PROCEEDINGS OF THE Iowa Academy of Science FOR 1910 VOLUME XVII EDITED BY THE SECRETARY PUBLISHED BY THE STATE ^ O'- " DE3 MOINES: \ I S’ ■4'^§ EMORY H. ENGLISH, STATE PRINTER 4 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE Iowa Academy of Science FOR 1910 VOLUME XVII EDITED BY THE SECRETARY PUBLISHED BY THE STATE DES MOINES: EMORY H. ENGLISH, STATE PRINTER 1910 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Des Moines, Iowa, July 1, 1910. To His Excellency, Beryl F. Carroll, Governor of Iowa: In accordance with the provisions of title 2, chapter 5, section 136, code, 1897, I have the honor to transmit herewith the proceedings of the twenty-fourth annual session of the Iowa Academy of Science and re- quest that you order the same to be printed. \ Respectfully submitted, ' • L. S. Ross, Secretary loiva Academy of Science. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE V OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 1909. President — Frank F. Almy. First Viee-President — G. L. Houser. Second Vice-President — A. C. Page. Secretary — L. S. Ross. Treasurer — George F. Kay. EXECUTIVE committee. Ex-officio — Frank F. Almy, G. L. Houser, A. C. Page, L. S. Ross, George F. Kay. Elective — Samuel Calvin, N. Knight, C. O. Bates. 1910. President — G. L. Houser. First Vice-President — L. Begeman. Second Vice-President — A. A. Bennett. Secretary — L. S. Ross. Treasurer — George F. Kay. executive committee. Ex-ojficio — G. L. tlousER, L. Begeman, A. A. Bennett, L. S. Ross, G. F. Kay. Elective — Guy West Wilson, C. N. Kinney, H. S. Conard. PAST PRESIDENTS. Osborn, Herbert 1887-88 Todd, J. E .1888-89 Witter, F. M ' ! .1889-90 Nutting, C. C ‘.1890-92 Pammel, L. H 1893 Andrews, L. W 1894 Norris, H. W 1895 Hall, T. P 1896 Frankin, W. S 1897 Macbride, T. H -. 1897-S8 Hendrixson, W. S 1899 Norton, W. H 1900 Veblen, a. a 1901 Summers, H. E 1902 Fink, Bruce 1903 Shimek, B ..1904 Arey, M. F 1905 Bates, C. O 1906 Tilton, John L 1907 Calvin, Samuel 1908 Almy, Frank F 1909 VI IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE MEMBERS OF THE IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. LIFE FELLOWS. Beyee, S. W Geeene, Wesley . . . Claeke, De. J. P. Noeton, W. pi Denison, 0. T.... Rickee, Maueice . . Eewin, A. T SUMMEES, pi. E . . . . Fitzpateick, T. J Iowa City FELLOWS. Almy, P. F McClintock, j. T . . Iowa City Albeet, Heney . . . . Iowa City Millee, a. a Aeey, M. P Cedar Falls Moeehouse, D. W. Bakee, H. P State College, Penn. Muellee, H. a Baetholomew, C. E Ames Newton, G. W Cedar Falls Bates, C. 0 Cedar Rapids Noeeis, H. W Beach, S. A Nutting, C. C Iowa City Begeman, L Cedar Palls Page, A. C Cedar Falls Bennett, A, A... Ames Pammel, L. H Ames Buchanan, R. E. Peck, Moeton E. . . Cable, E. J Rockwood, E. W. . , Iowa City Calvin, S Iowa City Ross, L. S Des Moines Ceatty, R. I Sandees, W. E Alta CONAED, H. S.... Seashoee, C. E.... Iowa City CUETIS, C. P Sheppeed, B. E . . . . Des Moines Fawcett, H. S. . Shimek, B Finch, G. E SiEG, L. P Gow, J. E Smith, A. G Iowa City Guthe, K. E . . . . . Stanton, E. W.... Ames Gutheie, j. E Ames Stevenson, W. H.. Ames Hadden, D. E . . . Alta Stewaet, G. W . . . . Hendeixson, W. I Stookey, S. W Hoeve, H, j Steomsten, Feank A Iowa City lioUSEE, G. L Iowa City Summees, H. E . . . Ames Kay, G. F Tilton, J. L Kelly, H. M Mount Vernon Walked, E. R , .Coal Creek, Tenn. King, Chaelotte M Ames Watson, E. B .Washington, .D. C. Kinney, C. N.... Weld, L. G Iowa City Knight, N Wickham, H. F. . . Iowa City Leaen, C. D Clermont Williams, I. A.... Ames Lees, James H. . Wilson, Gcy West .....Raleigh, N. C. Macbetde, T. H . . , Wylie, R. B Iowa City IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE V] ASSOCIATE MEMBEES. Kemp, Ei.da Marion Aitchison, 'Miss A. E..... Cedar Falls Baker, J. A.... Indianola Anthony, C. H Cedar Falls Arnold, John F Imogene Bailey, B, H Cedar Rapids B'egg, a. S Des Moines Boyd, M, F Iowa City Brown, F. A East Peru Brown, Maud A Iowa City Buchanan, Mrs. R. E Ames Buchholz, J. T Conway, Ark. Buckley, Margaret...., Sloan, la. Cavanagh, Lucy M Iowa City Chapman, E. K Cedar Falls Cheney, G. L Mt. Pleasant Conklin, R. E Des Moines Crawford, G. E Cedar Rapids Curtis, L. D Alta Douglas, Louise Osage Edwards, J. W Mt. Pleasant Eldredge, C. Guy... Fort Bidwell, Cal. Ellyson, C. W Alta Fagen, L. P. Chugwater, Wyo. Fay, O. j Des Moines Feuling, Mrs. A. D... Ames Geiser, S. W. Fayette Gose, Bert .Red Oak Griffith, Mary Whittier, Cal. PIayden, Ada St. Louis, Mo. Heise, George W., 1010 Webster Ave., Chicago, 111. Henning, C. F Boone Hersey, S. F Cedar Falls Heuse, E. O Fayette Hockett, S. W Waterloo Jeffs, R. E Ames Jenner, E. A Indianola Johnson, F. W.67 Wab. Ave., Chicago Kuntz, Albert Iowa City Lazell, Fred J Cedar Rapids Leathers, A. L Toledo Lindly, j. M Winfield McKenzie, R. M Fairfield Me Sweeney, Henry Westgate Ness, Henry Ames Nollen, Sara Grinnell Olson, 0. M Fort Dodge Orr, Hon. Ellison Waukon Orr, Florence Cedar Rapids Osborn, B. F Rippey Partridge, Ruth E Manard Phillips, Mrs. G. B Grinnell Richardson, Florence .... Des Moines Robinson. C. L Norwalk Roberts, T St. Charles Robinson, J. W.... Grand River Rosenkrans, DUxVne B Edge efficiency of measures that are less than national in their scope, Resolved, That the Iowa Academy of Science hereby expresses its hearty approval of the principle of the bill (S. 6049) now under the consideration of the National Congress, for the establishment of a Na- tional Department of Health, presided over by a secretary who shall be a member of the president’s cabinet. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 5 By virtue of the fact that there is now a general movement for the conservation of our natural resources, both by the national authorities and more recently by the state, therefore be it Resolved, That the Iowa Academy of Science in session hereby reaffirm its endorsement of the general movement toward the conservation of our forests, rivers, lakes and mineral resources by the national government. Resolved, That the Academy wishes further, to voice its approval of the work already begun by our own state through its State Geological Survey and Conservation Board, and urge upon our state authorities the desirability of confirming and extending the work already begun by these. In consideration of the courtesies shown the members of the Iowa Academy of Science in connection with the 1910 meeting at GrinneU, Iowa, therefore Resolved, That the Academy hereby express its appreciation of the hospitality of GrinneU, and extend thanks to GrinneU College, the local committee of the Academy, the Alumni Association of the College, and other citizens of GrinneU who have by their interest and efforts con- tributed to the success of the present session of the Academy. (Signed) Guy West WUlson, Harry ICelly, Robert B. Wylie, Committee. NAMES OP THOSE IN ATTENDANCE. Florence A. Adams; C. 0. Bates; Maud A. Brown; J. A. Baker; Mar- garet Buckley; 0. E. Buckley; H. S. Conard; E. Louise Douglass; Wes- ley Greene; J. E'. Guthrie; Frederic A. Harvey; G. W. Heise; W. S. Hendrixson; Charles W. Hungerford; E. A. Jenner; G. F. Kay; Harry M. Kelly; C. N. Kinney; Adelbert L. Leathers; James H. Lees; H. W. Norris; L. H. Pammel; Ruth Patridge; Mrs. Gertrude B. Phillips; D. W. Rosenerans; L. S. Ross; H. G. Schaefer; B. Shimek; L. P. Sieg; Arthur G. Smith; G. W. Stewart; H. E. Summers; R. H. Sylvester; John L. Tilton; G. G. Wheat; Guy West Wilson; R. B. Wylie. AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION. The following proposed amendment was presented in due form and was adopted: In section 4, insert after the words, “required of each fellow” the words, “and $1 of each member.” 6 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE TREASURER’S REPORT. RECEIPTS. Cash on hand, April 29, 1909 $200.85 Dues and Initiation Fees, 1909-1910 147.00 Sale of Proceedings, etc 5.44 Interest on Deposits 7.84 $361.13 EXPENDITURES. Expense of Lecture 23d Meeting $ 23.00 Binding, reprints, mailing. Proceedings of 22d Meeting 95.50 Postage, typewriting, and incidental expenses of Secretary 12.40 Honorarium of Secretary, 1909-1910 25.00 Postage and receipts for Treasurer 4.50 Cash on hand, April 29, 1910 200.73 $361.13 Respectfully submitted, George P. Kay. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1910-11. President Gilbert L. Houser First Vice-President L. Begeman Second Vice-President A. A. Bennett Secretary L. S. Ross Treasurer George F. Kay Executive Committee — Ex-oflScio: Gilbert L. Houser, L. Begeman, A. A. Bennett, L. S. Ross, George P. Kay. Elective: Guy West Wilson, C. N. Kinney, H. S. Conard. FINLEY M. WITTER. NECROLOGY. FINLEY M. WITTER. The death of Professor Finley M. Witter at Biloxi, Mississippi, Octo- ber 29, 1909, removed from earthly activities a charter member, a form- er president, and an honorary life member of this Academy. He had removed to Mississippi to he with his son and daughters for a time, but at the time of his death he was planning to return to this State and to continue his activities in the old familiar field. Professor Witter was horn in St. Joseph, Indiana, August 15, 1839, and removed to Iowa with his parents in 1850. The hardships of pioneer days which he endured both here and in the far west no doubt strongly reinforced and developed his naturally kindly, sympathetic and unsel- fish nature which made of his life a life of service to his fellowmen. He graduated from the Normal department of the State University of Iowa in 1861, received the degree of B. S. in 1869 and that of M. A. in 1875, and in 1906 was elected to honorary membership in Iowa Chap- ter of the Sigma Xi. He organized the schools of Muscatine, Iowa, th 1864, establishing the high school, and was elected its principal and su- perintendent of the city schools. Forty-eight years of his life were de- voted to the schools of Muscatine and of Muscatine county. The greater part of this time was given to general educational activities, and he was an active member of the National Educational Association and of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association. Notwithstanding his devotion to his scholastic duties, he found time to do meritorious scientific work. He entered upon this work early, and was one of the pioneers in this field in the state. Pie found in the nat- ural history of Muscatine county a field of unusual richness and it was his privilege to make much of it known to the scientific world. Unfor- tunately his most extensive manuscripts, describing the Lepidoptera and birds, of Muscatine county, together with the greater part of his collec- tions, were destroyed in the Muscatine High School fire in 1895, a calam- ity which almost broke his spirit. Nevertheless he has left a record of work which no student of the natural history of the state can disregard in the future. 8 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE In common with all naturalists of his earlier days he covered a broad field, but into every department of the work he carried the same energy and keenness of vision, and no one who ever accompanied him to the field could ever forget the infectious, almost boyish enthusiasm and deep affection which inspired him. His work in botany was merged with that of his friend and associate of many years, the late Ferdinand Reppert, with whom he was engaged in study and field work both in Muscatine county and in the Rocky Mountains, but in the last years of his life his interest centered in this field and it was his intention to devote himself to it exclusively. His earlier work covered a wide field. He studied the geology of Mus- catine county, and his reports upon the loess, then but little known in this state, are of special interest and value. In connection with his loess investigation he took up the study of the local land and fresh-water mol- lusks and was in his day the only student of the loess problem who was familiar with the species which constitute the chief fauna of the loess. His two most extensive papers dealt with this subject. The ‘^List of Shells of Iowa” was published in 1878 in the British Quarterly Journal of Conchology, Vol. I, and ‘‘The Mollusca of Muscatine county and Vi- cinity” appeared in 1883. These were the first published annotated and descriptive lists of Iowa mollusks, and the latter contained the most complete list of Iowa loess fossils which had been published up to that time. Prof. Witter ’s work in the interest of this Academy is well known to the older members. He was an active member of the old Academy of Sciences throughout almost its entire existence, having been elected at its first meeting. He was a charter member of the present Academy, its president in 1889 and 1890, and for several years a member of the Exec- utive Committee. In recognition of his services he was made an honorary life member at the Cedar Falls meeting in 1908. Some conception of his activity may be gained from the following list of titles of papers pub- lished in full or in abstract form, in the Proceedings of the Academy : In the Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Sciences for 1875-80, published in 1880: Notes on Land and Fresh Water Shells at Muscatine, p. 8'. Observations on the Genus Limnea, p. 15. Some Geological Features near Muscatine, p. 16. The Cabbage Butterfly, p. 21. . On the Number of Hours Children May be Confined in the School-room Each Day, p. 22. On the Occurrence of Certain Shells in the Vicinity of Muscatine, p. 23. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 9 In the Proceedings of the present Iowa Academy of Sciences: Volume I, Part 1, published in 1890: Notes on Some Shells and Ferns, p. 17. Some Additional Observations on the Loess in and about Muscatine, p. 45. The Ferns of Muscatine county, Iowa, p. 9^. Part II, published in 1892: Notice of Arrow points from the Loess in the city of Muscatine, p. 66. The Gas Wells near Letts, Iowa, p. 68. Part III, published in 1893: Some Observations on Helix cooperi, p. 28. On the Absence of Ferns between Fort Collins and Meeker, Colorado, p. 29. Notice of a stone Implement from Mercer county, Illinois, and one from Louisa county, Iowa, p. 30. Volume VI, 1899: Observations on the Geology of Steamboat Springs, Colorado, p, 93, Professor Witter ’s work was seriously interrupted and much of it whol- ly destroyed by fire in 1895, but fortunately a large collection of mol- lusks, including the loess fossils, was safe at his home. About two years before his death, having given up all thought of work other than that in botany, he presented this collection to the chairman of your committee, together with his field notes. He also pointed out, in a series of field ex- ' cursions, the exact localities in which he collected his loess fossils, and gave much other interesting information, all of which will be considered in reports on the loess in the near future. In view of the fact that the aeolian origin of loess is now generally conceded it is of interest to note that as a result of his comparative studies of recent and loess mollusks Professor Witter long questioned the ade- quacy of the aqueous theory, and as early as 1880 ventured to express some doubt in a paper ‘ ‘ On the Occurrence of Certain Shells in the Vicin- ity of Muscatine,” at a time when the aqueous theory held full sway. While much of Professor Witter ’s work was of real scientific value, he excelled particularly in arousing the interest of children and of the gen- eral public in the natural history of his vicinity. Pie published numer- ous articles on local natural history in the Muscatine papers, stimulated •the pupils of the schools to study the world about them, and by his energy and enthusiasm was able to sustain the Muscatine Academy of Sciences for several years. Pie was a true lover of nature, for his was a heart so great in its affections that it could include not only the members of the human race, but all the living w^orld about him. By his death this Academy has lost a valued and honored member, the State of Iowa a most useful citizen, and the children of the state a friend 10 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE than whom none could ever be more earnest and sincere. With his be- reaved widow and family we share the burden of the great sorrow which has overwhelmed them. B. SHIMEK, L. H. PAMMEL, PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE MEETING OF 1910 THE INFLUENCE OF AIR-CURRENTS ON TRANSPIRATION. BY MAUD A. BROWN. This is intended merely as a brief preliminary report on experiments now under way to show the influence of air-currents on transpiration. They have arisen from a study of transpiration in general, during which the conviction has grown that one very important factor has been largely neglected. Therefore this has been made the main point of attack while side lines of investigation have been carried on in which it has been attempted to vary one factor at a time, i. e., light, temperature and humidity, and to determine if possible the relative influence of each on transpiration, and their importance as compared with that of air- currents. They are not complete, but so far, they indicate that humidity of the air is the most important of the three mentioned. These experiments have been carried on in doors, because of the pos- sibility of controlling conditions. The air-currents were produced by an electric fan, different velocities being secured by placing the plants at varying distances from the fan. Elongated boxes, open at both ends, 15x18 inches by 3% feet, were used, one end of glass, that the light problem might be eliminated. The fan was set in the dark end, the plant in the light, and at varying dis- tances in front. The wind velocities at these stations- were determined by a small mill anemometer, the humidity and temperature by Green ’s standard psychro- meter, and the air pressure by an aneroid barometer. The plant selected was Clivea, one of the Amaryllidaceae. It has the advantage of having long stiff leaves, which will stand erect under the current, so that no stems need be used, the whole surface being trans- piring surface. The epidermis is easily removed and the stomata are of good size. Leaves of as nearly as possible the same age were used and sealed into slits in the corks of wide mouthed bottles. Four stations were established. I. 1% feet in front of fan, wind velocity 800 feet per minute. II. 3% feet in front of fan, wind velocity 300. III. 7 feet in front of fan, wind velocity 205. The fourth sta- tion in quiet air of the laboratory. 14 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The psychrometric and barometric readings showed little variation in air pressure, and humidity. The leaves were cut off even with the cork at the end of each experiment and weighed. The results show (1) That in every cas^ of plants exposed to the strongest current, a checking of transpiration occurred. (2) That the plants at the two middle stations showed greatest loss of water, while "from the plant in quiet air, less was given off. Even when the strongest current caused complete wilting (as it did in several plants, i. e., geranium, box elder, etc., before Clivea was hit upon) the loss of water was little, or none. The stomata of the Clivea have not been examined under the con- ditions of the experiment, but the geranium used at first showed the guard cells greatly disturbed, but not consistently so, on one leaf some being closed, some open and some in intermediate stages. As an example of the results obtained — one table shows as a total of observations taken every two hours during one day: Station 1. .5 gr. wt. of leaf 19.6, Station II. .7 gr. wt. of leaf 16.6, Station III. .11 gr. wt. of leaf 14.2, Station IV. (Quiet.) .55 gr. wt. of leaf 13.3. Another series — reading taken at intervals of II/2 hours during a day and a half (night reading being eliminated on account of a fall of temperature which could not be recorded.) Station I. 1.2 gr. wt. of leaf 19 gr. Station II. 2.3 gr. leaf wt. 14.5, Station III. (Quiet). .4 gr. leaf wt. 10.4. The results of the experiments thus far carried out indicate that air-currents of greater velocity check, while gentler currents stimulate transpiration. A number of interesting incidental observations were made. For example, one which showed a structural difference developed by dif- ference in environment as regards light and air. In one end of the plant house the geraniums brought in from the grounds last fall were cut back and set out crowded very closely. The leaves they bear now were developed under the plant house conditions. Two leaves from each of six plants were examined, one from the top, exposed freely to light and air, the other from underneath, shut away from air-currents and with reduced light. In every case the exposed leaf was found to have fewer and much larger guard cells with much wider stomata. (Lloyd’s method of fixing stomata being used in all the observations on stomata.) lOY/A ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 15 Along the same line, Piscli evaporimeter readings were taken at two stations in the plant house : I. beside a geranium exposed all round to light and air, and II. suspended among the branches of the densely crowded plants, about 2 feet distant. The evaporimeter readings for six days being as follows: Station I. 4.7 hundredths of cu. in., 7.5, 11.0, 14, 17.5, 20. Station II. 4.5, 5.0, 7.0, 7.2, 9.2, 10. Stomata were examined from leaves near the two instruments, and the same difference noted above appeared, i. e., the leaves on the plant in the exposed situation showed large guard cells and stomata more widely distended, those from the crowded one showed many and small guard cells. PRAIRIE OPENINGS IN THE FOREST. BY B. SHIMEK. Treeless openings in otherwise forested areas have long been known to fieldwvorkers in this part of the Mississippi valley. These openings are striking because of the absence of trees, but their flora differs also from the minor flora of the forest, being in fact the typical flora of the drier prairies. It matters not how remote the greater prairie areas may be, or how completely these openings may be surrounded by forest, their flora is invariably of the same general prairie type. They are exceedingly variable in extent. Sometimes they have an area of only a few square rods, as is (or was) the case in the more heavily timbered parts of the state; again they are mere tongues of the general prairie and naturally blend with it, as in the rougher western parts of the state. They differ in the nature of their soil. In the northeastern part of the state they occur on the driftless surfaces whether covered with loess or geest; they are equally present on all the types of drift sub-soils from the Kansan to the "Wisconsin ; they are well-developed on all kinds of loess surfaces; and they are common on sandy and alluvial areas. But whatever^ may be the differences between them they agree in occurring uniformly on the rougher surfaces of the state, and they have the same flora. The naturally timbered areas of the state are rough, and the prairie openings are more or less distinctly contrasted with the forest. Some- times, especially where there are abrupt changes in topography, the line between the prairie openings and the forest is sharp ; again the two types blend and a scant sprinkling of trees, usually stunted hard- wood species such as oaks, etc., encroaches upon the prairie border producing the typical ‘‘oak-openings” or “oak-barrens,” Their distribution sug- gests that this rough topography accounts for their existence, for they occur uniformly on surfaces which are exposed to the two great factors which determine evaporation — namely, the sun and wind. They are therefore usually located on the very tops of the ridges, or on the south- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 17 westerly slopes where they receive the full effects of the “two-o’clock sun” and our prevailing* southwesterly summer winds. Sometimes where a ridge slopes gradually to the north these openings will follow it on that side for some distance, such slopes being but little sheltered from both wind and sun. Sometimes other slopes than thofse on thft south and west are treeless, but in such cases local topography produce* a persistent change in the direction of the air-currents, or the slopes are merely a part of a greater dessicated area. These limited openings therefore owe their existence to the same causes which have produced our broader prairies, and' must be regarded as prairie types. So great is the difference between the flora of these openings and the smaller flora of the surrounding forest, that frequently in the more heavily forested sections of the eastern part of the state not a single species of either flora is mingled with the other. The difference is evi- dently due to the fact that the minor flora of the forest is mesophytic, while the prairie flora is essentially xerophytic and can persist in ex- posed situations where the former would fail. The writer has made extensive detailed comparisons of the flora of various prairie areas,* including the prairie openings, and has found the flora practically the same. There are variations in the lists of species which may be found in the prairie openings of even the same forested regions, but these differences are not greater than those which will be ^observed in dif- ferent parts of the same larger prairie area of the ordinary type, and they take place within the same limits. In order that this fact may be brought out more prominently a list of the plants which the writer has collected in typical prairie openings in the eastern part of the state, chiefly in Johnson county, is here included. It will be observed that the plants belong without exception to the flora of the broader prairies. The relative abundance and distribution of the species is also the same. It should be noted that the list includes only those species which are now found in the herbarium of the State University. For convenience in reference the list is arranged alpha- betically. The 7th edition of Gray’s Manual is followed. *Por some of the results of these observations see the Bulletin from the Lah. of Nat. History, State Univ. of Iowa, Vol. VI, No. 1, and the Report of the Iowa Seological Survey, Vol. xx., both published in 1910 (in print at the time of the presentation of this paper) . 2 18 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE LISTS OF PLANTS COLLECTED IN PRAIRIE OPENINGS. Achillea millefolium L. Agastache scrophulariiefolia (Willd) Ktze, (chiefly along the borders.) Agropyron Smithii Ryd. Allium canadense L. Ambrosia artemisi^efolia L. Ambrosia philostachya DC. Amorpha canescens Pursh. Andropogon furcatus Muhl. Andropogon scoparius Michx. Anemone cylindrica A. Gray. Anemone patens var. Wolfgangi- ana (Bess.) Koch. (In Winne- shiek county.) Antennaria neodioica Greene. Antennaria plantaginifolia (L.) Rich. Agrostis hyemalis (Walt.) B. S. P. Artemisia caudata Michx. Artemisia dracunculoides Pursli. Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. Aselepias purpurascens L. Aselepias syriaca L. Aselepias tuberosa L. Aselepias verticniata L. Aster azureus Lindl. Aster lasvis L. Aster multiflorus var. exiguus Per- nald. Aster novie-anglige L. Aster oblongifolius Nutt. Aster serieeus Vent. Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. Brauneria pallida (Nutt.) Britt. Cacalia atriplicifolia L. Carex festucacea Schk. Carex pennsylvanica Lam. Carex tetanica var, Meadii (Dew- ey) Bailey. Cassia chamascrista L. Castilleja coccinea (L.) Spreng. Ceanothus americanus L. Clematis virginiana L. (Borders chiefly.) Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Convolvulus sepium L. Coreopsis palmata Nutt. Coreopsis tripteris L. Crotalaria sagittalis L. Dactylis glomerata L. Dodecatheon meadia L. Dysodia papposa (Vent.) Hitch. Ellisia nyctelea L. (In somewhat sheltered places.) Elymus canadensis L. Ecpiisetum arvense L. (Intro- duced.) Erigeron canadense L. Erigeron pulchellus Michx. Erigeron ramosus (Walt.) B. S. P. Eryngiiim yuccifolium Michx. Eupatorium altissimum L. Euphorbia corollata L. Euphorbia maculata L. Euphorbia Preslii Guss. Fragaria virginiana Duches. Gentiana puberula Michx. Geranium caroliniana L. Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx. Hedeoma hispida Pursh. Hedeoma pulegeoides (L.) Pers. Ilelianthemum canadense (L.) Michx. Helianthus occidentalis Rid. Helianthus scaberrimus L. Ileliopsis scabra Dunal. Ileuchera hispida Pursh. Hordeum jubatum L. TTypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville. Isanthus brachiatus (L.) B. S. P. Juncus tenuis Willd. Krigia amplexicaulis Nutt. Kuhnia eupatoroides var. corymbu- losa T. & G. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 19 Lappula Redowskii var. occident- alis (Wats.) Ryd. Lepachys pinnata (Vent.) T. & G. Lepidium apetalum Willd. Lespedeza capitata Michx. Liatris pycnostacliya Miclix. Liruini sulcatum Rid. Lithospermum angustifolium Michx. (AA^inneshiek county.) Lithospermum canescens (Michx.) Lehm. Lobelia spicata Lam. Alonarda mollis L. Monarda punctata L. Nepeta cataria L. (Introduced.) Oenothera biennis L. Oenothera serrulata Nutt. Oxalis stricta L. Oxalis violacea L. Oxybaphus nyctagineus (Alichx.) Sweet. Panicum capillare L. (Introduced.) Panicum Scribnerianum Nash. Panicum virgatum L. Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl. Pedicularis canadensis L. Pentstemon lasvigatus var. digitalis (Sweet) Gray. Petalostemum candidum Michx. Petalostemum purpureum (Vent.) Ryd. Phlox pilosa L. Physalis pubescens L. Poa pratensis L. Polygala senega L. Poly gala verticillata L. Polygonum convolvulus L. (Intro- duced.) Potentilla arguta Pursh. Potentilla canadensis L. Potentilla monspeliensis L. Pycnanthemum pilosum Nutt. Ranunculus fascicularis Muhl. Rhus glabra L. Uhus toxicodendron L. Rosa humilis Marsh. Rubus occidentalis L. Rudbeckia hirta L. Ruellia ciliosa Pursh. Rumex crisp us L. (Introduced.) Salix humilis Ivlarsh. Scrophularia leporella Bickn. Scutellaria parvula Michx. Senecio plattensis Nutt. Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. (In- troduced.) Silene antirrhina L. Silene stellata (L.) Ait. Silphium laeiniatum L. Sisymbrium canescens var. brachy- carpon (Rich.) Wats. Sisyrinchium campestre Bickn. Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. Soli dago missouriensis Nutt. Soli dago nemoralis Ait. Sorghastrum nutan^ (L.) Nash. Siphenopholis obtusata var. lobata (Trin.) Scrib. Taraxacum officinale AAffiber. (In- troduced.) Teucrium canadense L. Thalictrum purpurascens L. Tradescantia retlexa Raf. Trifoiium stoloniferum Muhl. Perbascum thapsus L. (Intro- duced.) Affirbena angustifolia Michx. Affirbena bracteosa Michx. Verbena hastata L. Verbena stricta Vent. Affirbena urticifolia L. Alicia americana Aliihl. A^iola fimbriatula Sm. AGtis vulpina L. Xanthium commune Britt. Zizia aurea (L.) Koch. DELAYED GERMINATION. BY L. H. PAMMEL AND CHARLOTTE M. KING. In 1901 there was begun^ a study of the germination of weed seeds under different conditions. It was observed that a large number of the weed seeds did not germinate freely in the fall. In 1902 an experiment was performed with both mature and imma- ture seeds. Plantings of these seeds w^ere made in both fall and spring ; the spring planting included both seeds which had been frozen and seeds which had not been frozen. It was found that seeds of different species showed great difference in germination. In general the results of 1902 and 1903 indicate that stratification in sand and freezing is favorable to germination ; thus, in the Milkweed {Asclepias syriaca) , there was no germination upon stratification but afterwards 12 per cent; Western Ragweed (Aml^rosia psilostachyo.) , none before and 18 per cent afterward; Lamb’s quarter {Chenopoditim album) none before and 88 per cent after stratification; Cocklebur {XantJiiiim canadense) none before and 25 per cent afterward. Subsequently Mr. LI. S. FawcetP made a study of 52 different samples of mature weed seeds representing 52 different species. The samples were collected in September, October and November of 1904. The seeds were threshed out and placed in paper envelopes. Fifty seeds of each sample were placed in sand in boxes in a greenhouse and kept under conditions as nearly uniform as possible. The tests were repeated each month from November until May and all boxes of the previous months left. They were kept moist during the winter. In addition a large numher of weed samples was placed out of doors to expose them to the freezing and thawing, the seeds being placed in sacks in a wooden box covered with a thin layer of sand; the box was sunk in the ground not more than a foot below the surface and left there all winter. The general effect of the thawing and freezing was to increase the percentage ^Pammel, L. H. Proc. Soc. Prom, Agrl. Sci. 24:89. ‘The Vitality of Weed Seeds under Different Conditions of Treatment and a Study of the Dormant Periods. Proc. la. Acad. Sci. 15:25. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 21 of germination and lessen the dormant period, especially true of seeds with hard coats; where the coats were thin the dormant period was still less than with hard coated seeds. For instance the dormant period of common Pig Weed {Amarantus retroflexus) was nine and one-third days when kept in packages in a dry room and only six and one-third days after having wintered out of doors. In the case of Wild Rye, the dormant period was lessened from nine to five days. In the common Foxtail {Setaria glauca) the average dormant period was lessened from eleven to seven and one-fourth days and the percentage of germination from 34.5 per cent to 38 per cent, while the percentage of germination in the Wild Rye was increased from 22 per cent to 48 per cent and the Pig Weed increased from 40 per cent to 50 per cent. In general, the longest dormant period was found in those seeds which have the hardest and thickest seed coats. The longest dormant period for the Great Ragweed was 152 days; the Barn-yard Grass, 178 days. In this connection it is also interesting to observe that the highest percentage of germination for any planting was the common Mustard {Brassica arvensis) which was 100 and for the six plantings, 90.3 per cent. It has been known for a long time that many seeds refuse to germi- nate until they have passed a period of rest; Dr. MacDougaT calls at- tention to an interesting condition observed in Arizona in regard to some of the annual plants in which delayed germination occurs. Nobbe and Hanlein.^ who made a study of the weed seeds of thirty-one dif- ferent species and continued their experiments for 1,173 days, found a number of these weeds showed germination after a lapse of 1,173 days and among them were Campamila persicifolia; Ghelidomum majus; Mysosuriis minimus; Plantago media; Potentilla argentea and Thlaspi arvense. WinkleF observes that the seeds of Euphorbia Cyparissias though planted in the spring did not germinate in some cases until forty years later. He states also, that the seeds of Malva moschata will not germi- nate in the season of their production. Wiesner® states in some cases nine years are required for the germina- tion of Euphorbia exigua. He notes, also, the well-known fact that in the case of Red Clover Trifolium pratense, some seeds will germinate the ^The Course of the Vegetation in Southern Arizona. Plant World Nov., 1908. Separate 13. ^Ueber die Resistenz von Samen gegen die ausseren Factoren der Keimung. Landw. Versuchs-Stat. 20:63-96. 1877; the original of this paper was not available, the facts are taken from Crocker. Hanlein, Ueber die Keimkraft von Unkrautsamen. Landw. Versuchs-Stat. 25:465-470. 1880. ^Bermerkungen uber die Keimpflanzen und die Keimfahigkeit des Samen von Tithymalus Cyparissias. Ber Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 1:452-455. 1883. 22 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE first year while others later. The same is true of the Black Locust, Kohinia Pseudo- Acacia and Cytisus Laburnum. In these seeds the dif- ferences are due to the unequal ability of taking up water required for germination. Delayed germination was also observed in Reseda lutea and Diantlius armerioA The seeds of Sonchus oleraceus are said not to germinate the following season but to do so at a later period. Wiesnek found in the ease of Viscum album, that the seeds would germinate only sparingly in the fall but readily in the following spring ; that these seeds have dormant periods of at least six months and that light is favorable for their germination. Gifford is authority for the statement in the case of the White Pine that a few seeds will germinate the first year, a large number the second and a few the third. It is well known that cones of the Jack Pine often hang on the tree for twelve or thirteen years — according to Sudworth** seven to nine years ; also that when a fire passes through, the cones burst open and the seed is ready to germinate. In many cases the seeds of forest trees will germinate better after being subjected to freezing, or in other cases endure freezing but germinate quite as well if not frozen. Many of the seeds of our common Eed Cedar will not germinate the first season. How long some seeds will retain their vitality has never been definitely determined for many species, although we have accurate data for many seeds, particularly the exhaustive work by DeCandolle.® It was found by this author that out of 368 seeds kept dry in air for fifteen years, only a small number — 17, were capable of germinating. Of these, five species of Malvaceae, 9 species of Leguminosae, and one Labiatae. The experiments of Beal“ are of interest in this connection. In 1879, Dr. Beal selected 50 freshly grown seeds of each of 23 dif- ferent kinds of plants. The seeds were well mixed with moderately moist sand; the mixture was then placed in a pint bottle, which was left uncorked, with the mouth slanting downward so that no water could collect about the seeds. The bottles were then buried three feet below the surface in a sandy knoll and at the end of 5, 10, 15, 20, and ®Biol. der Planzen, 45. ^Ueber die Ruheperiode undvon einige Keimungsbedigungen der Samen von Viscum album, Ber. Deutsch Bot. Gells. 15:505-515. 1897. See Kienitz. Bot. Centralb. 1:53. ®Bull. Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept, of Agr., 29:35. ‘’Sur la Duree relative de la faculte de germer Ann. Sci. Nat. Ill, 6:373. 1846. Physiologie vegetate 2:618. “Proc. Soc. Prom. Agrl. Sci. 26:89-1905. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 23 25 years, sets of seed were tested for vitalit}^ The following results were obtained : Name of Seeds — Tested as Known in 1879 5 yr. 10 yr. 15 yr. 20 yr. 25 yr. Amaranthiis retroflexus + ! + + + Ambrosia artemisissfolia 0 0 0 i 0 0 Braasica nigra 0 + “h + Bromus secalinus 0 0 0 ’ 0 0 Capsella Bursa-pastoris _u 0 + i + + Erechthites hieracifolia b 0 0 ! 0 0 Euphorbia maculata 0 0 0 1 0 0 Lepidium virginicum + + -}- ! + + Lychnis Githago 0 0 0 ! 0 0 Maruta Cotula + + + i 0 + Malva rotundifolia + 0 0 i + 0 Oenothera biennis + + + + + Plantago major • 0 0 + ! 0 0 Polygonium Hydropiper . 0 + + + + Portulaca oleracea 0 + 4" + + Quercus rubra 0 0 0 0 0 Rumex crispus + 7 + + + Setaria glauca + + + 0 + Stellaria media + + + + + Thuja occidentalis 0 0 0 0 0 Trifolium repens 0 0 0 0 0 Verbascum Thapsus + •? + + 0 It was found that 8 out of 22 failed to germinate. All the acorns which were not placed in bottles were dead in two years. Prof. L. K. Waldron^' records some valuable experiments with buried seed of seven different common weeds. In fail of 1889, these were planted in a seed-bed out of doors at depths of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 inches. During the same fall Shepherd’s Purse produced a few plants at depth of 1 and 2 inches ; French weed 25 plants at 1 inch ; wild mustard many plants at 1, 2, and 3 inches; wild oats several plants at 1, 2 and 3 inches. During 1900 the seeds continued to germinate and it was true of them that the small weed seed did not come up through 2 inches of soil; no seeds buried below 3 inches germinated except Kinghead or Great Kagweed and wild oats, which came up through 5 inches of soil. These data were furnished for the following weeds: Shepherd’s Purse, Frenchweed, Green Foxtail, Kinghead, Wild Mustard, Wild Buckwheat, Wild Oats. 62, N. Dak. Evp. Sta., p. 439-445., 24 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE iiec(iuerer' extended the observations of DeCandolle by removing the internments sterilizing, and soaking the seeds and keeping them in moist cotton. Of the 550 species studied by him, belonging to thirty orders of plants, the age of seeds varied from 25 to 135 years. The seeds from the following years germinated: Acacia bicapsidaris from 1819; Cytisus hiflorus of 1822 ; Trifolium arvense of 1838 ; Ervum lens of 1841 ; Doli- chos f unarms of 1868 ; Nelumbium codopJiyllum of 1850 ; N. asperifolium of 1858 ; N. speciosum of 1888 ; and Lavatera pseudo-alba of 1862. None of the old seeds of the following orders germinated, Juncaceae, Liliaceae, Clienopodiaceae, Papaveraceae, Caryophyllaceae, or Cucurbi- taceae. Recently A. J. Ewark^ has published an exhaustive work on the longevity of seeds. A large» number were tested and the records of many are given. It would seem from the work of Ewart that many seeds have a prolonged vitality, some upwards of 50 and 80 years. A few of the results of his studies are given here : ^^Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Bot. IX, 5:193-320. 1907. Compt. Rend. del’Acad. des Sci. 142:1549. ^^Proc. Roy. Soc. of Victoria. 21:1 pt. 1, 1. 1898. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 25 Name of Seed Years Old No. of Seeds Percent- age of Germina- tion Malvaceae — Abutilon avicennse 57 45 6 Var. Bebriana Hibiscus trionum 57 12 Gossypium herbaceum 10 80 Leguminosae — Acacia diffusa 57 32 9 Acacia penninervis 57 15 13.3 Cytisus albus 51 54 78 Melilotus alba 44 250 52 Melilotus alba 77 1000 18.2 NympTiaeaceae — Nelumbium luteum 55 6 63 Rhamnaceae — Ceanothus Americanus 15 20 0 Crueiferae — Brassica alba 77 115 0 Compositae — Cicborium intybus 10 100 50 Helianthus annuus 15 20 0 Gramineae — Triticum vulgare 10 100 7.5 Zea Mays 7 100 36 Bromus mollis 10 250 0 THE PROLONGED VITxVLITY OP SEEDS. The explanation of this must be sought not only in the structure of the seed coat but in the amount of respiration that is carried on at least at times and depends on external conditions and lastly upon certain herit- able qualities. One is perhaps not very far wrong in concluding with Kolkwitz^^ that respiration is not essential to continue the vitality of seeds since many seeds will not lose their vitality by prolonged heating. Thus Pouchet"^ states that the vitality of the seeds of Medicago sativa was not destroyed when heated with steam heat for four hours; and HaberlandP^ found that a large number of seeds of sixty-four different species did not lose their vitality after having been heated to 100 degrees C. for forty-eight hours. Among these we may mention some of the seeds of Gramineae, Leguminoseae, Cucurhitaceae, etc. Such seeds usu- ^^Berichte d. Bot. Gesell. 19:285. ^^Compt rend. 63:939. ^^Allgem. Land. -u. forstw. Zeit. 1:389. Utersuchungen auf dem Gebiete des Pflanzenbaues. 2:79. 26 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE ally germinate more rapidly than the untreated. The whole subject has been discussed by Detmer."® Schroder"" has shown that barley containing only two per cent of water germinated well after an interval of twelve weeks, dost"" calls attention to the fact that seeds of the grass type which can withstand thorough drying as a rule retain their powers of germination only for a limited number of years. ‘‘What the laws of germinating power depend on in the long run is not known, but when we reflect that gradual altera- ing to reduce their solubility, we may conclude that speciflc pro- toplasmic bodies undergo as time goes on , alterations calculated to render them functionless. At all events it is quite out of the question to suppose that death of the resting seed is brought about by using up reserve substances in respiration. The writer some years ago made a test of corn kept under different conditions. One sample which germinated 100 per cent early in the spring, in the course of two months, subject to the various changes of the weather, dropped to 66 per cent. In another sample kept in the laboratory, the germination during the early spring was 98 per cent; kernels taken from the same ear two months later dropped to 80 per cent. The loss in vitality here was undoubtedly due to the absorption of moisture and respiratory changes that occurred in the seed, and Ewart"'* suggests that longevity depends not on food materials nor seed coats but upon how long the inert proteid molecules into which the living protoplasm disintegrates when drying, retain the molecular group- ing which permits of their re-combination to form the active protoplasmic molecule when the seed is moistened and supplied with oxygen. The same author further demonstrated'^'* that “seeds capable of withstanding thorough drying assume a perfectly dormant condition in which they do not respire and are not living although they have a power of restor- ing life potential in them for a longer or shorter period of years. ’ ’ And Becquerel concludes that only those seeds can preserve their vitality which have thick coats and are impermeable to water and oxygen and do not have a large amount of oxydizable reserve matter. This conclu- iGYergieichende physiologie des Keirnungsprocesses der Samen. 402. See also paper by Edwards and Colin, Ann. d. Sc. Nat. Bot. 1:264. 1834. Sachs Handbuch d. Experimental physiologie d. Pflanzen. 66. ^^Unters bot. Inst. Tubingen. 2:1. ^®Lectures on Plant Physiology, Eng. Trans, by Gibson. 342. ^®Proc. Roy. Soc. of Victoria. 21:184, 1 pt. ^"Trans Liverpool Biol. Soc. 8:234. 1894. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 27 sion, however, is incorrect, as Ewart states, because the long-lived seeds, and many of them have starchy material, are found in the Legiiminoseac. Some years ago one of us^^ made a study of the seeds of leguminous genera found in Gray’s Manual. It was found that nearly all of the seeds studied had a cuticle, especially pronounced in the Mimoseae, Caesalpinieae and most of the Papilionaceae. Many of the seeds are known to have an especially long vitality. It has long been known that some of the seeds of the Leyuminosae. especially clover, will not germinate the same season that they are planted. The best seeds of the red clover are the purple, these are also the hardest. Hiltner'^ was the first to show that when hard seeds of clover are treated with sulphuric acid they germinate after treatment. Jarzymowski,^^ Ewart and others have shown that such treatment hastens germination. Bergetheil and Day"^ and Miss White"" have shown that the cuticle is impermeable to water. It has long been known that certain paired seeds like the cocklebur will not germinate the same season. The cocklebur seeds were first carefully studied by Arthur"® who found that generally the germination of one seed is delayed although both may germinate the same season. Nobbe and Ilanlein’s observation on some weed seeds show the same facts. AN EXPERIMENT WITH SOME IOWA WTEED SEEDS. In 1906 an experiment was started wdth 130 different kinds of weed seeds. The seeds were mature so far as we could tell. They were placed in paper packages and left in the laboratory. Plantings were made as follows : November, December, January, March and April. A second set of samples of the same weed seeds of 130 species was placed in linen sacks, covered with earth and buried six inches in the soil. They were thus subject to the varying conditions of an Iowa winter. These seeds were carefully removed in April and planted with the other samples for comparison. The tables are too long to produce in this con- ^^Pammel, L. H. Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis, 9.89. ^^Arch. aus d. biol. Abt. f. Land u. Porst. Wiss. 3:30, 1902. ^Tnaug. Diss. Halle. 1905. Ann. of Bot. 21: Jan., 1907. "’Proc. Royal Soc. Victoria. 21:203. -®Proc. Soc. Prom. Agrl. Sci. 16:70. -‘Ueber die Resistenz von Samen genen die aussern Factoren der Keimung Landw. Versuchs. Stat. 20:63. Ueber die Keimkraft von Unkrautsamen. Landw. Versuchs Stat. 25:465. 28 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE nection. The germination of a few typical illustrations may be brought together in the following table. PERCENTAGE OF SEEDS GERMINATED BY MONTHS. Name of Weed Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mch. April Fr’z’n April 1. Abutilon Theophrasti 9. 37.3 11.3 28.6 27.7 37.3 36. 2. Amaranthus graecizans 9.3 2.6 1 .66 0 1 10. 7.3 32. 3. Ambrosia artemisisefolia 9.2 8. I 8. 7. 7. 26. 21.5 4. Arctium Lappa 10. 6. 1 1.5 1.33 2. ‘ 2.6 .42 5. Apocynum cannabinum 54. 12.25 ! 4. 2. 46. 54. 6. 7. Brassica arvensis *Cicuta maculata 25.5 39. 34. 33. 19. 52. 44. 8. Cassia Chamsecrista , 16.3 13.6 15.3 3. i 2. 8.6 CO CO 9. Chenopodium album 22.6 20.6 2.6 19 .‘3 ! 15.3 1 3- 44.6 10. Cirsium lanceolatum 1 14. 13.3 9. 1. 1 20.6 16. 34.6 11. Echinochloa crusgalli 4.6 17. 4. 3. 1 8.5 ! 13.6 57. 12. Lactuca Canadensis 0 2.6 .50 7. 2. 2. 39.3 13. Melilotus alba 2.5 4. 2.6 6.6 i 2.5 6. 11.3 14. Plantago major 4. 9.5 .50 1.3 1.5 5.5 32. 15. Polygonum pennsylvanicum . . 3. 5.5 8.5 0 i 1. 0 45. 16. Panicum capillare 4.5 8.6 2.6 1. 8.5 28. 17. Rumex crispus 15.3 18.5 1.5 12. 15.4 12. 36. 18. Setaria glauca 5.5 10. 7 .5 .66 50.5 32. 35.7 19. Verbena urticsefolia 5.5 5. i ± . .66 4.5 5.3 31.5 The foregoing table further illustrates the differences caused by freez- ing in the germination of weed seeds; for in the most cases, the germi- nation was greater after the seeds had been subjected to thawing and freezing than when kept in packages in a dry room. Of the November planting, November, 1908, of a total number of 65 species, four species failed to germinate ; of 60 species in December, 48 ; of 63 species in January, 44; of 62 species in March, 27; of 59 species in April, 46; of the seeds exposed to the weather, 64 species, 24 failed to germinate. The seeds of many of the weeds germinate in a very irregular man- ner. A few may be given to illustrate this : *No results. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 29 PERCENTAGES BY MONTHS AND YEARS. Name of Weed Nov. Dec. Jan. March April April is ^ Subject- ed to Freez- ing 1905 1 1906 o 05 1908 1 iO O CO o o 05 00 o s O 05 1 9061 1907 1908 § 05 1906 1907 00 0 'S 10 § CO 05 c- 0 05 00 0 05 1905 1 1906 0 05 00 0 05 Amarantlius retroflexus 32 6 12 0 38 10 2 2 4 12 0 0 6 26 4 12 28 10 0 26 22 62 30 Bidens' frondosa 8 4 -4 0 2 0 6 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 8 '0 0 6 0 2 86 68 2 Datura stramonium 0 22 100 __ 0 50 70 __ 0 32 20 __ 0 22 40 0 26 46 __ 28 70 __ ■Rplpninm fintninnnlp 2 0 6 0 6 0 0 4 4 Lepidium apetalum 32 14 22 32 64 24 40 56 2' 28 94 54 94 58 0 86 32 Pnstinnpn satiysi 2 30 16 10 68 20 6 0! 8 8 52 20 72 32 14 48 92 98 Setaria viridis 42 14 10 0 66 34 0^ 18 28 2 'e 50 0 8 82 70 4 0 38 66 6 0 Sonchus oleraceus 52 2 2 — 42 26 'e — — 2 ;1 — -- 0 2 — 8 6 2 — ” 38 8 " The results of these tests seem to indicate the uncertainty with refer- ence to the germination of these various specis of plants. It has been shown by Dr. BeaT® that certain seeds when buried soon lose their vitality. This was true of Bromus secaliniis and DuveF has shown this to be true also for some seeds studied by him. The average germination in buried seeds was as follows: Original tests, 63.2 per cetit; control in chamber, 57.5 per cent; control in greenhouse, 53.2 per cent; buried 6-8 inches, 20.5 per cent; buried 18-22 inches 26.5 per cent; buried 36-42 inches, 31 per cent. This writer also indicates that there was a con- siderable loss in the vitality of seeds with hard coats like Lespedeza and Medicago. For instance, in the case of red clover, seed harvested in the same year was planted in 1902, germinated 2. 4, and 4 per cent for the three different depths of 6-8, 18-22 and 36-42 inches'. The hard seed in the clover remained over in the soil. He concludes that the seeds of cultivated plants with but few exceptions lose their vitality when buried in the soil. That seeds of the plants commonly designated as weeds retain their vitality remarkably well when buried in the soil. Wiesneff'^ states that the seeds of Pontederia crassipes, Mayacca fliivi- atilis, Heteranthera will germinate in water if previously dried out in the air, according to F. Muller^^ and according to Bohm^^ Pkaseolus midtiflorus will not germinate in the absence of lime salts. 2«Bull. Mich. Agrl. Col. 5:1884. ^The Vitality of Buried Seeds, Bull. B. P. I. U. S. Dept, of Agrl. 83. ^“Biol. der Pflanz. 45. ^^Cosmos. 7:183. ^-Sitzungab. d. Kais. Akad. d. Wis. Wien. 71. See also Stohman Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. 1862. 121:319. ;o IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE It may be added that Schofield^' foiind that the seeds of Zizania aquat- ica soon lose their vitality if exposed to the air and that they germinate only when kept in moist earth or mud. Mr. J. J. Thornber^'^ finds that with seeds flooded to a depth of 12 inches for a period of 30 days, there were obtained germinations as follows : Bermuda grass 42 per cent, Johnson grass 45 per cent, Sesbania macrocarpa 75 per cent. When extended to 50 days, Bermuda grass germinated 14 per cent, Johnson grass 23 per cent. After submergence of 21 days, radish, rutabaga, sugar beet and tomato seed germinated 100 per cent, cabbage and celery seed 75 per cent, and water melon 33 per cent. There may be mentioned in connection with studies of germination under induced conditions, the experiments of Italo GigliolT" who has shown that latent vitality may occur in seeds when surrounded by gases and liquids. The seeds of alfalfa Avhen in nitrogen dioxide for 776 days germinated 43 per cent, sulphuretted hydrogen 976 days germi- nated 58 per cent; arseniuretted hydrogen 802 days germinated 87 per cent. The seeds were air dry and placed in bulbs. In regard to liquids the results are surprising, methyl alcohol 841 days, per cent of germi- nation 19 per cent; carbon disulphide 405 days per cent of germination 63.2. Moist seeds kept in oxygen and in nitrogen protoxide do not germinate. Alcoholic solution of iodine 382 days, per cent germination 1.5, alcoholic solution of potassium bromide 757 days 68.4. Giglioli re-examined the seeds of alfalfa which had been kept in the gases and liquids during this time; Hydrogen 16 years, none germinated; wheat and cynara gave the same result. With chlorine and hydrochloric acid gas, seeds of alfalfa 16 years, 3 months and 5 days old, 6.72 per cent germinated. Alcoholic solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, alfalfa 15 years, 9 months, 15 days, 7.03 per cent germinated. These experiments seem to show that seeds may retain their vitality when all respiratory exchange is completely prevented for a long series of years. To test the vitality of clover seed gathered in the year 1905, the following experiment was conducted the seeds were treated with hot water, dilute sulfuric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid and, in one case, by scratching. ^^The Viability of Seeds. Plant World 11:158. ^“Latent Vitality of Seeds. Nature 52:544. Action of Gases and liquids on the Vitality of Seeds. 35:328. Gazette Chimica italiana. 9:19. 1879. Gior delle staz sper, ital. 8:199. 1874. ®®This experiment was conducted by J. R. Campbell under our direction. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 31 PERCENTAGE OP GERMINATION AFTER TREATMENT. Germina- tion in 24 Hours Germina- tion in 48 Hours Germina- tion in 72 Hours Final CJiecIc — • Purple, ’06 I ! 3 14 ' 15 Yellow, ’06 0 3 11 12 Purple, ’09 • 14 1 23 30 30 Yellow, ’09 : 3 46 43 : 48 Hot Water — Purple, ’06 0 I 0 0 1 1 Yellow, ’06 0 ! 0 0 ' 0 Purple, ’09 0 0 1 1 Yellow, ’09 0 1 2 2 Sulphuric acid — Purple, ’06 0 1 4 6 Yellow, ’06 1 ^ 2 7 10 Purple, ’09 1 4 37 42 i 42 Yellow, ’09 ! 4 17 18 1 19 Sulphuric acid, 2 min. — Purple, ’09 2 5 10 1 12 Scratched — i i 1 1 Purple, ’06 0 i 5 11 i 14 Yellow, ’06 1 ! 3 9 1 9 Ho. 82— 1 ! Purple, ’09 1 25 33 ! 42 42 Yellow, ’09 ! 5 35 36 36 Ho. 70— Purple, ’09 21 30 35 35 Yellow, ’09 33 35 39 40 Ho. 11— \ Yellow, ’09 : 1 29 30 41 41 Undoubtedly the hard clover seeds as well as the hard seeds of other plants are for the purpose of tiding the seed over unfavorable condi- tions. It has been well said by Mr. Ewart, ‘'Macrobiotic seeds are all seeds which show no especial adaptation for dispersal. None are wind or water borne and although some are more or less accidentally dis- tributed by animals, adhesive seeds or fruits are conspicuously absent among them. They are, in fact, distributed in time instead of in space. Falling to the ground beneath or close to the parent plant, a few are immediately germinable but others only after long periods of years or after special actions have been brought to bear upon them. ’ ’ The ease is, however, very different with many seeds that are found in low damp situations like the willow and the cottonwood and the soft 32 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE maple. The seeds fall on the damp earth or mud and here the condi- tions are favorable for immediate germination. The seeds of the ash and horn-bean begin to germinate the year after they ripen; it is also known that the seeds of many trees and some shrubs which mature early in the season do not retain their vitality for germination a great length of time. The following experiment was con- ducted A\dth the common soft maple {Acer saccharimmi) . On June 3d the samaras of the species were beginning to fall from the trees. They Avere collected and kept under different conditions as follows : A large number of seeds were stored in the cooling room of the college creamery at 45 degrees F. ; another sample Avas left in the laboratory exposed to dry atmosphere; still another sample was left in a pasteboard box between folds of damp cloth; another was placed in damp sand immediately after being picked from the ground. > Some weed seedlings. 