 2.99 2.96 3.05 2.90 2.98 2.45 2.45 2.40 2,00 2.40 2.40 PaaS fs) 2.48 1.79 (d) 1.80 1.80 1.85 ETc (oh) iP rAs | 1.85 1.83 3.28 | Shs) | 3.18 3.18 3.29 3.20 ! 3.15 3.20 2.46 2.49 2.40 | 2.46 PTL 3.80 3.65 | 3.70 2.90 2.90 2.80 2.96 2.47 | 2.50 2.45 2.48 3.71 Sieh) 3. nO 3.74 2.85 | 2.85 2 ee | 3.01 2.80 2.74 2.00 2276 2.89 2.85 | 2.90 2.91 Note.—The two samples marked (d) were diluted milk. Samples were taken on different days from the same source. The above table shows the relative accuracy of the different methods. For the estimation of casein in milk the choice of the methods mentioned depends on the purpose for which the analysis is made. If total proteids are to be estimated, the Van Slyke-Bosworth and Hart methods must be excluded, unless an assumption is made as to the average amount of albumen in milk. This could be done on the same basis as that for the formol method and which would introduce only a slight error for normal milk and from a mixed herd. In reviewing these methods and considering speed, and ease of carrying out the work, the formol titration method is to be preferred. In all three volumetric methods it is very essential that the water used for dilution should be free from carbon dioxide. Very little distilled water found in laboratories is free from carbon dioxide. This factor alone may introduce errors to vitiate the results. Titration after the addition of the formaldehyde should be carried to a sharp pink color and remain so for at least five minutes. GEORGE SPITZER. Purdue University. 183 New Cave NEAR VERSAILLES. ANDREW J. BIGNEY. It is known as the cave of Dr. Jim Sale of Dillsboro. It is situated one mile northeast of Versailles. It is located near the top of a high hill overlooking Laughery valley. The view from this position is most pictur- esque. The lover of nature is enchanted by the richness of the scenery. The chmb up the hill from the Fallen Timber creek to the mouth of the cave is most exhilarating. The entrance is guarded by an iron gate. Excavations have been made and walls built, so as to open a passage to the cave proper, thus making it convenient for the visitor. A stream of water had been passing through the cave. Now a pipe carries off the water. About thirty feet from the mouth of the cave is the main room, which is very beautiful because of the numerous pillars, stalactites and stalagmites. The ceiling is high enough for the tallest man to walk in freely, and in some places could not touch the ceiling with outstretched arms. Some of the pillars are four to five feet in height. The ceiling is decorated artistically with stalactites in great numbers and in various sizes, with many corresponding stalagmites. Passing to the right there is a smaller room also covered with typical cave formations. A passage extends about thirty feet beyond in the clay and limestone rocks with only a few stalactites. Extending from the main room is a narrow passage about seventy feet long where there is a spring from which flows a moderate stream in rainy weather. The ceiling and crevices above are like- wise decorated with the stalactites. Undoubtedly there must be other rooms, but they have been naturally filled up with dirt and stone. Even outcropping on the side of the hill are large formations of stalactites and stalagmites. It is certainly a very interesting place. The region round about Versailles has many caves, but this is the only one that has the cave formations. While it is not a large cave like the Marengo and Wyandotte, yet its geological structures are just as typical and interesting as in the larger caves. It is instructive, for it is near the margin of the cave region of southern Indiana and northern Kentucky. Geologically speaking, it is in the lower Silurian or Ordovician formation. It will be instructive for the schools to visit the cave so as to get some accurate information of cave structures. The entire region is most fascinating. Lorss AND SAND Dune Deposits IN Vico County, INDIANA. Won. A. McBeErtTu. Loess deposits are mentioned in various places as occurring along the bluffs of the lower Wabash river. Dr. J. T. Scovell, who in the twenty-first annual report of the State Geologist has given the most extended and de- tailed description of the geography and geology of Vigo county yet published, Looking west along National Road from upland along east side of Wabash Valley. mentions in a single sentence that ‘‘Along the eastern margin of the main valley there are extensive areas of dune sand and at some localities in the eastern bluffs there are thick beds of loess.’’ So far as I have observed slight reference has been made to the distribution, appearance and extent of the loess or loess-like deposits of the lower Wabash valley. The loess is so involved with sandy material that it is difficult to distinguish between the two and interstratified clay. The inclination in examining these materials is to consider them but different phases of the same thing. The interstratified clay does not contain boulders and may be weathered or chemically decom- posed loess, while the sandy covering may be due to wind assortment. 186 Occasional gasteropod shells of very small size are found. The deposits occur in ridges and dunes usually within less than a mile from the crest of Dune in Highland Lawn Cemetery. North side National Road. Note ridge beyond building at left and opposite a cross roads at right. Dunes south of National Road } mile. Looking west from level upland. The valley is just beyond. the east bluff and often within a few rods. Sometimes a single continuous ridge of uniform height and width crowns the bluff. In places there are 187 successive ridges two or three and in instances four. In still other places the topography takes the form of dunes, low domes with no characteristic order or grouping. The gradients of the ridges on the leeward or east side if often remarkably steep. The height of the ridges is in a few cases as much as twenty-five feet. In most instances the height is not more than half the figure stated. An interesting observation is that the dunes and ridges extend along the north sides of tributary valleys still keeping a north-south direction in the ridges, which in some places are arranged in etchelon. This is noticed on the north side of Honey creek. The surface on the north side of Otter creek valley appears as one long wave after another, cloaking the bluff front Blake Hill. A sand dune north side National Road. and crest. This arrangement of ridges along the re-entrant valleys indicates that the valleys were made before the deposits. The direction of the bluffs has evidently influenced the deposition of the material as a section of the river bluffs running directly east-west on the south side of Honey creek shows no dunes or ridges. The deposits also show a marked relation to the terrace area in the valley. Where a broad stretch of terrace lies below the bluffs the ridges and dunes are more strongly developed. Where flood plains approach the bluffs the deposits on the crest and bordering uplands decrease or disappear. Conclusions as to the cause of the deposits and their source seems to be amply justified by the evidence that the deposits are wind 188 blown, the materials, including the shells being collected from the terrace surface from the silts deposited by the valley-wide stream. This deposition probably occurred soon after the stream abandoned the terrace level and withdrew to the present deeper third of the valley width. The work was done mainly before the invasion by vegetation of the terrace, bluff front and upland border, after the retreat of the ice sheet from the region. The loess may be a wind deposit from the bare valley at the close of the Illinoisan ice invasion. This dust may have weathered through a long interglacial period of time to be covered with later deposits of dust and fine sand swept over the valley from the border of the Late Wisconsin ice which did not reach the present site of Terre Haute, but whose strong moraine lies fifteen or twenty miles upstream near Clinton and Rockville. 189 VOLUME OF THE ANCIENT WABASH RIVER. Won. A. McBETu. The Wabash valley at Terre Haute has a width of five to six miles. One- third this width has a depth of approximately one hundred feet, embracing a flood plain tract through which the river meanders in a channel averaging one thousand feet wide and, twenty feet deep. The remaining half is a terrace about half the depth of the deeper part. The whole valley bottom shows the effects of stream deposition, the pre-glacial trench of two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in depth being half-full of sand and gravel. A point Jenerzlized profile across Wabash Valley of Terre Haute. of interest in connection with the stream and valley is the question of volume of water by which various phases of the work was done. The size and weight of pebbles in the gravel indicate a volume and velocity much greater than that of the present stream either in average volume or flood. Some suggestion as to the width and depth of the stream at its stage of greatest flow is furn- ished by features of the terrace surface consisting of sandbars and delta deposits. This terrace surface is marked with numerous shallow current lines or channels. The bars form ridges of greater length than width, often many times longer. They trend northeast, southwest, the direction of the valley and have the characteristic stratified structure of such features, the layers of finer or coarser sand dipping steeply down stream. Extensive areas of the terrace surface lie at an elevation of four hundred and ninety feet a.t.l. Some places are five feet lower while some of the ridge tops rise to the five hundred and thirty foot level. Low water in the present stream is four hundred and forty-five feet. Points in sections 3, 23 and 24 and a bluff side delta of a brook crossed by Fruitridge avenue at the south edge of Section 24, Town 12 N. Range 9 W., rise to nearly the five hundred thirty foot level. Sandbars and deltas are built under water and the surface of the stream in which these deposits were made must have been a few inches and possibly several feet above the ridge and delta tops when they were 190 completed. The range of elevation four hundred ninety to five hundred thirty equals forty feet over large areas with places of forty-five feet or more. A cross profile from bluff to bluff shows these ridge tops to be the highest points between bluffs. Water covering these ridges must have covered the valley from side to side making a stream of from five to six miles wide and forty to fifty feet deep. Just how much of the year or for how long periods the water maintained such a volume it would seem impossible to say, but probably the maximum volume was reached in summer and main- tained through the summer months, declining. as winter came on. The assumption is that the largest volume of water was produced by the summer melting of the Great Ice Sheet that formerly overspread the Northern United States and much of Canada. Whether the west deeper side of the valley was then lower than the terrace portion cannot be stated certainly, deeper water probably covered the part of the valley that now shows the greatest depth. A depth of twenty feet of water is shown for the highest parts of the site of Terre Haute. 190 A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE CONCERN~ ING FoREIGN COUNTRIES. Taken from Non-geographical Magazines 1900-1914; Govermnent Documents; and Geographical Magazines. B. H. ScHocKEL. INTRODUCTION. This bibliography is submitted in the hope that 1t will be of some value to teachers of geography below the University, even though it is incomplete, and loosely organized. Each article has at least been briefly scanned. There are included many articles not written from a geographic standpoint, but it is thought that these also will be of some value to the geography teacher. The accompanying key is employed to save space. The first references under South America, for example, according to the key is Bulletin of tne Pan American Union, volume 32, pages 240 to 251. Acknowledgement is due to C. O. McFarland and Mrs. EK. E. Rullmau for assistance in preparing the bibliography. KEY. I. American Journal of Archaeology. Il. American Journal of Science. III. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. IV. Atlantic Monthly. V. Bookman. VI. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society (Journal). VII. Bulletin of the Pan American Union. VIII. Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia. IX. Bureau of American Republics. (Pan American Union.) X. Century Magazine. XI. Chautauqua. XII. Engineering. XIII. Kverybody’s Magazine. 192 XIV. Forum. XV. Geographical Journal. XVI. Harper’s Magazine. XVII. MHarper’s Weekly. XVIII. Harvard Graduate’s Magazine. XIX. Independent. XX. Johns Hopkins University Studies. XXI. Journal of Geography. (Journal of School Geography.) XXII. Journal of Geology. XXIII. National Geographic Magazine. XXIV. New England Magazine. XXV. North American Review. XXVI. Popular Science Monthly. (Scientific Monthly.) XXVII. Records of the Past. XXVIII. Review of Reviews. XXIX. Science. XXX. Scientific American Supplement. XXXI. Scribner’s Magazine. XXXII. Scottish Geographical Magazine. XXXIII. Smithsonian Institute Reports. XXXIV. The Trend. XXXV. University of Chicago Magazine. XXXVI. Westminster Review. XXXVII. World Today. XXXVIII. World’s Work. XXIX. Yale Review. XL. Yearbook Department of Agriculture. XLI. Bay View Magazine. XLII. Journal of School Geography. XLII. Journal of Political Economy. XLIV. Geographical Teacher. SOUTH AMERICA. Sears, J. H.: Trade and Diplomacy between Latin America and the United States.—VII; 32; 240-51. Baralt, B.: The literature of Spanish America.—VII; 36; 30-37. 195 Chandler, C. L.: World race for the rich South American trade.—XX XVIII;. 25; 314-22. Freeman, L. R.: Hydro-electric operations in South America.—VII; 37: 633-56. Reid, W. A.: Railways of South America.—VII; 37; 165-191. Latin American foreign trade in 1911—general survey.—VII; 36; 225-244. Ward, R. D.: Climate of South America.—V1; 351; 353-60. Posey, C. J.: Points in the geography of South America.—X XI; 12; 65. Pepper, M.: South America fifty years hence-—X XIII; 17; 427-32. Barrett, J.: Our manufacturers’ greatest opportunity.—II1; 34; 520-531. Sears, A. F.: German influence in Latin America.—X XVI; 72; 140-52. What the Latin-Americans think of, and why United States should en- courage the Pan-American conferences.— X XIII; 17; 474-9; 497-80. Ogg, F. A.: German interests and tendencies in South America.—X XXVIII; 5; 3169-3170. Bowman, J.: Geographical aspects of the new Madeira-Mamoré railroad.— VI; 45; 275-81. Rice, H.: Further exploration in the Northwest Amazon basin.—XV; 44; 137-64. Furlong, C. W.: South America’s first transcontinental—X XXVIII; 20; 13535-55. Humphrey, W. E.: Shipping facilities between the United States and South America.—III1; 38; 621-637. Bowman, I.: Physiography of the central Andes.—II; 178; 197-373. Bulfin, W.: United States in Latin America.—X X XVIII; 4; 2533-2550. Denuci, J.: The discovery of the north coast of South America according to an anonymous map in the British Museum.—XV; 36; 65-80. Smith, J. R.: Western South America and its relation to American trade.— III; 18; 446-468. Emory, F.: Causes of our failure to develop South American. trade. 22; 153-156. Tower, W. S.: Notes on the commercial geography of South America.—VI; 45; 881-901. The quest of El] Dorado.—VII; 34; 55-66; 165-176; 317-27; 447-58; 607-621, 732-43. South America: Its general geographic features and opportunities.—VITI; 8; 47-53. 5084—13 MN 194 Fortescue, G.: South American trade hints.—VII; 32; 261-69. Bulletins of the International Bureau of American Republic.—House Doe.; 267; Vol. 68-72; 58 Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial Nos. 4847-50. Ibid: House Doe. Vol. 75-76; 56th Cong., Ist Sess.; Serial Nos. 3972-3. Ibid: House Doe. Vol. 86-89; 59th Cong., Ist Sess.; Serial Nos. 5026-29; 49; 49-54. Dr. Koch: Griinberg’s explorations in the Northern Amazon basin and the Guiana Highlands (map).—VI; 45; 664-66. Dunn, A. W.: Beef from South America and Australia— XXVIII; 49; 49-54. Hammond, J. H.: The expansion of our Latin American trade.—XIX; 80; 406. Brown, C. M.: Cocoa-nuts in the Americas.—VII; 32; 17:39. Tin mining in the Americas.—VIT; 31; 983-94. Millward, R. H.: Petroleum in the Americas.—VII; 31; 756-78. Cacao of the world.—VII; 34; 75-85. Church, G. E.: Aborigines of South America.—VII; 38; 360-69. Savage-Landor, A. H.: Across unknown South America.—VIIT; 38; 204-13. VII; 38; 640-56. A commercial traveler in South America.—VII; 38; 37-53; 183-203; 329-47; 516-35; 657-78; 810-830. Wight, W. F.: South American fruit production.—VII; 38; 9-26. Reid, W. A.: Furs in the Americas.—VII; 38; 157-169. Bowman, I.: Results of an expedition to the Central Andes.—V1; 46; 161-83. Reid, W. A.: Coca, the wonder plant of the Andes. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Argentine Republic.—VII; 31; 2-26. Brandon, E. E.: Argentine universities.—VII; 34; 223-230. Commerce of Argentine Republic.—VI1; 36; 445-49. Attwell, J. S.: Argentine and its capital —X LI; Jan., 1913. Argentine plains and andine glaciers, with a description of the South American locust.—VII; 33; 1082-94. Hale, A.: Crossing the Andes by aero and auto.—VII; 38; 313-21. Cultivation of cotton in Argentia.—VIT; 33; 751-59. The Argentine Republic.—VI1; 33; 9-46. Albes, E.: The strait of Magellan, Pinita, Arenas, and the Tierra del Fuegiaus.—VI1; 35; 989-1002. 195 Albes, E.: Buenos Aires and vicinity.—VII; 35; 816-335. Chandler, C. L.: The Argentine southward movement.—VII; 38; 489-98. Townsend, C. H.: Naturalist in Straits of Magellan—X XVI; 77; 1-18. Wheat supply —XLIII; 12; 5-35. Indian corn in Argentina.—XLIII; 12; 255. Tower, W.S.: A journey through Argentina.—VIII: 12; 89-113. Kuezywsh, R. R.: Wheat growing in Argentina.—XLIII; 10; 266-281. Wilcox, M.: Argentine Patagonia: A land of the future.—VI; 42; 903. Grubb, W. B.: The chaco-boreal: The land and its people-—XXXII; 16; 418-429. Smith, J. R.: The economie geography of the Argentine Republic.—VI; 35; 180-1438. O’Driseoll, F.: A journey to the north of the Argentine Republic-—xXV; 24; 384-408. Smith, W. G.: A visit to Patagonia.—X X XII; 28; 456-75. Wellington, C. W.: Among the titans of the Patagonian pampas.—XVI; 122; 813-827. Bowman, I.: Northern Patagonia.—V1I; 45; 357-59. Corthell, E. L.: Two years in Argentine as the consulting engineer of national public works.—VI; 35; 489-471. Albes, E.: Across the pampas of Argentina; a day in Mendoza, and over the Andes; VII; 35; 506-21. Hirst, W. A.: Argentine —X XX]; 1911. Furlong, C. W.: Vanishing people of the land of fire—XVI; 120; 217-29. Report on trade conditions in Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay.—United States Commerce and Labor; Miscellaneous Reports, Vol. 2, article 5. Hatcher, J. B.: Some geographic features of Southern Patagonia, with a discussion of their origin.—X XIII; 11; 41-55. Steffen, H.: The Patagonian cordillera and its main rivers.—XV; 16; 14-39; 185-211. Willis, B.: Recent surveys in Northern Patagonia.—XV; 40; 607-15. Holdich, Sir T. H.: The Patagonian Andes.—XV; 23; 153-76. Barrett: Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay.— XIX; 66; 88-96. 196 BOLIVIA. Bouivia. Brandon, E. E.: Higher education in Bolivia.—VII; 33; 1124-30. Bolivia.—VII; 33; 206-224. Picturesque La Paz, the capital of Bolivia.—VII; 37; 209-19. Bowman, I.: The distribution of people in Bolivia.—VIII; 8; 74-93; 159-84. Explorations in Bolivia.—XV; 35; 513-532. Horn, R. C.: The historic foundations of Coleha, in Bolivia.——X XVII: 12; 116-22. Further explorations in Bolivia: The River Heath.—XV; 37: 377-398. Bolivia: VII; 31; 27-41. Adams, H. C.: Liberation of Bolivia.—X XVIII; Jan., 1913. The geography and natural resources of Bolivia.—X X XII; 27; 6-18. Hoek, Dr. H.: Explorations in Bolivia. —XV; 25; 498-5138. Hill, A. W.: Notes on a journey in Bolivia and Peru around Lake Titicaca.— XXXIT; 21; 249-260. Adams, C.: Kaleidoscopic view of La Paz.—X XIII; 20; 119-42. Calderon, S. Y.: A country without a debt.—X XIII; 18; 573-86. Bowman, I.: Trade routes in the economic geography of Bolivia. 42-22-90-180. Handbook of Bolivia.—House Doe., No. 145, V. 67; 51 Cong., 3rd Session; Serial No. 4846. Riviere, A. De: Explorations in the rubber districts of Bolivia.—VI; 32; 432-440. Bingham, H.: Potosi.—VI; 43; 1-13. Travels on the boundary of Bolivia and Argentina.—XV; 21; 510-25. Evans, J. W.: Expeditions to Bolivia. —XV; 22; 601-46. Barrett: The western republics of South America.—XIX; 66; 515-23. Commerce of Bolivia for 1912.—VII; 38; 110-117. VI: BRAZIL. Ward, D.: The economic climatology of the coffee district of Sao Paulo, Brazil.—VI; 43; 428-445. Branner, J. C.: The geography of northeastern Bahia.—XV; 38; 139-152; 256-269. Brazil.—VII; 33; 47-80. 197 All-rail route between Montevideo and Rio De Janeiro.—VII; 33; 1095- 1114. Astimead, P. H.: Madeiro-Mamore railway.—VI1; 32; 432-52. Tron ores of Brazil.—VII; 32; 652-65. Brazil.—VII; 31; 42-73. Hale, A.: Developing the Amazon valley.—VI1; 36; 38-47. Wright, M. R.: The mighty Amazon.—XLI; Feb., 1913. Hale, A.: A trip through Brazil— xX LI; Feb., 1913. Sugar in Brazil.—VII; 34; 205-211. Albe, E.: The beautiful capital of Brazil and its environment.—VII; 36; 1-26. Albes, E.: Bahia and Papa, two great ports of Brazil.—VII; 36; 165-182. X; Post, C. J.: From frontier to frontier through the rubber country. 83; 352-64. Brandon, E. K.: Higher education in Brazil.—VII1; 34; 636-45. Peniambico: Sao Paulo and Santos, in eighty days with the Bluecher party.— Will So 0-72: Hale, A.: The port of Para.—VII; 35; 682-98. Col. Roosevelt’s exploration of a tributory of the Madeira.—VI; 46; 512-19. Hale, A.: Madeiro-Mamore railway company.—VII; 35; 1124-41. Hale, A.: Valley of the river Amazon.—VII; 35; 1116-24. Post, C. J.: Shooting the canons of the Eastern Andes.—X; 83; 273-84. Danson, T. C.: The Caueasian in Brazil. X XVI; 64; 550-56. Keller, A. J.: Portuguese colonization in Brazil.—X X XIX; 14; 374-410. Branner, J. C.: Palm trees of Brazil—X XVI; 60; 387-412. Furniss, H. W.: Diamonds and carbons of Brazil—X XVI; 69; 272-280. Lome, H. M.: An American sanitary triumph in Brazil—X XXVIII; 20; 12951-56. Ward, R. D.: A visit to the coffee country of Brazil. X XIII; 22; 908-31. Ward, R. D.: The southern campos of Brazil.—V1; 40; 652. Cobb, D. A.: Tales from Brazil.—X XIII; 20; 917-21. A trip up the lower Amazon.—X X XII; 45; 881-901. Koettlitz, R.: From Para to Manaos: A trip up the lower Amazon.— DORE, 17 5: 1.1-30. Ruhl, A.: Where the coffee comes from.—X X XI; 43; 739. Roosevelt, T.: A hunter naturalist in the Brazilian wilderness. — XX XI; 55; 407-539-667. 198 Hutchinson: Trade conditions in Brazil—Senate Doc. 164; 59th Cong., Ist Sess.; Serial No. 4912. Brazil.—House Doe. 557; 57th Cong., Ist Sess.; Serial No. 4357. CHILE. Smith, J. R.: The economic geography of Chile-—VI; 36; 1-21. ~ Gibson, H.: The boundary dispute between Chile and Argentina —XXXIJ; 18; 87-90. Tower, W.S.: Nitrate fields of Chile—X XVI; 83; 209-230. Argentina-Chile boundary dispute.—X XIII; 13; 27-28. Bertrand, A.: Methods of survey employed by the Chilean boundary com- missions.—XV; 16; 329-45. Ward, R.: Climatic control of occupation in Chile—XLII; 1; 289-92. Gormaz, T. V.: Depressions and elevations of the southern archipelagoes of Chile-—X XXII; 18; 14-24. Young, E. C.: A journey among the highlands of Chile-—XV; 26; 307-18. Bowman, I.:. The regional population groups of Atacama.—XX XII; 26; 1-9; 57-67; also VI; 41; 142-93. Van Dyke, H. W. V.: Chile-——XI; 66; 54-79. Albes, E.: Santiago and Valparaiso.—VII; 35; 703-21. Brandon, E. E.: University of Chile-—VII; 34; 67-74. Hale, A.: The city of Valparaiso, Chile-——VII; 36; 653-667. Chile.—VII; 31; 74-96. Bituminous coal of Chile-—VII; 32; 684-88. Chile.— VII; 33; 421-53. Tower, W. S.: The economic resources of Chile.—VII; 36; 207-224. Ross, W. H.: Origin of nitrate deposits —X XVI; 85; 134-45. Barrett: The western republics of South America.—XILX; 66; 515-23. Linking the ends of Chile.—VII; 38; 27-36. COLOMBIA. Colombia.—VII; 33; 224-245. Colombia.—VII; 31; 97-115. Coal on the Pacific coast of Colombia.—VII; 37; 97. Alexander, T.S.: Colombia: The government; the people, and the country. XXXVIII; 7; 4336-4343. His }) Barrett: The northern republics of South America.—XIX; 66; 789-96. The emerald mines of Colombia.—VII; 38; 839-44. Pearse, A. S.: Tropical nature in Colombia.—X XVI; 84; 290-305. Ecuapor. Ecuador.—VII; 31; 166-88. Commerce of Ecuador.—VII; 36; 92-97. Bennett, F. W.: Guayaquil and Quito railway.—V1; 35; 361-364. Ecuador.—VII; 33; 246-67. Lee, J.: Beautiful Ecuador.—X XIII; 18; 81-91. Barrett: The northern republics of South America.—XI1X; 66; 789-96. Handbook of Ecuador.—IX; Bulletin 64. Commerce of EKeuador for 1911.—VII; 38; 259-64. Moore, C. H.: Railway construction in Eeuador.—VII; 38; 170-82. GUIANA. Percival, J. B.: Resourees of Dutch Guiana.—VI1; 37; 818-26. Villers, J. A. J. de: The foundation and development of British Guiana.— XV; 38; 8-26. Heilprin, A.: An impression of the Guiana wilderness.—X XIII; 18; 373-85. Eigenmann, C. H.: Notes from a naturalist’s experiences in Guiana.— XXIII; 22; 859-70. Rodway, J.: The forest problem in British Guiana.—V1; 34; 211-16; 283-94. Furlong, C. W.: Through the heart of the Surinam Jungle—xXVI; 128: 327-39. PARAGUAY. Paraguay.—VII; 31; 294-306. Paraguay in prospect.—VII; 36; 785-802. Grubb, W. B.: An unknown people in an unknown land.—VII; 386; 532-44, Fitzhugh, E.: Paraguay and the Paraguayans.—X LI; Jan., 1913. VII; 33; 356-76. Bibliography of Paraguay.— House Document, Vol. 65, No. 145; 58th Cong. 3rd Session; Serial No. 4844. Hale, A.: Yerba Mate: Paraguayan tea.—VII; 32; 469-87. Barrett: Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.—XIX; 66; 88-96. Paraguay. 200 PERU. Howland, 8. 8.: Cuzco, the sacred city of the Jucos—XX XI; 51; 205-19. Peru.—VII; 33; 454-77. Gregory, H. E.: A geographical sketch of Titicaca, the island of the sun.— VI; 45; 561-575. Brandon, E. E.: Technical schools of Lima, Peru.—VII; 33; 942-46. The ancient ruins of Tiahuanacu.—VII; 37; 513-32. Todd, M. L.: Ancient temples and cities of the new world.—VII; 31; 967-77. Todd, M. L.: The Cordillera of Peruu—XIV; 51; 119-23. Peru.—VII; 31; 307-24. Commerce of Peru for 1911.—VII; 36; 113-122. Peixotto: Down the west coast of Lima.—XX XI; 53; 421-38. Commerce of Peru for 1912.—VII; 38; 265-273. Beasley, W.: Remarkable civilization of the ancient Incas.—X LI; Jan., 1913. Peixotto, E.: The land of the Incas.—X X XT; 53; 699-713. Guiness, G.: Descendants of the Incas.—XLI; Jan., 1913 Barrett: The western republics of South America.—XIX; 66; 515-23. Bowman, I.: Buried walls at Cuzco and its relation to the question of a pre- Inca race.—II; 184; 497-509. Bingham, H.: Prehistoric human remains, investigation of, found near Cuzco.—II; 186; 1-5. Vernier, W.: Chan-Chan, the ruined Chimu eapital.—VII; 38; 348-359. Wilson, L. L. W.: Climate and man in Peru.—VIII; 8; 79-97. Adams, H. C.: Cuzeo, America’s ancient mecca.—X XIII; 19; 669-94. Hardy, O.: Cuzco and Apurimae.—VI; 46; 500-12. Bingham, H.: In the wonder land of Peru.—X XIII; 24; 386-573; 23; 417-23. Hall, F. M.: Ancient and modern Peru.—X XXIV; Nov., 1913, p. 303. Adams, H. C.: Along the old Inea highway.—X XIII; 19; 231-50. Bailey, S.: A new Peruvian route to the plains of the Amazon.—X XIII; 17; 332-49. The new boundary between Bolivia and Peru.—V1; 42; 435-437. Post, C. J.: Across South America.—X; 83; 41-53. Markham, Sir C. R.: The land of the Incas.—XV; 36; 381-401. Urvuauay. Uruguay.—VII; 33; 167-184. Uruguay.—VII; 31; 357-72. 201 Albes, E.: The republic east of the Uruguay and its fine capital, Monti- video.—VII; 35; 1142-58. Brandon, E. E.: University instruction in Uruguay.—VII; 34; 512-19. Barrett: Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.— XIX; 66; 88-96. VENEZUELA. Venezuela.—VI1; 33; 185-202. Manning, J. A.: La Guaira, the picturesque.—VIT; 31; 642-50. Venezuela.—VII; 31; 373-89. Brandon, E. E.: Education in Venezuela.—VII1; 34; 759-66. Totten, R. J.: Lake and city of Marocailo.—VII; 34; 361-75. Austin, J. B.: Venezuela’s territorial claims.—VIII; 2; 2-20. Lyle, E. P.: Venezuela and the problems it presents.—X XXVIII; 2; 6943-54. Notes on Venezuela.—X XIII; 14; 17-21. Handbook of Venezuela.—House Doe., V. 65; 58th Cong., 3rd Session; Serial No. 4844. Furlong, C. W.: Across the Venezuela Llanos.—XVI; 128; 813-25. Barrett: The northern republics of South America.—XIX; 66; 789-96. Lafferts, W.: The cattle industry of the Llanos.—VI; 45; 180-87. CENTRAL AMERICA. Notes on Central America.—X XIII; 18; 272-80. Seffer, H. O.: Isthmus of Tehuantepee— xX XIII; 21; 991-1002. Foster, J. W.: The Latin-American constitution and revolution.