THE

IINOC Je DUN Gs

OF THE

MNNEAN SOGIE TY

OF

INjane Sore WwONLES

FOR THE YEAR

1936

VOL. LXI.

WITH SEVENTEEN PLATES
and 196 Text-figures.

SYDNEY:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO., LTD.,
Seamer Street, Glebe, Sydney,

and
SOLD BY THE SOCIETY.
1936.

li CONTENTS.

CONTENTS OF PROCEEDINGS, 1936.

PARTS I-II (Nos. 263-264).
(Issued 15th May, 1936.)

Pages.
Presidential Address, delivered at the Sixty-first Annual General Meeting,

Axim Wieieeln, WRG, lo? IDic, WW Ibs \WeUCIRINOWISS 95° 56 40 oo bo) 05 IEROeamil
Elections XXXVili
Balance-sheets for the year ending 29th February, 1986 .. .. .. ..xxxix—xli
Notes on the Biology of Scaptia auriflua Don. (Diptera, Tabanidae). By

Mary BH. Fuller, B.Sc. (Plate i and eleven Text-figures.) 1-9
Notes on Australian Diptera. xxxv. By John R. Malloch. (Communi-

cated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.). (Nine Text-figures.) 10-26
Contributions to the Microbiology of Australian Soils. iv. The Activity

of Microorganisms in the Decomposition of Organic Matter. By

H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. (Hleven Text-

figures.) 27-55
Studies in the Australian Acacias. vi. The Meristematic Activity of

the Floral Apex of Acacia longifolia and Acacia suaveolens as a

Histogenetic Study of the Ontogeny of the Carpel. By I. V. Newman,

M.Sce., Ph.D., F.L.S., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany.

(Plates ii-v and fifteen Text-figures.) .. 56-88

PARTS III-IV (Nos. 265-266).

(Issued 15th September, 19306.)
Notes on Sarcophaginae in India and Australia. By G. H. Hardy .. 89-— 97
Australian Coleoptera. Notes and New Species. No. x. By H. J. Carter,

B.A., F.R.E:S. 98-110
A Check List of the New South Wales Pteridophytes. By Alma T.

Melvaine ei) Ve a Sc) ore tO Ge 111-121
Contribution to a Knowledge of Papuan Tipulidae (Diptera). By

Charles P. Alexander. (Communicated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S.,

F.Z.8.) (Seven Text-figures.) 122-127
A Redescription of Solomys (“Mus”) salamonis Ramsay. By Ellis Le G.

Troughton, C.M.Z.S. 128-130

The Structural Geology and Petrology of an Area near Yass, New South
Wales. By Kathleen Sherrard, M.Sc. (Plates vi-vii and nine Text-
figures. )

131-150

CONTENTS.

A Comparison of the Rydal and Hartley Exogenous Contact-zones. By
Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc, Ph.D. (One Text-figure.)

The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Boorook and Drake,
N.S.W. By A. H. Voisey, M.Sc. (Plate viii and one Text-figure.)

The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. iv. Family Tipulidae.
Part ii. By Charles P. Alexander. (Communicated by Frank H.
Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.) (Seventeen Text-figures. )

Two New Australian Fleas. By Karl Jordan, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Communi-
cated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S8.) (Two Text-figures.)

Introductory Account of the Geology and Petrology of the Lake George
District. Part i. General Geology. By M. D. Garretty, B.Sc. (Plate
ix and one Text-figure.)

Charles Hedley (Memorial Series, No. 5.) (With Portrait.)

PARTS V-VI (Nos. 267-268).
(Issued 15th December, 1936.)

The Adrenal Gland in New-born Mammals. By Geoffrey Bourne, D.Sc.
(Plate xi and twenty Text-figures.)

Studies in Australian Embioptera. Part i. Systematics. By Consett
Davis, B.Sc. (Forty-three Text-figures. )

Studies in Australian Embioptera. Part ii. Further Notes on Systematics. .

By Consett Davis, B.Sc. (Plate xii and seven Text-figures.)

Notes on Australian Diptera. xxxvi. By John R. Malloch. (Communi-
cated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.) (Four Text-figures. )

Problems in the Geology of New Caledonia. By H. I. Jensen, D.Sc. (With
a Note on the Petrology of a Small Collection of Schists, by
Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D.) (Communicated by Professor L. A.
Cotton.) (One Text-figure. )

Notes on the Occurrence of the Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in New
South Wales, and on their Mode of Nutrition, with a Description of a
New Species of Atichia. By Lilian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay
Fellow of the Society in Botany. (Plates xiii-xiv and ten Text-
figures.)

Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Part 1. Stratigraphy, Physiography
and Climate; General Distribution of Plant Communities and Inter-
pretation. By Consett Davis, B.Sc. (Plate xv.)

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. v. By A. Jefferis
Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.

The Colour-Changes of Batoid Fishes. By Mervyn Griffiths. (Plate xvi.)

lil

Pages.

151-154

155-168

169-183

184-185

186-207
209-220

221-228

229-253

254-258

259-261

262-276

277-284

285-297

298-317
318-321

lv CONTENTS.

Pages.
The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. v. Family Tipulidae.
Part iii. By Charles P. Alexander. (Communicated by F. H. Taylor,
F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.) (Twenty-seven Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. 322-340
Tannatt William Edgeworth David. (Memorial Series, No. 6). (With
Portrait. ) A SEA > é.aph Teegagniegy Elesoiareneto: | bia o Rae Od: (ee em alot
List of New Genera and Subgenera POEs OE Stee: Ol Sas MACE Acta Ti 359
List of Plates Bah i's ee chtcsieae xcs cit! ye PREM OE ob seme ae 25 am Und abe lic Si ee 360
INbDstract Oh rOceedines: Bc 7 t ccley ae eee ein roue ten tsien pect Tein nay Sm eae xlii-lv
Donations and Exchanges cite. CNET SERA et Mott sy ocaee bi Saaee UGEr Ear one ine Scena far Seman SVel == Xe VAIN
BISttOh Members! 6 © ee Pee Sai | eeaeeey Maes Uyparh erwin. chath DEER Deane 2 om Ixviii-lxxii

Index eee AT re cheat Ah eR Un A Nem aN ume A Oia Maw (ato 1S lie Dro cocci)

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.
WEDNESDAY, 25th Marcu, 1936.

The Sixty-first Annual General Meeting was held in the Society’s Rooms,
Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, on Wednesday, 25th March, 1936.

Dr. W. L. Waterhouse, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding Annual General Meeting (27th March, 1935)
were read and confirmed.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Since the Society last met the death of His Majesty King George V has
evoked an unprecedented expression of personal loss by his subjects throughout
the Empire. We, in common with all other members of this world-wide Empire,
join in expressing our sorrow at the loss of one who, during the twenty-five
years of his reign—a period which few Royal Houses have survived without
ruin and disruption—has, by his personal influence, endeared himself to his
subjects throughout the Empire, strengthened their loyalty and devotion to their
sovereign, and made more secure the position of the Imperial throne of Britain.
Your Council, on your behalf, has despatched, through official channels, a message
of sorrow and sympathy to His Majesty King Edward VIII.

The concluding part of Volume 1x of the Society’s ProcEEDINGS was issued in
December. The complete volume (466 plus Ixxv pages, nineteen plates and 417
text-figures) contains thirty-two papers from twenty-seven authors, five papers
being by Linnean Macleay Fellows and one by the Macleay Bacteriologist.

Exchanges from scientific societies and institutions totalled 1,865 receipts
for the session, aS compared with 1,866, 1,703 and 1,795 for the three preceding
years. During the past year the following institutions have been added to the
exchange list: Academie des Sciences d’Ukraine; Department of Geology of
Shanghai Science Institute; Entomological Society of Finland; Nederlandsch-
Indische Entomologische Vereeniging, Buitenzorg; Transvaal Museum, Pretoria;
and Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Athens.

Since the last Annual Meeting the names of seven Ordinary Members have
been added to the roll, three have resigned and the names of five have been
removed on account of arrears of subscription.

We offer our hearty congratulations to Mr. A. F. Basset Hull on the honour
of Membership of the Order of the British Empire conferred on him by His late
Majesty, King George V.

On the occasion of the celebration of the Jubilee of the Faculties of Veterinary
Science and Agriculture in the University of Sydney, messages of congratulation
were sent on behalf of the Society to Professors J. Douglas Stewart and R. D.
Watt.

Some time ago, on the death of Mr. J. J. Fletcher, members of the Society

subscribed a small sum of money for some personal memorial. The Council
A

li PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

recently decided to use this for the installation of clocks in the Society’s rooms
and for a small inscribed plate to be attached to the Society’s portrait of Mr.
Fletcher.

During last year your Council was actively interested in several matters
concerning the preservation of the native flora and fauna.

Efforts initiated by the Bulli Shire Council, to which this Society lent its
aid, resulted in the Government making available the necessary funds for the
resumption of an area of land at the foot of Bulli Pass and Sublime Point.
Thus there will be preserved one of the few remnants of rain-forest flora within
easy reach of Sydney, and also an important part of the beauty of the view from
Sublime Point. :

Recently Professor Osborn brought under the notice of the Forestry Commis-
sion of New South Wales the desirability of declaring an adequate flora reserve
in the State Forest south of Barrington Tops, and of adding to it the Williams
River section of the Chichester State Forest. This is one of the finest remaining
examples of untouched ‘rain forest’, and forms the usual approach to Barrington
Tops. This proposal of Professor Osborn was supported strongly by your Council,
and word has been received that it is anticipated that an area of about 2,000
acres of the Williams River section of Chichester State Forest No. 292 will shortly
be set apart as a Flora Reserve, and that the suggestion that the balance of the
Williams River section should be added to the Flora Reserve is being investigated.

The protection of certain species of wild flowers was continued by proclama-
tion by the Government for another year from 1st July, 1935, and, following
representations made to the Department of Local Government by your Council,
and supported by the Killara Community Service Club, the names of twelve
species of orchids were added to the list. There is no doubt that, with this
protection, there has been a very marked improvement in the growth of the
wild flowers in the areas to which the proclamation applies.

Your Council also addressed a letter of protest to the Minister for Defence
against the leasing of the remaining portion of George’s Heights, in view of the
almost inevitable destruction of native flora and fauna; and also brought under
the notice of the responsible authorities the possible danger to the small ground
fauna which might result if the Great Mexican Toad were introduced into
Queensland and liberated as had been proposed.

Last year representatives of the Society met the Vice-Chancellor of the
University and made suggestions for improvement in the conditions under which
the Macleay Collections were housed. As a result I am pleased to be able to
say that these Collections (and particularly the insect collection) are now
housed under much more satisfactory conditions, and I take this opportunity of
expressing the thanks of the Society to the University, and particularly to the
Vice-Chancellor, for the interest shown in the welfare of the Collections.

The Imperial Forestry Institute submitted a proposal to the Sixth Inter-
national Botanical Congress at Amsterdam last September for the adoption of
the principle of the conservation of specific names (nomina specifica conservanda),
a proposal which was supported by a number of scientific organizations, including
our Society. The Congress rejected the proposal as put forward, but agreed to
the appointment of an International Committee to draw up a list of names of
economic plants, sanctioned by an International Committee, i.., drawn up
according to the International rules, such list to remain in use for a period of
ten years. The Committee was appointed and will proceed with its work, and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. iii

it is expected that the list will be published, accompanied by lists of nomina
ambigua, nomina confusa and nomina rejicienda.

Charles Darwin’s only visit to Australia took place in 1836, from 12th January
to 14th March. A special meeting, in which scientific and historical societies
joined, was held on 13th March at the University to celebrate the centenary of
this visit.

The year’s work of the Society’s research staff may be summarized thus:

Mr. H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society, concluded his work
on the activity of microorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter in soil.
His scheme of work comprised series of experiments dealing with (i) decom-
position of the organic matter originally present in the soil (‘humus’), and
(ii) decomposition of organic matter added to the soil. His results indicate
that it seems to be a general principle that the metabolism of the soil microflora,
as a whole, becomes less economic with increasing temperature, i.e., transformation
of a certain quantity of organic material results in the production of less microbial
substance and more waste products (water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrate, etc.)
at higher than at lower temperatures. These two phenomena, accumulation of
protein in microbial bodies and slow or absent decomposition of lignin at low
temperature (as shown by other investigators) give a simple explanation for the
tendency of plant residues to accumulate as “humus” in soils of cold climates
and to be more completely decomposed under warmer conditions. One paper
appeared in the ProcrEepines for 1935, and a final paper on this work has been
completed and will appear in the first part of the Procrrpines for 1936. In
January he commenced work on the problem of nitrogen fixation and nitrification
in Australian wheat soils. The first experiments have been undertaken in order
to ascertain whether such soils are able to enrich themselves in nitrogen when
provided with suitable energy materials (sugar or straw) and placed under
favourable conditions of moisture and temperature, and what kinds of nitrogen-
fixing microorganisms are active, if any. The soils so far examined have not
given any clear evidence of biological nitrogen-fixation, but their humus-nitrogen
appears readily available for nitrification.

Miss Lilian Fraser, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany,
completed three papers in the series of studies on the Sooty Moulds of New
‘South Wales, which were published in the Procrrpines. In pursuing her investiga-
tions of the powers of resistance to heat and desiccation of the sooty mould fungi,
she has discovered the presence, in air-dry living cells, of a bubble of gas
occupying the centre of each cell in the position of the vacuole. This bubble may
occupy as much as two-thirds of the cell, and, when water is absorbed by the cell,
the gas is taken into solution in the cell sap. The presence of these bubbles has
made it possible to determine the osmotic pressure of the cell sap, which could
not be done by ordinary plasmolytic methods, and also the absorptive power of
cells in atmospheres of controlled vapour pressure, as well as to measure the
rate of water loss at different vapour pressures. Experiments have shown that
dried mycelium (the cells of which contain gas bubbles) have a greater resistance
to heat than mycelium in a moistened condition. Certain sooty mould associations
have been found to be characteristic of distinct habitats, e.g., open sunny situations,
shaded places, densely shaded and humid places, and these associations fall into
definite groups when classified on the basis of their powers of resistance to heat
and desiccation. Miss Fraser has also carried out microchemical tests on the
walls of cultivated and naturally-occurring sooty moulds. These have shown

iv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

that a large quantity of mucilage can be extracted; the nature of this mucilage
and other substances extracted is being investigated. She has studied the distri-
bution of epiphyllous fungi characteristic of rain forest regions, and has continued
her ecological work in the Upper Williams River rain forest area. During the
coming year Miss Fraser proposes (i) further experiments on resistance to light
and desiccation, leading to a scheme of distribution of sooty mould fungi based
on their reactions to heat, light and desiccation, and possibly to the relation
of their type of resistance to their physical peculiarities; (ii) additional studies
of the gas-bubbles observed during the past year; (iii) completion of work on
absorption of water vapour, osmotic pressure, and imbibition already commenced;
and (iv) completion, if possible, of the ecological work in the Upper Williams
River area.

Dr. I. V. Newman, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany, made
a second extensive search in the Cootamundra district for the natural home of
Acacia Baileyana, the Cootamundra Wattle. As a result he has published a paper,
“Studies in the Australian Acacias. v. The Problems of the Status and Distribu-
tion of Acacia Baileyana F.v.M.” This paper gives the first precise records of
the natural habitat of the species, with his conclusion that it is a true species.
This conclusion is now being examined by germination tests with seeds collected
from two of the localities described in the paper. The work on the genetics of
Acacia discolor has been continued, and seedlings from the 1934 season’s crosses
have been established. The flower colour was found to be due to the presence of
different pigments in different distributions. With improved technique more
extensive crossing was done in 1935. No results are yet available. The study of
the morphology of the legumes of Acacia longifolia and Acacia suaveolens has
been concluded. It is clearly demonstrated that the legume is a single structure,
laterad to the suppressed floral apex. The meristematic activity producing the
parts of the flower is described as similar to that producing the leaves of the
vegetative shoot, except that the flower is of limited growth. These findings are
contrary to the theories of several well-known botanists, and a preliminary note
has been published in the Procrepines. A paper giving a full account and discus-
sion of the work has been completed and will appear in this year’s PROCEEDINGS.
During the coming year Dr. Newman proposes to work on polyspermy of the
endosperm in Acacia Baileyana and A. discolor, and on the theoretical and com-
parative morphology of the legume; he will also continue the work on the
genetics of Acacia discolor.

Mr. R. N. Robertson, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany, has
investigated two distinct botanical problems during the year: the physiology
of stomatal movement and the ecology of the Myall Lakes. Both these problems
were begun before his appointment to a Fellowship. The problem of stomatal
movement was approached from the point of view of the relationship of the
movement to the composition of the gas of the intercellular spaces. The gas is
analysed after extraction and early in the year the technique of extraction was
perfected. Later it was decided to try a different method of analysis and a new
apparatus was constructed. The method of investigation has proved very satis-
factory. A series of results showing the relationship of several kinds of stomatal
movement to changes in the gas composition has been obtained. This method
of investigation is quite original and the results indicate that, in addition to
clarifying the problems of stomatal movement, they will throw some light on the
complex mechanism of photosynthesis in the green leaf. The ecological work

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vv

(in collaboration with Professor Osborn) is being done on the Myall Lakes area
where there is a complex aggregation of plant formations and communities. The
area includes dune vegetation, swamp vegetation, eucalypt forest and sub-tropical
rain forest. Considerable work has been done on the developments of the dune
and swamp formations. The interesting problem of the distribution of the sub-
tropical rain forest was also begun this year. During the coming year Mr.
Robertson proposes to continue his physiological investigations of stomatal move-
ment, and also the ecological work on the Myall Lakes area.

Five valid applications for Linnean Macleay Fellowships (one of which was
ultimately withdrawn) were received in response to the Council’s invitation of
25th September, 1935. I have pleasure in reminding you that the Council
reappointed Miss Lilian Fraser, Dr. I. V. Newman and Mr. R. N. Robertson to
Fellowships in Botany for one year from ist March, 1936, and in announcing
that the Council appointed Miss E. C. Pope, B.Sc., to a Fellowship in Zoology
for one year from ist March, 1936. We may wish all four Fellows a successful
year’s work.

Miss Elizabeth Carington Pope graduated in Science at the University of
Sydney with First-class Honours in Zoology in March, 1935, and was awarded a
Science Research Scholarship in Zoology. She has carried out research on the
variation of fat and glycogen in oysters, and on the osmotic conditions prevailing
in snails when submerged in various aquatic media. During 1935 she worked
on the comparative anatomy of the Tiger Flathead. For her year’s work as a
Fellow she proposes to carry out a study of the morphology and physiology of the
Port Jackson Shark and, if suitable live material can be obtained, an investigation
of the digestion of Elasmobranchs. She proposes also to take part in a study of
the ecology of Long Reef.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON CEREAL RUST PROBLEMS IN AUSTRALIA.
Introduction.

As is well known, the main objective of our Society is the cultivation and
study of the science of Natural History in all its branches. Many of these
branches have claimed the attention of the occupants of the Presidential Chair in
their addresses given in the years that have gone. Tonight it is intended to
deal with certain aspects of what is often regarded as one of the newer branches
of science, viz., Plant Pathology.

It is not without interest to recall that on the 25th February, 1880, Rev.
J. E. Tenison-Woods, then President of this Society, contributing a joint paper
with Mr. F. M. Bailey entitled “On some fungi of N.S.W. and Queensland”, made
the following statement: ‘In conclusion, we beg to draw attention to the very
great importance which the study of fungi possesses for a young country like
ours, which depends so much upon its agriculture. Sad experience has taught
us how its prospects may be injured by blight, mildews, smuts, rusts, ete. Little
or nothing is known about the origin and spread of these terrible pests, and it is
equally certain that if they were known they would in a measure be provided
against. Although by many mycologists the polymorphy of these blights has been
doubted, yet experience seems to have decided that a blight of one kind affecting
one class of plants may be transformed into a mildew or rust amongst cereal
crops.” Then, after quoting experiments overseas which proved the connection of
barberries and wheat rust, the President continued, “In the locality referred to,
the destruction of the barberry bushes has been the salvation of the crop.”

vi - PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Although so generally regarded as a new science, it is seen that the importance
of Plant Pathology in Australia was pointed out in this Society more than 50
years ago.

Actually it is a very old subject. As Whetzel (1918) points out, Plant
Pathology, like the other natural sciences, had its beginning in the dawn of
man’s civilization. Wild plants, as well as those which have been brought under
cultivation, are subject to disease, and from the earliest times when man set
out to utilize plant products, he noticed that diseases robbed him of some or of
all his labour. As the art of writing was acquired, he recorded his observations
and opinions respecting plant diseases.

Thus we find references in the early Hebraic writings to plants being affected
by “blasting and mildew”: the latter is believed to be the disease which at the
present time we call rust. In those days the cause of the plant maladies was
attributed to the Deity.

Of the Greeks, Theophrastus (3870-286 B.c.) makes many accurate observa-
tions upon plant diseases, including rust. For example, he writes: ‘Generally
speaking, cereals are more liable to rust than pulses, and among these, barley is
more liable to it than wheat; while of the barleys, some are more liable than
others, and most of all, it may be said, the kind called ‘Achillean’. Moreover,
the position and character of the land make no small difference in this respect;
for lands which are exposed to wind and elevated are not liable to rust, or are
less so, whilst those which lie low and are not exposed to wind are more liable.
And rust occurs chiefly at full moon.”

The Romans also clearly recognized the occurrence of plant diseases. So
important was rust in Roman agriculture that a special rust-god pair, Rubigus
and Rubigo, were evolved and an annual festival instituted to propitiate them.
It fell on the 25th April, now such an important National Day in Australia. Pliny
records that wheat was more seriously affected than barley. He recommends
early sowing in order that the grain may ripen before the rust comes on, and
the sticking of laurel branches in the soil throughout the field so that the rust
may go over them.

Following the long lapse of time known as the Dark Era, during which
science and learning were slumbering, in the 17th century there came a revival
of interest in plant diseases. The philosophy and superstition of the ancients
still dominated opinion respecting the causation of disease. One notable event
was the enactment of legislation in 1660 in Rouen making it compulsory to destroy
barberries because they had some mysterious connection with cereal rusts. During
the next 200 years attempts were made to classify diseases and to find out what
caused them. The general idea at the time was that the fungi found associated
with diseases were plant products and outgrowths, rather than the cause of the
troubles.

With the marked mycologic trend of thought about the middle of last century,
and with such workers as Kiihn, De Bary, Tulasne and Pasteur in the field, the
proof that fungi were causal agents of disease was firmly established, and plant
pathology as a science was placed on a sound footing. Its growth since those
times has been very rapid, and the contributions it has made to the well-being
of man have been many and valuable. Nevertheless the successes achieved in this
field of endeavour should be neither exaggerated nor underrated, for there remain
numerous problems of outstanding importance still awaiting elucidation.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vii

Importance of Plant Diseases.

Plant diseases are of the utmost importance to the welfare of man. Not only
do they continuously take a heavy toll of crops, but at times they have actually
threatened the food supply of man. They become the limiting factors in crop
production in many regions.