1. Xanthium canadense. 2. Brassica nigra. 3. Arctium Lanna. 4. Scrophularia nodosa. 5. Eupatorium. 6. Cirsium lanceolatum. 7. Nepeta cataria. S. Solidago rigida. 9. Chenopodium album. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 33 Kind of Seed and Treatment Col- lected Plant- ed Days Dormant Per cent 1 i Germi- || nation 1 Soft Maple — 1. Placed in damp cloth; be- came slightly mouldy. . 2. Placed in paste board box in laboratory and kept dry 6- 3-09 6- 7-09 7th day, 2; 8th, 23; 9th, 7; 10th, 2; 11th, 6; 12th, 2; 13th, 1; 14th, 1; 15th, 2; 16th, 1; 22d, 2 75 6- 3-09 6- 7-09 8th, 5; 9th, 12; 11th, 4; 12th, 3; 13th, 2; 14th, 1; 15th 1; 17th, 1 58 3. Picked from the ground. 4, Kept in laboratory and al- lowed to dry out. Seeds had become much more 6- 3-09 * 9th, 1; 10th, 1; 11th, 4; 12th, 8; 13th, 6; 14th, 1; 15th, 1; 16th, 3; 17th, 3; 18th, 4; 21st, 2; 22d, 1; 26th, 5 40 shriveled than they were in sample No. 2, but still green 6- 3-09 6-18-09 11th, 10; 13th, 3; 17th, 4; 19th, 1; 20th, 1; 28th, 1; 29th, 1 42 5. Seeds collected from the ground. In fairly good condition. The cotyle- dons were green 6-18-09 6-18-09 1 1 7th, 1; 8th, 2; 9th, 2; 10th, 2; 11th, 17; 13th, 3; 14th, 2; 15th, 1; 16th, 1; 20th, 1 6. Kept in laboratory. Same condition as No. 2. Seeds 32 had become very much shriveled and dried out 6- 3-09 6-26-09 13th, 1; 15th, 1; 17th, 1.. 6 7. Seeds kept in cooling room at the creamery at the following tempera ture: 45°P. Seeds slight- ly shriveled but the coty- ledons green. Plants are not mouldy i i 7- 7-09 6th, 1; 7th, 0; 8th, 1; 9th, | 6; lOth, 6 1 I 1 [ 28 It appears from these tests that the soft maple having a very thin seed coat does not retain its vitality for a great length of time because the loss of water is very rapid. Germination may be delayed by keeping the seeds at a nearly uniform temperature in a refrigerator or cooling room. Of one hundred seeds collected on July 5th from under the trees where they had fallen, none were found which were capable of germination. Many of them, or nearly all of the seeds were decomposed. ^Immediately. 3 THE PROBLEM OF AA^EEDS IN THE AA^EST. BY L. H. PAMMEL. AA^eediness is an. indication of poor farming. It has been said by some one that the farmers of the east do not fear the Canadian Thistle or other agressive weeds because the better methods of tillage make the fields clean. The average yield of corn in Iowa according to the latest statistics is 32.9 bushels per acre. This can by proper methods of cultivation be more than doubled. According to the Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1903, the yield of corn per acre in Iowa from 1894-1903 was as follows: 1894, 15.0; 1895, 35.1; 1896, 39.0; 1897, •29 ; 1898, 35 ; 1899, 31 ; 1900, 38 ; 1901, 25 ; 1902, 32.0 ; 1903, 28. During this period most of the years the state of Alaine had a greater yield Y>ev acre than Iowa. Iowa is in the corn belt and has a greater acreage tlian any other state in the Union. A part of the low yield is due to unfavorable seasons as in 1894. We have not, however, had a year since then which was in any way unfavorable for a good or fair crop of corn. The unfavorable crop returns then must be due to other causes, chief among these are the weedy fields. In the year 1908 the writer had estimates made of the yield of some typical corn fields in Iowa. It was found that good clean fields yielded 50 to 60 bushels per acre while the Aveedy fields only between 25 and 30. An increase of 20,000,000 bushels in Iowa should be possible by better methods of culti- vation. This would mean that the farmers could easily increase their Avealth by $8,000,000, alloAving a little extra expense for labor. The present day farming in the corn belt is an economic Avaste. Most of the Aveeds are easily destroyed, like the Pigeon Grass {Setaria glauca), Foxtail {Setaria viridis) , SmartAveed {Polygonum pennsylvanicum and other species), the Cocklebnr {Xantldum canadense) , RagAveed (Am- hrosia trifida) and A. artemisaefolia, etc. Nearly all of onr troublesome Aveeds are those common to the east and in Europe. Such perennial Aveeds as Quack Grass {Agropyron repens) and the Canadian Thistle, Horse Nettle {Solaniim carolinense) are local. To the north as in Alinne- sota and AA^isconsin snch perennial AA^eeds as the Quack Grass and Ca- Perennial Ragweed (Avihrosia psilostacliya) , Cleome, Sweet Clover, Lepacliys and other weeds of the streets of Fort Collins, Colorado. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 35 nadian Thistle are more common. Different crops and different regions produce weeds which may become locally prominent. In southern Iowa the Horse Nettle and Cocklebur ‘are more abundant than in Northern Iowa. In Avestern loAva the Marsh Elder {Iva xanthiifolia) is an immi- grant from the AA^est, and it has extended northAvard into Canada. In the Red River Valley of the North, the Iva xanthiifolia known locally as the half-breed AA^eed is abundant. One sees, hoAvever, little of such common loAA^a AA^eeds as the MayAA^eed (Anthemis Cotula) and Butter- print or Indian klallow {Ahutilon Theophrasti) . Nor is the large Rag- Aveed (Ambrosia trifida) as common as in loAAm. The AAMolly Thistle (Cirsium canescens) is abundant. As Ave cross the boundary line or approach it, Ave see that one of the native shrubs of that country (Eleagnus argentea) spreads rapidly AAdiere the surface of the soil has been removed, very much as the cottomvood does in loAva or in other parts of northern United States. In the country from 'Winnipeg to Vancouver and the Rocky Mountain states, the common Scpiirreltail Grass (Hordeum jiibatum) is one of the most striking Aveeds in fields and Avaste places. At is, of course, a strik- ing, Aveed also in Iowa, but it Avas rare here prior to 1876. Cultivation and neglect of tillage has caused these Aveeds to become extensively scattered. AA^eeds adapt themseUes to conditions most suited for their eiiAuronment and it strikes one as peculiar that the most common ruderale plants of loAva, like the Green Foxtail and Pigeon Grass, as Avell as the Crab Grasses are as yet of little importance in the Canadian NorthAvest although troublesome in the Alississippi valley. They occur across the continent and on the Pacific coast but do not coA^er the ground as they do here. To the south in Montana, Idaho, and especially Colorado and Utah, they have become common. The AVild Oats (Avena fatua) is common in the northAvest as it is in parts of Alinnesota and the irrigated districts of the Rocky Alountains, largely because the Aveed is spread Avitli the culture of oats. The Holy Grass (Hierochloe borealis) a Avell knoAAui native grass of the north is comparatively rare in Iowa, except north- Avard and it is not knoAvn to be Aveedy in that section of the state. Hoav- ever, in the Canadian nortliAvest it is a persistent and troublesome perennial Aveed. Other someAvhat Aveedy grasses are AAAmless Brome Grass (Bromus inermis) , Commmon Cheat (Bromus secalinus) and the Darnel (Lolium temidentum) . Today it is difficult to find common Cheat in many parts of loAA^a largely because Ave no longer groAV AApeat but the Soft Chess (Bronins mollis) is coming in rapidly. In Utah the Bromus tectorum and Hordeum murinum have become most troublesome 36 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE weeds and rapidly spreading to Colorado. With ns the H. pusilkmi is making its way northward into Central Iowa. The next great family of interest is the Composite Family ; the plants are plastic and aggressive, the old world species more so than those of the new world. In Iowa most of our composite weeds are from the old Avorld hut in the Canadian Northwest and in the West there are many indigenous native species. The Gum-wood, {Grinclelia squarrosa) al- though I have known it for some years in Central Iowa, is not spread- ing. This weed is common from Winnipeg westward through the Rocky iMountains south to Minnesota and Western Iowa. However, it is not persistent in cultivated fields. The most aggressive of the native weeds is iMarsh Elder, {Iva xanthiifolia) though extending eastward to the Mississippi River it is not- important in the Eastern states, it partially takes the place of the Large Ragweed in the Missouri Valley, the Red River of the North and in Manitoba. This weed illustrates how a plant common in the alluvial fiood plains soon adapts itself to cultivated areas. The older settlers of Manitoba always found it near buildings occupied by half-breeds^ but presumably also by other untidy farmers, and hence have given it the name of ^Gialf-breed weed.” The Yarrow, an indigenous plant, is abundant throughout the region from Winnipeg to Seattle, although rarely troublesome in fields. The Greater Ragweed, {Ambrosia trifida) one of the most conspicuous weeds in the Northern Mississippi Valley, is fairly common in the southern part of Manitoba to Winnipeg, St. Vincent, Minnesota, and Pembina, North Dakota. Outside of the Province of Manitoba it is a rare weed. The Ilog-weed or Bitter- weed {A. art emmac folia) is still rarer, but the perennial A. psilostachya is not infrequent in Minnesota and in gravelly knolls of Iowa, and is a fairly common native plant on the plains about AA'innipeg, westward it is not common, though common in the United States east of the Rockies. The common IMayweed {Antli- emis Cotula) and Burdock (Arctium major) of Iowa, AABsconsin and Minnesota, are comparatively rare in the Northwest territory but more frequent on the west slope of the Rockies in British Columbia, AA'ashington, Oregon and Utah. This is particularly true of the Bur- dock. The indigenous biennial Wormwood (Artemisia biennis) is quite as common in Manitoba as in Minnesota, while the European AVorm- wood (Artemisia vulgaris) is a common plant along roadsides in Mani- toba. The European Mugwort, (Senecio vulgaris) seldom seen in the Northern Mississippi Valley states, is common in places in Manitoba, on the Pacific Coast, Vancouver Island and Seattle in Washington. In the recent edition of Gray’s Manual Robinson and Fernald note that Ragweed or Kinghead {Amhrosia trificla) common roadside weed. Texas to Can- ada, especially common from Iowa to North Dakota. / Cirsiuni canescens, common from western Iowa to the Rockies, north to Alberta. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 37 it is common in Avaste places in the east. The common Bootjack fonnct everywhere in A¥isconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, eastern Nebraska and Mis- souri, in fields and along roadsides, is less abundant in Manitoba. It is rare westward in Canada and only local in the Rocky Mountains. The Bachelor’s Button (Centaurea cyanus) is not uncommon on the Pacific Coast, especially in California. In the Mississippi Valley it is rare except as an escape from gardens, although Dr. Robinson states that it occurs along roadsides. The yellow-flowered Knapweed or Bar- naby’s Weed (0. solstitialis) has been reported from several different points in Iowa, but abundant on the Pacific Coast, largely introduced here Avith alfalfa seed from the west. Several other species have been naturalized on the Pacific Coast. The Ox-eye Daisy {Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum) was found along the railway near Sicamous Junction, B. C., and near Seattle, Wash. The roadside looked like an eastern roadside. In the East Ox-eye Daisy is recognized as one of the most common and troublesome AA^eeds in pastures and meadows. In Iowa it rarely causes any trouble, for 15 years a small patch has been found along the right of way of the C. & N. W. Railway in Story county, but it has not, liOAveA^er, made much advancement to neighboring fields. Here and there in A¥isconsin and Minnesota there are isolated patches but Avith little tendency to spread. We are told by Dr. Fernald of Har- vard University that it is confined to a small area in eastern Canada and that our common plant is something entirely different. Chicory {Cichorium Intyhus) Avas not observed east of the Rockies in Canado but abundant Avest in British Columbia and AYashington. It is abundant locally in AVisconsin and Minnesota and has become widely scattered in loAva AAuth clover and alfalfa seed in recent years, but no- Avhere abundant. The Thistles are not numerous in species but abund- ant. The Canadian Thistle .{Cirsium arvense) has made its way across the continent from Winnipeg Avest to Vancouver Island and Seattle. It has become naturalized at numerous points, Winnipeg, Winnipeg Beach, Emerson, Moose JaAv, Calgary, Portal, North Bend, (B. C.) Bremerton, Everett, Seattle, Washington. It has spread extensively in Alanitoba, occurring in fields, meadows, along roadsides and even occur- ring in woods. It is not unlikely that it will be as common in the other provinces of NortliAvestern Canada as it noAV is in Manitoba. It seeds freely in Manitoba. The climatic conditions seem to be much more fav- orable in Canada than Iowa. It has occurred for a much longer time in loAva than in Manitoba, but it is not a dominant weed as in the Can- adian Province. The plant occurs in many counties, if not in every one. Perhaps in many of the Minnesota and AVisconsin counties. It is more 38 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE abundalit in Northern Iowa than in the southern part of the state. For many years the plant rarely produced seed in this state, though the seed was not infrequently produced on plants found along the shores of Lake Michigan in Wisconsin. It now seems to have developed the seed habit in Iowa, though by no means as frequent as in Canada and in Europe. The Woolly Thistle {Cirshim canescens) indigenous to the country and to the south to western Iowa to the Kocky Mountains in Colorado and Montana, is common east of Calgary. The Field Thistle, (Cirsium discolor) though a common weed in Iowa and Minnesota, is less common in the Red River Valley and only reaches across the bor- der into Manitoba. The Bull Thistle (Cirsiiim lanceolatiim) is not common at any point east of Calgary to Winnipeg but on the west slope of the Rockies in the valleys of the Selkirks and Cascades to Van- couver, Victoria, (B. C.) Seattle, Everett and Seattle it is a common weed. It is common also in the Great Basin Country of Utah and in Montana and Idaho. The AVhite Weeds, {Erigeron ramosus and E. strigosus) so common everywhere in the Mississippi Valley from ]\Iis- souri north to Minnesota and west to Nebraska, are not to be counted among the conspicuous weeds of that country. The Horseweed, which is sometimes called the Marestail, is not abundant in the great wheat belt of Canada, although in British Columbia it is abundant in clear- ings and cultivated fields. The White Weeds give an interesting aspect to the meadows in Iowa in June. The common weedy Sunflower H. petiolaris and the H. annuus are less frequently found on the Pacific Coast, but common in Kansas and Nebraska westward to the Rockies. On the prairies about Winnipeg west to Moose Jaw and Medicine Hat the E. maximilianii is abundant. This species also occurs in Northwestern Iowa through Minnesota to Manitoba. The Blue Lettuce (Lactuca ptUchella) is abundant about Winnipeg and southward but not abundant in Saskatchewan and Al- berta, common from western Iowa and westward. Prickly Lettuce {Lactiica Scariola) is common from Kamloops to Victoria and Seattle, and on the Pacific Coast in California and eastward. In some places more common than the variety integra which is the common form in the Mississippi Valley. The species is rare in Ipwa, although the variety is abundant. The rapid spread of the variety in Northern United States since 1877 shows how remarkably well it has adapted itself to the more humid and drier regions of the country. The Pine-apple Weed {Matricaria suaveolens) is common from Sicamous Junction, Revel- stoke, B. C., to Victoria, Vancouver, B. C., and Seattle. This weed is common on the Pacific slope, throughout the interior of the continent in WEEDS OF THE PRAIRIE. IOWA. Morning' Glory (Convolvulus sephini) . I.aT-kspnr ( Delnhiniuvi caroliannni) . Golden rod (Solidago canadensis) . Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis). Aster, and other -weeds during the month of September. Iowa. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 39 Utah and Idaho and according to Robinson and Fernald is locally abun- dant in New Brunswick, New England, New York and Pennsylvania and about St. Louis. Here we have a most aggressive Pacific slope weed which has adapted itself to a wide scope of territory. It is one of the few Pacific slope weeds which has thus extended its territory eastward. The Goldenrods are poorly represented in Northwestern Canada. The Missouri Goldenrod {SoUclago missouriensis) is common in Southern Manitoba to Winnipeg Beach and westward, but scarcely weedy. The rigicla occurs in Manitoba but not a common plant. A very common weed in Iowa pastures. The Canadian Goldenrod {S. canadensis) is common in Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, Nebraska and Minnesota, often weedy in pastures and along roadsides but seldom so in Manitoba. It occurs, too, on the west slope of the Cascades near North Bend and else- where. The Sow Thistle {S. oleraceus) occurs in Winnipeg, more fre- quent on the Pacific Coast, Seattle and elsewhere, on the other hand, the perennial Sow Tliistle {S. arvensis) is abundant everywhere in Mani- toba from Emerson to Winnipeg and westward through the older settled portion of Manitoba! Some fields and pastures are yellow with its flowers. It is spreading about St. Vincent, Minnesota, and Pembina, and other parts of North Dakota. It is rare in other Northern Mississippi Valley states. It is one of the greatests pests of the Canadian wheat field. A field covered with it is not productive unless the summer fallow method is pursued, and this is an expensive operation and not economic where the one crop method is followed. The Dandelion {Taraxacum officinale) is common everywhere from Winnipeg to the coast, south to Seattle. , The Cocklebur {XantJiium can- adense) from Minnesota to Texas and even in cultivated fields of the Colorado Rockies, so common to the south can scarcely be regarded as a very troublesome weed in Canada, although found about Winnipeg and AVinnipeg Beach, and west to Moose Jaw. A most troublesome weed in the corn belt region. The Cat’s-ear {Hypocliaeris radicata) which is -naturalized from Eur- ope and a ballast weed along the Northern Atlantic Coast, does not occur in the Northern Mississippi Valley; it is one of the most common weeds in lawns and in waste places from Oregon to Vancouver and the Vancouver Island. There is a common impression in Oregon that this Aveed Avas introduced in that state from Chili. A related species H. glahra is naturalized in California and occurs sparingly in Maine. The HaAAdvbit {Leontodon autumnalis) is common in the eastern states and in Ontario but has not found its way to the Northern Mississippi Valley. The GoaUs Beard {Tragopogon pratensis) is a common plant in the 40 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Rocky Mountains and along irrigation ditches and in fields in the east- ern states. It rarely occurs in Iowa. The T, porrifolius also occurs in the Rocky Mountains. The Galinsoga (Galinsoga parviflora) of trop- ical America was first observed by the writer in Missouri near hotbeds and greenhouses in 1886. It had made its way northward to Wisconsin in 1903, and was observed in Iowa about the same time. It has spread to Utah and adjacent regions. Generally found near hot beds and greenhouses. A few weeds of the Gruciferae are widely distributed in the older cultivated portions of the Northwest, especially in Manitoba. The com- mon Mustard {Brassica arvensis) is one of the most common weeds of grain fields and associated with it, but somewhat more widely scat- tered, the Penny-cress or Stink Weed {Thlaspi arvense) should be men- tioned. This weed is common throughout the provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba, less frequent in British Columbia. It occurs along railways and it is abundant also in the grain fields of the Dakotas and Minnesota but less frequent in Iowa. Not infrequent in Utah to Montana and Washington. Its spread in Canada is attributed to seed and hay. The Black Mustard {Brassica nigra) is less frequent than Charlock. It is common in Iowa. The Brassica campestris is more fre- quent on the coast in Vancouver, Washington and Oregon. The Shep- herd’s Pudse {Gapsella Bursa-pastoris) is common from Winnipeg to the coast, south to Texas, the Rocky Mountain region and to the Atlantic coast. It is more abundant in the north than in Iowa because of the cooler climate. The Small Pepper Grass {Lepidiiim apetalnm) is common from Winni- peg to the mountains, though more frequent in Manitoba than westward. It, however, has spread westward through British Columbia south ti> Washington. It is a common weed throughout the Mississippi Valley from Missouri to Kansas to the Dakotas east to Wisconsin. Dr. Robinson says ‘‘perhaps native in the west, recently introduced eastward.” It is certainly the common species in the west; the larger Pepper Grass {L. virginicum) is common southward, rare northward and not observed in Canada. Of the Hedge Mustard {Sisynibrium) the latest of the European immigrants, the Tumbling Mustard {Sisymbrium alUssimum) which has had but a comparatively short history in this country, is frequent in many parts of Minnesota, North Dakota through Montana to Washington and to the south in Utah, and parts of Colorado and occasionally in Iowa. It is abundant in the provinces of Manitoba,- Sas- katchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, occurring everywhere along railroads and in grain fields. The Berteroa incana is a recent introduc- Cleome (Cleome serrulata) common from western Iowa introduced eastward to the Pacific, All')erta, and Saskatchewan. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 41 tion'witli clover seed. The Hare’s Ear Mustard {Conringia orientalis) of grain fields is a recent introduction. The Horseradish {Badicula Arnwracia) , Marsh Cress {Badicula palustris) and Winter Cress {Bar- harea vulgaris) have long been known as troublesome weeds of the north. The Common Hedge Mustard {S. officinale) is not common in the prov- ince east of the Rockies though common in Iowa, Wisconsin and Minne- sota. It is much more common on the Pacific coast from Seattle to Victoria, Vancouver east to Sicamous Junction and Revelstoke. Several native species occur in eastern provinces, like 8. ciimmnnis and ,8. incismiy the latter a mountain species. These along with the False Flax {Camelina saliva) make up the more important weeds of this family. The Camelina occasionally^ occurs in Iowa and is frequently found in Minnesota. Of the family Gapparidaceae, only one species occurs in the Canadian region, namely Gleome integrifolia. Introduced near St. Paul and other parts of eastern Minnesota and occasionally in Central Iowa. Indigenous to Western Iowa and abundant in Nebraska westward through Colorado, Utah and Nevada and north to eastern Washington and east to the Dakotas. It is fairly common in Saskatch- ewan and Alberta, less frequent in Manitoba. It is rare in British Co- lumbia except the more arid portions about Kamloops and Ashcroft. The only common weed of the Convolvidaceae in Manitoba is the ]\Iorning Glory {C onvolvidus sepium) extending west to Moose Jaw. It is most frequent about Emerson, Manitoba, Pembina, North Dakota, and St. Vincent along the Red River ; frequent in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Kansas and Missouri and eastward. The Euro- pean Bindweed {Convolvulus arvensis) of Europe long known as a troublesome weed in the east and on the pacific Coast, widely scattered as an ornamental plant and has become a troublesome weed in Missouri and here and there in Iowa, does not occur in Manitoba or westward to the Rockies, but again on the Pacific coast from Vancouver to Oregon. In the south a number of species of Morning Glory are troublesome like the common Morning Glory {Ipomoea purpurea) and the 'white and purple or pale blue flowered annual Morning Glory (/. hederacea) com- mon in corn fields and springing up abundantly after the grain is cut. The perennial Man-of-the-Earth {I. pandurata) with fiddle-shaped leaves and white flowers is occasionally troublesome in corn fields. Mention should be made of the Dodders {Cuscuta) . The Flax Dodder (0. Epilinum) in the northwest, the Field Dodder {C. arvensis) on clover in Iowa, Wisconsin and eastward, and the Clover Dodder in the alfalfa growing sections of the west. The common Mullein {Verhascum Thapsus) is common in Minnesota and Iowa, although certainly not common in Mani- 42 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE toba west to the Rockies, common, however, west of the Rockies in British Columbia, Seattle, and other points in Manitoba. The V. BlaUaria com- mon eastward in Utah and the Pacific coast. The Foxglove {Digitalis purptirea) frequently cultivated as an orna- mental plant on the coast, is a frequent escape and one finds patches of the escaped plants frequent in Oregon, Washington, and western British Columbia. The Toadflax {Linaria vulgaris) is common east and north. I might mention here, also, that the Linaria Cy mb alarm of the same family, and common Pansy {Viola t7icolor) of the Violaceae, is an escape from cultivation in Washington and Oregon. The Petunia, Dianthus, Phlox, objects of careful cultivation, are more or less weedy in Wash- ington and Oregon. A few weeds of the Goosefoot Family, Chenopodiaceae, are widely distributed in the northwest. The Russian Thistle {Salsola Kali var. tennifolia) which at one time threatened to spread over the corn belt, as it was injurious in the wheat belt of the Dakotas and the Northwest, is abundant in some localities, along the right of way of railways and sandy soil in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Iowa, and common along railways and locally from Winnipeg west to the coast although not nearly as freciuent as it is in Colorado, Utah and the drier regions of the west to the coast where it has found a congenial home. The common Lamb’s quarter {Chenopodkini album) is common across the continent from St. Paul to Seattle and from Omalia to Salt Lake and from Winnipeg to Vancouv- er. It follows the railways across the continent. The species was found in Banff, Sicamous Junction and Crow’s Nest Pass, more abundant in southern Manitoba and in Minnesota than in Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Large Goosefoot {Clienopodiiim hybridum) common in Minnesota and Winnipeg and Winnipeg Beach and in many places of Minnesota, AVisconsin, Missouri and Illinois. The Cheiiopodium glauoum found rather common about the great lakes also occurs in Winnipeg and AVinni- peg Beach, where it is common. The AVestern Pigweed {Monolepis Nuttalliana) is common in Saskatch- ewan and Alanitoba, it is of more frequent occurrence in fields than the common Goosefoot and more abundant than the Russian Thistle in that region. It has not reached Iowa although found in Alinnesota and re- ported from Alissouri by Robinson and Fernald. It occurs in all of the provinces from AALnnepeg to British Columbia. The species of weeds of the Pink Family, Garyophyllaceae, are not numerous. The Cowherb {Saponaria Vaccaria) occurs in the wheat growing section of the northwest frequent in Minnesota and Dakota, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 43 abniidaiit also in the wheat growing sections of the country north and south, though generally closely associated with wheat it is not always so. In the Great Basion of Utah it is frequently found in dry places on banks in the Cache Valley in Utah. The Corn Cockle {Agrostemma Gitliago) has a similar distribution. The Bouncing Betty abundant about St. Paul and Minneapolis, and northeastern Iowa and is widely scattered but never abundant in other sections of the state, in British Columbia, especially near Victoria, Vancouver, North Bend and in western Wash- ington it is abundant. The Night-flowering Catchfly {Silene noctifiora) which has been a weed of gardens for thirty years in the state of Wis- consin, has become widely diffused in Illinois and Missouri and other clover growing states of the west because of the large importation of clover seed from Europe and the eastern states where the weed is com- mon. It was not observed in Manitoba or elsewhere in western Canada. The Catchfly {Silene clicJwtoma) related to the Night-flowering Catchfly, has become common in clover flelds from New England to Iowa and Texas. The Eagged Eobin {Lychnis Flos-cuculi) and the White Catchfly (L. alha) occur under similar situations but less frequently. The Cerastiiim viilgatum is common in pastures in some parts of Iowa and on the Pacific coast, Victoria, Vancouver, and Seattle, Washington. The Nodding Chickweed {Cerastium nutans) is common in fields in IMissouri, Illinois and southern Iowa. The common Chickweed {Stellaria media) on the other hand is a common garden and lawn weed from Minnesota, Emerson, AVinnipeg, Winnipeg Beach, Manitoba, on the west slope as Sicamous, A^ancouver, and Victoria and in the state of AVashington, Seattle and Everett, and a common weed in the northern Mississippi Valley to the Atlantic coast and in the Eocky Mountains. It is now spreading rapidly in shaded lawns in many parts of Iowa. The common Purslane or Pusley {Fortulaca oleracea) has been more weedy in New England since the beginning of the eighteenth century. It has been a common weed in the Mississippi Valley since the early agricultural settlements. Now is common in gardens and cultivated flelds. It is also common in the Eocky Mountains country and on the Pacific coast and the Gulf states. The Pigweeds so common and weedy in the northern Mississippi Valley states are not abundant in the northwest. The common Pigweed {Amar- antus retroflexus) was common in St. Vincent, Minnesota, Emerson, Manitoba, but was rare in Winnipeg, more common on the west slope of the Eockies, Kamloops, Victoria and Vancouver. The Amarantus graec- izans, the common Tumbleweed of Iowa, is not common in Manitoba and 44 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the other provinces east of the Rockies. It occurs in some of the irri- gated fields near Kamloops. Of the Dogbane Family {Apocynaceae) none of the species are especi- ally weedy in Manitoba and westward, though the Apocymim cannabinum is a most troublesome weed in Iowa and Minnesota. It is also a weed in the Rocky Mountain states. Of the Milkweed Family {Asclepiadacem) , The common Milkweed {Asclepias syriaca) occurs occasionally in south- ern Manitoba and less so in the Saskatchewan, though it is one of the most common weeds in Iowa and Minnesota. Of the family TJrticaceae, one weed is common from Kentucky north to Minnesota and Wisconsin and west to the Rockies ' and in the great basin country, namely the common Hemp {Cannabis sativa) which has largely spread from culti- vated fields of the plant and its use as a bird seed. The Nettles, especi- ally Urtica gracilis and JJ. dioica are common northward in Wisconsin and Minnesota, though not abundant in Iowa, found also in the Rocky Moun- tains in British Columbia and Manitoba. In the great basin, Salt Lake Valley, the western TJ. holosericea has taken its place. Of the family TJmhelliferae, I saw no introduced weeds, though doubt- less Pastinaca sativa and Daucus carota occur in Manitoba, both occur in British Columbia and in Washington. Both of these are common roadside weeds in the northern Mississippi Valley and eastward. The Wild Carrot is abundant in clover fields in the east.. It is disseminated with clover seed. The Cicnta macidata is common in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Of the '}^ialvaceae one weed is fairly common in southern ^Manitoba, Common Cheeses {Malva rotnndif olia) . It is likewise common on the Pacific coast in Washington and British Columbia. A second species M. crispa is local in the Northern Mississippi Valley. The Evening Primrose {Oenothera biennis) of the Primrose Family Onagraceae, in its various forms is common on the Pacific coast, AA^ashington and British Columbia and more or less common in Saskatchewan and parts of Manitoba. The Fireweed {Epilobium angusti folium) is common everywhere in the Rockies and easily takes the front rank as a weed in the forest clearing in British Columbia and Washington. Comparatively few of the Labiatae are troublesome weeds in Canada ; Self-heal {Prunella mdgaris) is common on the Pacific coast and in the wooded districts of eastern Manitoba, elsewhere it is not common and occurs from Missouri to Minnesota. Occasionally one sees Teucrium canadense in southern Manitoba common from Missouri to Minnesota and Nebraska. On the west slope of the Rockies to the Pacific coast a IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 45 Dead Nettle {Lamium alhiim) is, weedy. In Missouri and Illinois and eastward the L. amplexicaule is an early spring weed. The Hemp Nettle {Gaieopsis TetraJiit) is common in British Columbia near Sicamous Junc- tion. There are but few weedy plants of the family Leguminosae. The Wild Licorice {Ghjcyrrliiza lepidota) is common everywhere on the prairies of Minnesota to Winnipeg west to the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, but less frequent on the west slope, abundant in the Rockies to the great basin. The two species of Sweet Clover {Melilotiis aVba and M. officinalis) are common in parts of Minnesota and on the west coast. The former occurs near Winnipeg but is rare in the provinces to the west, east of the Rockies in Canada. Though both species are common in the Rockies south of the boundary, West to Utah, Idaho, and Wash- ington. The Conunon Vetch {Yicia saliva) is common in the grain fields of northern Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, less frequent in the grain fields of Alberta. The common Plantain {Plant ago major and P. Rugelii) of the Plan- tain Family {Plant aginaceae) are common everywhere in the Northern Mississippi Valley, in Manitoba but less frequent westward. Common on the coast. It is likewise common in AVashington. The Buckhorn {Plantago lanceolata) which has been widely distributed m recent years with clover seed in Iowa, occurs throughout the northern Mississippi Valley states and was observed in LaCrosse in 1897. It was not observed in the Northwest provinces, probably largely because clover is not a common crop and the seed is generally distributed with clover seed. It does, however, occur on the Pacific coast, Vancouver, British Columbia, AVashington and Oregon. The Dooryard Knotweed {Polygonum avi- ciilare) of the Polygonaceae is the most widely distributed of the genus, common throughout the northwest from Minnesota to the Rockies soutlr to Colorado and west to Utah to the Pacific Northwest. It is common also in Manitoba from AVinnipeg and AVinnipeg Beach to the coast. The plants are much more robust than the plant of Iowa. The AVild Buck- wheat (P. Convolvulus) commonly found in grain fields of the northern states is as yet not common in the Canadian provinces. The SmarUveed (P. Persicaria) a roadside weed of the northern states is less frequent in the Canadian provinces although occurring as far north as Winnipeg Beach and Emerson and common everywhere from the great basin to the Atlantic coast. The Prince’s Feather or Smartweed (P. pennsylvan- icum) is a common plant in Iowa and Minnesota corn fields but it is a Tare plant near the boundary. 46 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE There are few weeds of the Rose Family. The Silver Weed {Poten- tilla anserina) is common in IManitoba and provinces westward, especi- ally in alkali impregnated soils. The Common Fivefinger (P. mons- peliensis)^ is not common in the northwest provinces bnt common in the northern and eastern states. The Western Fivefinger (P. (Mssecta) is also common in the northwest especially westward. Of the Y ertenaceae there are no common weeds in iManitoba to the Pacific coast. Three species are troublesome in Iowa and Minnesota, the Verbena strict a, Y. hast at and Y. nrticaefolia, and the Y. hracteosa is a common roadside weed in the Mississippi Valley and eastward. Weed migration is an interesting problem and the northwest is of partcnlar interest because a virgin soil is being turned under to pro- duce agricultural crops. What weeds will succeed best in a country with the climate and rainfall of Canada should be f ollow^ed up by the Canadian botanists. Dr. C. H. Shaw^ in an interesting communication on ‘‘The Causes of Timber-line on Mountains,” shows how through human agencies in the Alps of Switzerland, the vegetation has become changed in a very marked degree. The whole aspect of our prairie flora in Iowa is chang- ing and before many years that of the northwest will be very different from its character today. ^Plant World 12: Aug. 1909. The Meadow Sunflower {Heliuvthus grosse-serrutns) common in the lowlands of the Nortliern Mississippi Valley, Yarrow (Achillea Rfillefolhivi) the common States and Canada, the Rockies to the Pacihe. pasture weed of Northern United A meadow of the Texas Lily {Enstoma Russelliannm) in a field, Colorado. Com- mon from Texas to Nebraska and Colorado. PRELIMINARY LIST OF TPIE PARASITIC FUNGI OF FAYETTE COUNTY, IOWA. ‘ BY GUY WEST WILSON. That northeastern Iowa is a rich field for the mycologist is well known to those in any degree acquainted with the work of Prof. Holway while a resident of Decorah. Prom this region came numerous new species and here was gathered much information concerning others already . known. While from its nearness to Decorah the region about Fayette cannot offer such facilities for pioneer work as did Decorah, yet it is a ^ most excellent base from which to study the mycological flora of this section of Iowa. Lying as it does on the borderland between the Tran- sitional and Upper Austral zones and midway between the plains of the west and the forests of the east this section of the state is a strategic point, so to speak. It was, therefore, with no small pleasure that I looked forward to my field work in this region. The results have far excelled my expectations. The region is a rolling prairie, traversed here and there by streams, chief of which are the Turkey and the Wapsipinnicon rivers with their tributaries. About four-fifths of the county is drained by the former, which crosses it in the northern part. The central portion of the county is drained by the Volga river, a tributary of the Turkey. The southern border and southwestern corner of the county are drained by the Wap- sipinnicon. These streams are skirted by more or less pronounced belts of timber. There is, consequently, a great diversity of the soil and shade factors which influence the development of the flora of the region, the lower as well as the higher plants. The gerater part of the field work was confined to the region about Fayette, but a short trip was made to Dover township, and a few species were collected near Oelwein. The time employed Avas the autumn of 1907, the spring and autumn of 1908, and the season of 1909. The present list contains all the species AAdiieh have been determined up to the present time, but a considerable bulk of unidentified material has also accnmnlated. The number of species here recorded is two hundred and forty-five — but twenty-three less than the total of Dr. Trelease list of 48 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Wisconsin species, and within sixteen of the number recorded by Dr. Underwood for Indiana.^" The only previous publications devoted to the parasite fungi of Payette county are two papers by Dr. Bruce Fink^" in which he enumerates the Erysiphaceae collected by him. According to the arrangement followed by Salmon and adopted by Andersonf the total number of forms was twenty-one infecting fifty-four hosts. The larger part of these were re- collected and additions made to the list. The hosts common to both my own and Dr. Fink’s collections have been marked with a star ("') while those species which were not recollected are included without a serial number and the additional hosts given in the notes under the various species. While consistency has not been attempted in the matter of nomencla- ture the species are named in accordance with the later available litera- ture of the various groups. The Erysiphaceae follow Anderson’s paper in the use of Salmon’s classification, although some of his conclusions do not appeal to me as satisfactory disposition of certain forms. The order 3Ioniliales is treated in accordance with Pound and Clement’s '^Kear- rangement of the North American Hyphomycetes. This eliminates Bematiaceae from consideration, placing all the forms usually considered as belonging to this family in Moniliacem. The families differ only in color, a character which has been shown to be a matter of nutrition more than an inherent character of taxinomic importance. This arrange- ment brings the closely related genera Didy minium, Eamularia, and Ger- cospora in close proximity and eliminates Cercosporella for the light colored species of Cercospora. The TJrediniales follow the classification of Dr. Arthur’s monographf in so far as it is available. This causes a division of certain genera of the Melampso7^aceae and the removal from Puccinia and TJromyces of certain species which show a closer relation- ship with Bavenelia. The nomenclature of hosts is that of the seventh edition of Gray’s Manual, with citations in the several instances of such names as are not the same in Britton’s Manual. Under each species are giv- en such notes on appearance, frequency, and abundance as might be of interest to mycologists, or of assistance to the student who is interested *Trelease, Trans. Wis. Acad. 6: (1-40). 1884. (268 species.) Underwood Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 1893:30-67. 1894. (261 species of parasitic Fungi.) *Blights, Orchids, and Ferns of Payette, Iowa. Bull. Upper Iowa Univ., Jan. 1894. Additions to Iowa Flora Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 14:103, 104. 1893. tProc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 14:15-46. 1907. *Minn. Bot. Studies 1:644-673, 726-738. 1896-97. tNorth American Flora. 7:83-169. 1907. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 49 in these forms. At the conclusion of the list is a host index, which includes cross references to the synonomy of the hosts. Such synonyms have been cited for the species as the name employed might make neces- sary, and where the name employed by Greene in his ‘‘Plants of Iowa” is not the same. In conclusion I wish to express my hearty appreciation of the kindness of Dr. J. C. Arthur in verifying my determination of the Uredinales, and for suggestions in this group. CLASS PHYCOMCETES. OEDEE CHYTEIDIALES. Family Synchytriaceae. 1. Synchyteium aecidioides (Peck) Wilson & Seaver. lUredo aecidioides Peck; S.' fulgens decipiens Farlow.] On AmpMcarpa monoica (L.) Ell. and A. Pitcheri T. & G. (Falcata Kuntze.) Our commonest species of the genus. The yellow sori which are home in great profusion on leaves, stems, and immature fruits of the host renders the infected plants quite conspicuous. Very abundant upon the first host, but sparingly on the second. 2. Syxchyteium anemones (de Bary & Woronin) Woronin. On Anemone quinquefolia L. The purple sori of this species are quite abundant on stems and leaves, especially along the veins. This host is infested with several fungi two or three of which frequently are associated, in the present instance the commonest one being Urocystis anemones. The epidermal covering of the smut serus is fre- quently covered with an abundance of the galls of the Syncliytrium. 3. Synchyteium fulgens. Schroeter. On Oenothera Mennis L. (Onagra Scop.) A single rosette was found infected with this fungus late in May. 4. Synchyteium Holwayi Farlow. On Monarda fistulosa L. A conspicuous species owing to the stunting and slight hypertrophy of the host and the bright purple color of the galls. First noted about the middle of July. OEDEE ENTOMOPHTHOEALES. Family Entomophthoraceae. 5. Entomophthoea Muscae. (Pers.) Fries. On Musea domestica L. The cause of a considerable mortality among house flies in the late autumn. 4 50 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE OEDER PERONOSPORALES. Family AWuginaceae. 6. Albugo Bliti (Biv.) Kuntze. iCystopus Bliti (Biv.) de Bary.] On Amarantlms graecizans L. and A. retroflexus L. 7. Albugo Candida (Pers.) Roussel. On Brassica nigra (L.) Koch, Lepidium apetaliim Willd., and Radicula palustris (L.) Moench. (Roripa Bess.) The commonest of our white rusts. 8. Albugo Portulacae (DC.) Kuntze. On Portulaca olera'cea L. Common throughout the growing season. 9. Albugo Teagopogonis (DC.) S. P. Gray IGystopus cuMcus Lev.] On Amltrosia art emisiae folia L. A widespread and variable species with numerous hosts, but locally neither common nor abundant. Family Peronosporaceae. 10. SoLEEOspoEA GEAMiNicoLA (Sacc.) Sclircetei’. [Pero7iospora graminicola Schrceter.] ’ On Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. and 8. viridis (L.) Beauv. [Chaetochloa sps. Scribn.] Not abundant, the oospores being found sparingly in the autumn. 11. Riiysotheca austealis (Speg.) G. W. Wilson [Peronospora australis Speg.] On Echinocystis lohata (Michx.) T. & G. (Micrampelis Greene.) A single infected vine was found in Dover Township late in August. 12. RiiysotheCxI Geeanii (Peck) G. W. Wilson [Peronospora G-eranii Peck.] On Geranium maculatum L. About half a dozen infected leaves found in early summer. 13. Rhysotheca Halstedii (Parlow) G. W. Wilson {Peronospora Halstedii Parlow, Plasmopara Halstedii Berk & De-Toni.] On Ambrosia artemisiaefolia L., A. trifida L., Bidens eomosa (A. Gray) Wiegand, B. frondosa L., Eupatorium pupureum L., Helianthus doronicoides Lam., and Lepacliys pinnata (Vent.) T. & G. (Ratbida Barnhart.) ' A common and variable species with a very wide range of hosts. 14. Riiysotheca abducens (Schroeter) G. W. Wilson. \Pesonospora obdueens Schrceter.] On Impatiens biflora Walt. Pound sparingly once in midsummer. 15. Riiysotheca viticola (B. & C.) G. W. Wilson. {Peronospora viticola de Bary, Plasmopara viticola Berk & De-Toni.] IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 51 On Yituse vulpina L. Probably the most abundant species of the genus, growing especially lux- uriantly on the common wild grape, all the green parts of which are affected. Upright shoots, much enlarge and bearing smaller fleshy leaves, both leaf and shoot densely covered with the fungus are not uncommon on trailing vines. 16. Plasmopaea pygmaea (Unger) Schroeter. [Peronospora pygmaea Unger.] On Anemone eanaclensis L., A. caroliniana Walt., A. qtoinquefolia L., and Hepatica acutiloda DC. (H. acuta Britt.) Very abundant from early spring to midsummer, often associated with other fungi on Anemone quinquefoUa. 17. Peeoxospoea ALTA Fuckel. On Plantago major L. Not abundant, appearing in midsummer. 18. Peeoxospoea Arthki Farlow. On Oenothera hiennis L. (Onagra Scop.) First seen July 16, 1909, and abundant from then until frost. Practically every leaf of many fully developed plants were severely infected throughout the region about Payette, but no infected rosetts were seen. 19. Peronospora calotheca de Bary. On Galium horeale L. So far as observed this species was conflned to a few clumps of the host which grew in the open along the railroad, but in these localities the species was quite abundant in the early summer. 20. Peronospora Chenopodii Schlecht. On Chenopodium album L., and G. Tiybridum L. Not uncommon throughout the later summer. The present species has been confused with P. effusa from which it is quite distinct. The relationship of these species has been discussed elsewhere so that it is unnecessary to enter into details here. 21. Peronospora Echinospeemi Swingle. On Lappula virginiana (L.) Greene. While searching in early October for the perithecia of a powdery mildew two leaves were found infected with the present species. The collection is of more than ordinary interest as this is the most eastern station for the species, not to mention the fact that it has heretofore been collected only on narrow leaved hosts of the type of L. Redowskiana. 22. Peronospora effusa (Grev.) Rabenh. On Chenopodium album L. Abundant throughout the summer and autumn months. 23. Peronospora Euphoebiae Fuckel. On Euphorbia maeulata L. 52 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Common throughout the summer, causing a more erect habit in the host, but not having such a pronounced effect as the aecia of Uromyces EupJiorMae. 24. Pekonospora Hydrophylli Waite. On Hydrophyllum virginicum L. A single collection was made June 11, 1908, the infection covering only a few leaves and not being abundant on these. 25. Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) de Bary. On Dentaria laciniata Muhl., Draha caroUniana Walt., Erysimum parviflora Nutt., and Lepidium apetalum Willd. Common and rather abundant, probably infesting a still greater number of hosts as it is to be looked for on almost every species of crucifer. 26. Perinospora Potentillae de Bary On Agrimonia mollis (T. & G.) Britton, Geum canadense Jacq. and Potentilla monsepalensis L. Rather rare through the entire season. 27. Peronospora sordida Berk. & Br. On Scropliularia marylandica L. Not common, but where found rather abundant. Spring and early summer. 28. Peronospora trifoliorum de Bary. On Astragalus canadensis L. (A. carolinianus L.) Rather abundant in early summer. 29. Peronospora Viciae (Berk.) de Bary. On Yicia americana L. Rather frequent during the early summer. 30. Bremia Lactucae Regel. [Peronospora gangliformis de Bary.] On Lactuca canadensis L. Neither common nor abundant. Midsummer. CLASS ASCOMYCETES. ORDER EXOASCALES. Family Exoascaceae. 31. Exoascus Pruni Puckel. On Primus amerieana Marsh. Not uncommon on wild plums causing the distorted fruits known as plum pockets. 32. Taphria coerulescens (Mont. & Desm.) Schrceter, On Quereus rul)ra L., and Q. palustris Moench. Abundant in spring and early summer, causing yellowish or somewhat water- soaked blisters on the leaves of the oak. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53 33. Taphria Johansonii Sadeb. On Populus tremuloides Michx. Common on the immature aments of the aspen, causing a thickening of the capsule which is a very conspicuous object owing to the bright yellow color of the diseased tissue. 34. Taphria virginica Sadeb. & Seym. On Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch. Causing a very conspicuous hypertrophy of the leaves of the host. Early summer. ORDER PERISPORIxVLES. Family ErysipJiaceae. 35. Sphaerotheca Humuli (DC.) Burrill. On Agrimonia gryposepala Wilr, (A. hirsuta B'icknell), and Rhus glahra L. Not a common species, and not abundant on the hosts upon which it was collected. Reported by Pink on EpiloMum coloratum Muhl. 36. Sphaerotheca Humuli eulginea (Schlecht.) Salmon. On Erecthites hieracifolia (L.) Raf., *'Erigeron canadensis L. (Leptilion canadense Britton), Taraxicum officinale Weber (T. Taraxicum Karst.), and Veronica virginica L. (Leptandra Nutt.) Not uncommon on various weeds. Also reported by Pink on Bidens frondosa L., and Sonchus oleraceus L. Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev. Reported by Fink on Rosa dlanda Ait. Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) B. & C. Reported by Fink on RiJjes Cynosbati L, and R. rotundifoliuni Michx. Conidia collected on R. floridum L’Her during the past summer may belong here. 37. PODOSPHAERA OxYCAXTHAE (DC.) de Bary. On Prunus amcricana Marsh., and P. avium L. Not uncommon on species of plum and cherry. Reported by Pink on an unidentified species of Prunus. 38. PODOSPHAERA LEUCOTRicHA (E. & E.) Salmon. On Pyrus Malus L. (Malus Malus Britton.) Collected once on seedlings, 39. Erysiphe Pologoni DC. On Polygonum aviculare L., P. erectum L., and Ranunculus abortivus L. Abundant on various herbacious plants. Reported by Pink on Astragalus canadensis L. {A. caroliniana L.), and Oenothera biennis L. (Onagra Scop.) 40. Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. On ^Ambrosia artemisiae folia L., *A. trifida L., Aster cordifolius L., A. puniceus L., A. salicifolius Ait., Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng (Carduus Nutt.) Eupatorium urtiaefolium Reichard {E. ageratoides L. f.), Helianthus 54 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cloronicokles Lam., Heliopsis scahra Dunal, Parietaria pennsylvanica MuhL, Plantago major L.. P. Rugelii Decn., ^Verbena bracteosa Michx., *y. Tiastata L., y. stricta Vent., *y. urticaefolia L, Our commonest species of the family, infecting a wide range of herbaceous hosts and consequently showing considerable variability. Reported by Fink on Ambrosia psilostacJiya DC., Aster laevis L., Aster sagitufolius Willd., Aster sp. indet., Helianthus annuus L., Phlox Drummondii Hook., Soliclago cana- densis L., S. rigida L., and serotina gigantea (Ait.) A. Gray. 41. Eeysiphe galeopsidis DC. ^ Conidia on Mentha canadensis L., and Stachys palustris L. are referred here. Reported by Fink on Scutellaria lateriflora L. 42. Erysiphe geaminis DC. On Poa pratensis L. Not uncommon, especially the conidia. Reported by Fink on Cinna arun- dinacea L. 43. Microsphaeea Alni (Wallr.) Winter. On Cornus alternifolia L. f., *Corylus americana L., ^Lonicera Sullivantii A. Gray, L. tartarica L., Ostrya virginica (Mill.) Willd., Quercus velutina Lam., ^Syringa vulgaris L., and Viburnum lentago L. Common and usually abundant on a number of woody plants and quite variable, both in habit and character. Even upon the same host the myceliom may remain very conspicuous after the perithecia are mature or it may dis- appear completely. Reported by Fink on the following additional hosts: Car- pinus caroliniana Walt., Eonymous atropurpureus Jacq., and TJlmus americana L. 44. Miceosphaera Aeni Extensa (Cooke & Peck) Salmon. On ^Quercus alba L., and Q. velutina Lam. Common on sprouts but not seen on full grown trees. Reported by Fink on Q. rubra L. Miceosphaera geossulariae (Wallr.) Lev. Reported by Fink on Sanbucus canadensis. 45. Miceosphaera diffusa Cooke & Peck. On Desmodium sessilifolium (Torr.) T. & G. (Meibomia sessilifolia Kuntze). A single collection in Dover Township. 46. Miceosphaera Russellii Clinton. On *Oxalis stricta L. Not uncommon. Miceosphaera Euhorbiae (Peck) Cooke & Peck. Reported by Fink on Euphorbia corollata L. 47. Uncinula salicis (DC.) Winter. On Salix humilis Marsh. Very abundant. Also reported by Fink on an unidentified species of Salix. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 55 48. Uncinula jvecator (Scliwein.) Burrill. On Psedera quinquefolia (L.) Greene (Parthenocissus Planch.), and Vitis vulpina L. Rather common. Reported by Fink on Yitis cordifoJa Michx. and an un- identified species of Vitis. Uncinula ciecinata Cooke & Peck. Reported by Pink on Acer sacoliarum Marsh. 49. Uncinula maceospoea Peck. On *Ulmus americana L. Collected but once and then not over abundant. Uncinula Clintoni Peck. Reported by Pink on Tilia americana L. 50. PiiYLLACTiNiA coEYLEA (Pers.) Karst. On Fraxinus americana L., and '^Cornus stalonifera Michx. (leg. Hunger- ford. XantUoxylum americanum (leg. Hungerford.) ^ While the collections of this species were rather scanty it appears to be rather a common species judging by Pink’s long list of additional hosts which follow: Acer saccharum Marsh., Betula papyrifera Marsh., Gornus florida L., Corylus americana L., Crataegus sp. indet., Fraxinus sp. indet., Desmodium grandiflore (Walt.) DC. (Meibomia grandiflora Kuntze), and TJlmus americana L. Family Perisporiaceae. 51. Dimeeospoeium Collinsii (Schw.) Thumen. On Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. The entire under surface of the leaves is covered with the black perithecia. The fungus appears to be quite injurious to its host as it causes a pronounced falling of the leaves in late summer and early autumn. That the mycelium is perenial is indicated by the changed appearance of the infected twigs which grow quite luxuriantly, are thicker and brighter colored than the healthy twigs, besides showing a decided tendency in favor of forming witches brooms. 52. Dimeeospoeium pulcheum Sacc. On Gornus paniculata L’Her. Common in late summer. OEDEE HYPOCEEALES. Family Hypocreaceae. 53. Hypomyces lactifluoeum (Schwein.) Tul. On some species of Agaricaceae, probably Lactaria. One collection of some half dozen infected plants was made in late summer. 54. Hypomyces polypoeinus Peck. On Coriolus versicolor (L.) Quel. (Polystictus Pries.) Found once in some abundance in the early spring, probably of the previous year’s growth. According to Seaver* this species is known only from New *Mycologia 2:78. 