—X XIII; 12; 169-176. Showalter, W. J.: Countries of the Caribbean.—X XIII; 24; 227-49. Map of Central America.—X XIII; 24; 256. Costa Rica. General sketech.—VI1; 31; 116-134. Brandon, E. E.: Education in Costa Rica.—VII; 35; 45-54. General sketech.—VII; 33; 81-99. Methods of obtaining salt in Costa Rica.—X XIII; 19; 28-35. Rittier, H.: Costa Rica, Vulean’s smithy (A treatment of volcanoes).— XXIII; 21; 494-525. 202 GUATEMALA. Tisdell, T.: Guatemala, the country of the future-—X XIII; 21; 596-624. Sands, W. F.: Prehistoric ruins of Guatemala.—X XIII; 24; 325-61. Eisen, G.: Notes during a journey in Guatemala (includes climate).—VI; 1903; 231-252. General sketch, 1910.—VII; 31; 189-202. Commerce of Guatemala.—VII; 35; 404-17. Brandon, E. E.: Education in Guatemala.—VII; 35; 535-41. General sketch, 1910.—VII; 33; 268-80. Cutter, V. M.: Ancient temples and cities of the new world.—VII; 32; 40- 55. Tisdell, E. T.: Lakes of Gautemala.—VII; 31; 651-63. HONDURAS. Commerce of Honduras for 1911.—VII; 36; 101-106. Avery, M. L.: British Honduras.—VI]; 32; 331-333. General sketch, 1910.—VII, 33; 298-315. General sketch, 1910.—VII; 31; 221-36. MacClintock, L.: Resources and industries of Honduras.—VIII; 11; 224- 39. MacClintock, L.: Honduras.—VIII; 10; 177-84. Handbook of Honduras.—House Doe. No. 145, Vol. 66; 58th Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial No. 4845. NICARAGUA. Commerce of Nicaragua.—VII; 36; 107-112. Davis, A. P.: The water supply for the Nicaragua canal.—XXIII; 11; 363-6. The Nicaragua Canal (map and discussion of proposed route),—X XIII; 12; 28-32. Davis, A. P.: Location of the boundary between Nicaragua and Costa Rica.— XXIII; 12; 22-28. Turbulent Nicaragua.—X XIII; 20; 1103-1117. General sketch, 1910.—VII; 33; 316-34. General sketch.—VII; 31; 267-78. Nicaragua commerce for 1912.—VIT; 38; 424. PANAMA. Page, J.: The sailing ship and the Panama Canal.—X XII]; 15; 167-176. Pittier, H.: Little known parts of Panama.—X XII]; 23; 627-62. Burr, W. H.: The Republic of Panama.—X XIII; 15; 57-74. Panama Canal: Its construction and its effect on commerce.—VI; 45; 241-254. Goethals, G. W.: The Panama Canal.—X XIII; 20; 334-56. Johnson, E. R.: Comparison of distances by the Isthmian Canal and other routes.—VI; 35; 163-17€. Kirkaldy, A. W.: Some of the economic effects of the Panama Canal.— XXXII; 29; 585-97. Harrison: The Panama Canal in construction. (Good pictures.)—XX XI: 54; 20-37. Vose, E. N.: How, Panama will alter trade—X XXVIII; 24; 418. General sketch, 1910.— VII; 33; 335-355. Latone, J.: The Panama Canal and Latin America.—II1; 54; 84-91. Downie, EK. M.: A visit to the Panama Canal and Cuba.—X X XIT; 30; 404- 12. Collins: Agricultural development in Panama.—VII; 37; 469-77. Lindsay, F.: The timber lands of Panama.—VII; 36; 499-510. General sketch, 1910.—VII; 31; 279-93. Hill, D. J.: Supremacy in the Panama Canal.—X XVIII; 49; 722-25. Davis, A. P.: The Isthmian Canal.—VI; 34; 132-138. Morison, G. S.: The Panama Canal.—V1I; 35; 24-43. Haeselbarth, A. C.: Culebra Island.—VI; 35; 125-130. Chester, C. M.: The Panama Canal.—X XIII; 16; 445-67. Notes on Panama and Colombia.—X XIII; 14; 458-67. Showalter, W. J.: Panama Canal.—X XIII; 23; 195-205. Hazlett, D. M.: Farming on the Isthmus of Panama.—X XIII; 17; 229-56. Weir, H. C.: The romance of Panama.—X LI]; October, 1912. Showalter, W. J.: Battling with the Panama slides— XXIII; 25; 153-53. Cornish, V.: Condition and prospects of the Panama Canal.—XV; 44; 189-203. Sibert, W. L.: The Panama Canal.—X XIII; 25; 153-183. Map of Panama Canal (‘‘Bird’s-eye view’’).—X XIII; 23; 104. Johnson, E. R.: What the canal will accomplish X X X1; 54; 37-45. 204 Balboa and the Panama celebration.—VII; 38; 477-88. Panama’s new railway.—VII; 38; 683. ; Commerce of Panama for 1912.—VII; 38; 118. Going through the Panama Canal.—X XVIII; 49; 718-21. The attitude of the United States towards an interoceanic canal. XX XIX; 9; 419. Nelson, L.: The practical side of the Panama Canal.—X X XVII; 20; 670-76. NORTH AMERICA. (Except the United States.) Dryer, C. R.: The North America of today and tomorrow and Indiana’s place in it.—Proceedings Indiana Academy of Science; 1911. Huntington, E.: The fluctuating climate of North America.—XV; 40; 264- 80; 392-94. ‘ Nansen, F.: Norsemen in America.—XV; 38; 557-80. Unstead, J. F.: The climatic limits of wheat cultivation, with special refer- ence to North America.—XV; 39; 347-366; 422-46. Maecdougal, D. T.: North American deserts.—XV; 39; 105-123. Hubbard: Influence of precious metals in America.—V1; 44; 97-112. Hahn, W. L.: The future of North American fauna.—X XVI; 83; 169-77. Penck, A.: North America and Europe: A geographic comparison.—X X XI]; 25; 337-46. Jefferson, M.: The anthropography of North America.—V1I; 45; 161-80. Trotter, S.: The Atlantic forest regions of North America: A study in influences.—X XVI; 75; 370-92. Commercial America in 1905. Showing commerce, production, transporta- tion, finances, area, and population, of each of the countries of North, South, and Central America and the West Indies.—U. 8. Bureau of Census; Bulletin 2 to 4; pages 1 to 117. Harper, R. M.: The coniferous forests of Eastern North America.—X XVI; 85; 338-61. Marvin, J.: The greater America.—X X XVIII; 28; 22-31. CANADA. Bryant, H. G.: A journey to the grand falls of Labrador.—VIII; 1; 33-80. MeFarland, R.: Beyond the heights of land.—VIII; 9; 23-33. 20d Bryant; H. G.: An exploration in S. E.—VIII; 11; 1-16. The possibilities of the Hudson Bay country.—X XIII; 18; 209-15. Wilcox, W. D.: Recent explorations in the Canadian Rockies.—X XIII; 13; 151-69; 185-200. Woleott, C. D.: The monarch of the Canadian Rockies.— X XIII; 24; 626-40. Lant: The Twentieth Century is Canada’s.—X X XVIII; 13; 8499-8517. Russell, I. C.: Geography of the Laurentian basin.—VI; 30; 226-54. Paynd, A. M.: Halifax, Nova Scotia — xX XIV; 35; 356-375. Weaver, E. P.: What Arcadia owed to New England—X XIV; 30; 423-434. Laurier, W.: The forests of Canada.—xX XIII; 17; 504-9. Forests of Canada.—X XIII; 14; 106-109. Hughes, James L.: Toronto.—X XIV; 23; 305-322. Stewart, G.: Quebee.—X XIV; 21; 33-51. Oxley, J. M.: Ottawa, the capital of Canada.—X XIV; 24; 181-200. Goode, R. U.: The northwestern boundary between the United States and Canada.—V1I; 32; 465-470. Vreeland, F. R.: Notes on the sources of the Peace River, British Columbia.— V1; 46; 1-24. Whitlock, R. H.: A geographical study of Nova Scotia.—VI; 46; 415-19. Cadell, H. M.: The new city of Prince Rupert.—X XXII; 30; 237-50. MeGrath, P. T.: Canada in 1914.—X XVIII; 49; 594-98. Smith, C. S.: What will become of Canada?—XIV; 51; 855-65. Leith, C. K.: Iron ore reserves.— X X X; 65; 162-162. Ibid.—X X XII; 1906; 207-214. Lumsden, H. D.: Canada’s new transcontinental railroad.—X X XI; 40; 75. The Canadian climate-—House Doe., Vol. III, p. 294; 58th Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial No. 4890. Map of Labrador.— XV; 37; 476. (See also 407-20.) Lant: Hudson Bay Fur Company and the raiders of 1670-97.—XVI,; 112; 768-79. Dunean, N.: The codfishes of Newfoundland.—X XXVIII; 6; 3617-3638. Twenhofel, W. H.: Physiography of Newfoundland.—I1; 183; 1-24. McGrath, P. T.: The first American colony, Newfoundland.—X XIV; 27; 617-632. Willey, D. A.: Newfoundland of today.— XXIV; 29; 762-771. Cross, A. L.: Newfoundland. XXXII; 22; 147-158. 206 Semple, E. C.: The influence of geographic environment on the Lower St. Lawrence.—V1I; 36; 449-466. Burpee, L. J.: How Canada is solving the transportation problem.—X XVI; 67; 455-464. The Hudson Bay route; a new outlet for Canadian wheat.—XX XIX; 20; 438-452. White, A. S.: Newfoundland: A study in regional geography.—X XXII; 30; 113-28. The Georgian Bay ship canal.—X X XII; 26; 25-30. Bell, R.: The Hudson Bay route to Europe.—X XXII; 26; 67-77. Parkin, Dr. G. R.: The railway development of Canada.—X XXII; 25; 225-250. Stupart: The climate of Canada.—X XXII; 14; 73-80. Wadsworth, M. E.: The mineral wealth of Canada.—X XIX; 37; 839-841. Walcote, C. D.: A geologist’s paradise.—X XIIT; 22; 509-37. Montgomery, R. H.: Our industrial invasion of Canada.—X XXVIII; 5; 2978-2998. The new administration in Canada.— XX XIX; 6; 151-168. Osborne, J. B.: Commercial relations of the United States with Canada.— III; 32; 330-340. Curwood, J. O.: Effect of American invasion. peers 10; 6607-138. Why Canada rejected reciprocity.— XX XIX; 20; 173-187. Skelton, O. and others: Canada and reciprocity. ae 19; 550; 411; 527; 513; 542; 726. Trade combinations in Canada.—XLIIT; 14; 427. Hanbury; Ds "2s: Phrough the barren ground of N. E. Canada and the Arctic coast.— XV; 22; 178-191. Grenfell, Sir T.: A land of eternal warring.—X XIII; 21; 665-690. Hubbard, M. B.: Labrador, my explorations in unknown.—XVI; 112; 813- 823. Through trackless Labrador.—X X XI]; 28; 265-268. MacFairsh, N.: East and West in Canada.—XXXVI; 179; 597-603. White, A.: The Dominion of Canada: A study in regional geography.— XXXIT; 29; 524-548; 566-80. Grant, W. L.: Geographical conditions affecting the development of Canada. —XV; 38; 362-381. Tupper: The economic development of Canada.—X XXII; 11; 1-16. 207 Bell: The geographical distribution of forest trees in Canada.—XXXII: 13; 281-295. Across the Canadian border—X XXVIII; 4; 2394-2412. Henshaw, Mrs.: A new Alpine area in British Columbia.—X XXII; 30; 128-32. Ruddick, J. H.: Dairying and fruit-growing industries in Canada.—X XI; 11; 241-245. Honeyman, H. A.: Lumbering industry of Canada.—X XI; 11; 246-250. Dresser, J. H.: Clay belt of Northern Ontario and Quebec.—XXI; 11; 250-255. Brittain: Geographical influences in the location of leading Canadian cities — XXI; 11; 256-260. Green: Canadian commerce.—X XI; 11; 260-262. Cooke, H. C.: The mineral industries of Canada.—X XI; 11; 262-265. O’Neil: Canadian railway development.—X XI; 11; 265-267. Uglow: Canadian fisheries—X XI; 11; 267-269. Allan: Resources and development of British Columbia.—X XI; 11; 269- 274. The Canadian Boundary.—X XIII; 14; 85-91. Donald, W. J. A.: The growth and distribution of Canadian population.— * XLITI; 21; 296-312. Butman, C. H.: The pinnacle of the Canadian Alps.—X XX; 78; 183-85. Longstaff, Dr. T. G.: Across the Pureell range of British Columbia.—XV; 37; 589-600. Palmer, H.: Tramp across the glaciers and snowfields of British Columbia.— XXIII; 21; 457-487. Palmer, H.: Explorations about Mt. Sir Sanford, British Columbia.—XV; 37; 170-179. Talbot, F. A.: Economie prospects of new British Columbia.—VI; 44; 167- 183. Knappen, T. M.: Winning the Canadian West.—XXXVIII; 10; 6595- 6606. Ogg, F. A.: Vast undeveloped regions.—X X XVIII; 12; 8078-8082. The colonization of Western Canada.—X X XII; 27; 196-200. Kast and West in Canada.—X X XVI; 179; 597-603. Bishop: Development of wheat production in Canada.—VI; 44; 10-16. D., W. M.: Tides in the Bay of Fundy.—X XIII; 16; 71-76. 208 Mexico. Lumholtz, C.: The Sonora Desert.—XV; 40; 503-518. Darton, N. H.: Mexico, the treasure house of the world.—X XIII; 18; 493- 519. Collins & Doyle: Notes on South Mexico.—X XIII; 22; 301-21. Map of Mexico.— X XIII; 22; 410-11. Birkinbine, J.: Our neighbor, Mexico.—X XIII; 22; 475-509. Foster: The new Mexico.—X XIII; 13; 1-24. Huntington, E.: The shifting of climatic zones as illustrated in Mexico.— VI; 45; 1-12; 107-116. Navarro: Mexico of today.— X XIII; 12; 152-157; 176-179; 235-238. Barrett, J.: A general sketch.—VII; 1911. Foster, J. W.: The new Mexico.—X XIII; 13; 1-25. Mexico: a geographical sketch, 1910.— VII; 31; 237-266. Brandon, E. E.: University education in Mexico.—VII; 36; 48-56. Mexico:—a general sketch, 1910.-—VII; 33; 119-149. Seffer, P. O.: Agriculture possibilities in tropical Mexico.— X XIII; 21; 1021-40. Thompson, E. H.: Henequen (The Yucatan Fiber) —X XIII; 14; 150-158. Rubber plantations in Mexico and Central America.—X XIII; 14; 409-14. Janvier, T. A.: A little Mexican town.—XVI; 113; 500-513. Paul, G. F.: Vera Cruz, past and present.—X XIV; 31; 722-727. Zimmerman, J.: Hewers of stone.—X XIII; 21; 1002-1020. Paul, G. F.: Ruins of Mitla, Mexico.— X XIV; 33; 73-79. Paul, G. F.: The Mexican hacienda; its place and people-—X XIV; 30; 1982=)6. Galloway, A. C.: An interesting visit to the ancient pyramids of San Juan Teotihuagan.—X XIII; 21; 1041-50. A winter expedition in Southern Mexico.—X XIII; 15; 341-356. Some Mexican transportation scenes.—X XIII; 21; 985-91. The oil treasure of Mexico.—X XIII; 19; 803-5. Lyle, If. P.: Mexico at high tide-—X XXVIII; 14; 9179-9196. Lumholtz, C.: The Huichol Indians of Mexico.— V1; 35; 79-93. Scenes in the byways of Southern Mexico.—X XII]; 25; 359-64. Lyle, E. P.: The American influence in Mexico.— XX XVIII; 6; 3843-60. Nelson, E. W.: A day’s work of a naturalist—X XXVIII; 1; 372-380. 209 Copan, the mother of the Mayas.—VII; 32; 863-879. Kirkwood, J. E.: A Mexican hacienda.—X XIII; 25; 563-584. Kirkwood, J. E.: Desert scenes in Zacatecas —X XVI; 75; 435-51. Howarth, O. H.: The Cordillera of Mexico and its inhabitants—X XXII; 16; 342-352. Unknown Mexico.—XX XII; 19; 291-297. Cadell, H. M.: Some old Mexican voleanoes.—X X XIT; 23; 281-312. The voleanoes of Mexico.— X X XI1; 23: 25-28. The greatest voleanoes of Mexico.— X XIII; 21; 741-760. Dandberg, H. O.: Ancient temples and cities of the new world: Palenque.— VII; 34; 345-360. Ayme, L. H.: Ancient temples and ruins of the new world: Mitla.—VII; 33; 548-567. Thompson, E. H.: The home of a forgotten race: Mysterious Chicken Itza, in Yucatan, Mexico.—X XIII; 25; 585-648. Palmer, F.: Mexico.—XII1; 30; 806-820. Mason, A. B.: Mexico and her people.—II1; 54; 186-190. Huntington, E.: The mystery of the Yucatan ruins —XVI; 128; 755-66. Lloyd: The story of Guayule.—VIT; 34; 177-195. Laut, A. C.: Taos, an ancinet American capitol.—Travel; February and March, 1913. Showalter, W. J.: Mexico and Mexicans. Romero, M.: Mexico.—Jr. Am. Geog. Soc.; 28; 327. Handbook of Mexico.—House Doc. No. 145, Vol. 66; 58th Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial No. 4845. Physical Geography of Mexico.—House Doe., Vol. 111, p. 765; 58th Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial No. 4890. Dunn, H. H.: How the Aztecs fought.—Illustrated World and Recreation; Jan., 1913. Huntington, E.: The peninsula of Yucatan.—VI; 44; 801-822. Colf, L. J.: The caverns and peoples of Northern Yucatan.—VI; 42; 321. Geology and topography of Mexico.—Am. Geologist; 8; 133-44. Bain: A sketch of the geology of Mexico.— X X11; 5; 384-90. Wilson: Topography of Mexico.—Jr. Am. Geog. Soc.; 29; 249-260. 5084—14 KUROPE. Geikie, Jas.: The architecture and origin of the Alps—XXXII; 27; 393- 417. Garwood, E. J.: Features of Alpine scenery due to glacial protection— XV; 36; 310-39. Geikie, J.: The Alps during the glacial period.—VI; 42; 192-205. Fischer, T.: The Mediterranean peoples.—X X XIII; 1907; 497-521. Peddie, H. J.: The development of the inland waterways of Central Europe. —XXXIT; 26; 293-298. Plant distribution in Europe and its relation to the glacial period —XX XII; 19; 302-311. Myers, J. L.: The Alpine races in Europe.—XV; 28; 537-560. Price, H. C.: How European agriculture is financed.—X XVI; 82; 252-263. European grain trade.—Bull. 69, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bureau of Statistics. Cereal production in Europe.—Bull. 68, U. S. Dept. of Ag., Bureau of Statistics. Penck, A.: The valleys and lakes of the Alps.—House Doce., Serial No. 4890. Bray, F. C.: The classic Mediterranean basin.—XI; 72; 3-12. Brooks, S.: The new Europe.—X XV; 200; 663-667. Austin, O. P.: The remarkable growth of Europe during forty years of peace.—X XIII; 26; 272-275. Statistics of populations, armies and navies of Europe.—X XIII; 26; 191- 193. War-words of Europe and their meaning.—Literary Digest; March 20, 1915. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Townley, Fullman C.: Magyar origins —X X XVI; 176; 52-60. The ancient geography of Galacia.— X X XII; 22; 205-208. Koch, F. J.: In quaint, curious Croatia.—X XIII; 19; 809-832. Richardson, Ralph: The ethnology of Austria-Hungary.— XX XII; 22; 1-9. Iddings, D. W. & A. S.: The land of contrast: Austria-Hungary.—X XIII; 23; 1188-1219. Conditions of agriculture in Bohemia.—XLIII; 8; 491. Townley, F. C.: Hungary: A land of shepherd kings.—X XIII; 26; 311-93. bo —= ba BALKANS AND TURKEY. Hogarth, D. C.: The Balkan peninsula.—XV; 41; 324-340. Moore, F.: The changing map in the Balkans.—X XIII; 24; 199-227. Moore, F.: Rumania and her ambitions —X XIII; 24; 1057-1086. Kastern Turkey in Asia and Armenia.—X X XII; 12; 225-241. Grosvenor, E. A.: Constantinople.—X LIT; 90; 673-685. Richardson, R.: New railway projects in the Balkan peninsula. XXXII; 24; 254-259. Map of Bulgaria, Servia, and Macedonia.—X XIII; August, 1914; p. 1153. Territorial changes in the Balkans.—X XI; 12; 156. Warner, A. H.: A country where going to America is an industry —X XIII; 20; 1063-1103. Damon, T. J.: Albanians.—X XIII; 23; 1090-1103. Bourchier, J. D.: The rise of Bulgaria.—X XII]; 23; 1105-1118. Villari, L.: Races and religions of Macedonia.—X XIII; 23; 1118-32. Bryce, J.: Two possible solutions for the eastern problem.—X XIIJ; 23; 1149- 1158. Notes on Rumania.—X XII]; 23; 1219-25. Notes on Macedonia.—X XIII; 19; 799-802. Servia and Montenegro. X XIII; 19; 774-90. Coffin, M. C.: When east meets west.—X XIII; 19; 309-44. Low, D. H.: Kingdom of Serbia: Her people and her history —XXXII; 31; 3038-15. McKenzie, K.: East of the Adriatic—X XIII; 23; 1159-1188. Bulgaria, the peasant state—X XIII; 19; 760-773. Hitchens, R.: Skirting the Balkan peninsula.—X; 85; 643-657; 884-898. Bosnia-Herzegovina.—X X XIT; 25; 71-84. Bray, F. C.: Before and after the Balkan war.—XI]I; 72; 163-73. Moore, F.: The changing map in the Balkans.—X XIII; 24; 199-226. Newbigin, M. I.: The Balkan peninsula: Its peoples and its problems.— XXXIT; 31; 281-303. Joerg, W. L. J.: The new boundaries of the Balkan states and their sig- nificance —VI; 45; 819-830. Dominian, L.: The Balkan peninsula—VI; 45; 576-84. Pears, Sir E.: Grass never grows where the Turkish hoof has trod—X XIII; 23; 1132-49. 212 Curtis, W. E.: The great Turk and his lost provinces—X XIII; 14; 45-61. Chester, C. M.: The young Turk.—X XIII; 23; 43-89. Dominian, L.: Geographical influences in the determination of spheres of foreign interests in Asiatic Turkey.—VIII; 12; 165-77. Bray, F. C.: Constantinople: Imagination and fact.—X1; 72; 595-606. XXIII; 26; 521-546. Dwight, H. G.: Life m Constantinople. Constantinople.—V III; 11; 45-50. Symons, A.: Constantinople: An impression.—XVI; 106; 865-870. BELGIUM. George, W. L.: Problems of modern Belgium.—XXXV1; 177; 597-606. Gregmore, H.: Antwerp, the hub of Europe.—X XIV; 35; 67-75. XXIII; 26; 223- Showalter, W. J.: Belgium, the innocent bystander. 265. Antwerp, the water side of —X X XI; 50; 257. DENMARK. Flux, A. W.: Denmark and its aged poor—XXXI1X; 7; 434-448. Wehrwein, G. S.: The message of Denmark.—X XI; 12; 58-60. Horvgaard, W.: How planting trees saved Jutland—XXXVIII; 20; 12967-69. FRANCE. Greely, A. W.: The irance of today— X XIII; 26; 193-223. Economie life of France.—XXV1; 58; 287-95. Welch, D.: Marseilles—xXVI; 121; 1-12. Lanson, G.: France of today.—X XV; 195; 456-478. Bosson, Mrs. Geo. C., Jr.: Notes on Normandy.—XXII1; 21; 775-782. Hyde, W. W.: Ascent of Mt. Blane.—X XIII; 24; 861-942. Life in French upland region. X X XI]; 28; 532-537. Housing of the working classes in France.—-X X XLX; 8; 235-254. Bracq, J. C.: The colonial expansion of France—X XIII; 11; 225-259. O’Laughlin, J. C.: Industrial life in France-—XX XVIII; 9; 5969-5972. Arnold: The population of France-—X XIX; 30; 171. Agricultural education in France.—XL; 1900; 115. Norman, Sir H.: The Alpine Road of France.—XX X1; 55; 137-59. The city of the Seine—XI; 72; 75. Gallienne, R. L.: Avignon, legendary and real—XVI; 129; 277-254, 213 GERMANY. The German nation.—X XIII; 26; 275-311. Lazenby, W. R.: Forests and forestry of Gremany.—X XVI; 83; 590-98. Muensterburg, Hugo: Germans at school.—X XVI; 79; 602-614. Clapp, E. J.: Rhine and Mississippi river terminals—XX XIX; 19; 392-7. The industrial capacity of the German.—X LIII; 13; 452. Geiser, K. F.: Forestry results in Germany.—X X XVIII; 13; 8642-50. Bernstorff, Count J. H. Von: The foundation of the German Empire.— XXXV; 3; 261-272. The story of the Bagdad railway.—Nineteenth Century Magazine; 75; 958-—_; 1312-—_. Germany’s world-war for trade——Literary Digest, July 11, 1914; p. 57. Department of Agriculture; Div. of Agricultural imports of Germany. Foreign Markets; Bulletin No. 30. Traffic policy of Germany.—X X XIX; 1; 10-34. Colonial policy of the Germans.— X X XLX; 11; 57-82. Spencer, C. E.: Waterways—X XI; 12; 1-14. Haldane, Lord: Great Britain and Germany.— XIX; 71; 1382-1386. Buxton, B. H.: A corner of old Wurttemburg.—X XIII; 22; 931-47. Campbell, J. A.: In a Prussian school— XIX; 68; 810-813. Rhone—Saone Valley.— X XI; 12; 80. Geiser, K. F.: Peasant life in the Black Forest.—X XIII; 19; 635-49. The industrial progress of Germany.—X X XIX; 14; 6-17; 134-154. Lotz, W.: The present significance of German inland waterways.—III; 31; 246-261. German school system in Germany.—House Doc., No. 243, V. 57; 58th Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial No. 4836. Rise and development of German colonial possessions.—House Doe., Vol. III; p. 823; 58th Cong., 3rd Sess.; Serial No. 4890. Howe, IF. C.: City building in Germany.—X X XI; 47; 601. Forestry in all lands.—U. S. Forest Service; Circular 140. Making rivers work.—XIII; 20; 443-53. Davis, W. M.: The Rhine gorge and the Bosphorus.—X XI; 11; 207-15. GREECE. Campbell, O. D.: From Messina to Tyndris——X XIV; 40; 413-421. Zaborowski, S.: Ancient Greece and its slave population.—X X XIII; 1912; 597-608. Young, C. H.: Peloponnesian journeys.—VI1I; 32; 151-157. Moses, G. H.: Greece and Montenegro.—X XIII; 24; 281-310. Wace, A. J. B. & Thompson, M. S.: The distribution of early civilization in Northern Greece.— XV; 37; 631-642. Hall, E.: Archaeological research in Greece.— XIX; 69; 1148-48. Richardson, R.: Athens: Notes on a recent visit— XXXII; 23; 422-427, X13 723 151-2, Chamberlayne, L. R.: A visit to Euboea. Corinth and her citizens.—XI; 72; 635. Dingelstedt, V.: The Greeks and Hellenism.—X X XII; 30; 412-27. HoLuanp. Matthes, G. H.: The dikes of Holland.— XXIII; 12; 219-235. Gore, Jas. H.: Holland as seen from a Dutch window.—X XIII; 19; 619- 634. Smith, H. M.: A north Holland cheese market.—X XIII; 21; 1051-66. Agricultural imports of Holland.—U. S. Department of Agricultural; Bureau of Statisties, Bull. 72. Griffis, Wm. E.: The heaths and hollows of Holland.—VI; 32; 308-21. IvTany. Mayer, A. E.: Gems of the Italian lakes.—X XIII; 24; 943-956; Carr, J. F.: The Italian in the United States—X XXVIII; 8; 5593-5404. Wright, C. W.: The world’s most cruel earthquake.—X XIII; 20; 373-396. Van Vorst, M.: Naples.— XVI; 121; 489-504. Symons, A.: Verona.—XVI; 108; 876-881. Cortesi, S.: The campanile of Venice-—XIX; 68; 922-927. Willis, V. B.: The roads that lead to Rome.—X1I; 71; 191-192. Scenes in Italy.—X XIII; 21; 321-33. Norway. Howe, J. L.: Notes on Norwegian industry —X XVI; 80; 36-50. Brigham, A. P.: A Norwegian landslip.—VIII; 4; 292-296. 215 Barrett, R. L.: The Sundal drainage system in central Norway.—VI; 32: 199-219. Brigham, A. P.: The fiords of Norway.—VI; 38; 337-348. A chapter on Norway.—X XIV; 22; 233-243. A new industrial nation — X XI; 12; 24-24; Sept., 1913. A comparison of Norway and Sweden.—X XIII; 16; 429-432. Jefferson, N.: Man in West Norway.—XX1; 7; 86-96. PORTUGAL. Crawfurd, Oswald: The greatness of little Portugal.—X XIII; 21; 867-894. Russia. Greely, A. W.: The land of promise.—X XIII; 23; 1078-90. Sarolea, C.: Geographical foundations of Russian politics—X XXII; 22; 194-205. Mockinder: The geographical pivot of history — XV; 23; 421-444. Hovey, E. O.: Southern Russian and the Caucasian Mountains.—VI; 36; 327-341. Grosvenor, G. H.: Young Russia: The land of unhmited possibilities.— XXIII; 26; 423-521. Hourwich, I. A.: Russia as seen in its farmers.—X XXVIII; 13; 8679-8686. Dingelstedt, V.: The riviera of Russia. —X XXII; 20; 285-306. Dingelstedt, V.: A little-known Russian people; the Setukesed on Esths of Pskov.— X X XII; 22; 490-493. Curtis, Wm. E.: The revolution in Russia.—X XIII; 18; 302-17. Grosvenor, KE. A.: Evolution of the Russian government.—X XIII; 16; 309- 333. Nansen, F.: Sea route to Siberia—XV; 43; 481-98. The black republic.—X XIII; 18; 334-43. Smith, C. E.: Russia.—X XIV; 32; 114-123. Packard, L. O.: Russia, her expansion and struggle for open ports.—X XT; 12; 33-39. Windt, H. D.: Through Siberia to Bering Strait. XVI; 105; 821-831. Korff, A.: Where women vote.—X XIII; 21; 487-494. The Russian Tibet expedition.—XV; 19; 576-98. O’Laughlin, J. C.: Industrial life in Russia —X XXVIII; 4913-18. 216 Gibbon, P.: The church’s blight on Russia.~—X XXVIII; 10; 6243-54. Markov, E.: The sea of Aral.—XV; 38; 515-519. The territory of Anadyr.—V1I; 32; 260-263. Grosvenor: Siberia.—X XIII; 12; 317-24. Hill, E. J.: A trip through Siberia.—X XIII; 13; 37-55. Smith, C. E.: Russia.—X XIII; 16; 55-63. Hourwich, I. A.: The crisis of Russian agriculture—X X XIX; 1; 411-88. Hornburg, F.: Village towns and cities of Russia. —X XI; 10; 13-15. Wright, H. O. S.: Russian village life—XX XVI; 173; 79-85. Grosvenor, Edw. A.: The growth of Russia.—X XIII; 11; 169-186. Chapin, Wm.: Glimpses of the Russian empire.—X XIII; 238; 1043-78. Greely, A. W.: Russia in recent literature —X XIII; 16; 564-8. Hsdlicka, A.: Recent explorations in Siberia.—X XIX; 37; 13-14. Siberia: A review.—XX XII; 21; 652-659. Dingelstedt, V.: The mussulman subjects of Russia.—XX XIT; 19; 4-20. Mumford, J. K.: Conquest of Asia— XX XVIII; 2; 704-719. Simpson, J. Y.: The new Siberia — XXXII; 16; 17-29. Wheat growing in Russia.—XLIII; 12; 256. Dingelstedt, V.: Cossacks and Cossackdom.—X X XII; 23; 239-261. Barnaby, C. W.: Russian absorption of Asia. —XX XVIII; 7; 4118-25. Brudno, E. S.: The emigrant Jews at home.—X XXVIII; 7; 4471-4479. Makaroff, Vice-Admiral: The yermak ice breaker.—XV; 15; 32-46. Hourwich, I. A.: Situation in Finland.—XLIII; 11; 290-99. Seott, Leroy: Russia as seen in its workingmen.—X XXVIII; 13; 8557- 8567. Whelpley, D. W.: The rise of Russia.—X1LX; 79; 407-8. Huntingdon, E.: Life in the great desert.—XIII; 20; 749-61. Mavor, J.: The economic history of Russia——X XXII; 30; 518-27. Richardson, R.: Modern Russia.—X X XII; 30; 624-31. SPAIN. Riggs, A. S.: The commerce of Spain.—X; 81; 257-270. Howells, W. D.: First days in Seville—XVI; 126; 568-581. A little-known mountain pass in the Pyrenees.—X X XI]; 22; 545-546. Clark, C. U.: Romantic Spain.—X XIII; 21; 187-215. XXXIX; 18; 6-20. Guijarro, L. G.: Spain since 1898. 217 Guijarro, L. G.: The religious question in Spain.—X X XLX; 19; 226-34. Super, C. W.: The Spaniard and his peninsulan~—X X XVI; 175; 418-434. Jones, C. L.: Madrid: Its government and municipal services.—III; 27; 120-131. Ardzrooni, L.: Commerce and industry in Spain during ancient and mediaeval times.—X LIII; 21; 4382-53. SWEDEN. Andrews, M. C.: Sweden vally ice mine and its explanation.—X XVI; 82; 280-288. : Winslow, E. D.: The Lapps of Sweden.—VI; 32; 430-431. Hiteheock, F. H.: Our trade with Seandinavia, 1890-1900.—U. 8S. Dept. of Ag.; Bull. No. 22. _ SWITZERLAND. A study of a Swiss valley.—X X XII; 22; 648-653. Newbigin, M. I.: The Swiss Valais: A study in regional geography.— XX XI]; 23; 169-192; 225-239. Murray, L.: In Valais (Switzerland).—X XIII; 21; 249-69. Avebury, Lord: The scenery of Switzerland.—X X XII; 25; 1-12. Avebury, Lord: The scenery of Switzerland.—X X XI]; 24; 617-627. Stoddard, F. W.: Winter sports in Switzerland and Tyrol.—XIX; 72; 559-63. Dingelstedt, V: The republic and canton of Geneva.—XX XII; 24; 225- 238; 281-291. The fauna of Switzerland in relation to the glacial period.—X XXII; 18; 236-243. The Swiss banking law.—XLIII; 18; 309. Henry, O. H.: The problem of sick to accident insurances in Switzerland.— XX XIX; 19; 235-54. Dingelstedt, V.: The Swiss abroad.—X X XII; 25; 126-37. Transfigured Switzerland.— XI; 72; 140. Scenes in Switzerland.—X XIII; 21; 249-69. Howe: The white coal of Switzerland.—Outlook; 94; 151-58. 218 UnitEpD KINGDOM Usher, R. G.: England: The oldest nation of Europe.—X XII]; 26; 393-423. Forbes, U. A.: The inland waterways of Great Britain.—IIT; 31; 228-245. Smith, Dr. W. G.: The origin and development of heather moorland.— XXXII; 18; 587-597. Cunningham, W.: Cambridgeshire rivers.—XV; 35; 700-705. Mill, H. R.: A fragment of the geography of England.—XV; 15; 205-27; 353-78. Moss, C. E.: Peat moors of the Pennines, their age, origin, and use.— XV; 23; 660-71. Grierson, R.: Ireland before the Union.—X X XVI; 179; 666-75. Crawford, O. G. S.: The distribution of early bronze age settlements in Britain.— XV; 40; 184-203. Shippard, T.: Changes on the east coast of England within the historical period.— XV; 34; 500-514. : Whelpley, J. D.: Commercial strength of Great Britain —X; 82; 159-174. Yeats, J. S.: Ireland to be saved by intelleet.—XIX; 72; 191-94. Knowles, Harry: Bristol and the land of Pokanoket.