The group of diseases known as the cereal rusts well illustrate the above
statements. Whilst it is always difficult to obtain exact figures which measure the
losses caused by disease, many careful estimates have been made by trained
observers, and these are probably not far from the truth in most cases. It is
instructive to bring together some of these records of rust damage, and particularly
those relating to recent times. The enormous losses occasioned by the cereal
rusts are often not realized.

Taking the case of wheat, it is found that wherever this crop is grown,
damage is caused by rust. Seasonal variations, of course, vastly affect the
incidence of rust and the losses it causes, so that marked fluctuations occur in
any given area.

Biffen and Engeldow (1926) suggest that the total annual loss caused by cereal
rusts amounts to £100,000,000. This is a stupendous sum, but references to actual
losses reported in different countries indicate that it may not be an over-estimate.

Foreign Crop Losses.

There are many records of losses in countries other than Australia. Last
year provided a striking example of calamitous rust damage in the North American
wheat crops. In U.S.A. it was estimated early in July that the yield would be
731,045,000 bushels. However, seasonal conditions favoured rust development,
with the result that the actual quantity harvested was 599,000,000 bushels. If we
place a value of 4s. per bushel on these 132,045,000 bushels lost, the damage
totalled more than £26,000,000. In Canada it was similarly estimated that the
yield would be 365,000,000 bushels. Actually the harvest amounted to 273,971,000
bushels, owing almost entirely to the ravages of rust. Taking the 91,000,000
bushels lost at the same value, the Canadian damage amounted to more than
£18,000,000. In addition to this actual crop loss, practically all the grain harvested
was of such poor quality that its value was reduced by several pence per bushel.
Furthermore, it was estimated that 70,000,000 bushels of the Canadian crop were
totally unfit for human consumption. All together these 1935 losses in North
America exceed £60,000,000.

Giissow has stated that in Canada the average annual loss over a number of
years exceeds £5,000,000. More recently the annual Canadian losses from rust
have been put down by Greaney (1933) at 40,000,000 dollars. In India Mehta
(1931) states that the annual loss is about £3,000,000. In Kenya Colony wheat
rust is reported by Burton (1928) to be “a limiting factor in production”. Rust
damage in South Africa is well known, although actual figures are not available;
Verwoerd (1935) states that several destructive epidemics between 1896 and 1902
nearly terminated wheat growing, and that during the past decade rust epidemics
have appeared to become far more prevalent than formerly.

A severe rust epidemic occurred in Europe in 1932. Russian losses were
estimated by Grooshevoy (1934) to have amounted to £32,500,000. The damage
in Germany was put down by Klemm (1934) at from 30 to 60 per cent. of the
normal yield. which that year amounted to 184,000,000 bushels. The Bulgarian
damage was estimated by Dodoff (1933) to vary between 30 and 100 per cent. in

viii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

a crop which yielded 50,000,000 bushels. According to Savulescu (1933) Rumanian
crops suffered to the extent of 50 per cent.; actually they yielded 55,000,000
bushels. It would seem that Biffen and Engeldow’s figure was not excessive
for 1932.

Losses in France in 1930 owing to stem rust are stated by Crépin (1931)
to have amounted to 50 per cent. of the crops in some regions: the harvest in
that year amounted to 231,000,000 bushels. In 1929 it was reported from Peru
by Abbott (1929), that owing to rust attack the cultivation of wheat has been
abandoned in coastal areas. lLindfors (1929) states that ravages of rust ruined
the crop in Sweden in that year. Tunis crops in 1928, which yielded 12,000,000
bushels, suffered to the extent of from 40 to 80 per cent., according to Chabrolin
(1929). Bailey (1928) records tremendous losses in 1927 when one of the worst
rust epidemics occurred in Canada. Great damage was done to crops in Germany
in 1926 when the crop harvested amounted to 95,000,000 bushels; these losses
were stated (Gunther, 1927) to be the heaviest since 1891, when the loss was
estimated to total Mk. 418,000,000. Heavy losses had also been experienced in
1925. Rust caused ‘‘a disastrous harvest” in the Argentine in that year, its crop
amounting to 191,000,000 bushels. To cite one further case, the terrific rust
epidemic in North America in 1916 was responsible for crop losses totalling
300,000,000 bushels, valued at about £75,000,000.

Rust Losses in Australia.

Turning now to Australian losses from rust, and particularly those in New
South Wales, it is found that these have been serious. Wheat-growers from the
earliest times have had grave difficulties to contend with; rust has not been the
least of them.

Reviewing in some detail the first half century in New South Wales, we find
that soon after the first settlers came to Australia 150 years ago they encountered
the rust problem. Upon their arrival in Port Jackson in 1788, land was cleared
and wheat sown in a piece of ground which is now included in the Sydney
Botanic Gardens. Darnell Smith (1929) has recently reviewed this situation
and confirmed the location. Collins (1798) refers to this work of preparing for
the first wheat crop, and Governor Phillip, in a dispatch to Lord Sydney dated
15th May, 1788, and reprinted in the Historical Records, says: “The great labour
of clearing will not permit more than 8 acres being sown this year with wheat
and barley.” Collins (ibid.), writing of the condition in September (p. 41), says:
“The seed wheat that was sown here did not turn out any better than that at
Norfolk Island: in some places the ground was twice cropped and there was reason
to apprehend a failure of seed for next year.” He had just recorded the return
of the supply ship from Norfolk Island with news of crop failure there.

There are several references to the second Australian crop. Thus Collins
(p. 88), writing of December, 1789, says: ‘In the course of this month the harvest
was got in; the ground in cultivation at Rose Hill [the present-day Parramatta]
produced upward of 200 bushels of wheat, about 35 bushels of barley, and a small
quantity of oats and Indian corn, all of which was intended to be reserved for
seed. At Sydney, the spot of ground called the Governor’s Farm had been sown
only with barley, and produced about 25 bushels.” Governor Phillip, in a dispatch
to Lord Sydney dated 12th February, 1790, gives this same information, and
Barrington (1802) also quotes it.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ix

Following upon a gap of six years in the record of crop production, Collins
(p. 442), writing of December, 1795, says: ‘“‘The harvest was begun this month.
The Cape wheat (a bearded grain differing much from the English) was found
universally to have failed. An officer who had sown 7 acres with this seed at a
farm in the district of Petersham Hill [the present site of the University of
Sydney], on cutting it down found it was not worth reaping. This was owing to
a blight: but everywhere the Cape wheat was pronounced not worth the labour
of sowing.” The “blight” referred to here may well have been a plant disease,
and possibly rust. Governor Hunter, in a dispatch written on 3rd March, 1796,
to the Duke of Portland (Historical Records, Vol. i, p. 554), also refers to this
crop in the following terms: ‘‘We have got our harvest in, and it is, upon the
whole, in point of quantity as well as quality, very superior to anything which
this country has before experienced, although a few blights and other accidents
had disappointed the expectations of some very industrious settlers.” In a further
dispatch dated 28th April, 1796, Governor Hunter says: ‘‘At the time of my
arrival in Sydney, although our wheat looked well, it was, nevertheless, at that
time in that state liable to accident, as appeared afterwards in the destruction
of the crop of some of the settlers by blight.” The estimated wheat yield in
that year was “from 35,000 to 40,000 bushels’. The acreage under wheat was
stated to be 2,7213 acres, hence the harvest yielded an average of from 12 to 143
bushels per acre.

After a year’s interval in the record, there is the following reference to the
succeeding crop contained in a dispatch of Governor Hunter to the Duke of
Portland, dated Ist November, 1798 (Historical Records, Vol. ii, p. 237): ““We have
been in an uncommon sultry season attended with a sérious drought. ... Our
crops have suffered so much I do not expect we shall reap more than half the
quantity we had a right to have expected.”

The next year’s crop is referred to in the dispatch by Governor Hunter,
dated 20th March, 1800. He says (Historical Records, Vol. ii, p. 473): “Great
part of our last unfortunate harvest, from which I had once the flattering
prospect of at least 2 years’ wheat in the colony, has been destroyed by an
uncommonly wet season.”

The first clear and definite reference to rust attack in Australia is interesting.
It is made by Mr. Holt, who (Bennett, 1865) was superintending, in 1803, the
agricultural operations of Captain Cox, one of the largest cultivators of that
period. His holding was known as Brush Farm, in the Dundas district. The
present Hastwood railway station is close to its site. It should be borne in
mind that Holt’s statement is that of an agriculturist; it contrasts rather sharply
with statements made by other early historians who were naval officers and
what not. In his “Memoirs”, Holt writes (Vol. ii, p. 191): “On the 21st October,
1803, a more beautiful appearance of a successful harvest never flattered the
expectations of a farmer; it was within 3 weeks of being ripe, the ears were
full and plump, the straw clear and well-coloured, and in every respect it was
gratifying to look at. ...In 8 days it was completely destroyed by the rust
[this word should be noted], and the produce of 265 acres was not worth £20.
This extraordinary blight, which is, I believe, peculiar to this country, is produced
by fogs, which come on suddenly and obscure the sky for some days; and if it
happens when the wheat is nearly ripe, inevitably destroys it. It covers the
whole straw and ear with reddish powder, like the rust of iron, which falls off as
you walk through the standing corn and ironmolds cotton or linen articles

B

x PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

like iron rust, and so effectually that in a very short time they rot and fall in
pieces.”

This statement is quoted by Rumsey (1915) and by Potts (1924), who both
enlarge upon it.

Official records of the period also refer to this disaster in the young colony.
Thus Governor King, in his dispatch of 8th October, 1803 (Historical Records,
Vol. iv, p. 416), reports: “I have great pleasure in assuring your Lordship that
we have the most flattering prospects of a plentiful harvest.” Three weeks later,
writing on 31st October, he says: “Our crops wear a favourable appearance of
yielding such an abundance of wheat that I hope a reduction will be made in the
price of that required from individuals next year.” Later still, on 14th November,
he writes: “Our very promising appearance of abundant crops has considerably
suffered by some very unusual blights [this word should be noted] while the
wheat was in bloom, which it is estimated have destroyed a fifth of what might
have been expected.” A last reference to this crop is contained in his dispatch
of 1st March, 1804, which reads: “I am very sorry to say that we have experienced
the greatest drought, with severe blight, which has much reduced our crop... .
A ehange of seed would be a very great acquisition to be sent here from
England ... as there has been no change of seed for some years. As our
last year’s crop of grain was much injured by rust and smut [these words are
noteworthy], about 500 or 1,000 bushels would be sufficient to bring the country
into a general change of seed.”

The next year’s crop in New South Wales is alluded to in Governor King’s
dispatch of 20th December, 1804 (Historical Records, Vol. v, p. 171), as follows:
“Our wheat harvest, which is all got in, is esteemed very abundant, although
some partial appearances seemed likely to check it.” The early expectations of
the time that Norfolk Island might become a granary for the young colony were
doomed to disappointment, as shown by the dispatch of the same Governor, dated
30th April, 1805 (p. 327): “The crops of wheat belonging to individuals [at
Norfolk Island] have generally turned out favourable, but that of the Govern-
ment’s from the circumstance of its having been blighted, is conjectured will
not yield more than 9 or 10 bushels to the acre.”

The crop of 1805 is mentioned in King’s dispatch of lst November, 1805
(Historical Records, Vol. v, p. 600). He says: “It is a matter of much concern,
knowing as we did the blighted state of last year’s wheat, that another and more
formidable enemy should lessen its quality.” It is not within the scope of this
address to deal with this additional insect trouble, which was called “fly moth
in the grain”. A later dispatch, dated 15th March, 1806 (p. 649), goes on: “In
October it was found that the wheat when in blossom had in some districts
suffered very much by the blights and lightning, and where grain was formed,
much smut and rust were found. ... In this place it is necessary to observe
that among other causes of the wheat failure, the want of a change of seed and
the careless manner in which many of the settlers prepare and sow their grounds
are not the least. ... And it is to be hoped that the exchange of wheat seed,
which may be made with the new settlements under the exertion of 1 or 2
individuals in detaining a change from a small quantity of Red Lammas sent

an officer in a letter from England, will in time remedy this want... . It is not
my intention to discourage the growth of that valuable grain, but I do not
think it safe for the settlement to rely wholly on wheat for the general support

of every class of the inhabitants. It is soon destroyed in the field by the blight,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xi

rust, smut and caterpillar. Also in this climate by fire, both in harvest and
in the stack, and by weevils and corn moths when in the granary. ...I am
also of opinion that the period is not far distant when maize must be more
generally used than it is at present, because wheat cannot be raised for the
general support of the settlement by those at present employed in agriculture.”

In 1807, shortly after the arrival of a new governor, we have one further
comment worthy of repetition, and then a fairly long gap in the record. Governor
Bligh’s dispatch of 31st October, 1807 (Historical Records, Vol. vi, p. 147), reads:
“Indian corn is not so liable to the blight and other casualties as attend English
grain. ... Seasons of drought and south-west winds the country is sometimes
injured by, as likewise by lightning, which causes blight, fly-moth and other
pernicious insects.” It is perhaps appropriate that there should be a gap after
such a statement as this!

During this interval colonization of the continent was extended and wheat-
growing spread to new areas. A decade later, Montague Smith (1818, p. 9)
notes that the plains and the forest lands of the Hunter River district of New
South Wales suffered from rust in wheat. He states that the only places which
escaped were patches of virgin soil, although the weather conditions were favour-
able for rust development.

Five years later are found two references of interest. Barron Field (1823)
states (p. 5): “The harvest we have just reaped on this side of the mountains,
though its quantity is diminished on account of the drought, still proved a
saving average crop. The extent of cultivation, compared with that of last year,
is increased, the quality of the grain very superior and free from smut and grass
seed.” In the same year Commissioner Bigge (1823), on p. 19, makes the
following comment: “Independent of the effects of an uncertain climate that is
not generally favourable to the growth of European grains, and of a degree
of heat that either too suddenly or too quickly follows a long series of heavy
rains and scorches rather than matures it, the smaller grains of N.S.W., though
equal in quality to those of the south of Hurope, have to contend with frequent
blights at Bathurst, and either from the proper seasons for sowing not having
yet been discovered, or from some other cause, the wheat has been always affected
with smut.”

Atkinson (1826), in his interesting account of early New South Wales, also
alludes to crop troubles. He says (p. 43): “Smut is prevalent in wheat. .
Rust sometimes appears, but is not very common: and wheat is sometimes blighted
by the hot winds and other causes in the month of November, more especially
upon alluvial lands and other low and confined situations where there is not
sufficient circulation of air.”

Writers in the Sydney Gazette of this period make occasional illuminating
references to the crops in the young colony. Thus in the issue of the 7th
November, 1829, the Agricultural Report contains this statement: ‘A dry spell
has been followed by September rains. There is much second growth wheat and
a danger of smut, rust and blight.” The issue of 9th January, 1830, refers to the
harvest of this same crop as follows: “The quantity is not up to expectations.
50 sheaves of excellent creeping wheat have been taken to make 2 bushels of
grain ...and when exposed to blight, not less than 160 sheaves were threshed
out for 1 bushel.” This indicates a severe loss. Writing on the 30th January,
1830, regarding the harvest at Hunter River, the commentator says: ‘‘With the

xii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

exception of a few, all the wheat crops (including Patrick’s Plains and upwards)
were almost total failures. . . . The late wheat, although to appearance twice
the crop of the early wheat, has on an average rather fallen short, than exceeded
the latter, on account of the smut and rust which assailed it shortly after the
setting in of the rains.”

The next season’s crop at Hunter River is described in the issue of the
Gazette of 30th November, 1830, as follows: “Almost all the wheat on the low
grounds has been either totally spoiled or materially damaged: but the wheat on
the high ground appeared of good quality, neither laid by the rains, nor (except
in a few instances) affected either by blight or rust.”

Disease was also present in the following season’s crop, the reporter in the
issue of the Gazette dated 3rd December, 1830, writing, in reference to wheat: “In
some fields which were sown late, and on land which had been repeatedly cropped,
smut and rust have appeared.” And, dealing with Bathurst, he says: “The
neglect of liming, or some other effective mode, has caused a great deal of smut
to appear in the wneat of the present crops, which in all reasonable probability
might have been avoided.”

Next in chronological order may be mentioned the book of Dawson (1831).
Writing of coastal areas (p. 366), he states: “The land is subject to blights in
the upper districts. ... The failure of the last two harvests in succession from
droughts and blights, with a similar prospect for the third, is well known.” And
on page 400: “Mildew is little known in N.S.W.; the plants on the best soils
are kept down by the droughts from that degree of plethora which occasions a
rupture of the sap vessels in a more humid climate, and which in England I
believe to be the cause of what is termed mildew, in contradistinction to blights,
which in the higher districts in N.S.W. appear te be caused by the frosts, when
the wheat is in bloom. ... The mischief and distress which have ensued in ~
consequence of the repeated destruction of the wheat crop from the above cause
are beyond calculation, and especially during the seasons of 1827, 1828 and 1829.
They serve to show, in the strongest manner, how very much the space is limited
in which a crop of grain can be calculated upon between the mountains and the
sea from the cause of blight alone, independent of the failures which arise from
the effect of droughts.”

The 1831 crop was again affected. In the Sydney Gazette of 12th January,
1832, it is stated, in regard to Bathurst: “In the wheat crops, smut is very
prevalent; so much so that parts of some paddocks will not be reaped because the
produce would not remunerate for the labour.” Again, in the issue of the 2nd
February, 1832, referring to Argyle district, the writer says: “The little wheat that
has been threshed out yields very badly, being excessive smutty and blighted. Very
little will come to Sydney market from hence this year.” A few days later, on
7th February, the Bathurst harvest is again referred to as follows: “Most of the
farmers complain of the smut, and some have certainly suffered very much from
this cause.’ A more cheering statement occurs in the issue of the 3rd March,
1832, as follows: “A new variety which has been introduced by Mr. Cobb has
been found to be peculiarly hardy, and was not affected by smut, although it was
grown by the side of Red Lammas, which was much injured by the disease.”

Taking finally the crop of 1832, it is described in the Sydney Gazette of
4th December, 1832, in these terms in a report dealing with the district of
Argyle: “The wheat sown after the middle of April comprises more than three-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xili

fourths of the year’s crop, is invariably bad, thin upon the ground, and very
weak and full of smut.” Two days later, the journal states, in regard to
Illawarra district: “The wheat is very much affected with smut and rust.” The
Hunter River crop is described in the issue of 15th December, 1832, in these
terms: ‘‘The wheat crops ripened quick, and reaping became general early in the
month. Smut prevails in every part of the district, and rust partially
appears. ... The wheat from this district will be of inferior quality.” Further
reference to this same Hunter River crop is contained in the issue of 12th
January, 1833, where one reads: ‘Many persons who had observed smutty ears
in the crops in the earlier stages of its growth, have been agreeably disappointed
in finding at the time of reaping that they had disappeared, and that their
samples of wheat are clean and bright. It is stated that the dry weather has
been the cause of this gratifying change, which, if true, is a new fact for
consideration of scientific agriculturists.”

This melancholy tale of disease damage to the crops goes on during the next
hundred years, not only in New South Wales, but in the other wheat-growing
States of Australia. It is intended to recount briefly some of the chief references
to rust attack during this period. These are somewhat scattered in the earlier
part, but show that the trouble persisted and was serious.

In 1860, the wheat crop in New South Wales was a complete failure, according
to a report made by McAlpine (1891) to the Second Session of the Rust in Wheat
Conference. He says that from 1862 until 1890 the presence of rust was recorded.
The years 1863 and 1864 were bad rust years, aS were also the years 1878 and
1889.

Holroyd (1864), in the 3rd Annual Report of the Acclimatization Society of
N.S.W., records that crops in New South Wales began to show rust as early as
October. Rust was an epidemic. He had travelled through many districts and
had never seen a field that was not more or less attacked by rust. In the
following annual report, Mackellar (1865) states that indigenous grasses are
affected by rust. As far as wheats were concerned, “Hgyptian Seven-eared” and
the Egyptian bearded wheat were not subject to rust.

It was about this time that concerted action in Australia seems first to have
been taken to deal with rust. Schomburgk (1873) read a paper in January, 1868,
in which he quotes a report to the Board of Agriculture, Melbourne, which in
1865 had appointed a Commission to inquire into the cause of rust in cereals.
Baron F. von Mueller’s report to the Commission contains many interesting
statements, which are quoted by Schomburgk. After urging that the inquiries
should be extended over several seasons, he stresses two main considerations.
First, he says, the main evidence points to the need for early sowing. “In the
sap oliquescent from points of mechanical ruptures, especially if this sap should
contain the needful proportion of incombustible elements, the seeds or spores of
rust fungus are readily absorbed and brought into germination. ... The accumu-
lation of these minute vegetating parasites, especially on the stems of the cereal,
impedes the free flow of sap, and in consuming and arresting it, prevents the
young and weak fruit spikes to asssimilate the needful nutriment during that
advanced season of the year when the rust fungus usually commits its ravages.

“Next in importance is the choice of early ripening varieties and those armed
with the strongest coating of an epidermal siliceous deposit, and which are other-
wise distinguished for their hardihood.”

Xiv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

The report goes on to state that the Committee bears out the testimony of
Sir Joseph Banks enunciated in an essay as early as 1806, and then republished
in Koenig and Sim’s Journal, that the seed of diseased wheat, though its
aluminous portion might have shrivelled, can be employed for seed grain as
long as the embryo is fairly developed. ‘“. .. The seeds of rusted wheat, in most
instances, produced a richer yield than crops raised from the best of imported
grain—the latter, we need not say, taken from plants free of rust. This apparent
anomaly is as yet not satisfactorily explained. ... It would appear that the
plants which succumbed to the fungus were generally of an undue succulence,
flaccidity and softness. Tuscan seed wheat imported from Gumeracka, South
Australia, turned out very soft and ruined by rust, whilst on the same fields, the
English pedigree, Spalding’s, red and rough chaff white wheat, remained
perfectly free from disease. This singular fact clearly demonstrates that the
occurrence of rust is not dependent on climatic conditions alone, but more likely
on the effect and reaction of a variety of causes and of circumstances, none of
them in themselves, perhaps, sufficient to produce the disaster. It would point
also to an innate susceptibility of certain varieties to suffer from the devastation
of the fungus. . .. Sowing wheat thickly induces rust. ... Even if a crop is
attacked, dry hot weather may check it. Soaking grain in slaked lime and water,
2 lbs. lime per bushel, and dressing land with common salt have been recom-
mended. For absolutely guarding against successive failures of crops through
ravages of parasitic fungi, when their fast spread in a previous season leads
us to dread their reappearance, the farmer can only rely on the detection of
varieties and kinds of grain which remain free from attacks of the parasite.” The
report goes on to give detailed observations on the cause of the fearful develop-
ment and rapid spread of the disease in the season 1867-1868, when there was
unusually wet weather in September and October followed by exceptionally early
hot winds. ;

Apart from Victoria, similar action was taken in South Australia. Parliament
voted £200 to the Royal Agricultural Society in 1864 to inquire into wheat diseases.
McAlpine (1891) states that 1868 was a very bad rust year in South Australia,
and in 1869 was published the report of this Commission appointed to inquire
into disease in cereals. Further evidence of the confusion which existed between
wheat diseases at that time is given by the fact that the first disease dealt with is
labelled “Red Rust’, and the fourth disease, ‘Black Rust and Smut”! Tepper
(1879), also dealing with South Australia, states that he had first observed rust
in 1854-5 near Lyndoch. Since then it had been noticed every year to a greater
or less extent. In 1871-2 rust prevailed much in Monarto. At Mount Gambier
it was noted in 1862 that “creeping wheat”, the latest in ripening, was much less
affected, if at all, than any other kind.