1910. 56 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Jersey, New York, North Dakota, and some Canadian station. Probably of wide distribution. 55. Claviceps puepukea (Pries) Tul. On Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. V. Sclerotia were found rather abundantly, but were not germinated so the reference is only provisional. OEDER DOTHIDIALES. Family Dothideaceae. 56. Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Puckel. On Hystrix patula Moench (H. Hystrix Millsp.) Bouteloua curtipendula (Miehx.) Torr., (Atheropogon curtipendulus Pourn), and Sorghastrum nutans- (L.) Nash {8. avenaceum Nash). Very common. 57. Pyllachora Junci Puckel. On Juncus interior Wiegand. Rather abundant in late summer. 58. Phyllachora Lespedizae (Schw.) Sacc. On Lespediza capitata Miehx. Not uncommon. 59. Ploweightia moebosa (Schwein.) Sacc. On Primus americana Marsh, and P. virginiana L. . So far as personal observation goes this species which causes the “Black knot” of drupaceous fruits is confined to the wild members of the genus Prunus. Upon the choke cherry this disease is very abundant and if infec- tion is possible from this host then the abundance of choke cherries in this region is a serious menace to our orchards. ORDER SPHAERIALES. Family Sphaeriaceae. 60. Ventueia pomi (Pries) Winter. IFusicladium dendriticum (Wallr.) Puckel.] On Pyrus iomensis (Wood) Bailey (Malus Britton.) The common apple scab is the conidial stage of this species. Not seen on the cultuivated apple, but abundant on the wild crab. Family Mycosphaerellaceae. 61. Guignaedia Bidwellii (Ellis) Vala & Ravaz. [Laestadia Bidwellii (Ellis) Sacc., PJiyllosticta viticola Thum., P. ampelopsidis Ellis & Martin]. On Psedera quinquefolia (L.) Greene (Parthenocissus Planch.), P. quinque- folia Mrsuta (Donn) Rehder, and vitis vulpina L. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 57 The black rot of the grape. Abundant on leaves and fruits of the wild grape and on the leaves of the Virginia creeper, being a most destructive pest to both. 62. Mycosphaerella Feagabiae (Tul.) Lindau. ISphaeriella Fragariae (Tul.) Sacc., Rmnularia Fragariae Peck.]. On Fragaria virginica Duchesne, and F. americana Britton. The strawberry rust. Very aboundant on the first host named but rare on the last one. Only the conidia were seen. ORDER PHACIDIALES. Family Phacidianceae. 63. Rhytisma acerinum (Pers.) Fries. On Acer saccTiarinum L. The “tar spot” disease of maples was rather abundant throughout the county during the past season. 64. Rhytisma salicinum (Pers.) Fries. On Salix lucida Muhl. Found once in fair abundance. 65. Rhytisma Solidaginis Schwein. On Aster cordifolius L., Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. (Euthamnia Millsp.) and S. latifolia L. (S. flexicaulis L.). The exact nature of this species is in doubt, for while it is known that an insect gall always forms a part of the spot there are always fungous hyphae present, but so far no spores have been observed. order pezizales. Family Helotiaceae. 66. ScLEROTiNiA FRUCTIGENA (Pers.) SchroBter. [Monilia fructigena pers.] On fruits of Prunus americana Marsh. The common brown rot of stone fruits, which is very destructive to certain races of both wild and cultivated plums and cherries. 67. SCLEROTINIA TUBEROSA (Hedw.) Fuckel. On Anemone quinquefoUa L. A single small clump of this species has been collected. The subteranian sclerotia are attached to the rhizomes of the wood anemone. In some localities the fungus is abundant enough to be quite destructive. Family Mollisiaceae. 68. Mollisia Dehnii (Rabenh.) Karst. On Potentilla monsepalensis L.. Abundant on stems, leaves, and leaf veins of the host in early summer. 58 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE CLASS DEUTEROMYCETES. ORDER PHOMATALES. Family Plwmataceae. 69. PiiYLLosTiCTA Apocyni Trol. On Apocynum anclrosaemi folium L. Not common, midsummer. 70. PIIYLLOSTICTA COROLI West. On Corylus americana L. A fairly common but not over abundant leaf spot. Probably the present species, as is the case in certain other members of the genus, is associated with a leaf miner or some other insect. 71. PIIYLLOSTICTA DECiDUxi Ellis & Kelleriu. On Lycopus ruhellus Moench., and Mentha ca7iaclensis L. Quite common and often resembling, at least to the casual observer, the work of insects. 72. PIIYLLOSTICTA DISCINCTA J. J. DaviS. On Uvularia grandiflora J. E. Smith. Only a few leaves were found infected with this recently described species. 73. PIIYLLOSTICTA FATICENS Peck. On Nymphaea advena Ait. Not uncommon, but in no wise an abundant species. Midsummer. 74. PIIYLLOSTICTA GEYTiANicoLA (DC.) Ellis & Everh. On Gentiana Andrewsii Griseb. A conspicuous, but rather uncommon species which appears in early sum- mer. 75. PIIYLLOSTICTA Grossulariae Sacc. On Rihes gracile Michx. Very common and abundant in midsummer and autumn. Some bushes were completely defoliated by the middle of August. 76. PIIYLLOSTICTA MELALEUCA Ellis & Everh. On TJlmus americana L. Not rare on sprouts of elm, appearing first in midsummer. 77. PIIYLLOSTICTA RuDP.ECKiAE Ellis & Everh. On Ruddeckia laciniata L. Common and abundant on the wild plants by the first of August and con- tinuing till frost. The variety under cultivation appears to be free from the fungus. 78. PIIYLLOSTICTA ViOLAE Desm. On Viola sp. Common on the blue violet of the region. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59 79. Ampelomyces quisqUxVLis Cesati. On Erysiphe ciclioracearum DC. on Aster sp., Yerhena stricta Vent., and V. urticifolia L. On Podosphaera Oxycanthae (DC.) de Bary on Primus americana Marsh. Very common on the mycelium of various species of ErysipJiaceae but not collected except as above. Probably every species of the family could be added to the list of hosts for this interesting species. 80. Ascochyta OxyTjapM Trel. On oxytiaplius nyctagineus (Michx.) Sweet (Allonia nyctaginea) Michx. Rather common but neither abundant nor conspicuous. 81. Ascochyta Violae Sacc. & Speg. On Yiola puhescens Ait. Not uncommon in midsummer. 82. Dulakcia filum (Riv.) Cast. On Puccinia Asparagi (DC.), on Asparagus officinalis L., Metampsora Bige- lowii Thum., on Salix fluvitialis Nutt., M. Medusae Thum., on Populus del- toides Marsh., XJromyess Bilphii (Burr.) Arth. on Juncus interior Weigand. Common and abundant on the uredinia and to a less extent on the telia of various species of rusts. 83. Septobia Ageimonia Roum. On Agrimonia mollis (T. & G.) Britton. Rather common on stunted plants in July and August. 84. Septobia Cryptotaeniae Ellis & Ever. On Asclepias incarnata L., and A. syriaca L. Rather plentiful and quite conspicuous during the later summer and early autumn. 85. Septobia ateopuepurea Peck. On Aster cordifolius L. The reddish brown discoloration render this a very conspicuous species, although it was not very abundant during the past season. 86. Septobia Campanulae (Lev.) Ellis. On Campanula americana L. Common and abundant during late summer. The peculiar seared appearance of the leaves renders this a rather conspicuous species. 87. SeptorIxI Cannabina West. On CannaMs sativa L. Abundant on hemp from late July to frost, producing spores freely although sometimes said to fruit sparingly. 88. Septobia conspicua Ellis & Mart. On Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf. Rather scarce, appearing in early summer. 60 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 89. Septoeia coknicola Desm. On Gornus alternifolia L. f. Found very sparingly during the last of July. 90. Septoeia Ceyptotaeniae Ellis & Rav. On Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC. (Doeringia Kuntze). Common throughout the early summer, sometimes almost covering the en- tire leaf. 91. Septoeia Caccaliae Desm. On Caccalia reniformis Muhl. (Masadenia Raf.) Fairly common during the flowering season of the host. 92. Septoeia Dieevillae Ellis & Everh. On DierviUa Lonicera Mill. (D. Diervilla MacM.) Not abundant, seen only on July 30, 1909. 93. Septoeia Eeigeeontis Peck. On Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers., and E. ramosiis (Walt.) BSP. Common and abundant on both hosts, especially the former. 94. Septoeia Lactuciola Ellis & Everh. On Lactuca canadensis L., and L. Mrsuta Muhl. Common but not abundant during midsummer. 95. Septoeia Leptostachy^a Ellis & Everh. ^ On Phryma Leptostachya L. Common during the summer and rather conspicuous. 96. Septoeia malvicola Ellis & Mart. On Malva rotundifolia L. Rather common and plentiful during the summer months. 97. Septoeia oculata Ellis & Kell. On Yernonia altissima Nutt. (V. maxim Small). Rather abundant during late summer. 98. Septoeia Oenotheeae B. & C. On Oenothera hiennis L. (Onagra Seop.). One of the commonest and most abundant species of the genus, hardly a plant of the host escaping the ravages of the fungus. 99. Septoeia Paeietaeiae J. J. Davis. On Parietaria pennsylvanica L. Common and rather abundant in some patches of the host and less plentiful in others. The infection resembles that of 8. Campanulae quite closely. 100. Septoeia Podophyllina Peck. On Podophyllum peltatum L. Common on the languishing leaves of the host, and easily overlooked on account of the lack of definite spots and the resemblence of the infection to dying leaves. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 61 101. Septokia Prenanthis Ellis & Eveiii. On Prenenthes aWa L. (Nabalus albus Hook.) Not abundant. 102. Septoria Rubi Westend. On Rul)us occidentalis L. Of exceptional occurrence during the past season but probably abundant both on wild and cultivated berries. This is frequently a very destructive pest. 103. Septoria Scroptiulariae Peck. On ScropJiularia marylandica L. Common and abundant throughout the summer. 104 Septoria Scutellariae Thuem. On Scutellaria lateriflora L. Only seen once during the past season, apparently not an abundant species. 105. Septoria Silenes Westd. On Silene stellata (L.) Ait.f. A single station noted, but here the infection was abundant, scarcely a full grown leaf remaining healthy. 106. Septoria Smilicanae Ellis & Mart. , On Smilicana racemosa (L.) Desf. (Vagnera Morong.) Of rather common occurrence and usually abundant in infected clumps. 107. Septoria Toxicodendri Curtis. On Rhus Toxicodendron L. (R. radicans L.) Probably common and abundant. 108. Septoria Urticae Desm. On Laportea canadensis (L.) Gaud. (Urticastum divaricatum (D.) Kuntze.) Not common nor abundant. Family Leptostromataceae. 109. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc. On Pyrus Malus L. (Malus Malus Britton). The fly speck disease of apples. Not uncommon, but not destructive as it is confined to the cortical cells of the fruit which it disfigures more than it in- jures. 110. Melasmia Galii Ellis & Everh. On G-alium horeale L. Not common. order melancoxiales Family Melanconiaceae. 111. Cylixdrosporium Humuli Ellis & Everh. On Humulis Lupulus L. Not common, but the infested vines are usually well infected. 62 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 112. Maesonia Juglandis Sacc. On Juglans cinerea L. Common and abundant on the butternut . which is sometimes almost de- foliated by the fungus. 113. Gleospokium conpluejN'Tis Ellis & Dearn. On Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Common and conspicuous, frequently almost destroying the leaves. 114. Gleospoeiuai Davisii Ellis & Everh. On Lathyrus venosus Muhl. A single cluster of pods were found infected in early August. ORDER MONILIALES. Family Moniliaceae. 115. Alteenaeia Beassicae (Berk.) Sacc. On Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Not common, but rather conspicuous, probably to be found on other closely related hosts. 116. Alteenaeia Panax Whetzel. On Panax qninquefolia L. A very destructive pest in genseng beds but so far not observed on the wild plants. It is only by the most persistent efforts that growers are able to pro- duce a crop. 117. Septocylindrium eufomaculaxs (Peck) Pound & Clements. [Ramularia rufomaculans Peck.] On Polygonum aviculare L. Common and abundant, often almost defoliating its host. 118. Monilia angustior (Sacc.) Reade. On Prunus virginiana L. Common, but nowhere abundant on the immature fruits of the choke cherry. Probably the conidial phase of some species of Scierotinia. 119. Didy^maeia didyaia (Unger) Pound. \_Ramularia clidyma Unger, D. Ungeri Corda.] ' On Ranunculus recurvatus Poir, and R. septentrionalis Poir. Common, but not very abundant. A conspicuous fungus owing to the frosted appearance of the conidiophores and the large epiphyllous discolora- tions. 120. Raaiulaeia Araioracia Puckel. On Radicula Armoracia (L.) Robinson (Roripa A. S'. Hitch.) A very abundant species, practically every plant of horseradish being infected. 121 Raaiulaeia ARVENSis Sacc. On Potentilla monsepalensis L. A common leafspot in the later weeks of summer and during the autumn. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 63 122. Ramulakia Rudbeckii Peck. On Rudheckia laciniata L. Not uncommon in midsummer. 123. Ramulaeia Takaxica Karst. On Taraxacum offtcinale Weker (T. Taraxacum Karst.) Common and abundant, especially in early summer. 124. Ceecospoea Alismatis Ellis & Holw. On AUsma Plantago-aquatica L. Neither common nor abundant. Appearing in early summer. 125. Ceecospoea Ampelofsidis Peck. On Psedera quinquefoUa (L.) Greene (Parthenocissus Planch) and P. quin- quefolia Mrsuta (Bonn) Rehder. Common and abundant, causing defoliation in some cases. This is a more destructive fungus than Guignardia Bidwellii as it covers more- of the leaf surface. 126. Ceecospoea antipus Ellis & Holw. On Lonieera Sullivantii A. Gray. Common, the infected vines usually with but few healthy leaves, but the spots are small and few on a leaf. Appearing in midsummer. 127. Ceecospoea cana Sacc. On Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers., and E. canadensis L. (Leptilion Brotton.) Common and abundant, especially on the first host. This species was later made the type of the genus Gercosporella Sacc., which is distinguished from Cercospora by its hyaline conidiophores and conidia, a distinction which cannot be accepted as valid. 128. Ceecospoea Cauloph.ylli Peck. On GaulopJiyllum thalictroides (L). Michx. Rather common, but not abundant. The fungus appears about the time the berries are full grown. 129. Ceecospoea Chenopodii Fries. On Chenopodium aWum L., and C. album virde (L.) Moq. Common and abundant in summer and autumn. 130. Ceeospoea clavata Gerard. On Asclepias syriaca L. Not uncommon during midsummer. 4 131. Ceecospoea Davisii Ellis & Everh. On Melilotus alba Desv. Found abundantly in one locality in July. 132. Ceecospoea Dioscoeeae Ellis & Martin. On Dioscorea villosa L. Not common, and when present infecting but a few leaves. 64 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 133. Cercospoea Echinocystidis Ellis & Martin. On Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) T. & G. (Micrampelis Greene.) A single vine was found scantily infected. 134. Cercospoea Geraxii Kell. & Swing. On Geranium maculatum L. Found sparingly in midsummer. 135. Cercospoea grajs-ulieoemis Ellis & Holw. On Yiola sp. Not uncommon in midsummer. 136. Cercospoea Heucheei Ellis & Mart. On HeucJiera hispida Pursh. - Infrequent, but with an abundant infection where found. Collected in July. 137. Cercospoea Menispermi Ellis & Holw. On Menispermium canadensis L. Common and abundant during the entire summer. 138. Cercospoea Oxybaphi Ellis & Plolw. On Oxyhaphus nyctagineus (Michx.) Sweet (Allonia Michx.) Not common nor abundant. Collected during midsummer. 139. Cercospoea polygonoeum Cooke. On Polygonum Hydropiper L. Not uncommon and where present quite abundant. The blackish hypophyl- lous growth makes this a very conspicuous species. 140. Cercospoea racemosa Ellis & Mart. On Teucrium canadense L. Not very common but fairly abundant in infected patches of the host. Autumn. 141. Cercospoea eosaecola Pass. On Rosa pratincoJa Greene. Not common, appearing in midsummer. 142. Cercospoea Sii Ellis & Everh. On Sium cicutaefolium Gmel. Not common, but where present rather abundant. Midsummer. 143. Cercospoea Toxicodendri Ellis. On Rhus Toxicodendri L. (R. radicans L.) Not uncommon and in some places at least, quite abundant. The infected areas suggest the work of some insect as the discoloration is about the same as that produced by the drying sap of the host. On the under surface the conidia give the spots a frosted appearance. The species is of more than ordinary interest as the note appended to the description in Ellis and Everhart’s Enumera- tion of the North American Cercosporae is “On leaves of Rhus Toxicodendron, IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 65 Newfield, N. J. Not since found, and hence doubtful.”* The material agrees thoroughly with the description and so removes this from the list of doubtful species. 144. Cekcospoka vaeia Peck. On Viburnum Lentago L. Not common or abundant. Midsummer. 145. Cercospoka zebeina Pass. On TrifoUum pratense L. Rather a common disease of the red clover, but probably not causing much loss to the crop. 146. SCOLECOTEICHUM GEAMINIS Fuckcl. On Mulilenbergia Mexicana (L.) Trin. Common, late summer and autumn. 147. PoLYTHEiNCiUM Trifolii Kunze. On TrifoUum pratense L., and T. repens L. Abundant on both white and red clover during the entire summer. This is said to be the conidial stage of an Ascomycete but is retained here as the perfect form was not collected and the following quotation indicates that the species is really not well known. “On account of the characteristics and habits of the mycelium and of the stroma sometimes produced, it has been assumed that the perfect stage would be a species of Phyllachora, and the plant actually bears also the name Phyllachora Trifolii (Pers.) Fckl.”t 148. Cladospoeium Trioseti Peck. On Triosetum perfoliatum L. Not rare in midsummer. 149. Helmintiiospeium geamineum Rabenh. On Horcleum vulgare L. Very abundant during the past summer causing a considerable shortage in the crop. 150. Macrospoeium Solani Ellis & Everh. On Datura Tatula L. Common and abundant throughput the summer. Family Tubereulariaceae. 151. Tubeeculina persicina Ditm. On the aecia of Uredinales: Puecinia Garicis-asteris Arth., on Solidago lati- . folia L.* (S. fiexicaulis L.), Puecinia fraxinata (Schw.) Arth., on Fraxinus americana L., Puecinia Opizii Bubak, on Lactuca canadensis L., Puecinia Peckii (De T.) Kellerm., on Oenothera Biennis L. (Onagra Scop.), Puecinia Phrymae (Halst.) Arth., on Phryma Leptostachya L. *Jour. Myc. 1:62. 1885. tDuggar, Fungous Diseases of Plants 298. 1910. 66 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Not uncommon on various aecia, appearing as large or small purpulish tubercles. 152. PusAEiuM PARAsiTicuM Ellis & Kell. On Puccinia MentJiae Pers., on Monardo fistuloso L. Rather abundant, especially just previous to the appearance of the telia. 153. PusAEiuM UREDiNEUM Ellis & Everh. On MeJampsora Bigelowii Thum., on Salix lucida Muhl., and M. Medusae 'Thum., on Popiilus deltoides Marsh. Rather common on the uredinia of these two species, giving the sori the ap- pearance of being covered with a white mould. CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES. ORDER USTILAGINLES Family Ustilaginaceae. 154. UsTiLAGo Hordei (Pers.) Kell. & Swing. [U. segetum p. p.] On Hordeum vulgare L. Abundant and destructive. 155. USTiLAGo neglecta Niessl. [Z7. Panici-glauci Wint.] On Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. (Chaetochloa Scribn.) Rather abundant. 156. USTILAGO Rabenhoestiana Kuehn. On Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. (Syntherisma Dulac.) Abundant in autumn. 157. USTILAGO UTEICULOSA (NgGS) Tul. On Polygo7ium la.pathifoUum L., and P. pennsylvanieum L. Rather common in late summer and autumn. 158. Melanopsighum austeo-americanum (Speg.) G. Beck. (Ustilago Speg.) On Polygonum lapatliy folium L. Rare, only three or four small sori being found in early autumn. 159. ScirizoNELLA melanogramma (DC.)'* Schroeter. On Carex pennsylvanica L. Abundant in spring and early summer. 160. SoROSPORiuM Cenchri P. Henn. [Ustilago Syntlierismae Peck., not Schwein., S. Syntherismae Parlow.] On Cenchrus trihuloides L. Abundant in autumn. The specific name Syntherismae is based on a mis- interpretation of specific limits which is analogous to a misdetermination in so far as the nomenclatural status of the combination is concerned. It has ac- cordingly been thought preferable to use the name here employed. Family Tilletiaceae. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 67 161. Ueocystis anemones (Pers.) Winter. On Anemone quinquefolia L., and Hepatiea acutiloha DC. (H. acuta Britton.) Abundant in early spring. On Anemone frequently associated with other fungi. 162. Entyloma austeale Speg. [E. Physalidis (Klachb. & Cooke) Winter, E. Besseyi Farl.] On Physalis pruniosa L. ^ Abundant throughout the summer, partially defoliating the host. 163. Entyloma compositaeum Farl. On Ambrosia art emisiae folia L., A. trifida L., A. trifida integrifolia (Muhl.) T. & G. Bidens frondosa L., and Lepachys pinnata (Vent.) T. & G. (Ratbida Barnh.) Common and abundant throughout the summer. 164. Entyloma Menispeemi Farl & Trel. On Menispermium eanadense L. Rare, in late autumn. 165. Entylona Nymphaeae (D. D. Cunn.) Setch. On Castalia tuber osa (Paine) Greene. Not common. Collected in late July. 166. Entyloma polyspoeum (Peck.) Farl. On Ambrosia trifida L. Not common, throughout the summer. 167. Entyloma Saniculae Peck. On Sanicula sp. Not common on the root leaves in early spring. 168. Doassansia defoemans Setch. On Sagittaria latifolia Willd, Common and rather abundant on scapes, peticles, and leaves producing very prominent hypertrophy of the host. Late summer and autumn. OEDEE UEEDINIALES Family Goleosporiaceae. 169. CoLEOSPOEiuM SoLiDAGiNis (Scliw.) Thuem. On Aster cordifolius L., A. punieeus L., A. sp. indet., Solidago eanadensis L., S. latifolia L. (>S'. flexicaulis L.), and S', serotina Ait. One of the most abundant of our rusts, and one with an exceptional range of hosts. Midsummer and autumn. Family Melampsoraceae. 170. Melampsoea Btgelowii Thuem [M. farenosa (Pers.) Schroet.] On Salix amygdaloides Anders., S. humilis Marsh., /S', interior Rowlee, B. longifolia Muhl. (S. fluviatilis auth., not Nutt.), and 8. lucida Muhl. Common during summer and autumn on willows. '68 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 171. Melampsoea Lini (Sclium.) Desmaz. On Linum sulcatum Riddell. A single collection in the later part of June. Scarce. 172. Melaaipsoea Medusae Thum [M. populina Jacq.] On Populus deltoides Marsh. Abundant on the Carolina poplar throughout the summer and autumn, but not noted on any other species of Populus. h. 173. Petcciniasteum Ageimoniae (Schw.) Tranz. {Uredo Agrimoniae DC.) On Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr. (A. hirsuta Bicknell), and A. mollis (T. & G.) Britton. Not a common rust. Late summer and autumn. 174. PucciNiASTEUM Pyeolae (Pers.) Dietel. On Pyrola elliptica Nutt. The uredinia collected sparingly late in May. 175. Hyalopsoea Polypodii (DC) Magnus [Uredo Polypodii DC.] On Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh. (Pilix Underw.) Rather abundant in a single locality in the middle of July. 176. Melampsoeopsis Pyeolae (DC.) Arth [Clirysomyxa pirolatum' (Schw.) Wint.] On Pyrola elliptica Nutt. Rather abundant in May. 177. Ceoxaetium Comandeae Peck. On Comcindra pallida A. DC. A small clump of the host found infected in early October. Family Puccimaceae. 178. PiLEOLAETA Toxicodendei (Berk. & Rav.) Arthur. [Uromyces Toxico- dendri Berk & Rav.] II, III on Rhus Toxicodendron L. {R. radicans L.) Not an uncommon rust, but the inconspicuous telia render it easily over- looked. 179. Teanzschelia punctata (Pers.) Arth. [Aecidium punctatum Pers., A. hepaticum Schw., A. Ranunculacearum DC. Puccinia prunosum Link, P. pruni-spinosae Pers.] I on Anemone quinquefolia L., and Hepaticq acutilo'ba DC. (H. acuta Brit- ton.) II, III on Prunus americana Marsh. The aecial stage is one of the commonest and most abundant of our rusts. The later stages are usually abundant where found, but not so common as the aecia. The mycelium appears to be perennial in Anemone and Hepatiea so this stage can appear without indicating the probable abundance of the rust on the alternate hosts. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 69 180. PoLYTHELis FuscA (Pers.) Arth. IPuccinia fuscum (Pers.) Winter.] On Anemone quinquefolia L. This is one of the most abundant of our early rusts, the sori appearing some- times before the leaves are full grown. Only O and III. 181. Ueopyxis Amoephae (M. A. Curt.) Schroter. iPuccinia AmorpTiae M. A, Curtiss.] Ill on Amorpha fruticosa L. Common in late autumn, and usually abundant where found. 182. Pheagmidium Rosae-aekansanae Dietel. I, II, III on Rosa pratincola Greene. % Rather uncommon and not abundant. 183. Gymxoconia inteestitialis (Schl.) Lagerh. iUredo caeoma-nitens Schw., Caeoma nitens Schw.] On Ru'bus sp. indet. Common on the wild blackberry. 184. Kuehneola Potentillae (Schw.) Arthur. IPhragmidium ohtusum (Straus) AVinter.] II, III on Potentilla canadensis L. Rather common. The primary uredo of this species is the first rust to ap- pear in the spring. 185. Gymxospoeanqium coeniculans Kern. On Amelancliier canadensis (L.) Medic. Pycnia and immature aecia were collected just as the leaves were falling from a tree badly infested with Dimerosporium CoUsonii. “The telia of this species are to be found on the branches of the red cedar and produce galls which are woody and irregularly globular, ranging from a few millimeters to two or three centimeters in diameter. They are readily told from the galls of Gym. Juni- peri-virginianae, but are not unlike those of Gym. nidus-avis. . . . Only one collection of the telia has yet been made. . . . (This) was obtained in northern Michigan.” Arthur in Litt. 186. Gymnospoeaxgium globosum Farlow. {_Roesielia lacerata Pries.] I on Crataegus punctata Jacq., and G. rotundifolia Moench. Ill on Juniperus virginiana L. Common and abundant both on the cedar and the thorn. Of the last scarcely a healthy leaf remains on many trees. 187. Gymnospoeaxgium Junipeei-vieginianae Schw. [G. macropus Link, Roestelia pyrata Thax.] I on Pyrus ioensis (Wood) Bailey (Malus Britton), and P. Malus L. (M. Malus Britton.) Ill on Juniperus virginiana L. Very common and abundant. The cedar apples are more conspicuous than in the preceding species, but locally no more abundant. The wild crab is most 70 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE seriously affected, leaf, twigs, and fruit bearing the rust while the infection on the cultivated apple is only nominal. 188. Gymnospoeatsgium Nidus-avis Thaxter. Ill on Juniperm virginiana L. Not uncommon on cedar trees on the windward side of high bluffs, but so far not taken on the leward side of hills or on level land where the wind is broken at a short distance. 189. Ueomyces acumikatus Arth. II, III on Spartina cynosuroides Willd. Not uncommon. Probably the aecia of this species appears on Polemonium. 190. Ueomyces albus D. & H. I on Vida americana Muhl. The aecia were rather abundant but telia were not observed. This is the only species of Uromyces we have which omits the uredinia. 191. Ueomyces Caladii (Schw.) Farl. lAecidium Caladii Schw.] I, II, III on Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott. I on Arisaema dracontium (L.) Schott. One of our most abundant and most conspicuous rusts. 192. Ueomyces Euphoebiae Cooke & Peck. lAccidiiim EupliorMae Schw\] I, II, III on EupUorMa humistrata Engelm. Common and abundant. The erect habit of the plant infected with the aecia renders it a comparatively conspicuous species. 193. Ueomyces Pabiae (Pers.) de Bary. lAecidium porosum Peck.] Ill on Lathyrus venosus Muhl., and Yicia americana Muhl. Not common nor abundant. 194. Ueomyces Howei Peck. II, III on Asclepias syriaca L. Rather common and where found quite abundant. 195. Ueomyces Lespedezae-peocumbentis (Schw.) Curt. [U. Lespedezae (Schw.) Peck.] Ill on Lespedeza capitata Michx. Not very common nor overly abundant. 196. Ueomyces pyeifoemis Cooke. Ill on Acorus calamus L. Rather abundant on the only clump of the host visited. October. 197. Ueomyces Rudbeckiae Arth. & Holw. Ill on Rudl)eckia laciniata L. Common and abundant on the wild form of the host but not seen on the cultivated variety. The only Uromyces in our territory which produces telia without either aecia or uredinia. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 71 198. Ueomyces Silphii (Syd.) Arth. [Z7. Junci Tul.] I on Silphium laciniatum L. (Herb. Arthur.) II, III on Juncus Interior Wiegand. A single sorus of the ^cial stage was found while the other stages are very common. 199. Ueomyces Teifolii (Hedw. f.) Lev. I, II, III on Tri folium repens L. Rather abundant on the white clover, but not found on the red. 200. PUCCINIA ALBIPEEIDIA Arth. I on Rihes Cynoslati L., R. florida L’Her., and R. gracile MichsJ. Very abundant on both species of gooseberries, but scarce on the currant. It is possible that two species are included here but as the corresponding forms on Carex have not been collected it is rather difficult to say. 201. Petccinia Anemones-Vieginianae Schw. On Anemone virginiana. Common from early spring to late autumn. Aecia and telia both lacking. 202. PucciNiA ANGUSTATA Peck. Ill on Scirpus atrovirens L. Pound sparingly in late autumn. The aecia, which are on Lycopus have not been collected here. 203. PucciAiA Asparagi DC. II, III on Asparagus officinalis L. Common, especially on wild asparagus, sometimes becoming a pest in gardens. 204. PUCCINIA Asteeis Duby. On Aster corclifolius L. and A. paniculatus Lam. Common and often very abundant. Aecia and uredinia absent. 205. PucciNiA Caeicia-asteeis Arth. [Aecidium asteeatum Schw.] I on Aster cordifolius L. II, III on Carex ceplialopTiora Muhl. Rather rare, both 93cia and the other forms appearing in midsummer. 206. PucciNiA Caeicis-eeigeeontis Arth. lAecidium erigeronatum Schw.] I on Erigeron annuus (L.), Pers., E. canadense L. (Leptilion Britton), and E. philadelpMcus L. Abundant, but the telial stage has not yet been collected. 207. PUCCINIA Caeicis-solidaginis Arth. I on Solidago latifolia E. (S. flexicaulis L.), S. serotina Ait., and S. uXmi- folia Muhl. Common but not abundant. 208. PucciNiA CiECAEAE Pers. On Gircaea lutetiana L. Common and rather abundant, Aecia and uredinia wanting. 72 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 209. PucciNiA Claytoniata, (Schw.) Arth. I, III on Glaytonia virginica L. Common and abundant, the secia appearing with the flowers and the telia with the ripening seeds. Uredinia wanting. 210. PucciNiA Convolvuli (Pers.) Cast. I, II, III on Convolvulis sepium L. The secia appear in early summer, while the telia persist till frost. Common. 211. PucciNiA Eatoniae Arth. I on Ranunculus ahortivus L. Not common, but the infection usually abundant. 212. PUCCINIA Eleochaeidis Arth [Aecidium tenue Schw.] I on *Eupatorium purpureum L. Only a few sori found and these in a comparatively dry woods. 213. PucciNiA EMACULATUM Schw. II, III on Pa7iicum capillare L. Common and abundant. 214. PUCCINIA EPIPHYLLA (L.) Wettst. II on Poa pratensis L. Pound in but one locality, but quite abundant there. 215. PucciNiA FEAXiNATA (Schw.) Arth. [P. arundinariae Schw., Aecldtum Fraxini Schw.] I on Fraxinus americana L. III on Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd. A single sorus of the secial stage found and only a scant infection of telia, 216. PUCCINIA Helianthi Schw. I on Helianthus tracJieliifolius Mill., and H. strumosus L. II, III on Helianthus annuus L., H. decapetalus L., H. doronicoides Lam., and H. grosseserratus Martens. Abundant throughout the summer. 217. PUCCINIA Hydeophylli Cooke & Peck. Ill on Hydrophyllum virginicum L. Collected in but one station in early spring. Probably the other spore forms are wanting. 218. PucciNiA Impatientis (Schw.) Arth. .[Aecklium Impatientatum Schw.'] I on Impatiens aurea Willd. Ill on Flymus canadensis L. Neither collection of this species represented an abundant infection. 219. PUCCINIA Kuhniae Schw. II, III on Kuhnia eupatorioides L. Not abundant. Aecia wanting. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 73 220. PucciNiA Majanthae (Scliw.) Arth. & Holw. ^ I on Polygonatu-m Uflorum (Walt.) Ell. (Salomonia Britton.) A single plant was found with ascia. 221. PucciNiA Menthae Pers. II, III on Pycnanthemum yilosum Nutt. (Koellia Britton), Mentha cana- densis L., and Monarda fistulosa L. Ahundant and common. 222. PUCCINIA Muhlenbekgiae Arth. & Holw.' II on MuMenTjergia Bchreheri J. F. Gmel. (M. diffusa Willd.) A single clump of the host was found abundantly infected, in midsummer. 223. PUCCINIA Opizii Buhak. I on Lactuca canadensis L., and L. pulchella. The secia of this species is not ahundant and the telia have been collected in America only once or twice. The alternate host is an undetermined species of Garex. 224. PUCCINIA Peckii (De T.) Kellerm. [Aecidiiim Oenotherae Peck.] I on Oenothera hiennis L, (Onagra Scop.) III on Garex longirostris. The aecia of this species are produced very abundantly in spring and early summer. 225. PucciNiA Phrymae (Hals.) Arth. lAecidium Phrymae Hals.] I on Phryma leptostachya L. In one woods the aecia are produced abundantly from early spring to mid- summer. 226. PucciNiA PiMPiNELLAE (Str.) Link. On Osmorhiza Glaytoni (Michx.) Clarke, and 0. longistylis (Torr.) DC. (Washingtonia sps. Britton.) Autecious. Common and abundant in spring and early summer. 227. PucciNiA PLUMBEEiA Peck. I pn Phlox paniculata L. (Herb. Arthur.) A single sorus was collected. Dr. Arthur says that the form may be hete- roecious, but for the present refers it here. The only other collection of secia on this host is recorded by Tracy who reports it from Starkville, Miss.* 228. PUCCINIA POCULiFOEMis (Jacq.) Wettst. [P. graminis Pers.] II, HI on Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., Agrostis alha L., and A. alha vul- garis (With.) Thurb. A common rust. 229. PUCCINIA PODOPHYLLI (Schw.) Link. I, III on Podophyllum peltatum L. *Bull. Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta., 34:90. 1895. 74 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE The conspicuous secia of early spring are followed directly by the incon- spicuous telia, the uredinia being elided. Not as common as the abundance of the host would indicate. 230. PucciNiA PoLYGONi-AMPHiBiAE Pei’S. {^Aecidium Geranii DC.] I on Geranium maculatum L. II, III on Polygonum ampTii'bium L. The aecia are rather common, but never abundant, while the telia were col- lected but once, then in fair abundance. 231. PucciNiA PUSTULATA (Curt.) Arth. [A. pustulatum Curt., Puccinia Andropogi Schw.] I on Comandra um'bellata (L.) Nutt., and G. pallida A. DC. Ill on Andropogon furcatus L. Rather a common species, and always abundant when found. 232. Puccinia punctata (Str.) Link. II, III on Galium tinctorium L. Rare, and never abundant. 233. Puccinia Rhamni (Pers.) Arth. [P. coronata Corda.] II, III on Avena sativa. L. This is the common rust of oats. It is quite abundant, especially on self sown oats. 234. Puccinia Silphii Schw. On Silphium perfoliatum L. The telia appear in early spring and continue in fair abundance throughout the summer. The secia and uredinia are omitted in this species. 235. Puccinia S'orghi Schw. [P. Maydis Carrau.] On Zea Mays L. Common, but apparently not detrimental, at least to any considerable ex- tent. 236. Puccinia Taraxaci Plowr. [P. flosculosorum (A. & S.) Wint.] II, III on Taraxacum officinale Willd. (T. Taraxacum Karst.) Common and abundant throughout the summer. The secia are elided. 237. Puccinia Ueticae (Schum.) Lagerh. [Aeeidium Urticae Schum., P. caracis Aut. p.p.] I on TJrtica gracilis L. Aecia collected sparingly, telia not seen. 238. Puccinia violae (Schum.) DC. I on Yiola papilionacea Nutt., V. pudescens Ait., and V. scahriuscula Schw. The secia are abundant in spring but later stages have not been observed. >/ 239. Aecidium Campanulastri n. sp. On Campanulas trum americanum (L.) Small (Campanula americana L.), Fayette, Iowa, June 25, 1909. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 75 Aecia subepidermal, ampliiginous, irregularly scattered over more or less rounded yellowish discolored areas which measure about 5 mm. across, short cylindric or deeply cuplike, 0.4-0. 7 mm. across; peridium ample, of irregularly polyhedral cells about 15x20 micra, minutely granular; seciospores globose, often more or less angular, 12-18x10-15 micra; wall very light yellow, about 1.5 micra thick, smooth.* Collected but once and then not in abundance. The discolored areas are of sufficient size and of deep enough a color to render the secia quite conspicuous. No trace of pycnia were observed in the material examined. Probably has its alternate form on some grass or sedge. 240. Aecidium Compositaeum Mart. On Polymnia canadensis L., and Rudheckia laciniata L. A superficial comparison of the aecia on these two hosts is sufficient to con- vince one that they belong to two species of rusts. On Polymnia the infected area is rather large, bright yellow, and has the cups scattered irregularly and unevenly over the under surface. On Rudheckia the discoloration is pale, tend- ing to brownish in the center, the cups being grouped closely on the underside and pale yellow. The collection on Polymnia is interesting as the only previous record for this host is Racine, Wis. The material was found on the windward side of a hill, with no apparent source of infection at hand. The aecia on Rud- beckia were rather eommon and fairly abundant. 241. Aecidium Hydkophylli Peck. On Nemopliylla microcalyx (Nutt.) Pisch & Mey. (Macrocalyx Nyctelea Kuntze.) Rather abundant in one station, but no clue to its relationship was found. 242. Aecidium hydnoideum B. & C. On Dirca palustris L. A very conspicuous form, but not common or abundant. 243. Aecidium Polemonii Peck. On Polemonium reptans L. Rather abundant in one station. Probably connected with TJromyces acumi- natus Arth. on Spartina. 244. Aecidium Xauthoxuli Peck. On Xanthoxylon americanum Mill. An inconspicuous form which was found sparingly on wind swept hillsides in late July. OEDER EXOBASIDIALES. Family Exol)asidiaceae. 245. Miceosteoma Juglandis Sacc. On Juglans cinerea L. Not uncommon, causing white areas on the under surface of the leaf. *Aecis subepidermalis, ampliiginis, irregularis disperis, brevis cylindraceis, vel cupuliformibus, °.4-0.7 mm. crassis ; peridiis amplis, cellulis irregularibus polygoniis, granularibus ; sporis globosis, vel angulariis, 12-18x10-15 micra; membranis flavidis vel subhyalinibus, circa 1.5 micra crassis. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE A Acer saccharinum, 63 Acer saccharum (48a), (50) Acorus calamus, 196 Aetheropogon curtipendula, see Bou- teloua Agrimonia gryposipala, 35, 173 Agrimonia hirsuta, see A. gryposepala Agrimonia mollis, 26, 83, 173 Agropyron repens, 55, 228 Agrostis alba, 228 Agrostis alba vulgaris, 228 Alisma plantago-aquatica, 124 Allonia, see Oxybaphus Amaranthus grUecizans, 6 Amarantbus retroflexus, 6 Ambrosia artaemisiaefolia, 9, 13, 40,- 163 Ambrosia psilistacliya, (40) Ambrosia trifida. 13, 40, 163, 166 Ambrosia trifida integrifolia, 163 Amelanchier canadensis, 51, 185 Amorpha fruticosa, 181 Ampbicarpa monoica, 1 Ampbicarpa Pitcberi, 1 Andropogon furcatus, 231 Anemone canadensis, 16 Anemone caroliniana, 16 Anemone quinquefolia, 2, 16, 67, 161, 179, 180 Anemone virginiana, 201 Apocynum androsaemifolium, 69 Arisaena dracontium, 191 Arisaema tripbyllum, 191 Asclepias incarnata, 84 Asclepias syriaca, 84, 130, 194 Asparagus officinalis, 203 Aster cordifolius, 40, 65, 85, 169, 204, 205 Aster laevis, (40) Aster paniculatus, 204 Aster puniceus, 40, 169 Aster sagittifolius (40) Aster salicifolius, 40 Aster sp., (40), 169 Astragalus canadensis, 28 (39) Astragalus carolinianus, see A. can- adensis Avena sativa, 233 B Betula papyrifera, (50) Bidens comosa, 13 Bidens frondosa, 13, (36), 163 Bouteloua curtipendula, 56 Brassica nigra, 7, 115 C Cacalia reniformis, 91 Campanula americana, 86, 239 Campanulastrum americanum, see Campanula Cannabis sativa, 87 Carduus, see Cirsium Carex cepbalopbora, 205 Carex longirostris, 224 Carex pennsylvanica, 159 Carpinus caroliniana, (43) Castalia tuberosa, 165 Caulopbyllum- tbaliictroides, 128 Cencbrus tribuloides, 160 Cbaetocbloa, see Setaria Cbenopodium album, 20, 22, 129 Cbenopodium album virde, 129 Cbenopodium bybridum, 20 Cinna arundinacea, (42) Circaea lutetiola, 208 Cirsium discolor, 40 Claytonia virginica, 209 Comandra pallida, 177, 231 Comandra umbellata, 231 Convolvulus sepium, 210 Coriolus versicolor, 54 Cornus alternifolia, 43, 89 Cornus florida, (50) Coruus paniculata, 52 Cornus stolinifer, 50 < Corylus americana, 43. (50), 70 Crataegus punctata, 186 v Crataegus rotundifolia, 186 Crataegus sp., (50) Cryptotaenia canadensis, 90 Crystopteris fragilis, 175 D Datura tatula, 150 Dentaria laciniata, 25 Deringia, see Cryptotaenia IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 77 Desniodiun grandiflore, (50) Desmodium assilifolium, 45 Diervilla Diervilla, see D. lonicera Diervilla Lonicera, 92 Digitaria sanguinalis, 156 Dioscorea villosa, 132 Dirca palustris, 242 Draba caroliniana, 25 E Echinocystis lobata, 11, 133 Elymus canadensis, 218 *■ Epilobium coloratum, (35) Erecbtites hieracifolia, 36 Erigeron annuus, 33, 127, 206 Erigeron canadensis, 36, 127, 206 Erigeron philadelphicus, 206 Erigeron ramosum, 93 Erysimum parviflora, 25 Erysipbe cicboracearum, 79 Euonymous atropurpureus, (43) Eupatorium ageratoides, see E. urticae- folium Eupatorium purpureum, 13, 212 Eupatorium urticaefolium, 40 Euphorbia corollata, (46a) Euphorbia humistrata, 192 Euphorbia maculata, 23 Euthamnia graminifolia, see Solidago F Falcata, see Amphicarpa Filix, see Cystopteris Fragaria americana, 62 Fragaria virginica, 62 Fraxinus americana, 50, 215 Fraxinus sp., (50) G Galium boreale, 19, 110 Galium tinctorium, 232 Gentiana Andrewsii, 74 Geranium maculatum, 12, 134, 230 Geum canadense, 26 H Helianthus annuus, (40), 216 Helianthus depapetalis, 216 Helianthus doronicoides, 13, 40, 216 Helianthus grosseserratus, 216 Helianthus strumosus, 216 Helianthus trachelifolius, 216 Heliopsis scabra, 40 Hepatica acuta, see H. actaloba Hepatica acutiloba, 16, 161, 179 Heuchera hispida, 136 Hordeum vulgare, 149, 154 Humulus lupulus. 111 Hystryx Hystryx, see H. patula Hystryx patula, 56 Hydrophyllum virginicum, 24, 217 I Impatiens aurea, 218 Impatiens biflora, 14 J Juglans cinerea, 112, 245 Juncus interior, 57, 198 Juniperus virginiana, 186, 18 y 188. K Koellia, see Pycnanthemum Kuhnia eupatorioides, 219 L Lactaria sp,, 53. Lactuca canadensis, 30, 94, 223 Lactuca hirsuta, 94 Lactuca pulchella, 223 Lathyrus venosus, 114, 193 Laportea canadensis, 108 Lappula virginana, 21 Lepachys pinnata, 13, 163 Lepidium apetalum, 7, 25 Leptandra virginica. See Veronica Leptilion canadense, see Erigeron Lespediza capitata, 58, 195 Linum sulcatum, 171 Lonicera Sullivantii, 43, 126 Lonicera tartarica, 43 Lycopus rubellus, 71 M Macrocalyx, see Nemophylla Malus, see Pyrus IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Masadenia, see Caccalia Malva rotiindifolia, 96 Meibom ia, see Desmodium Melampsora Bigelowwi, 82, 153 Melampsora Medusae, 82, 153 Melilotus alba, 131 Menispermium canadensis, 137, 164 Mentha canadensis, 41, 71, 221 Micrampelis, see Echinocystis Monarda fistulosa, 4, 221 Muhlen'bergia Schreberi, 222 Muhlenbergia diffusa, see M. Schreberi Muhlenbergia mexicana, 146 Musca domestica, 5 N Nabulus, see Prenanthes Nemophylla microcalyx, 241 Nymph80a ad vena, 73 O Oenothera biennis, 3, 18, (39), 98, 224 Onagra, see Oenothera Osmorhiza Claytoni, 226 Osmorhiza longistylis, 226 Ostrya virginica, 34, 43 Oxybaphus nyctagineus, 80, 138 Oxalis stricta, 46 P Panax quinquefolia, 116 Panicum capillare, 213 Parietaria pennsylvanica, 40, 99 Parthenocissus, see psedera Phlox Drummondri, (40) Phlox paniculata, 227 Phryma leptostachya, 95, 225 Physalis pruniosa, 162 Plantago major, 17, 40 Plantago Rugelli, 40 Poa pratensis, 42, 214 Podophyllum, peltatum, 100, 229 Podosphaera Oxycanthae, 79 Polemonium reptans, 243 Polygonatum biflorum, 220 Polygonum amphibium, 230 Polygonum aviculare, 39, 117 Polygonum erectum, 39 Polygonum Hydropiper, 139 Polygonum lepathifolium, 157, 158 Polygonum pennsylvanicum, 157 Polymnia canadensis, 24u Polystictus, see Coriolus Populus deltoides, 172 Populus tremuloides, 33 Portulaca oleracea, 8 Potentilla canadensis, 184 Potentilla monsepalensis, '26, 68, 121 Prenanthes alba, 101 Prunus americana, 31, 37, 59, 66, 179 Primus avium, 37 Prunus virginiana, 59, 118 Prunus sp., (37) Psedera quinquefolia, 48, 61, 125 Psedera quinquefolia hirsuta, 61, 125 Puccinia Asparagi, 82 Puccinia Caracis-asteris, 151 Puccinia Eraxinata, 151 Puccinia Menthse, 152 Puccinia Opizii, 151 Puccinia Peckii, 151 Puccinia Phrymse, 151 Pycnamthemum pilosum, 221 Pyrola elliptica, 174, 176 Pyrus iowensis, 60, 187 Pyrus Malus, 38, 109, 187 Q Quercus alba, 44 Quercus palustris, 32 Quercus rubra, 32, (44) Quercus velutina, 43, 44 R Radicula Armoracia, 120 Radicula palustris, 7 Ranunculus abortivus, 39, 211 Ranunculus recurvatus, 119 Ranunculus septentrionalis, 119 Ratbida, see Lepachys Rhus glabra, 35 Rhus radicans, see R. Toxicodendron Rhus Toxicodendron, 107, 143, 178 Ribes cynosbati, (36b), 200 Ribes floridum, 36b, 200, Ribes gracile, 75, 200 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 79 Ribes rotundifolium, (36b) Roripa, see Radicula Rosa blanda (36a) Rosa pratincola, 141, 182 Rubus occidentalis, 102 Rubus sp., 183 Rudbeckia laciniata, 77, 122, 197, 240 S Sagittaria latifolia, 113, 168 Salix amygdaloides, 170 Salix fluvitialis, see S. longifolia Salix liumilis, 47, 170 Salix interior, 170 Salix longifolia, 170 Salix lucida, 64, 170 Salix sp., (47) Salomonia, see Polygonatum Sambucus canadensis, (44a) Sanicula sp., 167 Scirpus atrovirens, 202 Scrophularia marylandica, 27, 103 Scutellaria lateriflora, (41), 104, Setaria glauca, 10, 155 Setaria viridis, 10 Silene stellata, 105 Silphium laciniatum, 198 Silphium perfoliatum, 234 Sium cicutaefolium, 142 Smilicana racemosa, 106 Solidago canadensis, (40), 169 Solidago flexicaulis, see S. latifolia Solidago graminifolia, 65 Solidago latifolia, 65, 169, 207 Solidago rigida, (40) Solidago serotina, 169, 207 Solidago serotina gigantea, (40) Solidago ulmifolia, 207 Sonchus oleraceus, (36) Sorghastrum avenaceum, see S. nutans Sorghastrum nutans, 56 Spartina cynosuroides, 189, 215 Stachys palustris, 41 Stieronema ciliatum, 88 Syntberisma, see Digitaria Syringa vulgaris, 43 T Taraxacum officinale, 36, 123, 236 Taraxacum Taraxacum, see T. officina- lis Teucrum canadensis, 140 Tilia americana, (49a) Trifolium pratense, 145, 147 Trifolium repens, 147, 199 Triosetum perfoliatum, 148 U Ulmus americana, (43), 49, (50), 76 Uromyces Silphii, 82 Urtica gracilis, 237 Urticastum, see Laportea Uvularia grandiflora, 72 V Vagnera, see Smilicana Verbena bracteosa, 40 Verbena hastata, 40 Verbena stricta, 40 Verbena urticasfolia, 40 Vernonia altissima, 97 "'^ernonia maxima, see V. altissima Veronica virginica, 36 Viburnum lentago, 43, 144 Vicia americana, 29, 190, 193 Viola papilionacea, 238 Viola pubescens, 81, 238 Viola scabriuscula, 238 Viola sp., 78, 135 Vitis cordifolia, (48) Vitis vulpina, 15, 48, 61 Vitis sp. (48) W Washingtonia, see Usmorhiza X Xanthoxlylum americanum, 50, 244 Z Zea Mays, 235 THE STAMINATE FLOWER OF ELODEA. BY ROBERT B. WYLIE. Vegetatively Elodea is perhaps the best known of the submersed seed plants, as it is so commonly employed in the laboratory for experi- ment and study. The 'flowers, however, have received proportionately less study since they are small and inconspicuous and seldom appear in the usual laboratory aquaria. The purpose of this paper is to call at- tention to an unusual form of staminate flower recently noted. While the flowers in this genus are usually functionally dioecious they are of special interest in that the suppressed parts are nearly always present in rudimentary form and the separation of the sporangia is doubtless correlated with their adjustment to the aquatic environment. They are unquestionably quite recently derived from perfect flowers. They present an ingenious solution of the problem of pollination since the minuteness of the flowers enables them to use the surface film of water to good advantage.^ The pistillate flowers of Elodea, as is well known, are regularly elongated, and reach the surface, if at all, through the lengthening oL that part of the flower between the ovary and floral parts. This ‘‘floral- tube” of the epigynous flower may attain to a length of 10-15 centimetres though having a diameter of only a fraction of a millimetre. The stami- nate flower, on the other hand, employes an entirely different method of reaching the surface of the water. These ordinarily do not elongate, or but slightly, and remain until fufly developed within the sessile globose spathe. At maturity the stem or pedicil weakens, the flower escapes from the sheath, and rises to the surface of the water, there scattering the pollen. My observations have led me to think that the detachment and rapid rise of these flowers and their bursting open as well is greatly facilitated by the bubbles of gas that form at their tips buoying them up like balloons tugging at their anchorages. During the summer of 1909, in connection with work at the Iowa Lakeside Laboratory, the writer noted an unusual form of staminate ^Wylie, R. B. The Morphology of Elodea Canadensis. Bot. Gazette 37:1-22, 1904. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 81 flower on the Elodea plants growing in the upper end of East Okoboji Lake. These plants flourish most luxuriantly in the waters near the town of Spirit Lake, and every one of the hundreds of flowers examined displayed the same peculiarities, seeming to indicate a distinct strain of this .genus in that locality. The flowers under discussion displayed a form' and habit markedly different from described types in that they elongated similarly to the pistillate flowers. The lower portion of the spathe early appears con- tracted giving it a stalked appearance, and this may be the condition described as ‘‘spathe peduncled’’ by Eydberg“ in his description of Philotria Planchonii (Gasp.) Eydb. and P. linearis Eydb, though the spathe is of course really sessile. The outer end of the spathe expands abruptly into a flattened, circular, cleft portion which loosely invests the body of the flower which is truly pedicillate on an axis within the spathe. At maturity the axis elongates pushing the flower out through the cleft in the spathe and upwards toward the surface of the w^ater. The stamens and floral parts are thus carried up on a slender stalk looking very much like that of the pistillate flower. But while these habits are biological equivalents and the parts concerned look much alike the morphology of the structures involved is very different. The “floral tube” of the pis- tillate flower represents that complex of structures found above the ovary in epigynous flowers, while the elongated thread in the staminate flower is the pedicil. The flower has usually a bubble of gas tugging at its apex, and in some instances it was noted that, the attached flower had partly opened into this gas chamber. Sooner or later the weakened axis usually gives way and if >the flower has not already reached the surface it rises and sheds its pollen on the surface film. The break. occurs near the base, generally within the spathe, and the free floating flowers, have each a long thread trailing behind. These become entangled and where the plants are num- erous the empty flowers form windrows at the margins of the open water. The degree of elongation in these staminate flowers is fully as great as in the pistillate flowers, and the lengthening of the axis is due to the stretching out of cells formed at an earlier stage. A measurement of these stalk cells at different stages showed that they increase in length nearly twenty-flve times, this being accompanied by a slight decrease in breadth. These flowers show other structural differences which may not be taken up at this time. ^Rydberg, P. A. Flora of North America. 1909. 6 82 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE In brief, this form displays a type of flower and a inode of pollination apparently not hinted at in previously described species and offers the sharpest contrast to the habit of releasing the pollen bearing flowers with- out elongation. Biologically this trait is of interest as suggesting two unlike and probably independent types of evolution in this genus in the efforts of this plant to meet the difficulties of pollination in its habitat. The first and simpler, and doubtless the more primitive, is seen in the short-stalked flowers that come to nothing unless detached. The second and probably derived condition is seen in the attempt, often successful, to reach the surface by elongation of the axis, the plan regularly em- ployed by the pistillate flower. The subsequent detachment of the stami- nate flowers may be due to the breaking down of tissues in the now useless structure. The pistillate flower and the vegetative body conform more nearly to the described species, but in both departures were noted from the com- mon type. In the opinion of the writer this form may deserve specific rank, and the name Elodea loivensis {Philotria loivensis) is proposed should it prove to be a new species. Further observations wflll be car- ried on this coming summer, and a more detailed description prepared in due time. SPORE FORMATION IN LYCOOALA EXIGUUM MORG. BY HENRY S. CONARD. On the 5tli of October, 1907, yonng aethalia of a Lycogala were col- lected in a grove four miles southwest of Grinnell, Iowa, killed in chromo-acetic acid and carried through into paraffin. Sections have shown some interesting stages in the development of spores. Since this process has hitherto been described in only two species of saprophytic myxomycetes, it seemed desirable to record the observation. Whether the organism in question is Lycogala exiguum or L. epidendrum cannot be certainly determined. Its small size and the fact that only four or five aethalia were found indicate the former species. The specimens have already formed a peridium, in which are embedded the familiar masses of protoplasm with nuclei. The protoplasm of the main body of the aethalium is already divided into typical uni-nucleate spores. Tubular capillitial threads are frequent throughout the spore mass, but only rarely have they shown any connection with the peridium. In the outer portions of the aethalia, that is, adjacent to the peridium and on the free side of the body, there are in two cases many spherical and irregular masses of protoplasm containing from two to several nuclei. In one case these are apparently ^‘pseudo-spores, ” or masses of sub- stance whose development into spores was cut short — probably by desicca- tion. In the other, the process of spore formation was evidently arrested by the killing fiuid. A third has an area of similar material through the middle of the fruit. It is clear that the protoplasm is divided by irregular cleavages first into large, multinucleate blocks, and then into smaller and smaller por- tions, until finally but one nucleus remains to each piece. These pieces then round up and form spores. Meanwhile, nuclear division goes on, quite regardless of the lines of cleavage, until the final separation into spores. The whole process, including the formation of pseudo-spores, is so precisely like that described by Harper in 1900 (Bot. Gazette) for Fuligo, 84 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE that it seemed not worth while to make figures. Harper’s figures for Fuligo would exactly represent Lycogala. One difference exists. Where- as Harper found the spores perfected first at the peripheiy of the aethalium of Fuligo, the last cleavages of Lycogala may occur, either at the center or at the periphery. EARLY HISTORICO-BOTANICAL RECORDS OF THE OENOTHERAS. By R. R. GxYtes. The present paper is an attempt to trace, as far as possible from available data, the history of the Oenotheras, particularly the large- flowered formas, in cultivation. An effort is also made to recognize, as far as this can be done, the precise characters of the various forms which have been figured or described during the last three centuries. Such records of course vary greatly in accuracy and value; for they are contemporaneous with the development of the science of botany it- self. Judging from the number of polynomials applied to them by different authors, the Oenotheras would appear to have been as va- riable then as they are now. And I may say that my cultures of Oenotheras derived from various sources indicate that at present many of these forms are no less variable or mutable than the 0. Lamar ckiana of DeVries’ experiments. I have been able to examine a large number of references and plates of Oenotheras — many of them pre-Linnaean — from the valuable sets of Herbals and leones in the library of the Missouri Botanical Garden. I wish to express my thanks to the Director, Professor William Tre- lease, for valuable aid in connection with the study of these early records. I am also indebted to Miss Cora J. Hogan, who has aided in deciphering the Snippendale manuscript and has also translated most of the Latin descriptions. I have attempted to trace, as far as pos- sible, the history of 0. Lamarckiana Ser., 0. grandflora Ait. and (in part) 0. Mennis L. from these early citations and plates. See also the important historical data supplied by Miss Vail in MacDougal (1903). The degree of accuracy of the plates varies greatly, but in many cases at least, one’s conclusions concerning the plants figured can rest on a pretty certain basis, when they have a minute knowledge of the differentiating characters of these forms. 