—X XIV; 35; 609-628. Bridgman, S. E.: Northampton.—X XIV; 21; 581-604. Holden, S. C.: Old Boston in England.—X XIV; 21; 387-406. Watt: Chmate of British Isles —XX XII; 24; 169-187. MacManus, S.: A new Ireland.—XX XVIII; 8; 5279-5286. Johnson, C.: Life on the Irish boglands.—X XIV; 24; 259-268. Mill, H. R.: England and Wales viewed geographically.— XV; 24; 621-36. Mead, E. D.: The expansion of England.—X XIII; 11; 249-264. Johnson, E. R.: A study of London.—VIII; 5; 15-29. The unrest of English farmers.—X X XIX; 2; 54-63. The tower of London.—XI; 72; 43. Lennie, A. B.: Geographical description of the county of Sutherland.— XXXII; 27; 18-34; 128-142; 188-196. Peddie, H. J.: The development of the inland waterways of the United Kingdom.—X X XIT; 26; 544-548. Wallace, B. C.: Nottinghamshire in the 19th Century.—XV;; 43; 34-61. McFarlane, J.: The port of Manchester: The influence of a great eanal.— XV; 32; 496-503. Allen, W. H.: Rural sanitation in England.—X X XIX; 8; 483-19. 219 Parritt, E.: The Manchester ship vanal.—X X XIX; 3; 295-310. Meyer, H. R.: Municipal ownership in Great Britain-—XLIII; 13; 481: 14; 257. Howells, W. D.: Kentish neighborhoods including Canterbury.—XVI; 113; 550-63. Cossar, J.: Notes on the geography of the Edinburg district —X X XII; 27; 574-600; 643-654. Richardson, R.: The port of London: A French review.—X XXII; 20; 196-202. Brooks, S.: London and New York.—XVI; 104; 295-303. A history of Scotland.—X X XII; 16; 657-661. M. Paul Private-Deschmel: The influence of geography on the distribution of population of Scotland.—X X XII; 18; 577-587. Geikie, A.: The history of the geography of Scotland—X X XI1; 22; 117-34. Saunders, L. J.: A geographical deseription of Fife, Kinross, and Clack- mannon.—X X XII; 29; 67-87; 133-48. Kermack, W. R.: The making of Scotland: An essay in historical geog- raphy.— X XXII; 28; 295-306. Edinburg.—XJI; 71; 217. Kermack, W. R.: A geographical factor in Scottish independence.—X X XII; 28; 31-35. Cossar, J.: The distribution of the towns and villages of Scotland.—X X XII; 26; 183-192; 298-318. Steven, T. M.: A geographical description of the county of Ayr.—XX XII; 28; 393-414. Tarr, R.S.: Glacial erosion in the Scottish highland.—X X XI]; 24; 575-588. Cadill, H. M.: The industrial development of the Forth Valley.—X XXII; 20; 66-85. Botanical survey in Yorkshire.—X X XII; 19; 417-422. Murray, Sir John: A bathymetrical survey of the lochs of Scotland.— _ XV; 15; 309-53. Scotland and her educational institutions.—X X XVI; 178; 573-582; 667-676. Chisholm, G. G.: Density of population, Scotland, 1911.—X XXII; 27; 466- 470. Chisholm, G. G.: The development of the industrial Edinburgh and the Edinburgh district.—X X XII; 30; 312-21. 220 Hinxman, L. W.: The rivers of Scotland: The Beanly and Conon.—XX XII; 23; 192-202: Richardson, R.: The physiography of Edinburgh.—X XXII; 18; 337-358. Mort, F.: The southern highlands from Gourock.—X XXII; 22; 435-438. Frew, J.. and T. Mort: The southern highlands from Dungoyn.—X XXII]; 22; 322-24. Bathymetrical survey of the fresh water lochs of Scotland.—XXXII; 22; 355-65; 407-423; 459-473. Hardy, M.: Botanical survey of Scotland —X XXII; 22; 229-241. Frew, J., and Mort, F.: The southern highlands from Glasgow.—X XXII; 23; 367-372. Bathymetrical survey of the fresh water lochs of Scotland.—XXXII; 23; 346-360. Gregory, J. W.: The Loch Morar basin and the tectonic associations of the Scottish sea lochs —X X XIT; 30; 251-59. Murray, Sir J.: Bathymetrical survey of the fresh water lochs in Scotland.— XXXII; 19; 449-480; 21; 20; 1-47; 169-96; 235; 247; 449-460; 628-640. History of the highlands.—X XXII; 17; 40-43. Niven, W. N.: On the distribution of certain forest trees in Scotland, as shown by the investigation of post glacial deposits —X XXII; 18; 24-30. Geddes, P.: Edinburgh and its region, geographic and historical—X XXII; 18; 302-312. Fortune, E. C.: A royal Scottish burgh.—XVI; 121; 661-669. Smith, W. G.: Botanical survey of Seotland—XXXII; 21; 4-24; 57-84: 117-126; 20; 617-628. Richardson, R.: Scottish place-names and Scottish saints —XXXII; 21; 352-361. Richardson, R.: The influence of the nautral features and Geology of Scot- land on the Scottish people.—X XXII; 24; 449-464. Ewing, C. M.: A geographical description of East Lothian.—X XXII; 29; Do-on. ASIA. The uttermost East.— XX XII; 20; 247-253. Davis, W. M.: A summer in Turkestan.—VI; 36; 217-228. Warner, L.: Narrative of a perilous journey over the Kara Kum sands of Asia.—X; 73; 1-18. Capenny, S. H. F.: An Indo-European highway.—X X XI1; 16; 523-534. Rickmers, W. R.: Bokhara, Asia.—X X XII; 16; 357-368. McGee, W. J.: Asia, the cradle of humanity.— X XIII; 12; 281-91. Neve, A.: The ranges of the Karakoram.— XV; 36; 571-577. Stein, M. A.: Explorations in Central Asia.—XV; 34; 5-36; 242-271. Bruee, C. D.: A journey across Asia from Leh to Peking.—XV; 29; 597-626. Kropotkin, P.: Geology and botany of Asia.—X XVI; 65; 68-73. Huntingdon, K.: Beyond the Dead Sea.—XVI; 120; 419-430. Huntingdon, E.: Life in the great desert of Central Asia.—X XIII; 20; 749-61. Deasy, H. H. P.: Journeys in Central Asia.—XV; 16; 141-64; 501-27. Stiffe, A. W.: Ancient trading centers of the Persian Gulf.—XV; 16; 211-15. Kozloff, P. K.: Through Eastern Tibet and Kam.—XV; 31; 402-15; 522-34. Hedin, S.: Three years’ exploration in Central Asia.—XV; 21; 221-260. Crosby, O. T.: From Tiflis to Tibet.—VI; 37; 703-716. Forrest, G.: The land of the crossbow.—X XIII; 21; 132-57. Williams, T.: The link relations of South-Western Asia.—X XIII; 12; 249- 66; 291-300. Huntington, E.: Mediaeval tales of the Lop Basin in Central Asia.— XXIII; 19; 289-295. Brown, A. J.: Economic changes in Asia.—X; 67; 732-737. Austin, O. P.: Commercial prize of the Orient.—X XIII; 16; 400-423. Huntington, E.: The valley of the Upper Euphrates River and its people.— VI; 34; 301-10; 384-93. Binstead, J. C.: Some topographical notes on a journey through Barga and North-East Mongolia.—XV; 44; 571-77. Huntington, E.: Problems in exploration—Central Asia.— XV; Be B= eet Laas Richardson, R.: The expedition to Lhasa.—XXXI; 21; 246-249. Chuan, L. H.: Notes on Lhasa, the mecca of the Buddhist faith. X XIII; 23; 959-66. ; Geddes: Three years’ exploration in Central Asia. —X X XII; 19; 113-141. Dominian, L.: The origin of the Himalaya mountains.—VI; 44; 844-6. Bryan, J. J.: The paramount problem of the East.—XIV; 51; 535-41. Bray, F. C.: Islam: Races and religion.— XI; 72; 83-92. Sherwood, E.: Asia awake and arising.—X X XVIII; 28; 401-13. 222 Workman, F. B.: The exploration of the Siachem, or Rose Glacier, Eastern Karakoram.—XV; 43; 117-48. Ward, F. K.: Wanderings of a naturalist in Tibet and Western China.— XXXII; 29; 341-350. ARABIA. Forder, A.: Arabia, the desert of the sea.—X XIII; 1039-63. A new map of Arabia.—VI; 42; 362. Zwemer, S. M.: Oman and eastern Arabia.—VI1; 39; 597-607. Leachaman, G. E.: A journey in Northeastern Arabia.—XV; 37; 265-274. Leachaman, G. E.: n, since the simultaneous exponent and coérdinate ar, is zero. By applying art. 5 to the coefficients of (ap)n, we have, (b) (ap)n = pi (ap) (n—-1) +..+pn—i(ap)1 +n? where, if r>m, p; =O. The last term aypy, which cannot exist if n >m, is determined by the fact that it is given by the coédrdinate a, = 1, and the other coordinates, zero. 11. The difference equation 10(b) has no solution except the gamma series, since all values of (ap)n are determined from it by taking n= 1, 2,3, -, successively. It is an equation of permanent form only for 7 >m, when it is the general linear difference equation of n’th order with constant coefficients Pi, Px, , whose general solution with m arbitarty constants is therefore found in the form of a gamma series. The equation whose roots determine its solution (in the ordinary theory of linear difference equations) is, (a). 2? = pa” } nr ocelen +--+pm Symmetric functions Fn of the roots of this equation will also satisfy the difference equation and can therefore be expresssed as gamma series by certain values of the parameters. Since the roots of (a) are constants, the parameters will in general be certain functions of the roots, but we propose here to determine the sym- metric functions that may be expressed by gamma series with parameters independent of the roots: and find two sets of such functions m in each set, 2/1 which can be linearly expressed in terms of each other, and either of these sets suffice to express in linear form all of the symmetric functions sought. 12. The parameter an of (ap)n, n = 1, 2, ', m, is the coefficient of pn. Thus to determine the possible parameters of a given symmetric function, Fn, we must take a, as the value of F'n for the roots of the equation x =1, this being what 11 (a) becomes when we put py, =1, and other p’s equal to zero. It remains to test the resulting equations, Fl =a)pi, F2=piF1+ap2, F3 =p, F2+p2F 1 +aszps, ete. 13. The sum of the wth powers, Sy. By art. 12, we find a, = n, for the function s,, and the difference equations are Newton’s equations. Hence Sy = =(la “Nay) prt qt ona: +Non =n This is Waring’s formula for sy. 14. The homogeneous products, ry. Here, an=1, giving the correct difference equations, T= Pi, T= pit + po, 73 = pit. + pom + ps, ete. Hence, ty = (1p)n, i. e. the coefficient of a term is the multinomial co- efficient of its exponents. Since the equations are symmetrical in 7, — p, we have also, pn = —(1[—7])n. These formulas seem to be new, as also those which follow. 15. The homogeneous products, k at a time, wnk. Here a, is a binomial coefficient of the n’th power, whose value is zero for nm, the number of functions in each set is m. The solution of these equations for the second set in terms of the first is found by interchanging corresponding functions, pkrn —k and rnk. Rose Ponytrecunic Instirutre. SoME RELATIONS OF PLANE AND SPHERIC GEOMETRY. Davin A. Rorurock. Our notions of plane analytic geometry date to the publication by Descartes of his philosophical work: ‘‘Discours de la méthode . . . dans les sciences,” 1637, which contained an appendix on ‘“‘La Geometrie.”’ In this work Des- cartes devised a method of expressing a plane locus by means of a relation between the distances of any point of the locus from two fixed lines. This discovery of Descartes led to the analytic geometry of the plane, and the extension to three dimensional space gave rise to geometry of space figures by the analytic method. =; 5S = = r r r r Eyuation (1) becomes 281 a) (y) tan? — \ tan? = \ r J | a| ioe b| ae tan24— > tan?4— } Expand the tangents into infinite series according to the law Z3 Die 17 Z “7” exponent of Z, tan Z = Z+— + —— + — + 3 15 BN) and we find = xe | 2 (y y3 * (Se al ‘Ease ese. t Lr or? } lr 3) ie p= ile a ai | 2 (b bs : sae te Pe se aU r oue J r eres Dividing r? from each fraction, and passing to the limit r — ~%, and we have the equation of an ellipse in the plane, Any equation in the “rectangular spheric” codrdinates will reduce, in the limit when the sphere is made to increase infinitely, to the equation of a corresponding locus in the plane. 283 Some Nores ON THE MECHANISM OF LIGHT AND Hk&at RADIATIONS. JAMES EH. WEYANT. In all the realm of the natural sciences there has been no more fascinating and elusive problem than that relating to the mechanism involved in the transmission of light and heat. How energy may be transmitted at a dis- tance; what action is involved at its source; what properties matter may possess that this may proceed over vast spaces; what atomic and molecular changes are involved in the emission and absorption of light and radiant heat, are all questions involving the ultimate structure of matter and are as yet incapable of complete solution. Some of the familiar types of wave motion we observe in nature; for instance, wave motion in water; the transmission of sound waves through air, water and various solids are of such a character as to be easily repro- duced under conditions whereby they can be accurately measured, their origin determined and their mode of propagation analyzed. In case of vibratory motion in matter capable of affecting the auditory nerve or in other words of producing sound, the mechanism is comparatively simple. As to source we have a material body, executing some form of simple har- monic motion; these vibrations being ‘“‘handed on” to adjacent particles in a periodic disturbance or wave. This propagation stops, however, when the limit of matter has been reached, i. e., sound waves cannot traverse a vacuum. In all this process, matter has been concerned, both in the origin and the propagation of the wave motion. In light and heat waves, matter is concerned, also both in its production and absorption; but in its propaga- tion they do not appear to depend in any way upon the presence of matter, as they pass readily through the best vacua and traverse the vast inter- stellar spaces with apparently the greatest ease. Since we find that all radiations of light and heat energy originate in mat- ter we must find the mechanism necessary for their production intimately involved in the constitution of matter itself. The kinetic theory served to give an incomplete mental picture of this mechanism and upon it was based many of the hypotheses of the past. Various electrical and optical phenomena have been explained upon the ground of ether disturbances. These disturbances have been inter- 284 preted in different ways, but the consensus of opinion is to assign them to one of two kinds: first, magnetic and electro-static phenomena caused by strains in the ether and, second, based upon a dynamic disturbance; dis- turbances which can be propagated through the ether at the rate of three times ten to the tenth em. per sec. (3 10" em.) These ether waves pro- ceeding radially from the source carrying with them, not matter, in its old sense, but energy. It is an established fact that all bodies emit radiant energy in some degree; the intensity of this radiation being dependent upon the character of the body, its surface peculiarities and upon its temperature. Kirchoft gave us a law which states a relation between the emissive and absorptive power of bodies, “‘that the ratio between the absorptive power and the emissive power is the same for all bodies at the same temperature and that the value of this ratio depends only on the temperature and the wave length.” For a “black body” this ratio is considered unity in as much as it absorbs all the radiant energy which falls upon it. While we know of no substance which may be considered a ‘“‘black body”’ in this sense, the radiations within a uniformly heated enclosure may be considered to approximate those ema- nating from a perfectly “black body.” Stefan’s law takes us a step further and gives us a relative measure of the radiation of a black body emitted at different temperature. The law states that ‘“‘the total energy radiated by a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the radiating body,” vy [els ® Xo l.e. EH = CT4 or — = 4 4 whence = —or OA = constant. Vo [@o) (SY Observation shows that the color of a ‘“‘black body” is a funetion of its temperature; for instance at 530° C. it glows with a dull red; at 1000° C. the red gives place to a yellow and when 1200° C. to 1250° C. has been reached it has grown white hot or incandescent. In the spectrum of a black body we find the distribution of energy to be dependent upon its temperature. Wien has shown ‘‘that as the temperature of the body rises that the peak of the energy curve is displaced towards the shorter wave length.’’? While Wien’s law and his proposed revision stated in his second law satisfied the conditions obtaining in a limited area of the visible spectrum it was found not to hold true with respect to facts relating to wave lengths lying in the region beyond the visible red. To satisfy these conditions Professor Max Planck proposed a modification as follows: Gere Sone af C and © are constant. i o where ¢ base of natural log. ¢O@rA-1 As far as recent determinations have been carried out, this law holds true and gives practically a complete energy curve of a black body for desired temperatures. Not only did the statement of this law serve to reconcile purely theoretical conclusions with experimental determinations but paved the way for a more advanced step toward the explanation of the mechanism involved in radiation. It is evident that we have yet to establish the connecting link between the thermal condition of a body and the radiant energy sent out into space by that body. If we go back to the theory developed by Maxwell we can easily see how this energy is propagated when once started in the ether. This theory clearly accounts for its speed, for interference and diffraction phenomena, but it apparently fails to closely associate thermal condition and the subsequent radiant energy. Planck found that this formula did not satisfactorily represent the relation existing between the frequency and the amount of energy involved, i. e. why, as a body grows hotter, does its color change from dull red to yellow and then white, unless there was some definite mathematical relation existing between the frequency and amount of energy given out by each vibratory particle. In an endeavor to determine this relation, Planck was led to advance the Quantum theory or hypothesis wherein he develops a type of function which apparently agrees with the facts better than any theories previously held. In doing this he has made a unique assumption, leaving the idea of the equi--partition of energy so necessary to the former theories, he has put forth the idea of the distribution of energy among the molecules of a substance through a mathematical consideration of probability. It is interesting to note in this connection that Planck states that the reason why no absolute proof of the second law of thermo-dynamies has ever been given is that it rests not on unchangeable mathematical relations, but upon mere probability or chance. Following out this idea he assumes that there may not be a steady, uniform flow of energy from a heated body, but that this may be propelled outward in quantities which 286 are integral multiples of some fundamental unit of energy. This implies that energy is emitted from a body in some definite, finite unit and is closely related to his idea that the entropy of a body is a function of the probability of its present state. Conceiving the emission of radiant energy as explosive in type and not continuous, Planck concludes that these energy units may not be neces- sarily of the same magnitude. When a system is vibrating with high fre- queney, a large amount or large unit of energy is associated with it, whereas one of low frequency gives out smaller quantities or units of energy, thus giving us an explanation why so little energy is found in one end of the spec- trum. The fact that some bodies have low thermal capacities at low tem- peratures and that these increase with rise in temperature is Indicative of the value of this theory. In this connection it is interesting to note that an explanation of the hydrogen lines in the spectrum has been proposed, based on the idea that no radiations take place except when one electron vibrating changes the form of its orbit, at which instant the energy change of the system is the same. Take the case of the line spectra; it has been asserted that the lines in the spectrum of hydrogen are due to various electronic vibration frequencies in the hydrogen atom, when the equilibrium of this atom has been disturbed; but when this electron is vibrating about the so-called positive core of the atom that we have an entire system in equilibrium. As long as these vibrations are regular no energy can be sent forth, inasmuch as by this, the equilibrium of the system would be disturbed. With this disturbance there would be a change in its vibration frequency and assuming the radiation emission to be continuous it follows that the frequency change will likewise be continuous; but this at once results in the destruction of the lines in the spectrum. An ingenious explanation of these hydrogen lines has been proposed based on Planck’s Quantum theory. The electron is conceived of as vibrating about the central core in some form of a stable orbit, probably ellipical in shape. At the instant that one of these orbits changes form radiation will take place. At this instant the radiation will be of one frequeney and the energy change will be represented by EK =hn where n is frequency of vibrations and h is the universal constant of ‘ radiation and is termed by Planck the “‘operating quantity.” The problem is a very complex one and has been approached from many angles. The Zeeman effect produced when a light and heat center is placed in a magnetic field offers additional evidence relative to the shifting of line 287 spectra. It was found that the line spectra was materially changed when the center in question was placed in a strong magnetic field. Later this was shown to be related to the vibration of a negative charge of small magnitude, giving additional confirmation of the electron theory of radiation. We know that when a particle or particles of matter execute some form of simple harmonic motion with sufficient frequency that a note of definite pitch is produced. Why can not we carry the sound analogy over into the realm of electronic motion and conceive of one of these electrons executing some form of simple harmonic motion with, of course, some definite period, its frequency bearing some definite relation to its temperature, as proposed by Planck. If the sound analogy referred to applies to combined waves of varying frequency and wave length so as to produce ‘“‘spectral harmonics” to coin such a phrase, the center producing them must of necessity be very complex. Take for instance the fluorescent effects noted when the vapors of certain metals is examined; or the luminosity of a gas when a small portion of its molecular aggregate has been ionized. It has been found that when 1 mike : 10,000,000 part of the molecules of a gas has been ionized that it becomes luminous. Likewise it has been observed that dissociation of some of the halogen group is accompanied by changes in its absorption spectrum. Many experiments also show that fluorescence and likewise phosphorescence are due to or accompanied by dissociation or ionization. Considerable light has been shed upon this problem by the study of the emission of heat by radioactive substances. Curie and Laborde found in 1903 that the temperature of a radium compound was maintained by itself several degrees higher than its surroundings. It was found that radium emitted heat at a rate sufficient to more than melt its own weight of ice per hour. According to Rutherford the emission of heat from radioactive substances is a measure of energy of the radiation expelled from the active matter which are absorbed by itself and the surrounding envelope. This heating effect was supposed to be a measure of the kinetic energy of the expelled a@ particles; the heating effect was calculated by determining the kinetic energy of the a particles expelled from one gram of radium per second. K.E. = } mn 2V2m = mass of particle. I n no. emitted by each group per second. vy = the velocity of the different group of particles 288 considering the energy of the recoil as equal and opposite that of the a particle, the energy of recoil of mass M is 3 uM MY?, therefore total : n a2 energy is 3 mn[{l + at! >V2 + E where E is the energy of the 6 and ) rays absorbed under these conditions. 1.38 x 10° ergs per second corresponds to heat emission of 118 grams calories per hour. Heating effect of emanations 94.5 calories per hour. Observed values 94 calories per hour; caleulated 94.5 calories per hour. Rutherford and Robertson made an experimental determination to see how accurately this theoretical value harmonized with the experimental value and found a very close correspondence between the two values. This agreement led Rutherford to say that “there thus appears to be no doubt that the heat emissions of radium can be accounted for by taking into consideration the energy of the radiations absorbed.’ (The heat emitted is 2.44 x 10° calories per gram). ; He gives an interesting comparison as to the amount of energy set free in the action accompanying the expulsion of the rays, as follows: “‘the heat emitted during the combination of 1 ec. of H and O to form H,0O is about 2 gram calories; the emanation during its successive transformations thus gives out more than ten million times as much energy as the com- bination of an equal volume of H and O to form water although the latter reaction is accompanied by a larger release of energy than that of any other known to chemistry.” Further, ‘“‘the energy emitted by radioactive substances is manifest during the transformation of the atom and is derived from the initial energy of the atoms themselves. The enormous quantity of energy released during the transformation of active matter shows unmistakeably that the atoms them- selves must contain a great store of internal energy; ‘“‘undoubtedly this is true of all but it is only perceived in the case of those which undergo atomic transformation.” Experiments conducted within the past three years at Munich in determ- ining the interference effects produced by the passage of X-rays through crystalline substances have shown that X-rays possess many of the properties 289 of light waves except in regard to their wave length, these being approximately 1/10000 the length of ultra-violet waves; these and the foregoing phenomena accompanying the ionization and dissociation of various gases; the disinte- gration of radioactive substances have given the champions of the undu- latory theory of light some reason for alarm; the phenomena of interference was formerly considered as explainable only in the hight of the wave theory, but the behavior of the X-rays when examined for interference effects in crystals seems to pave the way for a revision of this. Not only can the wave lengths of X-rays be measured by the method suggested but the atomie structure of the crystal itself is revealed and the motion of the atoms outlined. The imporatnee of this discovery in relation to thermal effects and heat emissions accompanying chemical reactions and rearrangements ean hardly be overestimated. As to the seriousness of the attempts to get at the ultimate constitution of light and heat centers and thereby gain a clearer knowledge of the mechanism of radiation, we have but to note the trend of thought as pre- sented in recent papers read before the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science. At the recent Birmingham meeting of this association, a vigorous discussion arose as to the fundamentals involved in this ques- tion of radiation. At the meeting, J. H. Jeans, F. R. S., gave a very interest- ing and comprehensive summary of the facts relating to this fruitful topie; while he sets forth the new idea involved he retain. faith in the truth of Maxwell’s equations, but suggests that these equations can be made of more general application by the addition of the expression representing the unit quantities employed by Planck in his development. These quan- tities being respectively E and h. The magnitude of H has been determined to be 6.415 x 10 —% gm. em./sec., an exceedingly small quantity. We might quote from Einstein in support of the quantum theory: he approached the problem from the standpoint of the theory of relativity. It may be necessary to revise our ideas of an all-pervading ether so essential to the working of the undulatory theory. We are just beginning to realize that we may have arrived at a point in our knowledge of light and heat centers where the wave theory fails to carry us any farther and that whereas it serves us well in explaining difficulties of elementary problems it does not carry us to an ultimate solution. We may conelude that as there are unmis- takeable evidences derived from different sources that the undulatory theory fails to give satisfactory solution to many of the newer problems that have 5084—19 290 arisen. The additions which it must receive are in the region of photo- magnetic or photo-electric manifestations as evidenced by the Zeeman effect and the connection existing between ionization and light centers. Perhaps some investigator in the field of electro-magnetic oscillations will be able some day to devise an oscillator of such frequency that not only will he be able to produce radiant heat but run the gamut of a photo- chromatic scale not of sounds and their overtones and harmonies but create for us the gorgeous colors of a sunrise or a sunset; or perhaps there may arise a counterpart of modern orchestral music executed not in a coneord of harmonious sounds but of color, with shades and tints more marvelously beautiful than any the human mind has yet conceived. 