Professor Lowrie, reporting to the Second Session of the Rust in Wheat
Conference in 1891, stated that rust had been known in South Australia since
1851, and since then had caused more or less loss. In the years 1867, 1889 and
1890 rust was general and resulted in immense loss. The 1889 losses are put
down at from 2 to 3 million pounds sterling. These are set out as follows:
South Australia, £1,500,000; Victoria, £750,000; New South Wales, £100,000;
Queensland, £20,000; Tasmania, £30,000.

Queensland, growing wheat to a much more limited extent, also suffered
from rust. Tryon (1889) refers to the rust damage and states that hard wheats

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XV

enjoy a comparative immunity from the attacks of the fungus. He believed this
to be due to the high silica content of these wheats.

With all the Eastern States suffering from rust damage, in 1890 steps were
taken to convene conferences of delegates from the different States to consider
the rust problem. These “Rust in Wheat Conferences” were held in 1890, 1891,
1892 and 1896, and volumes issued reporting the proceedings. These have been
well summarized in early numbers of the Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W., the first
issue of which was printed in 1890. This still continues as a monthly publication,
and, so far as New South Wales is concerned, is the chief source of information ©
regarding cereal rusts in the crops.

At these conferences various phases of the rust problem were considered.
Amongst the delegates who made outstanding contributions to the discussions
was William Farrer. He affirmed that he had the greatest faith in the world
that the solution to the rust problem could be found. His emphasis was, of
course, on the breeding of suitable varieties of wheat.

Turning now to rust losses which have occurred since the “Rust in Wheat
Conferences”, we find estimates of which many are based upon carefully compiled
figures. Guthrie (1914) states that the 1899 loss from rust amounted to £1,500,000.
McAlpine (1905) states that 1903 was a bad year; Mr. A. H. EH. McDonald,
Director of Agriculture in New South Wales, estimated the losses in this State
that year to have been three million bushels, worth more than £400,000. The
same authority calculated that in the 1916 epidemic in New South Wales, rust
losses exceeded £2,000,000.

Referring to the 1917 season, no actual figures are available, but Pridham
(1918) writes: “Rust greatly affected the yields, and the best results were obtained
from early-maturing varieties.” Stening (1918), speaking of the same season,
says: “The rains and muggy weather in the spring following upon the abundant
winter rainfall supplied very favourable conditions for the development of red
rust, which at the time of judging was present on stem and ear.” McDiarmid
(1918) remarks: ‘‘The season (1917) was not so conducive to rust as the previous
one, and only occasional areas were affected to any extent.”

Three years later further heavy losses occurred. The happenings in 1920,
1925, 1930 and 1934 have recently been critically examined by the Director of
Agriculture in New South Wales, and the results kindly communicated to the
writer. Mr. McDonald estimates that in 1920 the northern areas of New South
Wales, producing 16 million bushels, were affected by rust to the extent of 10%.
With wheat valued at 8s. 7d. per bushel, this loss would amount to £686,000.
Reynolds (1921), Birks (1921), and Shepherd (1921) all comment upon the
incidence of rust in the 1920 crops.

In the following year rust was again recorded in many of the crops, although
actual losses were not computed. Birks (1922), dealing with the New South
Wales Slopes and Plains says: “So general is the threat of rust, that rust-
resistance is one of the main considerations in the selection of varieties for the
district.” Reynolds (1922) remarks: “It was again noticed that Hard Federation
and Federation were both severely affected with rust.’ Referring to the Corowa
district in this same 1921 season, Sparks (1922) reports that “rust was very
prevalent, some of the crops being severely attacked”.

Following upon a gap of three years in the record, McCauley (1925) writes
of the 1924 harvest in the north-western district and refers to “losses of over 50%
of the expected yield in some cases’. Reynolds (1925) states that in the northern

xvi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

district that year “stem and flag rusts made rapid progress and caused pinched
and light grain’.

Next year, 1925, Mr. McDonald states that the general loss through rust was
5% of 60 million bushels, valued at 6s. 2d. per bushel, a total loss of £925,000.

Again, after a gap of three years in the record, losses are reported in the
1928 crop. Kerle (1929) estimated losses in the central-western district at 50%
of the expected yield. Medley (1929) states that “stem rust alone was responsible
for a general reduction in yield by at least 20%, while in varieties showing a
heavy infection, the yield was reduced by fully 50%”. Bartlett (1929), referring
to this same season, says: “Hastern Riverina just escaped a very serious outbreak
of rust.”

A serious epidemic again occurred in 1930. The losses are estimated by Mr.
McDonald to have been 2 million bushels, valued at 3s. 10d. per bushel, totalling
£383,000.

Finally, as regards New South Wales, in 1934 heavy losses again occurred.
Mr. McDonald states that rust affected an area producing 25 million bushels to
the extent of 10%, causing a loss of 2,500,000 bushels valued at 3s. 3d. per bushel,
totalling £406,250. There was also damage to quality on 5 million bushels,
estimated at 3d. per bushel, or £62,500. Thus the aggregate loss in this year was
£468,750.

A brief reference to the rust position in Western Australia, the youngest of
the wheat-growing States, will serve to show that rust can be important there.
Pittman (1935) states: “Western Australia suffers less from rust than the other
Australian States. Serious losses occur only rarely. In fact, during the last 30
years, only on three occasions has the disease assumed serious proportions—
in 1915, 1917, and 1934. Black stem rust assumed epidemic proportions in the
N.W. parts of the wheat belt in 1934, many farmers suffering losses with some
varieties amounting to total failure. It was no uncommon thing for yields to be
reduced to the extent of 75 to 80%.”

The rust problem is clearly one of considerable magnitude so far as New
South Wales is concerned. Taking only the figures set down for the years 1916,
1920, 1925, 1930 and 1934, and omitting altogether the other records of serious
damage not here assessed in terms of money (but unquestionably great), during
the past 20 years the average annual loss in New South Wales has amounted to
a quarter of a million pounds. This figure may seem surprising on account of
the apparent insignificance of rust in the crops in some seasons.

It is emphasized again that there is remarkable diversity in the wheat-
growing conditions in Australia. This applies also to New South Wales. Taking
seasonal conditions, for example, and considering rainfall only, there are striking
differences between its incidence in different districts devoted to wheat-growing.
Not only does this apply to the averages computed for long periods—marking,
for instance, “dry” areas and “good rainfall areas’—but in a particular district
marked fluctuations occur. This all has a direct bearing upon rust attack. On
an average, the northern and north-western districts, coming as they do within
the influence of the monsoonal rains with early summer precipitation, are more
liable to rust damage than say the western or south-western districts, in which
the Antarctic rainfall system is so important. But departures from the normal
rainfalls occur. For example, in a season like 1930, continuous early summer
rains and muggy conditions were experienced in the western districts. Inoculum

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xvii

of rust was present in abundance, and the varieties grown susceptible, the whole
resulting in heavy rust damage. Whilst on occasion a particular district may
sustain a severe rust attack and other districts escape, at other times rust-
favouring conditions may be widely experienced and all districts suffer severely
from an epidemic ,

Having thus reviewed accounts of Australian rust damage in past years, we
now turn to present times.

Certain of the cereal rust problems have been receiving attention by the
writer during the past 15 years, and it is proposed to summarize and discuss a
few of the results that have been obtained. An army of workers is engaged upon
rust problems in various parts of the world, and a large library of literature
has been built up dealing with the subject. Scant reference only can be made
to it in these pages. Excellent bibliographies are given in many of the recent
papers that have been published.

Acknowledgements.

At this stage grateful acknowledgement is made of the invaluable assistance
that has been received from many quarters. It is impossible to specify all the
helpers. Thanks are tendered to the Senate and Vice-Chancellor of the University
of Sydney, and to Professor R. D. Watt, Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, for
making available facilities without which the investigations could not have been
carried out, and to my colleague, Mr. J. G. Churchward, for help rendered.
Financial assistance has been generously given by the Trustees of the Science
and Industry Endowment Fund. The Under-Secretary and officers of the
N.S.W. Department of Agriculture have continually helped in the investiga-
tions; it is perhaps not invidious to mention especially the Principal of the
Hawkesbury Agricultural College and his staff. To Mr. W. H. Ifould and his
officers at the Public Library thanks are tendered for help in the historical review.
Members of the attendant staff of the University of Sydney have given their best
services and loyally helped in the routine work.

Factors Involwed in the Causation of Rust.

In the causation of any plant disease, it is now well established that three
factors must be considered, viz., the pathogen, the host and the environment.
That is to say, the problem is a three phase one. Not only must the pathogen
be present. There must also occur a susceptible host. And thirdly, the environ-
mental conditions must be suitable for the pathogen to attack the host. In the
earlier days of disease investigation it was not realized that each of these three
factors must be dealt with. At first the pathogen alone was studied. Next the
host in its relation to the parasite came up for study. Latterly, the need for
studying environment in its bearing upon the other factors has been clearly
recognized. Thus for the full development of rust leading to the production of
what is called an ‘epidemic’, optimal conditions—or a close approximation to
them—relative to all three factors must operate. Absence of the pathogen,
although susceptible hosts may be present in a favourable environment, will
limit the production of an epidemic. Again, lack of susceptible hosts, even
though abundant inoculum may be present in a favourable environment, will
militate against the occurrence of an epidemic. Lastly, even though abundant
inoculum and susceptible hosts may be present, no epidemic will develop unless
the environmental conditions are favourable. The terrific damage is done when
all three requirements are met. Then an epidemic occurs.

Xvili PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Each of these factors must therefore receive full consideration. How they
act and react upon each other presents a very difficult problem, but one which
has to be faced. Within the limitations of this address, it becomes necessary to
direct attention only to some aspects of the work dealing with the pathogen,
followed by some brief considerations regarding rust control.

The Pathogen.

As already stated, the causal agent of rust is a fungus. Rust fungi are very
numerous. Thus McAlpine (1900) records 160 species in Australia, and many
more have since been found. They are highly specialized parasites of higher
plants. For example, the fungus which attacks wheat cannot attack oats.
Certain of the cereal rusts parasitize grasses. On the other hand, many of those
which occur on grasses cannot infect any of the cereals. This remarkable
specificity in host range is a characteristic of many of these organisms, few
groups outside the rusts showing such striking specialization.

In the cereal rusts, there are often two sorts capable of attacking a particular
host. Depending upon the plant parts which are parasitized, they are often
referred to as “stem rusts” and “leaf rusts’. Wheat may be infected by stem
rust and leaf rust as well as by a third known as yellow stripe rust. These are
three distinct organisms, recognized as separate species. These again are quite
different from the rusts which attack oats. Clearly there are numerous rusts
of cereals, and each is regarded as a separate entity. What is found to apply
to one of them will not necessarily apply to another. Hach requires separate
treatment.

There are, of course, many features in common to rusts. All are very minute
fungi. All are obligate parasites, that is, they cannot at present be grown apart
from their normal living host plants. In this regard they are quite different
from many other disease-causing organisms which are regularly cultivated in vitro.
When the appropriate means of thus cultivating rusts are discovered, many of the
present obstacles to progress will disappear and a new era in rust investigations
will open. All have a complicated life history; many are heteroecious organisms,
passing through different stages of their life history on two distinct host plants.

In Australia the cereal rusts that have been identified are six in number. On
wheat two occur, viz., stem rust (Puccinia graminis Tritici E. & H.) and leaf
rust (P. triticina Eriks.); the yellow stripe rust (P. glumarum (Schm.) EH. & H.)
has not been recorded, and it seems unlikely that it would become serious in our
wheat-growing areas because of the high summer temperatures. Oats are attacked
by stem rust (P. graminis Avenae HE. & H.) and crown or leaf rust (P. coronata
Avenae (Cda.) E. & H.). Barley is parasitized by stem rust (P. graminis Tritict
E. & H.) and leaf rust (P. anomala Rostr.). Rye harbours two rusts, viz., stem
rust (P. graminis Tritici E. & H.) and leaf rust (P. dispersa H. & H.): the rust
known as P. graminis Secalis E. & H. has not been recorded.

Of the cereals, wheat is the most important in Australia, and of its rusts, the

stem rust does the more damage. Most attention is therefore devoted to this
fungus.

Origin of Rust in Australia.
The question is often asked, “How did rust come to Australia?” We know
only too well that our list of plant diseases has multiplied alarmingly in recent
years, and in some cases we know how these dread pathogens have reached our

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xix

shores. But in the case of rust, we can only speculate upon the source of the
original inoculum.

The cereal rust fungi are not seed-borne. The original ‘‘seed’” wheat brought
to Australia by the early pioneers doubtless introduced smuts, but some other
source must be sought for the rusts. As far as stem rust is concerned, barberries
are not indigenous and were not brought to Australia until much later in the
history of the settlement than the recorded outbreaks of rust. Hooker (1859)
refers to Barbarea vulgaris being present in that year in Tasmania. In 1864, the
Third Annual Report of the Acclimatisation Society of N.S.W. refers to Berberis
sp. amongst the plants alive in the Botanic Gardens. No close relative of the
barberry is a native, and no Australian plant is known to harbour the aecidial
stage of the fungus, so that even if teleutospores were brought by the early
settlers, they could not have initiated the disease.

Air-borne uredospores from cereal crops in India or elsewhere may have been
responsible for the first infections of the early wheat crops. It is known that
rust spores have been carried thousands of miles by wind, frequently associated
with atmospheric dust. No such determinations have been made in Australia,
but many observations are reported by workers in other countries (Stakman et al.,
1923; Bailey, 1928; Chabrolin, 1929; Lambert, 1929; Peltier, 1929). These spores
were in some cases trapped at very high altitudes. So far satisfactory deter-
minations do not seem to have been made of the distance spores can travel
without losing viability. This problem of spore migration is an important one,
although difficult to solve. Whereas migration of uredospores across the
Mediterranean Sea from Sardinia to Tunis (Chabrolin, 1929) is intelligible, it
seems doubtful whether spores would remain viable after the long journey across
the Indian Ocean to Australia.

Recently (Waterhouse, 1929) attention has been paid to the occurrence of
cereal rusts on grasses in Australia. Certain of the introduced grasses are well
known to be attacked by cereal rusts. One of our native perennial grasses,
Agropyron scabrum Beauv., a near relative of wheat and a widespread plant in
the south-eastern portion of the continent, has lately come up for special study
as a host of wheat stem rust (Waterhouse, 1934, 1935). In regard to the origin
of black stem rust of wheat, the possibility must be borne in mind of the rust
having been present on this grass prior to the arrival of the early settlers. If this
was so, then when wheat was grown the rust might be expected to spread to it
from the grass host. Similarly, in the case of the other cereal rusts, appropriate
native grass hosts may have been parasitized before the cereals were brought to
Australia, thus providing the inoculum which initiated the cereal attack.

Seasonal Carry-over of Rust.

By whatever means rust originated in Australia, its seasonal carry-over must
be considered. The persistence of a pathogen from season to season is a matter
of the utmost importance from all points of view. In the case of perennial plants,
perennation of mycelium often makes this simple. Some annual plants are
known to produce seeds or grains in which the pathogen is directly carried over
from generation to generation. But it is different in the case of rusts.

Considering black stem rust (Puccinia graminis Pers.), the complicated life
history under Northern Hemisphere conditions normally provides for perennation.
Teleutospores produced on wheat in the late summer lie dormant throughout the
winter. In the spring they germinate and lead to the infection of the young

xX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

shoots of the barberry. Thence the rust spreads on to young wheat plants, then
coming into vigorous growth, and gives rise to the uredospore stage. Later,
when the wheat is mature, the teleutospore stage is formed on the straw,
completing the life history. Barberries, therefore, are most important in the
initiation of the rust attack of the new crop in the spring. In Australia this is
not the normal occurrence. Here the problem is not one of over-wintering, but
of over-summering.

Different explanations of over-summering in Australia have been suggested,
but it is now clear that living rust in the uredospore stage is present on sporadic
crop plants or susceptible grasses all the year round. This inoculum is respon-
sible for initiating the rust attacks in the crop. Not long ago it was stated that
complete control of wheat stem rust could be had if only agreement could be
reached, whereby all growers everywhere in Australia undertook to grow no
wheat for one particular season, say from April to December. However, it will
be seen from the accumulated evidence that this would not solve the problem.

In Tables 1, 2 and 3 are summarized the results of the examinations that
have been made of field collections of three of the rusts, month by month.

TABLE 1.
Summary of the number of isolations of P. graminis Tritici during each month of the period.

Season of collection, ending March of

Month. /1922/1923/1924| 1925 |1926/1927| 1928 | 1929 1930) 1931 | 1932 | 1933 |1934| 1935 |1936*) Totals.
Ege See) ei) | fas | ra erat Pome (as we EL net |e ire Ls sl ee alte eae nl
Apr. | 1 8 3 2 3 1 18
May i} 2 4 4| 2 4 1 it |) 2 4| 25
June 1 1 1 8 2 2 2 4 21
July liu t | 6 9| 2 4 4 2 il 4 33
Aug. | | 6 |) 13 5 1] 4 4 3 37
Sept. 1 ena my Noah 3 ea 1) TO] AB A Bil
Oct. Vea |) st | P| ae NO er BO AOI) AS | a BB) |) as || a
Nov 3) 31) Ol Bi) Si sol) ol | Gi) 2) BO] Gli BS) e714) v4 ere
Dec a Aa 85 FS bale 8) | 4h | eerie Beano) ie36) sen 290| 944s isomlmeses
Jan Gell 24 || 7 as 5 | 15 Q |] ial | 1@ 7) 1281 4 5 105
Feb 31 9 8 1 4 My Q\ bi) ie 1 Bl) al 9 54
Mar 33 | 2 | 2] 14 2 it |) oe 2 1 | 2 W 46
ee aes (ken ea ol es
|
Totals .. | 41 | 15 | 25 | 100 | 28 | 89 | 189 | 156 | 90 | 181 | 149 | 144 | 93 | 227 | 154 | 1,681

* The record for 1936 extends only to Ist January.

Attention is drawn to the fact that the opportunities for collecting rusted
material have been distinctly limited. It is certain that much more rust was
available in the field than is indicated by the collections submitted for examina-
tion. The figures given are, therefore, the more significant as regards presence
of rust at any particular time.

The rusted material obtained during the non-wheat-growing season (late
summer and autumn) has consisted mainly of “volunteer” wheat—or oat plants,
as the case might be—but some of the specimens were grasses. Agropyron

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

scabrum was one of the most notabie.

Some came from the wheat belt.
were collected in regions of better rainfall, e.g., on the coast.

Xxi

Others
But the latter

could easily serve as foci whence infection could spread to the main wheat-
growing areas.

Summary of the number of isolations of P. triticina examined during each month of the period.

TABLE 2.

Season of collection, ending 31st March of

i)

Month. 1922|1923) 1924) 1925|1926/1927| 1928 | 1929 |1930/19381)| 1932 | 1933 |1934! 1935 |1936*! Totals.
Apr. 4 5 4 4 17
May 2 il! 5 2 il 4 3 2 20
June 2 9| 6 A @ 1 1| 25
July 1 11 4 | 10 7 2 4 3 5 47
INES 60 17 2 8 7 3 3 8 5 53
Sept. .. 1 1 | 2 41 2/18 9 7 4 8 33 S6
Oct. 6 1 16 PBs |} ali 7 16 il?) ala We 31 176
Noy. 3 2 0) 16 Gil pel2, 31 31 | 29 90 64 359
Dec. 1 25 4 2 38 yay || By? 33 15 175
Jan. il 1 4 2 16 4 2 30
Feb. 1 4 2 1 6 14
Mar. ail 2; 1 | 4 2 5 15

Totals 15 1 6 | 122 | 131 | 40 | 69 | 113 | 114 | 99 | 187 | 180 | 1,027

* The record for 1936 extends only to 1st January.

TABLE 3.
Summary of the number of isolations of P. graminis Avenae examined during each month of the period.

Month.

JNJOIPS 3.6
May ..
June ..
July ..
PAT Omar
Sept...
Oct. ..
Nov...
Dec. ..
Jan. ..
Feb. ..
Mar...

1922

Season of collection, ending March of

1923)1924/1925/1926

1927

1928

eo r oe

bo

Ly) ata 1
11

Lil 6S)
i"
—

Totals

11

5 | 30 3

bo

a
BPpowe aH

47

1929

bo

bo
wpowauw bw w

49

1930) 1931/1932) 1933/1934/1935|1936*| Totals.
3 2 1 1 2 2 15
2 4 1 1 12
2 1 1 4 9

2 2 10

1 2 1 1 1 8
1 5 3 1 2 5 21
2 5 | 14 3 6 4 9 60
13 | 17 | 25 | 23 | 10 | 42 19 222,
2 | 26 | 10 | 19 || 10 | 15 12 124
9 5 2 4 2 3 38
1 ) 1 2 3 5 27
4 1 1 1 6 19
40 | 75 | 59 | 54 | 39 | 77 55 565

* The record for 1936 extends only to Ist January.

XXii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

There has been evidence of rust development taking place first in the
warmer—and earlier—districts. Thus crops in Queensland commonly show a
marked rust development as early as August, and migrations from these to the
areas in the north-west of New South Wales and thence to the southern areas
have been demonstrated. On the other hand, heavily rusted wheat plants have
frequently been submitted from the cold districts in the tablelands during
February and March.

It is clear from the tables that rust in the uredospore stage is, like the poor,
always with us. In considerations of rust control, there can be no possibility of
eradication by simply not growing a crop for a season. Other means must be
sought.

In concluding this section on the persistence of rust, it is pointed out that
the recent discovery of natural infection of barberries in New South Wales
(Waterhouse, 1934) does not affect the position. The production of the aecidial
stage in September and October—vastly important as it can be in the production
of new physiologic forms—can hardly have any appreciable effect upon the
abundance of inoculum, already plentiful in the crops in the uredospore stage.

Physiologic Specialization.

The phenomenon of physiologic specialization is a matter of the greatest
importance. It has received considerable attention in recent years. Many other-
wise inexplicable happenings become quite intelligible in the light of our present
knowledge of specialization, and future prospects of success in disease control
are enhanced thereby.