0. Lamarckiana and 0. grandiflora have often been confused with each other, and there was frequent failure to recognize these two as independent forms. The same is true of 0. hiennis and 0. Lamarckiana. DeVries (1905) has 86 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE shown that the 0. Lamar ckiana now grown in European gardens, and from which the Hilversum cultures were derived, came from Texas, being imported by Messrs. Carter & Sons, London, about 1860. The forms closely resembling 0. Lamar ckiana, which were grown in European gardens and figured long previous to this, were from another source, and it is now established, from certain records in this paper, that that source must have been in Eastern North America, specifically ‘‘Virginia.” The record of this last introduction of 0. Lamarckiana into England is clear, but the earlier records have been very misty. It is certain, from results communicated here, that a form closely re- sembling though probably not identical with the 0. Lamarckiana race of DeVries’ cultures, was the first Oenothera taken to Europe from Virginia, about 1614. • In the case of 0. grandiflora, the record of the introduction into Kew in 1778 is perfectly clear, as is also the account of the discovery of 0 grandiflora in Alabama by Bartram about 1773. (See ]\IacDougal et al 1905, p. 7). The plate of 0. grandiflora by Barton, (1821), I regard as undoubtedly representing 0. grandiflora rather than 0. La- marckiana, on account of the smooth stem, the slender rounded buds and delicate sepal tips, and the stem leaf (fig. 2), which is not broad at the base, like 0. Lamarckiana, but correct for certain races of 0. grandi- flora. This plate is reproduced by a photograph in MacDougal (1905). Barton describes this plant as native in Carolina and Georgia. It is probable that 0. grandiflora was formerly common in that region, and if an introduction of this plant into Europe took place at an earlier date than the one of which we have such a good historical record (as it almost certainly did), it must have been from seeds collected in the Eastern range of the species. It is probable that the Alabama and Carolina plants were not identical, belonging rather to closely relat- ed elementary species, Init they must have been more closely related than 0. grandiflora is to 0. Lamarckiana. The differences between these races will be referred to later in this paper. The volume which served as a starting point in following the early records of Oenothera, was Tournefort’s Institutiones^ (1700) p. 302. Here the genus Onagra is characterized, accompanied by a plate (156) illustrating the Onagra flower, fruit and seed with considerable accu- racy. At least one of the flowers illustrated is in the 0. kiennis series, with short style and small petals. One with somewhat longer style is ap- parently shown for contrast. Nine species of Onagra are then enumer- *See MacDougal (1903), p. 754, for several other historical references. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 87 ated as polynomials'. Some of them have since been referred to other genera, such as J ussiaea and Mentzelia. They are as follows : (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Onagra latifolia. Lysimacliia lutea, cornicuJata C. B. Pin. 245. Onagra latifolia, flore dilutiore. Lysimacliia corniculata non yapyosa, Virginiana, major, -flore sulyhureo H. L. Bat. Onagra latifolia, floribus amplis. Lysimacliia Virginiana, altera, foliis latiorihus, fiorihus luteis, majori'bus Cat. Altdorf. Onagra angustifolia, Lysimacliia angustifoUa, Canadensis, corni- culata, H. R. Par. Lysimacliia Corniculata, lutea. Canadensis, minor, seu angustifolia Mor. H. R. Bles. Onagra angustifolia, caule rubro, flore minori. Onagra Americana, folio Betonicae, fructu hispido Plum. Onagra Americana, foliis Persicariae amplioribus, parvo flore luteo Plum. Onagra Americana, foliis Persicariae angustioribus, magno flore luteo Plum. Onagra Americana, frutescens, Nerii folio, magno flore luteo Plum. The reference ‘‘Plum”, in the last four, is to Plumier’s “Description des Plantes de 1 ’Amerique, ” published at Paris in 1693. An exami- nation of this work showed that neither this nor the later edition (1713) contained descriptions or figures of any Onagras, but Plumier’s Cata- logue (1703) lists these forms. The explanation doubtless is that these four polynomials had been furnished to Tournefort by Plumier, but the latter had failed to complete his plates for publication in either edition of the work referred to. Later, in Plumier’s Plantarum Americanar-um the figures are published in the 7th fascicle, 1758. There (6) is referred to Mentzelia while (7) is described as Jussiaea; (8) and (9) are described with polynomials as Oenothera, with a reference to Browne’s History of Jamaica (1756). The latter merely gives the polynomials of three “Oenothera” species, but Jacquin lists them in Select. Stirp. ♦ Amer. Hist. (1788) and his plate, (Vol. 2, pi. 70) together with the description makes it certain that these are also species of Jussiaea, as might have been expected. Number (5), with small flowers, is evidently a species of Tournefort. It w^as afterward referred by Linnaeus to Oenothera frnticosa, (Sp. PI. p. 346). The plant which Linnaeus meant to indicate by this designa- tion was, however, not what we now know as 0. frnticosa, L., which belongs in a different group, but 0. muricata, L. as now known. This is shown by Barrelier (1714), who cites Tournefort ’s Onagra angusti- folia, caule ruhro, flore minore as a synonym for his Lysimachial angustifolia, spicata, lutea, Lusitanica, with a figure (990). This figure is reproduced in plate 3 of this paper, and in comparison with the figure 88 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 989, which illustrates one of the 0. hiennis forms, indicates that one of the forms of 0. muricata, L. was intended, having smaller flowers and nar- rower leaves than 0. biennis. Toiirnefort’s species (5) therefore clearly refers to the present 0. muricata L. In (4) the reference R. Par.” is to Hortus Regius Parisiensis, 1665, which is merely a catalogue of polynomials. ^‘Mor. H. R. Bles.*” refers to Morison’s Hortus Regius Blesensis, 1669. Here (p. 126) is the earliest recognition I have found of a large-flowered and a small- flowered form. In addition to Lysimacliia lutea corniculata of Bauhin’s Pinax (which is nearest 0. Lamar ckiana, as I shall show later) are listed two forms which were introduced into the London Garden be- tween 1655 and 1660. . These are named Lysimacliia corniculata minor lutea Canadensis and Lysimacliia lutea flore globoso, Park. Ger. On page 284 of the same work Morison says further, ^Hjysimacliia Corni- culata, lutea Canadensis minor seu angustifolia: Haec sola foliorum angustia, aliarum suarum partium ; horum scilicet & capsularum seminalium, parvitate differt, a Lysimacliia Corniculata lutea major! Cornuti.” This form with narrower leaves and smaller flowers probably belonged to 0. biennis, or possibly to 0. muricata, but in the absence of figures I have not been able to trace it further. To return to Tournefort, in (3) ‘'Cat. Altdorf. ” refers to Hoffman’s Flora Altdorffina, 1677,’ which I have not seen. This plant is undoubtedly a large-flowered Oenothera from Virginia, and I am strongly inclined to think that it belongs with 0. grandiflora. The reasons for this will be given later. The reference “H. L. Bat.” in (2) is to Hermann’s Horti Academici Jjugduno-B atari Catalogus, 1687, in which are cited Lysimacliia lutea corniculata non papposa Virginiana major and Lysimacliia lutea corni- culata non papposa Virginiana minor from Morison ’s Plantarum His- toriae Universalis Oxoniensis, Part II, p. 271, (1680). In the latter work ^Morison gives a lengthy description of the former and refers to the large yellow flowers. I shall show later that this is close to 0. LamarcMana Ser. Avhile the other is undoubtedly a form of 0. biennis L., probably the “European biennis,” which has 'flowers someAvhat larger than our Ameri- can forms. The reference to “C. B. Pin.” in (1) is to Bauhin’s Pinax Tlieatri Botanici, firvSt edition 1623. This plant was also certainly nearer 0. Jjamarckiana than anything else, as I shall show later. It will be well now to trace chronologically some of the early records regarding Oenothera. I have not attempted to hunt down every refer- ence nor see every plate. But the accuracy of our present knoAvledge IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 89 of the forms we call 0. biennis L., 0. Lamarckiana Ser., and 0. grandi- flora Ait., enables one to decide definitely in many cases which form is referred to in the early descriptions and plates, and in this way a much more accurate knowledge of the history of these forms in Europe can be attained. The earliest figure of an Oenothera which I have seen is in Alpin’s T)e Plantis Exoticis, 1627. This book was published in Venice, and the plants were grown from seeds obtained from an English physician and ‘‘philosopher.” There is a description (p. 325) under the name Ilyoscya- mus Virginianns and a crude line-drawing which, with the description, leaves no doubt that this is a large-flowered evening primrose; and it came from “Virginia.” The extremely long hypanthia in the drawing are probably exaggerated, but the statement in the description, “Ex singulis vero alarum foliorum cavis exibat petiolus digitali longitudine fere” shows that the flower must have approximated closely to the size of our present large-flowered forms. See plate 1. The earliest reference to North American Oenotheras seems to be in Caspar Bauhin’s Pinax (1623) published at Basil. Here (page 245) he enumerates, with polynomials, eighteen species of Lysimachia. His sub-section Lysimachia Intea includes some species still retained in Lysi- machia and also Oenothera biennis L. ; his sub-section Lysimachia sili- quosa is our genus Epilobium ; and his Lysimachia spicata and non- spicata include species of Lythrum, Veronica and Scutellaria. The Oeno- thera form is described as follows ; — Lysimachia lutea cornicidata. Lysimachiae Virgineae nomine ipsum semen Patavio missum quod anno 1619. in horto elegant er crevit & ex seniine deciduo se facile hactenus propagavit. This reference to p. 245 of Bauhin’s Pinax is the only one quoted in most of the later citations. One of The copies of the Pinax (1623) found in the library of the Missouri Botanical Garden contains a marginal note describing the plant represented by Bauhin’s Lysimachia lutea cornicu- lata. The owner of this volume who evidently inserted these and other marginal notes, was Joannis Snippendale who I have since learned, (see Andrews, 1910) was about this time connected with the Botanical Garden at Amsterdam. A note on this sid)ject was published in Science (1910). I have since found the source of the Snippendale manuscript. It is to be found printed in an appendix to the Pinax, p. 520, and therefore the description, which was especially long and detailed for the time, refers 90 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE to plants grown by Banliin, presumably at Basil/ The description men- tions that the plants were obtained from Badna (the first botanical garden founded in Europe) and grown in 1619, and thS description was evidentlj^ written from the living plants. This fixes with certainty the date on which the observations were made, and also shows that the Lysi- macliia hitea ccrmcuJata of Bauhin mmst be placed in the series of forms coming under Oenothera Lamar cJiiana, Ser., though not identical with that form in the strict sense. The text of this description of Bauhin. which is appended, together with a translation, reveals the fact that a form very similar to 0. Lamar cMana Ser. was originally a wild species in Virginia, and that it was the first Evening Primrose to be taken to Europe. V. LyswiacMa Lutea Gorniculata: planta est ramosa ad viri altitudinem assurgens, forma ad Lysimachiam latifoliam purpuream siliquosam. accedens: haec ex radice oblonga alba, digitalem crassitudinem superante, paucis fibris capillata, caulis exsurgit initio rotundus, at supra medium, ob plurimos ramos angulosus, subcinereus, laevis, statim a radice in breviores, mox majores ramos, hique in alios late expanses, braciiiatus, qui rotundi paucissimis pills donati, bine inde maculis parvis rubentibus variegati, ex quibus tanquam ex poris pilus prodit. Folia statim ad radicem plura, oblonga, palmum superantia, latitudine unciam vix excedentia, quae crassa, pallide virentia, laevia in acutum desinentia; quorum inferiora quandoque laciniata, reliqua vero obscure sinuata, per quorum medium costa alba, ut in Lysimacliia Chamaenerion dicta, excurrit; ex alarum sinibus pediculus articulatus et rotundus prodit, cujus pars supra articulum triuncialis fistulosa, cui fios magniis, havus quadrifolius extra folia effertur: qui cum primo fiorere incipit, quadrangulus est, quo aperfo verum Sole tantum lucente, in ejus medio stilus conspicitur, qui viridis ad articulum usque descendit, et apicibus quatuor sulpliurei coloris, crucis in modum dispositis, donatus est, quern stamina octo circumstant, quorum quatuor singulis foliis adposita, alia quatuor ipsis interjecta sunt; bisque singulis capitulum oblongum albicans in- sidet: ipsi vero flori, calycis in modum, folia quatuor oblonga, angusta, pallida subjiciuntur. Flos odoratus est, nonnibil ad Keiri,’ vel potius Diliaspbodeli lutei odorem accedens, ultra diem non persistens, cum is qui sub vesperam aperitur, ad sequentis diei vesperam fiaccescat, unde Epbemerum dici meretur. Flore, cum pedicello ad articulum delapso, altera pediculi pars sesquiuncialis, sensim ad uncias binas, etiam ternas oblongatur et in siliquam sive corniculum abit, et propter semen copiosum, nigrum, parvumque, quod continet, intumescit; quod ubi maturuit, ipsa cornicula, quae utrinque ad caulis latera numerosa sunt, in quatuor partes dividuntur. Hujus semen, Lysimaebiae Virginianae nomine Anno 1619. Patavio accepimus, quod Vere satum, tota aestate et byeme sine caule remansit: at sequent! anno, circa Veris finem caulescere, et Junio fiorere coepit; nunc vero ex deciduo semine (annua enim planta est) autumno dela- bente, singulis annis in bortulo meo copiose ©t usque in autumni finem floret. ’Curiously enough, most of the later citations of the Pinax refer only to page 245, and for this reason the existence of the description in the appendix, which Snippendale evidently copied, was at first overlooked. ^Probably CheirantJius cheiri of Willd. Sp. PI. 3:516. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 91 Mattliioli Ephemeriim esse suspicatus sum, sed cum nullas, nisi Dioscoridis, no- tas, adposuerit, nil pronunciare licet. English Translation. Lysimachia lutea corniculata is a Ijrancliy ])lant rising to a man’s height. Its shape resembles Lysimachia latifolia purpurea siliquosa.^ It (comes lip) from an oblong white root, thicker tlian the finger, bearing a few fibres. The stem rises round at the base, and above the middle becomes angular on account of the many branches, (is) subcinereous, smooth, branches out right from the root into rather short branches, soon becoming longer, and these branch into others broadly spread out, which (and these) are round (and) supplied with a very few hairs, (and) dotted with small reddish spots, from which, as from pores, a hair pro- trudes. There are many leaves right at the root, oblong, longer than the palm of the hand, (but) scarcely exceeding an inch in widtli. These are thick and pale green, slender (and) end in a point; the lower ones are sometimes laciniate, the others in truth obscurely sinuate. Through the midst of them, runs a white rib, as in the aforesaid Lysimachia chamaenerion.' From the curves of the wings (i. e. from the axils of the leaves) a jointed round pedicel comes forth, of whicli the part above the joint is three inches" long and hollow. On this a big yellow, four- petalled flower, Tares out beyond the leaA^es. When it first begins to Tower, it (the bud) is quadrangular, and opening Avhen the sun is still barely shining, in the midst of it is seen a pistil, which (is) green (and) goes down all the Avay to the joint, and is furnished with four apices, sulphur-colored and arranged in the form of a cross, around which stand eight stamens, four of Avhich are placed one opposite each petal. The other four are set in between the Trst (four). On each one of these sets a small Avhitish head. Four oblong, narrow, pale leaA^es are set in underneath the ToAver itself, in the form of a calyx. The ToAver is frag- rant, not unlike the Keiri, but rather more like the odor of the yelloAV liliasphodel. (It) does not last beyond one day, and AAdien it opens toAvards evening it wilts on the eA^ening of the following day, from Avhich it deserA^es to be called Ephemerum, Avhen the ToAver AAuth its pedicel has fallen off at the joint, the other part, measuring an inch and a half," species of Epilobium. -Probably Epilohium cmgustifoUum L. is probable that the dimensions stated are only approximately correct and cannot be taken as accurate measurements. In none of these forms, for example, is the hypanthium three inches in length, but such a measurement would answer approximately for the combined length of hypanthium and cone, which is probably referred to here. Similarly, the width of the rosette leaves, given as scarcely more than an inch, is probably only an approximation. The measurement given for the length of the ovary, viz. : 1 % inches, must surely be incorrect. ^This must be an error. Half an inch would be more nearly correct for any Oenothera of this group comprising O. LamarcMana, O. grandiflora and O. hiennis. 92 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE gradually elongates to two or three inches, and grows into a pod or little horn, and swells out because of the abundant little black seeds that it contains. When it (the seed) is ripe, the little horns, which are thickly set on both sides of the stem, are divided into four parts. We received this seed, Lysimacliia virginiana by name, from Padua in the year 1619, and v/hen it was sown in the spring, it remained the whole summer and winter without a shoot. And the following year it began to send up shoots about the end of spring, and to flower in June : now from the seed falling injhe autumn, (for it is an annual plant), it flowers abund- antly every year in my little garden until the end of autumn. I suspect it to be Matthiolus’s ephemerum," but since he has stated that there are none known unless those of Dioscorides, there is nothing which permits me to decide. To enable the reader to follow these records intelligently I should here state that, as the result of cultures of numerous races of 0. grgndiflora and 0. Lamar ckiana forms, derived from various sources, as well as from the work of MacDougal, Miss Yail, and others (1907), (see Gates 1909) the main differentiating characters between the two series of forms are seen to be (1) the buds of the former are rounded instead of quadrang- ular, more slender, with thinner sepals and usually more slender and setaceous sepal tips than 0. Lamarcluana forms. (2) The leaves of the mature rosettes in 0. grandiflora have conspicuous basal lobes and are thinner than in any 0. Lamarckiana forms. (3) Physiologically the 0. grandiflora forms agree in partly or wholly omitting the rosette stage, under the same conditions of culture in which it is almost invariably well-developed in all the 0. Lamarckiana forms. The characters described which serve to identify this plant of Bauhin may now be considered. (1) The presence on the branches, of little red dots, each with a hair arising from it. 0. Lamarckiana and all its mutants, as well as, 0. kiennis, have a long type of hair, — the one men- tioned here, — which is much longer and stouter than the other type and which always arises from a little papilla, the latter being usually red. This type of hair also occurs on the stems of the 0. grandiflora from Alabama, but I have reason to believe that it is much less common and frequently absent from 0. grandiflora in its Eastern range. This belief is based upon studies of the 0. g'randiflora forms now growing wild in certain parts of England, which very probably are descended from plants introduced from Virginia at an early date. (2) The rosette leaves are described as oblong, hardly more than an inch in width, thick and pale green, slender and pointed. The lower leaves of the rosette are said to -This is probably LysimacMa ephemerum of Willdenow’s Sp. PI. 1:817. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 93 be sometimes laciniate, the others obscurely sinuate. A careful study of this description, and comparison with the rosette stages of 0. Lam- ar cl'iaiia and 0. grancliflora forms, leads me to the conclusion that it un- doubtedly could not have referred to 0. grancliflora, because the leaves are described as long and narrow, thick and pale green, while in O. grancliflora the leaves 'are not only broad and darker green, usually mottled with red, but are thin and comparatively delicate. The conspic- uous lobes or laciniations at the bases of the leaves of the mature rosette, which seems to be characteristic of all the 0. grancliflora forms, might at first be thought to be indicated by the words ‘dnferiora quandoque laciniata, ” but these words would refer more correctly to the incon- spicuous lobes or projections not infrequently found near the base of the blade in 0. Lamar ckiana and others of that series. Taking the rosette characters tout’, ensemble, they certainly in my judgment picture a plant of the 0. T^amarckiana series, while they could not reasonably be held to refer to any form in the 0. grandiflora series. Therefore, regarding 0. Lamar ckiana as a “Linnaean” species, this form should be included within it. On the other hand the description differs in several respects from the typical 0. Lamarckiana of cultures. There is no mention of the crinkling of the leaves, but I shall show that this is referred to in an independent description of what was probably the same form. The rosette leaves, if only an inch in width, are certainly much narrower than is usual in our 0. Lamarckiana.^ (3) The fact that the hypanthium or flower stalk is about three inches long and the flower large, of course precludes the plant from being 0. biennis or any other small-flowered form. (4) The statement that the bud is quadrangular is important because it again eliminates 0. grancliflora as a possibility. The third character referred to then distinguishes the plant from 0. biennis, while either the rosette characters or the quadrangular buds are sufficient to make it certain that the plant cannot be 0. grandiflora. The only other species which is a possible candidate for this position is 0. argillicola McK. The rosette leai^es of the latter are very narrow but, though its flowers are large, several other characters, such as the rounded bud and the more or less decumbent stem and branches throw this out of court as a possibility. A¥hile the plant described in this earlier account is therefore closer to 0. Lamarckiana Ser. than to any other form, and cer- ^It has occurred to me that these rosette leaf characters miglit compare very well with O. laevifolia. Is it possible that O. laevifolia is not a mutant from O. Lamarck- iana but has persisted continuously in collections of seeds, since this earliest intro- duction? If so, it would probably be the form referred to in the Hort. Cliff. (1737) as growing abundantly on the sand dunes of Holland. Against this interpretation is the fact that plants growing on the English coast near Liverpool from an early date, contain ■ the true O. Lamarckiana as a prominent constituent of the population, but are not found to contain O. laevifolia. 94 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tainly agrees with the latter in all essentials; yet it seems evident that the rosette leaves were narrower than in onr type. ^Moreover, according to the description, there were also secondary branches developed, which is not nsnally tlie case in onr present 0. Lamar Mana. The plants are also said to be the height of a man, which is rather higher than 0. Lamarckiana averages in cultures. I shall show later that the 0. Lamarckiana now growing wild on the coast north of Liverpool, Eng- land, must have originated from the early introduction of 0. Lamarck- iana from Yirginia, Avhile the 0. Lamarckiana of DeVries’ cultures is known to have come from Texas. In this connection it may be worth noting that this English 0. Lamarckiana in my cultures attains a some- Avhat greater height than the iilants of DeVries grown under the same conditions. These differences, however, are of quite minor value and the important features, such as the red papillae on the stem, the general shape of the rosette leaves, the large flowers and quadrangular buds, make it certain that the plant described by Bauhin cannot lie excluded from 0. Ijamarckiana Ser. and placed with one of the other species. This appendix to Bauhin ’s Pinax contains the oldest description of a North American Oenothera knoAvn to exist. Certainly A^ery feAV Ameri- can plants, if any, received so accurate a description at such an early date. As an early historic record of the plant this is about all that could he asked for ; and it is certainly much more complete and accurate than could liaA-e been expected. It shows that the claim frequenth^ made, that 0. Lamarckiana originated in cultiAmtion, eitlier through crossing or in any other Avay, is Avithout sufficient foundation. There has been so much obscurity and doubt regarding the origin and early history of 0. Lamarckiana, tliat a description AAiiich proA^es that a plant closely resembling it, at least, originally grew AAuld in ‘‘Virginia” and AAms the first Evening Primrose introduced into Europe, must be regarded as of prime importance as an historical record. The fact that the details of De Vries’ Mutation Theory have been conceived on the basis of the be- haviour of this plant, gVes eA^ery item of its early history an added import. It should be stated that the fact that 0. Ijamarckiana Avas or- iginally AAuld does not preclude its liaAung arisen in nature through the crossing of races, although this is improbable for other reasons ; nor does it shoAV that crossing has not taken place since its introduction into gardens, for undoubtedly such crossing has taken place. But a discus- sion of these questions is not germane to the present subject, AAdiich is merely to trace the historic record of these plants. In regard to this earliest record it should be pointed out that this form could not have IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 95 arisen by crossing during the five years between. 1614, when the plants are first said to have been introduced, and 1619, because a single (large- flowered) type was introduced and there was nothing with which it could cross. The earliest record of a small-flowered form I have found in Morison’s Hortus Blesensis in 1669, previously referred to. In looking through the later works of Caspar Bauhin, and especially the Ilistoria Plantanim Universalis of John Bauhin, I have found no further mention of Lysimachia lutea corniculata. In the last mentioned work, Vol. II, pp. 901-908 (1651), the Lysimachias are described and figured, but this plant is not included, most of the species described being evidently Epilobiums. Its absence cannot be ascribed to its being an exotic, for a ‘‘Lysimachia” from Argentina in 1595 is described. In summing up the case it may be said that the references, in the description, to the large flowers, the quadrangular buds, and the shape and other features of the rosette leaves, remove this' plant with cer- tainty from either 0. l)iennis or 0. grandiflora. The only discrepancies with 0. Lamar chiana as we now know it are (1) the rosette leaves scarcely exceeding an inch in width. But this may be an error, because the reference to ovaries an inch and a half long is evidently an error. IToweA^er, Parkinson, in his Faradisus, also refers to the rosette leaves as “long and narrow pale green leai^es, ” so that it seems probable that this plant had narrower and paler green rosette leaves than the one we now cultivate. There also appears to be no mention of the crinkling of the rosette leaA^es. (2) Secondary branches are not usually formed in our plant, although they may occur. These minor differences are, hoAvever, certainly of much less importance than the similarities already pointed out. The next reference that I have examined is in Parkinson’s Paradisus, 1629. From his accompanying figure it is uncertain whether the dowers are large or small, but in his' Theatrum Botanicum (1640) p. 548, he gives a better figure. Which shows that this is undoubtedly a large flowered Oenothera. His quaint description is as follows : Lysimachia lutea siliquosa Virginiana. The tree primrose of Virginia. Unto what tribe or kindred I might referre this plant, I have stood long in suspense, in regard I make no mention of any other Lysimachia in this work: lest therefore it should lose all place, let me ranke it here next unto the Dames Violets, although I confesse it hath little affinity with them. The first yeares of the sowing the seede it ahideth without any stalke or flowers lying upon the ground, with divers long and narrow pale green leaves, spread sometimes round almost like a Rose, the largest leaves being outermost, the very small in the middle: about May the next yeare the stalke riseth, which will be in Summer 96 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE of the height of a man, and of a strong bigge size almost to a man’s thumbe, round from the bottome to the middle, where it groweth crested up to the toppe, into a^ many parts as there are branches of flowers, every one having a small leafe at the foote thereof; the flowers stand in order, one above another, round about the tops of the stalks, every one upon a short foot-stalke, consisting of foure pale yellow leaves, smelling somewhat like unto a Primrose, as the colour is also (which hath caused the name) and standing in a greene huske, which parteth it selfe at the toppe into foure parts or leaves, and turne themselves downewards, lying close to the stalke: the flower hath some chives in the middle, which being past, there come in their places long and cornered pods, Sharpe pointed at the upper end, and round belowe, opening at the toppe when it is ripe into flve [?] parts, wherein is contained small brownish seed; the roote is somew'hat great at the head, and wooddy, and branched forth diversely, which perisheth after it hath borne seeds.” He also states that the plant ‘ ' came out of Virginia. ’ ’ This is very evidently the same plant as the Lysimachia lutea corni- ciilata of Banhin, though an independent description. Robert Morison in his Plant arum Historia Universalis Oxouiensis, Yol. II., published at Oxford in 1680, used the description of Banhin as the basis for his description of the same plant. Many parts are re- peated word for word, even one or two errors being perpetuated in this way;* but there are also a number of minor changes in the order of description and in the order of \vords, several additions tending to complete the description, and one or two corrections. These will be seen on comparing the Latin of the two descriptions. Morison ’s de- scription of this and a second (small-flowered) species (p. 271) is as follows : LysimacMa lutea corniculata non papposa. 7. Lysimachia lutea corniculata non papposa Virginiana major, nobis. Lysi- machia lutea corniculata C. B. P. Lysimachia siliquosa Virginiana, Park. Haec Lysimachia peregrina non multis abhinc annis ex Virginia aliisque Americae Septentrionalis partibus, seminibus in Angliam delata & hie sata, ad cubitalem & bicubitalem aliquando altitudinem provenit: folia habet prima glauca, longa, orbiculariter per terram strata, sinuata, mucronata, palmum superantia, lati- tudine vix unciam excedentia quae sunt crassa, laevia, pallide virentia, & in acutum mucronem desinentia, per quorum medium costa alba, ut in Lysi- machia Chamaenerion dicta, excurrit: praedicta folia exeunt ex radice longa, alba, digitalem crassitudinem superante, panels flbris capillata; caulis exsurgit initio rotundus, at supra medium ob plurimos ramos angulosus, subcinereus, laevis statimque in breviores, mox majores qui rotundi paucissimis pilis donati, hinc inde parvis maculis rubentibus variegati, ex quibus tanquam ex poris pilus exilit. Ex alarum sinubus pediculus articulatus & rotundus prodit, cujus pars supra articulum triuncialis, flstulosa, cui flos magnus, flavus, quatuor petalis constans, extra folia effertur, qui cum primo florere incipit, quadrangulus est, quo aperto vel sole tantum lucente in ejus medio stilus conspicitur, qui IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 97 viridis, usque ad articulum descendit, & apicibus quatuor sulpliurei coloris, crucis in modum dispositis donatus est, quern stamina octo circumstant, quorum quatuor singulis foliis apposita, alia quatuor ipsis interjecta sunt: bisque singulis capitulum oblongum albicans insidet: ipsi vero flori calycis in modum foliola quatuor, oblonga, angusta, pallida, subjiciuntur : flos odoratus est, nonni- hil ad keiri vel potius Liliasphodeli lutei odoreni accedens, ultra diem non per- sistens, cum is qui sub vesperam aperitur ad sequentis diei vesperam flaccescat, unde Ephemerum dici meretur. Flore cum pedicello dilapso altera pediculi pars sesquiuncialis sensim ad uncias binas, etiam ternas, oblongatur, & in sili- quani sen corniculum abit, & propter semen copiosum, nigrum aut fuscum parvumque, quod continet, intumescit, quodque ubi maturuit, ipsa cornicula, quae utrinque ad caulis latera numerosa sunt, in quatuor partes dividuntur: ex semine sato tota aestate & hyeme sequente sine caule remanent plantae folia per terrani strata; at sequenti anno circa Veris finem caulescere, & Junio florere incipit, & floret & semina perflcit in Autumni finem, atque cum sit bienna- lis planta ex semine deciduo Autumno dilabente, singulis annis in hortis nostris cop'iose conspicitur sine caule, adventante secundo Vere caulem erigit & semina sua perflcit. 8. Lysimacliia lutea corniculata non papposa Virginiana minor, nobis, tiaec in omnibus priori conve;iit, nisi quod folia producat dimidio minora & angus- tiora; flores pariter dimidio aut saltern multo minores, nec tarn alte ascendunt caules; in caeteris omnibus majori convenit. English Translation. LySIMACHIA LUTEA CORNICULATA NON PAPPOSA. 7. Lysimacliia lutea corniculata non papposa Virginiana major, our (species). Lysimacliia lutea corniculata, C. B. P. Lysimacliia silicpiosa Virginiana, Park. This Lysimacliia, a foreign (plant), was lirouglit hy seed not many years ago from Virginia and other parts of North America to England and sown here. It attained a height of one or two ells. It has at first long glaucous leaves, spread out in a circle over the ground, sinuate, iiiiicronate, longer than the palm (of the hand), hardly more than an inch in breadth, which are thick, smooth, pale green, and end in a sharp point. Through the middle of them runs a white rib, as in Lysimacliia Chamaenerion aforesaid. These same leaves come forth from a long, white root, thicker than the finger, liearing a few fibres. The stem rises round at the base, and above the middle becomes angular because of the many branches, (is) subcinereous. slen- der, and immediately branches into rather short branches, soon (growing) larger, and these (branch) into others broadly spread out, which are round (and) covered with a few hairs, and dotted with small reddish s})ots, from which as from pores a hair springs* forth. From 98 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the curves of the wings a jointed round pedicel comes forth. The part of this above the joint is three inches long and hollow. On this a large yellow flower, having four petals, stands out beyond the leaves, (and) when it first begins to flower, it is quadrangular. Yfhen open or the sun shines brightly a pistil is seen in the midst of it, which (is) green (and) goes down all the way to the joint, and is furnished with four sulphur-colored apices arranged in the form of a cross. Around this stand eight stamens, four of which are placed one opposite each leaf, the other four are set in between the first (four) : and on each one of these sets an oblong whitish little head. Underneath the flower itself four little leaves, oblong, narrow, (and) pale, are set. The flower is fragrant. Its odor is not unlike (that of) the Keiri but rather more like (that of) the yellow Liliasphodel. It does not last lieyond one day, (but) when it opens toward evening it vnTts on the evening of the following day, whence it deserves to ])e called Ephemerum. When the fiov-er with its pedicel has wilted down, the other part of the pedicel, an incli and a half long, gradually elongates to two or even three inches, and grows out into a pod or little horn, and this swells up on account of the abundant, black or fuscous, little seeds that it contains ; and when it (the seed), is ripe, these same little horns, which are thickly set on both sides of the stem, are divided into four parts. From the seed sown, the plants remain the whole summer and the following winter without a shoot, the leaves spread out over the ground, 'and the following year, about the end of spring, it begins to send up shoots, and in June to flower, and it flowers and perfects seUls towards the end of autumn, and since it is a biennial plant, from the seed that falls in the autumn, every year it is seen abundantly in our gardens without a stalk. With the coming of the second spring it erects a stalk and perfects its seeds. It will be seen that Morison gives both species new names and de- scribes them as his own. If we now make a comparison of the 1619 account of this plant, with the 1680 description, on comparing the Latin, it will be seen tliat there are a number of additions to the later account. The plant is now found in other parts of North America than Virginia. The sequence of the description has been transposed, the account of the rosette leaves coming first, in logical order. The clianges introduced are in many cases corrections of inaccuracies. Thus, in regard to the rosette leaves, ‘ ' oblonga ”is changed to ‘ ' longa” ; ‘ ' obscure sinuata ’ ’becomes ' ‘ sinuata ’ ’ ; ''mucronata” is added; ''glauca, ” referring to the rosette leaves, doubtless has tlie port-Augustini,en Latin meaning ‘‘bluish gra,y, ” in IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 99 this case due to pubescene and not to a ‘ ‘ bloom ’ ’ or coating of wax as in modern botanical usage; ''quandoque laciniata” of Baubin’s descrip- tion is omitted entirely as being, perhaps, too infrequent or incon- spicuous to find a place in the description. In regard to the flower, “ quadrif olius ” becomes “quatuor petal is constans”; folia,” ''foliola”; in regard to the seeds, ‘biigrum” becomes ‘biigrum aut fuscum,” which is much more nearly correct. “Exilit” is perhaps more appi;opriate than ‘‘prodit” applied to the hairs on the stem. Some errors are also perpetuated. Thus, perhaps 'flatitudine unciam vix excedentia” applied to the rosette leaves; probably ^ ^ albicans ’ ’ applied to the anthers ; certainly ‘ ^ sesquiuncialis ’ ’ applied to the length of the ovary at the time the flower falls. The term ^‘non papposa” in the name presumably contrasts' Oenothera with the capsule characters of Epilobium. IMorison also gives flgures of the two species {Plant. Hist. Tab. 11, Sec. 3) under the names Lysimaclna Tirginiana latifolia lutea, corni- culata, nohis, Eig. 7 (with large flowers) and Lysimaclna Virginiana angustifolia, corniculata, noMs, Fig. 8 (with small flowers). Figures of single flowers' are also given, the diameter of the large flower being rep- resented as exactly three times that of the small one. These figures are photographed and reproduced in plate 2. Six years later, in 1686, John Eay in his Historia Pla^itariim, Vol. I., p. 862, gives a similar description, partly copied from ]\forison, but with many amendations and additions, and the omission of the rosette characters. The original, which is given here for comparison with the earlier descriptions, is as follows : 10. Lysimachia Lutea Virginiana Ger. emac. lutea siliquosa Virginiana Park, lutea corniculata C. B. App. TPtEE PRIMROSE. Lys. Americana Col. Axocliiotl Hernandez. C. B. Ex radice oblonga, alba, digitalem crassitudinem superante, paucis fibris ca.pillata caulis exurgit initio rotundus, at supra medium ob plurimos ramos anguldsus, subcinereus, laevis [hirsutus,] crassitudine digitali, medulla farctus, & superius punctis rubentibus varie notatus. Folia longa, angusta, in caule crebra, alternatim posita, ad margines sinuata & obiter dentata. Flores Lysimachiae modo summis siliquis insident magni, tetrapetali, lutei, Primulae veris floribus similes, e calice quadrifolio, pediculo rotundo, articulato donate. In medio fiore stylus conspicitor, qui viridis usque ad articulum descendlt, & apicibus quatuor sulphurei coloris crucis in modum dispositis donatus est, quern stamina octo circumstant, quorum quatuor singulis foliis adposita, alia quatuor ipsis interjecta sunt; bisque singulis capitulum oblongum albicans insidet. Flos odoratus est, ultra diem non persistens, cum is qui sub vesperam aperitur ad sequentis diei vesperam flaccescat, unde Ephemerum dici meretur. 100 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Flore cum pedicello ad articulum delapso altera pediculi pars sesquiuncialis, sensim ad uncias binas, etiam teriias, oblongatur, & in siliquam sive coniculum abit, & propter semen eopiosum, parvum, angulosuin, pullum quod continet, intumescit; quod ubi maturuit, ipsa cornicula, (quae utrinque ad caulis latera numerosa sunt) in quatuor partes dehiscunt, quaternis loculamentis quatuor seminum ordines continentia, nulla intus lanugine seminibus adliaerescente. [In singulis foliorum alia singuli flores sedent; cornicula sessilia pediculis carent, ad basin crassiora, sensim versus apicem tenuiora, raris pilis hirsuta.] Plantain liaiic Lysimacliiae Americanae titulo describit & depingit P. Co- lumna, Annotat. ad Res meclicas Novae H'ispan. Nard. Ant. Recchi: & Axochiotl seu Florem aquae praedicti Recchi seu Hernandez, lib. 7. cap. 48, Hist. Mexicana, descriptum & depictum esse existhnat, quod & nobis etiam videtur. Prima qua sata est aestate caulem non edit, verum anno sequente, semine autem ad maturitatem perducto radicitus exarescit. Camaranbaya Brasiliensis altera species Marggr. huic eadem esse videtur. 11. Lysiviacbia Virginiana altera, foliis latioribiCs, floribus Juteis majoribus Cat. Altdorf. Hace praecedente elatior est & major, ut quae humanum interdum altitudinem multum superet,^ foliis latioribus, & pro magnitudine tu'evioribus, ad margines minus sinuatis & propeniodum aequalibus: floribus etiam multo amplioribus. In hortis nostris frequentior est praecedente. A 111011^ tlie many chaises in description 10, from the Morison descrip- tion may lie pointed ont tlie insertion of the word -diirsutus, ” which chai’acterizes the stem lietter than “laevis”; the word ‘‘angulosnra” is added to the description of the seeds, and “pnlhim” suhstitnted for 'Aiigrnm ant fnseum.’’ The capsule is more fully described, and the clause '‘nulla intus lanuo'ine seminihus adliaerescente” contrasts it with the species of Epilohium. The reference to Hernandez was found to he an independent (earlier) account of a plant which appears to liave been 0. LamarcMana. This is the only description I have found in which the crinkling of the leaves is described. , In Hernandez’s Xova Plant. Anim. et Miner. Mex., pub- lished at Koine in 1651. this important independent description is given (p. 882) as follows: Lysimaclna Americana. Primae iconis plantam, ni fallimur, vel illi admodum similem, satam habemus ex Virginia Novi Orbis allatam, & sub nomine Lysimanchiae luteae a doctiss. Johanne Pona Veronense nobis cum alijs rarioribus dono missam, cuius flores (pictoris forsan incuria in summo non dense depicti) siliquis insidentes appar- ent, longo lobulo prodeuntes lutei, qiii crescente caule paulatim inter foliorum Un a recent visit to St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, ■ on the coast near Liverpool, England, where many large-flowered Oenotheras have been growing wild for a century at least. .1 observed one rather constant race which seeded itself in an unused back-yard. Its a\'erage height exceeded that of a man, and its flowers were, correspondingly very large. The other charaeters were intermediate in some respects between O. Lamarckiana and O. (jrandiflord. hut much nearer the foi’mer. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 101 sinus alternatim, & in spicam disponuntur : marcescentibus vero illis crassescunt siliquae quadratae, duas uncias longae, durae, & perfectae, in quatuor partes dehiscentes: copiosa intus, parva, angulosa, fusca, insipida semina continentes, & facile, vento agitata planta, decidentia, ut necesse sit cum incipiunt dehiscere, eolligere. Auguste floret, & Septembri perflcitur. Folia sapore insipido, quae prima facie Keiri sive luteae Violae similia videntur, sinibus levibus excavata, quae in caule vix sinuosa apparent, ut facile salignis aequiparari potuerint. Flores fructui insident longo tubulo, foliate capite, qui esti quatuor foliolis con- structi sint, non tamen ideo cum Keiri aliquid commune habent, siliqua non bivalvi, non capitata, nec semina compresso: nec etiam cum vera Lysimachia folijs inordinatis, non ternis, nec adstringentibus : fructu diverse cum siliquosa dicta sive Chamaenerio non parum, nisi semina huic non papposa essent. Planta est levifolia, radice longa parum, & fibrosa, lignosa, quae regerminare solet. Iconem expressam addimus. Aliam ejusdem nominis plantam bulbosa radice, infra reperies alterius generis fob 257. The accompanying figure is that of an Oenothera with large flowers and the stigma projecting beyond the stamens. The branching of this plant is somewhat unusual, if correctly represented. There are no basal branches, but a few long branches near the top. However, I have seen plants in cultures with this type of branching, and there is so much difference in branching, under different conditions of growth, that this point is of little significance. The point of greatest interest in this description is the statement regarding the leaves, H sinibus levibus excavata. ’ ’ This clearly describes the characteristic crinkling of the leaves of 0. Lamar ckiana , and leaves little, if any, doubt that this plant was 0. Lamar clxiana in the strict sense. The upper leaves on the stem were evidently smooth, as is usually the case in our 0. Lamar chiana. The comparison with Salix leaves may indicate that they were somewhat narrower than typical 0. Lamar ckiana. Regarding the origin of these seeds, which were obtained from John Pona in Verona, it is not clear whether the latter had obtained the seeds direct from Virginia or had grown several generations of the plants before sending seeds to Hernandez. This leaves open the possi- bility that crosses might have taken place in the meantime, l)ut if they did, the same crosses might haA^e taken place in Virginia among the wild plants, so that this contingency does not seem to the writer to ])e of importance. The reference to fob 257 is to a figure and description of another plant in Rerum Med. Nov. Ilisp., published by the same author in the same yeai'. This is eAudently a Mexican species of Oenothera. The flowers are described as Amrying from red to yellow. To return to the description of Ray’s species, number 11, I have con- cluded probably belongs to 0 grandipora. Coming from Virginia, it 102 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE differed, as I shall show, in certain respects, from the 0. grandiflora of Alabama which is now in cultivation. But the broader and relatively shorter leaves and the other characters mentioned seem to refer to this form, although all the distinguishing characters which would lead to certainty are unmentioned. The flowers of the reputed Virginian 0. grandiflora may be somewhat larger than in 0. Lamar cMana. Moreover, exceptionally tall and robust plants frequently have correspondingly larger flowers. I shall refer to this again later. It is the earliest de- scription I have seen which could refer to 0. grandiflora.^ Tournefort, in his Institutiones (1700), recognized large- and small- flowered forms, and in 1714 Barrelier gives very instructive figures of three species as follows : (1) PI. 989. Lysimacliia latifolia, spicata, lutea^ Liisitanica, with the syn- onym Onagra angustifolia Tourn. Inst. 302. (2) PI. 990. Lysimacliia angustifolia, spicata, lutea, Lusitanica, with the synonym Onagra angustifolia. caule ruhro, flore minore. Tourn. Inst. (3) PI. 1232. Lysimacliia lutea, corniculata, latifolia, Lusitanica, with the synonym Onagra latifolia, floriMis amplis Tourn. Inst. The first tw^o species are small-flowered forms, and it is very probable that they represent races of what are now known as 0. hiennis L. and 0. muricata L. In plate 989 the spike is very dense, while in plate 990 the petals are deeply emarginate, smaller and the rosette leaves narrower than in 989. The rosette leaves have long petioles in both. The third species has much larger floivers, the leaves are represented as markedly repand-denticulate, sometimes more or less curled. Though there is little basis for judgment, the leaves seem to suggest 0. Lamar chiana rather than 0. grandiflora. These figures are reproduced in plates 3 and 4. The Ilortns Cliff or tianns, published at Amsterdam in 1737, gives (p. 144) two species of Oenothera, with synonomy as follows, the genus Oenothera having been previously characterized by Linnaeus in the Genera Flantarum : 1. Oenothera foliis ovato — lanceolatis clenticulatis, fiorihus lateralihus in summo eaulis. Onagra latifolia Tournef. Inst. 302. Lysimacliia lutea corniculata Bauh. pin. 245, 516. Lysimacliia lutea corniculata non papposa virginiana major. Moris. Hist. 2 p. 271. ^Since writing’ this I have noticed that L’ Heritier, in his description of O. grancU- ffora (see L’ Heritier MS) says “Conf. Onagra latifolia floribus amplis. Tourn. inst. 302,” which clearly confirms my conclusion. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 103 Lysimacliia lutea corniculata latifolia lusitanica Barr. rar. t. 1232. Onagra latifolia, florihus amplis Tournef. Onagra latifolia flora clilutiore Tournef. Crescit in Virginia aliisque Americae locis. It is interesting to note that even at this time he says “Copiose crescit ubique in cainpis arenosis Hollandiae.” 2. Oenothera foliis lineari-lanceolatis dentatis, florihus e media caule. Onagra angustifolia, caule ruhro, flore minore. Tournef. Inst. 302. Onagra salicis angusto dentatoque folio, vulgo Mithon. Fevill peruv. 3, p. 48. t. 36. Crescit in America meridionali prope Chili. Tlie corolla is described as ‘‘flavo rubra. ” I have not attempted to determine what South American species this is. Tournef ort ’s Onagra angustifolia is evidently wrongly referred to it. Linnaeus, in the first edition of the Species Plantarum (1753), recog- nizes three species of Oenothera (1:346), 0. hiennis, 0. mollissima and O. fruticosa. The second is a South American form which need not concern us. Tournefort's Onagra angustifolia cattle rubro, flore minore is referred to 0. fruticosa. As already mentioned, the figure of Barrelier (990), together with his synonomy, makes it quite certain that the plant here designated by Linnaeus 0. fruticosa was in reality what we now know under the name of 0. nuricata L. The modern 0. fruti- cosa belongs in the sub-genus Kneiffia and has a very different habit, much larger flowers and quite different capsules. Linnaeus’ citation of 0. hiennis in the Species Plantarum, 1st Edition, is as follows: Oenothera foliis orato lanceolatis planis. Vir. Cliff. 33. Hort. Ups. 94. Gron. virg. 154. Roy. lugdh. 251. Gort. E. gelr. 78. Oenothera foliis ovato-lanceolatis denticulatis, floribus lateralibus in summo caulis. Hort. Cliff. 144. Lysimachia lutea corniculata. Bauh. pin. 245, 516. Moris, hist. 2. p. 271. s. 3. t. 11. f. 7. Habitat in Virginia unde 1614, nunc vulgaris Europae. The fact that Linnaeus cites as an illustration Morison’s fig. 7 (repro- duced in plate 2), which is beyond peradventure a large-flowered Oeno- thera, and ignores all previously published figures of small-flowered species, shows without question that he meant in 0. hiennis to include only the larger flowered forms. Further, he recognizes that Morison’s plant is the same as the^ Lysimacliia lutea corniculata of Bauhin, which, as I have shown, on acount of the ciuadrangular buds and other charac- ters, undoubtedly belongs in the 0. Lamar ckiana series of forms, and not to 0. grandiflora. Unquestionably, therefore, Linnaeus meant as 104 IOWA, ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the type of 0. biennis, one of the 0. Lamarclviana series of forms, with large flowers, and he excluded and ignored all reference to any of the small-flowered forms, several very good figures of which were already in existence hy the same authors who had figured and described the large-flowered forms. In the Hort. Cliff, the synonomy as already given (p. 31 MS.) cites in addition to Morison’s Lysimacliia lutea corniculata non papposa virginiana major (which is apparently the same as the plant which he figures under the name Lysimacliia Virginiana latifolia lutea corniculata), Barrelier’s Lysimacliia lutea corniculata latifolia lusitanica with his figure 1232 (reproduced in plate 4). Barrelier cites as a synonym Tournefort’s Onagra latifolia florihus amplis, which is, I believe, 0. grancliflora. The figure itself is indecisive between 0. grandi- fiora and 0. Lamar ckiana. Linnaeus, however, in the Hort. Cliff. ■, * segregates Onagra latifolia, florihus amplis Tournef. as differing from the type of his species. It would, therefore, seem probable that while Barrelier considered his species to be the same as Tournefort’s Onagra latifolia, florihus amplis, yet Linnaeus decided that Barrelier’s plant was the same as Morison’s, and that the species of Tournefort was another thing, differing in minor characters. This is in entire accord with our belief that the latter species was really 0. grandiflora. More- over, the close similarity of the names under which these plants of Barrelier and of fMorrison were figured (differing only in using Vir- giniana for lusitanica) would indicate that these two forms were the . same. At any rate, it is clear that Linnaeus meant by Oenothera biennis the large-flowered forms of 0. Lamarchiana series, and it is possible, though not probable, that he meant to include 0. grandiflora. From this time forward large flowered forms are frequently cited or figured under 0. biennis L., and, as we have seen, these large-flowered forms were undoubtedly the ones to which the name 0. biennis was orig- inally applied. 0. biennis is stated by Linnaeus to have been brought from Virginia about 1614. The source of this statement, which other evidence shows must be about true, I do not know, but it lias frequently been quoted in other works'. In the Ilortus Upsaliensis, (1748) Vol. I, p. 94, Linnaeus says with reference to the plant which he afterwards called 0. biennis in the Species Plantarum, “Habitat in Virginia circa 1620, in Europam translata, nunc in Belgio, Italia, Gallia, Germania spontanea,’’ showing the wide distribution of these forms at that early time, a century after their first introduction. Miller in the Gardener’s Dictionary, 6th Edition (1752), under On- agra cites 12 species. Regarding the first, Onagra latifolia Inst. R. II. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 105 or broad leav’d Tree-primrose, lie says, '‘The first sort is very common in most English gardens, where, when it has been suffered to scatter its seeds, it will come up and flourish without any care; and many times becomes a troublesome weed : this will thrive in the Srnoak of London, so that it is a very proper plant to adorn the City Gardens.” An important record and an accurate (colored) plate of Oenothera, is found in ^Miller’s Figures of plants in the Gardener’s Dictionary, the editions of 1760 and 1771 being practically identical. The figures in this work appear to be all natural size. Plate 188 is of 0. piimila and plate 189, which is dated 1757, contains two figures. It is quite clear that these are what we now know as 0. muricata and 0. hiennis. Fig. 1 is cited as follows ; '‘Oenothera foUis lanceolatis dentatis, caule hispido. Tree Primrose with Spear-shaped indented Leaves, and a prickly Stalk. This is the Oenothera foliis lanceolatis capsulis acutangulis, Lin. Sp. Plant. 