291 A STANDARD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES. C. Francis Harpinac. Modern developments in the generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity at high voltages have greatly outstripped the accurate measurement of such voltages. Those familiar with the very accurate stand- ards and measurements of voltage, current and power at low potentials may be surprised to learn that the recognized standard for the determination of high voltages is the needle or sphere spark gap. In other words the voltage if measured simply by the distance that it will cause a spark to Jump in air between needle points or spheres under specified conditions. It is hardly necessary to point out that such a standard is readily affected by temperature, humidity and barometric changes, not to mention the presence of other conductors which may be in the immediate vicinity. It is therefore not readily reproducible and it is most difficult to make the two standards agree at 50 kilovolts at which voltage both should be accurate. With these facts in mind, an attempt is being made in the electrical laboratories of Purdue University to develop a more satisfactory standard for the measurement of high voltages which is based upon the fundamental principles of the electrostatic field. Although many forms of electrostatic voltmeters have been developed in the past, in the endeavor to commercialize them and make them compact, the very uniform field upon which their accuracy depends has been sacrificed. No attempt has been made to make the standard voltmeter described herein portable or a thing of beauty, for it is believed that such qualities are quite subordinate im the consideration of a primary standard. If a perfectly uniform electrostatic field is produced between two parallel metal plates it can be readily shown that the force action between such plates expressed in dynes is AK?K a Srt? where A = area of plate in square centimeters E = potential expressed in electrostatic units Kk = dielectric constant (unity for air) t = distance between plates in centimeters. 292 The following relation exists, therefore, between the electro-motive force applied to the plates expressed in volts and the force in grams exerted between the plates. /P Bie 4209S ta VY A If the plates are made of very great area, it may be assumed that the electrostatic field at their center is uniform provided that the plates are not far apart. In the apparatus constructed at Purdue University a cireular dise of very small area was cut from the center of the lower horizontal plate and this dise was mounted upon a float supported in a tank filled with oil in such a manner that its surface is horizontal and concentric with the stationary plate but with its plane a small fraction of an inch below that of the stationary plate. When an electromotive force is impressed upon the two stationary plates the movable dise is attracted by the upper plate and may be lifted into the plane of the lower plate by raising the voltage to the proper value. This condition can be readily detected by means of a telescope sighted along the surface of the lower stationary plate. With the plates very near together, and a voltage sufficiently low to be readily standardized, the force necessary to raise the disc may be calculated from the above equation. If now an unknown high voltage be impressed upon the plates which have in the meantime been sufficiently separated to bring again the disc into alignment with the lower plate, the force will of course be the same as before and the new voltage may be determined by the relation tlE E! = — the voltages being directly proportional to the distances between t plates. Such a voltmeter has been constructed and the ratio of impressed voltages to distance between plates required for a balance has been found to follow surprisingly close to a straight-line law when a previously determined and constant value of force is used. Further studies are now being made to determine the range within which this apparatus may be considered standard for given dimensions of plates and further refinements are being made in its construction, method of reading, and calibration. 293 The writer is under obligation to Professor C. M. Smith for many helpful suggestions and to Messrs. Wright and Holman of the 1915 class in electrical engineering at Purdue University for the working out of details of construction and test. design, IONISATION STANDARDS. Epwin Morrison. It is very important under certain conditions in radioactive measure- ments to have an ionisation standard. (See Rutherford’s Radioactive Sub- stances and their Transformation, page 111, article 49.) It is also interesting and profitable for students to study the ionising effects of different thicknesses of radioactive substances. (See McClung’s Conduction of ElectricityThrough Gases and Radioactive, page 131, article 86. Makower and Giger’s Prac- tical Measurements in Radioactivity, page 42, article 30, and Millikan and Milles’ Electricity, Sound and Light, page 350, experiment 28.) McCoy describes a method of making an ionisation standard in the Phil. Mag. May. XI page 176, 1906, and such a standard as determined by Geiger and Rutherford was found to emit 2.37x10? a particles per second per one gram of uranium oxide. (See Geiger and Rutherford, Phil. Mag. May. XX page 391, 1910.) The following is a very convenient modification of MeCoy’s process ol making such an ionisation standard and a method of preparation of material for student work. A brass rod 36 centimeters in length has a series of shelves inate ale arranged spirally about it from bottom to top as shown in Fig. 1. These shelves are about four centimeters apart, and are designed to support small brass disks. The brass disks should each be accurately weighed and arranged in order upon the spiral shelves. Uranium oxide is carefully powdered in a 296 morter and then thoroughly mixed with alcohol in a tall graduate or glass cylinder. The rod supporting the brass disks is next carefully lowered into the mixture of alcohol and uranium oxide. The uranium oxide settles to the bottom, and in doing so deposits a layer upon each disk, the thickness and amount of deposit depending upon the height of the shelf from the bottom. Fig. | After all the oxide has settled to the bottom the rod is removed and the disks allowed to dry. By again weighing the disks the weight of the oxide upon each one can be determined. Also by determining the density of the uranium oxide the thickness of the films can be calculated. These disks can now be mounted upon metal plates for permanent use as ionisation standards, or for student use in determining the fact that ionisation currents depend upon the thickness of the layer of material up to a certain maximum thickness. A SIMPLE PHOTOGRAPHIC SPECTROMETER. Epwin Morrison. Photographic spectrometers of several different types can be purchased from instrument makers. Attachments to convert ordinary prism spectro- meters into photographic spectrometers can also be found upon the market. It is the purpose of this article to describe a method of constructing a simple photographic attachment for a prism spectrometer that can be constructed at slight expense in any well equipped laboratory. Figure one shows a diagram of the camera attachment. The dimensions have to do with the one I have constructed, and would need to be modified to meet the conditions of available material. That is, the length and diam- gees ae eter of the camera tube is determined by the focal length and diameter of the objective lense used. The figure is largely self explanatory. The section of the tube from C to B is constructed from a piece of wood 3x8x7 inches. A hole is bored lengthwise through this piece. From C to E this hole is 2 inches in diameter, and in order to shut out the stray light from around the focusing tube the remainder of the distance from E to B is 134 inches. A brass tube T, 2 inches in diameter is carefully fitted into the hole in this piece so that it can be slipped freely inward or outward for focusing purposes. At the outer end of this tube a 1%4-inch, 28 inches focal length, achromatic lense L is mounted. The tube from B to A is a tapering box, 2! inches square at B and 4 inches square at A. This section is constructed from 3s-inch lumber, the joints being carefully glued and reénforced by screws to make the box: 298 light tight. At A an attachment is arranged to hold a ground glass for focus- ing purposes, and a common camera plate holder for making the exposures. The camera tube is mounted on a common prism spectrometer in place of the telescope as shown in Fig 2. The collimator slit, prism, and light source to be studied are adjusted in the usual way. When all adjustments, together | Fig. 2. with focusing the objective lense of the camera, have been made, a clearly defined spectrum image, including the Fraunhofer lines, may be seen upon the eround glass. In the usual procedure a plate holder containing an unexposed plate may be substituted for the ground glass and the exposure made. The instrument constructed in our laboratory has proven to be very successful for student work. 299 On THE RELATIVE VELOCITIES OF SOUND WAVES OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES. Artruur L. Foury, Head of the Department of Physics, Indiana University, Publication No. 42. It appears that the first determination of the velocity of sound that can lay claim to any accuracy was made by Cassini, Maraldi, and LaCaille, of the Paris Academy, in 1738. By noting the time interval between seeing the flash of a cannon and hearing the report, with different distances between gun and experimenter, they arrived at the conclusion that the velocity of sound is independent of the intensity. This conclusion seems to have been accepted for more than a century. In 1864 Regnault determined the velocity of sound by firing guns reciprocally and using an electrical device for recording the instant of firing the gun and the arrival of the sound vave at the distant sta- tion. He found a small difference, about six parts in three thousand, in the velocities measured when the stations were 1,280 meters apart and when they were 2,445 meters apart, the former being the greater. The difference he attributed to the fact that the average intensity of the sound when the sta- tions were nearest was much greater than when farthest apart, thus reach- ing the conclusion that the velocity of sound is a function of its intensity. Regnault’s conclusion accords with theory and with experimental results obtained by several later experimenters. Among these may be named Jacques at Watertown, Mass., 1879, who obtained velocities of 1,076 feet per second, and 1,267 feet per second, at points 20 feet and 80 feet respectively to the rear of a cannon fired with a charge of one and one-half pounds of powder. Wolfe and others have found varying velocities for explosion waves, a wave from an electric spark being of this nature. A fuller consideration of these experiments will be given when the writer has completed his experimental work on this subject. The apparatus in use in this investigation, which is still in progress, is practically the same as described by the writer in a paper published three years ago under the title “A New Method of Photographing Sound Waves.” But three changes have been made in the apparatus there shown. One is the short-circuiting of the capacity by a high resistance and inductance to give better regulation of the time interval between the¥sound and illuminating , 1Physical Review, Vol. XX XV, No. 5, Nov., 1912. 300 sparks, a method described elsewhere in these Proceedings. A second is a considerable increase in the two capacities, to obtain waves of greater inten- sity. A third isa modification of the sound gap, or rather a disposition of screens about the sound spark in order to obtain waves from the same spark of both great and small intensity. These waves are photographed on the same plate, enabling one to determine their relative velocities. A few of the results are given in this preliminary paper. The details of the sound gap and screen are shown in Figure 31. A heavy spark is passed between the platinum terminals P-P. This produces a cylindrical sound wave shown in section at S, S. G is a cylindrical metal sereen, which I shall call a grating, concentric with the spark axis, and having longitudinal slits or apertures O, O, cut in it, as shown in the figure, thus forming a sort of grating. The grating is so placed that it intercepts but one end, the left end in the figure, of the cylindrical wave, the right end or half spreading out the same as if the grating were not in use. I shall call this wave the main wave. Some of the energy of the left end of the wave is reflected by the grating, but some of it passes through the apertures which thus become sound sources, the waves spreading out in every direction from these sources. I shall call these waves wavelets, 301 The energy at any point in the wave front of the wavelets must be small compared to the energy at any point in the main wave, for two reasons. In the first place only a fraction of the energy of the original wave passes through the apertures. In the second place, what does get through spreads out to form the wavelets and thus greatly reduces the energy propagated in a partic- ular direction. If the speed of propagation decreases with the energy of the sound wave, and, therefore, with the intensity, it would seem that our photo- graphs should show two results: the velocity of a wavelet should be less than that of the main wave, and the wave front of a wavelet should not be cir- cular, because the energy at a point in the wavelet falls off rapidly as the dis- tance from the pole of the wave increases. One need not cite Stokes’s law, for the pictures clearly indicate a variation inintensity along the front of the wavelets. Yet, taking into consideration the breadth of the apertures the wavelets are circular, showing that the velocity of the pole of the wave is not greater than the velocity tangent to the grating surface. Nor does the breadth of the aperture, and, therefore, the energy passing through, appear to make any difference in the velocity. It will be noted that the photographs show apertures of four different sizes. The photographs show that the main wave and the poles of all the wave- lets are tangent to one another, and since the wavelets are circular, that the velocity of the attenuated wavelet propagated tangent to the grating surface is not less than the velocity of the main wave of much greater intensity. Physies Laboratory, Indiana University, December, 1915. 5302 308 305 A SimepLtéE MetuHop or HARMONIZING LEYDEN JAR DISCHARGES. ArtTuur L. Foutny, Head of the Department of Physics, Indiana University. Publication No. 41. In the photography of sound waves! one of the chief difficulties is to secure the proper time interval between the sound producing spark and the illum- inating spark which pictures the wave. A spark gap is always apparently more or less erratic. When one places two gaps in series, Figure 1, and en- SOUND WAVE — LIGHT SPARK ee Le i © capacity 4 we *—— ELECTRIC MACHINE TERMINALS THEDRETICAL CROSS-SECTION OF SOUND WAVE, EXPLAINING FORMATION OF WAVE SHADOW GH THE PHOTOGRAPH! HEMISPHERICAL ENDS OF WAVE PRODUCE BUT LITTLE EFFECT ON LIGHT PASSING TO PLATE CUTER CYLINDRICA PORTION REFRACTS R&YS TOWARD THE CENTER. THUS GIVING AN OUTER DARK RING-D.R..4NO AN INNE® LIGHT BING L.R., WHERE REFRACTED AND NON-DEVIATED RAYS ARE SUPERPOSED. deavors to adjust the condenser C to make the spark L, occur at a definite time after the spark S, he finds that the time interval is far from constant. The interval varies, not merely because of variations in the spark gaps them- selves, but because of the charge remaining in the capacity C after a spark 1A New Method of Photographing Sound Waves. Physical Review, Vol. XX XV, No. 5, November, 1912. 5084—20 306 has taken place. This spark is due to two causes. One is the tendency of the Leyden jars forming the capacity C to take on what is known as a residual charge. The other results from the oscillatory character of at Leyden jar discharge, the jars having a charge after each spark depending on the direc- tion of the last oscillation. With a charge on the capacity C varying as to both sign and magnitude, one can not expect a constant time interval between the sparks L and S. In my later experiments I have been able to eliminate much of this trouble by short-circuiting the terminals of the capacity C through a high resistance R and an inductance I. The resistance R 1s merely a tube of water with wires passing through corks at either end of the tube. The inductance I is an electromagnet of about a thousand turns of wire. The result may be obtained with either a resistance or an inductance, if suffi- ciently large. Using both one can, without reducing the intensity of the illuminating spark, reduce the resistance R by shortening the water resis- tance until the jars discharge themselves completely very soon after every spark. Thus the condenser is brought into the same electrical condition before every spark and consequently the time required to charge it to sparking potential is made constant. The arrangement here described does not completely eliminate all varia- tions in the time interval between the sparks because much of the variation is due to change in the effective resistance of the spark gaps themselves, some- thing the writer has been unable to control. The arrangement does, however, reduce the variation about 50 per cent. Physics Laboratory, Indiana University, November, 1915. 307 An ELECTROSCOPE FOR MEASURING THE RADIOACTIVITY SOILS. By R. R. Ramsey. In measuring the radioactivity of soils if extreme accuracy is desired it is necessary to dissolve the sample and then determine the amount of radium or thorium by means of the emanation method. The getting the sample in solution is a long tedious process. For a description of this method I shall refer to Joly’s Radioactivity and Geology. For an approximate determination of the radioactivity one can use an a ray electroscope provided that the sample is fairly active. The standard being uranium oxide, U;Os, a ‘“‘thick’’ layer, one gram to 10 square centimeters say, gives a current of 5.8x10-!% amperes or 17.4x10-! E.S.U. per square centimeter surface if the plates of the electroscope are 4 cm. or more apart. The amount of radium in the oxide may be determined by dissolving it and then determining the amount of emanation in the solution after it has stood 30 days. The sample is placed in the @ ray electroscope and compared with the uranium oxide. It will be evident that an assumption is made here that the absorption coefficient of all samples for @ rays is the same as the absorp- ‘tion coeffic‘ent of uranium oxide for a rays. This assumption is only approx- imately true. The radioactivity of soil is very slight and in order to get an appreciable current a large area must be exposed. This necessitates large plates in the ordinary form of @ ray electroscope. The large plates increases the capacity of the electroscope and thus diminishes the sensitiveness of the electroscope. Instead of an ionization chamber with plates I have hit upon the plan of using a cylindrical chamber with a central rod. The material to be tested is packed between the wall of the cylinder and an inside cylinder made of wire gauze. The space between the two walls is made as small as the ease of fill- ing will permit. One or two centimeters, say. In this form of electroscope the amount of surface exposed can be increased at will by increasing the size of the cylinder, and as the diameter of the cylinder is increased the capacity is decreased. Thus the sensitiveness of the electroscope is increased in two ways as the ionization chamber is increased; by increasing the surface exposed and by decreasing the capacity of the instru- 508 Soil Electroscope. a 309 ment. The size of the chamber will be limited only by the potential of the central rod. The potential must be at least the saturation potential, that is the potential must be great enough to pull out the ions as fast as they are formed. With the usual potential, about 300 volts, the diameter may be made 15 or 20 centimeters. The height may be made as great as is convenient to use. The general plan of the instrument is shown in the figure. A, is the ionization chamber, B, is the chamber containing the gold leaf. LL, is the leaf, W, is the window through which the leaf is read on the scale. C, is the charg- ing system. S, is the sulphur plug and R, is the central rod. For a more detailed deseription of the method of making and reading an electroscope I will refer to my paper on The Radioactivity of Spring Water. (Ind. Acad. Proc. 1914.) The top of the chamber, B, has a dise with a flange fastened to it. The diameter of this dise is such as to fit the ionization chamber. The lower end of the chamber, A, is closed and a hole is cut large enough to let the sulphur plug, S, pass. The gause cylinder, G, is soldered to a dise which will fit the inside of the large cylinder and pass the plug, S. A dise of diameter of the gause cylinder is soldered in the top. A lid fits over the top of the large eylinder. To fill in the material to be tested the chamber A, is removed from off the chamber B, the gause cylinder is placed inside and the material is packed lightly between the two walls. The lid is placed on and the chamber A, is placed on the chamber B. Correction must be made for the absorption of a@ rays by the gause. This can be determined by getting the ionization current of uranium nitrate when free and when covered with a sample of the gause, using an ordinary @ ray electroscope. Or the electroscope may be calibrated by filling in a material of known activity between the gause and the outside cylinder. Or uranium nitrate may be mixed with an inactive substance in known proportions and placed in the electroscope. In testing soils the sample should be allowed to dry for a few days as fresh damp soil contains a large amount of radium emanation which has come up from the lower material. Indiana University, December 1, 1915. 310 THE CAUSE OF THE VARIATION OF THE EMANATION CONTENT OF SPRING WATER. By R. R. Ramsey. Last year at the annual meeting of this Society I presented a paper on “Radioactivity of Spring Water” in which I called attention to the fact that there was a variation of the radioactivity from time to time. During nine months of the past year I have measured the emanation content of two springs once every week. In a short time I discovered that there was a con- nection between the radioactivity and the flow of the springs. The flow of one of the springs was measured every week during six months. The springs are about 1.3 miles apart. One isuses out of coarse graval the other issues from a crevice in the solid rock. Both springs are known as never failing springs, however the flow of both are affected by the rain fall. They both vary in the same manner but not to the same degree. The variation of the Ill. Cent. spring, the one measured, is much more then the Hottle spring. The method of measuring the flow was by means of a horizontal weir, the depth being measured and computed according to the usual formula. The radioctivity was measured by means of the 'Schmidt shaking method and an emanation electroscope. The electroscope was standardized by means of an emanation standard secured from the Bureau of Standards. The Schmidt shaking method can be carried out at the spring. The accuracy ot the method when the measurements are made at the spring in 15 to 30 minutes is about 5 per cent. The observations for the nine months are shown in the table I. The date of observation, the temperature, the flow in gallons per day, and the emanation content of the water is given for each spring. It will be noted that the radioactivity of the Hottle spring is higher and more constant than the Ill. Cent. spring. In the same manner the flow of the Hottle spring is more constant than the Ill. Cent. spring but it is not always greater than the Ill. Cent. It will be noted that the fluctuations of the radio- activity are in the same general manner for both springs. This is better shown by means of curves Figure I]. The full lines are for the radioactivity the dotted line is for the flow. The curves have a general Indiana Academy of Science Proceedings," 191 4. oll fall towards low values and then a rather sudden rise. An increase in flow is accompanied by an increase in radioactivity. The increase of flow follows the melting of a heavy snow or a heavy rain. Thus the radioactivity of the spring depends upon the rain fall. The radio- activity of rain water is very small compared to the values obtained at the springs. It can not be due to the radioactivity of rain water. The above results, together with the fact that ““wet weather” springs are very radioactive and that one on the campus of Indiana University measured 1920 x10-" a short time after a heavy rain fall, lead to the conclusion that the variation of the emanation content of Indiana springs is due to the rain water percolating through the soil and dissolving and carrying down with it some of the emanation which is continually moving upwards from the interior of the earth to the surface. During dry weather when the flow of the water is not rapid a large per cent of the emanation which was dissolved in the water is transformed into radium A, B, C, and D before the water issues from the ground. This conclusion is in accord with the observations of Wright & Smith (Phys. Rey. Vol. 5, p. 459, 1915) in which they find that the amount of emanation which issues from the soil is decreased as much as 50 per cent at times after heavy rains. To recapitulate, the variation of the emanation content of spring water is due to the rain water dissolving emanation as it percolates through the soil. Department of Physics, Indiana University, December 1, 1915. TABLE I. Variation of the Emanation Content of Certain Springs near Bloomington Indiana. (Flow given in gallons per day.) Horrie SPRING. ILLINOIS CENTRAL SPRING. Temp Tee Temp.| Flow. Oa DA C. Riga C anes C. G ures o per Liter. y per Liter. 1914 Sent ake.’ si2>: yen | 650x10-! | 445x10-" Oictre a: LON. 8.0 13 695 12.8 166 (ene Se eern sek 13.3 700 13 120 Octean O04 =. 22. 13 10000 665 | 12.7 | 130000 20 Nov. Ore na: 13 650 12.6 40 o12 HorrLe SPRING. | Inuinois CENTRAL SPRING. Date. Temp.) Flow. | Cunes |Temp.! Flow. Curies C: per Liter. | C. per Liter. Nove leateorue- 13 | 705 13 20 Nove, One ae ee 1k} 520 13 20 Nove 260 i ee 13 550 13 30 Dee.) Pose Le 13s oA | 535 | 13 60 DGC: fee dae ee 13 510 13 20 Degrade eee | | 450 | 43 00 Dacse265 cee 13 | 445 | 12.8 | 5000 | 00 1915 | | | | | Date a PS, 20000 560 32000 | 40 Fore eT ewe 12.6 | 1020 112 136000 | 340 IAA PUN oe ook 13 | 770 ; 13. | 39500 | 278 Feathe k o, | 13 680 12.8 | 40000 | 100 = ena | aa Hee, 610 12 32000 20 is ce Ee atone | 12 62000 | 850 | 12 |250000 | 750 Rene walle ne a 12 875 12.6 |123000 | 166 Rebs. 43... 11.8 | | 915 12 100000 | 350 Mohit 25.4.1 ba. 11.3 390 | 12 | 75000 ‘| 170 es ee eae eg 11.5 1010 | 12 |100000 | 143 Mari, ldo | 11.5 | 900 12 | 85000 | 220 1 eae ta a tt 34 920 12 | 62500 | 160 Ee eee 11.3 800 12 | 40000 | 90 Papen. S01 a ® iF 670 12 | 30000 45 (Srarila | BN. a 4e% | 11.3 690 | 12 | 30000 30 Boorse, «oo ste | | 830 12 28000 60 Prag | See ae gb) 890 12 30000 6 April 28........ | | 750 | 12.2 | 25000, | 410 Crate cee aes | 11.4 1140 112 410000 | 365 10) iy gama’ ae | 11.9 825 | 12.4 | GOO00 | 365 May ile. ves | 11 1050 112.3 | 42000 | 25 Masog...) an. | 12 1340 | 12 |500000 | 750 TEriayay ee 25 ties ate | 11.6 | 1420 12 |400000 | 820 Suna aw. S| kl 8 ‘1120 | 12 76000 | 355 June 25...2 005: Pie 1280 12.5 | 30000 313 Se eet git td espazaal asiipiess uate asset : i HHH Seaisave Saeateseg (aga csedd tansssnse asi HH 300 ; isiaaoas T3ditens atesgaaces + 33 ; Seasapar faitziesms fi HS H 280 Pe sees RE finch Haneef patie : z stewdess sssdossss seeaieaze jssevtsrs Tf : Hg t H + + pgsssgazs ras tHe + 260 333 toy fsassssesiisistises, © x Hehe ferns peptic : sr ES tats ay gas fae ase THES ages sles as aed, < 8 i" id fi ae + 240 fee eran SSeS a2 Ce TESEREEES eaceeaae aeegri = : Baie ais = Tr 9 + guegesestvede: jgsuae suaqanas: cusdsea: easesa sous ; seats sues aris 20 Of ie rose oe . : adasnass Seesssuatas iseases: ; + +H ‘ t : gadzoess ganed : cH eeggees! Bess 4 ‘: : r : : 200 FER Susi iesedsaey] wesssases easfeasst 2 i See HES gota Seaetaat fe oo ee JS Saree as aeggueates sosancnecn tauseues eauas ; f + + + cH 160 = : : ss sssges THe Hat ; saosd sa Fre jae ne fr 140 ER hat —p rans ai + es . naan at 120 FEB CGe ee : soses 3073 . saseshs sess ss yeeuetpsas seesasesas! sesso : 3 : : : sspzsess foszaai seazeaes an: Fy 100 3 + tot t te Ve sgaaaaces Shai suaveras zi agi asta Ue ane 80 TR ° + z seas mares sa: =F pat fe Het raze (aes eg gaged © Sedona @ fSoragese, ozs ante zi erie! 5 HEE 60 z 7 oH iy af, ies 3 40 ~ oat + aes Sess: Josie 20 [an aieit EdGgg titan irae aan ieee ei gettin sta laa a T t pasaaeyen ldedsagss fos sensei: pee 33 e539 peaseqs 24 Oo 6 520 4 18 Nae Oaepl slams Of lnm bene 620 ) es IEY/ 2 Ab iG} eto) abe ee alah NG} ae veo 284 WSS I NG Salhi zhao) Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June 1914 1915 ine , te Kr No. 293-M,. THE H. COLE CO., COLUMBUS, OHIO. 314 A STANDARD CONDENSER OF SMALL CAPACITY. By R. R. Ramsey. In radioactive measurements of substances which are very feebly radio- active it 1s necessary to have an electroscope which is very sensitive. One of the conditions to obtain this result is, the electroscope must have a very small capacity. A capacity of one to ten centimeters. A sphere has a capac- ity equal to its radius when far removed from other objects but when brought near to the electroscope its capacity changes to a value which depends upon the position, size and shape of the electroscope. It is customary to use a cylindrical condenser. The capacity of a cylindri- cal condenser is L C= 2 loge Ri/Re where C is the capacity; L is the length; R; is the inside radius of the out- side cylinder; R, is the radius of the inside cylinder. This formula gives the capacity if the effect of the ends can be neglected. This requires that the length should be great compared to the difference of the two radii. When these conditions are met the capacity will be 100 em. or more. In order to correct for the end effects I have made a condenser in three sections, the construction of which is illustrated in the cross sectional draw- ing. The middle cylinder is made of a brass rod about 9 millimeters in diam- eter. The outside cylinder is made of brass tubing whose inside diameter is about 3.6 em. The diameters are chosen large in order that the accuracy of measurement may be great. The ratio of the diameters is made large in order that the capacity per unit length may be small. The length of the end sections is 10 em. The length of the middle sec- tion is 20 em. The middle rod is held in place in the end sections by means of sulphur. This was accomplished by means of two wooden dises which were accurately turned to fit in the ends of the large cylinder and hold the middle rod in the center. These dises were placed in the ends of the end sections. The end section was stood upon the outside end and melted sulphur was poured through a hole in the top dise until the cylinder was about one-third filled. The dises were removed after the sulphur had hardened. Dowel pins are placed on the middle rod to hold the middle section in place. Standard Condenser. Bills) 316 The capacity of the middle section is calculated by the formula. The electroscope is charged to a potential V;. The charge on the electroscope is divided with the condenser, all sections being used. If C, is the capacity of the electroscope. C, is the capacity of the end sections. C; is the capacity of the middle section. V, is the initial potential. V2 is the final potential. then since Q=CiVi=(Ci+C2+Cs3) Vo Vi/V2= (C; +C2+Cs) /Ci a The electroscope is again charged to a potential V’;. The charge is again divided with the condenser, the end sections being used. Then we have V'1/V’2 = (C, +C») {Gi —Ts combining the two equations involving r; and r2 we get 3, =C3/ (4-12) In case that one has a steady ionization current as in the ease of radium emanation in an emanation electroscope after three or four hours, one can allow-the electroscope to discharge through a certain potential difference, dV, first with the electroscope alone, then with the ends of the condenser con- nected to the electroscope, and then with the entire condenser connected. Since i=C dV/t and dV is constant, we have, Ci /t1 = (Ci + C2) /te = (Ci + Co +Cs) /ts = C3/ (t-te) Care must be taken to see that the current is constant during the obser- vations. If the current is due to 8 or y rays there is danger of the air inside of the condenser being ionized and thus producing a variable current. The capacity of the middle section of the condenser which I have is 8.06 em. The capacity of the end sections is found by experiment to be about 17 em. Thus, since the combined length of the ends is the same as the middle section, the end effects plus the dielectric effect of the sulphur is about 9 em. Department of Physics, Indiana University, December 1, 1915. RAatvTE OF HUMIFICATION OF MANURES. lave Jal, (Guna. It has been recognized for a long time that organic matter is an important constituent of the soil, but as to Just what way it aids in crop production, there seems to be considerable difference of opinion. Some maintain that it is valuable only for the plant food it carries, while others value it more espec- jially for the plant food in the soil which may be made available by its decom- position. The following paragraph from the Iowa Station, found in the September, 1915, Journal of the American Chemical Society expresses the sentiment of many soil investigators as to the value of humus, and the rate of humification. “‘The organic matter extracted by alkali is of no very differ- ent character than the organic matter of the soils as a whole. This together with the fact proved by Fraps and Hammer, Texas Bul. 129, that upon add- ing organic matter to soil, at the end of a years time there is no more material extracted with diluted ammonia than at the beginning of the period, proves quite conclusively that the determination of the amount of humus as found by the various methods is of no particular value in the study of a soil.’”’ This statement seems rather unreasonable to the author of this article, since the elements that are of value as fertilizers are locked up in most farm manures, green manures, cotton seed meal, ete., as complex compounds and hence are unavailable to the growing plant which must have its food supplied in a very simple form. In well rotted manures these complex molecules are largely broken down to simpler substances containing the same elements, but with a different arrangement in the molecule. They are quite soluble in water and if not leached by rains are very effective as a fertilizer compared with fresh manure. : Therefore, since fertility is so closely related to the unlocking of these complex plant molecules in the manures, an effort was made to measure the rate of humification of the more common ones. PLAN oF PROCEDURE. A clay soil was chosen that was very deficient in organic matter and was, therefore, humus-hungry. With this soil were mixed different manures so 318 that each double box, holding about 1 cubic foot, contained the same amount of organic matter. The contents of the boxes were as follows: TABLE I. Box 1 contained 2. Ibs. hen manure + 50 gr. CaCOs. Box 2 contained 3.2 lbs. sheep manure. Box 3 contained 2.4 lbs. hog manure. Box 4 contained 3.0 lbs. horse manure. Box 5 contained 6.6 Ibs. steer manure + 50 gr. CaCOQs. Box 6 contained 6.0 lbs. cow manure + 50 gr. CaCQs. Box 7 contained 4.0 lbs. horse manure + 101 gr. CaO, MgO. Box 8 contained 4.0 lbs. horse manure + 171 gr. CaO. Box 9 contained 4.0 lbs. horse manure + 179 CaCO;, MgCOsz. Box 10 contained 4.0 lbs. horse manure + 175 gr. CaCQs. Box 11 contained no treatment. On May 30, 1914, the manure, limestone and soil were well mixed and the boxes were placed in the ground out of doors in order to approximate field conditions. At the same time samples of the mixed soil were taken for humus determinations. Other samples were taken on the following dates: Novem- ber 25, 1914; February 16, 1915, after winter freeze; April 13, 1915, after a period of quite warm weather; June 1, 1915, October 15 and November 22, 1915. Humus DETERMINATION. Effort was made to follow the course of changes brought about by bacteria and the weathering agencies, etc., by determining the amount of humus present at the various periods. The term humus, as used by American soil investigators, does not refer to the total organic matter present in a soil, but only to that which is soluble in 4 per cent NH,OH, the calcium and mag- nesium having been removed. The Official Method as modified by Smith was used in all the determinations. The following tables give averages for the different periods: 519 oo) ? ee acd) em a ees tekgon spots oe OAC ep aig. 9800° | 1600° | F600° | 2600 OSOO° | 6800° | E800 | F900 Z800° | GZ00° | €400 (ZOOS =e ee CT “JO-T eunsr cOIO’ | 2600° | 8600° | 2600 8800° | 8900° | 9600° | $200 9600 9900 EOI) |p Vz eB T ounf-¢y [lady SITIO. | 9600 OOTO F600 FOIO | S900" 2010e 3 e800" | 001 0" 4200 GIO tay A(O 0 a |e oe ere EL [dy-9T “qoy FLOO’ | G600° | 9200 600° | $900" | 1900° | 0900° | T800° | ¢900° | 8200 OSOO OOOO8 TI eae OT “Goq-0E ABT Z800° | 6400° | 92400° | 2600° | 2800° | 8S00° | 8800° | TS00° | O800° 8900 €800° | ZG00° | pesodxeun semueut ‘syIog ‘YSy jsnuiny|) “ysy |snuny) “ysy jsnumpy] ‘qsy |‘snumy ‘Yysy jsnump] “ysy |-snumy~ 9 G V (S G I! “OO®RO OE "OOF 0¢ *O0®) 0¢ *OO®O 0G *O0FD 0G *O0%D 0S Oe) + 19049 + oasloyy + sig + doeaysg + usaf] “Il0G WVU) T NI HSV GNV SOWN};{ 40 SINVUY) Il WIV. 320 TABLE 3. Horse + 101 | Horse + 171 |} Horse + 179 | Horse + 175 CaO, MgO CaO CaCOs, CaCO; MgCoO; i, 8 9 * 10 ! j . Hu- Hu- Hu- Hu- mus. | Ash. ; mus. | Ash. | mus. | Ash. | mus. | Ash. Soil, manure unexposed...| 0055) 0085) .0048, .0078) .0055, .0075| .0055; .0072 May 30 to’ Feb: 16. ...:.. | .0064 .0084) 0051; .0065, .0067) .0087) .0051! .0065 Feb. 16 to April 13.......| .0070} .O0090) .0061) _0096, .0066) .0099) .0061 0103 April 13 to June 1........) .0072| .0094) .0058| .0093) .0123| .0062| .0069| .0096 Jime tetoO Octwla:2. ons. - i - 0090) 0072) .0081| .0083) .0093) .0087| .0074) .0090 ICCAD HD NOV ota AS Deane hea ae Pees renee renee eee OneCKEy. a5 20 tee f | .0049 .0097 No treatment ! | TABLE 4. PERZENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN Hummus. Hen. |Sheep.| Pig. | Horse.| Steer. | Cow. / | nl iy x 3 4 5 | 6 08 .20 02! 09 -43)} .30, NH;OH_ soluble humus—before ex- | | posure. Over check. 12 09| .30|/ .03| .01| .13| May 30 to Feb. 16. O04 —.06 02) .02 Ol .04| Feb. 16 to April 13. "O5)-——06}5——- 10) 05) 03) .O1| April 13 to June 1. —.07|....: | —.09} .15| —.05| —.06) June 1 to Oct. 15. See eke enon anal oto Pete. sei] Gin dp tOUNey, Doe 601.9 443, 1174) 165.9 928) 620.9 Grams of cornand stalks produced 1915 456 401. 281) 222 260} 249 produced 1916 | | TABLE 5. PERCENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN HuMuUSs. = = === ——— Horse Horse Horse Horse a 8 9 10 CaO, MgO CaO CaCO:, CaCO; MgCoO; 06 —.O01 . 06 06 NH: OH soluble humus be- fore exposure Over check. 09 AOS sl —.04 May 30 to Feb. 16. 06 .10 —.01 .10 Feb. 16 to April 13. 02 —.03 se 04 April 13 to June 1. 208 -23 —.30 05 June 1 to Oct. 15. NS Pee sie, Ne rte ea tac ys (ella cyele cus cle oreo Neto o seneauey sce, © Oct. 15 to Nov. 22. ipa 46.6 637 .6 386 Grams of corn and stalks produced 1915 308 392 347 320 produced 1916 Check box A Sy eA meee hl ow oretr Wace te ey ey arc ea | rerents a toa oaanay osc eo' a) [forests Ars eay oh eee ous Grams of corn and stalks produced 1915 WSs s5.c Biola a stays anag coi elieata teases Ger a atey Eieiere ote tehe auc tobe produced 1916 It will be noticed in Table 4 that fresh steer manure is quite soluble in NH,OH and the solubility is not increased appreciably on exposure in the soil. The same is true to a large extent of cow manure, but less of pig manure while horse manure is only broken down after about 12 to 18 months’ exposure, except in the case of Box 9 which was treated with dolomitice lime- stone. It will also be noticed in Table 5 that when the acidity was corrected with 171 grams of CaO in Box 8 and 101 grams of CaO, MgO in Box 7, the rate of humification was retarded—the CaO and CaO, MgO both having an antiseptic action when more is added than is needed to correct the soil acid- ity. Chemically equivalent amounts of Ca and Mg (in neutralizing power) were added to Boxes 7,9 and 10. It would seem that the growth of corn ob- tained in Box 9 was due to the early humifying of the manure (June 1). While in Boxes 4, 7 and 8 the humification came too late to benefit this year’s crop. The yields in Boxes 3 and 5 were the largest of all but it is probable that the higher nitrogen content was the main cause. 5084— 21 322 CONCLUSIONS. 1. Growth of corn, other factors being constant, seems to be proportional to the rate of humification of manures. 2. The ammonia soluble matter in cow and steer manure is not apprec- iably increased on 18 months’ exposure, but hog, sheep and horse manure humify less rapidly and in the order named. 323 THe Foop or NESTLING BIRDS. Howarp EK. ENDERS AND WILL Scort. The surprisingly rapid growth of fledgling birds is a matter of common observation but the activities of the parents in the collection of food and the care of the young is scarcely realized by persons who have not carried on observations throughout the whole of a bird’s working-day. It has been the practice of the authors, each summer, for a period of years,* to assign students in groups of four to the work of observing the activities of birds and their fledgling young from dawn until nightfall. The work was carried on in relays such that two persons were at the nest at all times, one to make the observations at close range with the aid of field-glasses, and the other to make the notes. By this method it was possible to observe, time and note in considerable detail, the activities of the birds, also the character and number of pieces of food brought at each trip to the nest. Observations, many in duplicate, have thus been made upon seventeen different species of the birds common to Winona Lake, Indiana: In the several instances, the birds were under observation for a period of several consecutive days, and we have reason to believe, without markedly modify- ing their activities after the first hour or two. The object of the present paper is to indicate the nature, quality and quantity of food brought to the young throughout a bird’s full working-day. A transcript of a single example is given in full while others are given in sum- maries to indicate the number of feeds, number of pieces. Both ‘‘soft”’ and “‘hard” food are fed to the young birds in proportions which change somewhat with the age of the nestlings. It is contended that the stomach contents afford the only accurate and reliable method of study of the food of birds. We believe that this method is not applicable to the food of nestling birds for two reasons: first, the food is soft and not readily identifiable; and the second and more important reason is that the food is digested very rapidly. The stomach contents do not serve as a criterion of the quantity of food that is eaten in the course of a day. *Biological Station of Indiana University at Winona Lake, Ind. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BROWN THRASHER. Toxostoma rufum. There were four young in the nest. They remained in the same position throughout the day and were, therefore, indicated ( Largs The nest was on the ground in a clump of weeds. The day was bright, warm and calm, 4:00 A. M. Parents off the nest. 25 Female fed (unidentified)—cleaned the nest. 26 Male fed (unidentified). 39 Male fed apparently a caterpillar. 5 Male and female fed apparently caterpillars. Male fed caterpiller. (7 feeds during the hour.) wr :27 Female and male fed—earthworm. 27 to :40 female brooded. 40 Male fed—earthworm. 45 Female fed—earthworm. 47 Male fed (unidentified.) (5 feeds during the hour.) 6:05 Male fed. 1:05 Male fed.* 06 Female fed. 09 Female fed. 17 Male fed—earthworm. ~ - 17 to :40 the male brooded. 40 Female fed and carried away excrement. 50 Female fed. 50 to :538 the female brooded. 55 Male fed and carried away exerement. (7 feeds during the hour.) (03 Male fed—brooded till :26. 26 Female fed. ~I *Food not identified where name is not given. 329 30 Female and male fed insects. 37 Female fed. 38 Female fed—eaterpiller. 44 Male fed—brooded till :56. 56 Female fed and carried away excrement. (8 feeds during the hour.) 8:01 Female fed. 12 Male fed—worms. 14 Female fed—worms. 15 Male fed—worms. 24 Male fed—large green larva. 26 Female fed. 28 Male fed. 32 Female fed and brooded till :53. 53 Male fed—insects and brooded till :58. 58 Female fed—caterpillar. 59 Male fed—eaterpillar. (11 feeds during the hour.) 9:08 Female fed—eaterpillar. 09 Male fed—eaterpillar. 18 Female fed—worm. 20 Male fed—worm. 25 Female fed—grasshopper, and brooded till :47. 52 Male fed and brooded till 10:19. (6 feeds during the hour.) 10:19 to 10:29 the nest was vacant. 29 Male fed—eaterpillar. 30 Female fed—insect. 33 Female fed—dragonfly. 33 Male fed—worm. 36 Female fed—worm. 42 Female fed—cutworm. 53 Male fed—cutworm and ate the excrement. 59 Male fed—cutworm and ate the excrement. (8 feeds during the hour.) 326 11:02 Female fed—worm and beetle—carried away excrement. 03 Male fed—cutworm. 05 Male fed—dragonfly. 14 Male fed—eaterpillar. 20 Female fed—eaterpillar. 27 Male fed—ceaterpillar to bird No. 3. 33 Female fed—caterpillar to bird No. 1. 34 Male fed—eaterpillar to bird No. 2, and brooded till :39. 43 Female fed—eaterpillar to bird No. 2. 44 Male fed—eaterpillar to bird No. 2. 47 Male fed—eaterpillar to bird No. 2—ate excrement. 52 Female fed—eaterpillar to bird No. 3. 53 Male fed—2 insects to bird No. 1. 58 Female fed—ceaterpillar to bird No. 4. 58 Male fed—eaterpillar to bird No. 4. (15 feeds during the hour.) _ bo 04 Male came but did not feed—brooded till :11. 12 Female fed—eaterpillar to No. 1. 21 Male fed—eaterpillar to No. 2 brooded till :30. 30 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 1. 40 Male fed green larvae to No. 2 and No. 3. 40 to :45, the nest was vacated. 45 Female fed larvae to No. 3 and No. 4, and ate excrement. 46 Chased blackbirds away from the tree; flicker and other birds. 48 Male fed—dragonfly to No. 2. (6 feeds during the hour.) —_— ‘(00 Female fed-—dragonfly to No. 2. OS Male fed—larvae to No. 1 and No. 3—earried away excrement. 09 Female fed—larvae to No. 2. 11 Female fed 16 Female fed—larvae to No. 3. larvae to No. 2. 21 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 2. 25 Female fed—eut-worm to No. 4. 29 Male fed—eut-worm to No. 3 and No. 4. 43 Female fed—cutworm to No. 2. 44 Male fed—larva to No. 2. O27 47 Male fed—larva to No. 3. 50 Male fed—larva. 51 Male fed—larva. 58 Male fed—larva. (14 feeds during the hour.) 2:02 Female fed—larva to No. 1. 14 Male fed—larva to No. 2. 14 Female fed—larvae to No. 1 and No. 3. 23 Female fed—beetle to No. 4. 24 Male fed—heetle to No. 3 and No. 4. 24 Female fed—to No. 1 and No. 2. 37 Male fed—larva to No. 4—ate the excrement. 40 to :45 male brooded, and ate the excrement. 45 Male fed—larva to No. 4. 46 Female fed—larva to No. 3. 51 Male fed—larva to No. 1. 54 Female fed—larva to No. 1. 57 Female fed—beetle to No. 1. 58 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 2. (13 feeds during the hour.) 3:00 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4. 05 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 3 and ate the excrem>nt. 10 Male fed insect to No. 1. 15 to :25 Male fed—cut-worm, rested, ate excrement. 26 Male fed—insect to No. 2. 28 Male fed—2 insects to No. 4. 37 Female fed—to No. 3, and ate excrement. 38 Male fed—to No. 2, and ate excrement. 51 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 2. 52 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 1. 56 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 4. 57 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 3 and No. 4. (12 feeds during the hour.) 4:01 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 4 and ate excrement. 09 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 1. ae UU ~~ 17 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 2. 20 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 4 and ate excrement. 21 Female fed—dragonfly to No. 1, and ate excrement. 28 Male fed—insect to No. 4. 32 Male fed—ceut-worm to No. 3. 36 Female fed—dragonfly to No. 3. 37 Female fed—dragonfly to No. 1. 42 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 4. 44 Male fed—dragonfly to No. 3. 50 Female fed—hbeetle to No. 3. 51 Male fed—dragonfly to No. 3. 51 to 54, rested at the nest. (13 feeds during the hour.) 02 Female fed—dragonfly to No. 3. 03 Female fed—dragonfly to No. 3. 05 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 3. 09 Female fed—winged ant to No. 1. 10 Female fed—beetle to No. 2. 11 Female fed—eut-worm to No. 1. 14 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 2 and No. 3. 16 Female fed—ants to No. 1 and No. 3; ate excrement. 20 Male fed—ants to No. 1. 25 Female fed—ants to No. 4. 26 Female fed—ants to No. 1. 27 Male fed—ants to No. 1 and No. 4. 32 Female fed—ants to No. 2, rested till :40 at nest. 43 Female fed—ants to No. 3. 49 Male fed—ant to No. 4. (15 feeds during the hour.) ‘02 Male fed—hbeetle to No. 2. O07 Female fed—three ants to No. 1. 17 Female fed—beetle to No. 2, and ate excrement. 24 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 4. 24 Female fed—ants to No. 3. 29 Male fed—moth to No. 3; brooded till :33. 35 Male fed—ants to No. By 329 42 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 3. 42 Male fed—eut-worm to No. 3; brooded till 7:00. (9 feeds during the hour.) 7:04 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 1 and No. 3. 13 Male fed—beetle to No. 2. 25 Female fed—cut-worm to No. 3. 27 Female fed—beetle to No. 4. 30 Female fed—worm to No. 1; carried away excrement. 35 Male fed—cut-worm to No. 1; ate excrement. 42 Male fed. 47 Male returns without feed: broods. (7 feeds during the hour.) 8:00 Still brooding on the nest for the night. The young were weighed onthe following day, as indicated below. The weight of the young was 40 grams. (1 beetle | The weight of} 7 ants tis 1 gram. li dragonfly J Weight of 308 pieces (estimated number of pieces), 35 grams. Approx- imately this weight of food was consumed by four birds in a single day. Thus each bird consumed approximately one-fourth its weight of insects and worms. Total number of feeds, 156. Average number of feeds per hour, 9 5-8. ‘Individual feeds during the day: To No. 1, 48 feeds (about). To No. 2, 42 feeds (about). To No. 3, 48 feeds (about). To No. 4, 40 feeds (about). Heeds byathesmale ay stne ee oes ae 78 times. Heedsthyethertemial eames cessycte eae ee 78 times. Age of young not determined. Classified list of food: 150 cutworms. 330 9 “worms.” 5 earthworms. 11 dragonflies. 10 beetles. 50 ants. 1 grasshopper. 72 or more other insects. 308 or more. *OOIMY sMO1Ieds poseypO ae eee lg i ae ea Sout} 9d JAB AA poos | joi sthenic dchteb gr Sua ae Ce oine DLO oso Aaaayo I bh 0 0,030, Ove Ge renege help DONE ON soled OF |B apand, ap oon Gis eh apromo TL OOO S}OaSUI JoyI0 EF a ey gee ire SjJeyoo pue sdeddoysseis » ny Fearne oan Senet Saati b. 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Roscor R. Hyper. Two new eye mutations, tinged and blood have appeared in my cultures of the fruit fly that throw light upon the question as to the nature of the change that takes place in the chromosome when a new character appears. Both mutations show typical sex-linked inheritance, consequently they are expressions of changes in the X chromosome. Both mutants give the same linkage values when measured with other sex-linked characters. When measured with yellow body color a linkage of 1.2 results; with minia- ture wings 33; with bar eyes 44. Morgan has deseribed three sex-linked eye mutants, white, eosin and cherry, which give the same linkage values. Consequently, we now have five sex-linked eye mutants, namely, white, tinged, eosin, cherry and blood, which give an increasing color series from white to the bright red of the wild fly. A study of their linkage relations shows that they either lie very closely together on the X chromosome or that they are but different modifications of the same gene. The two possibilities involve the question of the origin of mutations as well as the fundamental make-up of an hereditary factor. Mendel evidently thought of something in the germ cell that stood for round (R) and something that stood for wrinkled (W) and that these two things could not coexist in the same gamete. That is, (W) isallelomorphic to (R). The origin of mutation in the light of the above assumption would seem to depend upon the splitting up of more complex hybrids—the bring- ing to the surface of units already created. Kvolution in the light of such a conception would seem to depend upon the shifting together of desir- able units. Bateson viewed the matter in a different light. He knew of the origin of new forms by mutation. He postulated a definite something in the germ cell that stands for the character, as for example (T) which stands for the tallness in peas, which when lacking makes the pea a dwarf (t). In other words, instead of two separate factors he regards the tallness and dwarfish- ness merely as an expression of the two possible states of the same factor,— 340 its presence and its absence. Hence his well-known Presence and Absence theory. In this case (T) is allelomorphie to its absence (t). The inheritance of combs in chickens is a beautiful application of such a conception. Muta- tions according to this theory appear as the result of losses. Bateson pushed this idea to its logical conelusion in his Melbourne ad- dress where he speculates on the possibility that evolution has come about by the loss of something. These somethings he assumes to be inhibitors. (Science, August 28, 1914). “ As I have said already, this is no time for devising theories of evolution, and I propound none. But as we have got to recognize that there has been an evolution, that somehow or other the forms of life have arisen from fewer forms, we may as well see whether we are limited to the old view that evolutionary progress is from the simple to the complex, and whether after all it is conceivable that the process was the other way about. > At first it may seem rank absurdity to suppose that the prim- ordial form or forms of protoplasm could have contained complexity enough to produce the divers types of life. iN Let us consider how far we can get by the process of removal of what we call “‘epistatic’’ factors, in other words those that control, mask, or suppress underlying powers and faculties. ms I have confidence that the artistic gifts of mankind will prove to be due not to something added to the make-up of an ordinary man, but to the absence of factors which in the normal person inhibit the development of these gifts. They are almost beyond doubt to be looked upon as releases oe of powers normally suppressed. The instrument is there, but it is ‘stopped down.” The scents of flowers or fruits, the finely repeated divisions that give its quality to the wool of the merino, or in an analogous case the multiplicity of quills to the tail of the fantail pigeon, are in all probability other examples of such releases. ~ In spite of seeming perversity, therefore, we have to admit that there is no evolutionary change which in the present state of our knowl- edge we can positively declare to be not due to loss. When this has been con- ceded it is natural to ask whether the removal of inhibiting factors may not be invoked in alleviation of the necessity which has driven students of the domestic breeds to refer their diversities to multiple origins.” Another idea as to the way these factors may find expression in the germ cells has been advanced by Morgan under the heading of Multiple Allelo- 341 | 0° A @ e ee_ @00@_e@ @0ee. 0 me = —~Explanation given in Text. , and E. Ficures A, B, C 342 morphs. According to this conception there is a definite something (W) located at point 1.2 on the X chromosome which stands for the red eye of the wild fly. (Fig. A.) This gene underwent some kind of change and gave rise to white eyes (w). In another stock the same particle mutated and gave rise to eosin (we). In still another stock the same particle changed and gave rise to cherry (w‘). (W) is allelomorphic to (w), to (we) and to (we). each of these in turn is allelomorphie to each other; hence they form a system of Multiple Allelomorphs. This view is supported by a large amount of experimental data by Morgan and his co-workers, but strange as it may seem the numerical results can be interpreted in terms of the Presence and Absence theory provided the mutants are the result of losses of several factors that stand for red in a completely linked chain of loci. The assumption that these three mutants are the result of changes in loci lying very closely together on the chromosome as demanded by the Presence and Absence theory has been tested by Morgan and others by means of their linkage relations in three possible combinations as given in Fig. D. (Shown by the broken lines on the left.) The discovery of the two new mutants has made it possible to carry out the test in eight additional ways. The evidence which involves data from something like a half-million animals weighs heavily against the Presence and Absence theory and is entirely in accord with the assumption that something analogous to isomerism may change an hereditary factor resulting in the production of a new form. I have attempted to visualize this in Fig. E. If this is the correct inter- pretation the possibilities locked in a small amount of chromatin may be almost infinite, for a great many different arrangements are possible from a few things. There are some points worthy of consideration as tending to give weight to the Multiple Allelomorph theory. 