In a general way, it may be stated that physiologic forms are groups of an
organism, stable in their characteristics, which cannot be differentiated by morpho-
logical criteria, but only by their host relationships. Perhaps in the rusts and
the powdery mildews are to be found the best examples of this phenomenon. For
example, if uredospores of stem rust from wheat are placed on both wheat and
oat plants under suitable conditions, the wheat is infected, but not the oats. If
spores from oats are sown on the two cereals, only oats are infected. Thus the
rusts—apparently identical morphologically—on wheat and oats are clearly
differentiated from each other by their ability to establish themselves on definite
hosts. This means that the former conception of similarity of the members
within a species of such a fungus has to be altered. One now has to visualize
the occurrence within the species of many groups of forms which differ in their
parasitic capabilities. They are distinct entities. Thus the fungus named
Puccinia graminis Pers. is now known to consist of a group of forms (about
150 in number) which attack wheat; another group of forms (about 10) which
infect oats but not wheat; yet another group of about 14 forms infecting rye;
and others again which infect certain of the grasses. The complexity of the
problem of breeding for rust resistance is increased as a result of this advance
in knowledge, and yet to ignore it is but to court failure in the endeavour. As
Aamodt (1934) has recently stated, “Knowledge concerning the number, prevalence
and distribution of physiologic forms of any pathogenic organism is of vital
importance to the plant breeder. . . . To produce new varieties that are not
resistant to all the forms of the pathogen that are present in the region in which
the variety is to be grown is to acquiesce, at least, to only temporary or partial
success.”

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Xxili

To Eriksson (1894) belongs the honour of discovering the existence of
specialized races of rusts. Stakman perhaps more than any other worker has
contributed to our knowledge of the subject, both by his own brilliant and
untiring researches and by the wonderful stimulus he has given to a large band
of investigators, now scattered over the face of the earth. The technique developed
by Stakman and Levine (1922) has come into general use.

The determination of physiologic forms is based upon their reactions as shown
on a range of selected differential host varieties. In this work it is essential
that the host varieties should be genetically pure. The inoculation experiments
must be carried out on plants at the same stage of development, and within definite
limits of temperature, light, humidity and nutrition. Variations in these environ-
mental conditions may cause profound disturbances in the results. Thus it has
been found (Waterhouse, 1929) that a rust giving a particular series of reactions
defining it as a particular form under one set of environmental conditions, will
have to be designated as something quite different on the basis of the reactions
it gives under altered environmental conditions. Unless there is standardization
of procedure, the gravest confusion is likely (Waterhouse, 1933). Difficulties of
this nature would disappear if it were possible for one central institution to
undertake all the work, but this does not appear to be practicable at the present
time.

Turning now to the results that have been obtained in Australia, grateful
acknowledgement is first made of the generous help always given by Drs. E. C.
Stakman and M. N. Levine, as well as other North American workers, without
whose assistance the work could not have been carried out. Many other workers
have made invaluable contributions to this work.

Specialization in Puccinia graminis Tritici.

The 12 standard varieties so carefully selected by Stakman and Levine are
used in this determination. Seedlings to the number of about 15 are grown in
each pot. The first seedling leaf is moistened with sterile water, and by means
of a flat sterile needle, the uredospores of the rust under examination are placed
in this water which adheres to the leaf. The pots are then incubated in a
saturated atmosphere for 48 hours. They are afterwards placed on well-lighted
benches in the plant house at a temperature of 70-75° F., to allow the rust to
develop. Notes are later taken of the infection that occurs.

The types of infection shown by each host are recorded by a simple notation.
Six types of infection are recognized: 0 = immune; 1 = very resistant; 2 = moder-
ately resistant; 3 = moderately susceptible; 4 = very susceptible; x = heterogeneous.
Different degrees of infection of these types are indicated by symbols plus and
minus.

Since the commencement of the studies in 1921, and carrying the work up
to 1st January, 1936, eight naturally occurring forms of P. graminis Tritici have
been determined in Australia. Their characteristics are set out in Table 4.

These forms have in the great majority of cases been isolated from wheat.
Some have come from barley, some from rye, and yet others from grasses like
Hordeum murinum, H. maritimum and Agropyron scabrum.

The forms 43, 44 and 54 show close similarities, and on the other hand,
forms 45, 46 and 55 resemble each other. That is to say, these six forms, the
only ones determined up to 1926, fall into two different groups. Tests covering
several hundred varieties of wheat showed that there were many which showed
either resistance or susceptibility to all three members of a group. This gave

XXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

TABLE 4,
Typical reactions of the naturally-oceurring physiologic forms of Puccinia graminis Tritici in Australia.

Type of reaction on differential wheat variety.

5

Physiologic a 5
Form. =o = Re} oo Pies Rey no an + oD Be oS
Os wot H t~ at aq HOO iD (o) ao igo) mm
S Galive) ZH ee) BO aa aa aS a ok Bice) =k)
om t=Aar) p10 aie os 0 Fic) aN oo ON Gitar) FY
3 = 6 lig at) Sg 2a as ioe aie a fl Cot be
Bail SH lanl ort ae a am SH on dame om oe
SO | SO WI | SO | ate | StS aS I ko | sta) Fle | Se || So
11 4 4 Bor ap || Sar ar 4 4 4 Bop ar |) oar ae 3 0; 1=
34 4 4 Bar or Oar ae 4 4 4 Barar || Sarar || sb 0; l=
43 4 OP ar 0 0; 0; 0; 0; x 1 3 1 0;
44 4 Bap ap 0 0; 0; 0; 0; 3+ 3+ 3 1 0;
45 4 2 0 2— 4 4 4 XS aR 3 3 il
46 4 38++ 0 2— 4 4 4 al 1 3 2 1
54 4 Bar ap 0 0; 0; 0; 0; 1 3 3 1 0;
55 4 4 0 2— 4 4 4 x a: 3 3 il

a clear basis for the selection of varieties worth using as parents in the crosses
designed to give complete resistance to all six forms in the progeny.

Forms 34 and 11 are quite distinct from the other six. They are both
well-known forms in many of the other wheat-growing countries where deter-
minations have been made. Thus Dr. HE. C. Stakman states that form 34 was
the prevalent form in the United States of America in 1934.

The distribution of these forms in Australia and New Zealand is set out
in Table 5. There have been excluded from these considerations the determinations
made from an extensive batch of specimens submitted from New Zealand in
1935; these results are to be recorded separately. They show the presence mainly
of form 34, with a few isolations of form 45 and form 11.

TABLE 5.
Summary of the number of isolations of physiologic forms of P. graminis Tritici grouped according to
their origin.

Origin of material.
Physiologic
Form. |
| F.C.T. | N.S.W.| Vict. | Qland. | S.Aust. | W.Aust.| ‘Tas. N.Z. | Totals.
11 Perel at | 6 7
34 | 36 1,000 54 73 98 49 14 20 1,344
43 13 7 17 3 2 1 160
44 3 4 2 1 46
45 1 33 3 7 2 1 47
46 43 4 3 1 9 2 62
54 4 1 5
55 9 1 10
Totals 38 1,264 68 98 | 112 Bie en 27 23 1,681
|

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXV

It is seen that most of the identifications (nearly 80%) deal with New
South Wales material. The facilities, thanks largely to the officers of the N.S.W.
Department of Agriculture, are greater in this State than elsewhere. Nevertheless,
many of the collections submitted from other States were random samples
representative of extensive areas.

Taking next the time distribution of these eight forms during the period of
the rust survey, the results are summarized in Table 6. Quite empirically the
years are taken as beginning on ist April of the year previous to 31st March
of the year named.

TABLE 6.
Summary of the number of isolations of the naturally occurring physiologic forms of P. graminis Tritici in Australia
and New Zealand in the various years.

Season of isolation ending 31st March of the year stated.

Physiologic
Form.

1922/1923)1924| 1925 |1926)1927| 1928 | 1929 |1980) 1931 | 1982 | 1933 |1934| 1935 |1936*/Totals.
11 3 4 7
34 4) 18] 152 | 156 | 90 | 181 | 189 | 143 | 93 | 220 | 148 | 1,344
43 20 | 10 | 10 55 | 15 | 14 21 10 1 4 160
44 2 4 1 3 | 30 6 46
45 3 15 5 | 17 5 2 47
46 14 15 24 il 6 2 62
54 1 3 1 5
55 2 5 1 2 10
Totals .. | 41 | 15 | 25 | 100 | 28 | 89 189 | 156 | 90 | 181 | 149 | 144 | 93 | 227 | 154 | 1,681

* The record for 1936 extends only to 1st January.

In the aggregate, form 34 has been present in 80% of the cases examined.
It was unknown prior to November, 1925, only the two groups comprising the
six forms having been found. On that occasion only form 34 was present in wheat
received from Western Australia, where previously form 43 had occurred. Although
many determinations were made from material collected in the south-eastern areas
of Australia in that same season, form 34 was not found again until October,
1926. Then wheat from Curlewis in the north-western district of New South
Wales yielded a mixture of forms 34, 43, 44 and 45. Additional samples from
Western Australia received soon afterwards revealed the presence of only form 34.
It also began to appear in various parts of the New South Wales wheat belt,
associated with certain of the other six forms. Material (the first for that season)
received a month later from South Australia, Victoria and Queensland gave the
same result. Next year—in November, 1927—form 34 dominated the situation
to the almost entire exclusion of the other six forms. Certain of these, and
notably form 43, were found very infrequently in New South Wales as late as
December, 1927: the last identification was made from Tasmanian material
received in January, 1928. During the following seasons, when, it will be noticed,
quite large numbers of samples were examined, only form 34 was found. Later,
wheat from Queensland, followed soon afterwards by wheat from Grafton, in the
far north-eastern corner of New South Wales, revealed the presence of form

Cc

XXvi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

43 mixed with form 34. Since then there has been one isolation of form 43,
intermixed with 34, in samples sent in October, 1932, from the same Queensland
locality where it formerly occurred, followed by a year in which it did not show
up at all. The only other occurrences were in October and November of 1934,
when samples from the same far north-eastern corner of New South Wales and
the same Queensland locality yielded form 43 mixed with form 34. The season
just ended failed to reveal its presence.

It is of interest to note that the results of the small series of tests made
with material from New Zealand show general agreement with the Australian
happenings. Prior to 1927 the three collections examined revealed the presence
of members of the two groups of six forms. Since then, 20 collections (omitting
the 1935 batch) spread over the period, have yielded only form 34.

To account satisfactorily for the change in the rust flora, leading to the
dominance of form 34, is difficult. It is improbable that it arose from an aecidial
infection of the barberry. It may have originated as a mutation, but one would
scarcely have expected it to supersede the other forms so widely and so rapidly.
If viable uredospores can be carried across the Indian Ocean in air currents, it
may have come from India. Actually, Indian teleutospore material obtained
in 1927 was found to yield form 16 from barberry infections produced in the
plant house. In the present state of our knowledge, one can only speculate upon
the origin of form 34 in Australia.

Independent evidence supports this finding of a change in the rust flora at
about this time. Inquiries from several prominent wheat-growers in New South
Wales have elicited the information that they have noticed that “since about
1927” varieties which formerly showed a degree of rust resistance have become
completely susceptible to attack. As already pointed out, certain commercial
varieties are resistant to one or other of the two groups of the six forms.
For example, the variety “Canberra” is resistant to the first of the groups, and
in localities where only these forms were present, it was not attacked. Similarly,
a wheat like “‘Yandilla King”’, exhibiting resistance to a different group of forms,
was not attacked in areas where only these rusts occurred. Now, practically all
the commercial varieties of Australian wheats are susceptible to form 34. With
its advent, “Canberra”, “Yandilla King”, and other sorts were attacked. Further-
more, it is noticeable in controlled plant-house work that this form produces
uredo pustules on susceptible wheats in a much shorter time than any of the
other forms that have been studied. This of course means increased virulence.
One’s own observations confirm the reports that crops in the field have been
more heavily attacked during the past decade than formerly.

This change in the physiologic forms has profoundly affected the breeding
problem, and further emphasizes the vital need for studying the physiologic
specialization exhibited by a pathogen if varieties resistant to it are to be
produced. The very great effect it had upon the breeding work for rust resistance
has already been recorded (Waterhouse, 1930). By controlled work in the plant
house and the field, agronomic types resistant to all the six forms were synthesized
from crosses between two wheats, one carrying resistance to the first group of
forms, the other having resistance to the second group. In 1927 their resistance
“broke down”. This was simply a manifestation of the newly arrived form 34,
to which each of the parents used in the cross was completely susceptible.

Following upon the advent of form 34, it will be seen from Table 6 that
there have been two further changes in the rust flora. In one case the origin
of the form concerned can probably be indicated.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXVii

As recently recorded (Waterhouse, 1935), in rusted wheat collected in
November, 1934, by Mr. J. G. Churchward at Bectric, N.S.W., and by Mr. R. N.
Medley at Leeton, N.S.W., the hitherto unrecorded form 11 was found, mixed with
form 34. In March, 1935, the same two forms occurred on rusted Agropyron
scabrum growing near Yetholme. Still more recently (November-December, 1935)
the same two forms have been identified from rusted wheat collected at Goolagong,
Sebastopol, Bathurst, N.S.W., and Canberra, F.C.T. Form 11 has become more
widespread in the year.

Now form 11 has been found (unpublished data) to arise from barberries
which have been inoculated under controlled conditions with form 34. This means
that the latter is heterozygous. So far several forms, including form 11,
have been identified as barberry derivatives of form 34. It is significant that
in November, 1933, the first occurrence was recorded of natural infection of
barberries in Australia (Waterhouse, 1934). This took place on the Central
Tablelands at Yetholme, N.S.W. The evidence pointed clearly to Agropyron
scabrum being the source of the inoculum which infected the barberries. Only
a little of the uredo stage was available for examination in that year and yielded
only form 34. In 1935, when a search was made for rust on this grass in the
same area, form 11 was found as well as form 34. Doubtless it had spread to
wheat also in the meantime.

There is a clear case for eradication of barberries throughout Australia,
following upon the good example set by so many other countries. It is probable
that natural infection is uncommon, but there is proof that, at least occasionally,
Australian conditions make it possible for infection to take place. From only
one such infection there is always the possibility of new forms arising. These
may completely upset the work of breeding for rust resistance. The legislative
action recently taken which makes barberry destruction compulsory is to be
highly commended, and should be loyally carried out. The only regret is that
eradication was not commenced earlier, following upon the evidence presented
15 years ago (Waterhouse, 1921), that stem rust in Australia had not lost its
ability to infect the barberry.

As further showing the extreme importance of the barberry in relation to
the derivation of physiologic forms, the following facts recently communicated
by Dr. E. C. Stakman are illuminating. In last season’s rust survey in U.S.A.,
a total of 1,375 identifications of forms was made. Of them, 1,209 were uredial
identifications and comprised 22 forms. The remaining 166 were aecidial
(barberry) identifications and were found to comprise 25 forms. That is to say,
the ratio of number of forms to number of identifications is: uredial, 1: 55;
aecidial, 1: 7.

Striking as this difference is, it should probably be even wider. Dr. Stakman
states that a number of forms have been listed as “Uredial’ identifications, which
might have been placed in the heading of ‘“‘Aecidial identifications”, because they
were obtained from uredial material in the immediate vicinity of barberry bushes
under circumstances which make it certain that the rust came directly from the
barberries.

Not oniy did the barberry multiply forms in this way, but the aecidial
forms thus produced were found in many cases to be forms which attack “Vernal
Emmer” and “Yaroslav”. This is the wheat which has been used with such
marked success in crosses with vulgare wheats to give resistant varieties like
“Hope”. These wheats in turn are largely used as resistant parents in crosses. A

XXVili PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

multiplication of forms capable of attacking these wheats simply vitiates the plant
breeders’ work.

The second change in the flora is the recent recurrence of form 45. After an
absence extending back to 1927, this form was found, mixed with forms 11 and 34,
in rusted wheat submitted from Bathurst, N.S.W., and Canberra, F.C.T., in
December, 1935. In passing, it should be mentioned that it has also been found
in material sent from New Zealand. The rusted wheat forwarded by Mr. F. W.
Hely from Canberra was the variety ‘Ford’, which, he reported, was more
heavily attacked than ‘‘Dundee’”’. This is important, since wide experience has
shown that “Ford” is much more resistant to form 34 than is “Dundee”.

No clear explanation of the recurrence of this form can be given at present.
It may be significant that at Bathurst and Canberra, as well as in New Zealand,
barberries are known to occur, and in the former area are known to have been
recently infected. In experiments with the heterozygous form 34 alone, form 45
has not been recovered as a segregate from barberries, although form 11 has.
Work is in progress to determine whether a cross between form 11 and form 34
gives rise to form 45.

Specialization in Puccinia graminis Avenae.

Oats are sometimes severely attacked by stem rust. This rust does not attack
wheat. Nevertheless it infects the barberry and is closely related to the wheat
stem rust. Johnson and Newton (1933) have recently been able to hybridize
form 9 of P. graminis Tritici with form 6 of P. graminis Avenae, leading to the
production of an entirely new form of rust. Specialization studies of oat stem
rust which have been in progress for some time here are briefly summarized.

The same general methods are used in the determination of the physiologic
forms of this rust, utilizing, of course, a group of oat varieties instead of wheats,
to effect the differentiation. The same precautions regarding purity and the same
control of environmental conditions are essential if trustworthy results are to
be obtained. One of the differential varieties named “Joanette’”’ shows marked
differences in its reactions under different temperature conditions. Thus a rust
determined as, say, form 1, under winter temperature conditions becomes form
2 under summer temperatures. The reaction on ‘“Joanette”’ changes from
resistance to susceptibility. It is for this reason that, in the absence of facilities
for doing all the cultural work under conditions of controlled temperature,
forms 1 and 2 are here grouped, and in the same way and for the same reason,
forms 3 and 7 are linked. Low temperatures for determinative work are clearly
indicated as essential.

To date, five naturally occurring physiologic forms of P. graminis Avenae have
been found. The typical reactions of these forms are shown in Table 7.

These identifications have been made mainly from cultivated oats. Wild oats
and certain other grasses also have been found to be important hosts of this
pathogen, notably Vulpia bromoides, Hordeum murinum, Dactylis glomerata,
Phalaris minor, Calamagrostis aemula, and Koehleria cristata.

These five forms fall into three groups. Form 6 stands alone. Forms 1 and 2
definitely occur, but are only separable under conditions of low temperatures.
Forms 3 and 7 behave similarly.

The distribution of these forms is set out in Table 8.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. TOAD

TABLE 7.
Typical reactions of the naturally occurring physiologic forms of P. graminis Avenae in Australia.

Type of reaction on oat variety.
Physiologic
Form.
White Tartar. Joanette. Richland.
1 2 i 2-
2 2 3+ 2-—
3) 4 il 2;
6 4 3+ 4
i 4 3+ 2-—
TABLE 8.
Summary of the number of isolations of physiologic forms of P. graminis Avenae grouped according to their origin.
{
Origin of material.
Physiologic
Form.
¥F.C.T. | N.S.W. Vict. Qland. | S.Aust. | W.Aust.) Tas. N.Z. Totals.
1 and/or 2 i 386 17 32 28 8 a7 BS 490
6 6 2 8
3 and/or 7 i 40 2 2 6 51
Totals ie 8 432 21 34 28 8 13 5 549

Here again the great majority of identifications were made from material
collected in New South Wales owing to the better facilities for its submission.
It is seen that nearly 90% of the identifications proved to be forms 1 and/or 2.
The “forms 3 and/or 7” have in the main been form 7: in a few cases it was
not possible to make certain of this separation, and for this reason they are
grouped. Together they comprise about 10% of the determinations. Form 6—
the most virulent of all five forms—fortunately has been found only rarely, and
not at all in recent years.

The distribution in time of these identifications is summarized in Table 9.

It is seen that no change like that recorded for the wheat stem rust is
shown here. Forms 3 and 7 are characterized by their capacity to attack “White
Tartar” as well as other “side” or “banner” oats which are resistant to forms
1 and 2. These oats, with a few exceptions, are late-maturing sorts, and so it is
usual to find forms 3 and 7 only late in the season. It has not yet been possible
to make experimental tests dealing with the carry-over of these forms from
season to season.

Specialization in Puccinia triticina.
There is often a tendency to under-estimate the importance of leaf-rust of

wheat. Observation convinces one that it does more damage than many people
think. It is more insidious in its damage than stem rust. It seldom wipes out

ARX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

TABLE 9.
Summary of the number of isolations of the physiologic forms of P. graminis Avenae from Australia and New
Zealand in the various years.

Season of isolation, ending 31st March of the year stated.
Physiologic
Form.
1925 | 1926 | 1927 | 1928 | 1929 | 1930 | 1931 | 1982 | 1933 | 1934 | 1935 | 1936*|Totals.
1 and/or 2} 30 3 21 38 39 38 62 54 48 34 72 51 490
6 2 6 8
3 and/or 7 7 4 2 13 5 6 5 5 4 51
Totals 30 3 21 47 49 40 75 59 54 39 77 55 549

* The record for 1936 extends only to 1st January.

a crop as does stem rust under epidemic conditions. A season favourable for the
development of a stem rust epidemic also leads to abundant development of leaf
rust. But its onset is overshadowed by the stem rust, which causes severe
shrivelling of the grain as one of its usual effects. Leaf rust usually appears
earlier in the season, sometimes being known as “spring rust” in contrast with
the name “summer rust’, given to stem rust because of its later attack. How-
ever, in the absence of severe stem rust development the leaf rust alone can do
much damage. Humphrey (1934) has summarized investigations on this rust
which show that it causes a definite diminution in the yield, expressed firstly
in the production of fewer heads per plant and fewer grains per head, and
secondly in reduced grain size.

In the past there has been a good deal of confusion regarding the deter-
mination of physiologic forms of this rust. There has not been the same unanimity
regarding the appropriate differential varieties as in the case of the stem rusts.
Numerous physiologic forms certainly occur. Mains (1933) lists 53 forms, but it
is probable that some of those determined by other workers are different from
any of those recorded by Mains.

Numerous determinations of P. triticina have been made in Australia, with
the result that the reactions characteristic of the form recorded by Johnston
and Mains (1932) and Mains (1933) as form 26 were shown. But the chance
discovery was made in 1926 that in some cases this rust gave a strongly
resistant reaction on ‘“Thew”, one of Farrer’s varieties of wheat, whilst in others
the reaction showed full susceptibility. That is to say, ‘“Thew” served to differen-
tiate in the clearest way between two entities which are each P. triticina form 26.
For the present these are designated “Aust. 1” when Thew is resistant, and
“Aust. 2” when it is susceptible. These two forms show significant differences in
their uredospore measurements (Waterhouse, 1930), and are now known to be
readily separable on numerous varieties in addition to “Thew”. When crossed,
they give rise to new forms (Waterhouse, 1932).

In the specialization studies that have been in progress since 1926, the

separations have been made on the above basis. The distribution of these two
forms in space and in time is summarized in Tables 10 and 11. In all cases

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXxi

the isolations came from wheat, with the exception of one from Agropyron
scabrum.

TABLE 10.
Summary of the number of isolations of the two Australian physiologic forms of P. triticina grouped according to
their origin.

Origin of material.
Physiologic
Form.
F.C.T. | N.S.W. Vict. Qland. | S.Aust. | W.Aust.| Tas. N.Z. Totals.
Aust. 1 te a4 11 423 21 20 33 9 1 8 526
Aust. 2 36 3} 9 393 19 14 36 5 il! 8 485
Totals Ae 20 816 40 34 69 14 2 16 1,011
TABLE 11.