346. Tree Primrose with Spear-shaped Leaves, and Capsules with acute Angles. Tournefort titles it, Onagra angustifolia, caule ruhro, -flore minore, Inst. R. H, 302. Narrow-leaved Tree Primrose with a red Stalk and a smaller Flower.” In describing Fig. 1 he says definitely that the style is shorter than the stamina, and this is clearly shown by the figure. As indicated by the synonomy, as well as shown by the figure, this is the 0. fruticosa of Linn. Sp. PI. Ed. 1, wdiich I have already shown is the plant we now know” as 0. muricata L. The size of the 'flowers, as well as the other characters, clearly correspond to certain races of this species, though the stem leaves appear to have been rather broader than typical. In describing Pig. 2, wn have the follow”ing : — “Oenothera foliis ovato-lanceolatis planis, Virid. Cliff. 33. Tree Primrose with oval Spear-shaped plain Leaves. This is the Oenothera foliis ovato — lanceolatis, denticulatis, florihus lateralihus in summo caulis, Hort. Cliff. 144. Tree Primrose with oval Spear-shaped indented Leaves, and Flowers proceeding from the wings of the Leaves on the upper Part of the Stalk. Tournefort titles it, Onagra latifolia, Inst. R. H. 302. Broad-leaved Tree Prim- rose; and by Caspar B’auhin, Lysimachia lutea corniculata, Pin. 245. Yellow horned Loosestrife.” The accompanying passage is quoted in MacDougal (1907), p. 5. The characters showm in the figure make it evident that this plant wns some race of wdiat w”e now^ call 0. hiennis, L. This is shown by the size of the flow”ers and by the fact that the style is short so that the stamens sur- round the stigma. This figure wnuld also, however, represent equally well certain hybrids between 0. hiennis and 0. Lamar ckiana. IMiller in referring the plant to the species of Linnaeus already cited in the Hort. Cliff, did the natural thing, seeing that Linnaeus had not made a separate 106 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE species for forms with flowers of this size, although, as we have seen, the type of Linnaeus’ species was clearlj^ indicated by his citation of figures, both in the Hort. Cliff, and the Species Flantarum. In later works the large and small-flowered forms were usually referred indiscriminately to 0. hiemiis L. Miller’s citation of the synonomy of the Hort. Cliff, cannot, therefore, be taken as indicating that this plant referred to the type of Linnaeus’ description, as this was evidently not the case. Philip Miller was ‘‘gardener to the worshipful company of Apothe- caries at their Botanic Garden at Chelsea.” I have recently cultivated a race of 0. hiennis (as we now understand the name, i. e., a plant with smaller flowers than 0. Lamar ckiana and a short style so that the flower pollinates itself) received under that name from the Chelsea Physic Gar- den, whose flower characters agree in general with those of our 0. Mennis^ but the rosette leaves and stem leaves are remarkably crinkled and in general appearance much resemble 0. Lamar chiana, being quite unlike our 0. hiennis races. I mention this case not only to show that numerous races of 0. hiennis exist, differing widely from each other in certain feat- ures, but to emphasize the necessity, in determining any plant from the early records, of considering every character in so far as it can be known, before deciding upon its affinities. Miller’s statement that his plant is “more commonly seen in the Gar- dens than any of the other species” may be true, or it may indicate a failure to differentiate between this and the large-flowered forms. It seems probable, however, that the large-flowered forms had by this time largely disappeared from the English Gardens. We have seen that the large-flow^ered form referred to by Kay in 1686 which we have with a large degree of probab’’ility determined to be 0. grandiflora from its eastern range in North America, was more common in gardens at that time than the other large-flowered form (0. Lamarckiana) . Later, dur- ing the three-quarters of a century intervening between 1686 and 1760 both must have disappeared from cultivation in the English gardens. It is interesting to note that 0. Simsiana is a species with large flowers and a short style, so that the stigma is surrounded by the stamens, as in 0. hiennis. But this was not introduced into England until 1816 (see Curt. Bot. Mag. 45:1974), where it was raised in the garden of the Mar- quis of Bath at Longleats, in Wiltshire, from seeds obtained in Mexico. Moreover, its flowers are much larger than those in Miller’s figure, and there are other differences. (See also Miss Vail’s account in MacDougal, 1907, p. 68.) From the use of the adjective planis in the polynomial cited by Lin- naeus from Vir. Cliff. 33, it may be inferred that this plant did not have the crinkled character of the leaves as we know them in the present 0. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 107 Lamarckiana. The leaves in the upper part of the stem in 0. Lamart- kiana, are, however, frequently nearly or quite smooth. AA^e have shown that the first Oenothera introduced into Europe from Virginia was more closely related to the 0. Lamar ckiana of our present cultures than to any other form, differing from it only in such minor points as the width of the rosette leaves ; which seem also to have been of a iialer green color, because the Bauhin description and Parkinson agree on this point. But the important independent description of Hernandez in 1651 definitely refers to the crinkling of the leaves. This makes it highly probable that the plant of Hernandez was almost or quite identical with our 0. Ij am, ar ckiana, Ser. O. GRxVNDIFLORA AIT. The history of the discovery of 0. grandiflora in Alabama and its in- troduction into Kew has already been given by DeVries (1901) and par- ticularly MacDougal (1905, p. 7), and need not be repeated here. But certain interesting data can be added. Before entering upon these it will be advantageous to outline some of the differences between 0. Lam- ar ckiana and 0. grandiflora as we now know them from cultures (see Vail, 1907, p. 66; Grates, 1909c, p. 131). In 0. grandiflora the buds bear only a short and inconspicuous type of hair, giving them an almost gla- brous appearance (in some cases entirely glabrous), while in 0. Ijam- arckiana and all its mutants there is in addition a long, curved type of hair, arising from papillae and giving the buds a pubescent appearance. The same is true of 0. hiennis. The same type of hair is found on the stems in 0. Lamar ckiana and 0. hiennis, arising from papillae which are usually red, so that the stem is covered with small red dots. 0. grandi- flora from Alabama shows the same condition on the stem, but in some of the forms of 0. grandiflora from near Liverpool, England, the long type of hair is frequently almost wholly absent, leaving the stem nearly glabrous. The buds in 0. grandiflora are also more slender and rounded, and the sepal tips frequently longer and usually more setaceous than in 0. Lamar ckiana. In addition the rosettes are very unlike, the leaves in 0. grandiflora being smooth, thin, and with a series of characteristic basal lobes, while in 0. Lamarckiana they are crinkled, thicker, and without the basal lobes. But unfortunately, the rosettes are rarely mentioned, except in connec- tion with recent studies and cultures, and in the very early works. Professor DeVries has given an account of the history and synonomy of 0. grandiflora Ait. He prefers to call it 0. snaveolens, the name in- troduced by Desfontaines, to avoid confusion on account of the various 108 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE forms to which the name 0. grandiflora has been applied/ The name was first given by William Aiton in Ilortus Keivehsis, Yol. II, p. 2, 1789, in which a figure by L’Heritier, Stirpes Novae, tom. 2, tab. 4, is cited. In the second edition of Hortus Ketvensis, by W. T. Aiton (1811), the same brief description is given, Yol. II, p. 341, but instead of the LTIeri- tier plate, a description by AAfilldenow, Species Flaniarum, Ami. II, p. 306 (1789), is cited. Britten and AYoodward (1905) have traced the history of a number of plates of LTIeritier, which were intended for a second volume of the Stirpes Novae which was never published. Some of these plates are now in the DeCandolle library, some in Aloretti’s li- brary and some in the library at Kew. Among them is the plate of Qpnothera grandiflora, which is referred to in a letter to Dryander dated August 18, 1788. (See Britten and AYoodward, 1. c.) Through the kindness of M. Casimir De Candolle I have been able to obtain the original manuscript of LTIeritier, in which his description of 0. grand- iflora was prepared. AI. DeCandolle very kindly forwarded from his library a manuscript of five pages, giving LTIeritier ’s original descrip- tion of as many species of Oenothera. The plate (No. 4) of 0. grandi- flora was, however, not in the DeCandolle library, and if it is still in existence it will probably lie found in the library at Kew."" I have re- produced here a photograph and transcription of this, chronologically the earliest, description of 0. grandiflora, unless we call Ray’s brief ac- count (1686) a description. A number of points in the description make it certain that the plant described is 0. grandiflora Ait., as we know it, and not 0. Lam,arcMana. I am greatly indebted to Professor Trelease for valuable aid in deciphering the manuscript and in tracing these records. It is now possible to show clearly that there were at least two races of 0. grandiflora. The first of these is represented by what I have called the Eastern 0. grandiflora, originally wild in Carolina, Yirginia and ad- jacent regions and well illustrated by Barton in The Flora of North America (Yol. 1, pi. 6), 1821. Certain 0. grandiflora forms from my cultures of Oenotheras from parts of the coast near Liverpool, England, agree with this form in every respect, which seemingly substantiates my conclusion arrived at from the historical data, that the original introduc- tion of 0. grandiflora took place at a very early date, from Eastern North America, the English plants being descended from this form escaped from gardens at an early period. iSee DeVries, Mutation Theory, 1909, Vol. I., p. 440 et seq. Also MacDoug’al et al, 1905, p. 7. , _ subsequent examination of the plates of L’lTeritier in the Kew Library, shows that the illustration of O. grandiflora is not among them. ‘ • IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 109 The 0. grandiflora which was introduced into Kew from Alabama in 1760 differs from the Eastern form in a number of minor, tliough constant, characters, as shown by cultures. Among these differences may be mentioned, (1) in the Eastern form, as figured by Barton and as shown in cultures from near St. Anne ’s, England, the stem leaves, are much broader than in the present Alabama form of my cultures, though the leaves of both agree in being tapering and acute at both ends."^ (2) The dowers in the Eastern form are fully as large as in 0. Lamar ckiana, the petals being broad and overlapping in the opened flower, as in 0. Lamarckiana. In the Alabama form, on the other hand, the flowers (in my cultures) are considerably smaller and the petals are narrower and ^ more cuneate, so that spaces occur between them in the expanded flower. (3) In bud characters’, the ^‘Eastern grandiflora/ ^ as determined from the English plants, bears on its sepals a short and inconspicuous type of hair, while the sepals of the Alaliama grandiflora are entirely glabrous. (4) On the other hand, the stems of the Eastern grandiflora are fre- quently almost free from hairs either of the long or short type, while the Alabama form bears, especially on its branches, many of the long hairs arising from papillae.^ (5) The “Eastern” plants average considerably larger than the Alabama ones. It is possible that some of these distinc- tions are due to environmental differences and are not permanently in- herited. Among the points in L’Heritier’s description of 0. grancUflora (which was evidently carefully written, using the Genera Plant arum as a model, though never published) which make it certain that it is this form and not 0. Lamarckiana which is described, are the words “folia ovato-lan- ceolata, utrinque acuta,” applied to the leaves of the stem. The term ovate-lanceolate has also been applied to the early descriptions of 0. Lamarckiana, but the stem leaves of O. Lamarckiana are not so broad as those of some races of 0. hiennis and 0. grandiflora. The stem leaves of 0. Lamarckiana Ser., can not be described as acute at both ends, while this is perfectly true of 0. grandiflora. The width of the stem leaves, however, given as 3 inches, is exceptionallj^ broad. It is interesting to note that the cotyledons are described as deltoid-lanceolate. I have not observed the cotyledons of 0. grandiflora, but I have observed them in a form whose bud characters and other features show its close relation- ship to O. grandiflora. These cotyledons become characteristically del- toid-lanceolate. This is true, though apparently to a lesser extent, of iThe description of O. grandiflora by L’ Heritier (q. v.) shows that his (Alabama) plants had very broad leaves. It is therefore probable that both the broad and narrow-leaved races occurred in both the Eastern and Southern range of the species. Wor other data regarding the types of hairs and their inheritance in certain Oenotheras, see Cannon (1909). 110 IOWA. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the 0. Lamarckiana forms. It is a very transient condition in all. Plate 5 is from a photograph of this page of manuscript. The fol- lowing is the transcription. The characters of the manuscript were lit- erally transcribed as far as they could be deciphered. Conf. Onagra latifolia floribus amplis. Tourn. inst. 302, Blaikie. OENOTHEEA GRANDIFLOEA. Cal. Periantliiiim monopliyllum superuni inferne tubulosum, apice 4-pai‘titum pubescens. Tubus cylindricus longissimus intus canescens. Limbus quad- ripartitus dependens; laciniis lineari lanceolatis apice subulatis plerum una altera ve excepta sutis, tube brevioribus, longit. 2 poll. Cor. Petala 4. obcordata, argutissime denticulata, s, Integra, laciniis caly- cinis longiora, ad apicem tubi inter divisures inserta, lineata. Stain, filamenta 8. declinata, fauci calycis inserta, corolla breviora lutea. Antlierae lineares biloculares, peltatae, longissime. Pist, German inferum cylindricum, tetragonum, pubescens, longit. 5 lin. Stylus filiformis intra tubum pubescens extra deflexus, staminibus longior. Stigma maximum quadreilobum?, cruciforme; lobis crassis teretibus patentis- simis glutinosis. Per. Capsula cylindrica, demiim subtetragona quadrinervis, quadrilocularis, quadrivalvis, apice primum debiscens, subvillosa, sessilis, dissepimentis valv- ulae singulae (oppositis (contrariis ejusdemque substantiae a columella subulata qiiad- rangula discedentibus, longit. 15 lin, diam. 3 lin. Sem. numerosa, obsolete angulata, columella affixa, fusca, parva. Spica terminalis, prolifer, erecta, foliacea S. bracteata, pubescens pedalis flores sessiles, lutei, odoratissimi, longit 4. poll. diam. 3. poll. Bracteae lance- olatae, acutae, remote — dentatae, sessiles nisi ter minores in omnia foliis con- formes. ‘ Folia ovato; — lanceolata, utrinque acuta laxe — dentata, nervosa supra viridia infra pallida pubescentia que, subsessilia alterna, subdependentia, longit, 4-5 poll, diam. 3. poll. Caulis erectus uti fruticosus, ramosus, rirnis corticem abjiciens, rami teretes villcsi, scabri, ramuli patuli. Cotyledones deltoideo — lanceolati, obtusi, sessiles. O. fob ovato — lanceolatis, staminibus acclinatis, caule fruticoso. All five pages of the L’Heritier MS were photographed, and prints together with transcriptions of each page were deposited in the herba- rium of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The species described on the four other pages are as follows; Oenothera paniculata. A line is drawn through the word paniculata and fruticosa L. is written above it. Evidently the writer finally decided that it was not a new species. Similarly, there is a description of 0. lyrata, this being changed to 0. rosea. Another page is devoted to a IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 111 description of an Oenothera which is said to he between 0. molHssima and 0. simiata, hut no name is given to it. The last page is a note on some Onagra from the Banks Herbarium. It is important to note that Willdenow in his edition of Linnaeus’ Species Plantarum (3:306) in 1799, to the polynomial description of 0. grandiflora, oe foliis ovato-lanceolatis, staminibus declinatis, caule fru- ticoso, adds ''Caulis, folia et germina glabra,” which makes it evident that the long type of hair was almost wholly absent from the stems as well as the buds of these plants. This agrees with the characters of many plants in the 0. grandiflora series from England, elsewhere described. They cannot have lost this type of hair through crosses with 0. La- mar ckiana or 0. biennis forms, for the latter both have it. While not strictly glabrous, these plants of 0. grandiflora are relatively so com- pared with 0. Lamar ckiana and 0. biennis, and the older regions of the epidermis often become glabrous by the loss of the delicate type of hair as the epidermal cell walls become thicker. In 1797 Lamarck, in his Diciionnaire (p. 554), described a new species 0. grandiflora, evidently not knowing that this name had already been used by Alton. (See DeVries 1895, 1901, 1909.) In this description of Lamarck (or rather Poiret; see DeVries' 1909, p. 442), which was written only from herbarium material, and the name of which was changed by Seringe to 0. Lamar ckiana, there are several points which need to be carefully scrutinized because they refer to the differences between 0. Lamar ckiana and 0. grandiflora as we now know them. In describing the calyx, the words ‘Hermines par un filet court, setace” are used, referring to the sepal tips. DeVries translates this clause (1901, p. 317) ‘Svelche an der Spitze eine kurz, dicke, fadenfoermige Verlaengerung tragen,” and the English rendering of the German is ‘‘which are ter- minated by a short, fat, thread-like prolongation. ” The latter, while an equivalent of the German, is not correct when applied to the French. The difficulty is in DeVries’ use of the word “dicke” apparently as an equiv- alent of the French ‘ ‘ setace. ’ ’ This difference is referred to because in 0. Lamar ckiana and its derivatives, as we know it in cultures, tlie sepal tips are usually thicker than in 0. grandiflora. The words used in the French description really apply better to 0. grandiflora than to 0. Lamar ckiana, but in herbarium material they would probably apply equally well to 0. Lamar ckiana. The original description also uses the expression “lisses et glabres des de-qx cotes” in describing the stem leaves. This is of course not true of living material of 0. Lamar ckiana, except, that the upper stem-leaves (which are the ones usually preserved in an herbarium specimen) are usually nearly free from crinkling. De- 112 IOWA ACADEMY Oi<’ SCIENCE Yries, however (1909, p. 4-12), assures us that the original specimens from which the description was drawn agree exactly witli the 0. Lam- arcliiana used in his cultures, although he says that they hy no means represent the mean type of the species in every respect. De Candolle in the Prodromus (111:46) in 1828 segregates 0. grandi- ' flora Ait., 0. suaveolens Desf., and 0. Lamarckiana Ser. from 0. hiennis L. 0. suaveolens is recognized as probably referable to O. grandiflora Ait., as DeVries has shown to be the case (1895 p. 587), under O. kieio nis L. are cited as figures FI. Danica .5:pl. 446 (which seems to represent a race of the '‘European hiennis”) and Miller’s Gard. Bid., pi. 189, Fig. 2. which I have already referred to as prol)ably a race of our present 0. hiennis, or perhaps a hybrid between 0. hiennis and 0. Lamard'iana. The 0. Lamarckiana of the Seringe Mss, as is well known, was the 0. grandiflora of Lamarck’s Dictionnaire. Ibider 0. grandiflora Ait. De- Candolle cites 8ims in Curt. Bof. Mag., 46 pi. 2068 (1819), to which I may n,ow refer. Sims' distinguishes a form (A) which he characterizes as “Caule, foliis, germinibusque glabris” and a form (B) “caule et germinibus, subpu- bescentibus, foliis calycibusque villosis. ” The plate refers to the (B) form. I formerly considered that this plate represented 0. Lamarckiana rather than 0. grandiflora, on account of the rather narrow leaves and the stout sepal tips. A direct comparison of the measurements of the plate with those of a culture of the Alabama 0. grandiflora from seeds obtained from Prof. S. lil. Tracy, makes it evident, however, that the two agree in practically all their characters and measurements, even in the rather narrowly cuneate petals with spaces between them. The last character is more conspicuous in flowers blooming late in the season. Re- garding the difference between his two forms, Sims says, “Except in the slight pubescence of the stem, germen and tube of the calyx, and the soft villous leaves, our plant differs in no respect from Oenothera grandiflora, of which, therefore, it must be considered as a mere variety.” He then says it is a native of Carolina. In cultures of 0. grandiflora races from plants naturalized on the Lancashire coast of England, I have found dif- ferences similar to those between Sims’ forms. Other series of races are found to exist, differing from each other less than the present 0. grandi- flora and 0. Lamarckiana in the strict sense differ from each other. IMy recent cultures indicate that, however they may have originated, num- bers of such races occur and breed true to their peculiarities. AVhen self- pollinated they behave as “pure lines.” AVhat their behavior in crossing may be is as yet unknown. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AYe have seen that, previous to the introdiietion of 0. (jrandiflora in 1788. a large-tiowered form wliieh was at any rate more closet}^ similar to 0. Lamarcl'iana than to any other species except perhaps O. laevifoUa, had been commonly grown in Euro})ean gardens and illustrated with va- rious figures. This was tlie first Oenothera to he introduced from the New World, about 1614. Already in 1737 (llort. Cliff.) it had escaped from gardens and was found growing wild in large numbers in Holland and (llort. Upsal. 1748) was widely distributed in Europe. It is alto- gether prol)ahle that various races were included in this distribution, even at that time. 1 iiave not attempted to trace the earliest references to the occurrence of Oenotlieras wild in England, but it was abundant on the coast near Liverpool in 1805, (Sowerby Eng. Bot., 22 pi. 1534) and prol^ably existed there much earlier. Thompson (1905) states that 1837 is the first record of its occurrence wild on the coast of Somerset. He refers to the form as 0. bienni^i L., but it has recently been shown by cultures to include 0. Lamar ckiana and other forms. For a summary of the distribution of Oenotheras in Europe see A. DeCandolle (1855) (II :710) . They are naturalized and growing abundantly in many places. The Liverpool plants now consist of 0. Lamarckiana and certain of its mutants, as well as 0. grandiflora and a great variety of hybrids between these forms. Perhaps it would be equally correct to regard them as a series of intermingling ‘‘pure” lines or races. The 0. Lamarckiana is certainly very closely similar to that of DeAHiesf cultures, but there seem natWe to Aurginia would belong to a different elementary species from that in Texas. In 1832 Don (.2:685), under the name 0. biennis refers to Oenotheras growing in the greatest abundance on the Lancashire coast, north of Liverpool, and also says, “It covers several acres of ground near AA^ood- bridge, Suffolk.” The flowers are referred to as “large, pale yellow, and delicately fragrant.” In Edwards’ Botanical Register (19. pi. 1604) in 1833, a large-flowered form is figured under the name Oenothera biennis var. grandiflora l)y Bindley. The flowers and the flowering shoot prob- ably represent 0. Lamarckiana, for though the shoot is slender and with only slight pubescence, yet the 'flower buds are rather stout and with short sepal tips as represented, though scarcely decisive. But the leaf (which probably is from the rosette or far down on the stem) is much longer and more narrowly lanceolate than shown by 0. grandiflora. This leaf is very narrow even for 0. Lamarckiana, but the sessile stem leaves with their broad clasping bases, certainly characterize 0. Ijamar ckiana rather than 0. grandiflora. 8 114 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Baxter in his British Phanerogamous Botany, in 1839, gives a plate (4:257) which seems to resemble 0. Lamar cliiana rather than 0. grandi- flora. But doubtless 0. grandiflora from its first introduction from Virginia ( ?) had escaped from English gardens long before the later introduction in 1778, and was growing wild -as we now find it, mingled with 0. Lamar cMana forms. This figure may therefore refer to some hybrid between the two.^ It is referred to as 0. biennis, the only English species. Dietrich, in characterizing 0. grandiflora Ait. in the German flora (Gaertnerei und Botanik 6:202) in 1837, describes the leaves as smooth and the capsules as ^‘filzig. ” The style is described as ^‘so lang als die Staubfaeden.’’ The liairiness of the capsule and especially the short style make it not improbable that he was describing hybrids between 0. bien- nis and 0. grandiflora. After the time of Linnaeus, the large-flowered Oenotheras are fre- quently referred to and figured as 0. biennis, and in England this prac- tice has continued down to the present time. It is justified, as we have seen, by Linnaeus’ citation of figures in his characterization of the species. But in America, where these large-flowered species have long been rare or absent, usage has tended to confine the term to a small- flowered self-pollinating form, and this is what is meant when the name 0. biennis L. is used in the present paper. Thus a plant is figured under this name by Sowerby (English Botany 22 pi. 1534) in 1806, and he says ‘‘Our specimen was gathered on the extensive and dreary sand- banks on the coast a few miles north of Liverpool, where millions of the same species have been observed ... perfectly wild, and covering a large tract between the first and second range of sand-hills.” The plate has large flowers and answers to 0. Lamarckiana rather than to 0. grandiflora (See plate 6). However, at this date 0. grandiflora was also doubtless naturalized in the same locality, where my cultures have shown that the two species are intercrossing freely, and the plant figured in Sowerby undoubtedly represents one of many such races growing together in that locality. As already mentioned, some 0. grandi- should point out that treating such intermediate races as possible hybrids does not in the least explain their origin from an evolutionary standpoint. Just as there is no such thin«’ in nature as a sharply defined Linnaean “species,” but rather a host of m_ore or less independent elementary species which, in open-pollinated forms, are continually intercrossing- so that the lines of descent are chang-ing- with each generation ; so there is no sharp line between a hybrid and a pure form. By self pollinating during successive generations, the individuals will be found to breed true to smaller and smaller differences, except when mutations occur. If such “pure” indi- viduals are then pollinated from some other race, no one can say how closely or distantly that race should be related to produce a hybrid rather than a “pure” strain. In na.ture, except in strictly self-fertilized forms, the indiscriminate crossing of indi- viduals exhibiting a host of minute character differences, is the normal condition. The process of separating and purifying races by self-pollination is analagous to the chemical process of fractional crystallization. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 115 flora forms are almost wholly lacking in the long type of hair. It may be said that the hybrids between O. Lamar cMana and these 0. grandiflora forms, usually at least possess the papillae on the stem which are characteristic of 0. Lamar cJciana, but their stems and' buds are less hairy, the long type of hair being present but much less numerous than in 0. Lamar cliiana. The rather smoothish aspect of the stem and buds in the plant figured lead one to believe that it was probably a hybrid between 0. T^amarckiana and one of these 0. grandiflora forms. My cultures of Oenotheras from this region show certain races, having similar characters. It is probable that some races of 0. grandiflora in its eastern range differed from the present 0. grandiflora in Alabama, in having a very few of the long type of hair. I regard these plants of 0. Lamar ckiana and 0. grandiflora now flourishing on the English coast, as most probably derived from escapes from the English Gardens, such escapes having probably taken place early in the seventeenth century, from the plants introduced from ‘‘Virginia” about 1614. 0. Lamarckiana is known to have been abund- ant on the English coast as early as 1805, long before its (second) introduction into Kew in 1860. Among the Oenotheras at St. Anne’s I could find no small-flowered forms, so that 0. Lamarckiana could not have originated here from a cross between 0. grandiflora and 0. hiennis races. Neither is there any probability that 0. hiennis has occurred here formerly and has since died out, for the self -pollinating forms invariably set more sets than the open-pollinating, and thus have a better chance to multiply in the struggle for existence. It will therefore be possible to compare this — the “Virginian La- marckiana”— with the “Texas Lamarckiana” which formed the basis of De Vries cultures, if my hypothesis regarding the origin of the English plants is correct. After 0. J^amar ckiana was introduced from Texas in 1860 it was fig- ured in the Floral Magazine {2 pi. 78) in 1862 and copied by Lemaire in the Illustration Horticole {9 pi. 318) in the same year. As already stated, this was the source of the 0. Lamarckiana of DeVries’ cultures. To return to the history of 0. grandiflora Ait. there seems to be good evidence that this species was taken to Europe from its Eastern range in Carolina, Georgia, and the adjacent region, at least as early as 1669, i. e., long previous to its introduction into Kew^ from Alabama in 1778. Since that early introduction it has escaped from botanical gardens, just as did 0. Lamarckiana, and is now growing wild in various parts of Eu- rope. It is found abundantly in western France (Gillot, cited by De- Vries, 1909, p. 443) and in other parts of the continent. 116 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE DeVries (1909 p. 411 footnote)-, in discussing 0. grandiflora, says, ‘ ^ My investigations in the lierbarinm at Paris have convinced me of the identity of the form I cultivate as 0. suaveolens Desf. (0. macrantha llort.) with the form described by Desfontaines. Both of them have tiowers of the same size as those of 0. biennis.” This is explained 1)y the fact that the European 0. biennis has larger flowers than the American races, though smaller than 0. Lamarcbiana, wliile the Alabama 0. grand-- iflora has flowers which are also, in some cases, distinctly smaller than in 0. Lamarclviana. Prom the fact that the Oenotheras established on the sand dunes of the English coast north of Liverpool include 0. Lamar ckiana and 0. grandiflora, where they have freely multiplied and intercrossed since at least 1805, and probably much earlier, the conclusion is scarcely avoidable that this 0. Lamar cLiana must have been derived from the early introduction of these plants from V'irginia, for the Texas pDnt was not introduced until 1860. At one stage in the progress of tliese historical investigations I thought it probable that 0. grandiflora had been introduced into this English locality much later, i. e., since the introduction of this plant from Ala- bama in 1778. It seems improbable, however, that both 0. Lamar cbiana and 0. biennis Avould be taken over from Virginia, and 0. grandiflora remain behind. As already stated, I believe that Ray’s species number 11 belongs to 0. grandiflora. It seems not improbable that the absence of later recognition of two large-flowered forms may have been due to subsequent crossing in gardens, Avhich is A^ery likely to have occurred and which (as I haA^e found from my cultures) Avould tend to obscure the distinctions betAveen the two species, by creating intermediates. For instance, the statements of Ljndley in Edwards ’ Bot. Register 19 pi. 1604, (1833) in which the figure of a plant AAdiich is niost like 0. Lamar cbiana Ser. is given under the name 0. biennis var. grandiflora, sIioav that very probably the limits between 0. bieyvnis L., 0. Lamarckiana Ser. and 0. grandiflora Ait. liad been largely obscured and eliminated by spontan- eous crossing in gardens during the long period of their cultiA^ation. * Miller, in the Gardener’s Dictionary, in 1807 (Vol. 2 Part 1) cites under Oenothera, 0. biennis, 0.' grandiflora, 0. parviflora, 0. muricata, . 0. longiflora, 0. fruticosa, and others. The plant referred to under 0. biennis is described in part as f oIIoaa^s : ‘ ^ Germ sessile, an inch long or more ; on the top of this is the tube of the calyx, from an inch to almost tAvo inches in length, and narrow, spreading out at the top into four acute segments, villose on the outside, an inch in length, l)ent doAAm by IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 117 pairs when the corolla expands and then rolled inwards.” The corolla is described as one and a half to nearly two inches in diameter. From this description and the careful measurements it is evident that this plant had small flowers about the size of the American 0. biennis. The synonymy and other statements', which were copied from book to book, cannot be taken as meaning anything in the present connection. Contemporaneously (1806) Sowerby, as we have seen, pictures a large- flowered form closely resembling 0. Laniarckiana, under the name 0. biennis j so that it is quite evident that at this time no distinction was drawn between 0. biennis and 0. Lamarckiana forms, although 0. grand- iflora had been segregated. The condition of the plants now growing wild and freely intercrossing on the sand-dunes near Liverpool, is probably somewhat similar to what it was in their original home in Virginia, although it is probable that in their original habitat the individuals were much more scattered, owing to the nature of the habitat and the competition of other plants. For this reason, crosses between the different species were much less likely to occur, but that such crosses did occasionally occur there can be no doubt. It seems characteristic of species which' have 'become “weeds” in another country, that they grow in large numbers of individuals closely aggregated in localized areas, while in their native habitat they are more uniformly scattered over larger areas, taking their part in the regular flora of the country. The reasons for this difference in distribu- tion I shall not discuss here. In the case of the open-pollinated Evening Primroses, it is not at all improbable and indeed may be regarded as certain, that crosses between different forms did occasionally occur where their ranges of distribution overlapped. In the case of the three species we are considering here, it is probable that before the white man’s inva- sion of the continent, all three were to be found over a large part of the country. Since then the small-'flowered, close-pollinated 0. biennis and its related forms, such as O. Oakesiana, 0. muricata and 0. fruticosa, have continued to maintain themselves, while the open-pollinated 0. grandiflora seems to have nearly or quite disappeared from its Eastern range in Virginia and Carolina, and 0. Lamarckiana seems to have be- come cjuite extinct on this continent. It would seem, therefore, that the close-pollinated species have been more successful in their competition with the conditions introduced by civilization, than the open-pollinated forms. This might be expected, because in close-pollinated forms seed production is always certain to follow flowering, while in open-pollinated species, with increased enemies 118 IOWA. ACADEMY OP SCIENCE and lessening numbers, the amount of seed-production may fall below the minimum necessary for the perpetuation of the species. Dr. W. 0. Focke, of Bremen, first identified the Oenotheras near Liv- erpool, England, as belonging to 0. Lamar chiana. Charles Bailey, in a more recent account of this vegetation (1907a, b) concludes that their introduction probably came froA sweepings of grain-ships and docks and in grain for poultry from America. It seems more probable, however, that they originated as escapes from English gardens at a very early date. In concluding this examination of historical records it should be said that I have endeavoured to present the documents and other evidence from which my inferences and conclusions liave been drawn, in such a Avay that the reader who examines the evidence can judge for himself of the justice of the conclusions deduced. I have not been biased in favor of any theory of the origin and history of 0. Lamar cldana. I have shown that a form very closely resembling 0. JLamarckiana, except in certain rosette characters, was originally wild in Virginia, but it has never seemed to me that the question whether 0. Lamar ckiana has been hybridized or not is of great significance in connection with the inter- pretation of the mutation phenomena in these open pollinated forms, which must have experienced crossing in nature before their introduc- tion into gardens. It is, however, a matter of much importance to de- termine that a form at least closely similar to 0. Lamar ckiana was the first Oenothera introduced into cultivation. In nature, the individuals of all open-pollinated species are hybrids, in the sense that many more or less diverse elements have contribuated to their ancestry. In making cultures from wild open-pollinated forms I have been impressed with the variability of the first generation in cultivation in comparison with forms which have been selfed for a number of generations. It is of course necessary, in breeding, to select certain individuals for later generations, and if these are self -pollinated the resulting races are sure to show increasing uniformity in later gen- erations. If space for cultures permitted that every individual could thus become the starting point for a race, it would be found that each such individual would originate a race showing slight peculiarities. In the last analysis, as Jennings^ has .remarked, the differences between races would be found to go down to the limits of observation and meas- urement. The occasional appearance of mutants, or marked departures from the type which breed true, is of course another matter. iJennings, H. S. Experimental evidence on the effectiveness of selection. Amer. Nat. J,!, : 136-145. 1910. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE llli It may be pointed out that the mutants o.f 0. Lamar ckiana all have certain features in common, which they also share with the parent form. These (See Gates 1909) include (1) the presence of the long type of hair on the stems and buds, arising from papillae which, on the stems', are red; (2) the quadrangular shape of the buds; (3) the large flowers with long style. It has sometimes been suggested that the phenomenon of mutation in 0. Lamar ckiana is a form of hybrid splitting, 0. La- marckiana itself being merely a synthesized hybrid. Supposing this were the case, 0. grandiflora and 0. hiennis are the only forms we know which could reasonably be assumed to have been its parents. It is true that 0. biennis possesses the first two of the characters mentioned above, in common with 0. Lamar ckiana and its mutants. But if 0. La^ marckiana had been synthesized in this’ manner, why should all the mutants fail entirely to show either the small flowers with short style, characteristic of 0. biennis, or any of the many peculiarities (elsewhere enumerated) of 0. grandiflora? All the evidence I can find, from ev- ery standpoint, is opposed to such a possible origin for the mutating 0. Lamar ckiana. SUMMARY. To recapitulate briefly the history of the three species Oenothera Lam- ar ckiana Ser., 0. grandiflora Ait., and 0. biennis L., as far as it is now known, we may say that the form known to Bauhin in 1623 as Lysima- cliia lutea co^micidata {Onagra latifolia, Tournefort, 1700) was a large- flowered Oenothera, undoubtedly more like 0. Lamar ckiana than any other species, though differing in certain rosette characters from the 0. Lamar ckiana of our present cultures. This is proved by an appendix in Bauhin ’s Pinax, and the original discovery of the record was from marginal notes copied into the book by Joannis Snippendale. The important fact is thus disclosed that a form closely resembling 0. Lamarckiana was the first Oenothera introduced into Europe from Virginia about 1614, and therefore that it did not originate in cultiva- tion. While the Oenothera of this early record seems to have differed somewhat from our present 0. Lamarckiana, these differences are small compared with the important characters in which they agree, and make it necessary to include this plant in the 0. Lamarckiana series of forms. This description by Bauhin, of plants grown in 1619, is evidently the basis of Robert Morison’s description of the same plant in 1680. An in- dependent^ description in Parkinson’s Paradisus in 1629, refers to the same plant under the name Lysimachia Virginiana. Ray in 1686 in his Historia Plantarnm, repeats the Morison description with numerous 120 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE changes and additions. Under the name Lijsimachia Americana, Her- nandez in 1651 gave an independent description of plants from Vir- ginia, (0. Lamarcli-ianaf) in which the characteristic crinkling of the leaves is definitely described. These records are all of prime import- ance, and the full text of the descriptions is given in each case. The recognition of large- and small-flowered forms in published works came in 1669 by Morison. When 0. hiennis was first introduced is not determined, but Barrelier (1714) gives tliree figures, the first of which is probably 0. Lamarckiana Ser., but may ])e 0. grandiflora Ait., the second is 0. biennis L. and the third 0. niuricata L. (See plates 3 and 4). The earliest figure of an Oenothera Avas in Alpin’s Be Plantis Exoticis, 1627, Avhere an eA^ening primrose from Virginia is draAAUi, under the name Hyoscijaniiis Virginanus. (See plate 1). The seeds AA^ere obtained from an English physician. Dr. More, and the plant is very probably the same as Bauhin’s Lysimachia Intea corniculata. The races of 0. grandiflora AAdiich I have been cultivating from near Liverpool, England, have in many cases much broader leaves than the 0. grandiflora in my cultures from Alabama. It seems Yery probable that Bay’s species 11 in 1686 AAms 0. grandiflora Ait. introduced from its Eastern range in “Virginia.” This was the commonest form in the English Gardens in Kay’s time, and it is A^ery probable that the 0. grandiflora plants AAdiich were flourishing in a wild state on the English coast alioAm LBmrpool, and in Suffolk and elseAAdiere, as early as 1805 and lArobably much earlier AA^ere, like those of 0. Lamarckiana, derived from very early garden escapes. I therefore consider it proliable that 0. grandiflora in its eastern American range had, in part at least, broader leaves tliaii the Alabama form, though both types may liaA^e occurred in both regions. Some of the races from LiA^erpool also liaA’^e considerably larger floAA-ers with much longer hypanthia than our pres- ent O. Lamarckiana. From these facts it seems A^ery probable that both 0. grandiflora and 0. Tjamarckiana vcere tAvice introduced into cultiAm- tion, these forms having passed out of cultivation and become natural- ized in many localities in England and elsewhere, during the long in- terAml of about a century in the former case and nearly tAVO centuries in the latter, betAATen the first and second introductions. Linnaeus, in his Species Flantariim, cites in the synonomy, as the type of his species 0. biennis, IMorison’s figure of Lysimachia Vir- giniana latifolia, Intea, cornicidata, AAdiich is the same plant as Bauhin’s Lysimachia Intea cornicnlata, and AAdiich comes in the 0. Lamarckiana series of forms, liaAdng large floAA^ers and quadrangular buds. Linnaeus also cites the llorins Cliff ortianns in his synonomy, in Avhicli is cited IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 121 Barrelier’s figure of Lysimachia lutea corniculata latifolia hisitanica together with the figure of Morison’s already referred to. It is very probable that Barrelier’s plant was the same as Morison’s. The names used are almost identical but Barrelier cites as a synonym for his plant Tournefort’s Onagra latifolia, floribus amplis. The latter is very prob- ably our present 0. grandiflora Ait. Linnaeus in the Hort. Cliff, evi- dently concludes that Morison’s and Barrelier’s plants are the same, and segregates Onagra latiflora, floribus amplis as a subform. There- fore the type of Linnaeus’ 0. biennis was a large-flowered form in the 0. Lamar chiana series and may perhaps, have also included a form in the 0. grandiflora series, if Barrelier was correct in his synononiy. But all the figures and names of small-flowered forms were definitely ex- cluded, or rather ignored by Linnaeus. After Linnaeus’ time the small-flowered forms were included indis- criminately with the large-dowered ones under ' 0. biennis L. The large-dowered forms later came to be designated 0. biennis var. grand- iflora until after the recognition again of 0. grandiflora Ait. and 0. Lamarckiana Ser. as separate species. Since then the name 0. biennis L. has been chiedy condned to the small-dowered forms, although Lin- naeus evidently intended as the type of his species the large-dowered forms. We know now that the difference between large and small- dowered species in Oenothera is an imx^ortant one, involving various other changes in dower parts and connected with the habit of open or close pollination. Ray described two large-dowered species in 1686. One of these was probably 0. Lamarckiana and the other 0. grandiflora, from its Eastern range in Carolina and Georgia. This is described as having broader leaves and much larger dowers. In 1778 0. grandiflora Ait. was introduced into England after its dis- covery in Alabama by Bartram. It was described by Aiton, Willdenow, and by L’Heritier whose description (the most accurate) was never pub- lished, until reproduced here. Poiret described a plant in Lamarck’s Dictionnaire in 1796 under the name 0. grandiflora. This was recog- nized by Seringe to be different from the 0. grandiflora of Aiton and Willdenow, and was named by him 0. Jjamarckiana. In this way Avas segregated a form which had long been going under the name 0. biennis L. These now well-known facts have Leen brought together 1)y DeVries and MacDougal. In 1860 0. Lamarckiana Ser. Avas reintroduced into England from Texas. Seeds AA^ere distributed on the continent and this DeVries has shoAvn to be the probable source of the 0. Lamarckiana noAv groAvn in European gardens, and the source of his cultures. It is not impossible 122 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE that this 0. Larnarchiana is different from the form whose history we have tried to trace, and which we believe was originally a native of Virginia; hnt the 0. LaniarcMana now growing wild on the coast north of Liverpool, England, and wdiich must have come' from the early in- troduction (according to records which show that it has been growing abundantly there since at least 1805) is found from cultures to be very closely similar to the Texas form from which originated the plant in DeVries’ cultures. 0. grandiflora Ait. has also ]3een shown, from statements of Bailey, and my own cultures, to be growing wild in the same English locality, and intercrossing freely with 0. Lamar cMana and certain of its mutants. It seems probable that both species have been naturalized here since early in the 18th century. The fact that the small-flowered forms are self -pollinating, gives them a much better chance in the struggle for existence than the large-flow- ered oi^en-pollinating species because they have a better opportunity to set seeds. This probably accounts for the fact that the small-flowered forms are now more wide-spread and prevalent in Europe except in locations sparsely covered with vegetation, such as sand dunes, where the open-pollinated forms can aggregate in large numbers. It also probably explains the more or less complete disappearance of the large- flowered forms from eastern North America, since the introduction of civilization, for with increasing enemies the amount of seed production may fall below the minimum necessary for the preservation of the species. iMissouri Botanical Garden. • ' niST OF HISTOKICAL WORKS CONSULTED. 1623. Bauhin, Caspar. Pinax Theatri Botanici. Basil. 1627. Alpin, Prosper. De Plantis Exoticis. Venice. 1629. Parkinson, John. Paradisus Terrestris. London. 1640. Parkinson, John. Theatrum Botanicum. London. 1651. Hernandez, Francisco. Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus. Rome. 1651. Hernandez, Francisco. Nova Plantarum, Animalium et Mineralium Mexicanorum. Rome. 1651. Bauhin, John. Historia Plantarum Universalis. Vol. II. Ebroduni. 1665. Jonquet, Dionysius. Plortus Regius Parisiensis. 1669. Morison, Robert. Hortus Regius Blesensis. London. 1677. Hoffman, Flora Altdorfhna. 1680. Morison, Robert. Plantarum Historiae Universalis Oxoniensis. Oxford. 1686. Ray, John. Plistoria Plantarum. London. 1687. Hermannus,Paulus. Horti Academic! Lugduno-Batavi Catalogus. Ley- den. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 123 1693. Plumier, Charles. Description des plantes de I’Amerique. Paris. Another edition, 1713. 1700. Tournefort, Joseph Pitton. Institutiones Rei Herbariae. Vol.I. Paris. 1714. Barrelier, Jacob. Plantae per Galliam, Hispaniam et Italian! obser- vatae. Paris. 1737. Linnaeus, Carolus. Hortus Cliffortianus. Amsterdam. 1748. Linnaeus, Carolus, Hortus Upsaliensis. Stockholm. 1752. Miller, Philip, Gardener’s Dictionary. 6th Edition. London. 1753. Linnaeus, Carolus. Species Plantarum. Holmiae. 1755-60. Plumier, Charles. Plantarum Americanarum. Amsterdam. 1756. Browne, Patrick. Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. London. 1760. Miller, Philip. Figures of Plants described in the Gardener’s Dic- tionary. Other editions in 1771 and 1807. London. 1788, Jacquin, N. T, Selectarum Stirpium Americanarum Historia, Man- hemii. 1789. Aiton, William. Hortus Kewensis. Vol. II. London. 1797. Lamarck. Encyclopedic Methodique. Botanique. Vol. IV. Paris. 1799. Willdenow, C. L. Species Plantarum. Vol. II. Berlin. 1806. Smith. English Botany. Vol. XXII. 1811. Aiton, W, T. Species Plantarum. 2d Edition, Vol. II. London. 1819. Curtis. Botanical Magazine. Vol. 46. 1821. Barton, W. P. C. A flora of North America. Philadelphia. 1828. De Candolle, Pyramus. Prodromus. Vol. Ill, Paris. 1832. Don, George. A general history of the dichlamydeous plants, etc. 1833. Edwards. Botanical Register. Vol. XIX. 1837. Dietrich. Gaertnerei und Botanik. Vol. VI. 1839. Baxter. British Phanerogamous Botany. Vol. IV. 1855. DeCandolle, Alphonse. Geographic Botanique raisonnee. Paris. 1862. Dombrain, Rev. H. H. Floral Magazine. Vol. II. 1862. Lemaire. L’lllustration Horticole. Vol. IX. 1895. DeVries, Hugo. Sur I’introduction de VOenotliera Lamarckiana dans le Pays-Bas. Nederland. Kruidk. Archief. d: 579-593. 1901-3. DeVries, Hugo. Die Mutationstheorie. Leipzig. 1903. MacDougal, D. T. Mutation in Plants. Amer. Nat. 37:737-770. 1905. DeVries, Hugo. Ueber die Dauer der Mutationsperiode bei Oenothera Lamarckiana. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 23:382-387. 1905. Thompson, H. Stuart. Coast Oenotheras, Journ. Bot. Ji3:Q2. 1905. Britten, James and Woodward, B. B. L’Heritier’s Botanical Works. Journ. Bot. JJ: 266-273, 325-329. 1905. MacDougal, D. T. Assisted by A. M. Vail, G. H. Shull and J. K. Small. Mutants and hybrids of the Oenotheras. Carnegie Pub. No. 24. pp. 57. pis. 22. Washington. 190'7. Bailey, Charles. De Lamarck’s Evening Primrose on the sand-hills of St. Anne’s-on-the'-Sea, North Lancashire, Annual Address, Manchester Field Club., pp. 28, pis. 6. 1907. Bailey, Charles. Further notes on the adventitious vegetation of the sand-hills of St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea. Mem. & Proc. Manchester Lit. & Phil. Soc. 51: No. 11, pp. 16, pis. 8. 1907. MacDougal, D. T., Vail, A. M., and Shull, G. H. Mutations, variations, and relationships of the Oenotheras. Carnegie Pub. No. 81, pp. 92, pis. 22. 124 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 1909. Cannon, W. A. Studies in heredity as illustrated by the trichomes of species and hybrids of Juglans, Oenothera, Papaver and Solanum. Carnegie Institution Pub. No. 117. pp. 67, figs. 20, pis. 10. 1909. DeVries, Hugo. The Mutation Theorie. Translated by J. D. Farmer, and A. D. Darbishire, Vol. I. Chicago. 1909. Gates, R. R. An analytical key to some of the segregates of Oenothera. Twentieth Annual Report, Mo. Kotanical Garden; 123-137. 1910. Andrews, F. M. The botanical garden of the University of Amsterdam. Plant World 73:53-56. 1910. Gates, R. E. The earliest description of Oenothera Lamarckiana. Science N. s. 37:425-426. Hyofdamus Virgiaianus. Abhiac Plate I. Uyoscyamns Yirginianus. Alpin’s De FI. Exoticis, p. 324. Morison, Hist. PI. Univ. Oxon. Sect. 8. tab. 11. Fi.s?. 7. Lysiinacliia Yirginiana latifolia, Intea, corniculata, nobis. Fis. 8. Ljjsi)n((c]i.ia Virgwiana , aiujnstifoUa, cornicnUita, nobis. Pl.ATE IT. Plate III. Barrelier, Plantae per GaUiain, Hisp. et Italiane ohservatoe. Fisr. 989. O. biennis. Fis'. 990. O. muricata. »1, c V Plate IV. Lysimachia A mericana. Hermandez, Nova. Plant. Anium. et Miner. Mex., p. 882. O. Lamar ckianaf Fiij. 1232. Borrelier, Plantae per Galliam, Hisp. et Italiam ohservatoe. <^5/. /£w4: — • }l . &|,4L ^ ^ , /■'^^<-«-> w«i««.~-. f ^ / La.’;, (.yy %A, -' , . , p(4,A}h'i^uLi.r^ ^ /«^s{- « ^ S s')f£j>^ £ ^&f7l 0 ^«^>>.^;^'^*''-/^ ''^*'\ , '■r^ " ■'' '^' A/-i^ j:^m4£.yusm, ^ /0l,^.y ^ y^ff^i. A’m» ^*" .3.. ' ' 'V//, /? /riL,, urhjtrutitk ■^ , ■ . ■ . . y\ -,»^™.*.v— ^ --7/- ^ ^ - ,. ''’ •X).-'»«*C# y i' />A--r ^ ^S/£fu4.iaJ iZ-&^,4i.*J'j ^ Ly.A , L * yA . z'? . ' - . , . . . ' ■ A'i y ■ ■ , V t44^A4^«tA7*y yjiAJf X .y r/ y-^«i4^ Plate V. L’Heritier MS. description of O. (jrandifiora Aiton. (PubJished through the courtesy of M. Casimir DeCandolle.) r Plate VI. %• Oenothera biennis. Sowerby’s English Botany, Vol. 22, pi. 1534. 1806, THE DIGESTIBILITY OP BLEACHED FLOIIR. BY ELBERT W. ROCKWOOD. For several years the effects of the bleaching process upon the prop- erties of wheat Hour have been under discussion. The extent to which tionr is used as a food material demands that in justice towards the consumers through tests should be made to determine whether the process is deleterious or not. In this paper no consideration will be given to any aspect of the case except that of digestibility. AUhough at times a number of means have been employed to remove the natural yellow coloring matter from flour, and although several oxidizing agents will accomplish this result, at the present time the agent used in the great majority of mills is nitrogen peroxid. This may be generated from nitric acid but is usually produced by imssing a current of air through an electric arc, when the nitrogen is oxidized by the oxygen to nitrogen peroxid. The flour is passed through a mixture of this gas with a large excess of air, being agitated meam^diile. The yellow color is immediately destroyed. AYhen nitrogen peroxid comes in contact with water a mixture of nitrous and nitric acids is formed. In the bleached flour there remains a sul)stance which gives the reactions of a nitrite ; what its composition is has not been ascertained. The amount of such nitrite reacting sub- stance in commercially bleached flour varies ordinarily from less than one part to five or six parts of nitrogen in one million parts of flour. Food Commissioner Ladd of North Dakota has reported^ that poisonous materials are introduced in the bread in the bleaching process, naming particularly the nitrites. In conjunction with Bassett he has published"^ the results of digestion tests on bread where the bleached flour bread seemed to be more difficult of digestion than that made from unbleached flour. ShepaixT tested the action of nitrous acid on the digestive enzymes and found that while small amount did not interfere with their action U^add and Stallings, Bulletin 72. Experiment Station of North Dakota. November, 1906. Xadd and Bassett. Journal of Biological Chemistry, March, 1909. '^Shepard. Food Law Bulletin, III, 153. August 12, 1908. 