1. On the Presence and Absence theory, it is necessary to assume that in the region of 1.2 on the X chromosome there is a chain of five completely linked loci (very close together) upon which the color of the red eye of the wild fly depends. Multiple Allelomorphs accounts for all of the facts while postulating but one locus. 2. Gratuitous to the Presence and Absence theory let us assume that the loci are in jutaposition. If we assume that blood, cherry, eosin, tinged and white have appeared as a result of successive losses as shown in Fig. C, we encounter a difficulty. When any two of these mutants are crossed the 343 two chromosomes are brought together in the female, each restores the missing part to the other and a red-eyed female should result in the F; generation. Asa matter of fact no red-eyed female appears. She is invariably a compound, that is, in each case she is intermediate between the eye colors of the two stocks used as parents. Again the evidence is fairly conclusive that when the two X chromosomes are brought together in the female they break and reunite at apparently all levels on the chromosome. Accordingly, it would seem that a break and reunion would occasionally take place between the members of this chain of loci. If such a phenomena should occur a complete chain of loci would result like the chain in Fig. C (on the extreme left), which would express itself in the F, generation in the production of a red-eyed male. But in all the possible attempts to break up such a line, as shown in Fig. D, no such a red- eyed male has been found. To be sure the loci may be so close together that crossing over would take place infrequently, but the evidence from such large counts as have been made in which the red-eyed male has been specifically looked for would weigh heavily against its ever taking place. 3. The mutations may be due to losses according to the scheme repre- sented in Fig. B., one loss produced blood, two losses produced cherry, and soon. Such an assumption would seem to accord with the fact that when any two of these stocks are crossed no red females are produced in the F, generation. On the other hand it should be expected that the chromosome in which the least number of losses had occurred would act as a dominant. For example, when blood and tinged are crossed, the females should be like blood. But no such result is obtained. The female is intermediate in color. Again we should expect from the phenomena of crossing-over that, in a cross for example between blood and white occasionally a cherry, or an eosin, or a tinged male would appear in the F, generation, but none has been ob- served. 4. The history of the appearance of the members of this multiple allelo- morph system shows that they are rare phenomena. Careful observation by Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller, Bridges, myself and others show these mutants to have appeared but a few times. It would be safe to say, I think, that only one has occurred in five million times. I have represented blood by one loss from the chromosome. Tinged is the result of four losses in this completely linked chain of loci. The possibility of such mutants appear- ing involves so many simultaneous losses that there would be one chance 344 in millions. It seems almost impossible to believe that we should have ever found such a mutant. 5. The experimental evidence shows there are many factors arranged in a linear series on the X chromosome. Some affect wings, some body colors, others the shape of the eye, and so forth. Sturtevant has pointed out the significance of the fact in light of the above statement that the characters which behave as members of a multiple allelomorph system are closely related physiologically. 6. If the mutants are the result of changes as shown in Fig. D it would seem as if a mutated stock would more readily give rise to subsequent mu- tations, since fewer simultaneous losses are necessary. As a matter of fact four of the members mutated directly from red while eosin came from white. 7. Morgan has emphasized the idea that it is difficult to account for reverse mutations on the assumption of losses from a completely linked chain of loci, as the Presence and Absence theory postulates. On the other hand it is conceivable how such a reaction could come about if the mutant is the result of an expression of something analogous to an isometric change. 8. Is chromatin such simple material that the only change conceivable is a loss? LITERATURE CITED. 1. Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller and Bridges. Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity. Henry Holt. 1915. 2. Bateson, William. The Address of the President of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science. Science. August 28, 1914. 3. Hyde, Roscoe R. The new members of a Sex-Linked Multiple (Sextuple) Allelomorph System. Genetics. November 1916. Princeton Press. SoME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE OXYGENLESS REGION oF CENTER LAKE, Kosciusko Co., IND. HERBERT GLENN IMEL. It has been found that some of our lakes contain no free oxygen during the summer months. Birge and Juday (’11) found that Beasley and Mendota Lakes not only had such oxygenless regions but that animal life existed in these regions. They report sixteen genera of living, active protozoa, three of worms, two rotifers, two crustacea and one mollusc. Seott found in his studies of lakes of northern Indiana that Center Lake, Kosciusko county, had such a region, and under his direction the writer undertook, during the summer of 1915 to find out what forms of animal and plant life existed in this region. According to Birge and Juday (11), after the autumnal overturn, during the winter, and until the approach of spring, the gas conditions are very nearly uniform throughout the lake, but with the approach of spring, and through the spring and summer, the oxygen content becomes less and less in the lower strata while the carbon dioxide, both free and fixed, becomes greater and greater until by July 15 or August 1, the free oxygen is zero while the carbon dioxide is very great. (See Figs. 6, 7, 8.) This condition is brought about in three ways: (1) by the respiration of the plants and animals in it; (2) lack of surface contact with the air; (3) decomposition of the dead organisms in it. Determinations of the temperature, free oxygen, free and fixed carbon dioxide, were made at the beginning and the end of the observation period, July 28 and August 26. The oxygen was determined by the Winkler method and the temperature was read by means of a thermophone. The results of these readings are shown on graphs attached hereto. (See Fig. 5.) A pump, with a hose marked off in meters, was used in the collection of the water. The samples of plankton were collected by pumping a quantity of water through a plankton net at the desired depth and then rinsing off with the last stroke into a collecting bottle. This method was used for 346 FGA Ground glass stopper Cord fo portly withdraw stopper Card 7o raise cnd lower bottle Cord fasfens stopper Cord fastening bhot/e to cement block. cgaent block BOS SOT COLIE CI IAG CCT Cord fastening tae 347 ‘buspo1odo (0 SUDdW puD UeHisod Us DAaWbI buimoys snyosoddo 2 O19W0I AVZOM 4BPUN fO M2IA IPIG bul 4oiado fo Suda pub uoitisod Ul b1awo2 buimoys snposvddo D41aUlb> 4340M Japun fo maid dos Jiod Jo 7129 A@AG{ APLENYD jiod buisamoy, puo bujsi ps s0f pio fafinys Weds of plop —~+ Se 7eAa/ WII sat a, 444NYS BSO/P OF P1OD /10d Ui 010u/ 0d Pol of Sps05 348 aN y22y2 0S0 490 pud bulp fom 4Usanasd Of padoy s2bp J U2aM{Og 2Z/S awos Jo lyf Y{/M SPPIS BAoDSosIIW omy, fOIpeul afo/d ods/2IWD) 349 p2sodxd ago, U//f fo YOlfAO, SIPI[{S DdOISOA I! jy y¥204O 10f adoy Y{IM pesan0d apis fo UDO sos 350 BiG TEMPERATURE CURVE. s a a © 8 /0 12. /4 READING JULY, 28. Bee LE ALING AUS. RE READ DEGREES FROM TOP To BOTTOM. READ METERS FROM LEFT TORIGHT. Jol FILO FREE VOXYGEN (CURVE READING JULY,28 Bese Tt pees READING AUG, 29 _ FIGURES AT TOP REPRESENT METERS DEEP. FIGURES AT SIDE REPRESENT CC FREE O. PERLITER 302 ENG 7 Pree, OOnGUR VE Ss 2 4 6 8 /0 12. READING JULY, 28 ee EAI AUC. pe FIGURES AT TOP REPRESENT METERS DEEP | FIGURES AT SIDES REPRESENT CC FREE CO2 PEP LITER FG. ue FIEU COs. CURVE S S 2 4 6 a 10 12 33.8752 34.6330 ASI 2. es : 392.0 37.4144 - SSS Eve ta ee 136.9840 43.7344 43.7344 19.745 © 46-5/SR Te SES AN (an cia NEAT ME 53. S$IF6 59.6 608 a _ READING TAKEN JULY,265 bere a. READING TAKEN AUG. 26 FIGURES AT TOP REPRESENT METERS DEEP FIGURES AT SIDES REPRESENT C C 5084—23 all but the bottom collection, which was taken in the manner described below and as illustrated by the figures. A sixteen-ounce reagent bottle (see Fig. 1) with a ground glass stopper was securely fastened to a block of cement weighing approximately 30 Ibs. The stopper was so tied that it could be partly pulled out. A strong cord was attached to the neck of the bottle to permit raising and lowering the bottle. A second cord was attached to the stopper so that when the empty bottle was at the bottom the stopper could be pulled as far as its fastenings would permit, allowing the bottle to be filled with the bottom ooze. When the bottle was filled the cord attached to the stopper was loosened, thus allowing it to snap back in place and securely close the bottle, and with the cord around the neck the bottle was drawn to the surface. The stopper and neck of the collecting bottle were rinsed off first with aleohol, then distilled water. The contents were then transferred to smaller reagent bottles, corked and sealed with paraffin to insure their being air tight. The contents of the collections, especially the bottom collection, were examined microscopically and the plants and animals that seemed alive - were listed. As a check, some bottles of the same collection were kept fifteen days in darkness and at approximately the same temperature as the lake bottom. Their contents were then examined and the plants and animals found therein were apparently as active as when first collected. The animals were all seen moving with more or less rapidity, the protozoans quite rapidly, the higher forms not so much so. Their activity increased with exposure to light and air. From the total examinations made, the following were found, demon- strated to be alive and classified. Nine protozoa, one rotifer, one erustacea, twenty algae and fourteen diatoms. Animals Classified afler Conn and Webster. Protozoa: Dactylasphaerium radiosum Khr. Difflugia globostoma Leidy. Amoeba proteus Ehr. Helizoa: Actinosphaerium eichornii. Mastigophora-flagellata: Peranema sp.(?) Ciliata: Colpidium sp.(?) Paramoecium Bursaria EKhr. Stentor coerulus EKhr. Vorticella sp.(?) Gastotricha: One form belonging to this group was abundant. Crustaceae: Copepoda— Cyclops biénspidatus. classified after Conn and Webster. Algae Cyanophyceae (Blue-green) : Oscillatocia subtilissima Kiitz. Oscillatoria aeruginoso caerulea. Merismopedia nagelii. Microcystis aeruginoso Kiitz. Nostoe rupestre Kiitz. Nostoe rupestre sp.(?) Chlorophyceae (Green Algae): Scenodesmus caudatus. Pediastrum pertusum var. clarthratum A. Br. Pediastrum Boryanum Turp. (two types). Pediastrum Boryanum Turp. var. granulatum Kiitz. Ulthorix sp.(?) Zygnemeae stellium var. genuinum Kirch. Spirogyra variens (Hass) Kiitz. Heterokontae (Yellow green): Tribonema minus (Wille) Raz. Bacillarieae (Diatomaceae) classified after Wolle: Navieula Sillimanorum Ehrb. Navicula Tabellaria. Navicula Tabellaria var. Macilenta. Gomphonema Geminatum (two types). Asterionella Formosa. Asterionella Formosa var. Ralfsii (two types) Asterionella Formosa var. Bleakeleyi. Asterionella Formosa var. Gracillima. Fragalaria Capucina Desmaz. Stephanodiseus Niagara EKhr. (two types). 396 Thus far we have established the following: (a) Center Lake, during part of the year, has a region devoid of free oxygen. (b) A number of living organisms are found in it during this time. Many of these organisms are chlorophyl bearing. This made it desirable to determine, if possible, whether or not any light reached the bottom of this rather turbid lake. To answer this question a Brownie No. 0 camera, boiled in paraffine vw make it impervious to water, was fastened into a pail weighted in the bottom with lead to sink it. (See Fig. 2.) The lever of the shutter was arranged with strings running through opposite sides of the top of the pail (see Fig. 3), so that when the camera was sunk to the desired depth the shutter could he opened, exposing a bit of film arranged between two microscopic slides which were taped around the edges, serving the double purpose of keeping the film dry and acting as a check. (See Fig. 4.) After an exposure of five minutes, the shutter was closed by means of the other cord and the camera raised to the surface. The film was developed. The exposed part of the film was distinctly darkened, showing that there is some light at the bottom of the lake. The intensity and quality of this light remains to be determined. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ’ Birge, E. A., and Juday, C.: (11) The Inland Lakes of Indiana. Wisconsin Survey Bulletin No, 22. Conn, H. W., and Webster, L. W.: (08) A Preliminary Report on the Algae of the Fresh Waters of Con- necticut. Conn. State Geology & Nat. History Surv., pp. 1-78. (05) The Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of Connecticut. Edmondson, C. H.: (06) The Protozoa of Iowa. Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Science. Vol. XI, pp. 1-24. Wolle, F.: (94) The Diatomaceae of N. A. Comenius Press, Bethlelem, Pa. Sedgwick, A.: THe OccuRRENCE OF More THAN OnE LEAF IN OPHIOGLOSSUM. It is usually stated that in the Ophioglossales one leaf develops each year. In collecting material of Ophioglossum vulgatum near Gary, Ind., during the summer of 1914, it was observed that there was a large proportion of plants with more than one leaf, so a count was made. Of a total of two hundred plants, selected at random, ninety-one had one leaf above ground, one hundred and five had two leaves, and four had three leaves. A similar pro- portion was found the same year in plants collected in a wood adjoining the Earlham College campus. Material collected during the summers of 1913 and 1915 showed few plants with more than one leaf. M. S. Mark ie. Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. [Je) Ou le) THe PuoytTEecoLtocy or Peat Bocs NEAR RICHMOND, INDIANA. M. S. MARKLE. LirERATURE USED FOR REFERENCE. @) Transeau, E. N., On the geographical distribution and ecological relations of the bog plant societies of northern North America. Bot. Gaz. 36: 401-420, 1908. (2) Leverett, F., The glacial formations and drainage features of the Erie and Ohio basins. Mon. 41, U. 8. G.S. (8) Dachnowski, M., A cedar bog in central Ohio. Ohio Naturalist, 11: No. 1, 1910. While the peat bog is a common feature of the landscape in northerly latitudes, the presence of a bog as far south as Central Indiana or Ohio excites considerable interest. It is the belief of modern botanists (‘), that these bogs originated during the period immediately following the glacial period, when the area abutting on the edge of the ice approximated arctic conditions, and gradually emerged from this condition after the recession of the ice. Since the retreat of the ice began at its southern border, areas retaining any of the primitive conditions incident to the original arctic climave increase in rarity southward. In Indiana and Ohio, the Ohio river formed the approximate southern boundary of the ice sheet at the time of its greatest extension; so these bogs are within sixty or seventy miles of the southernmost limit of glacial action and even nearer the edge of the most recent ice sheet. No doubt many bogs formerly existed in central Indiana and Ohio, but, with changed conditions, practically all have disappeared. The principal features of interest involved in an ecological study of the vegetation of peat bogs are, first, the presence of a large number of xero- phytie forms, a situation not to be inferred from the well-watered condition of the habitat; second, the existence of many plants characteristic of aretic and subarctic regions. Little study was made of the anatomy of these xerophytic forms, as they are not nearly so well represented here as in the northern bogs. The presence of boreal forms may be accounted for as follows: During the giacial period, the flora of the area bordering on the ice was aretic, such a flora having been able to retreat southward before the slowly-advancing ice, and consisted of such forms as were able to withstand the many north- 360 Indiana Fic. 1. Map of part of southeastern Indiana and southwestern Ohio, showing glacial moraines of the Early and Late Wisconsin Ice Sheets and the boundary of the Illinoian drift: also the location of the bogs near Richmond, Indiana and Urbana, Ohio. Adapted from Leverett and supplemented by Observation. 361 and-south oscillations of the ice. When the ice finally retreated, the plants followed. As any area became warmer and drier, some species perished. The southern flora, long held in check by the glacier, began to crowd in and where conditions were favorable for its growth, replaced the arctic flora, which remained only in such situations as were unsuitable for the growth of the southern plants, such as bogs and cool, shady ravines. Such places as these are islands of northern plants left in our now southern and south- eastern flora. The physiographic cycle of a bog differs from that of an ordinary swamp in several particulars; while both are ephemeral features of the landscape, soon being destroyed by sedimentation or by drainage, they differ in the manner in which they are filled; a swamp fills up from the bottom by the gradual accumulation of sediment deposited by incoming streams and that formed by decaying plant and animal matter; while a bog fills largely from the top by the formation, beginning at the edge, of a gradually thickening and settling floating mat of partially decayed vegetation, which is finally capable of supporting a rich flora. Bogs are more likely to develop in un- drained or poorly drained depressions, though there are partially drained bogs and undrained swamps. The glacial age was not a unit, but was characterized by alternate ad- vances and recessions of the ice, repeated no one knows how often. The last few advances were, in general, less extensive than their predecessors, so the terminal moraine of each was not, in every case, destroyed by its successor. The moraines of three of these successive advances of the ice can be distinguished in Ohio (2). The oldest, the Illinoian, extended almost to the Ohio river. The second, the Early Wisconsin, extended nearly as far, and was divided by an elevation of land into two lobes, the Scioto on the east and the Maumee-Miami on the west. The Late Wisconsin sheet followed the same course as did its predecessor. The terminal moraines of the two sheets are roughly parallel. The medial moraine of the two lobes of the Early Wisconsin Sheet was not destroyed by the Late Wisconsin, and the outwash plain between the medial moraine of the Early Wisconsin and the lateral moraine of the Late Wisconsin formed a broad valley, now drained by the Mad river. In this valley is located a bog, known locally as the Cedar Swamp. See accompanying map, Fig. 1. Cedar Swamp is in Champaign county, Ohio, about five miles south of Urbana. It is between the river and the east bluff of the valley. There is & sedqt-grass asseciahion el Arosr vilac ” | talip-peplar ” Oo dry beg. Fic. 2. Map of Cedar Swamp, showing relation of the plant associations. The birch-alder association is not shown. Fic. 3. Panoramic view of Cedar Swamp, looking northward from near the road. Made from two photographs. Sedge-grass association in foreground, arbor vitae association in background, with birch-alder association between. The sedge-grass association had recently been burned over. 363 no evidence that it occupies a former bed of the stream. The bog probably occupies what was originally a small lake on the valley floor, fed by springs in the underlying gravel. The former area of the bog was no doubt much greater than its present area, as is shown by extensive outlying deposits of peaty soil. The area of the bog has been greatly reduced during the last few years by artificial means. From natives of the vicinity, it was learned that the bog was formerly much wetter and more impenetrable. A story is told of an “herb-doctor’’ who entered the bog on a collecting expedition and never returned. A skeleton recently unearthed was supposed to be that of the unfortunate doctor. The bog is now artificially drained by a large ditch, but the natural drainage was evidently very sluggish. The bog in its present condition throws no light on the question of the origin of the floating mat of plants characteristic of the earlier stages. Four rather distinct plant associations, representing four stages in the plant suec- cession in a bog formation, are represented here. These are the sedge-grass association, the birch-alder association, the arbor vitae association and the maple-tulip association. The quaking mat, occupied by the sedge-grass association, has almost disappeared, and exists only in isolated patches, the largest of which is shown on the accompanying map, Fig. 2. One of the smaller patches appears in a photograph, Fig. 7. The areas that are left are quite typical. Walking about over the mat is to be conducted with some caution, especially in the wetter seasons. By jumping on the mat, one can shake it for many feet around. A stick can be thrust down with little resistance to a depth of four to six feet. The burning over of the largest of these areas has destroyed many of the typical plants. The principal species found in the association are as follows: Drosera rotundifolia. Parnassia caroliniana. Carex spp. Lophiola aurea. Solidago ohioensis. Solidago Riddellii. Calopogon pulchellus. laparis Loeselu. Habenaria peramoena. 64 Sy 2) they The upon which trees do not show. with the logs ter logs ne Swamp. in diame { he ends of the ees two fee ae tr vit Arbor 4. Fic. germinated still re the ar T “maining. Cedar oO s.- hatchet is stuck in the nearer lo 365 Equisetum arvense. Typha latifolia. Utricularia minor. Lobelia Canbyi. Cardamine bulbosa. Scirpus americanus. Geum rivale. Aspidium thelypteris. The birch-alder association occupies the smallest area of any of the associations, since it forms merely a narrow fringe between the areas of quaking mat and the areas occupied by the arbor vitae association. Some of the same plants are found intermingled with the trees and others on the mat. The tendency is for these bordering shrubs gradually to close in upon the mat areas they enclose until the mat is covered. The shrubs may gain a foothold upon higher points in the mat association from which they spread outward. The principal plants of the birch-alder association are as follows: Potentilla fruticosa. Aldus ineana. Betula pumila. Hypericum prolificum. Salix cordata. Physoearpus opulifolius. Cephalanthus occidentalis. Steironema quadrifolia. Silphium terebinthinaceum. Ulmaria rubra. Phlox glaberrima. By far the largest part of the bog is occupied by the arbor vitae associa- ciation. The association is noticeable from a distance, on account of the presence of these trees of arbor vitae, or white cedar, which gave the bog its name. Trees two feet in diameter are common. A stump, oblong in cross-section, was found to be twenty feet in circumference and five by eight feet in diameter. The stump was hollow, so that its age could not be de- termined, but the outer six inches showed about one hundred growth rings, so the tree must have been several hundred years old. Under natural conditions, this association would probably persist for a very long time, as invasion from without goes on very slowly. The Thuyas have very com- 366 Fic. 5. Stump of an arbor vitae tree 40 years old, and the log upon which it germinated. Cedar Swamp. 367 plete possession of the habitat. Shade conditions are such as to exclude light-demanding forms. First attempts at photography under the arbor vitaes resulted in failures, on account of uniform under exposures. The vegetation of the forest floor is not abundant, except in early spring. The herbs are largely shade-enduring species. The mat of roots and fallen branches and leaves is another factor that deters invasion from without. If the toxicity of the substratum is a factor, it exerts its maximum influence here, under present conditions. Then, too, the plants of the association are reproducing themselves very efficiently, all stages of seedlings and saplings being found. Nearly all the Thuyas germinate on stumps and logs. A specimen four or five inches in diameter and twenty-five feet in height was found growing on a stump four feet high. Even the oldest trees, which must be hundreds of years old, are still grasping in their roots the partially decayed remains of the logs upon which they germinated. The fact that the logs are lying in a position that subjects them to the greatest exposure to decay shows the resistant qualities of arbor vitae wood. The logs shown in the photograph (Fig. 4) are still fairly sound, though the trees which grew upon them are two feet in diameter. One of the commonest undergrowth shrubs is Taxus canadensis, which is here a prostrate, creeping shrub, seldom more than one or two feet in height. No traces of seed formation were observed, but the plant reproduces abundantly by layering. What at first glance seems to be a group of plants is found to be a series of layered branches from a common central plant. This habit is of considerable ecological importance here, since it seems to be the only means of reproduction of the species. As the accompanying list shows, the arbor vitae association 1s the habitat of a large number of species of ferns, which form a prominent part of the flora of the association. Camptosorus was found in four widely-separated situations, growing luxuriantly upon fallen logs. Plants of Pteris more than four feet in height are rather common. Osmunda cinnamomea is common, but only two specimens of O. regalis were seen. Botrychium virginianum is abundant. Prothallia of O. cinnamomea are common. A single plant of Lycopodium lucidulum, probably the last representative of its species, was found. The disappearance of this species is indicative of what has occurred in the case of many other northern forms and of the aventual fate of those that remain. Another disappearing species is 368 Kia. 6. A fallen arbor vitae tree, showing shallow rooting. Trees are frequently uprooted. Cedar Swamp. 369 Vaccinium corymbosum, only one specimen of which was seen. The prin- cipal species of the association are as follows: *Thuya occidentalis. *Taxus canadensis. *Alnus ineana. Populus deltoides. *Populus tremuloides. Rhus vernix. Rhus cotinus. Rhus glabra. Lindera benzoin. Ribes Cynosbatti. Rubus idaeus. *Rubus triflorus. *Vaccinium corymbosum. Cornus paniculata. Cornus alternifolia. Acer rubrum Pyrus arbutifolia. Ampatiens biflora. Laportea canadensis. Asclepias incarnata. Caltha palustris. Symploearpus foetidus. Cypripedium parviflorus. Cypripedium hirsutum. Aralia racemosa. Polygonatum biflorum. Dioscorea villosa. Polymnia canadensis. Mitchella repens. Anemonella thalietroides. Anemone quinquefolia. Pedicularis lanceolata. Polemonium reptans. Uvalaria perfoliata. Mitella diphylla. 