Summary of the number of isolations of the physiologic forms of P. triticina from Australia and New Zealand in
the various years.

Season of isolation ending 31st March of the year stated.
Physiologic
Form.
1927 | 1928 | 1929 | 1930 | 1931 | 1932 | 1933 | 1934 | 1935 |1936*| Totals.
1 3 52 60 20 35 63 | 58 54 | 107 74 526
2 3 70 71 20 34 50 56 45 80 56 485
Totals .. aA hea6 OM walla 40 69 | 113 | 114 99 | 187 | 130 | 1,011

* The record for 1936 extends only up to 1st January.

It will be seen that the two forms have occurred with approximately equal
frequency. In the great majority of cases, both forms have been present in the
one collection examined. It has been interesting to find repeatedly that differen-
tial varieties like “Thew”, growing in the field where both forms occur, show on
their mature leaves both susceptible and resistant reactions. Whilst many
varieties are known with resistance to “Aust. 1”, few have been found which
are resistant to “Aust. 2”.

It will be noticed that both these forms have been found in samples from
New Zealand. Several other forms have lately been determined on wheat from
the Dominion. Thé records of these, as well as of the stem rust identifications,
are to be made available later.

Specialization in Puccinia coronata Avenae.

This “crown rust” or “leaf rust” of oats is most frequently found in the
better rainfall regions, e.g., in our coastal areas where oats are mainly grown for

XXxXil PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

green feed. Serious attacks sometimes occur and lead to considerable loss. The
effects of this rust on oats have recently been studied by Murphy (1935).

Specialization studies here have only recently been commenced, thanks to the
receipt from Dr. H. B. Humphrey of the set of differential varieties of oats used
by U.S.A. workers (Murphy, 1935). Previously it was possible only to test
collections on two or three varieties which had been found to give resistant
reactions. No differences were discernible in the isolations, although they came
from divergent sources.

Now that the accepted differentials are available, the studies are placed upon
a proper footing. To date three physiologic forms have been determined in
New South Wales, viz., form 6 (Murphy, 1935) and two others not recorded and
not yet assigned their appropriate numbers by Dr. H. B. Humphrey, to whom
they have been submitted for this purpose. It is not yet possible to express
an opinion on the relative abundance or the distribution of these forms. No
species of Rhamnus, the aecidial host, are indigenous to Australia, and there is
no record of any infections of such plants as have been planted in shrubberies.
Infections in the plant house under controlled conditions have been obtained.

Specialization in Puccinia anomala.

Leaf rust of barley is known at times to cause considerable damage to barley
grown for green feed in coastal areas. Identifications have been made from a
number of collections obtained from widely divergent localities. Only one
physiologic form has been found. It closely resembles the form 1 recorded by
Mains (1930). It has been found, however, that the reactions of this Australian
rust on certain varieties which were not included by Mains in his set of
differentials are different from those shown by his form 1. Thus, by making
use of some of these varieties, it can be shown that the Australian rust must
be considered as different from the American, therefore constituting a third known
form. Ornithogalum umbellatum, the aecidial host, is not indigenous.

Specialization in Puccinia dispersa.

Rye grown on the coast for green feed is also sometimes very heavily
attacked by leaf rust. Little indeed seems to be known concerning its specializa-
tion. No differential set of varieties has been selected for the determination
work. Indeed, until December, 1935, no rye was available here which showed any
resistance to this rust. Then a plant was noted growing in an open-pollinated
row of “Star” rye at Hawkesbury Agricultural College, which showed the distinct
hypersensitive flecks characteristic of strong resistance in that plant. Adjacent
plants were heavily attacked. Grain of this resistant plant has been saved, and
it is hoped that it may give a starting point for specialization studies of this
rust. No indigenous species of Anchusa, its alternate host, are known to occur
in Australia.

Conclusion of Specialization Studies.

The investigations have established the fact of specialization in the Australian
cereal rusts, and revealed the identity of the forms present. This gives a basis
for breeding for rust resistance. It is clearly essential that the work be continued,
not only to assist the breeder for resistance, but also to gain information leading
to a fuller understanding of the phenomenon of specialization.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXxili

Rust Control.

So far no method of entirely eliminating cereal rusts has been developed.
Various practices can be depended upon to reduce crop losses very markedly. That
complete control will eventually be gained now seems certain.

Cultural practices have been improved greatly during this century. The aim,
of course, has been to increase yields, and this has been largely attained. In
part this has been effected by reducing the incidence of disease.

Careful selection of the land is the first consideration. Plants in hollows
and low-lying land remain wet with dew and rain and tend to produce rank
growth, thus providing better conditions for rust infection than plants on higher
ground with its better air and soil drainage. In a paddock with an uneven surface
it is usual to find the heaviest rust development in the low-lying portions.

Proper preparation of the soil so that a suitable seed bed is available should
not be neglected. Weed growth, if not prevented, may assist rust development.
Weeds may include rust-susceptible hold-over plants infected by rust. These would
pass the inoculum on to the crop. Again, by overshadowing the crop plants,
strongly-growing weeds may make the conditions in their vicinity more conducive
to rust development.

Early sowing may be of the utmost importance. Some wheats for their proper
development demand a long growing season. Varieties of this nature were in
common use before William Farrer commenced his monumental work. Varieties
which do not mature until late in the season are more likely to meet with con-
ditions favourable to the spread of rust. There is a race between the wheat plant
and the rust parasite. If the wheat can ripen before much rust is present, it may
escape damage. Hence, apart from the use of early-maturing sorts, early seeding
on well-prepared land is important.

The application of the proper fertilizers may assist in reducing damage. The
real test of the value of fertilizers lies, of course, in their effect upon yield
and quality of the product. But it should be borne in mind that excessive use of
nitrogenous fertilizers may lead to severe rust damage. Too much nitrogen may
cause heavy flag growth and delay the ripening, thus giving rust both a better
and a longer opportunity of developing. On the other hand, phosphatic and
potassic fertilizers applied to soils which respond to them promote the develop-
ment of a good root system (Watt, 1914), stiff straw, and early ripening. These
features reduce damage from rust.

The use of early-maturing varieties may be of the utmost value in minimizing
losses from rust. William Farrer, by developing varieties which were suited to
Australian conditions and were early-maturing, effected a wonderful improvement
in our wheats, apart from any of the other contributions he made. lEHven in
recent seasons when P. graminis Tritici form 34 has severely damaged crops, an
early-maturing variety like “Florence” has matured plump, well-filled grain owing
to its capacity to ripen early and thus escape rust damage. In passing, it is
pointed out that “rust escape’ may be regarded as being different from rust
resistance. It is obvious that varieties must have other desirable qualities in
addition to earliness if they are to be worth growing. Apart from its serious
defect of being so very susceptible to disease, Farrer’s “Federation” marked a
striking improvement in our wheats and, in the breeding work in progress, it is
being largely taken as the type to aim at, plus resistance to disease.

It has been remarked by writers that Farrer was responsible for changing
the colour of our wheat fields. Varieties grown before his day were mainly

XXXiV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

golden-chaffed. Farrer wheats like “Federation”, “Florence”, “Canberra”, and
others have bronze chaff. When these came into cultivation the colour of the
wheat fields was changed from gold to brown. Recently an observation in the
field indicates one advantage which the dark-chaffed wheats have over the light-
chaffed. It is well known that during harvesting operations work cannot be
commenced in the morning if the heads are still wet with dew. It was remarked
that heads of a bronze-chaffed variety were dry and ready for harvesting earlier
than those of a golden-chaffed variety in the same paddock. Absorption of heat
apparently made the difference. Because time is so often an important con-
sideration in harvesting operations, a difference of this nature may significantly
favour the dark-chaffed variety.

Hradication of alternate hosts should always be aimed at. This may not be
effective in Australia in preventing infection of the crop early in the spring—
a very important consideration in the Northern Hemisphere. But it has been
shown in the case of stem rust of wheat (Waterhouse, 1929), as well as that of
leaf rust (Waterhouse, 1932), that new physiologic forms arise by hybridization
on the alternate host. Clearly, then, the presence of an alternate host constitutes
a grave danger of increasing the forms of rust, with consequent increased difficulty
in breeding resistant varieties.

The introduction of infected straw from overseas should be prevented. In the
past, straw has been imported for the use of stock during periods of drought.
It also arrives as packing round articles of commerce. Teleutospores on such
material may lead to barberry infections, with the consequent production of
physiologic forms at present unknown in Australia.

Dusting crops with fungicidal powders in North America has recently been
shown to give a remarkable control of rust, as well as other diseases. Work
in this sphere has lately been reviewed (Greaney, 1933). Sulphur dust in a very
finely divided condition is mainly used. The powder is distributed over the
crops from special power dusters or aeroplanes. A first application is made at
about heading time, and subsequent dustings at intervals of about a week until
just before harvest. Experiments have proved the efficacy and the practicability
of this method of controlling rust. It remains to be seen whether the practice
is economically sound on a large scale, that is to say, whether, over a period of
years, farmers would find that it pays to dust their crops with sulphur. It is
simply a question of cost.

Breeding for resistance offers the only satisfactory method of combating
plant diseases. This raises problems of great complexity which have long been
the subject of study and experiment in many countries. Upon their solution
depends the ultimate control of rust and other diseases.

It is impossible to deal adequately with this all-important subject in the short
time that remains. A vast literature has grown up dealing with its many phases,
and wonderful progress has been made during recent years in developing varieties
of crop plants which are resistant to various diseases. Indeed, it is sometimes
asserted that one of the causes of over-production is the development of high-
yielding types of plants by plant breeders. Actually the use of efficient varieties
is essential as a means of lowering the cost of production.

Time permits of brief mention only of one outstanding Australian wheat
breeder. The work of William James Farrer has probably never received the full
recognition that it deserves. His have been remarkable contributions to Australia’s
wealth. Apart from other improvements, he achieved great success in breeding

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXXV

varieties resistant to bunt. His work in breeding for resistance to rust is some-
times stated to have failed. Certainly it was not successful if it is judged in the
light of present-day rust resistance. This, however, is not a fair test to make.
Facts relating to physiologic specialization were, of course, unknown in Farrer’s
day. In the absence of controlled investigations, there is no way of determining
now what forms of rust were present then. We know that he definitely aimed
at the production of rust resistant varieties. It is not without interest, therefore,
to find that of the 19 varieties listed by Guthrie (1922) as productions of Farrer,
14 show resistance to one or more of the six physiologic forms present up till 1926.
No one of these varieties is resistant to the now ubiquitous form 34. It seems
improbable that this virulent form was present when Farrer did his work,
otherwise there would scarcely have been claims (Guthrie, 1922) that some of his
varieties were resistant. That they were definitely resistant to certain forms has
already been demonstrated (Waterhouse, 1930). Farrer, then, was successful
in breeding for rust resistance as it relates to certain Australian forms of rust.

Since Farrer’s time great advances have been made in science. Rapid
developments, particularly in genetics, plant breeding, plant pathology and
cytology, have placed tools of enormous value in the hands of breeders, and with
a realization of the importance of breeding resistant varieties, and with adequate
support and the provision of proper facilities, the prospects for ultimate success
seem to be very bright. There is still a vast amount of information required in
regard to many fundamental happenings. For example, despite all the progress
that has been made, it must be admitted that we really know very little about
such a basic requirement as what actually constitutes resistance. The great
need is for intensive work on such fundamental problems. With this knowledge
it can scarcely be doubted that many present-day obstacles will disappear, and
the way be paved for certain success in the future.

Conclusion.

Finally, grateful reference must be made to the cordial assistance rendered
by members of your Council at all times throughout the year. The duties of a
President are greatly lightened by such happy cooperation. In the Secretary you
have a man who with unflagging zeal and outstanding ability attends to the
affairs of the Society, and this opportunity is taken of again recording appreciation
of his fine services and of thanking him for his work on our behalf.

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Dovorr, D. N., 1933.—The epidemic development of the wheat rusts in Northern Bulgaria
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ERIKSSON, J., 1894.—Uber die Specialisierung des Parasitismus bei den Getreiderostpilzen.
Ber. deut. bot. Gesell., 12, 292-331.

FIELD, Barron, 1823.—First anniversary address by the President of the Agricultural
Society of N.S.W., instituted on the 5th July, 1822, pp. 1-17. Printed by Robert
Howe, Govt. Printer, Sydney.

GREANEY, F. J., 1933.—Field experiments on the prevention of cereal rusts by sulphur
dusting (1930-1932). Proc. World’s Grain Exhibition and Conference, Canada, 1933,
Vol. 2, pp. 236-237.

, 1933.—Method of estimating loss from cereal rusts. Proc. World’s Grain
Exhibition and Conference, Canada, 1933, Vol. 2, pp. 224-235.

GrRoosHEyoy, S. H., and MAKnLoxova, G. F., 1934.—Rusts of cultivated cereals and their
control. State Publishing Office of Collective and Soviet Farming Literature,
Moscow, 1934.

GUNTHER, , 1927.—Contribution to the problem of the control of yellow rust. MII.
Observations on the occurrence of yellow rust in Hesse and its control by fertiliza-
tion with potash. Hrndhrung der Pflanze, 23, 4, pp. 52-58.

GUTHRIE, F. B., 1914.—Wheat improvement in Australia. N.S.W. Dept. of Agr. Science
0H, Wil, to, Ale

, 1922.—William J. Farrer and the results of his work. N.S.W. Dept. of Agr.
Science Bull., 22, pp. 1-26.

HISTORICAL RECORDS OF AUSTRALIA, Series 1, Vols. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6. The Library Committee
of the Commonwealth Parliament.

Houtroyp, M., 1864.—Reports of the Acclimatisation Society of N.S.W. Third Annual
Report.

Hour, J., 1838.—Memoirs of Joseph Holt. 2 Vols. Edited by T. Crofton Croker. London:
H. Colburn.

Hooker, J. D., 1859.—On the flora of Australia, its origin, affinities and distribution,
being an introductory essay to the flora of Tasmania. London: Lovell Reeve, Covent
Garden.

HumpuHrey, H. B., 1934.—Cereal rust parasitism: its relation to water economy, yield
and quality of the host plant. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Third Series, Section V,
Vol. 28, 153-164.

JOHNSON, T., and NeEwTon, MARGARET, 1933.—Hybridisation between Puccinia graminis
Tritici and P. graminis Avenae. Proc. World’s Grain Exhibition and Conference,
Canada, 1923, Vol. 2, pp. 219-223.

JOHNSTON, C. O., and Mains, E. B., 1932.—Studies on physiologic specialisation in
Puccinia triticina. U.S. Dept. Agric., Tech. Bull. 313, 1-23.

KERLE, W. D., 1929.—Crop growing competitions, 1928.—Central Western District.
Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., 40, 189.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXXVii

KiEeMM, M., 1934.—Crop damage from black rust in Germany. WNachrichtenbl. Deutsch.
Pflanzenschutedienst, 14, 2, pp. 9-11.
LAMBERT, E. B., 1929.—The relation of weather to the development of rust in the
Mississippi Valley. Phytopath., 19, 1-71.
LINpForsS, T., 1929.—Some reflections on the current year’s black rust ravages.
Landtmannen, 12, 38, pp. 811-812.
McALPINE, D., 1891.—Rust in wheat conference. Second session. Report in Votes and
Proc. of the Legislative Assembly, N.S.W., pp. 1-57.
, 1905.—Bobs—a rust resisting wheat. Jour. Dept. Agr. Vict., 3, 166-167.
———_, 1906.— The rusts of Australia. Melbourne, R. S. Brain, Govt. Printer, pp. 350,
pl. 44.
McCauLey, C., 1925.—Farmers’ experiment plots—North Western District. Ag. Gaz.
N.S.W., 36, 162.
McDiarmip, R. W., 1918.—Farmers’ experiment plots—North Western District. Ag. Gaz.
N.S.W., 29, 252.
MAcKELLAR, J., 1865.—Reports of the Acclimatisation Society of N.S.W. Fourth Annual
Report.
Mains, E. B., 1930.—Host specialisation of barley leaf rust, Puccinia anomala. Phyto-
path., 20, 873-882.
, 1933.—Host specialisation in the leaf rust of grasses, Puccinia rubigo-vera.
Mich. Acad. Sci., 17, 289-394.
MepDLEY, R. N., 1929.—Field experiments with cereal crops, Cowra. Ag. Gaz. N.S.W.,
40, 346.
Meura, K. C., 1931.—Annual outbreaks of rusts on wheat and barley in the plains of
India. Indian Jour. Agr. Sci., 1, 3, pp. 297-301.
MonTsacuE SmirH, J., 1818(?).—An enquiry into the nature, cause and prevention of
rust in wheat. H. Thomas and J. Moore.
MurpuHy, H. C., 1935.—Effect of crown rust infection on yield and water requirement
of oats. Journ. Agric. Res., 50, 387-411.
, 1935.—Physiologie specialisation in Puccinia coronata Avenae. U.S. Dept.
Agric., Tech. Bull. 4383, 48 pp.
PELTiER, G. L., 1929.—Some aspects of the spread of stem rust. Zentral. fiir Bakt. etc.,
Ab. ly Bal 8, pp) 525-53).
PirTMAN, H. A., 1935.—The rusts of cereals. Jour. Agr. W.A., Vol. 12 (Second Series),
pp. 3867-374. : ‘
Ports. H. W., 1924.—EHEarly struggles of the wheat farmers in N.S.W. Jour. Roy. Aust.
Hist. Soc., 9, pp. 260-274.
PRIDHAM, J. T., 1918.—Notes on the test plots of wheat varieties at Cowra. Ag. Gaz.
N.S.W., 29, 175.
Proc. OF THE PARLIAMENT OF STH. AUSTRALIA, Vol. 11, No. 20, 1869. Report of Commis-
sion appointed to inquire into disease in cereals. ;
RANKINE, M., 1902.—Jour. Agr. and Industry Sth. Australia, Vol. 5, p. 578.
REPORTS OF THE ACCLIMATISATION SocIETY oF N.S.W.—1864. Third Annual Report.
REYNOLDS, M. H., 1921.—Farmers’ experiment plots—North Western Districts. Ag. Gaz.
IN So Won B25 IL
, 1922.—Farmers’ experiment plots—North Western Districts. Ag. Gaz. N.S.W.,
Ba, ILGO-
,1925.—Farmers’ experiment plots—Northern District. Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., 36,

165.
RumMspy, H. J., 1915.—Notes on the early history of Dundas. Jour. Roy. Aust. Hist. Soc.,
3, pp. 25-31.

SAvuLEscu, T., 1933.—Rumania: black rust of cereals in 1932 and the measures taken
to prevent future outbreaks. Internat. Bull. of Plant Protection, 7, 2, pp. 29-31.
ScHOMBURGK, R., 1873.—Papers on agriculture, etce., read before the Philosophical
Society and the Chamber of Manufacturers. Govt. Printer, Adelaide.

SHEPHERD, A. N., 1921.—KFarmers’ experiment plots—Murrumbidgee Irrigation Areas.
Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., 32, 241.

Sparks, G. C., 1922.—Corowa crop growing competition. Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., 33, 252.

STAKMAN, E. C., and Levine, M. N., 1922.—The determination of biologic forms of
Puccinia graminis on Triticum spp. Minn. Agr. Eapt. Sta., Tech. Bull. 8.

STAKMAN, EH. C., Henry, A. W., and CurrAN, G. C., 1923.—Spores in the upper air.
Journ. Agric. Res., 24, 599-606.

STENING, H. C., 1918.—The R.A.S. field wheat competition. Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., 29, 183.

XXXVill PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

SYDNEY GAZETTE, 7th Nov., 1829; 9th Jan., 1830; 30th Jan., 1830; 20th Nov., 1830;
3rd Dec., 1830; , 1831; 12th Jan., 18382; 2nd Feb., 1832; 7th Feb., 1832;
8rd March, 1832; 4th Dec., 1832; 6th Dec., 1832; 15th Dec., 1832; 12th Jan., 1833.

TPNISON-Woops, J. E., and BAitny, F. M., 1880.—On some fungi of N.S.W. and Queens-
land. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 5, pp. 50-105.

TEPPER, O., 1879.—Red rust. Trans. and Proc. and Report Royal Socy. Sth. Aust.,
Vol. 3, pp. 13-18.

TrYOoN, H., 1889.—Report on insect and fungus pests. Govt. Printer, Brisbane. Chap. x,
pp. 210-214.

VERWOERD, L., 1935.—A review of the black stem rust (Puccinia graminis Pers.) situa-
tion. Union Sth. Africa Dept. Agr. and Forestry, Science Bull. 21.

WATERHOUSE, W. L., 1921.—On the production in Australia of the aecidial stage of
Puccinia graminis Pers. Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 55, 278-288.

,1929.—A preliminary account of the origin of two new Australian physiologic
forms of Puccinia graminis Tritici. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 54, 96-106.

, 1929.— Australian rust studies. I. Proc, Linn. Soc N.S.W., 54, 615-680.

, 1930.—Australian rust studies. II. Biometrical studies of the morphology of
spore forms. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 55, 159-178.

————,, 1930.—Australian rust studies. III. Initial results of breeding for rust
resistance. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 55, 596-636.

, 1932.—On the production in Australia of two new physiologic forms of leaf
rust of wheat, Puccinia triticina Erikss. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 57, 92-94.

, 1933.—Some aspects of cereal rust problems in Australia. Proc. Fifth Pac. Sci.
Congress, Canada, 1933, 3169-3176.

, 1934.—Australian rust studies. IV. Natural infection of barberries by black
stem rust in Australia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 59, 16-18.

, 1935.—Australian rust studies. V. On the occurrence of a new physiologic
form of wheat stem rust in N.S.W. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 60, 71-78.

Watt, R. D., 1914.—The influence of phosphatic fertilisers on root development. Rept.
Aust. Assn. Adv. Sci., 1913, 14, 661-665.

WHETZEL, H. H., 1918.—An outline of the history of Phytopathology. W. B. Saunders
Co., pp. 1-130.

The Secretary (for Dr. G. A. Waterhouse, Honorary Treasurer) presented the
balance-sheets for the year ended 29th February, 1936, duly signed by the Auditor,
Mr. F. H. Rayment, F.C.A. (Aust.); and he moved that they be received and
adopted, which was carried unanimously.

No nominations of other candidates having been received, the Chairman
declared the following elections for the ensuing session to be duly made:

President: C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S.

Members of Council: C. Anderson, M.A., D.Sc., Professor A. N. St. G. H.
Burkitt, M.B., B.Sc., H. J. Carter, B.A., F.R.E.S., Professor J. Macdonald Holmes,
B.Sc., F.R.G.S., A. F. Basset Hull, M.B.E., and C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S.

Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.A. (Aust.).

A cordial vote of thanks to the retiring President was carried by acclamation.