126 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE larger ones did so. He did not try the digestibility of the bleached fionr alone, however. An application for an injunction to prevent the prohibi- tion of the sale of bleached fionr in North Dakota was denied, not because there was proof that the fionr was injurious to consumers but because the statute forbidding the addition of any antiseptic materials If to food-stuffs was broad enough to include the nitrite reacting material formed in the flour during the bleaching. After a hearing in AA^ashing- ton. Secretary of Agriculture AA^ilson has decided that bleached flour cannot be an article of interstate commerce. Recently Halliburtoid has reported a lessened digestibility of fionr products due to the bleaching agent. On the other hand, Alway" and Snyder" found that in the bread-rais- ing and baking process practically all the nitrite reacting substance disappeared from the bread if yeast is used. AVesener and Teller" showed that in their experiments there was no difference in the digestibility of the bread from bleached and unbleached flour, a conclusion at which Snyder also arrived. , • In the experiments reported below tests have been made on the diges- tion of the starch of the cooked flour by the ptyalin, of the peptic diges- tion of moist gluten and of bread, and of the digestion of the starch of cooked flour and of uncooked dry gluten by the pancreatic ferments. In all cases the flours used were from the same mill, one being bleached and the other being unbleached. The same amount of flour and digestive solutions were used for each test, the two samples being treated side by side under the same conditions. SALIVARY DIGESTION. AA^hile in parallel tests the amount of flour was the same in the bleached and unbleached sample, in different series the amount was varied, but was generally from two to four grams of flour, boiled with water and diluted to a liter. A measured volume of saliva was added with a few drops of a solution of iodin in potassium iodid and the two samples were kept in a constant temperature water bath at 38 degrees. The progress of the digestion was judged by the change of color from a deep blue through a violet and reddish to a colorless — what Halliburton calls the achromic point. Table .1 gives some of the typical results. '‘Halliburton, Journal of Hygiene, September, 1909. ‘^^Alway, Bulletin of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Nebraska, Vol. XX, Article HI, October, 1907. Anyder, Bulletin JII. Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Minne- sota. August, 1908. WVesener and Teller. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, I 700. October, 1909. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCIC \Zi TABLE I. SALIVARY DIGESTION. TIME OF BEACHING ACHROMIC POINT. Test. Bleached. Unbleached. I 3% min. 3M min. II 3% min. 31/; min. III 23 min. 24 min. IV 7 min. min. V Same for both. VI Same for both. VII] Achromic point reached at same VIII i- time; speed of digestion same IX J as shown by shade of color. AAGiile there was slight variation in individual cases it was not always in the same direction and the conclusion reached is that there is no difference in the digestibility of the flour. PEPSIN DIGESTION. A. Of Moist Gluten. The gluten was separated from the flour by the usual method — thorough moistening, then washing out the starch under a water-tap until the wash water was not milky. While most of the starch was removed in this manner some remained, as shown by the iodin test, after long washing. The water was removed as far as possible by pressure in a towel, the moist gluten immediately weighed out in equal quantities, the lumps rolled up into the same shape and put into flasks containing pepsin in 0.2 per cent hydrochloric acid. The flasks were kept in \vater at 38 degrees, being shaken occasionally and at equal intervals. The degree of digestibility was determined by finding the amount of nitrogen in the solution and in the residual gluten. Table II gives the results of three tests on the same gluten. TABLE II. PEPSIN DIGESTION OP MOIST GLUTEN. 1% liours 2U> hours 314 hours '] Soluble . y Insoluble j Total ] Soluble . Insoluble j Total ] Soluble . y Insoluble J Bleached. Unbleached. 0'.0494 grm. 0.0469 grm. ,0.2258 grin . 0.2181 grm. ,0.2752 grm. 0 2650 grm. 0.0709 grm. 0.0737 grm. ,0.2032 grm. 0.1972 grm. 0.2741 grm. 0.2709 grm. 0.0995 grm. 0.0916 grm. 0.1776 grm. 0.1836 grm. 0.2771 grm. 0.2752 grm. Total 128 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE ,The limit of accuracy is indicated by the discrepancies between the total amounts of nitrogen which should, of course, have been the same, in- asmuch as the samples of gluten were prepared at the same time. These differences Avere undoubtedly due to variation of AA^ater in the different portions. They are not great and not all in the same direction. There is no indication, then that the gluten digests at a different rate if bleached or unbleached. B. Of Bread. The bread made under domestic conditions, AAms raised AAoth yeast and baked in a kitchen range, dried, finely puh^erized, to produce as far as possible the same surface of the particles, and digested AAuth pepsin-hydrochloric acid under the same conditions as the moist gluten. The degree of digestibility aa^s determined by the proportion of nitrogen AAdiich AA^ent into solution. Table III sIioaaas results. TABLE III PEPSIN DIGESTION OF BREAD. rj-:u CE.XT OF original nitrogen digested. Test Bleached Unbleached I 60.8 57.2 II 69.5 69.8 III 82.9 86.6 AVhile there is not absolute agreement nothing indicates that the lirotein of the bleached flour is less digestible than that from the un- bleached. PANCREATIC DIGESTION. A. Starch Digstion. This Avas carried on as AAuth the salwary ferment, Alerck’s pancreatin being substituted for the saliAuiry ferment. B. Gluten Digestion. The gluten Avas extracted from flour as before described and thoroughly dried at 100 degrees, then finely ground AAuth a coffee grinder. Digestion AA^as carried on at 38 degrees, the soluble nitrogen being used to indicate the amount digested. Table TV shoAvs results. TABLE IV. PANCREATIC DIGESTION OP STARCH. time of reaching achromic stage. Flour Contains 2.68 Parts Nitrite N per Million. Test. Bleached, Unbleached. I 4 min. 3^2 niin. II 35V> min. 37 min. III V 35 min. 33 min. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 129 PANCREATIC DIGESTION OF DRY GLUTEN. Percentage of Original Nitrogen which was Digested. Test. Bleached. Unbleached. I 75.0 73.1 II 63.4 67.9 X Here, again, the bleaching does not seem to affect the power of the digestive ferment. To sum up the results — no indication has been found that when carried on under the same conditions, the power of the digestive enzymes is affected in any way by changes in wheat flour due to the nitrogen peroxid bleaching process. Unless the conditions are carefully kept the same the results of digestive tests may differ widely. . 9 THE EFFECT OF CONTINUED GRINDING ON WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION. BY NICHOLAS KNIGHT. Mauzelius (Sveriges Geol. Under soekning Arsbok 1 1907) ; Day and Allen (Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, 305, p. 35), Hillebrand (Journ. Am. Cliem. Soc. xxx 7) and Knigbt (Chem. News xcvii 122) have shown the effect of fine grinding on the water and ferrous content of minerals and rocks. In this paper we are able to show the effect of continued grind- ing on some hydrates. . The water was determined in each specimen after grinding it a half hour, an hour, an hour and a half, and two hours The two hours’ grinding seemed to give the maximum results. The grinding was done by hand in an ordinary Wedgewood mortar. In each .determination, exactly one gram of the substance was weighed into a porcelain crucible and the water was removed by heating to constant weight with a Tirrell burner. For purposes of comparison, the water was first determined in the unground specimens. All the conditions were maintained as nearly uniform as possible. 1. Magnesium Sulphate — Water (per cent) The unground crystals 51.85 After two hours’ grinding 49.30 Removed by grinding . .• 2.55 2. Sodium phosphate — Water (per cent) The unground crystals 58.61 After two hours’ grinding 56.76 Removed by grinding 1.85 3. Potassium Alum — • ^ Water (per cent) The unground crystals 45.47 After two hours’ grinding 44.98 Removed by grinding 0.49 The unground specimens swelled to such an extent that great care was necessary in the heating to prevent the alum from creeping over the walls of the crucible. After grinding to a fine powder there was no such difficulty, as the substance fused to a hard ball in the bottom of the crucible. 132 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 4. Barium Chloride — Water (per cent) After grinding two hours 17.06 The unground crystals 14.95 The grinding increased the amount of water 2.11 This result was unlooked for but repeated trials showed the^^-same increase. While at first the substance seemed dry, by continued grinding it became moist and sticky. 5. Copper Sulphate — Water (per cent) The unground crystals 35.88 After two hours’ grinding 34.95 Removed by grinding 0.93 The substance changed from a bright blue to almost white in the grinding process. In both cases heat was applied very carefully to prevent the decomposition of the copper sulphate. 6. Ammonium Alum — Water (per cent) The unground crystals ' 47.29 After two hours’ grinding 46.96 Removed by grinding 0.33 The substance was difficult to grind toward the end of the operation as it would harden to the mortar from which it was difficult to be removed. This was most easily effected with a platinum spatula.* 7. Sodium Alum — Water (per cent) The unground crystals 37.89 After two hours’ grinding 23.84 Removed by grinding 14.05 The result was surprising, but three trials showed the same large dif- ference. 8. Iron Alum — (Water (per cent) The unground crystals 41.24 After two hours’ grinding ’. 29.84 Removed by grinding 11.40 The substance became so firmly attached to the mortar that it could be removed only with a platinum spatula. 9. Iron Sulphate — Water (per cent) Unground crystals 38.64 After two hours’ grinding 24.63 Removed by grinding 14.01 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 133 / /' The substance was difficult to grind on account of adhering so* tena- ciously to the mortar. We therefore substituted a large agate mortar and pestle that seemed unusually hard and well polished, not having been used before. This rendered the grinding of each substance much more satisfactory. 10. Calcium Sulphate, transparent selenite — The unground crystals 20.90 After two hours’ grinding 17.66 Removed hy grinding 3.24 11. Sodium Thiosulphate — Unground crystals ...36.19 After two hours’ grinding 24.43 Removed hy grinding 11.76 12. Barium Chloride — We decided to repeat the experiment (4) on account of the unexpected result. The unground crystals 14.76 After two hours’ grinding * 14.85 The grinding increases the amount of water 09 A number of trials gave the same result. The crystals become moist and sticky by continual grinding. • 13. Borax — ■ Unground crystals 41.62 After two hours’ grinding 31;08 Removed hy grinding 10.54 14. Strontium Chloride — t Unground crystals 35.66 After two hours’ grinding 23.22 Removed hy grinding 12.44 Thanks are due Miss Florence Klaus and I. B. Bleeker for all the determinations described in this paper. A STUDY IN THE DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM. BY GEORGE HEISE. In this series of experiments it has been attempted to simplify the gravimetric determination of calcium, to make it a more satisfactory and convenient laboratory method. The precipitation of calcium as the oxalate and its subsequent con- version by heating to the oxuie is a method which presents some diffi- culties, especially to the inexperienced student. To entirely convert all the calcium to the oxide is a long and tedious process- at best, besides, especially when porcelain crucibles are used, it is almost impossible to heat the oxide down to constant weight. It occurred to us that it might be feasible to precipitate calcium as the oxalate in the usual manner, to filter it through a Gooch crucible, to weigh it directly as the oxalate, or to change the oxalate to the car- bonate by careful heating, and to weigh as the carbonate. A careful search through the literature revealed only one article^ in which the conversion of the oxalate into the carbonate by heating is recommended as a method for the gravimetric determination of calcium (Strentium, Barium). The heating was done in a capped Gooch crucible over a free Bunsen flame. No precautions or special directions were given and the results, though fairly accurate, were low in each case, showing the partial decomposition of the carbonate into the oxide. It shall be my endeavor to shoAV hoAV calcium may be determined directly as the oxalate in a Gooch crucible and hoAV the oxalate may be converted into the carbonate by heating Avithout danger of loss by de- composition. A carefully weighed amount of the purest obtainable calcite was introduced into a graduated litre flask, covered Avith dilute HCL and allowed to decompose. The^ flask Avas then filled to the mark with' water. The solution, Avffiich Avas perfectly clear and free from residue, was kept in a glass-stoppeed bottle and convenient quantities for analysis Avere AvithdraAAm as needed by means of a* graduated pipette. *Estimation of Calcium, Strontium and Barium as the Oxalates (Avith KMNO). Am. Jour. Sci. Series 4-1. (1901) 216. 136 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The precipitation of calcium was performed in accordance with the method described by T. W, Richards.*' Oxalic acid was added to the hot, acid solution of calcium chloride, the solution was then made just alkaline By the slow addition of ammonia, methyl orange being used as an indicator, finally excess of ammonium oxalate was added and the precipitate was allowed to stand about four hours. Ordinary glazed porcelain Gooch crucibles with porcelain plates and asbestos mats were used for filtration. Calcium oxalate filters” somewhat slowly but the filtrate comes through perfectly clear. The precipitates were washed with a dilute solution of ammonium oxalate, finally with a little water. Calcium oxalate precipitates with either one or three molecules of water of crystallization, and gives up this water at 205 degrees centigrade. Heating the oxalate for from thirty to forty-five minutes in a drying oven at a temperature of 225-250 degrees was found sufficient to dehydrate it completely. It behaves very much like the oxide, taking up moisture from the air very readily. It is necessary to heat, weigh, reheat for ten minutes, dessicate a second time and reweigh rapidly to get the correct weight. It is generally possible to get within one or two milli- grams of the correct weight at the first trial. ,The results obtained show that it is practicable to determine calcium quickly and accurately as the oxalate. In heating, I found that the oxalate would not decompose though it \vas heated for an hour at 340 degrees. As will he seen from the first table (below), the results are well within the limits of experimental error. However, to confirm the results obtained or to find the error, if any, it was thought wise to weigh also as carbonate, if some surer method of converting the oxalate could be devised. De- terminations 1 and 2 were heated over a low Bunsen flame without any special precautions, dessicated and weighed. In subsequent determina- tions, the crucibles were heated high over a moderately large Bunsen flame to incipient redness and fairly accurate resutls were obtained. A table showing the results of the first series of determinations follows : *Ztschr. filer Aiiorg. Chemie, 28-170-(1901) . IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 137 TABLE I. DETERMINATIONS IN PORCELAIN GOOCH CRUCIBLES. Number Weight of Oxalate Calcu- lated Weight Error Weight of Car- ^ honate Calcu- lated Weight Error 1 _ 0.4870 g 0.4867 g + .0003 g 0.3850 g 0.3802 g + .0048 g 2___' .4870 g .4867 g + .0003 g .3830 g .3802 g + .0028 g 3 .4875 g .4867 g + .0008 g .3818 g .3802 g + .0016 g 4 .4870 g .4867 g + .0003 g .3816 g .3802 g + .0014 g 5 1 _ .1942 g .1947 g —.0005 g .1510 g .15209 g —.0011 g .1947 g .1526 g .15209 g + .0005 g Note. — Calculations are based on weight of calcite. The first preliminary determinations having succeeded so well, the second series was begun, this time in a platinum Gooch, to make pos-' sible the weighing of calcium not only as the oxalate and carbonate, buc also as the oxide. Thus a double check on the accuracy of the work could be secured. In this series it. was likewise attempted to devise a clean-cut and efficient method of converting the oxalate into the car- bonate, without necessitating the weighing as oxide to check results. Most teachers would hesitate to advocate weighing of calcium as the carbonate unless more certain and specific directions for the conversion of the oxalate could be laid down. The oxalate was precipitated in the usual manner and weighed in a covered Platinum Gooch crucible. For the conversion to the carbonate the following scheme was devised : The Gooch crucible was placed on a thin piece of asbestos in a large iron crucible. The iron crucible was then covered with a porcelain cover and heated to the highest possible temperature over a full Bunsen flame. The results obtained were as accurate as could be wished for. Heating by this method for 20-30 minutes brought the carbonate down to constant weight and eliminated all danger of decomposition by superheating. As an added check the carbonate was converted to the oxide in a blast lamp, using a capped platinum Gooch, yielding results concordant with the calculated value in each case. The second series follows: 138 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE TABLE II. DETERMINATIONS IN PLATINUM GOOCH. Number Weight of Oxalate Calcu- lated Weight Error Weight of Car- bonate "Weight of Oxide Calcu- lated Weight Error 8 0.3912 g 0.3911 g + .0001 g 0.3056 g 0.1710 g 0.1711 g —.0001 g 9 - _ 0.3945 g .3938 g + .0007 g .3076 g .1722 g .1722 g .0000 _ .3916 g .3913 g + .0003 g .3058 g .1716 g .1713 g + .0003 11 .8666 g .8666 g .0000 g .6770 g .3794 g .3791 g + .0003 12 .8820 g .8819 g + .0001 g .6890 g .3858 g .3858 g .0000 Note. — Calculated weights based on weights of carbonates. The results of these experiments may be briefly summarized as follows : Calcium can be determined and accurately weighed as the oxalate. It can be very conveniently converted into the carbonate and weighed as such. The determinations can be carried out in porcelain crucibles without appreciable error. Either of the above mentioned methods is fully as accurate as the determination of calcium as the oxide and is much more convenient and rapid. Of the two methods^ the determination as carbonate is somewhat su- perior to the determination as oxalate, because of the hydroscopic nature of the latter substance. I wish at this time to express my thanks to Professor W. S. Hendrix- son for his suggestions and help in the working up of this series of experiments. POINTS REGARDING THE CASING OF WELL (4) AT GRINNTLL BY W. S. HENDRIXSON. In the second paper on ‘Howa Ground Waters” read before the Iowa Academy of Science at the annual meeting of 1909, the writer, in con- nection with the subject of the corrosion of well casings called attention to the fact that the city of Grinnell had contracted for a casing of cast iron for well number (4) which was then being drilled. It was sug- gested that a report would be made on the praticability of this enterprise at a later meeting. The casing of well number (4) was placed and the well was first pumped about January 20, 1910. So far as I have been able to learn through the Geological Survey, or indirectly from the drillers, the makers of the tubing or from the literature, the successful lowering of a well casing of such great length is new, at least in the Mississippi valley, and it seems desirable to prepare a statement of the facts concerning the undertaking for record in the proceedings of the Academy of Science. It may be said, however, that casing of cast iron have been placed in much shallower wells, 200 to 300 feet, in Minnesota. To make clear the reasons for this departure 'from the usual custom of casing wells with iron or soft steel tubing a few facts in the experience with deep wells in this town may be stated. The first deep well at Grinnell, depth 2,003 feet, was completed in August, 1893. The well was not very satisfactorily bored or cased. The hole was not straight, and owing to an accident there was a break in the casing from rock, 208 to 408 feet, permitting the entrance of the very hard water at the base of the drift. It is not probable that with ordinary pumping the well supplied much water from the deep lying sand-stones, the St. Peter and the New 'Richmond. In fact the results of the analysis of the water were almost identical with those obtained from the waters of wells in the neighborhood having depths of 250 to 450 feet. In a few years the demands of the growing town exceeded the water supply obtainable from the well. This fact together with the danger of having the supply cut off entirely by a breakdown of the machinery, caused the city to put down well number (2). It was cased continuously to about $40 feet. 140 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Not long after the completion of well (2) an examination of well (1) showed that it had been filled to a distance of 800 feet from the bottom by caving shale. Attempts to clear the bore of this material proved nnavailing. What was left of the casing conld not be drawn or cnt out. Small sections of it were obtained and were found to be thin and full of holes. The well was abandoned and a new one begun in 1905. Soon after the completion of well (3) the capacity of number (2) became rather suddenly much reduced, and an examination showed the same difficulty as in number (1) ; that is, the caving of shale. The well was cleared to about 1,600 feet, where seemingly insuperable difficulties were encountered and the well was also abandoned. It was now evident that to continue to drill and abandon wells at this rate would prove a very serious tax on the resources of the city, and that some radical changes should be made in the casing of such wells. The casing should evidently extend below the shale that had caused trouble by caving, and the desirability of securing more durable casings became evident. So far as known to me the idea of a cast iron casing originated with Mr. Henry Simmon, at that time the city engineer. He talked with the writer from time to time, and as the idea finally developed, it was to sink a casing to just above the St. Peter sand-stone, 1,700; and to fill the space between the tube and the walls of the well with cement. Of course, his opinion gained from much practical experience, was that cast iron tubing of good quality would outlast iron tubing several times. This, in fact, seems to be the common experience, but one who under- takes to find proof of the great durability of cast iron over wrought iron, as deduced from scientific experimentation, will find difficulty. The lit- trature is full of comparative tests of the relative durability of wrought iron and steal, when exposed to water or the soil. This is probably owing to the great practical importance of the matter in relation to boiler construction. There seems to be very little on the comparative corrosion of wrought iron and cast iron. -The data, such as we have, are somewhat confiicting, but on the whole indicate that cast iron will outlast wrought iron two to four times. Cast iron seems to have excep- tional ability to hold a pitch enamel, which may extend its durability far beyond the above figures. ■ . The original intention was to case well (4) with cast iron tubing to 1700 feet and the contract with the J. P. Miller Artesian Well Company of Chicago was so drawn. But, great difficulties were encountered when the attempt was made to ream out the lower part of the drilling. Shale caved from above, tools were fastened and some of them were broken away. For several months work was discontinued and there was some talk IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 141 of abandoning the well. Finally an agreement was reached to clear the well to the bottom and place the foot of the casing at 1460 feet. The work of putting down the casing progressed rapidly and without diffi- culty, proving the practicability of sinking casings of such dimensions. Three short sections were lowered, and the final 600 feet were put down in one piece. The sections of tubing as they were received were screwed together with wrought iron couplings, so threaded that the cast iron sections came into contact. The long sections as they were lowered into the well, were connected by ground joints. The length of the casing has been given. Certain other facts that may be of interest are as follows: The diameter of the casing is 5% inches, and the weight 31 pounds* to the foot. The tubing was sup- plied as a special order by the United States Cast Iron Pipe and Foundry Company, 71 Broadway, New York, at a cost of $1,040, which is very little more than the cost of wrought iron tubing. It is to be regretted that the original contract could not be adhered to. A casing to the St. Peter sand-stone would have prevented possible caving of shale. From both the scientific and practical standpoints it would have been of much interest to know the quality of water drawn from the St. Peter and New Richmond sand-stones only, and to have known the capacity of those formations to supply water in this part of the state. The well has apparently shown no signs of exhaustion in the course of the ordinary pumping of the last few months. An analysis of the water shows that its mineral content is about the same as that of the water from well number (2) when in the best of con- dition ; that is, -about 900 parts per million. The best water analyzed from well number (3) contained about 1,100 parts per million. There is a tradition handed down from the date of drilling the first well that there is a flow of very highly mineralized water at about 1,550. If so, the water from well (4) would be contaminated by this hard water Mr. L. Nichols, in charge of the construction of well (4), discredits the existence of this flow. It is his opinion, rather, that there are small flows of water from point to point in the thick layers of limestone above the St. Peter, but that the whole is comparatively insignificant. If this opinion be correct it seems probable that the quality of the water now supplied by the well may not be very different from that of the com- bined waters of the St. Peter and New Richmond sand-stones at this point. 7'""'^ STUDIES IN THE SOLUBILITY OF PORTLAND CEMENT CON- TINUED FROM 1908. BY G. G. WHEAT. In the year 1908 we presented a brief paper before the Academy of Science, calling attention to certain uses of portland cement concrete for farm drainage and city sewer purposes and in that connection raised the question of the fitness of the material for the use made of it. The importance of the question has greatly increased, as the spirit of im- provement and progress is running like wildfire over our state. Approximately $300,000,000 will be spent in reclaiming wet lands of the Wisconsin Drift region of Iowa. Of this perhaps $30,000,000 will 'be open drainage ditches, the remaining $270,000,000 being the cost of drain tile and the cost of laying. Perhaps as much more will be spent in the remaining sixty-nine counties. The rapid advance of our cities and villages in sewerage sys- tems will call for an expenditure of fully one-tenth as much in sewer systems, the grand total being not less than between six and seven hun- dred millions."^ - When compared with the cost of the Panama Canal, quite accurately estimated at from three hundred seventy-five to four hundred millions, its importance becomes more manifest. In view of the fact that all con- struction is underground and most of it impossible to inspect, the ne- cessity of perfect materials is obvious. Since the crops upon the millions of acres to be drained will depend upon the free circulation of ground waters through the tile systems, the importance of the nature of the materials, as related to our future food supply, asserts itself, and per- haps more important than all, the health of our citizens in our villages and cities depends upon pure water for the household and a perfect elimination of all excretia from the city and from its soil. In this last collection the recent reports from the city of LeiMars are>: of interest. Sewage contamination of the city water led to the examin- ation of the sewer system. A break in the sewer manhole connections; *Note. — These calculations are based upon the actual amount expended to date in thirty counties, the actual acreage cost and the acres remaining yet to . be done. These records were personally taken from the county records by the writer. 144 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE was repaired and it was expected that the trouble would cease. Later the writer visited the city, inspected a number of manholes and found that 'considerable of the cement mortar in the bottom of manholes is in various stages of decay, some crumbles readily and is easily removed. This con- dition should it prevail in the mortar joints of pipe lines, offers an out- let in the ground water in the gravel beds which supply the city water. The matter has gone into the courts, meanwhile the people’s health is at the mercy of escaping sewage and poisoned household water. A continuation of the studies suggested two years ago called for a definite inquiry as to the exact power of pure distilled water to act upon the substance of portland cement. Mr. Orin L. G. Kipp, now assistant professor at Ames, carried out tests in the school year of 1908-9. Samples were taken from a number of twelve-inch concrete pipe. These were chosen to study two conditions of pipe. Some of these pipe rang clear and strong under the testing hammer and when submitted to the crushing test carried a load of far more than the required strength. The broken section showed dense, close .concrete with plenty of cement. These pipe carried a load equal to 77 % of first class vitrified pipe tested on the same machine and the same method of contact. These samples were chosen as being representative of the better quality of concrete now Ibeing manufactured in the state of Iowa. In preparing a sample for testing, a piece about an inch square was broken off and all the loose pebbles or sand brushed from it. The sample was then heated in an oven at about one hundred degrees C. until constant weight was obtained. After weighing the sample, it was placed in a Gooch crucible which was lined with a filter cup, and this was suspended at the lower end of the inverted condens'er projecting into a Sohxlet ex- tractor. The bowl of this extractor was filled about two-thirds full of distilled water, and the flame lighted below it. As this method of producing a flow of water over the concrete might be subject to criticism on acount of the fact that the water flowing over the concrete was hot, a piece of special apparatus was constructed which allowed the water to flow over the concrete at normal temperature. /This special apparatus is shown in the flgure below, a slight study of which will make its working clear. The steam passes from the bowl of the tube to the right and into the condenser from which the cold water flows over the piece of concrete, ‘‘A,” and then flows back to the bowl at intervals as the receptacle below fills and syphons over. In order that a fair comparison of the action of cold and hot water might be obtained, two samples as nearly alike as possible were taken from the same piece of concrete, and after being prepared in the usual IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 145 manner, one was placed in the special apparatus and the other in the ordinary extractor. The per cents dissolved under the two conditions I will dwell upon later. After an extractor had run for a period, the length of which was gen- erally chosen at 120 hours, the howl and its contents were replaced by another bowl containing a fresh supply of distilled water. The dissolv- ing process was then continued for another period. As soon as a bowl was removed the analysis of its contents was begun. The bowl was placed in a sand bath and the water evaporated to dry- ness. It was then heated in an oven and cooled in a bell jar. Even where this method was followed, some difficulty was experienced in ob- taining the exact weight, as the contents of the bowl gathered moisture as soon as exposed to the air. After weighing, the bowl was filled with dilute HCl and kept on a sand bath for about three days or until the deposit which adhered to the glass could be rubbed loose with a “Police- man.” By this process the greater portion of the contents could be re- moved to an evaporating dish and evaporated to dryness. It generally happened, however, that upon drying, the bowl still showed a white film adhering in spots. To recover this, the bowl was filled with Am- monium Hydrate and again placed in the sand bath for a time. This second amount was likewise evaporated to dryness, then made slightly acid with HCl and added to the first. The bowl was weighed after being dried in an oven and cooled in a bell jar. The total amount re- moved was then treated to a regular dolomite analysis. The results of these analyses, together with the per cent that was dis- solved out each time, the total per cent dissolved from the piece, the length of the individual running and the total time run are all given in tables I, II, III and IV. Tables I and II are especially interesting since in them are summar- ized the results obtained in running the two samples of the same piece of concrete at different temperatures. From the results obtained it ap- pears that the cement is fully as soluble in the cold water as in the hot. We may, therefore, conclude that results obtained when the water was hot are as fair as though the water had been cold in every case. We pur- posely chose Sample No. 1 for this comparative test because it seemed to be much the best of any of our samples. 'That it was the best of any we ran is shown by results obtained from Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5. All of these latter samples were either partially or wholly disintegregated at the end of the last running, yet, while No. 1 was run in both hot and 10 14G IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cold water much longer than any of these^ in neither case had it wholly disintegregated, though it was much reduced in size. In order to ascertain the exact nature of those quantities given in the foregoing tables under the head ''Insoluble,” a number of these pre- cipitates were fused in a platinum crucible with Na-CO^. The results of the analyses which were made follovdng the fusion are showm in Table V. These analyses showed a very large per cent as still insoluble. To assure myself fully that this part was SiO^, I placed several of these l^reeipitates in platinum crucibles and moistened with sulphuric acid and then hydrofluoric acid was added and the whole volatilized. This process left only a slight discoloration on the platinum. Suspecting that this was largely iron, I tested it with pota'ssium ferro-cyanide and obtained the blue color which this gives with iron. The per cent given as SiO', while it is practically all this, really includes, therefore, a small trace of iron. TABLE I (Normal). NO. 1: TEMPERATURE OF WATER, 98° C. First 1 Running Second Running Thn-d Running Fourth Running Fifth Running Weight of piece 7.1120 6,3376 5.8701 5.5690 5.1410 Insoluble .2428 .2086 .1795 .1857 .1880 ALOg and Fe-Og .0617 .0427 .1040 .0353 .0224 Ca CO3 .4655 .2148 .0044 .2014 .1412 MgCOg .0044 .0014 .0132 .0056 .0059 Per cent dissolved 10.89 7.38 5.13 7.69 6.95 Total per cent dissolved., 10.89 17.46 21.69 27.71 32.74 Time run 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. Total time 120 hrs. 240 hrs. 360 hrs. 480 hrs. 600 hrs. TABLE II (Normal). NO. 1: TEMPERATURE OP WATER, 17° C. First Running Second Running Third Running Fourth Running Fifth Running Weight of piece | 6.8130 6,2704 5.7063 5.2784 4.8122 Insoluble - -.3555 .3960 .3040 .3335 .3460 AI2O3 and PeoOg .0406 .0203 .0435 .0260 .0182 Ca CO3 .1416 .1446 .0787 ■ .1038 .1184 MgCOg .0048- .0032 .0017 .0029 .0034 Per cent dissolved .1 7.96 8.99 7.50 8.83 10.10 Total per cent dissolved . . 7.96 16.24 22.52 29.37 36.50 Time run 120 lu*s. 1 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. Total time i 120 hrs. 1 240 hrs. 360 hrs. 480 hrs. 600 hrs. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 147 TABLE III. TEMPERATURE OP WATER 98°C.. IN EACH CASE. Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3 First Runni’g Second Runni’g Third Ruiini’g First Runni’g Second Runni’g Third Runni’g Weight of piece 9.0395 7.9221 7.2923 10.1065 9.1416 8.2156 Insoluble .2690 .2817 .1530 .2628 .3430 .3016 Al.,03 and Pe.,03 .0373 .0493 .0941 .0483 .0695 .2138 Ca CO3 .7946 .2934 .0500 .6479 .5110 .0125 Mg C O3 , .0165 .0054 .0064 .0049 .0025 .0212 Per cent dissolved 12.36 7.95 4.13 9.54 10.13 6.68 Total per cent dissolved... 12.36 19.33 22.68 9.54 18.70 24.13 Time run 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. 120 hrs. Total time 120 hrs. 240 hrs. 360 hrs. 120 hrs. 240 hrs. 360 hrs. TABLE IV. TEMPERATURE OF WATER, 98° C., IN EACH CASE. Weight of piece Insoluble AI0O3 and FeoOa Ca CO3 Mg C O3 Per cent dissolved Total per cent dissolved... Time run Total time Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 First Second Third First Second Third j Runni’g Runni’g Runni’g Runni’g Runni ’g Runni ’g 10.3076 8.4970 7.9158 10.4800 8.6093 .6104 .2000 .2510 .6004 .1845 .0328 .0315 .0405 .0292 .0366 1.1121 .3446 .4610 1.1809 .2777 .0553 • .0051 .0059 .0656 .0023 17.56 6.84 9.58 17.90 4.78 17.56 23.20 30.56 |17.90 22.68 96 hrs. 96 hrs. 96 hrs. 96 hrs. 96 hrs. 192 hrs. 288 hrs. 96 hrs. 192 hrs. The power of the water at 17‘’C. was appreciably greater than at 98®C. The reason for this, as assigned by Dr. W. R. Whitney, Presi- dent of the American Chemical Society, is that the water at 17°C con- tained a larger amount of C 0\ dissolved out of the air. We stated, two years ago, that all the results entered into mineralogical literature showed a definite power for C 0" waters and other acid waters of the soil to act upon all minerals containing calcium, to remove the calcium in solution. Observe the following: (Clarke, Data of Geochemistry, Bulletin 330, U. S. Geological Sur- vey, p. 165.) ^‘Meteoric waters carrying free carbonic acid are probably the most powerful of agents in the solution of rocks, although their 148 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE chemical activity is neither violent nor rapid. Being continually re- plenished from the storehouses of the atmosphere, their work goes on unceasngly over a large porton of our globe. The calcium which thej^ extract from rocks is carried by rivers to the sea and is finally depos- ited in the form of limestones. "" Alkaline waters, espec- ially thermal waters of the sodium carbonate class, are also active sol- vents of mineral substances. Their tendency, however, is opposite to that of the* acid Avaters, for they dissolve silica rather than bases and act as precipitants for magnesia and lime.” The Portland cement, being calcium silicate and calcium aluminate^ is acted upon readily by the carbonate or other acid waters to dissolve out the calcium, and is also acted upon by the alkaline Avaters, aa^McIi replace the calcium and combine AAuth the silica. In either case the in- tegrity of the original silicate has been destroyed and it is no longer a bonding material to hold sand and gravel combined in an artificial stone. Van Ilise’ Treatise on Metamorphism, U. S. Geological Survey, gives the factors affecting the alteration of rocks. ‘‘Porosity is favorable to rapid change ; to contain minerals Avhich are soluble is favorable ; to contain water or gas is favorable for rapid alteration.” The concrete tile and seAA^er pipe noAV manufactured are invariably highly porous. Their mineral content is readily acted upon and dissolved by the free access of solvent acids or alkaline Avaters to all parts of the porous ma- terial. The content of Avater is large, as the bonding material has de- rived all its bonding power by a rehydration of the ground cement clinker. Van Hise says: “The greatest destruction of materials occur in the belt of Aveathering. This belt extends from the surface to the level of ground- Avater, the greatest destruction occurring at ground-Avater level.” Drain tile is ahvays at groundwater level, for they themselves determine this level. Van Hise assigns the greatest relative importance to C 0^, as it is everyAAdiere at work upon the surface of the earth and is ahvays active and is immeasurably the most important in the belt of Aveathering. And again: “The one liquid through which the greater part of all alteration of rocks occurs is Avater solutions.” Kahlenberg and Lincoln, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 2, p. 1898, holds that “When dilute solutions of silicates are made in groundwaters, the silrca exists in the form of colloidal silicic acid.” Ostwald divides the bases into the strong, moderate and Aveak. In the belt of Aveathering the alka- lis, sodium and potassium, are dissolved first, next comes calcium, the magnesia, iron and aluminum dissolving last. Van Hise summarizes the importance of these studies in a paragraph : IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 149,. “The two great acids of nature are carbonic and silicic and the major contest in the rocks, so far as the acids are concerned, is between the weak carbonic and the very weak silicic. The fact - of the formation of carbonates and the simultaneous decomposition of the silicates under surface conditions the world over is well known.” The limits of our space do not permit a more extended presentation of our studies. You will be gratified — following the interest which you so generously displayed two years ago and today — you will be gratified to knoAV that the mining engineering and chemistry departments of several of our colleges and state institutions are pursuing most thor- ough and careful studies of the action of groundwaters, acid and alka- line, and sewage waters upon the body of cement concrete and we urge again your continued interest and co-operation. SOME GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ARTIFICIAL DRAINAGE IN IOWA. BY G. G. WHEAT. Nature's unfinished work in the Wisconsin drift areas of Iowa has left the lands peculiarly subject to submergence in times of heavy pre- cipitation. The magnitude of the drainage projects which would be required to carry out the incomplete work of Nature’s young river sys- tems, for a long time held back the development of drainage. Recent legislation, making possible the creation of drainage districts upon the petition of a reasonable number of land holders interested, has led to a most rapid growth in farm land drainage. Those who are familiar with the topography of the Wisconsin Drift area, in the counties of Cerro Gor- do, Hancock, Palo Alto , Eastern Clay, Humboldt, Pocahontas, Eastern Buena Vista, Calhoun, Webster, Hamilton, Worth, Winnebago, Kossuth, Emmet and Dickinson, are aware that the Des Moines, Iowa and Cedar rivers have developed very few tributaries; that these are not deeply eroded and that the headwaters of these branches frequently rise in a marsh. The second typical feature of this region is the saucer-like basins or upland ponds, which usually have no outlet, except that one side may be a little lower than the other by a few inches. Drainage districts in this area almost always show chains of these ponds, united by extremely shallow depressions, unworthy of* the name of ravine, coulee, or even swale. Depressions so slight as to be invisible to any but the practiced eye, when the fields are uniform in color in winter. The methods used at present in drainage, are those which first sug- gested themselves to the mind of man who has no other desire than to get rid of the water. Beginning at some point where an outlet can be secured, at the lower end of the drainage system, open ditches are con- structed, leading toward the upper limits of the water-shed. Frequently other open ditches are branched from this in dendritic system, although sometimes a drainage plat makes me want to use another term and say, the branches are in hieroglyphic fashion. When the open ditch has been carried far enough so that a 30-inch diameter tile is sufficient to take care of waters from the remaining water-shed above, tile are then laid, the extreme limits of the drainage system being the last small branches laid by individual farmers, draining their acres. 152 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE The magnitude of some of these undertakings may h^ve been over- looked by some members of the academy. Kossuth County has one drainage ditch costing in the neighborhood of $483,000 for the mains alone. The laterals which the land owners will lay will amount to fully four times the cost of the original ditch, making a total expenditure of approximately $2,500,000. This project is. a logical extension of the East Branch of the Des Moines River and brings easily and quickly within the water-shed this acreage which formerly has had no outlet, except such outlet as was gained by overflow from the depressions, when rainfall became excessive, and the other outlet is straight up, by evapo- ration, which is, of course, too slow an outlet to render the land of agri- cultural value. A second type of river improvement found necessary for the reclama- tion of lands, can be, ^studied in the Harrison-Monona Ditch, which dif- fers so widely from the one, just mentioned that it might well become the subject of an entirely independent study, were it not for the fact that the problems involved are so intimately related to the problems and the work of the first type of reclamation that it is deemed permissable and wise to discuss it in relation to the former. In this second case of the improvement of the Little Sioux Riyer in Harrison and Monona Counties, the project costs nearly the same, one-half million of dollars. It is there planned to straighten the native channel of the river, until three times the original carrying capacity is secured. Parallel to this new river channel an immense ditch is being dug that, in places, is eighteen feet deep, 90 feet from berm to berm on top and 30 feet across the bottom. The capacity of this dug ditch is estimated at four times the original carrying capacity of the native river channel, making an increased power of run-off fully seven times that of the native stream. The object sought in this case is to provide free run-off for the waters, which formerly have flooded the low flats of the river valley. Those of you who have examined the flood plains of the tributaries running into the Missouri River form Western Iowa, have discovered that, in many cases, if possibly not in all, the river has built levees for itself until it meanders through alluvial soil of its own deposit at a level considerably higher, sometimes as much as four or five feet, than the level at the foot of the blufls some miles away. A third feature sought for in the drainage of these Iowa lands is the reclamation of swamp, bog and shallow lake. .These are, again, a sepa- rate problem in drainage engineering and are frequently so treated; Yet, to the hydrographer, whom we, unfortunately, have not had on our drainage work, these lakes and bogs at once appeal as being intimately IOWA ACArrEMY OF SCIENCE 153 related to the control of river flows and flood plain reclamation. Im- agine observing from a balloon, Nature would show us an area, with many ponds and lakes, which catch and hold the rainfall within the water-shed. Only the overflow, and that which falls within the immed- iate water-shed of the river, contributes to the increase of river flood flow. In the times of the prairie, before the plow had broken the sur- face, rendering it more penetrable by the rain, floods were common, as evidenced by the deposits on the river flats and the meandering courses of these rivers. Deposits of soil eroded from the water-shed were, in these earlier days, comparatively small. Many of the rivers had clear water and pebbly bottoms. Since cultivation, conditions are so changed that more of the rainfall is absorbed directly by the soil. Floods have not been so frequent because the run-off is reduced, but those which do occur have been more destructive in their nature, carrying the loosened soil, to fill the channels and obstruct the flow, driving it out over the river flats. The part played by these upland ponds and by the lakes, marshes and swamps, has been to catch and hold back much of the rainfall from causing floods in the river. Destructive floods, caused by rainfall alone, have been infrequent until within the past ten years, excepting within special sections. An illustration of these floods may be found in the year 1906. If dates are not mixed, the month of April was peculiarly dry. In May the rains early became excessive, lasting on until about the 10th of June. During the early part of May, it was frequently re- marked by farmers and other observant men, that the ground took care of all the rainfall in excellent manner, the roads remaining good and drying rapidly within a few days. These conditions continued until the first week in June, when it was observed that ponds were beginning to fill, and the roads would no longer dry. During the first ten days of June, of almost continuous rainfall, all of the ponds and every depres- sion rapidly filled to overflowing, and when, at last, one general rain came over the whole Des Moines River valley, these ponds, which were already filled to their utmost capacity, overflowed, flooding the river flat for miles in width, forest trees were drowned, bridges destroyed, crops inundated, heavy deposits of silt formed and everything growing was made profitless, except the late crop of hay, which practically formed after the flood. Let us still consider that we are in a balloon, watching the whole preceding. Had we been able, with our fingers, to trace some channels to conduct water from these depressions to the main river chan- nel, enabling them to carry, from the water-shed, excess waters and thus prevent the great accumulation which finally overloaded the whole river 154 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to the flooding limit, this final disastrous flood, it is plain to be seen, could have been greatly reduced, if not entirely prevented. Then, again, had we been able to do this very thing, permitting the rapid escape of waters to the river, without any control, we might have produced floods of a no less serions nature, as will be observed from our former state- ment of how the final general rainfall brought flood. This sort of pro- vision for rapid escape of waters, without any control, is what is being sought by the engineer in the constrncton of miles of open ditches in one drainage district, and hundreds of these drainage systems as exten- sions of one river system. If yon are still with ns in the balloon, at that time, observing the whole face of the Des Moines River water-shed, yon would see that every lake and pond and depression was carrying its full capacity of waters ; that the grounds themselves, had you dug into these soils in this area, you would have found carrying their full load of ab- sorbed water. This suggests to us the necessity for the better control of these waters, than the mere construction of open ditches, to allow the escape of superfluous rainfall — some means by which the waters can be caught and held back and slowly fed to the river channels, enabling them to work continuously, with an even, regular flow of waters. Let us still consider that we are observing this area from a balloon. An engineer, at your side and mine, looking into the flooded channel of the Des Moines River, suggests, ^A¥e must straighten and deepen the channel of that river, enabling it to carry off these flood waters seven times faster than it now does. Then this flood would be prevented, these lands would be reclaimed and this loss would be stopped.” This is what is being tried in Harrison and Monona counties, in that big ditch. At our side in the car of the balloon speaks up the forester friend, saying : ^^But you must reforest large sections of the water-shed in the head waters of these rivers. Forest retards the run-off until it soaks into the soil, is given off in springs, feeding continuously and steadily into small streams, these, in turn, furnishing even feed for the main river channels, of clear, non-sediment-bearing water, and your troubles will be over. ’ ’ The suggestions of our friend the forester are excellent, as viewed from directly above the lands, but when you stand on the ground, ob- • serving the value of each acre, its importance as a part of the food-bear- ing acreage of America, observing also that there is but little necessity, at any place, for trees to retard erosion of soils, the rare exception being the hill-sides and the gullies which are extended slightly out from the T)es Moines main river channel, and in but very few places ; the additional fact, growing out of this, that the slope of lands is insufficient to provide IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 155 a gravity outlet through the sub-soils into streams ; the further fact that these streams do not exist, we are again thrown back upon the problem of creating an outlet for these waters and controlling them in their pas- sa-ge to the main river channels. The reclamation service engineer, whom we can imagine with us in the balloon car, hitherto silent, speaks up, Avith the suggestion : ‘ ‘ Save these Avaters and dam them in reservoirs, Avhere they can be fed off to irriate your lands in times of drouth, can be utilized for Avater power, Avith electric transmission, to control rapid transit, your manufac- turing and your domestic needs.” Drop again to earth, Avhere you can see things on the level, and search for valleys in the mountains, deep river channels, great lakes: or canyons where Avaters can be stored. They cannot be found. There is truth in the suggestions of the reclamation service engineer, AAmich may be worked out, but it is so remote as a practical possibility that it is out of the ques- tion at this period of industrial and agricultural development in this neAV section of our country. If Ave can secure the desired result of storing and feeding the Avaters gradually to the viyer, Ave have overcome the flood, Ave have gained the point the forester urges, Ave have accomplished the desires of the drain- age engineer, proAAided Ave do not need to overflow or submerge valuable lands in order to do this. It may be AA^ell, for a moment' AAfliile Ave are still on earth, to examine a feAV j)eculiar looking Spots AAfliich Ave noted from the balloon car. This black splotch over in Kossuth County is the unexpected result of one drainage ditch, running into Kossuth County from Winnebago County. This drainage ditch cost $86,000. Let me mention, in passing, that this $86,000 is approximately one-flA^e hun- dredth part of the total probable public drainage AAfliich Avill be con- structed in the tAA^enty-flve or thirty counties. This big black splotch upon the landscape Ave And, on close inspection, to be a deposit of fine, rich, black alluvial soil, av ashed from the surface of some of the richest land in loAva, into an open drainage ditch and carried to the outlet, Avliich fortunately happened to be upon an ancient river terrace, permitting the sedimentation of the ditch Avater load upon the river flats. Accord- ing to the engineer’s and the county supervisors’ estimates, 160 acres of land have been coA^ered Avith material carried by this one drainage ditch, to a depth averaging tAvo feet, since the completion of the ditch in June of 1908. Let us arise again in the balloon car and look at these thirty counties and imagine 350 such -splotches upon the surface of thirty counties — more than ten to a county. Ten quarter sections of the rich- est of loAva lands being carried aAA^ay annually. Industrially, could aa^c 156 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE endure the loss ? Geographically, how long would it take to rob us of our richest heritage? Where these ditches run into rivers, the effects are not so readily observed, but they are none the less there. In one other region, where you look from our point of vantage over into the water- shed of a neighboring river, you see an unusual flood following each more than ordinarily heavy rainfall, this flood covering but a short sec- tion of the river, measuring from head to mouth. Above and below, no floods. This strip of fifteen or twenty miles, being inundated after each heavy rain, is unfit for farming, but is dotted with excellent farm build- ings and groves. The rest of the story, to explain, was told me by- a leg- islator, at Des Moines, last winter : ‘‘Five drainage ditches run into our little river within a short dis- tance of each other. These drainage ditches are all open ditches and it seems that they have washed so much mud down into the river that the channel is choked for several miles. Now, every time a heavy rainfall comes, the lands below, for ten or fifteen miles, are flooded, whereas formerly, floods did not occur more frequently than once in fifteen or twenty years, and it was seldom then that these were destructive to crops. Now it is nearly impracticable to farm the lands in this section of the valley and my people are asking me to introduce a special bill to secure them relief.” Before we finally alight from the balloon, to study these problems more closely, we must admit that our friend, the reclamation service en- gineer, has suggested something of great value to us. In the reclama- tion project of Harrison and Monona Counties, the Little Sioux River does meet some of the conditions to which his plan will apply. Numerous V-shaped valleys, carrying at their bottoms small streams of clear water, help to make the system of the Little Sioux River much different from that of the Des Moines, the Iowa or the Cedar headwaters. These V- shaped valleys are of small value, agriculturally, and when broken by the plow wash readily into the streams, choking them and destroying their value for drainage purposes, making marsh and swamp lands of the once beautiful valley floor. The lands that would be lost by the con- struction of reservoirs to hold back the water rushing down in flood times to overflow the channels, would be comparatively small. A half- million dollar program, such as has been earried out in the Harrison- Moiiona Ditch, had it been expended in constructing dams, creating res- ervoirs and protecting river channels against flood waters and providing an equable flow of water in the river channel would have enabled the en- gineers to calculate definitely what channel conditions could be main- tained, by a certain given water flow, which could easily be determined. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 157 -In other words, channel conditions cannot be maintained, except the flow of water can be placed under control and lastly, the expensive program of large channel construction would have been rendered very largely un- necessary, so that by the correction of the major crooks of the native channel, it would have been rendered capable of doing all the work re- quired. The additional advantages of such a program of reclamation and river control, need not be discussed. The possibilities of water- power, so valuable now as a means of extension of rapid transit facili- ties, are evident. The possibility of irrigation of the flat lands of our river valleys by constructing irrigation laterals on the two or three river terraces are so obvious that our reclamation service engineer need not mention them to us. . Who among you is not willing to admit for a mo- ment that Iowa has not seen the time when irrigation would have bene- fitted much of her acreage^ Who among you is willing to admit that Iowa soil is not capable of producing as valuable and profitable crops as any lands? Those of you who are familiar with the sub-soils of these river fiats, are aware that they will readily lend themselves to irrigation ; that they are seldom underlaid with impervious sub-soils and, in nearly every case, have gravels which render these soils peculiarly subject to crop loss in times of drouth, this same condition being most favorable for absorbing and using all waters applied by irrigation methods. Lands underlain by . impervious sub-soils frequently require artificial under drainage in order for irrigation methods to work most successfully.’ The tile drainage of these lands is being carried on at a rate per acre which will total when all lands needing it are well drained, about $300,- 000,000. The effect which this, tile drainage produces is to lower the ground water level to an average of about three feet or in wetter times 24 to 30 inches below the surface. This creates a porous soil cap which is capable of absorbing about 15 to 20 per cent of its bulk of water. This means that 30 inches of soil that is drained will absorb 4% inches of rain- fall in about 48 hours without erosive run-off or leaving standing water in the depressions. What this means in the solution of the problems given before can merely be suggested. But certain facts we know. There can be no bet- ter reservoir than a soil capable of absorbing this rainfall. We know by guaging of ground water level in drained lands that a rainfall is ab- sorbed quickly and fed slowly off to the river through a period of many days and often weeks before the original low ground water level is again reached. The remarkably heavy snowfall reported variously at from 64 to 84 inches in the Wisconsin Drift area, winter of 1909-1910, thawed in about 158 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ten days since March 1st, 1910. The disappearance of snow was com- plete. The ground was but slightly frozen and practically all the water was absorbed. Another important fact the ground had been draining and the rivers had held at a reasonably high stage all winter. There was no trouble or danger at all from flood following the thaw of snow in March. These several phenomena present a very suggestive promise of what the result will be when the tile drainage is complete. The peat marshes and the lakes may very safely be kept as reservoirs to help control the crest of floods, and it appears that the executive coun- cil has wisely been governed to deny many petitions which have come before it urging the drainage of meandered lakes. PLEISTOCENE RECORD OF THE SIMPSON COLLEGE WELL. BY JOHN L. TILTON. The record briefly stated. The record stated in detail. The post-Kansan surface deposits. The suh-loessial sand. The Kansan drift. The Aftonian deposits. Gravel from the snh-Aftonian (Nebraskan) drift. Carboniferous. The water. Discussion. PLEISTOCENE RECORD OF THE SIMPSON COLLEGE WELL. BY JOHN L. TILTON. . In the summer of 1907 a series of four wells were sunk within a radius of fifteen feet on the campus of Simpson College, giving Ihe best record which it has been possible to obtain in the county. This record, made as the material was removed, is here presented in detail. It serves as a typ- ical record down* to the Aftonian, beyond which the deposits described are not commonly reported within the county. The surface of the well is at 970 feet, A. T. The record briefly stated. 2 ft. Soil, black (loess and humus). 28 ft. Loess yellow above, blue below; then blue clay (gumbo, a modified loess) ; then a grayish blue sandy loess; no efferves- cence. , 2 ft. Sand, yellowish and gray. Sub-loessial. 54 ft. Clay, with pebbles, bowlders and lime concretions ; yellowish brown for one foot, then grayish blue for seventeen feet, then bluish black for thirty-six feet. Kansan. 25 ft. Deposit, black, with old soil plains and minute partings of vegetation, but no wood, and almost no pebbles. 1 ft. Pebbles from sub-Aftonian (Nebraskan) drift. 112 ft. (Ends on the Carboniferous). The record stated in detail. 160 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE THE POST-KANSAN SURFACE DEPOSITS 30 FEET. 2 ft. Soil, a black loam (loess and humus.) 28 feet. A brownish loam for ten feet, porous, a mixture of clay and microscopic particles of quartz, streaked with brown oxide of iron in root-like tubes and with very thin layers of a dark brownish sand; entirely free from pebbles. At thirteen feet from the surface the deposit is less clayey than above and contains more numerous streaks of brown- ish sand. Two feet deeper (at 15 ft.) the deposit is slightly bluish; then for two feet it is grayish and more dense ; then for three feet is a dense blue clay free from sand and impervious to water, but still free from effervescence and free from pebbles. (The ground water, the surface of which was encountered at eight feet, rests on the impervious clay at this level.) For the next eight feet (to 26 ft.) the clay is of a light grayish blue, still free from pebbles and effervescence. At first (at 21 ft.) it is somewhat more gritty than above and contains traces of a brown oxide of iron. The first four feet of the eight caved badly, large water- soaked masses (wet from below upward) scaling in vertical sheets from the sides of the well, as the uppermost phase of the loess does by the roadside. The first pebble encountered was a small angular red granite at twenty-six feet,, dimensions 5-16x3-16x2-16 of an inch. In the next two feet (to 28 ft.) the deposit (the lower loess) contains a fine sand and spherical grains of quartz 1-16 of an inch in diameter. The remaining four feet to the sand (sub-loessial) is grayish in color and with a grayish and brown sand through it. In the bottom of this deposit was a pebble 3-8x2-8xl-8 of an inch, and grains of quartz up to 1-8 of an inch in dia- meter. THE SUB-LOESSIAL SAND. — 2 FEET. Sand, pure, brown and gray. At the well to the east this sand is al- most wanting. At the well farthwest west the sand is nearly four feet thick. At the intermediate Avells it is about two feet thicks the bottom of the sand sloping to the west. KANSAN DRIFT. 54 FEET. Directly beneath the sub-loessial sand is a light brownish blue stiff clay in which the first concretion of calcium carbonate was found, and two small pebbles of greenstone, then a bowlder too large to get into the auger, and, at 33 feet, a dark blue clay with the first distinct effervescence of the clay itself, this effervescence continuing with each auger full for fifty- IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 161 three feet till the bottom of the Kansan had been reached at, a depth of 86 feet. Here at 33 feet were also found a rounded quartz and a sub- angular limestone pebble. Prom 33 feet to 49 feet the clay varied from a brownish clay to a light bluish clay and then to a grayish blue, with brown sand and gravel scattered through it, and Avith pebbles and boAvlders. At 47’ feet the sur- face of this grayish blue clay Avas of a darker shade ; at 48 feet there Avere patches of a dark blue clay 2x1 3-4x1 inch, grading outAvard into a lighter blue clay, thus forming pieces of a dark blue clay surrounded by zones of the gray clay Aveathered in from the streaks of, sand, the darker blue clay containing pebbles and scattered grains of sand, thus resembling in all respects except color the grayish blue clay and bluish gray clay above. In the next foot the bi^ces of dark blue AA-ere larger, the gray lying in distinct planes between the masses of dark blue. Prom 50 to 86 feet, the bottom of the clay that effervesced, the blue clay Avas dense, bluish black and dry (the unoxidized and unhydrated portion of the Kansan) Avith a fine broAvn sand in little pockets half an inch or so in diameter and with thin irregular bands similar to those along AA’hich the blue in the upper tAA^o feet is AA^eathered into the irregular masses. There AA^ere numerous pebbles, lime concretions and fragments of Avood. THE AFTONIAN, 25 FEET. Beginning AAuth 87 feet a part of the clay does not effervesce. In the next foot the effervescense is still less, and in the third foot (the 89th) the last lime concretion, one inch in diameter, appears. The clay is on the AA^hole a dark grayish blue, but grades back and forth from black to light blue. Minute root-like fragments of * vegetation are scattered through it, but no fragment of AA^ood AAms found. At 95 feet is a layer of moss and black dirt about an inch thick; a foot deeper is a similar layer. In these old soils Avere a feAV small pebbles of greenstone, black chert, quartz and limestone, to the last of AAhich the slight effeiwescence seemed to be due. The largest greenstone pebble Avas l-2xl-2xl-4 inch; the fragments of limestone AA^ere 1-2x5-16x5-16 inch and lx2x3-8xl-4 inch. ‘In the next foot (97) there is another layer 1 1-2 inches thick of this old black soil and moss, and in the next foot tAA'-o inches more like an impure peat. BetAA-een these tAVO layers Avas an angular fragment of limestone lx5-8x3-8 inch. In the next nine feet, (to 106 feet) there AAm’e no peb- bles aud the grit Avas A^ery fine, the largest particle being a particle of greenstone 1-16 of an inch in diameter at 106 feet. 162 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE At 107 feet from the surface the grayish blue clay contained traces of a brownish sand, the largest grain of which was a greenstone l-8xl-8x 1-16 inch. A foot deeper (at 108 feet) several sub-angular pebbles of greenstone were encountered, one, the largest, 3-4xl-2x3-8 inch; another l-2x3-8xl-8 inch ; another 3-4xl-2x3-8 inch and sub-angular in shape. For the next two feet (108 and 109) the dark grayish clay was streaked with brown sand and contained minute pebbles, the largest of which was a chert 3-8x5-16x1-2 inch. The next half foot was a grayish clay with streaks of brown sand, and with gravel at its base. Within the next few inches came a bed of gravel, described as follows : GRAVE!. FROM SUB-AFTONIAN (.NEBRASKAN) DRIFT 1 FOOT. The gravel was coarse above, hue below, with half inch streak of bright red clay in the midst of it. The greenstone of the gravel were rounded and sub-angular, all smooth and unweathered, four striated, cue especially flat and striated, on one side, rounded on the other ‘and pitted in three places, the edges and solid angles rounded and polished — a typical glacial pebble. One limestone fragment contained part of a shell like a fragment of Prodiictus muri- catiis, the index fossil of the Des iMoines formation. The complete analysis of this gravel is as follows, all excepting the veiw finest material being used in making the analysis; ANAT.YSIS OF GRAVEL FOUND AT THE BASE OF THE AFTONIAN (GRAVEL FROM SUB-AFTONTAN DRIFT) Limestone, gray, many angular, one with a fragment like Procluctus muricatus, the index fossil of the Des Moines formation. This is all to be classed as local material. and is possibly derived from the very stratum on which the gravel rests 63 18.4 0 Greenstone, four striated, many rounded and sub-angular. 148 44.1 57.4 Sandstone, gray (local) 15 4.4 0 Sandstone (not local) 6 1.8 2.3 Granite, all but four light colored 29 8.6 11.3 Quartz 33 9.8 12.8 Chert, brown • 15 4.4 5.9 Chert, dark 5 1.5 1.9 Chert, light ) 4 1.2 1.5 Quartzite, pink 2 .6 .8 Quartzite dark 3 .9 1.1 Quartzite, light 7 2.1 2.7 Schistose rocks 6 1.8 2.3 336, 99.6 100. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 16; In the above table the first column of figures expresses the exact num- ber of pebbles found; the second, the percentages of all the pebbles; and the third, the percentages of the foreign material only. If in the above that which is local in character be excluded, all the remainder, are of a very resistant character, not a single specimen being found of the decomposed granite so common at the surface of the Kansan drift. The largest of the granites has a rough surface such as may be found in a granite of similar texture scaling under the action of frost. The almost complete absence of pink quartzites is also a notable fact wlien comparing the analysis with analyses of pebbles from the Kansan. The sizes of the largest pebbles are as follows : . Limestone — • 4 xl%xl% inches. 3%x3 x2 inches. 31^x2 xli^ inches. 3 xl 1/^x1 inches. 3t4xl%xlt4 inches. 2 xlt^xl inches. Granite — • 3t^x3 xl% inches. 3t4x3t4x2 inches. 3 x2t4x2 inches. 2%xl%x2 inches. 2%x2 XIV2 inches. 2%xlt4xl% inches. Greenstone — 41^x3 x2 inches. 3 x3 X % inches. 3 x2t4xl% inches. 314x31^x2% inches. 2t4x2 xlt4 inches. 2%xl%xl inches. Quartz — ■ 4 x2i4xl% inches. 3 x2%xlt4 inches. Itixltixl inches. .114x1 X % inches. 1 X %x % inches. 114x %x % inches. Pink Quartzite — ly^xlViX % inches. CARBONIFEROUS. The bottom of the well is on a hard flat rock, which is undoubtedly a carboniferous, stratum in place, and presumably the source of many of the limestone pebbles found in the gravel. WATER. The character of the water obtained through the gravel bears evidence of the presence of partially decomposed vegetation (xVftonian). The water is so charged with free ammonia that the quantity of this ammonia was not determined. The albumenoid ammonia present was found to be thirty-two hundredths of a part per million. *The analysis was made by Professor C. J. Holmes. 164 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE DISCUSSION. In the above description the material down to the weathered surface of the Kansan is what is commonly found throughout the uplands in the central part of the county. Parts of it correspond to what has been de- scribed in other places where the Kansan is the surface drift. From the top of this drift, at thirty-Uvo feet, down to the bottom of the drift at eighty-six feet the characteristics of the deposit are so like those of the Kansan drift, and the gradations so perfect from a weath- ered portion to an unw^eathered portion below, that there seems no pos- sibility whatever that it includes more than one drift sheet. It is there- fore all classed as Kansan. The deposit that underlies the Kansan is peculiar. The color of the ''deposit and the xwesence of a few pebbles within the twenty-five feet, though the pebbles are only about half an inch in diameter, suggest sub- Aftonian drift; but the appearance of stratification, marked especially by the distinct layers of moss with accomxDanying black dirt, at least four of which were conspicuous, are liot characteristics of drift at all, but of a non-glacial deposit into which it seems possible such small pebbles may have been washed, though I noted no stratum of gravel associated with them within the deposit. Such a deposit, between a Kansan above a sheet of gravel below that contains glaciated pebbles, is classed as a part of the Aftonian interglacial deposit. The deposit appears to be a unitj though varying slightly close to the gravel at its base. The stratum of gravel with glaciated pebbles at the bottom of the well must have come from a glacial deposit anti dating the Aftonian. It was therefore derived from the sub-Aftonian (Nebraskan) drift, for no other drift sheet is known from which it may have come. The condi- tions suggest that the well reaches the bottom of- a ravine into which gravel from sub-Aftonian drift was washed. The sub-Aftonian drift is wanting at this particular place, unless a trace of it is left immediately beneath the streak of bright red clay. It is not- wanting in various parts of the county. The Kansan may be seen in its usual aspects in the higher ground, Avhile along the deeply cut trenches in ravines may be seen the dense, bluish black sub-Aftonian, largely free from boAvlders and pebbles. The soil Avashed from the hill- sides generally covers the dividing surface betAveen the two drifts and whatever of Kansan may remain. MAXWELL COULEE AND THE DIVEKSION OF THE EIO MOEA. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. {Abstract.) jMaxwell Cone or Bald Mountain is a low eminence rising out of the plain at the south foot, of the Turkey mountains, in northeastern New Mexico. The last mentioned mountains form a rather conspicuous circu- lar ridge of high hills having an even crest. These mountains are situ- ated‘about 30 miles northeast of Las Vegas and about 20 miles east of the Eocky mountain front. The vast even plains stretching out to the east- ward of the Eockies in this region is a part of the Las Vegas plateau. klaxwell mound is a typical ash-cone. It rises scarcely 400 feet above the general level of the plains. As viewed from the railway train six miles away,- and against the high . Turkey range, it is quite inconspicu- ous. The crater is perhaps 1,000 feet across, and on the southern side is breached. Through this breach extends a notable flow of basalt. Near the volcano the flow is five to six, miles broad; and for a distance of 8 miles it retains this width, when it abruptly becomes narrower as it enters the canyon of the Eio Mora. It continues down the Mora canyon to its junction with that of the Eio Cimarron, a distance of 30 miles. The lower end of the basalt flow was early noted by Stevenson.^ The crater was incidentally visited by LeConte, Newberry and Hayden. The lava-stream has been passed over on the cars by many geologists on their way to the Southwest. Between Tipton and Shoemaker stations, a half hour’s ride from Las Vegas, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe rail- road traverses the great flow for a distance of several miles. From the train a fine view of the breached crater is obtained to the northwest ; and to the southeast the flow may be easily followed with the eye until it dis- appears into the Eio Mora canyon. Two especially instructive features present themselves in this connec- tion. One point is the diversion of the Eio Mora itself by the lava-flow; and the other is the amount of stroam-corrasion which has been accom- plished since the basalt first occupied the canyon. *American Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXI, p. 154, 1881. 166 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The channel of the Rio Mora has been pushed to one side of its former course by the lava having filled the old canyon and a new canyon has been formed in the massive Cretaceous sandstone of the neighborhood. This diversion of the river is in many places very marke.d. The amount of erosion which has taken place is admirably shown in a number of places. The present canyon of the Mora river is in places over 1,000 feet deep. The bottom of the old canyon at the time of the fiow of laVa was at level abont 250 feet higher than the bottom of the channel today. The basalt-stream is about 400 feet in thickness. Above its upper surface it is still 500 feet more to the edge of the plan forming the general surface of the country. Since the time the lava flowed the Rio Mora has been not only forced to corrade an entirely new channel, but it has eroded its neiv canyon 250 feet deeper than its old one. DISTRIBUTION OF BONANZAS IN THE PACHUCA SILVER DISTRICT OF MEXICO. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. {Abstract.) There is one feature of mining that has long been of especial interest. It is the distribution of the particularly rich ore mass or bonanza. In a recent visit to the celebrated silver mines of Pachuca, Mexico, unusual opportunity was offered me to carefully examine into some of the most instructive phases of this subject. The facts obtained throw light upon many vexed problems connected with many abandoned silver mines of our own country, still certainly containing large amounts of easily avail- able ores. The Pachuca and Real del Monte mining districts lie in the Sierra de Pachuca about 60 miles northeast of the City of Mexico. The rocks composing the mountain range are mainly Teritiary andesites, rhyolites and basalts, the first mentioned type being the oldest and containing the principal ore-bodies. These silver mines are among the most famous in the world. Geologically they are of great interest on acount of the large number of very rich ore-bodies which have been opened up in them-^ by the Mexicans termed ‘Bonanzas.” The ores are disposed chiefly in east and west lodes which are in the main nearly parallel to one another and hade about 75 degrees to the southward. The gangue is principally quartz ; and quartz-reefs form conspicuous ridges on the surface of the ground. In this quartz the silver in the sulphide form is disseminated in a finely divided state. Much has been made of the observation that in the parallel systems of veins the bonanzas of contiguous lodes alternate; that is, the richest parts of one vein are opposite the lean portions of the adjoining one. I knoAV of no published explanation of this phenomenon. In my own ex- amination of the mines and of the geologic structures of the country about I was greatly impressed Avith the significance of a series of great joint-planes, or faults, which traverse the mountain range nearly parallel Avith its axis and at an angle Avith the trend of the lodes. I am inclined to associate the localization of the bonanzas Avith the intersections of the fault-planes Avith the mineral veins. As the faults cut the latter at a 168 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Avide angle the alternate occurrence of the bonanzas would be the natural arrangement. A careful study of the relationships of bonanzas to geo- logic structures would doubtless yield practical results of the highest importance in the future exploration of the district. The vertical grouping of the bonanzas into distinct upper and lower zones, as is generally recognized by the miners of the district, I do not attach much importance to. Any such arrangement, if it actually exists, must be manifestly accidental in that it cannot be dependent upon geo- logic structure. Singularly enough, hoAvever, such lodes as the Cristo for example displayed bonanzas only in the upper portions. On the other hand the Santa Gertrudis, Vizcaina and others presented them only in the depths. A few veins, as the Corteza and Analco are reported to have contained bonanzas in both upper and loAver zones. In this connection it may be of interest to note that a single bonanza in the San Rafael mine yielded more than $15,000,000. This rich body Avas 3,000 feet long, 1,200 feet deep, and from 5 to 10 feet in thickness. THEORY OF METEORITIC AGGLOMERATION AND THE ULTI- MATE SOURCE OF THE ORES. BY CHARLES R. KEYES. At the present time unusual interest is taken by mining men in the subject of the origin of the deposits of the metallic ores, the extent of the world’s supply, and the means of conserving them, for alarming as it may seem the end is already in sight. Localization of ore-materials, or their formation into workable ore- bodies is now generally ascribed to the agency of waters circulating in accordance with well established geological laAvs and under peculiar geo- logic conditions. The circulatory currents may move through the deeper zones of the lithosphere below groundwater level, through the upper or vadose zone, or on the surface of the ground. In each zone there is a distinctive series of mineral concentrations. The ultimate source of ore materials has been heretofore usually con- sidered on the theory of a cooling terrestrial globe, according to the scheme imposed by the nebular hypothesis. The metals are thus assumed to reach the surface of the earth from a heated and perhaps metallic in- terior. There is another possible derivation of the metallic materials of the ores. Although the hypothesis has received since its proposal the sup- port of distinguished authorities, from ore students it has not attracted the attention that it seems to deserve. On the hypothesis of the origin of the planetary and stellar bodies through meteoritic agglomeration, as proposed by Meyer,^^ metallic sub- stances in a fine state of division must be constantly falling upon the earth’s surface. That portion of the stellar dust which falls upon the land areas mingles immediately, almost unnoticed, with the soil; and finally enters into the rocks which some geologists consider as the flotsam riding upon the heavy centrosphere. That part which falls into the sea goes to form the characteristic bottom-muds of the ocean. Whether fall- ing on land or water the stellar-dust particles, on account of their high specific gravity and their prevailingly metallic nature, tend sooner or later to sink deeper and deeper beneath the lighter rock material on ^Beitrage zur Mechanik des Himmels, p. 157, 1848. 170 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE wliicli from space they drop. Local conditions at or near the surface of the earth may reverse the nsnal direction of this migration so as to bring together the metallic materials into ore-bodies. ' As aptly noted by Stallo, the general doctrine of meteoric agglomera- tion is in effect nothing more than a new statement of the law of parsi- mony, which forbids the unnecessary multiplication of explanatory ele- ments and agencies. Exemplification of the logical principle has long been afforded by the various branches of science, and conspicuously by the new geology. The past history of the earth is accounted for in terms of what is continually going on around us. At no stage of the earth’s record does genetic geology attempt to call into action forces other than those which are now at work changing the existing features of our globe. In its main features Meyer’s theory of meteoritic agglomeration is essentially identical with the planetesimal hypothesis of earth origin as recently and specifically set forth by Chamberlin."^ Upon ultimate an- alysis, the meteoritic hypothesis is not so wholly novel and so radically distinct from the nebular hypothesis of Laplace as some of its advocates would have us believe. G. H. Darwint . has shown that the meteoric swarm is dynamically analogous to a gas ; and in reality the laws of gases strictly apply to it. At the present time the planetesimal hypothesis has especial attraction in its bearing upon the ultimate origin of the ores. It explains satis- factorily many phases of ore-genesis which have long remained enig- matical. It does away with the sweeping claim that ores owe their form- ation entirely to volcanic activities ; and it suggests the vadose zone as the seat of the principal segregation of ore materials generally. The meteoritic augmentation to the earth seems to be very much larger than it was once supposed to be. Something of the larger meteoric irons and stones has long been known; and our prevailing notions of extra,- terrestrial materials are mainly confined to these occurences. It is, how- ever the constant and almost inappreciable shower of cosmic dust and particles falling upon the earth’s surface that is of greatest consequence as a possible source of ore-supply. The magnitude and persistency of the stellar dust shower ordinarily escapes notice. It is rendered visible in various ways. Hailstones are frequently found containing small particles of presumably meteoric iron. By the melting of snow in the arctic regions fine metallic particles com- posed mainly of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc., are obtained. ^Carnegie Institute Yearbook, No. 3, p. 208, 1905. fPhilos. Trans. Royal Soc. London, Vol. CLXXX, pp. 1-69, 1889. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 171 The banded appearance of arctic glaciers is well known. Its main cause seems to be layers of fine dust and minute rock-fragments. Nord- enskioldc" in particular, calls attention to the banded appearance of cer- tain arctic snow-fields in which^the dark zones were found to be due to minute black grains, most of which were found to be due to minute black grains, many of which were metallic in character. Chamberlin,!' in pre- senting some fine photographic views of the fronts of Bryant, Krakokla and other Greenland glaciers, specially emphasizes the conspicuous banded appearance. While he incidentally states that the dark particles are ^ ' mainly terrestrial, ’ ’ he gives no data upon which he bases his conclu- sion ; and he leaves it to be inferred that he regards at least a part of the material as perhaps meteoric in character. The myriads of dust-wells which the same author^ describes in' the surface of the great Igloodaho- myne glacier seem to have like significance. The great abundance of chondres in the abysmal deposits which cover the floor of the ocean is especially noted by Murray and KenaiNT in the reports of the Challenger expedition. These masses are largely com- posed of basic minerals, closely related to the earthly substance known as bronzite ; and, with small doubt, appear to be of cosmic origin. Some conception of the reality and importance of the heavenly swarm which is constantly reaching us may be gained when it is remembered how frecpient and numerous are meteoric falls. In each 24 hours there are, according to Young" no less than from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 of meteorites entering the earth’s atmosphere. The frequency of meteoric irons and meteoric stones in the arid regions of the globe, and especially on the high dry plateaus, is particularly significant in this connection. While such falls are probably not more common in those districts than elsewhere, the peculiar climatic conditions tend to give them prominence. The clear air, the cloudless skies, and the high altitudes contrast sharply with the thick atmosphere and prevailingly cloud-covered firmament of the sea coast of humid lands. In the high, dry regions, the frequency of meteoric manifestations immediately arouses the wonder of the sojourner from cloudy countries. The constant stream of light-paths across the heavens reminds one, every night in the year, of the November meteoric showers of other parts of the world. *Voyage of the Vega, p. 18. tJournal of Geology, Vol. Ill, p. 568, 1895. Ilbid., p. 215. ^Narative Cruise H. M. S. Challenger, Vol. II, p. 809, 1885. -Astronomy, p. 472. 172 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Moreover, a dry climate appears to prevent rapid rock-decay. There is practically no such phenomenon as chemical decomposition of the rocks as it is known in the moister regions of the globe. The breaking down of rock-masses near the surface takes place mainly by means of insolation, which is strictly mechanical disintegration. Meteoric irons remain for years upon the surface of the desert without notable oxidation. Again, the meteorites in such regions, instead of being immediately lost to view in vegetation, covered by soil, and subject to rapid chemical decay, as in humid countries, are left exposed on the surface of the ground through the constant removal by the winds of the lighter soils. ^ This cause affects, of course, all the larger rock-fragments, of whatever origin. The pebble mosaics which cover large tracts of arid plain, de- scribed by Blake,i by Tolman,+ and by me,|| amply attest the extent of this remarkable phenomenon. For peculiar reasons, meteoric masses are not easily recognizable in the pebble pavements. The majority of desert rocks are susceptible to not- able discoloration and wind-polishing, which imparts to them a burnt and fused appearance. Travelers in the desert are prone to ascribe this char- acteristic of the rocks to volcanic action ; and it is invariably one of the features of such regions which at once atttracts their attention. For ex- ample, in describing the general impressions gained in crossing the broad desert tract in New Mexico known as the Jornado del ]\Iuerto, Wallace^ says, ‘Hhe portion I speak of appears to have served its time, worn out, been dispeopled and forgotten ; the grass is low and mossy, with a perish- ing look — the shrubs, soap-weed,, and bony cactus writhing like some grisly skeleton ; the very stones are like the scoria of a furnace. ^ ’ Until they are broken in two the darkened rock-fragments give little suggestion of their real lithologic character. The more basic rock-masses and larger rock-fragments which strew the ground throughout the arid regions are almost invariably^ coated by a black iron and manganese film which, highly polished by the wind-blown sands and dusts, gives every appearance of fusion. The aspect thus pro- duced is not unlike that of the f used*' surface of meteorites falling in moist lands. Among such dark lacquered rock-fragments, it is with greatest difficulty that true meteorites can be distinguished. That they do oc- cur abundantly nevertheless, is well shown by the rock-collections dis- played at fevery cattle ranch. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Vol. XIX, p. 73, 1908. •fTrans. American Inst. Mining Eng., Vol. XXXIV. p. 161, 1904. tJournal of Geology, Vol XVII, p. 149, 1909. II Ibid, p. 74. §Land of the Pueblos, p. 140, 1888. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 173-. A notable instance of tlie exceptional frequency of meteoric irons in desert regions and one which has recently attracted wide attention from scientists, is that of the Canyon Diablo falls in eastern Arizona, first brought to notice by Footefi" Twenty miles east of that isolated and ma- jestic pile of volcanics known as the San Francisco mountains and rising abruptly out of the vast even plain forming the general surface of the . high plateau, is a low mound locally called Coon Butte. The center of this low elevation is occupied by a crater-like depression about 1,000 feet across. In the vicinity of this hill such large amounts of meteoric iron have been collected from time to time as to give rise to the fantastic notion that the crater was produced by an enormous meteorite striking the earth at this point, t the impact causing the fragments to be scattered about in all directions. As a matter of fact meteoric irons are no more abundant around Coon Butte than they are in other parts of the dry country, or probably in the desert tracts of the globe generally. At Coon Butte, a large company has been led into expending thousands of dollars in sink- ing shafts and in drilling for the suposed heavenly iron-body deeply buried in the bowels of the earth. The central depression itself is to all appearances a true volcanic crater of the explosive typep but the acci- dental finding of many pieces of meteoric iron within it and about it has. stimulated the immagination of observers, who have given undue weight to these occurrences as indicative of the origin of the crater. The occur- rence of such meteorites instead of being special and novel, is general and wide-spread in desert regions. It is to these arid tracts of the globe that we must look for the greatest extension of our knowledge concerning me- teoritic materials. It is to the desert regions likewise that we must turn for information regarding the character of the rain of stellar dust. The remarkable pre- valency of black-sand grains in the desert soils has generally escaped the notice of travelers. On the vast high plains of the dry Mexican plateau, metallic particles occur abundantly in soil, miles . away from the mountains and from outcrops of igneous rocks. The plains are so level,, the distances from the mountains so great, and the rain-fall so scanty as to preclude the easy transportation of these heavy particles by means of water ; while their high specific gravity must prevent their movement by means of the winds. Yet after the severe rain-showers which occur at rare intervals, when little rills traverse the surface in all directions, con- siderable quantities of the '' iron-sands” accumulate along the paths of * American Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XLI, p. 413, 1891. iSmithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. L, p. 461, 1908. IBull. Geol. Soc. America, Vol. XVIII, p. 721, 1907. 174 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the moving waters. A thorough chemical investigation of the composi- tion of these sands would be highly instructive. The common black sands of placers appear to be in the main totally distinct ; and their origin is usually traceable to decomposing igneous rocks. The metallic sand-par- ticles of the desert soils necessarily long resist decay. Should these parti- cles prove to be of meteoric origin, the fact would tend to make such esti- mates of the annual meteoric augmentation to the earth’s volume as those given by Chamberlin and Salisbury'"' ridiculouslj^ inadecjuate. As it is their ligures must be vastly too low. The petrologic features of meteorites present many suggestive relation- ships to those of the igneous rocks of our globe. Among the common ter- restrial rock of igneous origin there are usually recognized four main groups: the acidic, the neutral, the basic, and the ultra-basic. Among earth-rocks those of the last mentioned class are cpiite rare; but in the case of stony meteorites the rock species distinguished are very largely ultra-basic. Some of these mineralogic aggregates correspond, it is true, to some of the most basic of the terrestrial series ; but the cosmical series begins with the earthly basic class and continues through the ultra-basic, 13.5 .149 no 12.1 .188 150 14.0 .135 200 12.0 .147 130 10.0 . .180 170 13.2 .134 210 11.3 .145 140 8.9 .175 190 12.4 .133 230 10.3 .143 160 7.3 .167 210 11.8 ■ .133 240 9.8 .143 180 6.2 .161 230 .132 250 9.4 .142 200 ■ 5.3 .157 300 ”9^2 .131 300 7.6 .140 230 4.4 .155 350 8.2 .130 350 6.3 .138 250 3.9 .i54 400 7.4 .129 •400 5.4 .135 350 2.6 .150 450 6.9 .129 450 4.7 .133 400 2.3 .148 973 3.31 1 .128 874 2.35 .133 450 2.1 .147 0 1 190.0 5.508 1 0 308.0 5.820 0 738.0 5.986 10 135.0 .498 5 249.0 • .813 5 619.0 .986 20 91.0 .468 10 195.0 .795 ' 10 517.0 .986 30 58.2 .427 15 150.0 .771 15 426.0 • .986 40 36.3 .364 20 109.0 .730 20 344.0 .985 50 24.8 ! .312 25 78.0 .676 25 270.0 .972 60 17.3 .274 30 53.0 .601 30 206.0 .946 70 13.3 j .249 35 37.0 .520 35 150.0 .905 90 ■ 8.6 .226 40 27.0 .435 ■ 40 104.0 .847 no 6.0 !■ .212 • 45 20.0 .390 50 46.0 .‘673 130 4.6 ; .201 50 16.0 .365 60 22.0 .515 150 3.7 i .193 60 10.0 .326 65 17.0 .465 160 3.4 191 70 7.0 .300 70 13.0 .425 170 3.1 ! .189 80 6.0 .271 80 9.0 .383 180 2.8 i .187 90 4.80 .250 90 6.1 .362 200 2.5 .184 100 4.1 .234 100 5.0 .340 220 2.2 .182 120 '3.08 .227 120 3.7 .300 240 2.1 .180 140 2.4 .222 140 2.75 .280 250 2.0 .178 160 2.09 .216 160 2.1 .265 300 1.6 .172 170 1.98 .214 210 1.4 .259 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 189 • It will be seen that for small initial amplitudes the wire is in its be- havior not far different from ordinary wires, i. e., its change in period with amplitude is small, but it will be seen also that as the initial am- plitude increases, the periods corresponding to a given amplitude in- crease in a remarkable manner. Not only does the period increase, but so also does the internal friction, as is evident when we examine the total number of vibrations necessary to bring the wire down to a cer- tain small amplitude, say 5 degrees. This number will be noted in table 2. In the column headed is the first obtained reading for TABLE 2. o° T Vibration to 5° K ny , .80 14.1 3270 625 Dpr* 1 37.3 2190 425 T)PP . 9 51.0 1093 210 .8 95.0 664 125 Ppr* . 4 154.0 484 88 Dpr> . 369.0 567 100 the maximum amplitude from the rest point. In column headed is the number of seconds which elapsed while the pendulum fell from 0° to 5b In the last column headed ''Vibrations to 5°” are in each case the number of vibrations that occurred while the torsion pendulum was coming down from the given initial amplitude to an amplitude of 5 degrees. It is quite evident then that as the initial amplitude is gradu- ally increased the wfire seems gradually to change its elastic condition. The remarkable fact, however, is that the elasticity of this wire when determined by a static method has been found to be practically con- stant. There is not space in this paper to describe the experiments on the statical determination of the elasticity of the wire. A better insight into the frictional losses in the wire, following these different experiments is obtained from an examination of the varia- tions in the logarithmic decrement with the amplitude. These decre- ments have been calculated for the above set of experiments, and al- though the logarithmic decrement here loses its original significance, 190 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE it is still very instructive as to the information it gives as to the damp- ing. The following values for the decrement (cf. tables 3 and 4) were TABLE 3. Length, 40.2 cms. Moment of inertia, 980 g. cml M-N Am. An. Log. Am. Log. An. Log. Am. -An. 1 Log. Dec. Mean Amp. 4 639 526 2.8055 2.7210 .0845 1 .0211 582 4 582 476 .7649 .6776 .0873 .0218 526 4 526 427 .7210 .6304 .0906 .0227 476 4 476 381 .6'r<6 .5809 .0967 .0242 ! 427 4 _____ 427 337 .6304 .5276 .1028 . 0257 381 4 381 295 .5809 .4698 .1111 .0278 337 4 295 220 .4698 .3424 .1274 .0319- 256 4 __ _ 220 158 .3424 .1987 .1437 . 0359 188 4 _ _ 158 no .1987 .0414 .1573 .0.393 1.32 4 no 75 .0414 1.8751 .1663 .0416 90.7 4 ___ 75 53 1.8751 .7243 .1508 .0377 62.3 8 62.3 33.8 .7945 .5289 .2656 .0332 44.4 11 53.2 26.3 .7259 .4200 .3059 .0278 i 38.4 14 44.4 21.9 .6474 .3404 .3070 .0219 ! .33.8 17 38.4 19.3 .5843 .2856 .2987 .0176 i 26.3 20 33.8 16.9 .5289 .2279 .3010 .0151 21.9 20 _ _ 16.9 12.3 .2279 .0899 .1380 .0069 14.2 20 12.3 10.1 .0899 .0043 * .0856 .0043 i 11.1 40 10.1 8.0 .0043 0.9031 .1012 .0025 1 9.0 145 8.0 4.54 0.9031 .6571 .2460 .0017 ! 5.82 159 ___ 4.54 3.21 .6571 .5065 .1506 1 .0009 3.80 I IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 191 TABLE 4. Mean Amp. Log. Dec. Mean Amp. 1 Log. Dec. Mean Amp. Log. Dec. 18.2 .00072 46.1 .00208 1 59.3 .00403 17.8 98 43.8 218 . 54.1 1 393 17.4 100 41.7 219 49.4 i 386 17.0 102 39.7 208 45.4 354 !().() 1 105 37.7 219 41.9 1 342 16.3 1 80 1 35.9 205 39.0 1 313 16.0 . 1 81 1 33.8 216 36.3 1 287 15.7 I 84 32.6 213 ■ 34.0 1 268 15.3 1 85 31.1 195 28.5 i 233 15.0 86 1 27.8 195 24.0 198 14.7 88 23.4 176 20.3 165 13.3 80 20.4 212 13.0 109 11.5 66 18.1 150 6.72 060 7.95 72 14.4 174 3.88 044 • 6.08 53 10.7 119 . 5.00 45 7.83 106 4.26 *50 5.57 088 3 . 72 41 t 3.27 41 j \ 115 .00944 194‘ .0196 400 .0193 103 950 177 . 203 366 199 92.4 942 161 202 333 209 82.9 953 147 207 302 216 74.2 958 133 220 273 227 66.5 944 120 226 245 240 59.7 944 96.7 239 194 262 53.5 930 77.7 240 150 304 43.3 919 62.2 237 112 331 35.2 887 50.1 228 82 366 28.9 824 41.0 205 59.2 334 24.1 756 34.3 186 45.9 313 20.5 656 27.5 150 32.6 296 17.7 590 21.7 112 25.6 245 13.7 502 14.7 0646 21.0. 186 11.2 386 12.4 0324 1 14.0 118 7.2 132 9.8 0387 9.45 069 5.33 95 7.6 0172 6.76 0458 3.64 119 6.2 0181 4.59 0262 4.19 0081 3.31 0156 calculated from observations similar to those described above. To save space only one complete table is given, and for the other six experi- ments, are recorded merely the finally calculated decrements and the corresponding amplitudes. In all cases common logarithms are used. The results of these tables are graphically shown in Fig. 3, where curves are drawn corresponding to the gradually increasing initial amplitudes. 192 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Another set of experiments similar to that mentioned in the preced- ing section was tried, the difference between the two being that in this case the wire was started at the large amplitude at first, and then successively started at the lower amplitudes. It was thought that this would settle the question as to whether the period depends merely upon the amplitude, or whether, in a more complicated fashion, it de- pends to a large extent upon the preceding history of the wire. The latter was found to be true, and the results for the amplitude-period .relations are showu in table 5 (a) -Fig. 4, and for the amplitude-loga- TABLE 5- (a). Length, 40.2 cms. Moment of inertia, 980 g. cm^ No. 1 Amp. Period No. Amp. Period No. I 1 ! Amp. Period 0 477 5.958 ’ 0 151 5.905 0 108 5.825 2 437 .958 4 117 .860 4 81 .810 4 398 .958 10 74 .773 10 48.3 .690 6 361 .957 16 43 .660 14 33.3 .604 8 326 .953 20 30 .580 16 27.9 .562 15 219 .925 .24 21 .485 20 19.9 .485 24 113 . .820 28 16.2 .415 26 13.3 .387 30 64 .678 35 11.4 .345 30 10.9 .350 34 43 .595 45 8.1 .297 36 8.7 .314 40 26 .475 55 6.4 .267 40 . 7-. 8 .297 55 13 . .330 65 5.4 .253 50 6.1 .263 65 10 .290 75 5.0 .247 55 5.5 .253 80 7 .255 85 4.4 .244 60 5.1 .245 85 6.7 .248' 95 4.0 .240 80 4.2 .240 100 5.7 .236 100 . 3.8 .239 100 3.4 .236 101 5.55 .236 121 3.23 .231 136 2.52 .231 179 3.06 .231 174 2.47 .225. 190 2.01 .222 237 2.39 .227 232 2.02 .224 244 1.67 .222 301 1.92 .219 299 1.64 .222 303 1.41 .222, 370 1.57 .216 371 1.38 .222 362 1.22 .222 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 193 Xo. Amp. Period No. Amp. 1 Period . 0 73.3 5.765 0 20.7 1 5.425 10 30.0 .580 6 14.0 1 .375 12 21.4 .509 10 11.4 i .348 20 13.9 .403 14 9.6 I .320 2C 10.2 .342 16 8.6 .308 30 8.7 .315 20 7'. 8 .292 3() 7.2 .289 24 6.9 .280 40 6.4 .277 26 6.6 .275 50 5.2 .256 30 6.1 .265 55 4.8 .250 35 5.4 .257 60 4.4 .245 40 5.0 1 .250 70 3.9 .241 45 4.6 ! .245 80 3.4 .239 i 50 4.3 1 .240 90 3.2 .236 i 60 3.8 ! .235 100 3.0 .235 i ‘0 3.4 ! .238 115 2.8 .232 1 80 3.2 1 .232 125 2.7 .230 ! 90 3.0 i .230 135 2.6 .228 100 2.8 ! .228 142 2.62 .225 157 2.01 1 .222 238 : 1.49 .222 220 1.66 1 .222 i ritlimic decrement relations in table 6-Fig. 5. In table ^ , corresponding’ to those in table 2 for the preceding set of expcx. A comparison of the two tables [Tables 2 and 5 (b)] will clearly bring out the essential differences between these two sets of experiments. TABLE 5-(b). 1 0° 1 't Vibrations 1 to 5° Dec. 7 . . 239 620 114 Dec. 9 75.5 407 75 Dec. 10 54 335 63 Dec 11 36.7 286 52 Dec. 12 10.4 212 40 13 194 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE TABLE 6. Amp. Log. Dec. Amp. Log. Dec. Amp. Log. Dec. Amp. j Log. Dec. Amp. Log. Dec. 437 .0197 143 .0260 94 .0312 62.3 .0367 1 17.9 .0293 398 208 126 295 69 363 43.4 400 14.0 246 361 214 no 298 48.3 398 30.0 351 11.4 209 326 227 95 346 33.3 397 19.9 371 9.6 169 271 247 81 352 23.3 367 13.2 251 8.1 144 219 274 62 383 17.1 307 10.2 181 6.8 107 175 309 52 397 13.3 242 8.7 148 5.4 0836 133 350 43 430 10.0 175 7.4 136 4.6 0655 94 377 35 391 8.7 135 6.4 109 3.6 0428 78 417 21 335 7.1 no 5.0 0749 3.0 0290 43 394 16.2 241 6.1 0933 3.9 0560 2.4 0253 26 302 11.4 177 5.1 0540 3.1 0241 1.84 0132 19 222 8.1 125 2.52 0291 2.75 0158 13 1505 6.4 0881 1.84 0149 2.6 0077 10 1054 5.2 0494 1.54 0125 2.09 0026 1 8 08701 4.7 0464 • 1.32 0106 6.5 0589 3.8 0373 1 6.1 0511 3.6 0357 16 0149 2.9 0220 -■ - 1.51 0104 /^iiice the points in Figs. 4 and 5 lie so closely together, only through those for the largest initial amplitudes are curves drawn. However, the loci corresponding to the different initial amplitudes are indicated on the two figures, and the general relations of their -paths can readily be seen. In the progress of the last year’s work many other interesting phe- nomena concerning the wire have been observed, and the full results of the work have been published in a more technical journaF. However, it was thought that the above observations wmuld be of interest to the members of the Academy, and of value to students of physics. m. P. Sieg-, Phys. Rev. 31, Oct., 1910, p. 421. ~ S c 1 ! • ^ _^±o Q. 1 ^ ^ v/&rQf /o n A/tttn^Cr FIG. 1. p X ■ A 1 1 1 : r— r- r—— — i / / -> 0 / /-/ /"■ u Qy \n - 0 0 ^>>3 1 r 1 If / / / V > i K — X // ! K H A 1 p . k N 1 2 Oo 4 OO 6 Oo Arnpl'rucic FIG. 2. ^onds and sloughs, and soon after the young are hatched they are found in the grassy margins of the sloughs and along the shores of the lakes and ponds. From here many of them work into the meadows and upon the upland prairies. The larger individuals are more abundant in the meadows, in the groves on the uplands, and in the timber zones on the shores of the lakes and streams. 3. ChorophiluS’ nigritus triseriatus (Wied). — Swamp Tree Frog. The northwestern Iowa specimens are referred to this form, as the snout is produced, and the hind limb is short — the heel barely reaching the tympa- num when the limb is extended along the side. The species is apparently rare in Clay and Palo Alto counties, and only a single specimen was found by the expedition. This individual was taken in the grass near a small pond on the prairie in Freeman township. The only other individ^ uals observed in this region by the writer was in 1903, when they were found to be not uncommon in a stubble field just north of the locality where the above mentioned specimen was taken. 4. Acris grylliis Le Conte. — Cricket Frog. This frog was only found in one locality — in the eastern part of Riverton township. Clay county. Here large numbers were observed on the mud in abandoned channels of the Oeheyedan river. Probably owing to the habitat, most of the speci- mens are so dark as to obscure all of the markings, but in some the spots on the limbs may ])e made out, and the usual light stripes on the sides of the head are rei)resented by small markings on the margin of the upper jaw. 5. Amhy stoma tigrinum (Green). — Tiger Salamander. Two large in- dividuals of this species were found in the cellar of a house in Highland township, Palo Alto county. It is not an uncommon species in the re- gion. The writer has occasionally found it in the abandoned holes of the Spermophiles. 6. Eumeces septentrionalis (Baird). — Northern Skink. This speci- men is apparently rather rare in Clay and Palo Alto counties. It was found on the uplands and in the higher meadows, but only very rarely. Individuals were observed in Highland township, Palo Alto county, and 206 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE in Freeman township, Clay county, and the writer has observed it in the latter locality in previous years. Its principal habitat is undoubtedly the upland prairie. The coloration of the single specimen obtained is very distinctive (Fig. 7). The pale bluish green of the under surface is continued upward on the sides nearly to the first lateral hand. This lateral band is pale bluish, of about one-third the widtii of a scale, and extends from the ear, just above the insertion of the limbs, upon the tail ; it is narrowly and irregularly margined below with black and is itself rather irregular, giving off above some irregular pale marks. The sides are black to the upper lateral stripe, which lies about two scales above the first and ex- tends from above, the eye upon the tail. This upper stripe is pale yellow and even narrower than the first, but is more regular. Above the upper lateral band there is a band of black (two half scale rows wide) extend- ing upon the head to the supraocular region. On the median six rows the predominating color is pale brownish olive, as is also the top of the head and the snout. The wide olive dorsal band is irregularly broken up with black which is mostly confined to the edges of the scale rows, form- ing narrow broken bands the median two of which are the better defined. The chin is pale yellow, and the tail olive with narrow black bands. Cope’s"^ figures show the scutellation very well. There are 4 supraocu- lars, 7 supralabials, a postmental, and no postnasal. The range of the species is as yet very imperfectly known. Originally’" described from ‘‘Minnesota and Nebraska,” other specimens have since been listed by Cope from Red River of the North ; Sand Hills, Nebraska ; Neosho Falls, Kansas; Fort Kearney, Nebraska^ and Old Fort Cobb. It seems that this is the first record for Iowa. Hoy’“ says that in Wisconsin the species is not uncommon as far north as Lake Winnebago, but, in the opinion of the writer, this statement needs verification. 7. ThamnopJiis radix (Baird and Girard). — Racine Garter-snake. This species is the common snake as well as the common garter-snake of the region studied. It is of general distribution, occurring both in the wet and dry habitats. It is most common, however, about the margin of the sloughs. The large number of specimens obtained by this expedi- tion were used in the writer ’s monograph’^ of the genus, and need not be redescribed. The habits of the specimens have also been summarized ^^Cope, E. D., the Crocodilians, Lizards, and Snakes of North America. Kept. U. S. National Museum, 1898, p. 657. ^2Baird, S. P., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1858, p. 256. ^®Hoy, P. R., Catalogue of the Cold-blooded Vertebrates of TVisconsin, Geol. Surv. Wis., Vol. I, p. 423. ^muthven, Alexander G., The Variations and Genetic Relationships of the Garter Snakes. Bull. 61, U. S. National Museum. Figure 7. Color pattern of dorsal sur- face of Eumeces septentrionalis (Baird) . IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 207 in that work. It may he added, however, that, while, as stated in that paper, the pregnant females examined had a maximum number of 25 embryos, two females later kept in captivity each gave birth to 35 young. 8. Thanmophis sirtalis parietalis (Say) .-Red-sided Garter-snake. This garter-snake is much less common in Clay and Palo Alto counties than is its relative, T. radix. Only three specimens (the only ones seen) were secured by the expedition. Of these one was taken on the margin of a slough in Freeman township. Clay county, another in a similar habitat in Highland township, Palo Alto county, and a third near a marshy spot on upland prairie in Highland township, Palo Alto county. In 1903, the writer took three other specimens in Freeman township, Clay county, in a stubble field on high ground. Descriptions of the western Iowa specimens may be found in the revision of the genus cited above. 9. Liopeltis vernalis (De Kay). — Green Snake. A single specimen of this snake was taken on the upland prairie in Freeman township. Clay county. The species is apparently rather uncommon in this region, but has been observed by the writer in the meadows of western Palo Alto, and eastern Clay counties. The single specimen obtained has 15 scale rows for the entire length (as is usual in the species), 7 supralabials, 8 infralabials, 74 subcaudals and 141 ventral plates. 10. TIeterodon nasicus Baird and Girard. — Western Ilog-nosed Snake. As has been elsewhere stated,^" II. nasicus is the representative of the genus in Clay and Palo Alto counties. While not uncommon in this re- gion, the species apparently has a very restricted distribution. A¥e found it only on the uplands where the original prairie conditions had not been disturbed. All of the specimens obtained were taken in Free- man township. Clay county, but the writer has observed it in Highland township, Palo Alto count}^ The scutellation of the five specimens obtained is quite uniform. The dorsal scale formula is 23-21-19-17, and the supralabials 8, in every speci- men. The infralabials are 10 in three specimens, 10-11 in one, and 11-12 in another. In two males the ventrals are 139 and 142, in two females they are 148 and 150. The tails are broken in several so that the num- ber of urosteges cannot be determined. In all of these specimens the plates on the surface of the muzzle are considerably broken up, the ac- cessory scales separating the pref rentals, the internasals from the azygos, and the anterior nasals from the posterior prolongation of the rostral. The color needsmo other description than the statement that it is normal. The brownish gray ground color above is relieved by the usual brown ^^Ruthven, Alexander G., Amer. Natur., Vol. XLII, p. 391. 