5084— 24 370 Fic. 7. One of the small areas occupied by the sedge-grass association, with Sil- phium and Typha in the foreground, and Thuya in the background. The birch-alder association is not well developed here. Cedar Swamp. Hydrophyllum appendiculatum. Hydrophyllum virginianum. Arisema diphylla. Trillium grandiflorum. Trillium cernuum. . *Trientalis americana. *Maianthomum canadense. Senecio aureus. Botryehium virginianum. Osmunda regalis. Osmunda cinnamomea. Pteris aquilina. Cystopteris fragilis. Aspidium spinulosum. Aspidium eristatum. Aspidium thelypteris. Adiantum pedatum. Anoclea sensibilis. Camptosorus rhizophylius. Asplenium aecrosticoides. *Lycopodium lucidulum. On the west side of the arbor vitae association is an almost undisturbed tree association, differing greatly in composition from that just described. The arbor vitae zone is made up largely of plants of northern origin or plants characteristic of bogs, while the plants of the other group, called the maple- tulip association, are those typical of the climax mesophytie forest of the region and are distinctly southern in their origin. A comparison of the distribution of the more distinctly boreal forms of the arbor vitae associa- tiln, indicated thus (*) in the list, with those given below for the maple- tulip association, will make the difference in origin very striking. Practically all these boreal forms occur outside the limits of distribution given by the best manuals. The beech is usually a member of the climax mesophytie forest of this region, but since for some reason it is absent from all the forests of this vicinity for several miles around, it is also absent in the bog. The principal trees of the maple-tulip association follow: Liriodendron tulipifera. Acer saccharinum. Acer rubrum. Fraxinus nigra. Fraxinus americana. Juglans cinera. Ulmus americana. Ulmus racemosa. Platanus occidentalis. Lindera benzoin. Xanthoxylum americanum. Pilea pumila. Urticastrum sp. Thalictrum dasycarpum. We have in the cedar swamp a formation of plants of a decidedly boreal aspect, maintaining itself, but for the influence of man, in the midst of a flora predominantly southern. Ability to maintain itself in the struggle with the southern flora was probably due originally to differences in the habitat. Just what the factors are that make hog conditions unsuitable for the growth of most plants have not been fully determined; but some combination of edaphic conditions permitted the northern plants to remain and removed them very largely from competition with the southern forms. In the later stages of the development of the bog, many of these conditions have probably been modified or removed. Many of the southern plants could undoubtedly maintain themselves under the present conditions; but the bog plants have such complete possession of the habitat that invasion is practically pre- cluded. But for the influence of man, the formation would no doubt have been able to maintain itself for many centuries to come. About two miles southeast of Richmond, Ind., lies a small remnant of a formerly much more extensive peat bog. It is known as the Elliott’s Mills bog and is in such an advanced state in the physiographic cycle of bogs that little resemblance to a typical bog remains. But the characteristic peat soil and the presence of certain bog and boreal plants indicate its former character. The bog lies in a broad, shallow valley between morainic hills. It evidently occupies a shallow, undrained depression scooped out in a softer part of the underlying Niagara limestone. The bog is crossed by a public BYES) highway and is now drained by the roadside ditch. It was necessary to blast through rock in order to get an outlet for the bog, showing that it is a rockbound depression. Tile drains from the bog carry streams of cold water throughout the year. Galleries supplying part of the water for the city of Richmond oceupy a drier part of the bog. The very advanced state of the bog is due, no doubt, to its nearness to the southern limit of glaciation and its consequent great age. Few typical bog plants remain. The following, however, are more or less characteristic of bogs: Rhus vernix, Salix pedicellaris, Hypericum prolificum, Parnassia caroliniana, Potentilla fruticosa. Only one specimen of Rhus vernix remains and it is dying—a fate typical of that of many bog plants which must formerly have existed here. Nearly all boreal forms have likewise disappeared. The following species have a range reaching far into the north: Potentilla fruticosa, Salix rostrata, Populus tremuloides. Only one specimen of Salix rostrata was found. No other specimen is known in the region. Populus tremuloides occurs sparingly thru central Indiana, but is common in the bog. A very striking fact is the presence of a large number of species character- istie of prairies. This is somewhat strange when it is remembered that the prairie is a formation not at all characteristic of eastern Indiana, which was originally heavily forested.. Eastern Indiana is, however, not far from the tension line between the forest formation characteristic of the east and southeast and the prarie formation characteristic of the west and south- west. No doubt after the retreat of the glacial ice there was a migration of plants of both of these formations and a consequent struggle between them for the possession of the new territory. In some instances the pond-swamp- prairie succession or the pond-bog-prairie succession may have occurred, while in other cases the pond-swamp-forest or the pond-bog-forest succession may have taken place. The last named is the succession that occurred at Cedar Swamp. In Eastern Indiana, the condition that finally prevailed over the entire area was the mesophytic forest, but it is not likely that the patches that may have followed the succession toward the prairie would have entirely disappeared. This hypothesis would account for such islands of prairie plants in a forested area as we find in this bog. This is not an isolated case, for other such situations are found in eastern Indiana and western Ohio and are known locally as ‘quaking prairies.’ The writer hopes to make further studies of these areas. old The following plants occur in the Elhott’s Mills bog: Rhus vernix. Cornus stolonifera. Potentilla fruticosa. Parnassia caroliniana. Hypericum prolificum. Salix pedicellaris. Salix rostrata. Gerardia paupercula. Populus tremuloides. Aster Nova-Angliae. Aster oblongifolius. Phlox glaberrima. Physostegia virginica. Ulmaria rubra. Solidago ohioensis. Solidago Ridelli. Solidago stricta. Solidago rugosa. Rudbeckia hirta. Desmodium paniculata. Monarda fistulosa. Rosa setigera. Koellia virginica. Chelone glabra. Cirsium muticum. Salix nigra. Salix cordata. Lobelia syphilitica. Lobelia Kalmii. Aspidium thelypteris. Selaginella apus. Physoearpus opulifolius. Inula Helenium. Geum eanadense. Symploecarpus foetidus. Kupatorium perfohatum. Eupotorium purpureum. Sagittaria latifolia. Alisma plantago. Carex spp. Cuseuta sp. Ludwigia palustris. Bidens trichosperma. Oxypolis rigidior. Campanula americana. Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. M. S. Mark ie. A Report ON THE LAKES OF THE TIPPECANOE BASIN.* WILL Scort. This paper presents the first section of the results of the survey of the Indiana lakes. The lakes herein described all lie in the Tippecanoe basin. This basin contains 1,890 square miles. The plan of the survey has been to construct a hydrographic map of the lakes; and to determine at critical levels the temperature together with the amount of oxygen, free carbon- dioxide, carbonates and plankton. The following lakes have been mapped: Manitou, Yellow Creek, Beaver Dam, Silver, Plew, Sawmill, Irish, Kuhn, Hammon, Dan Kuhn and Ridinger. Gas determinations and plankton collections have been made in the following lakes: Manitou, Yellow Creek, Pike, Eagle (Winona), Little Eagle (Chapman), Tippecanoe, Plew, Hammon (Big Barbee). All of the lakes in this basin have been caused by irregularities in the great Erie-Saginaw interlobate moraine which was formed by the Erie and Huron-Saginaw lobes of the Wisconsin ice sheet. The basins are either kettle holes, irregulatities in the ground moraine, channel lakes, or a combination of these. In the lakes that we have mapped the area varies from 85,084 sq. M. in Sawmill lake to 3,265,607 sq. M. in Manitou. The volume varies from 284,716 cu. M.in the former to 9,787,024 cu. M. in the latter. Their maximum depth varies from 7.9 M. in Dan Kuhn lake to 22M. in Yellow Creek lake. The average depth of Dan Kuhn lake is 2.588 M. and that of Yellow Creek lake is 10 M. These are the maximum and the minimum for the lakes mapped. The bottom temperatures vary from 5.3° C. in Tippecanoe lake to 15° C. in Little Eagle (Chapman). The amount of wind distributed heat (. e. in excess of 4° C.) has been calculated in gram calories per square centimeter of surface. This varies from 5,361 gram calories in Manitou to 10,563 calories in Yellow Creek lake. The oxygen is always abundant in the epilimnion. In six observations it was found to exceed the saturation point at one or more levels. The *A complete report of this work, with maps, tables, and other data, will be pub- lished as the July number of the Indiana University Studies for 1916. 378 oxygen is always reduced in the hypolimnion. The following lakes have no free oxygen in their lower levels: Hammon, Lingle, Little Eagle, Pike, Center and Webster. : All lakes that have been examined are hard water lakes. The maximum amount of carbondioxide as carbonates varies in the different lakes from 27 ce. per liter to 60 ce. per liter. They are all increasingly acid in their lower levels, but in the epilimnion they are sometimes alkaline. This is due to photosynthesis. The above statements in this discussion apply only to summer con- ditions. No very general correlation has been found between the plankton and the dissolved gases. Some of the lakes are much richer in plankton than others. It seems probable at the present stage of the investigation that this is related to, and possibly caused by the varying amount of phanerogams that are produced in their littoral region. 319 A List or PLAntT DISEASES OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN INDIANA WITH BIBLIOGRAPHY. IN edi, LRTeAiEe INTRODUCTION. Plant diseases cost Indiana considerably more every year than the maintenance of all public schools in the State. In other words, they exact an annual tax of over $15,000,000. The loss on the grain crops alone amounts to about $11,000,000. The above estimates are based upon the results of the experimental and demonstrational work conducted for a number of yeers with grain smuts over a large section of the state, upon special reports from codperators in plant disease survey, general correspondence, and per- sonal investigations and observations by the members of the Botanical and other departments of the Agricultural Experiment Station. A considerable proportion of this damage to growing crops can be readily and cheaply prevented by employing certain well-established, precautionary measures. This has been clearly demonstrated in the disinfection of seed grain by the formaldehydge treatment and in the spraying of fruit trees. Other effective sanitary measures and methods of control are available, which, if put into practice, will save yearly a neat sum of money. It is highly desirable, therefore, that Indiana farmers realize these facts and avail themselves of the knowledge regarding plant diseases and their control. A greater interest of the farmer in this phase of work will also add stimulus to further and more extensive investigations of plant diseases so that new and more practical measures of prevention and control ean be evolved and made available for general practice. In order to bring together the accumulated information regarding the plant diseases that occur within the State the writer has made an attempt in this paper to present a list and a bibliography of plant diseases in Indiana. It is far from complete, however, and when a thorough survey is completed many additions will be made to it. This list is merely intended to serve as a foundation for plant disease surveys to be made in the future. With a few exceptions the list includes all plant diseases that have been reported heretofore in various publications, and other diseases of which 380 specimens have been collected or received from correspondents by former and present members of the Department of Botany, Indiana Agricultural Experimental Station, or by Professor G. N. Hoffer, of the School of Science, Purdue University. Unless otherwise stated in the list the specimens are in the phytopathological collection of the Station Department of Botany, or in the collection of Professor Hoffer. The distribution of the diseases is given either by counties, together with the dates of collections when known; or by sections of the State in which they are prevalent. If they occur generally over the State they are mentioned as common. The bibliography includes articles written by Indiana workers and pertaining to Indiana plant diseases, published mostly in the bulletins and reports of the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, Transactions of the Indiana Horticultural Society, and the Annual Reports of the State Entomologist. It also includes several papers presented at meetings by out-of-state scientists, but pertaining to diseases common to Indiana and printed in the State publications. Ref- erences to the articles dealing with the diseases mentioned in the following list are given by number, in the chronological order in which they were published. In order to make the plant disease survey as complete as possible, co- operation is solicited, and the Department of Botany, Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Lafayette, will be pleased to receive specimens, especially of the less common or unreported diseases. Any valuable information as to the prevalence of such diseases, the extent of damage caused, relation to weather conditions, ete., will also be appreciated. The writer wishes to express his gratitude to Prof. H. 8. Jackson, Chief of the Department of Botany, Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, for valuable advice and assistance in the preparation of this list. dsl LIST OF DISEASES. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa 1.) Downey Mildew, Peronospora Trifoliorum DeB. Tippecanoe, 1915. Leaf Spot, Pseudopeziza Medicaginis (Lib.) Sace. Common. 78. Rust, Uromyces Medicaginis Pass. Putnam, 1907. ; Violet Root Rot, Rhizoctonia Crocorum (Pers.) DC. Referred to formerly as R. Medicaginis D.C. St. Joseph, 1915. County agent, J. S. Bordner, reported a number of affected spots in one field, each spot being as much as 10 feet across and enlarging at the rate of 1 foot every 30 days during the growing season. So far as known to the writer this disease has been reported on alfalfa only from Nebraska, Kansas and Virginia. Wilt, Sclerotinia Trifoliorum Eriks. Clark, Fulton and Henry, 1914. Especially prevalent in Clark county. Apple (Pyrus Malus L.) Bitter Pit (cause physiological). Common on Baldwin variety. Bald- win Fruit Spot, caused by Cylindrosporium Pomi, has been reported but no definite determination of it has yet been made. References to Baldwin Fruit Spot: 58, 59, 84, 36. Bitter Rot, Glomerella rufomaculans (Berk.) Spaul. and von Schr. Preva- lent in the southern half of the State. 46, 76, 78, 57, 58, 84, 100, 36, 40. Black Rot, Sphaeropsis Malorwm Peck. Shear’s studies indicate genetic connection with Melanops. Prevalent in the southern half of the State. 78, 58, 59, 84, 100, 67, 36, 40, 117. Blister Canker, Nummularia discreta (Sechw.) Tul. Becoming serious in the southern part of the State. 36, 40, 39, 117, 86. Blotch, Phyllosticta solitaria EK. & E. Common. 78, 58, 59, 84, 37, 40. Brown Rot, Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Wor. Common. 58, 59, 84. Crown Gall, Pseudomonas tumefaciens E. F. Smith & Towns. Reported serious occasionally on nursery stock. 57, 59, 84, 36. Kuropean Canker, Nectria ditissima Tul. Found injurious to nursery stock. 57, 58, 59. Fire Blight, Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) DeToni. Common. 76, 78. 57, 58, 59, 34, 36, 38, 117, 62. See also under Pear. 382 Fly Speck, Leplothyrium Pomi. (Mont. & Fr.) Sace. Usually found to- gether with sooty blotch. 78, 58, 84, 36, 40. Jonathan Fruit Spot (cause unknown). Serious on Jonathan apples in storage. Leaf Spot, Phyllosticta limitata Pk. Tippecanoe, 1915. Pestalozzia concentrica B. & Br. Monroe, Franklin and Martin, 1912. Mildew, Podosphaera oxyacanthae (D.C.) DeB. Floyd, 1906, and Podo- sphaera leucotrichia (EK. & E.) Salm. Sullivan, 1915. 84. Pink Rot, Cephalotheciwm roseum Cda. Common. 58, 84. Root Rot, Clitocybe parasitica Wileox and Armillaria mellea (Vahl.) Qual. Serious in some orchards in the southern counties. Rust, Gymnosporangium Juniperi-virginianae Schw. Common. 133, 94, 78, 57, 58, 84, 100, 36, 40, 39, 117. Seab, Venturia inaequalis (Fr.) Wint. Common. 76, 78, 57, 58, 84, 59, 100, 36, 40, 39. Soft Rot, Penicillium spp. Common. 58, 59, 84. Sooty Blotech, Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sace. Most abundant in unusually moist seasons and in damp situations. 78, 58, 84, 36, 40. Trunk Rot, Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr. Kosciusko, 1914. Ash (Fraxinus spp.) Mildew, Phyllactinia corylea (Pers.) Karst. Johnson, 1890. Montgomery and Putnam, 1893. 132. White Heart Rot, Fomes fraxvinophilus Peck. 132, 71. Asparagus (Asparagus s).) led lis Rust, Puccinia Asparagi D.C. Rather common. 110, 21, 142, 76, 136, 25. Astec, Chinese (Callistephus hortensis Cass.) Fusarium Wilt, Fusarium sp. Tippecanoe, 1912; Clinton, 1914; Allen and Marion, 1915. Rust, Coleosporium Solidaginis (Schw.) Thum. Jefferson, 1914. 383 Barley ( Hordeum sp.) Black Stem Rust, Puccinia poculiformis (Pers.) Wettst. Common. Covered Smut, Ustilago Hordei (Pers.) Kell. & Sw. Rather common. 132, 42. Loose Smut, Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw. Rather common. Stripe Disease, Helminthosporium gramineum (Rag.) Erik. Tippecanoe, 1910. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris 1.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum Lindemuthianum (Sace. & Magn.) Bri. & Cav. Common. 78, 128. Rust, Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Lev. Common. 132, 142, 78. Stem Rot, Corticium vagum B. & C. var. Solani Burt. Laporte, 1911. Beech (Fagus sp.) Heart Rot, Steccherinum septentrionale (Fr.) Banker. Rather common. W325 TL. Leaf Spot, Phyllosticta faginea Pk. Monroe, 1909. 137. Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (D.C.) Wint. Johnson, 1890. 132. Beet (Beta vulgaris L.) Bacterial Disease. While the cause of this disease has been ascribed to a bacterial origin, the matter has not been definitely settled. The general characteristics of the diseased plants are similar to those caused by the curly top disease described by Townsend (U.S. Dept. of Agr. B. P. I. Bul. 122). The curly top disease, however, appears to be caused, as indicated by Shaw (U.S. Dept. of Agr. B. P. I. Bul. 181) and Ball (U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 66), by the beet leafhopper (Hutetlix tenella). As this insect is claimed to be confined to the southern states and therefore is not likely to be found in Indiana, it is doubtful if the Indiana disease is the same as the curly top. 65, Ss ee Leaf Blight, Cercospora beticola Sace. Probably common. 128, 78. Leaf Spot, Septoria Betae West. Tippecanoe, 1896. Seab, Oospora scabies Thaxter. Common. 65, 31. od4 Birch, Yellow (Betula lutea Michx. f.) Rust, Melampsoridium betulinum (Pers.) Kleb. Steuben, 1913. 25. Blackberry (Rubus spp.) Anthracnose, Gloeosporium venelum Speg. Burkholder reported genetic connection with Plectodiscella. Common. 128, 78, 57, 36, 40. Crown Gall, Pseudomonas tumefaciens EK. F. Smith and Townsend. Rather serious in some localities. 76. 57, 40. Leaf Spot, Seploria Rubi West. Common. 78, 40. Rust, Gymnoconia interstitialis (Sehlecht.) Lagh. Common. 64, 128, 142, 78, 57, 36. Puccinia Peckiana Howe. Tippecanoe, 1895. Kuehneola Uredinis (Link) Arthur. Common. Blue-grass (Poa pratensis ..) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum cereale Manns. Tippecanoe, 1914. Leaf Spot, Scolelotrichum graminus Fekl. Johnson, 1890. 132. Mildew, Erysiphe graminis D.C. Common in wet seasons. 132. Rust, Puccinia epiphylla (L.) Wettst. Common. 132. Slime Mold, Physarum cinereum (Batsch) Pers. Tippecanoe, 1913. Marion, 1915. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea \..) Black Leg, Phoma oleracea Sace. Elkhart, 1915. Large percentage of the crop in two fields was severely affected. Black Rot, Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel) E. F. Smith. 108, 76, 78, 42. Club-root, Plasmodiophora Brassicae Wor. Rather common. Common, V%;, Drop, Sclerotinia libertiana Fekl. Tippecanoe, 1915. No specimen preserved. Leaf Blight, Alfernaria Brassicace (Berk.) Sace. Clark, 1908. One field almost ruined. No specimen preserved. Wilt or Yellows, Fusariwm conglutinans Wr. Pike and Deeatur, 1914. Canteloupe (Cucumis Melo L.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum Lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Halls. Becoming common. 78. 389 Leaf Blight, Alternaria Brassicae (Berk.) Sace. Common. 128, 78, 144. Wilt, Bacillus tracheiphilus K. F. Smith. Very serious in many localities. 76, 78, 144. Carnation (Dianthus Caryophyllus L.) Bacteriosis, Bacterium Dianthi Arth. & Boll. Serious in greenhouses. 30. Bud Rot, Sporotrichum anthophilum Peck. Marion, 1909. 58. Leaf Spot, Alternatia Dianthi S. & H. Monroe, 1912. 138. Rust, Uromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank) Wint. Common. 132, 138. Catalpa (Catalpa spp.) Heart Rot, Collybia velutipes Fr. and Polyporus versicolor Fr. Tippecanoe, 1913. 71. Leaf Spot, Cladosporium sp. Common. 58. Macrosporium Catalpae Ell. & Mart., Kosciusko, 1914, and Phyllosticta Catalpae Ell. & Mart., Kosciusko, 1914. 71. Mildew, Microsphaera vaccinii (Schw.) Salm. Reported as Microsphaera elevata Burrill. Putnam, 1891. Owen, 1893. Tippecanoe, 1890. Phyllactinia suffulata (Reb.) Sace. Montgomery, 1893. 132. Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea lL. var. botrytis D. C.) Black Rot, Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel) E. F. Smith. No locality mentioned. 77. Celery (Apium graveolens L.) Leaf Spot, Septoria Petroselini Desm. var. Apii. Br. & Cav. Tippecanoe, 1915. Cercospora Apii Fr. Marshall and St. Joseph, 1915. Cherry (Prunus spp.) Black Knot, Plowrightia morbosa (Schw.) Sace. Common. 127, 10, 130, 57, 36. 40, 117. Brown Rot, Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Wor. Common. 57, 58, 36, 40. Leaf Spot, Cylindrosporium Padi Karst. Higgins has reported genetic relation with Coccomyces hiemalis Higgins. Common. 78, 57, 36. 38, 40. Powdery Mildew, Podosphaera oxyacanthae (D.C.) DeB. Common. Seab. Venturia cerasi Aderh. Kosciusko, 1913. 5084—25 386 Chestnut (Castanea spp.) Blight, Endothia parasitica (Murrill) Anders. Marion and Benton, 1915. Leaf Spot, Mycosphaerella maculiformis (Pers.) Sehw. Martin, 1915. Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.) Rust, Puccinia Chrysanthemi Roze. Tippecanoe, 1900. 24. Clover (Trifolium spp.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum Trifolii Bain. Monroe, 1908, on red clover. 137. Gloeosporium caulivorum Kirchner. Tippecanoe, 1915, on red clover. Black Mold, Phyllachora Trifolii (Pers.) Fekl. Johnson, 1890, on red clover. 132. Rust, Uromyces fallens (Desm.) Kern and Uromyces Trifolii (Hedw.) Lev. Common. 132, 25, 142, 98. Sooty Spot, Polythryncium Trifolii Kze. Franklin, 1912, on red and white clover. Wilt, Sclerotinia Trifoliorum Eriks. Gibson, 1915, on red and crimson clover. Corn (Zea Mays L.) Dry Rot, Fusarium sp. Common. 77, 78. Rust, Puccinia Sorghi Schw. Common. 132, 142. Smut, Ustilago Zeae (Reckm.) Ung. Common. 49, 12, 56, 107, 33, 111, 113, 45, 76, 78. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus lL.) Angular Leaf Spot, Bacterium lachrymans. E. F. Smith & Bryan. Pu- laski, Marshall and Fulton, 1915. Anthracnose, Colletotrichum Lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals. Marshall, Laporte, St. Joseph, Starke, Pulaski and Fulton, 1915. Bacterial Wilt, Bacillus tracheiphilus FE. F. Smith. Marshall, Tippe- canoe, Laporte, Fulton, Starke, Pulaski and St. Joseph, 1915. Downy Mildew, Peronoplasmopara cubensis (B. & C.) Clinton. Marshall, 1915. 387 Powdery Mildew, Erysiphe Cichoracearum D.C. Marshall, 1915. White Pickle or Mosaic Disease (cause not known). Marshall, Laporte, Tippecanoe, Fulton, Pulaski, St. Joseph and Starke. 1915. Currant (Ribes spp.) Anthracnose, Pseudopeziza Ribis Kleb. Rather common. 138, 40. Leaf Spot, Septoria Ribis Desm. Common. 78, 40. Powdery Mildew, Sphaerotheca Mors-uvae (Schwein.) Berk. & Curt. Common. 40. Eggplant (Solanum Melongena L.) Leaf Spot, Ascochyta Lycopersici Brun. Tippecanoe, 1915, Elm ( Ulmus spp.) Leaf Spot, Mycosphaerella Ulmi Kleb. Johnson, 1890. Dothidella ulmea (Schw.) E. & EK. Montgomery, 1893. Kosciusko, 1912. 132, S55 cl! Mildew, Uncinula macrospora Pk. Rather common. 132. Rot, Pleurotus ulmarius Bull. Common. 71. Ginseng (Panax quinguefolium L.) Wilt, Acrostalagmus albus Preuss. Brown, 1909. 58. Gooseberry (Ribes grossularia L.) Anthracnose, Pseudopeziza Ribis Kleb. Becoming common. 40. Leaf Spot, Septoria Ribis Desm. Common. 78, 138, 40. Mildew, Sphaerotheca Mors-wae (Schw.) Berk. & Curt. Common. 128, 78, 40. Grape (Vitis spp.) Anthracnose, Gloeosporium ampelophagum Sace. 60, 36, 40. | Black Rot, Guwignardia Bidwellii (Ell.) Viala & Ravaz. Common. 8, 128, 78, 60, 36, 40. Crown Gall, Pseudomonas tumefaciens E. F. Smith & Towns. No locality mentioned. 38. Rather common. 58, Downy Mildew, Plasmopara viticola (B. & C.) Berl. & DeToni. Common. 132, 58, 60, 36, 40. Powdery Mildew, Uncinula necator (Schw.) Bull. Common. 8, 127, 36. 40. Necrosis, Fusicoccum viticolum Red. Tipton, 1907. 60. Hickory ( Hicoria spp.) Leaf Spot, Bacterium sp. Common. 71. Marsonia sp. Kosciusko, 1913. Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (D.C.) Wint. Johnson, 1890; Marshall, 1893. 132. Root Rot, Armillaria mellea Vahl. Tippecanoe, 1915. 71. Hollyhock (Althaea rosea Cav.) Rust, Puccinia malvacearum Mont. St. Joseph, Montgomery, Marshall, Huntington, Marion, and Tippecanoe, 1915. Horse Chesnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum L.) Mildew, Uncinula flexuosa Pk. Johnson, 1890; Montgomery. 132. Japanese Ivy (Ampelopsis tricuspidata Sieb. & Zuce.) Cladosporium Wilt, Cladosporium herbarum Link. Tippecanoe, 1914. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) Downy Mildew, Bremia Lactucae Regel. Found frequently in green- houses. 143. Drop, Sclerotinia libertiana Fekl. Common in greenhouses. Leaf Spot, Septoria Lactucae Pass. Johnson, 1890.. Kosciusko, 1913. 132. Lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (Wollr.) Wint. Common. 102. Linden (Tilia americana L.) Mildew, Uncinula Clintonii Peck. Montgomery, 1890; Putnam, 1893. 132. Locust, Black (Robinia Pseudacacia |.) Yellow Heart Rot, Fomes rimosus Berk. Rather common. 71. Locust, Honey (Gleditsia triacanthos L.) Leaf Spot, Melasmia hypophylla Sace. Marion, 1890; Tippecanoe, 1892; Putnam, 1893. 132. Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (Wallr.) Wint. Common. 71. Maple (Acer spp.) Anthracnose, Gloeosporium apocryptum EK. & E. Marion, Floyd, Van- derburg and Boone, 1914. 39. Bark Canker, Schizophyllum commune Fr. Rather common. 71. Canker, Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) ime, (Cereollly IQs y ale Leaf Spot, Phleospora Aceris Lib. Johnson, 1890, on red maple. Stagonos- pora collapsa (C. & EK.) Sace. Putnam, 1893, on soft maple. 132. Leaf Tar Spot, Rhytisma acerina (Pers.) Fr. Common in some localities. 1S P-Eellaie(ca ka elt Mildew, Uncinula circinata C. & P. Montgomery, 1885; Johnson, 1890; Marshall, 1893, on red and soft maple. 132, 102. Sun Seald. This trouble, thought to be due to drouth and storm injury has been quite prevalent over the State during the past few seasons. 38, 39. White Heart Rot, Fomes igniarius (L.) Gillet. Common. 71. White Rot, Polyporus squamosus (Huds.) Fr. Tippecanoe. 71. Millet (Chaetechloa italica (.) Seribn. Smut, Ustilago Crameri Koern. Rather common but not serious. 112. Oak (Quercus spp.) Leaf Spot, Ceratophorum uncinatum (Cl. & Pk.) Sace. Johnson, 1890, on bur-oak. Didymella lephosphora Sace. & Speg. Monroe, 1911, on red oak. Gloeosporium septorioides Sace. Montgomery, 1890; Monroe, 1909, on red oak. Marsonia Martini Sace. & Ell. Common on several species. Phyllosticta Quercus Sace. & Speg. Montgomery, 1898, on bur-oak. 132,137, 71. 390 Brown Heart Rot, Fomes EHverhartii Ell. & Gall. = (Pyropolyporus Ever- hartii (Ell. & Gall.) Murrill). Common in the northern counties. ri ' Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (Wallr.) Wint. Frequently on leaves of coppice growth of red and white oaks. Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.) Sace. Shelby, 1890; Vigo, 1893, on swamp and red oaks. 132, 71. Piped Rot, Polyporus pilotae Schw. = (Aurantiporus pilotae (Schw.) Murrill). In the southern part of the State. 71. Red Heart, Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr. = (Laetiporus speciosus (Batt.) Murrill). Common. 71. Root Rot, Armillaria mellea Vahl. Common. Polyporus Berkeleyi Fr. = (Grifolia Berkeleyi (Fr.) Murrill). Tippecanoe and Monroe. Poly- porus dryadeus Fr. Tippecanoe and Monroe. 71. Speckled Rot. Stereum frustulosum Pers. Putnam, 1891. 132. Straw-colored Rot, Polyporus frondosus Fr. = (Grifolia frondosa (Fr.) Murrill.) Common, although it does not frequently attack living trees. 