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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
25th Marcu, 1936.
Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(27th November, 1935) amounting to 46 Volumes, 373 Parts or Numbers, 19
Bulletins, 14 Reports and 31 Pamphlets, received from 147 Societies and Institu-
tions and 5 private donors, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.
1. Notes on Australian Diptera. xxxv. By J. R. Malloch. (Communicated
by F. H. Taylor.)
2. Notes on the Biology of Scaptia auriflua Don. (Diptera, Tabanidae). By
Mary EH. Fuller, B.Sc.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
29th ApriIL, 1936.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Messrs. M. F. Day and D. F. Waterhouse were elected Ordinary Members
of the Society.

The President announced that the Council had elected Dr. C. Anderson,
Professor A. N. Burkitt, Professor W. J. Dakin and Dr. W. L. Waterhouse to be
Vice-Presidents for the Session 1936-37.

The President also announced that the Council had elected Dr. G. A.
Waterhouse to be Honorary Treasurer for the Session 1936-37.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(25th March, 1936), amounting to 19 Volumes, 144 Parts or Numbers, 10 Bulletins
and 5 Reports, received from 76 Societies and Institutions, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. Contributions to the Microbiology of Australian Soils. iv. The Activity of
Microorganisms in the Decomposition of Organic Matter. By H. L. Jensen, Macleay
Bacteriologist to the Society.

2. Studies in the Australian Acacias. vi. The Meristematic Activity of the
Floral Apex of Acacia longifolia and A. suaveolens as a Histogenetic Study of the
Ontogeny of the Carpel. By I. V. Newman, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Linnean Macleay
Fellow of the Society in Botany.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlili

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Professor F. E. Lloyd exhibited specimens showing the behaviour of the
living trap of Utricularia lateriflora. In view of the anatomy of the trap of
Utricularia lateriflora, as already described by him from preserved material, it
was expected that the living trap would display the kind of behaviour common
to others (e.g., U. capensis, U. Welwitschii, etc.) in which the plane embracing
the axis of the door or valve lies obliquely to the plane of the threshold. Satis-
factory living material having been obtained in the vicinity of Sydney, through
the thoughtful co-operation of the Department of Botany of the University of
Sydney, he was able to determine the accuracy of the above expectation. The
critical points to be observed are the postures of the door in the set and relaxed
condition of the trap. In the set posture the upper region of the door is concave
(as seen from the outside of the trap). The trap is actuated by touching the
upper region of the door. As to the precise point of maximum mechanical
sensitivity, it is difficult to decide. By analogy, one would say that part nearest
to the lower region of the door. When actuated, the vigour of implosion (in-
suction of water through the entrance) is sufficient to suck in a needle point and
thus plug the opening. In the relaxed posture the upper region of the door is
strongly convex (in the above sense) and the lower region of the door stands
at a smaller angle of contact with the pavement epithelium of the threshold.
The door in this species seems to be devoid of trigger mechanism—as compared
with U. capensis. It probably is represented by low trichomes with their cylindrical
heads transverse to the door axis. The excessively small size (0-6 mm.) of the
trap makes it difficult to decide experimentally. An attempt will, however, be
made. Its form is unique, only two other species approximating it.

Mr. EK. Cheel exhibited specimens, coloured drawings, and photographie
illustrations of 15 species of Nicotiana, including 6 new species recently described
by Dr. Helen-Mar Wheeler in ‘Studies in Nicotiana. ii. A Taxonomic Survey
of the Australasian Species” (University of California Publications in Botany,
Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 45-68, 1935):

Nicotiana Benthamiana Domin. See Biblioth. Bot., 22, 1929, 591, Pl. 37,
fig. 1. (N. suaveolens var. cordifolia Benth.) North-west coast of W.A. (Bynoe),
Ashburton and Yule Rivers, and Central Australia.

Nicotiana excelsior Black. (N. suaveolens var. excelsior Black, N. macrocalyx
Domin.) Birksgate Range and Everard Range, S.A.

Nicotiana Debneyi Domin. (N. suaveolens var. parviflora Benth., as often
interpreted. Not N. suaveolens var. Debneyi of Bailey.) Lord Howe Island and
numerous localities in New South Wales.

Nicotiana fragrans Hooker. Bot. Mag., t. 4865. (N. Macgillivrayi Seeman.)

Nicotiana occidentalis Wheeler. Port Headland (Mjoberg). Type.

Nicotiana Gossei Domin. See in Biblioth. Bot., 22, 592, Pl. 36, figs. 2-5. Type.
From centre of South Australia.

Nicotiana megalosiphon Heurck and Muell. Arg. (N. suaveolens var. longiflora
Benth.) Bellata and Narrabri, N.S.W.

Nicotiana velutina Wheeler. Tibooburra, Toorale-Goonery. Type from Broken
Hill (Morris).

Nicotiana maritima Wheeler. Near Adelaide (Cleland).

Nicotiana suaveolens Lehmann. (N. undulata Veut.) Bot. Mag., t. 673. Bulby
Island, Lake Macquarie (Cheel). Recorded from several other localities from
the coast to Snowy River.

e

xliv ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Nicotiana stenocarpa Wheeler. Laverton, W.A. (Maiden). Type.

Nicotiana ingulba Black. Central Australia to W.A.

Nicotiana rotundifolia Lindley. (N. fastigiata Nees; N. suaveolens var. rosulata
Moore; N. rosulata Domin, Pl. 36, fig. 11).

Nicotiana Goodspeedii Wheeler. Ivanhoe district (Reuss).

Nicotiana exigua Wheeler. Dalby, Queensland (McCarthy). Type. Specimen
not represented in Herbarium of N.S.W.

Dr. W. L. Waterhouse, on behalf of Mr. F. W. Hely, B.Sc.Agr., of the
C.S.1.R., Canberra, exhibited a hitherto undescribed rust attacking Kangaroo Grass,
Themeda Forskalii. In the course of a plant disease survey which Mr. Hely is
making of the Federal Capital Territory, this rust was found severely attacking
leaves and stems of the grass. To date only the uredospore stage has been
discovered, but work is in progress to complete the determination of the rust
and its host range.

Mr. F. H. Taylor exhibited photographs of (1) a new subspecies of flea,
belonging to the genus Xenopsylla, which is intermediate between a species from
South Australia and another from Hawaii; and (2) a new species belonging to
the genus Stivalius. The host of both fleas is Rattus culmorum from North
Queensland.

Dr. I. V. Newman read extracts from letters he had received from Miss EH. R.
Saunders of Cambridge and Professor J. McLean Thompson of Liverpool asking
him to correct a statement he had made concerning their views on carpel
morphology. The statement, made at the meeting on 30th October, 1935, was
that their interpretations of the legume were based on the assumption that the
legume is terminal. Miss Saunders wished it to be stated that there is no
assumption; but that her interpretation is based on the “demonstrable fact”
that the whole of the residual vascular cylinder remaining after the exsertion
of the androecium passes into the legume. Dr. Newman’s reply was that in
saying “assumption” he did not mean to imply any lack in amount of observation
and illustration. But he regards the evidence produced and illustrated by Miss
Saunders as not proving her contention; and he considers that if at the stages
illustrated by her the whole vascular cylinder that appeared to be residual after
the exsertion of the androecium does pass into the gynoecium, even then the
terminality of the origin of the legume is not a necessary conclusion. The
question is discussed in the paper read at this meeting by Dr. Newman. Professor
Thompson asked it to be stated that he has “made it abundantly clear that
the legume is not a terminal structure’. In reply Dr. Newman quoted from the
conclusion of Professor Thompson’s paper (of which he could find no refutation)
on the Leguminous strobilus (Publn. Hartley Bot. Lab. Liverpool, No. 7, 1931),
where it is stated that: ‘“‘Throughout the long series of species examined with
single legume, the latter has been found to be of terminal origin. . ..” This
matter is now a subject of correspondence in the columns of Nature.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
27th May, 1936.
Dr. W. L. Waterhouse, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Messrs. C. E. Chadwick, B.Sc., C. V. Morisset, N. L. Roberts, E. H. Zeck,
and Miss Ilma M. Pidgeon, B.Sc., were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.
The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(29th April, 1936), amounting to 19 Volumes, 173 Parts or Numbers, 4 Bulletins,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlv

3 Reports and 16 Pamphlets, received from 82 Societies and Institutions and 1
private donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.
1. A Redescription of Solomys (“Mus”) salamonis Ramsay. By E. Le G.
Troughton, C.M.Z.S.
2. Check-list of the New South Wales Pteridophytes. By Alma T. Melvaine.

3. Australian Coleoptera. Notes and New Species. No. 10. By H. J. Carter,
BSAC HaHa

4. Notes on Sarcophaginae in India and Australia. By G. H. Hardy.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited specimens of a weed commonly known as “Paraguay
Burr” (Acanthospermum brasilum Schrank; syn. A. xanthoides DC.), recently
received from the Manager of the Experiment Farm at Glen Innes, New England
district. The species has not previously been recorded for Australia and, although
the burr-like fruits are not quite so large as those of Acanthospermum hispidum,
which is recorded as a naturalized weed in Queensland, or those of “Bathurst
Burr” (Xanthium spinosum), and ‘“Noogoora Burr” (Xanthium chinense; syn.
X. occidentale), the burrs are sufficiently large and produced in such large
numbers for it to be regarded as a serious menace to those engaged in sheep
farming.

Mr. Cheel also exhibited fruiting specimens of Crataegus pubescens forma
stipulacea Stapf (Botanical Magazine, t. 8589) received from Mr. C. L. Mackenzie,
Guyra. The plant is commonly known as “Texocotl’ or “Rock Apple”, spelt
“Tejocote” in Mexico, also “Mauzana” or “Manzanilla’ in Spanish. Specimens
of a weed very common on lawns in Hyde Park and other localities in the
metropolitan area of Sydney and Newcastle and listed under the name “Chilian
Witlow” were recently submitted to the Royal Herbarium, Kew (England), for
correct classification and have been determined as Paronychia brasiliana DC.,
and not P. chilensis as recorded in These Procrerepines, 1913, p. 110. Specimens
of Protium australasicum Sprague (syn. Bursera australasica Bailey) were
exhibited from Palm Dale, Cudgera Creek, Moobal, N.S.W., collected by Mr.
W. A. W. de Beuzeville. This species has previously been recorded from HKumundi,
Queensland.

Mr. N. L. Roberts exhibited the foliage of Casuarina suberosa, Castlereagh
district, infested with Loranthus linifolius in which the foliage of the parasite
has taken on the form of the host plant.

Mr. R. N. Robertson, Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany, exhibited some
specimens of Utricularia dichotoma var. wniflora which he had collected near the
Sydney University Biological Society’s Research Station. These specimens had
been given to Professor F. E. Lloyd, but were exhibited with his permission.
The bladders which trap the small animals appear to be all on the surface of the
soil, and, it would seem, trap animals which are washed over them by the surface
waters. In these specimens no subterranean bladders have been found, though
they may occur in the species. The only other species which has bladders on the
surface of the soil is U. monanthos from Western Australia.

Mr. Robertson made reference, as a matter of interest, to the fact that he
spent his annual vacation at Wallerawang House, as the guest of Mr. J. W.

xlvi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Barton. Wallerawang House was one of the places which Darwin visited on his
way to Bathurst, 100 years ago last January. He records in the “Voyage of
the Beagle’ how he was taken on a kangaroo hunt and how he first saw
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, which is still common in the river. The original
homestead of Wallerawang Station—built in early colonial style—is still standing,
though it is now unoccupied.

Mr. G. P. Whitley exhibited a larval eel which was regarded as the
Leptocephalus stage of the Little Conger, Congromuraena longicauda Ramsay &
Ogilby. The specimen was washed ashore at Maroubra on May 24, 1936, and
measured 70 mm. in length. There were 127 myomeres along the body and
pectoral fins were undeveloped.

Mr. Whitley also exhibited specimens of flies which were commonly found
running over sand-dunes behind Maroubra Beach, jerking their wings as they
proceeded. These had been identified by Mr. Anthony Musgrave as Hphydroscinis
(Neoborborus) raymenti Curran, a species hitherto known only from Port
Phillip, Victoria.

Mr. H. J. Carter drew attention to a copy of a rare pamphlet on Buprestidae
by F. W. Hope; this was published privately in 1836 and was the subject of
discussion in 1867 as regards the validity of the names published in it (see Proc.
Ent. Soc. London, 1867, p. cix, and Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1868, p. 1).

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
24th Jung, 1936.
Mr. C. A. Sussmileh, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Messrs. A. Goerling and D. J. Lee, B.Sc., were elected Ordinary Members
of the Society.

A letter was read from the Acting Official Secretary, Government House,
Sydney, conveying the appreciation of His Majesty the King, Queen Mary and
other members of the Royal Family for the message of sympathy in the death of
His late Majesty King George V.

The President referred to the death of Mr. A. H. S. Lucas, who had been
a member of the Society since 1893, President 1907-1909, and a member of Council
since 1895 with the exception of the years 1924-1926.

The Chairman offered the congratulations of members to Dr. J. G. Churchward,
who had recently received the degree of Ph.D., of the University of Minnesota.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(27th May, 1936), amounting to 21 Volumes, 131 Parts or Numbers, 4 Reports and
3 Pamphlets, received from 78 Societies and Institutions and 2 private donors,
were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.
1. A Comparison of the Rydal and Hartley Exogenous Contact-zones. By
Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D.
2. The Structural Geology and Petrology of an Area near Yass, N.S.W. By
Kathleen Sherrard, M.Sc.
3. Contribution to a Knowledge of Papuan Tipulidae (Diptera). By C. P.
Alexander. (Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.)

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlvii

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited herbarium specimens in flower, and live plants in
cultivation, of Rupicola sprengelioides collected by Dr. I. V. Newman and O. D.
Evans near the Lookout, Burragorang, in December, 1934. The genus was
originally described by Messrs. J. H. Maiden and E. Betche (these ProcEEDINGS,
xxili, 1898, 774) from specimens collected by J. H. Maiden and W. Forsyth near
the southern edge of the King’s Tableland in the Blue Mountains. Some seeds
were forwarded to Kew (England) by Maiden in 1906, from which plants were
raised: they flowered in April, 1911, and were illustrated in Bot. Mag., Tab. 8438
(1912). The late Mr. E. Betche, when preparing the description, was doubtful
as to the correct position on account of the anthers somewhat resembling those
of HEricaceae, but the general characteristics being in agreement with those of
Epacridaceae, it was classed in the latter family with which the author of the
article in the Botanical Magazine agreed, but for some unknown reason omitted
Betche’s name as joint author. In Kew Bulletin. No. 7, 1910, p. 216, O. Stapf
described a new species of Hpacris under the name E. breviflora. It is figured
by Hooker (Bot. Mag.. Tab. 3257, 1833) under the name #. heteronema, but is
quite distinct from EH. heteronema Labillardiére, collected in Tasmania; through
a slip, the name breviflora is listed as brevifolia by Maiden and Betche (Census
of New South Wales Plants, 1916, p. 167).

Mr. Cheel also exhibited specimens of Oryptocarya Meissneri F.v.M., from a
plant cultivated in the Botanic Gardens, which produced a few flowers in March
last. It is figured by Maiden (Forest Flora, Pl. 130) from specimens collected at
Port Macquarie in January, 1897, and Clarence River, 1875, but is not entered in
the Catalogue of Garden Plants or represented in the National Herbarium; it
was evidently planted during C. Moore’s directorship of the Gardens. Specimens
of the Common Barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) from Bellbird, near Newcastle,
together with a coloured illustration published in Hnglish Botany, Tab. 49 (1807),
were exhibited for comparison. Several samples of this species have been
submitted to the botanical staff at the National Herbarium for identification
during the past year.

Mr. A. N. Colefax sent for exhibition two samples of Antarctic Plankton,
one a heavy Diatom catch, and the other an equally heavy catch of zooplankton
(Copepoda, Huphausids, ete.). These samples illustrate the extreme abundance
of planktonic life in the cold Antarctic seas, and come from the large collection
of hauls made by the “Discovery” in 1929-1930. The collection is being worked
out at the Zoology Department, The University of Sydney.

Miss E. C. Pope exhibited the head of a specimen of the Cockney Bream,
Pagrosomus auratus, which showed peculiar malformation of the mouth and jaws.
The specimen was taken from Brisbane Water in January, 1936. The whole mouth
has the appearance of having undergone twisting towards the right, and the
upper jaw appears to lack several bones on this side of the mouth. A suggested
explanation is that part of the upper jaw was torn away (probably by careless
removal of a hook by some fisherman when the fish was very young) and the
wound has healed up unevenly, causing the distortion shown. The fish had an
otherwise normal appearance.

Mr. R. H. Anderson exhibited: (i) A specimen of Codonocarpus cotinifolius,
“Horse Radish Tree’, or ‘Mustard Tree’. This is a fairly common tree in
Western Australia, and also occurs in western New South Wales on red soils

xlvili ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

or sandy loams. The leaves and bark have a very pungent taste, so that it is
not touched as a rule by stock or rabbits. It has been suggested that it might
prove a useful species in helping to prevent soil drift and erosion in the interior
in view of its avoidance by stock and free seeding habit. (ii) A specimen of
Oncinocalyx Betchei, “Oncino Burr’, a native plant which produces a burr
injurious to wool. Recent information received from the Mandowa Shire Clerk
indicates that it is spreading in the Hall’s Creek area, about 15 miles east of
Manilla. (iii) A specimen and plate of Hakea Bakeriana, an ornamental shrub
with a limited distribution, being mainly confined to the Newcastle—-Lake
Macquarie district. It grows on poor sandy soil and should prove a useful
ornamental shrub for such areas.

Dr. R. J. Tillyard referred to the recent discovery of a new Upper Triassic
fossil insect bed at Mount Crosby, near Ipswich, Queensland. He exhibited six
specimens of fossil insects from this bed, two being cockroaches, three Hemiptera
and one a beetle elytron. Representatives of the Odonata, Neuroptera, Mecoptera
and Diptera also occur. Ninety-three specimens were discovered in three days,
so the fauna is evidently a rich one. The insects were fossilized in the bed of
a running stream between two ridges of older Brisbane schist.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
29th JuLy, 1936.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The President announced that Mr. R. H. Anderson, B.Sc.Agr., had been elected
to fill the vacancy on the Council caused by the death of Mr. A. H. S. Lucas.

The President offered the congratulations of members to Mr. R. N. Robertson,
B.Se., Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany, on the award of a Science Scholarship
of the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851.

The President announced that the operation of the Wild Flowers and Native
Plants Protection Act, 1927, has been extended for a further period of one year
from ist July, 1936.

The President reported that subscriptions to the David Portrait Fund to date
amounted to £20 15s. 6d. The object of the fund is to obtain a portrait of the
late Sir Edgeworth David, to be hung in Science House, and the total amount
required is about £85.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(24th June, 1936), amounting to 26 Volumes, 169 Parts or Numbers, 11 Bulletins,
7 Reports and 8 Pamphlets, received from 88 Societies and Institutions and 1
private donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.
1. The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Boorook and Drake.
By A. H. Voisey, B.Sc.
2. Two new Australian Fleas. By Karl Jordan, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Communicated
by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.)

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. R. N. Robertson gave a short résumé of the present knowledge of stomatal
movement in its relationships to the physiological processes of the leaf. The
action of stomata as conservers of water was emphasized. The views of modern

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix

workers, including Scarth and Maskell, as to the cause of the movement were
outlined. Mr. Robertson exhibited the apparatus with which he has been
investigating the relation of the composition of the gases of intercellular spaces
to the stomatal movement. Some results were shown and the difficulties of
interpretation pointed out.

Mr. H. L. Jensen exhibited agar cultures of aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
(Azotobacter) from soils of different character; in some these organisms were
absent, while in others an addition of a suitable energy material caused them to
multiply and reach numbers of several hundred millions per gram of soil.

Dr. I. V. Newman exhibited photomicrographs of living material of Acacia
discolor showing a method of protection of stigmas after pollination. The first
was a crushed stigma with a fully germinated pollinium attached to it by the
pollen tubes and covered by vaseline that had been placed on it 4% hours after
pollination (germination of pollen begins about 1% hours after pollination). The
second was a hand section of the ovary of the same carpel showing pollen tubes
emerging into the cavity. The carpel was collected 24 hours after pollination.
Pollination was done before the stamens extended and about 24-30 hours before
the anthers would open. Emasculation is, therefore, not essential for genetical
work of this method, and only a temporary protection between pollination and
placing the vaseline is needed. (This work was carried out by means of a
binocular magnifier granted for Dr. Newman’s use by the Science and Industry
Endowment Fund.)

Mr. A. N. Colefax sent for exhibition an apparatus for making drawings direct
from a dissection, or other object, which he had recently constructed. It embodies
a pantograph in which the tracing point is replaced by an adjustable tube at the
base of which are crossed wires. The apparatus rests on a glass-topped table, the
object being placed underneath on a subsidiary stage, which is well illuminated
by four strip lights.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
26th AvuGcustT, 1936.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

Messrs. D. Gilmour and M. E. Griffiths were elected Ordinary Members of the
Society.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(29th July, 1936), amounting to 7 Volumes, 97 Parts or Numbers, 6 Bulletins,
5 Reports and 19 Pamphlets, received from 60 Societies and Institutions, were
laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. iv. Family Tipulidae, Part ii.
By C. P. Alexander. (Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.)

2. Introductory Account of the Geology and Petrology of the Lake George
District. By M. D. Garretty, B.Sc.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited specimens of a weed not previously recorded for
Australia, collected at Garah in December, 1933, by Messrs. Halstead and O’Neill,
and at Scone in March, 1936, by Mr. B. G. Millard. The plants are remarkably
like the “Khaki Weed” (Alternanthera echinata) in general appearance but have

1 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

been identified by the authorities at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Hngland),
as Gomphrena dispersa Standley. It is a native of Central America and the
West Indies, and is also found in tropical and South Africa, though in the latter
area it had been wrongly named G. decumbens Jacq.

Mr. Cheel also exhibited specimens of a grass collected by Mr. F. H. Taylor
at Bulolo, New Guinea (alt. 2,300 ft.), classed in the genus Themeda, which is
probably the species 7’. triandra Forsk. Specimens of what is regarded as Themeda
quadrivalvis Forsk. (Anthistiria vulgaris Hack.), from Astrolabe Range, New
Guinea, collected by F. H. Brown in June, 1898, together with specimens of the
Australian Kangaroo Grass, Themeda australis (R.Br.) Stapf, together with four
other distinctive forms or subspecies from other parts of Australia, were exhibited
for comparison with the two species from New Guinea.

Mrs. Sherrard exhibited graptolites from two localities to the east of Yass in
an area from which no fossils have previously been obtained, and which has been
tentatively correlated with the Silurian. From the roadside on the way to
Gundaroo, 12 miles to the east of Yass, about Portion 24, Parish of Morumbateman,
were obtained Climacograptus missilus Keble and Harris, and Diplograptus
calcaratus Lap. These are poorly preserved, but have been identified by Mr. R. A.
Keble, Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne. In Portion 1, Parish
of Mundoonen, 15 miles east of Yass, were obtained Retiograptus pulcherrimus
Keble and Harris, ? Leptograptus flaccidus Hall, and ?L. ascendens Elles and
Wood. These forms are typical of the Bolindian Beds of the Upper Ordovician
Series, which make the uppermost zone of this series in Victoria, and prove that
these beds near Yass, previously classed in the Silurian, should be moved down
to the Upper Ordovician. The R. pulcherrimus is well preserved, and Mr. Keble
remarks that its only other occurrence known to him, apart from the type locality
on the Yarra Track, Victoria, is in Romsey in the same State.