208 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE or black spots and the dark and light bands on the head. The center of the belly is black with a few irregular yellow spots. The ends of the gastrosteges are yellow, except that the black of the middle of the belly is prolonged across every second or third scute. A large female, taken on July 20, laid five eggs on August 4, but died shortly afterward vdthout passing the rest of those in the oviducts. Branson"'^ states that he found a full grown meadow-lark in the stomach of one of these snakes. One specimen which we found in a stubble field near a patch of upland prairie had eaten a large toad, and one in cap- tivity ate a large leopard frog. Brous^" records the finding of indmd- uals of this species attached to the hind leg of the box tortoise {Terrapene ornata), which they had partially digested. From this, Brous and Bran- son both conclude that the snake sometimes attaches itself to the tortoise in this way for the purpose of sucking the blood. This hardly seems prob- able in view of the known food-habits of the snake. A much more plaus- ible explanation is that the observed snakes had seized the leg in an at- tempt to swallow the tortoise, and, this being impossible, were unable to release their hold, owing to the fact that the long posterior fangs had become deeply imbedded. 11. Clirysemys cinerea bellii (Gray). — BelFs Turtle. This was found to be the common turtle in Clay and Palo Alto counties. It was observed in nearly every slough, pond, lake and stream examined, in both counties. The specimens taken are typical bellii. The ground color of the cara- pace varies from olive to black. There is usually on the costals a rather prominent yellowish line, and on the costals and vertebrals a number of smaller and more obscure ones. The yellow bands that usually margin the costal and vertebral scutes in cinerea are present or absent but when present are narrower or more irregular than in the typical form. A narrow vertebral stripe is present in most of the specimens. The color pattern of the marginals is distinctive : the dark ground color of the up- per face is relieved by a prominent median and two fainter lateral bands; these markings are yellowish in color, vertical in position, and the median is, at its outer end, continued laterally to form an outer narrow light border to the marginal. The inferior face of each marginal also possesses a prominent median yellow band (directly below its fellow on the superior face) that extends laterally along the outer edge of the plates, and also tends to be extended at its inner end and connected with its neighbors, restricting the black ground color to a spot. The black isBranson, E. B., Snakes of Kansas. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., II, p. 377. ^^Brous, H. A., Notes on the Habits of Some Western Snakes. Amer. Nat., XVI., pp. 564-566. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 209 spots thus formed have usually a small yellow center and occasionally other light marks, and are frequently extended below and fused with the adjacent spots, restricting the median yellow band to a bar (as in marginata) , but this is not the rule. The plastron is pale, and has a large dark patch that occupies the middle and sends out, prominent ex- tensions along the transverse sutures. 12. Chelydra serpentina (Linnaeus). — Snapping Turtle. The snap- ping turtle is apparently common in this region, but it is perhaps more characteristic of the larger streams than the bodies of quiet water. However, it was found rather commonly in Virgin Lake, Palo Alto county, and a single individual was taken on land near the outlet of Lost Island Lake, in Clay county. It was quite common in the Ocheyedan river, west of Spencer, young turtles being numerous in the ponds in the abandoned channels. 14 FTG. 1. FIG. 4. FIG. 2. FIG. FIG. 3. FIG. 6. HABITATS IN NORTHWESTERN IOWA. Fis’iiT’e R Oris'inal prairie in Clay Coun- ty. Fis’ure 2. Pond on prairie in Clay County. Figure 3. Grain field in Clay County. Figure 4. Grove in Clay County. Figure 5. Meadow running into a slough Clay County. Figure 6. Shore of Elk Lake, Clay County. Fig. 9. East end of Elbow Lake, Palo Alto County. •I l^ Fig. 10. Ocheyedaia River at Spencer, Clay County. Fig. 11. Pond in abandoned channel of Ocheyedan Rivei’, Clay County. AX ANNOTATED CATALOGUE OF THE RECENT MAMMALS OF IOWA. BY T. VAN HYNING AND FRANK C. PELLETT. In forming a collection of the fauna of Iowa for the museum of the Historical Department of Iowa, it was early seen that there was no pub- lished lists, and but very meager and scattered records of the mammals of the state. It is this condition of affairs which has prompted the com- piling of such at this time. In 1905, Professor Herbert Osborn published a few species of mam- mals and birds under the title of ‘‘The Recently Extinct and Vanishing Animals of Iowa,” in the “Annals of Iowa, Volume 6, Number 8.” If there be any other lists, the present writers, in the hurried preparation of the one here given, have been unable to locate them."^' The arrangement here, or classification, is practically that as given in Jordan’s manual of the vertebrates; eighth edition; and is not claimed to be in accordance with later authors. The list is a preliminary to a complete monograpli of the subject whicliTthe writers are preparing for future publication, and is intended as a means of drawing information, notes of occurrences in the state, records, criticisms, etc. It is in this that lies the value of the publication at this time, therefore any com- munications of additional data' will be appreciated and considered as sufficient evidence that it has filled its mission. Communications may be addressed to either T. Van Hyning, Polk Boulevard, Des Moines, Iowa, or to F. C. Pellett, Atlantic, Iowa. Many species are here given that occur in our adjoining states of which we have at this time no records of as occurring in Iowa ; but are given with the hopes of* gaining sufficient evidence to either establish or permanently eliminate them. “Extinct,” as here used, refers to Iowa onljG * Since writing this paper, nearly a year ago, the writers have discovered a paper, “Notes on the Mammals of Iowa,” by J. A. Allen, Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. XIII, 1869-1870. In this paper Mr. Allen lists forty-eight species as inhabiting Iowa at that time. 212 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE ( )r(]er MAESUPIALIA. (The Marsupials.) Family DIDELPHIDIDIB. (The Opossums.) Genus DIDELPHIS Linnaeus. 1. DidelpJiis virginiana Kerr. Common Opossum. Southern half of the state. Order GLIRES. (The Rodents or Gnawers.) Family LEPORIDAE. (The Hares.) Genus LEPUS Linnaeus. 2. Lepiis aquaticus Bachman. AVater Hare; Swamp Rabbit. Missouri; Southern Illinois, possibly in Iowa. 3. Lepus americmiiis phasonotus Allen. White Rabbit; Varying Hare, Mr. Pellett has seen specimens taken in Iowa. Minnesota. 4. Lepus campestris Bachman. AVhite-taled Jack Rabbit; Prairie Hare. Sparingly over southern half, and common in northern half of Iowa. 5. Lepus ealifornicus melanotis Mearns. Great Plains Jack Rabbit. Occurs over Nebraska; records for Missouri and South Dakota; possibly In Western Iowa. G. Lepus floriclanus mearnsi Allen. Cotton-tail. Our most common rabbit. 7. Lepus iiorulanus similis Nelson. Nebraska Cotton-tail. Minnesota; South Dakota and Nebraska; very likely in north-west part of Iowa. 8. Lepus floriclanus alacer Bangs. Oklahoma Cotton-tail. Missouri and Southern Illinois north to Columbia, Missouri; possibly in Iowa. Family ERETHIZONTIDAE. (The American Porcupines.) Genus ERETHIZON Frederick Cuvier. 9. Eretliizon clorsatus Linnaeus. Canada Porcupine. Comon in Wisconsin; very probably occurred in Iowa earlier. Family DIPODIDAE. (The Jumping Mice.) Genus ZAPUS 10. Zapus liuclsonius Zimmerman. Hudson B'ay Jumping Mouse. “Occurs in Iowa” Preble, 11. Zapus liuclsonius eampestris Preble. Prairie Jumping Mouse. Has been recorded in Iowa. Family GEOMYIDAE. (The Pouched Gophers.) Genus GEOMYS Rafinesque. 12. Geomys l)ursarius Shaw. Pocket Gopher; Red Gopher; Prairie Gopher. All over the state. Gunus THOMOMYS Maximilian. 13. Tliomomys talpoides Richardson. Northern Pocket Gopher; Gray Pocket. Gopher. IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 213. Occurs in Minnesota, and is common in eastern South Dakota; possibly Iowa. Family HETEROMYIDAE. (Tlie Pocket Mice.) Genus PEROGNATHUS Maximilian. 14. Perognatlius Mspidus paradoxus Mekeiaim. Kansas Pocket Mouse. Occurs ill Minnesota, South Dakota and Nebraska; probably in north- western Iowa. Genus NEOTOMA Say. 15. Neotoma campestris daileyi Merriam. Bailey’s Wood Rat. . Common in Eastern Kansas; possibly in Iowa. Family MURID AE. (The Mice.) Genus FIBER Cuvier. 16. Filter zihethicus Linnaeus. Muskrat. Occurs all over the state. Genus 'SYNAPTOMYS Baird. 17. Synaptomys cooperi Baird. Lemming Mouse. Ocurs in Minesota; probably in Iowa. Genus MICROTUS' Schrank. 18. Microtus pinetorium scalopsoides Audubon and Bachman. Mole-like Vole. Northern form. Recorded for Illinois; very probably occurs in Iowa. 19. Microtus minor Merriam. Least Meadow Mouse; Least Upland Vole. Occurs in Minnesota; probably in Iowa. 20. Microtus pennsylvanicus Oed. Meadow Mouse. “Numerous specimens taken in Iowa” Pellett. 21. Microtus nemoralis Bailey. Woodland Vole. Recorded for Iowa, Nebraska and Missouri. 22. Microtus austerus Le Conte. Prairie Vole. Comon in Iowa. Genus EVOTOMYS Coues. 23. Evotomys gapperi loringi Bailey. Red-backed Vole. Occurs in Minnesota; probably in Iowa. Genus REITHRODONTOMYS Giglioli. 24. Reithrodontomys dycliei Allen. Western Harvest Mouse. Common in Kansas; possibly in Iowa. Genus ORYZOMYS Baird. 25. Oryzomys palustris Harlan. Rice-field Mouse; Prairie Jumping Mouse. Genus PEROMYSCUS Glogler. 26. Peromyscus maniculatus Baird and Kennicott. Prairie Deer Mouse. Common over Iowa. 27. Peromyscus leucopus novehoracensis Fischer. Northern, white-footed Mouse; Wood Mouse. Genus ONYCHOMYS Baird. 28. Onychomys leucogaster Maximilian. Missouri Grasshopper Mouse. Occurs in Nebraska and Missouri; probably Iowa. 214 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Sub-family MURINAE. Genus MUS Linnaeus. 29. Mus decumanus Pallas. Brown Rat; Wharf Rat; Norway Rat. “A cos- mopolitan species; introduced into America about 1775” Jordan. Common all over the state. 30. Bins musculus Linnaeus. Common House Mouse. Cosmopolitan; probably introduced about the same time as the preceding species. Common all over the state. Family CASTORIDAE. (The Beavers.) Genus CASTOR Linnaeus. 31. Castor canadensis Kuhl. American Beaver. Formerly occurred all over the state; became extinct sometime in the nineties. Family SCIURIDAE. (The Squirrels.) Genus ARCTOMYS Schreber. 32. Arctomys monax Linnaeus. Woodchuck; Ground Hog; Marmot. Sparingly over the state. Genus SPERMOPHILUS Cuvier. 33. Spermophilus franklini Sabine. Gray Gopher; Scrub Gopher; Prairie Squirrel. Common all over the state. ‘ 34. Spermophilus tridecemlineatiis Mitchell. Striped Gopher; Striped Ground Squirrel; Thirteen-lined Squirrel. Common all over the state. Genus CYNOMYS Rafinesque. 35. Cynomys liidovicianus Ord. Prairie Dog. “Knew of one specimen in Cass County several years ago.” Pellett. Genus TAMIAS Illiger. 36. Tamias striatus Linnaeus. Chipmunk; Ground Squirrel. Sparingly all over the state. 37. Tamias striatus griseus Meaens. Occurs ill Missouri; probably in Iowa. Genus SCIURUS Linnaeus. 38. Sciurus hudsonicus loquax Bangs. Southern Red Squirrel. “Have taken them in low^a.” Pellett. 39. Sciurus carolinensis Gmelin. Gray Squirrel; Black Squirrel; Cat Squirrel. Common over eastern and southeastern Iowa. 40. Sciurus carolinensis liypopliaeus Merriam. Large Gray Squirrel. Occurs in southern Minnesota; very probably in Iowa. 41. Sciurus ludovicianus Custus. Western Pox Squirrel. Common in Iowa. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 215 Genus SCIUROPTERUS Frederick Cuvier. 42. Sciuropterus volans Linnaeus. Common Plying Squirrel. Occurs all over the state, except western and northwestern parts. Order INSECTIVORA. (The Insect-eaters.) Family SCOEICIDAE. (The Sehrews.) Genus SOREX Linnaeus. . 43. Sorex palustris Richardson. Water Shrew. Occurs in Minnesota; Possibly in Iowa. 44. Sorex richarclsoni Bachman. Occurs in Minnesota; possibly in Iowa. 45. Sorex personatus Goeferey St. Hilaire. Common Shrew. 46. Sorex lioyi Baird. Occurs in Wisconsin; possibly in Iowa. Genus BLARINA Gray. 47. Blarina 'brevicauda Say. Mole Shrew; Short-tailed Shrew\ Common over the state. 48. Blarina parva Say. Least Shrew. Common over the state. Family TALPIDAE. (The Moles.) Genus 8CAL0PS Cuvier. 49. Scalops aquaticus machrinus Rafinesque. Prairie Mole. Common all over the state. Order OHIROPTEKA. (The Bats.) Family YESPERTILIONIDAE. (The Common Bats.) Genus MYOTIS Kaup. 50. Myotis suhulatus Say. Say’s Bat. Common all over the state. 51. Myotis lucifiigns Le Conte. Little B’rown Bat. 52. Myotis velifer Allen. Occurs in Missouri; probably Iowa. 53. Myotis californicus ciliolabrim Merriam. Occurs in South Dakota; probably in Iowa. Genus LASIONYCTERIS Peters. 54. Lasionycteris noctivagans Le Conte. Silver-haired Bat. Occurs all over loAva. Genus PIPISTRELLUS Kaup. 55. Pipistrelliis subflavus P. Cuvier. Georgian Bat. Genus VESPERTILIO Linnaeus. 56. Yespertilio fusciis Beauvois. Brown Rat. Genus LASIURUS Gray. 57. Lasiurus borealis Muller. Red Bat. 216 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 58. Lasiiirus cinereus Beauvois. Hoary Bat. Order UNGULATA. (The Hoofed Mammals.) Family CERVIDAE. (The Deer.) Genus ODOCOILEUS' Rafinesque. 59. Odocoileus americanus Eexlebein-. Virginia Deer; Red Deer. Formerly common all over Iowa; now remains in semi-domesticated herds only; probably became extinct some time in the eighties. 60. Odocoileus americanus macrouris Rafinesque. White-tailed Deer. A specimen in the museum of the Historical Department of Iowa taken by Dr. Shaffer, Keokuk; now extinct. 61. Odocoileus liemoinus Rafinesque. Mule Deer. Occurs in Nebraska; possibly in Iowa formerly. Genus CERVUS Linnaeus. 62. Cervus canadensis Erxleben. Wapiti; “American Elk.” Formerly common all over Iowa; now remains in semi-domesticated herds only. Genus ALCES Gray. 63. Alces americanus Jaedine. Moose; True Elk. The only record known of this species in Iowa is the finding of several teeth in the Boone Mound; supposing they were inhabitants of the terri- tory and were used as food by the pre-historic natives. Genus RANGIPER Hamilton Smith. 64. Rangifer caribou Gmeein. American Reindeer; Woodland Caribou. Occurs in Wisconsin; probably in Iowa earlier. Family ANTILOCAPRIDAE. (The Pron^ Bucks.) Genus ANTILOCAPRA Ord. 65. Antilocapra americana Oed. Prong-hirn; Cabree; Rocky Mountain Antelope: Antelope. Occurs in South Dakota and Nebraska; possibly in Iowa. Family BOVIDAE. (The Cattle.) Genus BISON Hamilton Smith. 66. Bison bison Linnaeus. Bison; Buffalo. Formerly common all over Iowa; now remains in semi-domesticated herds only. Skeletons have been found by the hundreds in old lake beds of the state. Order FERAE. (The Flesh-eaters or Carnivora.) Family PROCYONIDAE. (The Raccoons.) Genus PROCYON Storr. 67. Procyon lotor Linnaeus. Common Raccoon. Common all over the state. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 217 Family UESIDAE. (The Bears.) Genus URSUS' Linnaeus. 68. Ursus americanus Pallas. Black Bear; Brown Bear; Cinnamon Bear. Formerly all over the state, now in captivity only. Skulls are occa- sionally found. Family MUSTELIDAE. (The Weasels.) Genus LUTRA Linnaeus. 69. Lutra canadensis Scheebee. American Otter. Formerly common over the state. Became extinct probably in about 1890, as we have no later date. Genus CHINCHA Lesson. 70. Ghinclia liudsonica Richaedsox^. Great Northern Skunk; Northern Plains Skunk. Rather rare in the state. 71. Chincha mesomeles avia Bangs. Illinois Skunk. Occurs in Eastern Iowa. Genus SPILOGALE Gray. 72. Spilogale interupta Rafinesqle. Little Spotted Skunk; “Civet Cat.” Common all over the state. Genus TAXIDEA Yv^aterhouse. 73. Taxidea americana Boddaeet. American Badger. Formerly over Iowa; now extinct. Genus MU STELLA Linnaeus. 74. Mustella americana Keee. Sable; Pine Martin. Occurs in Minnesota and Wisconsin; probably in Iowa earlier. 75. Mustella pennantii Eexleben". Pekan; Fisher. Occurs in Minnesota and Wisconsin; probably in Iowa earlier. Genus LUTREOLA Wagner. 76. Lutreola vison Scheebee, Mink, Common all over the state. Genus PUTORIUS Cuvier. 77. Putorius longicauda Boi\afa^te. Long-tailed Weasel. Common all over the state. 78. Putorius longicauda spadix Bangs, (A darker form.) Occurs in Minnesota; possibly in northern Iowa. Family CANID AE. (The Dogs.) Genus VULPES Brisson. 79. Yulpes pennsylvanicus Boddaeet, Red Fox. Occurs all over the state; the two next varieties or sub-species inter- grade with it. 80. Yulpes pennsylvanicus decussatus Desmaeest. Cross Fox. 81. Yulpes pennsylvanicus argentatus Shaw, Silver Fox; Black Pox. 218 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Genus UROCYON Baird. 82. Urocyon cinereogenteus Mullee. Gray Fox. Genus CANIS. Linnaeus. f”*' 83. Canis latrans Say. Coyote; Prairie Wolf. Formerly common all over the state; plentiful yet in some districts. 84. Canis nuMlus Say. Timber Wolf; Gray Wolf. Formerly common in the state; believed to be now extinct. 85. Canis Nebrascensis Mekkiam. Prairie Coyote. Family FELIDAE. (The Cats.) Genus LYNX Kerr. 86. Lynx canadensis Desmaeest. Canada Lynx. Now extinct. 87. Lynx rufus Guldenstadt. American Wild Cat; Bob Cat. Formerly over the state; believed to be now extinct. Genus FELIS Linnaeus. 88. FeJis co7icolor Linnaeus. American Panther; Cougar; Puma; Mountain Lion. I t Formerly over the state; now extinct. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOLS SYSTEM IN BIRDS.^'^ BY ALBERT KUNTZ, The present investigation of the development of the sympathetic nervous system in birds was undertaken in order to extend the writer’s observations on the histogenesis of the sympathetic nervous system in mammals, and to point out certain morphogenetic differences in the development of the sympathetic system in birds and mammals, with a view to their phylogenetic significance. In a recent paper'"'" the writer has reviewed the literature bearing on the development of the sympathetic nervous system. Therefore, only such references to the literature will be made in this paper as seem to be necessary. ffis, Jr. (’97)^=^^ called attention to the fact that in the chick two pairs of sympathetic trunks arise in the course of ontogeny. These he characterized as the ^‘primary” and the ‘'secondary” sympathetic trunks. According to his observations, the cells giving rise to l)oth the primary and the secondary sympathetic trunks are derived exclusively from the spinal ganglia. i\Iy observations on the morphogenesis of the sympathetic trunks in the chick do not differ essentially from those of His, Jr. I find, however, that the cells giving rise to the primary and the secondary sympathetic trunks in the chick, like those giving rise to the sympathetic trunks in mammals, are derived, wholly or in part from the neural tube. From the third to the sixth day of incubation, medullary cells may be observed migrating into the ventral nerve-roots in considerable numbers. With similar cells which wander out from the spinal ganglia, these cells migrate peripherally along the spinal nerves. At a point a little above the level of the aorta, some of these cells deviate from the course of the spinal nerves and wander toward the dorso-lateral surfaces of the aorta where they become aggregated and give rise to the primary sym- pathetic trunks. *From the Laboratories of Animal Biology of the State University of Iowa. **The Development of the Sympathetic Nervous System in Mammals. Jour. Comp. Neurol, and Psychol., Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 211-258. ***Ueber die Entwickelung des Bauchsympathicus beim Huhnchen und Menschen. Archiv. f. Anat. u. Entwg., Supplement, 1897. ■220 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE About the l)eginniiig’ of the sixth day, the anlagen of the secondary or permanent sympathetic trunks arise in the cervical and in the thoracic p' . region, as ganglionic enlargements on the median sides of the spinal nerves just proximal to the origin of the communicating rami. These ganglionic enlargements are at first independent of each other, but be- come connected later by longitudinal commissures. There is as yet no evidence of the anlagen of the secondary sympathetic trunks posterior to the thoracic region. As the secondary sympathetic trunks increase in size and importance, the primary sympathetic trunks decrease. At the close of the sixth day the anlagen of the secondary sympathetic trunks appear through- out the entire lengtli of the body. The primary sympathetic trunks ^ have become less conspicuous and in the thoracic region have completely disappeared. The prevertebral plexuses are derived directly from the primary sympatlietic trunks. About the middle of the fourth day, from the f suprarenal Imdies posteriorly, cells become separated from the primary sympathetic trunks and, migrating ventrally, become aggregated along the ventro-lateral aspects of the aorta and give rise to the prevertebral plexuses. These cell-aggregates show their greatest development in the sacral region. This condition in birds is obviously correlated with the enormous development of the ganglion of Remak. This ganglion arises toward the close of the fourth day, as an oval cell-column lying in the mesentery just dorsal to the rectum. Its greatest development occurs in the posterior region. It increases in size very rapidly until at the close of the fifth day it has become a large and conspicuous column of closely aggregated cells, with a maximum diameter of about 85 micra. Its diameter decreases anteriorly until it ends in the region of the geni- tal ridges in a slender cellular cord which Remak has called the intestinal nerve ( Darmnerv ) . The ganglion of Remak was described by Onodi and by His, Jr., but as far as I have been able to learn, the cells composing it have never l)een traced to their source. My preparations show conclusively that ^ the cells giving rise to this ganglion are derived directly from the anlagen of the hypogastric plexus. ITis, Jr. has expressed the opinion that tlie elements composing the primary sympathetic trunks are resolved into the ganglia and the nerves ^ of the peripheral sympathetic plexuses. In view of the comparatively enormous development of the prevertebral plexuses and the ganglion of Remak, this is obviously the fate of the primary sympathetic trunks in the posterior region of the body. There is no evidence, however, of IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 221 pei’iplieral migration of cells from the primary sympathetic trunks in the anterior region. While there may he some migration posteriorly along the primary trunks, it is more probable that most of the cells in the anterior region are withdrawn into the secondary sympathetic trunks. The vagal sympathetic plexuses; viz., the cardiac plexus and the sym- ]mthetic plexuses in the walls of the visceral organs, arise from cells which migrate from the vagus ganglia and the w^alls of the hind-brain along the fibers of the vagi. While medullary cells are migrating from the neural tube into the ventral roots of the spinal nerves, cells may also be traced from the walls of the hind-brain into the rootlets of the vagus and of the spinal accessory nerves. With similar cells which wander out from the vagus ganglia, these cells migrate peripherally along the vagi. In the thoracic region cells may be traced from the vagus trunks into the walls of the oesophagus where they become aggregated into cell- groups which constitute the anlagen of the myenteric and the submucous plexuses. These observations do not differ materially from the writer’s ol)servations on mammalian embryos. In mammalian embryos cells may be traced posteriorly from the anlagen of the myenteric and the sub- ucous plexuses in the walls of the oesophagus and the stomach. These cells obviously give rise to the sympathetic plexuses in the walls of the intestine. In the chick, sympathetic cells cannot be traced posteriorly in the walls of the digestive tube with the same degree of definiteness. It is probable, however, that the cells giving rise to the sympathetic plexuses in the walls of the intestine are derived largely from this source. On the other hand, it is probable ,in view of the enormous development of the ganglion of Remak, that in birds many of the cells taking part in the development of the sympathetic plexuses in the posterior region of the intestine are derived directly from this ganglion. At the bifurcation of the trachea, the vagus trunks bend laterally and ventrally round the bronchi until they come to lie close together along the ventral aspect of the oesophagus. A slender branch of each vagus trunk continues posteriorly from the bifurcation of the trachea along tlie lateral wall of the oesophagus. In transverse sections through the lungs, fibers accompanied by numerous cells may be seen to bend from these branches into the tissues of the lungs. These cells obviously give rise to the pulmonary plexuses. About the close of the fifth day, in transverse sections tlirough the heart, cells may be traced ventrally from the vagi toward the dorsal surface of the heart. In later stages these cells become aggregated into distinct groups in the septum of the atria and give rise to the cardiac plexus. 222 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE Tlie above observatioris have shown that in birds, as in inamals, cells migrate peripherally from the neural tube and the cerebro-spinal ganglia, and that some of these cells give rise to the sympathetic nervous system. The cells giving rise to the sympathetic trunks and the prevertebral plexuses, including the ganglion of Remak, migrate peripherally along the spinal nerves, while the cells giving rise to the vagal sympathetic plexuses migrate peripherally along the vagi. The great majority of these migrant cells are the ^‘indifferent” cells of Schaper, while a few cells occasionally are found among them which answer to the descrip- tion of the “neuroblasts” of Schaper. This I have also shown to be the case in mamals. Mitotic figures occur occasionally along the paths of migration and in the sympathetic anlagen. We are not to suppose, therefore, that all the cells taking part in the development of the sym- pathetic system actually migrate as such from their sources in the neural tube and the cerebro-spinal gangia. Doubtless, a goodly number arise by the mitotic division of •“indifferent” cells along the course of migration. Inasmuch as these migrant cells are the ‘‘indifferent” cells and the “neuroblasts” of Schaper, they are homologous with the cells giving rise to the neurones and the neuroglia cells in the central nervous system. Therefore, the sympathetic system bears a direct genetic rela- tionship to tlie central nervous system, and the sympathetic neurones are homologues with the efferent and the afferent components of the other functional divisions ot‘ tlie periplieral nervous system. THE CRANIAL NERVES OF SIREN LACERTINA. BY II. W. NORRIS. Ill this preiimiuary account of the cranial nerves of Siren little ref- erence will be made to the characteristic urodele features, but the de- scriptions will deal chiefly with those characters that have a special significance in Siren. For our knowledge of the cranial nerves of Siren we are indebted to the researches of Fischer (1864), H. II. Wilder (1891) and Druener (1904). ’ The olfactory neiwe in Siren is double. A posterior series of rootlets gives rise to a trunk supplying the anterior nasal epithelium and Jacob- son’s organ; an anterior series of rootlets innervates the posterior nasal epithelium; the two series in origin and distribution are distinct, no observable anastomosing between the two olfactory trunks taking place. The optic and eye-muscle nerves are of the usual form found in uro- dele amphibians, all being imperfectly developed in consequence of the rudimentary condition of the eyes. ■ Of the anaslomoses between the fifth and seventh nerves found in other Urodela the following occur in Siren : 1. General cutaneous fibers from the gasserian ganglion unite with the ramus ophthalmicus superficialis (lateral line) to form a supra-orbital trunk. 2. An infra-orbital trunk is formed by the union of general cutaneous fibers from the gasserian ganglion with the ramus buccalis VII (lateral line). A branch of the infra-orbital trunk, containing both lateral line and general cutaneous fillers, combines with a branch of the ramus ophthalmicus profundus V (general cutaneous fibers) to form a nm’ve that sends its lateral line fibers to innervate the anterior portion of the infra-orbital series of neuromasts and its general cutaneous component to form an anastomosis with the ramus palatinus VII. 3. The palatinus-ophthalmicus anasto- mosis at first sight seems to be peculiar, but is /found to fall into line with that described in Amblystoma (Coghill) and Amphiuma (Norris). 4. Tiie anastomosis between the alveolaris VII and a branch of the ramus mandibularis V, that seems to be characteristic of the Urodela, occurs in Siren to the extent only that the two branches in question pass a 224 IOWA ACADE^MY OF SCIENCE short distance in contact with each other, without any exchange of fibers. From the dorsal edge of the dorsal lateral line ganglion of the seventh nerve there passes posteriorly a branch that anastomoses with the rami supra-temporaJis and auricularis X. No such anastomosis has been reported in any other amphibian. It is very suggestive of the condition found in the Cyclostomata, where a branch of the lateral line component of the seventh nerve joins the ninth and tenth nerves. As has been noticed by previous writers the ramus palatinus and alveolaris VII of Siren arise from the ganglion by a common trunk, from w]iich there is given off posteriorly a nerve called by ’^vVilder the posterior palatine. This latter nerve passes in part to the pharyngeal region, Imt a part of it anastomoses with the ramus pretrematicus IX forming Jacobson ’s commissure. The lateral line constituents of the seventh nerve have in general the characteristic distribution. The discovery in Siren by Druener of a. levator arcuus hyoidei muscle, which he believes to he innervated by a branch of the ramus jugularis, is confirmed. The ninth and tenth nerve ganglia are nearly distinct from each other. The ramus communieans carries from the tenth to the seventh nerve gen- eral cutaneous fibers only. Pretrematic rami of five branchial nerves are found, but only three ' post-trematic rami. The various branches of the tenth nerve show a marked tendency toward an early departure from the main trunk; hence the diffuse character of a large part of the nerve as described and figured by Wilder and others. IMotor components of the posttrematic rami of the first and second liranchial nerves unite and innervate the ceratohyoi- deus internus muscle. The ramus intestinalis recurrens' is entirely motor. The sensory constituents usually found in this nerve in otlier Urodela leave the vagus ganglion as a distinct nerve united with other sensory fibers that form the fourth and fifth pretrematic nerves. The name, ramus sensorius recurrens X, is suggested for this nerve after the pretrematic and other pharyngeal branches are given off. The occurrence of persistent gills in Siren necessitates some special in- nervation of the branchial region. From the ninth or first branchial nerve a small general cutaneous component goes to the skin over the first branchial arch. From the second hrancrial nerve (vagus I) the levator branchiae 1 and depressor branchiae 1 and 2 muscles are innervated. It also sends general cutaneous branches to the first and second gills. From the third branchial nerve (vagus II) the levator branchiae 2 and 3 and depressor branchiae 3 muscles are innervated. From the same nerve are given off general cutaneous branches to the third gill. IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 225 The hypoglossal nerve is formed from branches of the first and second spinal nerves as Druener has stated. A comparative study of the morphogenesis of the sympathetic nervous system in birds and mammals reveals certain points of difference which evidently have phylogenetic significance. T'wo pairs of sympathetic trunks arise in the course of ontogeny in birds, while in mammals a sin- gle pair of sympathetic trunks is developed. In the early stages in mam- mals the prevertebral plexuses show their greatest development in the region of the suprarenals. In the early stages in birds, these plexuses show their greatest development in the sacral region. This character in birds is obviously correlated with the enormous development of the gang- lion of Remak which has no counterpart in mammals. The pulmonary plexuses in mammals arise from cells which migrate from the vagi along the walls of the bronchi. In birds cells wander from the slender branches of the vagi, lying along the walls of the oesophagus, directly into the anlagen of the pulmonary plexuses. In mammals the anlagen of the cardiac plexus arise in the angle between the aorta and the pulmonary artery. In birds the anlagen of the cardiac plexus arise in the atrial septum. These morphogenetic differences, doubtless, indicate that the sympathetic system has departed more widely from the original type in birds than in mammals. A study of the development of the sympathetic system in birds, as well as in mammals, warrants the conclusion that the nervous system is a unit of which the sympathetic system is a part homologous with the other functional divisions. The morphogenetic differences above pointed out in the development of the sympathetic system in birds and mammals obviously indicate specializatons in certain directions which have arisen in response to the peculiar conditions of the vegetative functions. SUMMARY. 1. The primary sympathetic trunks in the chick arise during the fourth day of incubation, as a pair of cell-columns lying along the dorso- lateral surfaces of the aorta. The anlagen of the secondary sympathetic trunks arise about the beginning of the sixth day, as ganglionic enlarge" - ments on the median sides of the spinal nerves. These ganglionic en- argements are at first independent of each other, but become connected later by longitudinal commissures. The primary sympathetic * trunks reach their maximum development during the course of the sixth day and then give way to the secondary sympathetic trunks. These observa- tions do not differ essentially from those of His, Jr. 15 •226 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 2. The prevertebral plexuses arise from cells which migrate ventrally from the primary sympathetic trunks. 3. The ganglion of Remak arises as an oval cell-column lying in the mesentery just dorsal to the rectum. It is composed of cells which mi- grate ventrally from the hypogastric plexus. 4. Cells migrate from the neural tube and the spinal ganglia along the spinal nerves. Some of these cells deviate from the course of the spinal nerves and give rise to the sympathetic trunks. 5. The vagal sympathetic plexuses : auz., the cardiac plexus and the sympathetic plexuses in the walls of the Ausceral organs arise from cells which migrate from the hand-brain and the vagus ganglia along the fibers of the Auxgi. The myenteric and the submucous plexuses in the posterior region of the intestine proliably receive some cells from the ganglion of Remak. 6. The cells which migrate from the neural tube and the cerebro- spinal ganglia are the ‘Indifferent” cells and the “neuroblasts” of Schaper. Therefore, they are homologous with the cells giving rise to the neurones and the neuroglia cells in the central nerAmus system, and the sympathetic neurones are homologous with the efferent and afferent components of the other functional dhusions of the peripheral nerAmus system. 7. Morphogenetic differences obviously indicate that the sympathetic system has departed more Avidely from the original type in birds than in mammals. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POSTERIOR LYMPH HEARTS OF THE LOGGERHEAD TURTLE. PRx^NK A. STROMSTEN. Recently, in a paper read before the American Society of Zoologists, central section, the writer presented some observations which indicated that the lymphatic system of turtles has an origin more or less inde- pendent of the venous' system. Since then later investigations on the Chelonian lymphatics confirm and strengthen this view. Even in the de- velopment of the posterior lymph hearts, which are generally conceded to be direct derivatives from early redundant embryonic veins, we find that the process is initiated, at least, by the dilation and confluence of mesenchymal spaces. The posterior lymph hearts are a pair of elliptical or ovoid, pulsating organs found just below the carapace in the post-iliac regions of the tur- tle, one on each side of the body. They drain the lymph cavities and spaces of the posterior part of the body, and open into the tributaries of the posterior renal advehent veins. The development of the posterior lymph hearts is initiated by the vacuolation of the subcutaneous mesenchymal tissue of the post-iliac re- gion. outside of the muscle plates. Toward the close of the second week of development the spongy tissue thus formed is invaded by capillaries from the first two caudal branches of the postcardinal veins. The con- fluence of the mesenchymal spaces with each other and with the invading capillaries forms a spongy network of minute channels which collects the lymph from the rapidly growing limbs and tail, and conveys it to the postcardinal veins. Near the middle of the third week, a longitudinal anastomosis of the segmental branches of the postcardinal veins takes place outside of the muscle plates. This forms a large vein on each side of the body which continues forward in the adult, to form the main branch of the posterior renal advehent vein, and backward into the tail as the lateral coccygeal vein. This pair of newly-formed veins now re- ceives all of the lymph from the anlagen of the lymph hearts. The pro- cess of the dilation and confluence of the mesenchymal spaces with each other and with the capillaries continues with increasing rapidity throughout the latter part of the third week, forming a number of large 228 IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE anastomosing spaces, the veno-lympliatic channels. These channels ex- tend parallel with the veins and open into them at two or three points. At first the veno-lymphatic channels contain red blood cells and are indistingnishahle from the veins as regards size and general appearance. Later, however, they acquire rather dense walls which contain striated muscle fibres. The cardiac muscle fibres of the lymph hearts are derived from the adjacent muscle plates. The partitions between adjacent veno- lymphatic channels begin to .atrophy toward the beginning of the fourth week, so that by the end of the week we find a pair of large sacs with muscular walls, each with a single central cavity. Thus we see that the posterior lymph hearts of the loggerhead turtle are developed from embryonal capillaries which have been captured and modified by the dilated mesenchymal spaces' of the post-iliac regions of the body. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EARLY HEALTH REGULATIONS IN IOWA. BY L. S. ROSS. The immediate cause for the establishment of rules and regulations to protect the health of a municipality or a state, often is the fear of the introduction of some disease that is foreign to the community. Possibly some other disease is common to a community, its effects, even its rav- ages are matters of common knowledge, but because of that familiarity its presence is expected ; the people are accustomed to it. In reality some- what of a fatalism with reference to it is established, and no rigorous measures are taken against it for defense or for elimination. It seems we fear the unfamiliar, and accustom ourselves' to the presence of the familiar. Our forces are mobilized for defense, first against the foreign foe, then later against the foe at the fireside. Early attempts toward concerted action against diseases in the colonies of Massachusetts and New York were directed against those that were brought from foreign ports on ship board. In the Territory of Iowa the first lines of defense were likewise thrown out to check the advance of diseases from foreign lands that had effected entry at New Orleans, and were making their way by boat up the Mississippi river, toward the river towns of the Territory. Cholera and ship fever were feared as deadly invaders. Naturally, cholera follows the routes of travel: its ravages may be fearful. The mention of it caused fear and even panic. Tuber- culosis and diphtheria and scarlet fever were common, and claimed many more victims but because they were common and were not so spectacular in their effects, the high rate of their mortality was not fully realized. And in fact, at the present time the full import of the prevalence of (tuberculosis is realized by a comparative few only. The Asiatic cholera tin Iowa, or in the entire country, has been a mere passing incident; tuberculosis is a factor in national development. The development of the sanitary regulations of the State of Iowa is logically divided into two parts: the one including the time prior to the establishment of the State Board of Llealth in 1880, the other the time subsequent to that date. The first may be known as the early period and the second as the recent. It is the purpose of this paper to record 230 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE some items in the development of the early period, not to give a com- plete history. During this time there was no concerted action on the part of the Territory or the young state, and indeed there could be none. Each municipality had to take independent action, and provide regulations that seemed best at the time being. Effective rules and regulations did not spring into being full formed, but they were rather a growth according to the need and the knowledge of the people. Neither the physician nor the layman attached sufficient importance to the common infectious diseases. In the pioneer days men’s thought and labor were expended in transforming their uncultivated environment into a place suitable for habitation. That which impressed itself most forcibly as the thing to be done, was the thing that was done. The value of good health rules and regulations was not recognized. In every new community the establishment of sanitary laws has followed after a longer or shorter course of expensive education in which human lives have been uncon- sciously submitted to accidental experimentation, with a high rate of mortality attending the experiments. Human lives are paid as the price for such education. The State of Iowa is not old, but its history antedates that of the knowledge of the fundamental principals of sanitation. Here, as else- where, it was necessary that the sanitary rules should depend, to a con- siderable degree, upon a generally accepted belief as to the cause of dis- ease and of its spread. The theories of the more educated then, were simi- lar to the beliefs of many at the present time who give little thought to sanitation. This is indicated by editorials in the leadng papers of the day. The more educated popular belief may be inferred from these edi- torials. Then as now, the value of cleanliness was recognized, but the cleanliness of modern sanitation was unknown. The Dubuque express and Herald of the date April 19, 1855, says: ‘‘It is not enough to ordain that people shall keep their premises clean. ^ Scattering a handful of lime in one infected locality and re- moving a few shovelfuls of filth from another will but mock the anticipa- tions of the public, and be the means of blinding every person, who with return of warm weather expects the manifestation of cholera and other alarming diseases. ^ state of cleanliness both in person and in every household and on every ones premises is one of the best precau- tions that can be taken. If taken in time, to prevent the manifestation of disease.” The same paper on April 24, says: “Every person of com- mon sense knows that filth breeds disease, and experience proves that • in localities where the people are filthy in their habits, there is more sick- IOWA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 231 ness and more people die than in localities in the same town or city where the people keep their persons and premises clean. If a woman has not kept her premises clean, there is no reason to exempt even her private room from a scrubbing at the expense of the city. AVe suggest to the officers that they secure a quantity of disinfesting agents and use them freely as they proceed in their cleaning operations.” A quotation in this same paper, the Dubuque Express and Herald, of May 11, 1855, is from the Chicago Times : ^ ^ The cholera is at our doors. * streets and alleys are in a most deplorable state ; they are in a ripe condition, wdiich in the first warm day will bring to a fruitful harvest of disease and death. Now is the time to clean the streets, to sprinkle lime and take precautionary measures.” The Davenport Banner of June 11, 1852, quotes from The Standard,. La Salle, Ilk, of May, with reference to some deaths among railroad laborers: ^ ^ Added to this the water wms' bad, being ta.ken from- sloughs that were high ; and holding in solution the filth that had been washed from the banks, and was therefore unfit for use. We are told also that some bread they had eaten was made of poor flour with which they had provided themselves on account of its cheapness, and further- more the day before the sickness broke out among them, a barrel of whiskey had been brought upon the ground of which liberal use Avas. made. The result Avas some ten or a dozen died soon afterAA^ards, with a sickness resembling cholera morbus.” In the Keokuk Gate City of May 16, 1855, is an editorial headed, '‘A Deadly Nuisance,” demanding that a pond in the heart of the city be done away with : the claim is made that sickness and death of some in the immediate vicinity were due to its existence. In the same month, the president of the board of health of Keokuk in reply to an editorial criticism in the Keokuk Gate City of the preceding day. May 17, said : ‘ Hn conclusion we wish to inform your readers that the board of health has no easy task to perform. They meet with many curses and much abuse from persons who can not appreciate the import- ance of cleanliness about their premises, and this fact should induce more nlightened people to aid them in the performance of their duty, to be. a little more charitable in their criticisms. ’ ’ In the Ottumwa Courier of June 6, 1867, is the following : ‘ ‘ Cholera r Our dispatches yesterday inform us that there have been already two cases of Asiatic Cholera in New York, and whether these cases are genuine or not scientific and medical men pretty generally agree that this country is to have another visitation of this most unAvelcome guest during the ap- proaching hot summer months, to remain a longer or shorter time as Ave 232 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE may by our negligence or prudence elect. ^ It lias been established beyond cjnestion, that with proper sanitary precautions this terrible scourge may be robbed of half its terrors if not totally disarmed. There- fore let the authorities proceed to the discharge of their duties : let the streets, alleys, barns, pig pens, privies, and out houses be thoroughly renovated, cleaned up, deodorized and put in order; let the people keep their persons clean and be temperate and careful in their diet.” On June 25, in the same paper the following appears: ‘^We have had a vast amount of rain this spring, the back allej^s and holes of the city are full of stagnant water, dead cats and other filth, the hot season is upon us with unusual severity, and the probability is that we will be again visited with that unwelcome guest cholera, unless we fortify against it by proper sanitary regulations. Will the city authorities exercise their proper authority in compelling a general cleaning up and deodorizing of the filthy places in the city V’ In the same strain the editor on July 23, says: but there are still many of the out of the way places and alleys that under this blistering sun are becoming death and miasma breeding places of untold filthiness and while they are not so offensive to the eye, because not so public, they are nevertheless just as dangerous to the health of our city as if situated in Front Street.” Two quotations from the Medico-Chirurgical Journal of 1851, give the belief of some physicians concerning the infectiousness of the cholera. In the obituary of Dr. A. F. Bruning appearing in the May number of this Journal the writer says: day or two before his attack he expressed his conviction of the infectiousness of the disease and of his liability to an attack from being much in closCj filthy apartments.” In the June number of the Journal Dr. J. F. Henry, referring to cholera, said: ‘‘In my judgment, it depends on a fixed origin, a something from abroad, which may be a sine quo non and a local cause sufficient to develop it. The circumstances that constitute that local cause are very well known: they are heat, moisture, and filth, within and without the crowded habita- tions in which, as a general rule, the disease is most prevalent and most destructive. When really epidemic, the whole population of a city is immersed in this local cause. ’ ’ A little note on vaccination appearing in the Davenport Banner of the date Feb. 23, 1855, may well be considered by some at the present time : “ It is well ascertained that when vaccination takes it is an ef- fectual preventive. It is a simple process, can do no harm and ought for abundant precaution to be repeated. Many persons neglect vaccina- tion too long.” IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 23: These references are sufficient to show that the people, and evidently the medical profession as well, were especially concerned with the spor- adic diseases as cholera and small pox, and not to any great degree with those that were commonly present. They indicate also that the presence of filth was presumably the primary cause of the continuation and spread of these diseases, and perhaps also a factor in their origin. The evident need of some action to conserve the public health was sufficiently realized in the early days, that the charters of the towns contain provision for health ordinances. In the charter of the town of Fort Des Moines, approved Jan. 18, 1853, is the following in Section 19 : ‘ ‘ The Town Council is vested with authority to make and establish such by-laws and ordinances as are necessary and proper for the good reg- ulation, safety and health of the town and the citizens thereof Other sections in the charter of the City of Des Moines as formulated in. 1857, have reference to the conduct of the markets. In 1876, the Des Moines city council passed ‘ ‘ an ordinance in relation to health, ’ ’ of 32 sections, giving general rules and regulations. The ordinance pertains more directly to the prevention and abatement of nuisances, disposal of garbage, regulation and control of slaughter houses, than to the estab- lishment of quarantine. On Aug. 28, 1878, a health regulation was passed requiring physicians to report contagious diseases to the board of health. When such report was received by the board of health the chairman of the board could have a printed placard placed on the outside of the building or dwelling, or door, or room, of such disease whenever, in his opinion, it was necessary. Any physician neglecting or refusing to perform the duties required by the health ordinance was subject to a fine. Parents or guardians of children were required not to permit the children to attend public or private school after it became known that any of the family had any infectious or contagious disease. Violators of the requirement were subject to a fine. Principals or teachers of' private or public schools were required to cause removal of any pupils from school from families where infectous diseases were known to exist, and such' pupils were to be refused readmittance until it was known that the premises had been disinfected and the disease eradicated. Vio- lators were subject to a fine. The board of health could adopt rules and regulations for improvement of the sanitary condition of the city. •One of the duties of the council of the city of Davenport, as indicated in Article 5, Section 2, of the Act to Incorporate, approved Feb. 5, 1851, is, “to make regulations to prevent the introduction of contagious dis- eases into the city, to make quarantine laws for that purpose, and en- force the same within, five miles of the city ; to establish hospitals and 234 IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE make regulations for the government of the same; to make regulations to secure the general health of the inhabitants : In 1852 and 1853 ^^An ordinance to secure the health of the city, and to prevent nuis- ances” was passed. The ordinance has to do principally with nuisances, and no reference is made to quarantine regulations. On August 8, 1866, the City Council passed '‘An Ordinance to secure the Health of the City, providing for a Board of Health and other purposes.” In this ordinance the i\Iayor Avas empowered to appoint a hoard of health with the approA^al of the council, at any time it seemed advisable; the , board could be dissolved by tlie Mayor or the Council when there seemed to be no further reason for its continuance. Meetings were to be held, the first one of any year at the call of the Mayor, and others at either the call of the Mayor or at their own pleasure: it made its own rules of procedure. Section 4 defines the powers and duties of the board as folloAvs : ' ' Said Board of Health shall exercise general supervision over the city of Davenport, with full power to take all steps and use all measures to promote the cleanliness and salubrity thereof, to abate nuisances of eA^ery description, on public or prAate property; to pre- vent the introduction into the city of malignant, contagious diseases, and to remove or otherAvise dispose of any person attacked by any such diseases, and adopt in reference to such person any resolutions, restric- tions, or measures deemed advisable : and to establish rules and regula- tions for the government of the city hospital, and to prevent the intro- duction or spreading of cholera, ship-fever, small-pox, or other infectious or contagious diseases within the city.” The physicians were required to report all cases of ship-fever, cholera, or small-pox they Avere called upon to attend Avithin the city limits or within five miles of the city, Avithin twelve hours after examination of the patient. Proper precau- tions Avere reciuired Avith reference to the removal of patients with con- tagious disease to the hospital or to some retired place, or subjecting them to quarantine within their dwellings. Notice of the character of the disease Avas to be posted on the house or some other suitable place. Small- pox patients Avere also subjected to isolation under penalty of a fine. Fourteen of the sixteen sections of Art. 2 of the ordinance refer to rules and regulations Avith reference to boats and the passengers and crews. In these regulations the specific diseases cholera, ship-feA^er, and small-pox are named and also "any communicable disease of a fatal or dangerous character.” The penalty imposed upon the master of any vessel coming from the south was heavier than the penalty upon the boat master coming from any other direction if quarantine rules were disregarded. This indicates the dread that Avas felt Avith reference to IOWA ACADEMY OP SCIENCE 235 cholera, especially. It appears that the principal cause of fear was to he foui^ in the foreign diseases rather than in those that were endemic. Under date of Sept. 25, 1866, another health ordinance was passed, ‘‘To secure the better preservation of the health of the city. ’ ’ In Sec, 4, pro- vision is made for the appointment of a Health Inspector who was to be appointed at the first regular meeting of the council after the first Saturday in November, unless the council should otherwise direct. It was his duty to examine into the sanitary condition of the whole city. He was* vested with the requisite power to enforce all the health ordi- nances' of the city. “The office of health inspector was created in view of the fact that the Marshal’s time is largely taken up with his general duties, and in view of the further fact that it is not contemplated that a Board of Health will be organized unless in case of threatened or actual ^ *-»‘/^ , 4^’' ‘ - j-^^^>.aji^40jf>^-.S.‘^-,t,;:.VY*!rei|j^ .l' ■r»t- |UN,_''--U>,V,'-”(Vf’«»t'' ■ ■^Jt'-')iV-.>n,.^/,.\:y ■':^':,'V^>4^.>v-nV '""' '"‘'"i '' •'*''' r - !- ‘>, ' ’ Mv^*. •;'.ik ■’ r--' « '• '04 /.^’ ‘'f i-