71. White Rot or Coral Fungus, Hydnum erinaceus Bull. Common. 71. Oats (Avena sativa L.) Covered Smut, Ustilago levis (Kell. & Sw.) Magn. Common. Loose Smut, Ustilago Avenae (Pers.) Jens. Common. 3, 6, 9, 132, 56, 122, 109, 20, 123, 115, 26, 27, 76, 78, 42, 32, 75, 91. Rust, Puccinia Rhamni (Pers.) Wettst. Common. 132, 25, 142, 76, 78. Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra Willd.) Mildew, Uncinula flecuosa Pk. Johnson, 1890; Montgomery. 132. Leaf Spot, Phyllosticta Paviae Desm. Montgomery and Johnson, 1890; Brown, 1893. 132. Onion (Allium Cepa L.) Black Mold, Macrosporium parasiticum Thuem. Starke, 1912. Smut, Urocystis cepulae Frost. Becoming serious locally in the north central counties. 135. Soft Rot, Bacillus sp. Occasionally casues considerable loss in storage. Pea (Pisum sp.) Blight, Ascochyta Pisi Lib. Common. 42, 136. 391 Peach (Amygdalus persica L.) Bacterial Leaf Spot, Bacterium Pruni E. F. Smith. Vanderburg, 1915. Blight, Corynewm Beyerinkii Oud. Reported in several localities in the peach-growing districts. 61, 40. Brown Rot, Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Wor. Common. 76, 57, 58, 61. Crown Gall, Pseudomonas tumefaciens E. F. Smith & Towns. Probably not common. 57, 61. Leaf Curl, Exoascus deformans (Berk.) Fekl. Common. 132, 128, 17, 76, 78, 57, 61, 40. Powdery Mildew, Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev. Common. 58, 61. Seab, Cladosporium carpophilum Thuem. Common. 2, 98, 58, 61, 40. Yellows. Common. 76, 78, 57, 58, 61, 40, 117. Pear (Pyrus communis L.) Black Rot, Sphaeropsis Malorum Pk. Shear’s studies indicate genetic connection with Melanops. Tippecanoe, 1915. Blight, Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) DeToni. Common. 43, 57, 81, 92, 93, 97, 121, 52, 53, 51, 105, 128, 99, 63, 95, 76, 78, 59, 84, 36, 38, 40, 117, 62. See also under Apple. Leaf Blight, Entomosporium maculatum Ley. Perfect stage = Fabrea maculata (Lev.) Atk. Rather common. 36, 40. Leaf Spot, Septoria pyricola Desm. Rather common. 135. Mycosphaer- ella sentina (Fr.) Sehw. Kosciusko, 1914. Seab, Venturia pyrina Aderh. Rather common. 128, 78. Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Black Rot, Macrosporium Solani Ell. & Mart. Tippecanoe, 1912. Plum (Prunus spp.) Black Knot, Plowrightia morlosa (Sehw.) Sace. Common. 127, 10, 128, 130, 76, 78, 57, 58, 36, 40, 117. Brown Rot, Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Wor. Common. 128, 76, 78, 57, 58, 36, 40. Leaf Spot, Cylindrosporium Padi Karst. Common. 128, 78, 57, 36, 40. Plum Pocket, Hxoascus Pruni Fekl. Common. 17, 38, 117. Poplar (Populus spp.) Leaf Spot, Marsonia Populi (Lib.) Sace. Tippecanoe, 1910. Mildew, Uncinula Salicis (D.C.) Wint. Common. 132. Rust, Melampsora Medusae Thuem. Common. 142, 71. Melampsora Abjietis-canadensis (Farl.) Ludwig. Tippecanoe, Jasper, Steuben, Putman. Potato (Solanum iuberosum L.) Bacterial Wilt, Bacilus solanacearum K. F. Smith. Serious locally. 78. Karly Blight, Macrosporium Solani Bll. & Mart. Common. 128, 119, 78. Fusarium Rot, Fusarium sp. Common. hate Blight, Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) DeB. Common. 128, 119, 78. Seab, Oospora scabies Thaxter. Common. 11, 13, 14, 15, 20, 76, 78, 54. Tipburn. Probably sunscald injury. Tippecanoe, 1907. Privet (Ligustrum vulgare L.) Anthracnose, Glocosporium cingulatum Atk. Marion, 1908. 58. Quince (Cydonia vulgaris Pers.) Black Rot, Sphacropsis malorum Pk. Shear indicates genetic connection with Melanops. Common. 76, 78. Blight, Bacillus amylovorus (Burr.) DeToni. Common. 76, 78, 36, 40. See also under Apple and Pear. Leaf blight, Entomosporium maculatum Levy. Common. 128, 58, 36, 40. Perfect stage = Fabrea maculata (Lev.) Atk. Mildew, Podosphaera oxyacanthae (D.C.) DeB. Montgomery, 1885. 102. Rust, Gymnosporangium germinale (Schw.) Kern. Perry, 1914. 77. Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) Downy Mildew, Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) DeB. 148. White Rust, Albugo candida (Pers.) Roussel. Common. 132, 143. 393 Raspberry (Rubus spp.) Anthracnose, Gloeosporium venelum Speg. Burkholder reported genetic connection with Plectodiscella. Common. 128, 76, 78, 58, 36, 40. Cane Blight, Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sace. No locality mentioned. 40. Crown Gall, Pseudomonas tumefaciens K. F. Smith & Towns. Common. 40. Leaf Spot, Septoria Rubi West. Common. 78, 40. Rust, Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schlecht.) Lagh. Common. 78, 36. Rhubarb (Rheum Rhaponticum L.) Leaf Spot, Ascochyla Rhei EK. & E. Tippecanoe, 1912 and 1915. Rose (Rosa spp.) Black Spot, Actinonema Rosae (Lib.) Fr. Wolf reported perfect stage, Diplocarpon Rosae Wolf. Leaf Spot, Dicocewm Rosae Bon. Howard, 1911. Mildew, Sphaerotheca pannosa Wallr. Common. 132. Rust, Phragmidium americanum Dietel. Probably common. 132. Phragmidium disciflorum (Tod) J. F. James. St. Joseph, 1915. Phragmidium subcorticium (Schrank) Wint. Tippecanoe, 1915. Rubber Plant (Ficus elastica Roxb.) Leaf Spot. Macrosporium sp. Tippecanoe, 1910. Rye (Secale cereale L.) Ergot, Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. Common. 132. Leaf Rust, Puccinia asperifolia (L.) Wettst. Common. Stem Rust, Puccinia poculiformis (Jasq.) Wettst. 25. Sorghum (Sorghum spp.) Kernel Smut, Sphacelotheca Sorghi (Lk.) Clinton. Common. Collected on several members of the sorghum group. Snapdragon (Anlirrhinum majus lL.) Anthracnose, Collelotrichum Antirrhini Stew. Tippecanoe, 1915. Rust, Puccinia Antirrhini Diet. & Holw. Montgomery, Lagrange, Hen- dricks and Wabash, 1915. 394 Strawberry (Fragaria spp.) Leaf Spot, Mycosphaerella Fragariae (Tul.) Linden. Common. 128, 58, 40, 90, 39. Mildew, Sphaerotheca Humuli (D.C.) Burr. Common. 38, 40. Sweet Pea (Lathyrus spp.) Root Rot, Fusarium Lathyri Taubenhaus. Tippecanoe, 1912. _ Sweet Potato ([pomoea Batatas Lam.) Black Rot, Sphaeronema fimbriatum (Ell. & Hals.) Sace. Rather common. Ug 33 Dry Rot, Diaporthe batatatis Harter & Field. Tippecanoe, 1912. 83. Fusarium Rot, Fusarium sp. Tippecanoe, 1912. 83. Stem Rot, Nectria Ipomoeae Hals. Tippecanoe, 1912. Monroe. 83. Swiss Chard (Beta sp.) Leaf Spot, Cercospora beticola Sace. Tippecanoe, 1910. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis lL.) Leaf Spot, Stigmina Platani Fckl. Tippecanoe, 1914. 71. Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (DC.) Wint. Johnson, 1890; Putnam, 1891; Montgomery, 1893. 132. Phyllactinia Corylea (Pers.) Karst. Common. 71. Timothy (PAleum pratense L.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum cereale Manns. Hamilton and Bartholomew, 1909. Leaf Spot, Scoletotrichum graminis Fekl. Johnson, 1890. 132. Rust, Puccinia poculiformis (Jacq.) Wettst. Common. 79, 80, 74. Silver Top, Sporotrichum Poae Pk. Kosciusko, 1914. Smut, Ustilago striaeformis (West.) Niess. Common. 132. Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum phomoides (Sace.) Chest. Common. Bacterial Blight, Bacillus solanacearum E. F. Smith. Serious locally. 78, 39. 53995 Black Rot, Alternaria sp. Tippecanoe, 1912. Blossom End Rot (cause not known). Common, especially during dry weather. 76, 78, 131. Fusarium Wilt, Pusariwm Lycopersici Sace. Knox, 1913; Tippecanoe, 1914 and 1915. Leaf Mold, Cladosporium fuluum Cke. Wabash, 1915, in greenhouse. Leaf Spot, Septoria Lycopersici Speg. Common. 128, 78, 131. Mosaic Disease (cause not definitely known). Common in greenhouses. Oedema. Cause physiological. Tippecanoe, 1912, in greenhouse. Walnut. Black (Juglans nigra |.) Leaf Spot, Marsonia Juglandis (Lib.) Saee. Perfect stage = Gnomonia leptostyla (Fr.) Ces. & d. Not. Tippecanoe, 1914. Mildew, Microsphaera Alni (D.C.) Wint. Johnson, 1890. Putnam, 1893. 132. Walnut, White (Juglans cinerea L.) Mildew, Phyllactinia Corylea (Pers.) Karst. Carroll, 1913. 71. Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum Lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals. Common. 128, 78. Fusarium Wilt, Fusarium vasinfectum Atk. var. niveum Sm. Common. 78, 144. Leaf Blight, Alternaria Brassicae (Berk.) Sace. var. nigrescens Pegl. Com- mon. Wheat (Triticum vulgare lL.) Anthracnose, Colletotrichum cereale Manns. Posey, 1912. Ebony Point, Alternaria sp. Common. Fusarium Blight, Fusarium sp. Unusual outbreak of Fusarium trouble occurred during the past season (1915) in Orange, Washington, Jeffer- son and Green counties. The maturing heads had a dull grayish- brown color instead of the normal golden brown. The kernels were small, shrunken, and in many eases covered with mycelial growth. Prof. G. N. Hoffer, who co-operated in the investigation of this disease, found many kernels internally infected with Fusarium. 396 Leaf Rust, Puccinia triticina Eriks & Henn. Common. See under Stem Rust. Loose Smut, Ustilago Tritici (Pers.) Jens. Common. 82, 35, 9la, 132, 19, 109, 23, 116, 76, 78, 42, 32. Seab, Fusarium sp. Common, 7, 18, 76, 78. Septoria Spot, Septoria graminum Desm. Common. Another species of Septoria which agrees closely with S. glwmarwm Sace. was found assoviated with the Fusarium blight disease. Pyenidia were found in abundance not only on glumes but on sheaths and nodes as well. In one of the fields examined by the writer every wheat plant was severely affected. Stinking Smut, Tilletia foetans (B. & C.) Trel. Common. 82, 3, 5, 9la, 9, 56, 20, 76, 78, 42, 57, 32, 88. Tilletia Tritici (Beij.) Wint. Franklin, 1912. Stem Rust, Puccinia poculiformis (Jaeq.) Wettst. Common. 82, 50, 4, 47, 48, 142, 76, 78, 57. Willow (Salix spp.) Mildew, Uncinula Salicis (D.C.) Karst. Common. 132, 71. Rust, Melampsora Bigelowii Thuem. Common. 71. Wood Rot, Daedalea confragosa (Balt.) Pers. Tippecanoe, 1912. Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera 1.) Mildew, Erysiphe Liriodendri Schw. Putnam, 1891 and 1893; Mont- gomery 1893. Phyllactinia suffulta (Reb.) Sace. Johnson, 1890; Montgomery, 1893. 132. Oo 397 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . Anderson, H. W. 1914 Or 5. Golden, Katherine. 1891 Diseases of the sugar beet. Proce. Ind. Acad. Sei. 1891: 92-97. Discussion of scab and a new disease thought to be caused by bacteria. 66. Goodrich, C. E. 1856 Potato disease. Ind. Agr. Rep. 1856:49-59. Account of mildew rot (blight?). Conducted experiments to prevent it. 67. Hesler, L. R. 1911 The New York apple tree canker. Proce. Ind. Acad. Sei. 1911:325-339, figs. 1-7. Detailed description and dis- eussion of Sphaeropsis Malorum and its economic im- portance. 68. Hobbs, C. M., Reed, W. C., and Flick, W. B. 1906 Spray calendar of the Indiana Horticultural Society. Trans. Ind. Hort. Soe. 1906 :284-285. 69. Hoffer, G. N. 1913 . | LOO Sqiieiremeee SUnTICOLar Gamer nee Pe ing torneo aor ne On en ee 215 square miles Non-merchantable timber area.................... 647 square miles | a eee a EO ey ee Me Pee eee Ut Mee 794,232 M. feet B. M. SPLUCO wot er Aces oe Acree est at oe hore 267,427 M. feet B. M. OSES CLEUT So rk eee SO po Sere Oe ic SRE At le a eh Oe 2,124,725 M. feet B. M. BU CRMIIIE.. by Ass ON vcusiy clei eS ie ectera esi aes 1,043,776 M. feet B. M. SPOR Nn cae cv ont tansgaiete hE e ak eee ee 4,230,160 M. feet B. M. Average per acre of timbered land, 15,300 feet B. M. 5Loc. cit., p. 19. Remarks above apply. Loc. cit., ». 24. Remarks above apply. CLALLAM CouNTY. This county extends from the top of the Olympic Mountains north to the Strait of Fuca and from near Dungeness on that strait to a little to the south of LaPush on the Pacific coast, occupying a large area both to the north and to the west of the Olympics. The mountainous part of the county is not regarded as containing any timber of present merchantable value. The remainder of the county is heavily forested; but the ax has made in- roads in these forests along the shores of the Strait of Fuca as far west as Crescent Bay, and millions of feet of logs have been cut at Clallam Bay and in the Hoko district on the same side of the peninsula. In addition, fires have extended inland from these cuttings to the mountain districts, destroy- ing large areas of timber. The western part of the county is still in the virgin state. In this county hemlock and fir vie with each other in amount of merchantable log-lumber. Area of timbered and other lands in Clallam county, Washington. PUGS HEMRLE OSE Eee A iey abe ee a.TA NINA he), Sikh ee oP sce whet 1,824 square miles Present merchantable timber area..................1,000 square miles LE.crepexet! GU Rar eRe Ana Snake aE RRS Mah aed ec eM core ae 217 square miles PE eGodvaneame nw Lie acta es cts Mao w tan wei a G LN) 181 square miles Bare and unmerchantable timber area.............. 426 square miles Estimate of timber in Clallam county, Washington." TENDS G26 5 De er eae Gace | Een Fh en eR ene Ce Reel 3,045,297 M. feet B. M. SV ORETD I CLEPSM ce co pane eon RIO eae ECT ee Ia PRA Ate Bae 1,758,845 M. feet B. M. (OVE (OTE ee et AI certs once wae ata A ok ok ok An 547,617 M. feet B. M. IRlainallkevelke. S sad nba eG bob oe warble ea 4b Ga Be eee oo oe ISAO INL SS ifereth IBY IML. Oi alllye ese esr neh at re ene el act Sk ha, Se cre 9,071,599 M. feet B. M. Average per acre of timbered land, 15,700 feet B. M. Below is a description of the merchantable timber species as they occur in the peninsula. 7Loe. cit., p. 20. Remarks above apply. 424 FAMILY PINACEAE: Pine Famity. Genus Chamaecyparis. : C. nootkatensis (Lamb) Spach: Alaska Cedar. This tree is found on all the mountain ridges below 3,500 feet elevation. It is a conspicuous tree on the ridges at the headwaters of the Soleduck and Bogachiel rivers and in the vicinity of the Soleduck Hot Springs. It is often called Yellow Cedar. It is also more abundant in the swamp regions near the Pacific coast, bordering the rivers near their mouths. It is a medium tree in height for this region, but exceeds the Red Fir in girth. Its greatest development is usually where it stands the heaviest. It averages about 140 feet in height and 50 inches in diameter. This tree is subject to rot; half of the stand is injured by this disease.§ Genus Thuja. T. plicata Donn: Red Cedar; Giant Cedar. This cedar is found in all parts of the peninsula, except in the high mountain districts. It is of larger growth near the coast, where it often measures from 40 to 50 feet in cireu- ference; some trees in the Elwa valley are said to measure even 80 feet in circumference. This tree differs from C. nootkalensis above in its wood being reddish in color, in its larger size in circumference-measurements, and in the seales of its cones being oblong, not pileate. 8The juice of the bark of this tree and that of the Giant Cedar is used by the natives in dyeing basket straw. The other coloring matter used by these Indians is burned yellow clay, black earth, blood, soot and charcoal. °Of this giant cedar the Indians make their dug-out canoes, canoes ranging from the size of «a little river canoe to an ocean-whaling canoe that will hold ten whale hunters, or three tons of freight. These canoes are in each case made from a single piece (section) of log and the canoe is in each case one continuous piece when finished, except just the front totem (river-deer) part. In making these canoes in the old time it was a slow process of burning and scraping with clam shells, and a possible chiseling with some wedge-shaped stone. Today they are hewed out with ax and Indian adz. A canoe for ocean use in now worth about $100. The cedarz are used for may purposes by the Indians of the coast. The juice cf the green bark is used as medicine, after being boiled. The outer bark is used in malting wigwams. In the old times they also shredded the inner bark of these species and wove it into a sort of cloth. Of this cloth they then made skirts for the women, and other wearing «wpparel both for the men and the women. They also lined their cradles with this bark and wrapped their babies up in it before tying them in the cradles. A peculiar raincoat was made from this bark to be worn by the men while fishing in stormy weather. 425 Genus Pinus. P. monticola Dougl.: Western White Pine. This tree is found on the western slopes of the Olympics, above 500 feet elevation, usually in swamps and wet places. Description: Cones oblong-cylindrical; scales of cones unarmed; leaves five in each fascicle. Genus Abies. A. nobilis Lindl.: Lovely Fir; Noble Fir. This tree is found at consider- able elevations; but rarely at elevations less than 1,500 feet. Description: This is a tall, silvery-barked, noble-looking tree. It differs from the other firs principally in the color of its bark and in its having cones with conspicuous reflexed bracts. A. lasiocarpa (Hook) Nutt.: Alpine Fir; Subalpme Fir. This tree is found only on the higher parts of the mountains, rarely below 5,000 feet. Description: A tree of 60 to 80 feet in height; bark pale, thin, smooth, ash-gray in color; leaves dark-green above, with two resin-ducts about equi-distant between the upper and lower face; cones oblong-cylindriecal, puberulent, with bracts concealed. A. amabilis (Doug].) Forbs.: Lovely Fir; Amabilis Fir. This tree is found only on the high ridges adjacent to the mountains, rarely below 1,200 feet elevation. It is one of the large lumber-producing trees of the region, pro- ducing more than 11,000,000 M. feet B. M. Description: This tree is distinguishable from A. lasiocarpa above by its cones not being puberulent and by the greater length of the cones. A. grandis Lindl.: White Fir. This tree is occasionally met with in the Soleduck Hot Spring region. Genus Pseudotsuga. P. mucronata (Raf.) Sudw.: Douglas Fir; Red Fir. This tree grows in abundance. It reaches its greatest development in the Quillayute-middle- upland region. In its growth, however, it extends up the mountain slopes to the altitude of 3,500 feet. In the high mountains and in the neighborhood of the Pacific coast, this species is practically entirely wanting. It grows to its greatest dimensions where the stand is heaviest. Throughout the region it averages 240 feet in height; 77 feet clear of limbs, with a diameter 426 of 55 inches. This tree is everywhere free from disease. The stand of timber of this species is estimated to be more than 15,000,000 M. feet B. M. Description: Tree large; in youth, spruce-like and pyrimidal, more spread- ing in old age; leaves somewhat two-ranked by a twist at base. Genus T'suga. T. heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.: Western Hemlock. This tree is found throughout the region. Description: This is a lowland tree, with cones 1 to 2 em. long. T. mertensiana (Bong.) Carr: Black Hemlock; Merten’s Hemlock. This - tree is found almost everywhere in the forest from the shore line up to 4,500 feet elevation. With the Western Hemlock above, it is by far the most abundant tree in the region, being found in every part of it to timber line. It is not so large a tree as the other merchantable trees, either in height or diameter, the amount of clear trunk is also less. In the high mountain regions the tree is greatly affected by disease, but as the shore line is ap- proached the percentage of diseased trees diminish to the minimum. This tree with the Western Hemlock estimate 26,000,000 M. feet B. M. Description: Characteristically, this tree differs from thé Western Hemlock above in its having appreciably longer cones.” Genus Picea. Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Traut: Sitka Spruce. This species is found only in the neighborhood of the coast, seldom ever found thirty miles inland. It is densest a little way back from the coast, the immediate coast seeming to be too damp for its best development. The tree averages 225 feet in height, 81 feet of which is often clear of limbs. Its diameter exceeds 5 feet on the average. This tree seems to be less affected by disease than any other merchantable tree in the region. It aggregates over 4,000,000 M. feet B. M. in merchantable timber. Description: Trees tall, pyrimidal, with soft, white, tough timber; leaves flattened, somewhat two-ranked, and spirally arranged around the branch- lets. P. engelmanni Parry: Engelmann Spruce. This spruce is only scattered loThe Indians use the bark of this tree in tanning hides. Hemlock bark tea is also used as an emetic. 427 here and there and in too small quantities, usually, to be of much value in a merchantable way. Description: Tree subalpine, with height averaging about 90 feet; branches horizontal; bark thin, scaly, reddish to purplish brown; branches pubescent; leaves quadrangular. 429 THE UREDINALES OF INDIANA. By H. S. JacKson. The first authentic record of the collection of any species of plant rust in Indiana of which we have any knowledge was made by Dr. J. M. Coulter in the Botanical Bulletin (Botanical Gazette) 1:20, 1876. In a short article he noted the common occurrence of Uromyces lespedezae Schw. on Lespedeza violacea, presumably in the vicinity of Hanover. The first account of the rusts of the State presented before the Indiana Academy of Science was included in a paper by E. M. Fisher on the Parasitic Fungi of Indiana, which was read at the annual meeting for 1890. This paper listed a considerable number of species of Uredineae, but unfortunately was not published and is unavailable. The specimens on which the paper was based were deposited in the herbarium of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. A list of the species was, however, obtained by Dr. L. M. Underwood and included in his “‘List of the Cryptogams at present known to inhabit the State of Indiana,’ which was printed in the Proceedings for 1893. The latter list forms the basis of our knowledge of the cryptogamic flora of the State and enumerates 88 species of Uredinales including the unattached aecial and uredinial forms. Supplementary lists by various authors have appeared in the Proceedings from time to time since that date, only the most noteworthy of which need be mentioned. In 1896 Miss Lillian Snyder presented a list of the rusts of Tippecanoe county, supplementing the work in 1898 with lists from Madison and Noble counties. The rusts of Hamilton and Marion counties were listed by G. W. Wilson in 1905. Two complete State lists have been presented to the Academy by Dr. J. C. Arthur. The first was read in 1898 and enumerated 80 species; the second was presented in 1903 and included 105 species. Both these lists were prepared in such form as to illustrate the latest developments in revised nomenclature. The unattached aecial and uredinial forms were omitted. The present list is based on the information contained in all the preceding ones which have appeared in the Proceedings of the Academy, together with the wealth of material collected in all parts of the State contained in the 430 Arthur herbarium at the Purdue Experiment Station. An attempt has been made to show the distribution within the State by counties. Under each host is given a list of the counties within which the species has been collected, together with the name of the person making the first collection and the year in which the collection was made. 7.352550. 5. 042.2252. 53 nA OM LOD LILO TONGS etek: caches Bicid bien lene Wise oop kes bes Klshe eatdbe s 9 B. Birds, Their Nests and Hggs, An Act for the Protection of............ 9 Bodine Donaldson, AVMiemoim of, El We Anderson. 7 2...5....5.....- 63 yes Wet eS Parr 3 teers Ue thot Whiner w Sea MERITS ear sa uA Sia) Ole capitan aad lantaled fax 7 (Ce Cave, A New, near Versailles. Andrew J. Bigney.................... 183 Center Lake, Kosciusko Co., Ind., Some Preliminary Observations on the Oxygenless Region of. Herbert Glenn Imel................. 345 Chromosome in Mutating Stoeks, On the Change That Takes Place in. TRO SEGYS JES BINGE ahs elu ee ea eae neat, pat eA Fa, SNe 0d PVRS ame ELST b0) Coal Fields, The Olympic, of Washington. Albert B. Reagan........ ALS Collections, A Study of, from the Trenton and Black River Formations Ola Nena dors Kemee lee Nu ore lle ieeiat i eee phous Moan ed nOutara ity enue 249 Committees of the Indiana Academy of Seience, 1915-1916.......... 11-13 Condenser, A Standard, of Small Capacity. R. R. Ramsey.......... 315 Constitution of the Indiana Academy of Science..................... 5 1D Deposits, Loess and Sand Dune, in Vigo County, Indiana. Wm. A. INGE Gilet Rr ere ram re ae ee Niec gs Ey oiz oie cue aR a SA all dues cageiten 185 K. Hlectroscope, An, for Measuring the Radioactivity of Sous. R. R. UEUITIS Cyaan p amen Ted tee ney cet hae Ale Rin ros ts chal avae! on tea] Ghosts ai abahiue Gate 307 if Food, The, of Nestling Birds. Howard EK. Enders and Will Scott. .... 323 Forest, The Olympie, and Its Potential Possibilities. Albert B. Regan.. 419 If miner, Iimelinime. IDL, ds MI. Wer IRl@mles.5 bho be eb eee oem sooio onl 141 478 G PAGE Gamma Coafficionts and Series)? !2. 9. ee 269 Geographical Literature, A Bibliography of, Concerning Foreign Coun- GMEB. CIS ED CHOC Wels Ne nat fake a ee tne Ce et ee 191 Geometry, Plane and Spheric, Some Relations of. David A. Rothrock.. 273 Tel. Harmonizing Leyden Jar Discharges, A Simple Method of. Arthur L. Boleyer wl. same a be aie in dace eels tere kee mae ee bee eee 305 High Voltages, A Standard for the Measurement of. C. Francis Harding. 291 E Ionisation Standards. Edwin Morrison..................2...0c00e8 295 L. Lakes, A Report on, of the Tippecanoe Basin. Will Scott............ aA M. Magnolia Soulangiana, A Second Blooming of. D. M. Mottier........ 149 Manures, Rate of Humidification of. R.A. Carr...0.0....421. ee 317 Micro-Organisms, Soil, Tolerance of, to Media Changes. H. A. Noyes.. 89 Members. A GUIY Ott so SUES. Aen ry ee ee a Ae ery Oe Ee 24 OIL OWS ie ooo RE Sas cdgees Seton cw Mee IS 2 cose eee ek a 15 INon=Hesrd Git te sk ae oles f Ga hoe her la ta ene ne eee 21 Wines or ppring Meshing, 5: saat Css heeet bh ae oe ee ee 41 N. Nickel, Detection of, in Cobalt Salts. A. R. Middleton and H. L. VM ers eines < s Som a ela out ee CELE aie eis tie 163 OF Officers Indiana Academy of Science, 1915-1916 .................... 11 Officers Indiana Academy of Science, 1885-1916 .................... 14 Ophioglossum, The Occurrence of More Than One Leaf in. M. S. Markers. ott sok abe. 2 oiko ce POR eek De eRe ne oe Oscillatoria, The Effect of Centrifugal Force on. Frank M. Andrews... 151 Pp. PAGE Peat Bogs, The Phytecology of, near Richmond, Ind. M.S. Markle... 359 Plants not Hitherto Reported from Indiana, VI. C.C. Deam........ 135 Plant Diseases, A List of, of Economic Importance in Indiana. F. J. E20 tl MERE en ence PA Meee Soka oo ate ie, utero s epee eileen eects NS ee ies 379 Plastids, Some Methods for the Study of, in Higher Plants. D. M. JMIDIHIRTE J Se Oe ea etek cake he ee ae a RR 127 Proceedings General Session Indiana Academy of Science............ 45 Program of the Thirty-first Annual Meeting of the Indiana Academy of SUBNECDo vat Satish Sto SPANIAIS E aa S, eed Cn nr de S E 49 Protein, The Different Methods of Estimating, in Milk. George SEIUTR Ps od SS ERY 1S Re ERP ARE PERL age te a a 173 Punic Ofiences, Hunting Wald Birds, Penalty... ..........-....-.4- 10 Ee Radiations, Light and Heat, Some Notes on the Mechanism of. James Tihs \WYGRVEDIDU So rb ote) Baa SetEnd cline Ceeeeret es ee ai ie ga eo 283 Reports and Papers, the, An Act for the Publication of, of the Indiana ANG AG ENITAN COIE SS OTICTIVCTS ra ie en gt She dd 9 2S ee aN se eC i Rieccia Flutians L., The Morphology of. Fred Donaghy............. 1231 Ss. meEovella Josiah thomas. Memom ot. “Charles R. Dryer....2.....-...2. 67 Seca Josian, Thomas, Portrait Of... 0:02.00... «soaks. uo ae 72 Sound Waves, On the Relative Velocities of, of Different Intensities. isu lomiie JUL MO] Vee Ba, 2 inet ae UNE ara RO 2 299 Spectrometer, A Simple Photographic. Edwin Morrison............. 297 Spring Water, The Cause of the Variation of the Emanation Content of. [Eig LE LESGHTORIOS Eo eee eh ot eg a Rae Oe ts en pA Te 2 YR 311 ‘Ts: NoMAeccOMELoblonime nea Oberumdesslen. 26 oo... 5 5. wean ole ee 73 Wenlalle cone (COIATHSTATTS ote: ca boye ve otek ee ORE BRC oaks ALO a era ever RP RE ee 3 U. Wredimalesiithesopindianas He SsJackson....../..25.. 008 0ee ool ce 429 480 W. PAGE Wabash River, Volume of the Ancient. Wm. A. McBeth............ 189 Water, Analysis of, Containing Aluminum Salts and Free Sulphuric Acid, from an Indiana Coal Mine. “S: 1D) Connor®...5.4-.452-. 22S eee 161 White Oak, Some Elementary Notes on Stem Analysis of. Burr N. PRADO ie a ops och ites ONE ce Get A ee tel oe ii 153 af ‘4 a an a eae an 7 rN a a ~ te - | min TS OR Sy _——— — — mere Cerise y ern Sob ta LE once daar ee Freer ntn a erm ‘ —_ i wg aerret ee poe aed ne Sone ee een etter OF in NET ae Sw saenaee : ven oe cere ee — eee ae L- aeurrere ee oor ~ eT rE Ee caren yah ements a e~entes 8 eee ee rans nit oh a IE COPE og bE, —~ aaa Cee re ~ an ene : en eae ae pene tee eh fp one — r - Sutin Sane : . : = aero = eet apenas - a Sr ne ee ns coma, ee er rer - glean OO That ml mee : an eee pel hd << ee 5 naar Sewer er aT ciel angreret Ae ie RIT, ames oe —_ ateyie = . : : * a . in *