Mr. F. H. Taylor exhibited, on behalf of Mr. David O. Atherton, Entomologist,
Department of Stock and Agriculture, Atherton, larvae of a species of the family
Blepharoceridae (Diptera). These larvae were found beneath a waterfall in the
Little Mossman River, Queensland, about 60 miles north of Cairns. It is believed
to be the first recorded instance of the family Blepharoceridae in Queensland.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.

30th SEPTEMBER, 1936.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The Chairman announced that the Council is prepared to receive applications
for four Linnean Macleay Fellowships tenable for one year from ist March, 1937,
from qualified candidates. Applications should be lodged with the Secretary, who
will afford all necessary information to intending candidates, not later than
Wednesday, 4th November, 1936.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(26th August, 1936), amounting to 12 Volumes, 153 Parts or Numbers, 3 Bulletins,

1 Report and 9 Pamphlets, received from 73 Societies and Institutions, were laid
upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. Studies in Australian Embioptera. i. Systematics. By Consett Davis,
B.Sc.
2. The Adrenal Gland in New-born Mammals. By G. Bourne, D.Sc.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. li

Mr. EB. le G. Troughton delivered a lecturette: “Rarer Mammals—Their Past
and Future.”

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

The Secretary, on behalf of Mrs. E. Coleman, communicated the following
notes:

Note on Nest Hygiene of the White-plumed Honey-eater, Meliphaga (Ptilotula)
penicillata. By Edith Coleman.

Opportunity of observing, at close range, the construction of nests and the
brooding habits of various species of birds, and of witnessing methods of main-
taining the perfect hygiene noted in the nests of certain Australian birds has been
afforded by a garden wilderness, some two acres in extent, containing many native
trees and shrubs. In this garden, as elsewhere in the suburbs of Melbourne, alien
birds, such as the British Song Thrush and the Blackbird, are dominant. These
are gradually ousting native birds, other than those that do not enter into food
competition with them.

The non-competitive Honey-eaters, however, are holding their own in our
gardens, and they are encouraged in my own by the planting of many trees and
shrubs bearing nectariferous flowers. Four species frequent the garden throughout
the year: the Spinebill (Acanthorhynchus tenwirostris), Regent (Zanthomiza
phrygia), White-plumed (Meliphaga penicillata) and the Yellow-winged (Meliornis
novae-hollandae). All of them nest here. In examining the nests of these
Honey-eaters, after the nestlings had flown, I have always been impressed with
their remarkably clean condition. Except for scale, they were as clean as
when constructed. The same feature was noted in the nests of other species in
the hills or along the coast. In December, 1935, I discovered that this surprising
cleanliness is due to the remarkable precautions taken by adult birds to ensure
perfect sanitation during the nestling stage.

In this district (Blackburn, Victoria) the Silver-leaf Stringy-bark (Hucalyptus
cinerea var. nultifiora) is a favourite nesting-site of the White-plumed Honey-
eater (Meliphaga penicillata), probably because its slender, pendent branches offer
safe anchorage for the basket nests. Swinging at the ends of branchlets they are
practically inaccessible to cats or owls. The trees provide good, handy foraging
in the scale-insects that infest them. Moreover, the flowering of the trees coincides
with the brooding season of the Honey-eaters, and the flowers secrete abundant
nectar.

In January, 1936, three of these cradles swung from one tree in my garden,
within the space of a few feet. In one nest three nestlings were reared, and I
was able to follow closely their development. The parent birds were very trustful.
The male bird was at all times quite fearless, and, in spite of my proximity, fed
the nestlings from the side of the nest facing the camera, placed within three
feet of it. The female, a little alarmed by the click of a shutter, occasionally
fed from the back of the nest, but she was at all times guite visible to me. In
feeding, the parents did not rest on the nest, but perched on a twig, reaching
down to the nestlings from a considerable distance. Large masses of scale-insects
and nectar were fed. At no time were excreta allowed to reach the nest, but
were taken by an adult bird as soon as voided. After feeding a nestling, a
parent, more frequently the male bird, paused expectantly on his twig. If excreta
were not at once voided, he touched the cloaca of the nestling he had just fed.
At once it rose in the nest, lifted its wings, and the voided excreta were taken

lil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

directly from the cloaca into the bill of the adult. Usually they were taken away
from the nest. From my position I could not see whether they were dropped.
Frequently they were swallowed at the nest. I saw many of the large white
capsules carried away intact. It seemed remarkable that so large a faecal
mass, partly fluid in content, held together only by a thin, filmy covering, should
remain intact under even slight pressure of a bill. Dr. D. F. Thomson, however,
has pointed out (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1934 (1935), pp. 701-707) that the enclosure
of faeces within a mucilaginous covering not only facilitates transport, but is an
adaptation whereby faeces may be accumulated in the alimentary tract, and held
for a considerable period. They are expelled only when peristalsis is stimulated
by feeding. The faecal capsule of the Honey-eater appears to be considerably
larger than that of the Butcher-bird nestling (Cracticus torquatus) shown in
Dr. Thomson’s photograph, although the Honey-eater is a smaller bird. Its size
would doubtless be governed by the period of time during which the parent is
collecting food. It is assumed that the collecting of nectar, pollen, and scale-
insects would occupy longer than large insects, mice or birds, such as the Butcher-
bird feeds to its young. Dr. Thomson states that removal by the adult bird of the
faecal masses as they leave the cloaca of a nestling is, with certain exceptions,
quite general among the Passeriformes, and cites eight examples among Australian
birds. The present note adds another name to his list.

Nest Hygiene in Australia of the British Song Thrush, Turdus philomelus
clarkei. By Hdith Coleman.

The nest hygiene of the British Song Thrush provides a striking contrast
with that of the Australian Honey-eater. In my garden many of these birds build
every year. As nests are frequently placed close to a window, it has been possible
to learn much concerning the habits of the Thrush.

Four clutches in one season are quite commonly reared by one pair of birds.
Cccasionally there have been five. First and third, second and fourth broods are
often reared in the same nest. The nest is cleaned out, the sides are raised, and
more mud is added to the interior. Twice (1933, 1934) I have seen a male bird
renovating an old nest while his mate was still brooding nestlings. On one
occasion (Dec., 1934), just after a thunderstorm, a male bird was cleaning out
an old nest while the female was sitting on four eggs which she could not hatch.
Then for some hours she sat on the edge of the nest. Often the male bird rested
on the nest beside her, then returned to his work on the old nest. Then she left
the eggs, and, next morning, I saw her revolving in the renovated nest. In this
four more eggs were laid, and four nestlings reared. This was the second time in
the same season that this pair of thrushes used an old nest. It is, however, a
common practice of the British Song Thrush (in Australia) to save time in this
way. In feeding, the parents rest on the edge of the nest. Excreta are voided
directly into the nest or, as the nestlings grow, on to the sides of it. With these
nestlings peristalsis was not always stimulated by feeding, but frequently took
place during the absence of the parents. Sometimes one adult bird returned to
the nest with food just as the other had fed the nestlings. Both then removed
the excreta which appeared to have accumulated in the nest. Usually they were
swallowed, often avidly.

The male thrush did not share the brooding, but, during the absence of the
female, he perched on the edge of the nest. A few restless movements gave notice
that the female wished to stretch her wings. If the male bird did not soon appear,
she commenced to sing, softly at first, the notes increasing in strength until he

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. liii

returned. Then she slipped away and he stood on guard, often peering down at
the eggs. I sometimes thought he turned them, but could not be sure of this.
Not once did he leave the eggs, when incubation was nearly completed, until his
mate returned. When tired, apparently, of his task he commenced singing, the
notes increasing in volume until she returned, becoming imperative, I thought, if
her absence were much prolonged. They ceased only when a sound announced
her return. She dropped at once on to the eggs and he slipped away as silently
and swiftly as she had done. I was thus able to satisfy myself that the female
Thrush sings, though not so loudly as the male bird; that, in Australia, the British
Song Thrush may rear four, even five, broods in one season, and that the same
nest is frequently used for two broods.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
28th Octroser, 1936.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The Chairman reminded candidates for Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1937-38,
that Wednesday, 4th November, is the last day for receiving applications.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(30th September, 1936), amounting to 20 Volumes, 428 Parts or Numbers, 4
Bulletins, 1 Report and 6 Pamphlets, received from 76 Societies and Institutions
and 1 private donor, were laid upon the table. .

PAPERS READ.

1. Notes on Australian Diptera. No. xxxvi. By J. R. Malloch. (Communi-
cated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.)

2. Problems in the Geology of New Caledonia (with Appendix by Germaine A.
Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D.). By H. I. Jensen, D.Sc. (Communicated by Professor L. A.
Cotton.)

3. Studies in Australian Embioptera. ii. By Consett Davis, B.Sc.

4. Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. v. By A. Jefferis
Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.

Professor J. Macdonald Holmes delivered a lecturette entitled ‘Colour in the
Australian Landscape’, illustrated by Duofay colour films.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. H. Cheel exhibited specimens of a species of Prostanthera usually regarded
as P. incisa var. pubescens F.v.M. A coloured drawing made by the late Mr. A.
Forster from specimens collected at Hogan’s Brush near Gosford in October, 1921,
together with drawings made by Miss EH. King of the leaf and floral characters of
what is generally regarded as typical P. incisa R.Br., and the Hogan’s Brush
plants, shows that the two plants are distinct and that the latter is worthy of
specific rank. Further investigations are being made with the object of tracing
the original specimens of the var. pubescens F.v.M., recorded by Bentham (Fl. Aust.,
v, 96), and of describing the plants more fully as a proposed new species.

Miss J. Vickery exhibited specimens of Rulingia salvifolia Benth. (Stercu-
liaceae), and Boehmeria platyphylla Don (Urticaceae) collected recently at Mt.
Warning in the Murwillumbah district. Apparently these species have not
previously been recorded from New South Wales and are not represented by any

liv ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

other specimens from New South Wales in the collection at the National Herbarium.
They have, however, been collected at the Macpherson Ranges in Queensland, so
that it is not surprising that they have now been obtained from similar districts
in northern New South Wales.

Dr. I. V. Newman exhibited sixty-six seedlings (up to 20 cm. high) of Acacia
Baileyana F.v.M., from seed taken from trees at two localities near Cootamundra,
N.S.W. These localities were “A” and “J’”’, shown in Text-figure 2 of his paper,
“Studies in the Australian Acacias. v.”’ (These Procrrpines, 1x, 1935.) The
seedlings exhibited showed no marked variation and are a good example of the
total batch in this germination test, comprising 255 seedlings. Of the seedlings
exhibited twenty were from three trees at Berthong (locality J’), one showing
up to five pairs of pinnae, nine up to four pairs, nine up to three pairs, one up to
two pairs. Of the 46 seedlings exhibited from two trees near the Big Sister Mt.
(locality A) two showed up to five pairs of pinnae, fifteen up to four pairs,
twenty-five up to three pairs, and four up to two pairs. All seedlings exhibited
were hairy, but this may be only a juvenile character in some of them. There
are in the whole test fifty-one seedlings from five trees at locality J’ and two
hundred and four from five trees at locality A. None of them showed any marked
variation. This evidence strongly supports the specific status of Acacia Baileyana
and that the Cootamundra district is the natural habitat of the species.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MHETING.
25th NovemBer, 1936.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The President announced that the Council had reappointed Dr. I. V. Newman,
M.Se., and Miss Hlizabeth C. Pope, B.Sec., to Linnean Macleay Fellowships in
Botany and Zoology respectively for one year from list March, 1937, and had
appointed Mr. H. F. Consett Davis, B.Sc., and Mr. A. H. Voisey, M.Sc., to Linnean
Macleay Fellowships in Zoology and Geology respectively for one year from
ist March, 1937.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(28th October, 1936), amounting to 19 Volumes, 85 Parts or Numbers, 8 Bulletins,
2 Reports and 15 Pamphlets, received from 64 Societies and Institutions and 2
private donors, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. v. Family Tipulidae, Part iii.
By C. P. Alexander. (Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.)

2. The Colour-Changes of Batoid Fishes. By Mervyn Griffiths.
3. Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Part i. By Consett Davis, B.Sc.

4. Notes on the Occurrence of the Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in New
South Wales, and on their Mode of Nutrition, with a Description of a New Species
of Atichia. By Lilian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in
Botany.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.
Mr. E. Cheel exhibited fresh specimens of the following species of
Leptospermum, taken from plants cultivated at Ashfield:

Leptospermum citratum Challinor, Cheel and Penfold.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lv

L. citratum var. latifolium (Garden origin).—lLeaves twice the size of the
original species.

L. odoratum Cheel.

L. floribundum Salisb.; L. persiciflorum Reichb.; L. juniperinum Sm.—These
three species are listed as synonyms under L. scoparium by Bentham
(Fl. Aust., ili, p. 105) but are quite distinct from the L. scoparium of
Forster, which is a native of New Zealand and is commonly known as
“Manuka”.

L. emarginatum Wendl.—Listed as a synonym under L. flavescens by Bentham
but quite distinct from the three following forms, which were exhibited
for comparison: L. flavescens Sm. (Typica); L. flavescens var. microphylla
Benth.; L. flavescens var. with atro-cyanin pigment in the leaves and
young shoots.

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.
Received during the period 31st October, 1935, to 28th October, 1936.)

(From the respective Societies, etc., unless otherwise mentioned.)

ABERYSTWYTH.—Welsh Plant Breeding Station, University College of Wales. Bulletin,
Series H, No. 14 (1936); “‘The Welsh Journal of Agriculture’, xii (1936); “‘The
Improvement of Grassland by Seeds and Manures’’, by Prof. R. G. Stapledon (being
Journal of the Farmers’ Club, London, Part 3, 1935).

Accra.—Geological Survey Department, Gold Coast Colony. Report for the Financial
Year 1934-35 (1935).

ADELAIDE.—Department of Agriculture of South Australia. Bulletin, No. 313 (““Importaa:
Weeds of South Australia, Part 1’, by G. H. Clarke) (1936).—Department of Mines:
Geological Survey of South Australia. Annual Report of the Director of Mines and
Government Geologist for 1934 (1935); Mining Review for the Half-years ended
30th June, 1935 (No. 62) (1935) and 31st December, 1935 (No. 63) (1936).—
Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia. 51st Annual Report
of the Board of Governors, 1934-35 (1935).—Royal Society of South Australia.
Transactions and Proceedings, lix (1935).—South Australian Ornithological Asso-
ciation. “The South Australian Ornithologist”, xiii, 4-7 (1935-1936).—University
of Adelaide. ‘“‘The Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science”,
xiii, 4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935); xiv, 1-2 (1936).—Woods and Forests Department. Annual
Report for the Year ended 30th June, 1935 (1935).

ALBANY.—New York State Library, University of the State of New York. New York
State Museum Bulletin, Nos. 299, 300, 302, 303 (1934-1935).

ALGER.—Société d’Histoire Naturelle de VAfrique du Nord. Bulletin, xxvi, 6-9 (T.p. & c.)
(1935); xxvi bis (Volume Jubilaire) (1935); xxvii, 1-5 (1936).—Station d’Aquicul-
ture et de Péche de Castiglione. Bulletin, 1938, 1-2 (T.p. & ec.) (1934-1935); 1934,
1-2 (T.p. & ec.) .(1935).

AMSTERDAM.—Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. Proceedings of the Section of
Sciences, xxxvii, 6-10 (T.p. & c.) (1934); xxxviii, 1-5 (T.p. & c.) (1935); Verhan-
delingen Afdeeling Natuurkunde, 2e Sectie, xxx, 1-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1983); xxxi
(complete) (1933); xxxii (complete) (1934); xxxiii, 1-2 (T.p. & ¢c.) (1934).—
Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging. Entomologische Berichten, ix, 204-209
(1935-1936); Tijdschrift voor Entomologie, Ilxxviii, 3-4 (T.p. & ¢c.) (1935); Ixxix,
1-2, (1936).

ANN ARBOR.—University of Michigan. Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of
Zoology, Nos. 26-30 (1935); Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, Nos.
307-324 (1935); Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters,
xx, 1934 (1935).

ATHENS.—Zoological Institute and Musewm, University of Athens. Acta, i, 1-5 (1935-

1936).

AUCKLAND.—Auckland Institute and Museum. Annual Report, 1935-36 (1936); Records,
i, 5 (1934).

BaLtTimore.—Johns Hopkins University. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, lvii, 3-6
(T.p. & c.) (1935); lviii, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1936); lix, 1 (1936); University Circular,
N.S. 1535, 8-9 (1935) (exchange of University Circular concluded).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. lvii

BANDOENG.—Dienst van den Mijnbouw in Nederlandsch-Indie. Bulletin of the Nether-
lands Indies Volcanological Survey, Nos. 72-74, T.p. & ec. for Nos. 61-74 (Vol. iii),
1933-1935 (1935-1936); 75 (1936).

BARCELONA.—Academie de Ciencies i Arts. Memories, Tercera Epoca, xxv, 8-10 (1935).

BASEL.—N aturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, xl1vi, 1934-35 (1935).—
Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, 116. Jahresversamm-
lung, 1935 (1935).

BatTavia.—Department van Economische Zaken. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique, Serie iii,
xiii, 3 (1935); “Treubia’’, vii, Suppl., Livr. 8 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xv, 2-3 (1935-
1936).— Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Indie. Natuur-
kundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie, Register, Ixi-xc, 1901-1930 (1935);
T.p. & ec. for xev (1935); xevi, 1-3 (19386).—Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad voor
Nederlandsch-Indie te Batavia (Netherlands Indies Science Council). Publication,
Nos. 8-9 (November, 1935, and Mei, 1936).

BERGEN.—Bergens Museum. INAaoic, UDB, 2 dyn ee C)) (ClOBR)) es OBO, I (GlgD)) e
Arsberetning, 1934-35 (1935).

BERKELEY.—University of California. Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences,
xxiii, 11, 13-15 (T.p. & c.) (1935); Publications, Botany, T.p. & ec. for xvii (1932-
1934); xviii, 2-4 (1935); xix, 1-4 (1935); Entomology, vi, 9-12 (1936); Physiology,
viii, 8 (1936) ; Public Health, ii, 1 (1935); Zoology, T.p. & c. for xxxix (1933-1935) ;
xl, 11-14 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936); xli, 5-7 (1935-1936); Publications of the Univer-
sity of California at Los Angeles in Biological Sciences, i, 6 (19385).

BeRLIN.—Deutsch-Auslandischer Buchtausch. ‘Flora’, Neue Folge, xxix, 4 (T.p. & c.)
(1935); xxx, 1-3 £(1935-19386).—Deutsche Entomologische Gesellschaft, EH.V.
Deutsche Hntomologische Zeitschrift, T.p. & ec. for 1928 (1928); 1929, 1-5 (1929-
1930); 1931, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1932); 1932, 1-3 and Beiheft (T.p. & c.) (1932-1933) ;
1933, 1-3 (T.p. & c.) (1938-1934) ; 1934, 1-2 (1934); 1935, 1-2 (1935) ; Mitteilungen,
Thi, ALO): (Catto, a>), (GLOSIL)) S| sii, alo) (neo, Ke 5) (GIB) 9 shi, all) (amo, Cao.) Clea) 8
v, 1-10 (T.p. & ec.) (1934); vi, 5-10 (T.p. & ec.) (19386).—Zoologische Museum.
Mitteilungen, xxi, 1 (1935).

BERLIN-DAHLEM.—Botanisch Garten und Museum. Notizblatt, xii, 115 (T.p. & ec.)
(1935-1936); xiii, 116-117 (19386).—Deutsches Entomologisches Institut. Arbeiten
uber morphologische und taxonomische Entomologie aus Berlin-Dahlem, ii, 3-4
(T.p. & ec.) (1935); ili, 1-2 (1936); Arbeiten uber physiologische und angewandte
Entomologie aus Berlin-Dahlem, ii, 3-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935); iii, 1-2 (1936);
Entomologische Beihefte aus Berlin-Dahlem, ii (1935).

BEeRN.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen a.d. Jahre 1935 (1936).

BIRMINGHAM.—Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. List of Members,
1936, and Annual Report for 1935 (1936); Proceedings, xvi, 6-7 (1935-1936).

BLOEMFONTEIN.—Nasionale Museum. Argeologiese Navorsing, ii, 2-4 (1935); Soologiese
Navorsing, i, 1-2 (1935).

Bompay.—Bombay Natural History Society. Journal, T.p. & ec. for xxxvii, pts. 3-4
(1935) ; xxxvili, 2 (T.p. & c. for xxxviii, pts. 1-2) (1935-1936) ; xxxviii, 3-4 (1936).—
Haffkine Institute. Reports for the Years 1929; 1930 (1931, 1932).

Bonn.—N aturhistorischer Verein der Preussische Rheinlande und Westfalens.
“Decheniana’ (comprising Verhandlungen und Sitzungsberichte), xci-xcii (1935).

Boston.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Proceedings, Ixx, 3-10 (T.p. & c.)
(1935-1936) ; Ixxi, 1-2 (1936).—Boston Society of Natural History. Memoirs, ix, 1-2
(1935-1936) ; Proceedings, xl, 3-8 (T.p. & c.) (1934-1935); xli, 1-4 (1935-1936).

BRISBANE.—Department of Agriculture. Queensland Agricultural Journal, xliv, 5-6
(T.p. & c.) (1935); xlv, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xlvi, 1-4 (1936).—Department of
Mines: Geological Survey of Queensland. “Queensland Government Mining Journal’,
xxxvi, Nov.-Dec., 1935 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xxxvii, Jan.-Sept., 1936 (1936).—Great
Barrier Reef Committee—Reports, iv, 2 (1936).—Queensland Museum. Memoirs,

N

lviii DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

x, 5 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xi, 1 (1986).—Quweensland Naturalists’ Club and Natuwre-

_ Lovers’ League. “The Queensland Naturalist”, ix, 6; x, 1 (1936).—Royal Society of
Queensland. Proceedings, xlvii, 1935 (1936).—Swb-Department of Forestry, Depart-
ment of Public Lands. Queensland Forest Service Bulletin, No. 12 (1936).

Brno.—Prirodovedecka Fakulta, Masarykovy University. Spisy (Publications) (Botanical
only), Cis. 222, 224 (1936); “Nanismy (Trpaslici Formy Rostlinné)’’, by R. Dvorak
(1935).

BrooKiyn.—Botainical Society of America. American Journal of Botany, xxii, 8-10
(T.p. & c.) (1935) (Exchange discontinued).—Brooklyn Botanic Garden. ‘‘Genetics’’,
sed Ih CI9RG),

BRUSSELS.—Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique.
102me Annuaire, 1936 (1936); Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences, 5me Série, xxi,
6-12 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xxii, 1-5 (1936).—Musée Royal d’Histoire Naturelle de
Belgique. Bulletin, xi, 1-29 (T.p. & c.) (1935); Mémoires, Nos. 67-73, 2me Série,
Fasc. 1-3 (1935-1936); Mémoires, Hors Série (Résultats Scientifiques du Voyage
aux Indes Orientales Néerlandaises), ii, 17; iii, 17; iv, 11-12 (1935).—Société
Entomologique de Belgique. Bulletin and Annales, Ixxv, 7-12 (T.p. & c.) (1935);
Ixxvi, 1-5 (1936).—Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique. Bulletin, Ixviii, 1
(1935).—Société Royale Zoologique de Belgique. Annales, Ixv, 1934 (1935).

BuBNOsS AIRES.—Sociedad Argentina de Ciencias Naturales. Revista, ““Physis’’, xii, 41-42
(1936).—Sociedad Entomologica Argentina. Revista, v, 1 (No. 21) (1932); vii
(complete) (1935).

BuITHNzORG.—WN ederlandsch-Indische Entomologische Vereeniging. Entomologische
Mededeelingen, i, 1-4 (1935); ii, 1-3 (1936). :

CAEN.—Société Linnéenne de Normandie. Bulletin, 8e Série, vii, 1984-vili, 1935 (1935-
1936) ; Mémoires, Nouvelle Série—Section Géologique, i, 2 (1935).

CaIRNs.—North Queensland Naturalists’ Club. ‘North Queensland Naturalist”, iv, 38-48
(1935-1936).

CaucuTTa.—Geological Survey of India. Memoirs, Ixvi, 2 (T.p. & c.); Ixvili, 1-2
(T.p. & c.); Ixx, 1 (1936); Memoirs, Palaeontologia Indica, N.S. xxi, 3-4 (T.p. & c.)
(1936); xxii, 2-3 (1936); Records, Index to Records, Vols. i-lxv, 1868-1932 (1936) ;
Ixix, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) (1935-19386); Ixx, 19385 (1936); Ixxi, 1 (1936).—Zoological
Survey of India. Memoirs of the Indian Museum, xi, 3 (1936); Records of the
Indian Museum, T.p. & c. for xxxvi (1935); xxxvii, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936) ;
xxxviii, 1 (1936) ; Report on the Zoological Survey for the Years 1932 to 1935 (1935).

CAMBRIDGE, England.—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Biological Reviews and
Proceedings, x, 4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935); Index of Authors and Subjects, Vols. ii-x
(1936); Biological Reviews, xi, 1-3 (1936).

CAMBRIDGE, Mass.—Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Annual Report
of the Director for 1934-35 (1935); Bulletin, Ixxvi, 5-6 (T.p. & c.); Ixxvilii, 4
(Guyop a a) (Gbps Iboabe, We4l) (GUDEE ALORS) 8 bear, val) (CNB)

CANBERRA.—Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official Year Book, No. 28,
1935 (1936).—Counceil for Scientific and Industrial Research: Divisions of Economic
Entomology and Plant Industry. Contributions (Hconomic Entomology), Nos.
101-102; (Plant Industry), Nos. 43-49 (1935-1936).

CANTON.—Lingnan University. ‘“Lingnan Science Journal’, xv, 1, 3 (1936).
CAPE Town.—Royal Society of South Africa. Transactions, xxiii, 4 (T.p. & @.); xxiv,

1 (1936).—Souwth African Museum. Annals, xxiv, 2-3 (1935); xxxii, 1 (1935);
Report for Year ended 31st December, 1935 (1936).

CuHIcAGO.—Chicago Academy of Sciences. Bulletin, v, 3-4 (1935); Program of Activities,
vi, 2-4 (1935).—Field Museum of Natural History. Publications, Botanical Series,
xi, 5; xii; xili, 1; xiv (1936); Geological Series, vi, 13-14 (1935); Report Series,

(Title page) (1936); Zoological Series, xiii, 8 (1935); T.p. & ec. for xviii
(1930-1935) ; xxi (1936).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. lix

CINCINNATI.—Lloyd Library. Bulletin, No. 34 (1936).

Cius.—Gradina Botanica. Buletinul, Five plates for Vol. xiv (1935); xv, 1-4, Appendix
U4 (dei, ta a) (Glee

CoIrmBra.—Universidade de Coimbra: Instituto Botanica. Boletim da _ Sociedade
Broteriana, Serie ii, x (1935).

CoLomsBo.—Colombo Musewm. Spolia Zeylanica (Ceylon Journal of Science, Section B-—
Zoology and Geology), xix, 3 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xx, 1 (1936).

CoLuMBuUS.—Ohio State University and Ohio Academy of Science. “Ohio Journal of
Science’, xxxv, 5-6 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xxxvi, 1-4 (1936).—Ohio State University:
Ohio Biological Survey. Bulletin 32 (1935).

CoPENHAGEN.—Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Biologiske Meddelelser,
xii, 4-6 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936); xiii, 1-5 (1936); Mémoires, Section des Sciences,
9me Série, vi, 4-6 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936).—Zoological Museum of the University.
The Danish Ingolf-Expedition, iii, 12; iv, 10-11 (1935).

DUBLIN.—Royal Dublin Society. Economic Proceedings, T.p. & ec. for ii (1910-1935);
iii, 1 (1936); Scientific Proceedings, N.S. xxi, 27-34 (1936).—Royal Irish Academu.
Proceedings, Section B, xlii, 15-16 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xliii, 1-4 (1936).

DURBAN.—Durban Museum. Annals, iii, 5 (1936); Annual Report of the Durban Museum
and Art Gallery for Municipal Year, 1934-35 (no date).

Hast LANSING.—WMichigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science. Report of
the Division of Veterinary Science for Year ended June 30, 1935 (no date).

EDINBURGH.—Royal Botanic Garden. Notes, xix, 92 (1935); Transactions and Pro-
ceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, xxxi, 4 (T.p. & c.), Session 1934-35
(1935).—Royal Society of Edinburgh. Proceedings, lv, 2 (T.p. & ec.) (1936); lvi, 1-2
(1936) ; Transactions, lvili, 2 (1935).

FRANKFURT a. M.—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Abh.
430 (1935); 27.-28. Bericht uber die Zeit vom 1 April, 1933, bis 31 Marz, 1935
(19385); “Natur und Volk”, Ixv, 9-12 (T.p. & c.) (1935); Ixvi, 1-5 (1936); Preisliste
(19386).

GENEVA.—Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle. Compte Rendu des Séances, lii,
8 (abo che G5) (AQ) e abt, alae} (aL)85))-

GENOVA.

Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova. Annali, lvii (1934-1935).

GIESSEN.—Botanische Institut. Ten separates by E. Kuster (1933-1936) ; Eleven separates
by various authors (1909-1910, 1925, 1927-1928, 1935).

GLEN OSMOND, South Australia.—Waite Agricultural Research Institute. Twenty-six
separates (1935-1936).

GRANVILLE.—Denison University. Journal of the Scientific Laboratories, xxx, pp. 119-303
GEpa cae) GLO) ie sexxa pps 1-92 GLISiGn)e

HALIFAX.—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings, xix, 1, 1934-35 (1935).

HALue.—Kaiserliche Leopold.-Carolin. Deutsche Akademie der Naturforsche. Nova Acta
Leopoldina, Neue Folge, iii, Nos. 10-17 (T.p. & ec.) (1935-1936).

HAMBURG.—N aturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Verhandlungen, Vierte Folge, v, 1-4, 1934
(1935).

HARLEM.—Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlandaises de Phonetique
expérimentale, xii (1986) ; Archives Néerlandaises de Zoologie, i, 4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935);
ii, 1 (1935); Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et naturelles, Série IIIC
(Archives Néerlandaises de Physiologie de ’/homme et des animaux), xx, 3-4 (T.p. &c.)
(1935) ; Index of Authors and Subjects, Vols. xvi-xx (19385); xxi, 1-2 (1936).

HEERLEN.—Geologisch Bureau voor het Nederlandsche Mijngebied. Jaarverslag over
1933 (1934).

lx DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

HELSINGForRS.—Societas Scientiarum Fennica. Arsbok-Vuosikirja, xiii, 1934-35 (1935);
Bidrag till Kannedom af Finlands Natur och Folk, Ixxviii, 4 (to replace previous
No. 4 issued) (1935) ; Commentationes Physico-mathematicae, viii, 13-24 (T.p. & c.)
(1936 ).—Societas Zoolog.-botanica Fennica Vanamo. Animalia Fennica, ii (1935);
Annales Zoologici, ii (1934-1935).—Suomen Hyonteistieteellinen Seura (Entomo-
logical Society of Finland). Suomen Hyonteistieteellinen Aikakauskirja (Annales
Entomologici Fennici), i, 1-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935).

HirosH1mMA.—Hiroshima University. Journal of Science, Series B, Div. 1, iv, 1-10
(T.p. & ec.) (19385-1936) ; Div. 2, iii, 1-3 (19386).

Hosart.—Royal Society of Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings for the Year 1935 (1936).

HoNoLULU.—Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. Bulletins, 130-140 (1935-1936) ; Memoirs,
xii, 1 (1936); Occasional Papers, xi, 1-23 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936); xii, 1-3 (1936);
Special Publication 26 (1935).

INDIANAPOLIS.—Indiana Academy of Science. Proceedings, xliv, 1934 (1935).

Iowa Ciry.—University of Iowa. University of Iowa Studies. Studies in Natural History,
xvi, 5-6 and Contents; xvii, 1-3 (19385-1936).

IrHaca, N.Y.—Cornell University. 133 Theses and Abstracts of Theses (Nos. 1266, 1267,
1269, 1271, 12738, 1277, 1281, 1282, 1285, 1293, 1294, 1297, 1305, 1306, 1308, 1309, 1312,
1314-1317, 1319, 1320, 1325, 1331, 1333, 1334, 1336, 1339, 1343-1346, 1848, 1350-1358,
1355-1357, 1359, 1361, 1362, 1367, 1369, 1370, 1372, 1375, 1376, 1380, 1384-1390, 1393,
1394, 1398, 1899, 1402, 1403, 1406, 1407, 1409, 1413-1416, 1418-1423, 1425-1437, 1439,
1441-1443, 1446, 1450-1457, 1462, 1465-1467, 1472-1477, 1480, 1481, 1483, 1489, 1490,
1492, 1494-1496, 1499, 1500-1504, 1508-1510, 1512, 15138, 1515 (1917, 1923, 1925-1936) ;
“Problems and Methods in Enzyme Research”, by R. Willstatter (1927).

JAMAICA PLAIN.—Arnold Arboretum. Journal, xvi, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xvii, 1-3
(1936).

JOHANNESBURG.—South African Association for the Advancement of Science. ‘South
African Journal of Science’’, xxxii (1935).

KURASHIKI.—Ohara Institute for Agricultural Research. Berichte, vii, 2 (1936).

Kyiv.—Académie des Sciences d’Ukraine, Institut. Botanique. Journal, 2(10)-7(15)
(1934-1936); and two pamphlets entirely in Russian (1935).

Kyoto.—K yoto Imperial University. Memoirs of the College of Science, Series B, xi, 1-5
(1935-1936).

LacuNnsA.—University of the Philippines: College of Agriculture. “The Philippine Agri-
culturist”, xxiv, 5-10 (1935-1936); xxv, 1-4 (19386); First Twenty-Volume Index
G9 35):

La JoLtua.—Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California. Bulletin,
Technical Series, iv, 1 (1936); ““Oceanographic Research at the Scripps Institution
during April, 1934, to April, 1935’’, by T. W. Vaughan (Reprinted from Trans. Amer.
Geophysical Union, 16th Annual Meeting, 1935); “The Lethal Action of Sunlight upon
Bacteria in Sea Water’, by C. E. Zobell and G. F. McEwen (Reprinted from Biol.
Bull. Ixviii, 1, 1935).

La Puiatra.—Ilnstituto del Museo de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Notas del
Museo de La Plata, Antropologia, i, 1 (1935); Botanica, i, 1-9 (1935-1936) ; Geologia,
i, 1-2 (1935-1936); Paleontologia, i, 1-7 (1935-1936); Zoologia, i, 1 (1935); Obras
completas y Correspondencia Cientifica de Florentino Ameghino, xvii-xxi (1934-1935) ;
“Diatomeas de la Caliza de la Cuenca de Calama en el Desierto de Atacama (Chile)”’,
by J. Frenguelli (From Revista Museo de la Plata (Neuva Serie), i, Seccion paleon-
tologia, pp. 3-34 (1936).

LAUNCESTON.—Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery. Annual Report of the Curator
for the Year ended 30th June, 1935 (1935).

LBENINGRAD.—Académie des Sciences de VU.R.S.S. Bulletin, vii Série, 1935, 6-10 (19385) ;
Comptes Rendus (Doklady), Nouvelle Série, 1935, iii, 2-9 (19385); iv, 1-9 (1935) ;
1936, i, 1-9 (1936); ii, 1-9; iii, 1-2 (1986); Laboratoire de Morphologie évolutive:
Travaux, ii, 3 (1935).—Geological and Prospecting Service, U.S.S.R. Problems of

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 1xi

Soviet Geology, 1935, v, 5-12 (1935); 1936, vi, 1-5 (1936).—Lenin Academy of
Agricultural Sciences in U.S.S.R.: Institute of Plant Industry. Bulletin of Applied
Botany, of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Series ii, Nos. 8-9 (1935-1936); Series iii,
Nos. 6, 8-12 (1935).—Société Entomologique de VU.R.S.S. Revue d’Entomologie
de VU.R.S.S., xxv, 1935, 3-4 (1935).

Liken.— Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. Bulletin, iv, 6-12 (T.p. & c.) (1935);
v, 1-5 (1936); Mémoires, 3me Série, xx (1935).

Lima.—Sociedad Geologica del Peru. SBoletin, vii, 1-2 (1935); “Preliminary Note on a
Physical Phenomenon resembling Mountain-building”’, by J. A. Broggi (From Jourv.
Geol. xliii, No. 8, pt. 2, 1935).

LivERPOOL.—Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology, xxix, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (19385); xxx, 1-2 (1936).

LONDON.—British Museum (Natural History). ‘Diptera of Patagonia and South Chile’,
Pt. ii, Fase. 3-5 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); Pt. iv (1933); Pt. v, Fasc. 2-3 (T.p. & c.)
(1930, 1932); Pt. vi, Fasc. 2-5 (1931-1934); Pt. vii, Fasc. 1-2 (1934); ‘Index
Animalium”’’, Second Section, Parts xxxii-xxxiii (1933); “Insects of Samoa and other
Samoan Terrestrial Arthropoda’’, Pt. ii, Fase. 3, 5 (1930, 1935); Pt. iii, Fase. 4
(1935); Pt. vi, Fasc. 6, 9 (1930, 1935); Pt. ix, Fase. 1-3 (Addenda et Corrigenda,
Index) ; Preface, Tables of Contents, Index to Contributors, Title Pages, ete. (1930,
1935); “List of British Vertebrates’ (19385).—Geological Society. Geological
Literature added to the Library during the Year 1934 (No. 37) (1935); List, May,
1986 (19386); Quarterly Journal, xci, 3-4 (T.p. & ¢.) (1935); xcii, 1-3 (1936).—
Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, 1, 333-334 (1935-1936); Zoology, xxxix, 266-267
(1935-1936); Proceedings, 147th Session, 1934-35, pts. 4-5 (T.p. & ec.) (1935);
148th Session, 1935-36, pts. 1-3 (1935-1936); Transactions, 2nd Series, Zoology, xix,
4 (T.p. & c.) (1986).—Ministry of Agriculture. Journal, xlii, 7-12 (T.p. & ec.)
(1935-1936); xliii, 1-6 (1936); Report on the Work of the Land Division of the
Ministry for the Year 19384 (1935).—Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin of
Miscellaneous Information, 1935 (1936); Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Fifth Series,
iii, 4 (T.p. & ec) (1935).—Royal Entomological Society. Proceedings, x, 2-3
(T.p. & c.) (1935-19386) ; Proceedings, Series A. General Entomology, xi, 1-5 (1936);
Series B. Taxonomy (being the continuation of “Stylops’’), v, 1-9 (1936); Trans-
actions, Ixxxiii, 2-4 (T.p. & ¢.) (1935); Ixxxv, 1-12 (19386).—Royal Microscopical
Society. Journal, Series iii, lv, 3-4 (T.p. & ¢@.) (1985); lvi, 1-2 (1936).—Royal
Society. Philosophical Transactions, Series B, cexxv, 521-528 (T.p. & ¢c.) (1935);
eexxvi, 529-535 (1936); Proceedings, Series B, exviii, 810-811 (T.p. & c.) (1935);
exix, 812-815 (T.p. & c¢.) (1935-1936); exx, 816-819 (T.p. & c.); exxi, 820-821
(1936).—Zoological Society. Proceedings, 1935, 3-4 (T.p. & ec. for pp. 447-949)
(1935-1936); 1936, 1-2 (T.p. & ec. for pp. 1-593) (1936); Transactions, xxi, 6
(Ato, te (5) (Ci aG))s

Los ANGELES.—See under Berkeley, University of Califoriia.

LunpD.—K. Universitets i Lund. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift (Acta Universitatis
Lundensis), Ny Foljd, Avd. 2, xxx, 1934 (1934-1935).

Lyon.—Société Linnéenne de Lyon. Annales, N.S. Ixxvni, 1934-Ixxix, 1935 (1935-1936) ;
Bulletin Mensuel, 3e Année, Nos. 1-10 (Index) (1934); 4e Année, Nos. 1-10 (Index)
(1935).

Mapison.—Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Transactions, xxix (1935).

Maprip.—Junta para Ampliacion de Estudios e Investigationes Cientificas. Trabajos del
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales y Jardin Botanico, Serie Botanica, Nos. 30-31
(1935); Serie Geologica, Nos. 38-39 (1934-1935).—Sociedad Espanola de Historia
Natural. SBoletin, xxxv, 7-10 (T.p. & ec.) (1935); xxxvi, 1-5 (1936); Revista
Espanola de Biologia, iii, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1934); iv, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (19385-19386); v,
1-2 (1936).

MANCHESTER.—Conchological Society of Great Britain and _ Ireland. Journal of
Conchology, xx, 6-8 (19385-1936 ).—Manchester Museum. Museum Publications 108-111
(1935-1936).

MANHATTAN.—American Microscopical Society. Transactions, liv, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1935);
lv, 1-3 (1936).

lxil DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

MARSEILLE.—Fiaculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, 2e Série, vii, 1-2 (T.p. & ec.)

(1934).—Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de Marseille. Annales, xxvi (19384); xxvii, 1
(1934). =

MELBOURNE.—‘“‘Australasian Journal of Pharmacy”, N.S., xvi, 190-192 (Index) (1935);
xvii, 193-201 (1936) (From the Publisher).—Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research. Ninth Annual Report for Year ended 30th June, 1935 (1935); Bulletin,
Nos. 93-101 (1936); Journal, vili, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1935); ix, 1-3 and Supplement
(19386); Pamphlets, Nos. 59-64 (1935-1936).—Department of Agriculture of Victoria.
Journal, xxxili, 11-12 (1935); xxxiv, 1-10 (1936).—Field Naturalists’ Club of
Victoria. “The Victorian Naturalist’, lii, 7-12 (T.p. & e.) (1935-1936); liii, 1-6
(1936).—Public Library, Museums and National Gallery of Victoria. Report of the
Trustees for 19385 (1936).—Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings, xlvili, 1-2
(T.p. & ec.) (1935-1936).—University of Melbourne. Calendar for 1936 (1935).

MINNEAPOLIS.—University of Minnesota. Minnesota Botanical Studies, i, 3-12 (T.p. & ce.)
(1894-1898) ; ii, 1-6 (T.p. & ec.) (1898-1902) ; iii, 1-3 (complete) (1903-1904) ; Studies
in the Biological Sciences, Nos. 1-2 (1918, 1918), 4-6 (1923-1927); ‘The American
Geologist”, i-xxxvi (General Index for Vols. i-xxxvi) (1888-1905) except vi, 1-2
(1890), xxii, 6 (1898), xxxv, 5 (1905); “Forestry in Minnesota’, by S. B. Green
(1902); “Minnesota Algae. Vol. i. The Myxophyceae of North America, etc.”’, by
Josephine Tilden (1910); “The Algae and their Life Relations’’, by Josephine E.
Tilden (1925); “North American Uredineae”’, Vol. i, pt. 5, by E. W. D. Holway
(1924); “The Birds of Minnesota’’, by T. S. Roberts (2 vols.) (1932); “Trees and
Shrubs of Minnesota’’, by C. O. Rosendahl and F. K. Butters (1928).

Monaco.—Institut Oceanographique de Monaco. Bulletin, Nos. 678-685 (T.p. & ec. for
Nos. 661-685) (1985); 686-702 (1936).

MontTEVIDEO.—Asociacion Sudamericana de Botanica. Revista Sudamericana de Botanica,
ii, 4-5 (1935).—Museo de Historia Natural. Anales, 2a Série, iv, 7-9 (19385).

MonTREAL.—Laboratoire de Botanique de VUniversité de Montreal. Contributions, No. 26
Gigsbye

MorGaNntown.—West Virginia University: College of Agriculture, Agricultural Haperi-
ment Station. Bulletin 263 (1934).

Moscow.—Limnologische Station zu Kossino der Hydrometeorologischen Administration
der U.S.S.R. Arbeiten, 19-20 (1935).—‘‘Microbiology” (a Journal of General, Agri-
cultural and Industrial Microbiology), iii, 8-4 and Contents (19384); iv, 1-4 and
Contents (1935); v, 1-3 (1936).

MuNCHEN.—Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, Mathematisch-
Naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung, Neue Folge, 29-32 and Festrede (19385) ; Sitzungs-
berichte, 1935, 1-3 (T.p. & c.) (19385).

NANKING.—WNational Geological Survey of China (formerly at Peiping). Geological
Bulletin, Nos. 26-27 (1935-1936).—National Research Institute of Geology: Academia
Sinica. Memoirs, No. 15 (1935).

NANTES.—Société des Sciences Naturelles de VOwest de la France. Bulletin, 5me Série,
m1, 1953, 2-45 (lps é& eh) C934) ie iva LOB 44s Cpa kes) TGLOs bye

NapLes.—Museo Zoologico della R. Universita di Napoli. Annuario, Nuova Serie, vi,
17-20 (T.p. & ¢c.) (1935).—Stazione Zoologica di Napoli. Pubblicazioni, xv, 2-3
(Ep. & ¢.) (1936).

New Haven.—Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Memoirs, ix, Arts. 1-4 (bound
in one) (1935); x, Arts. 10-18 (in one) (1936); Transactions, xxxii, pp. 247-349
(1936).—Yale University: Peabody Museum of Natural History. Bulletin of the
singham Oceanographic Collection, ii, 3 (1936); v, 1-3 (19385-19386).

New YorK.—American Geographical Society. “Geographical Review”, xxv, 4 (T.p. & c.)
(1935); xxvi, 1-3 (1936).—American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin, T.p. & c.
for Ixiii (1931-1932); Ixviii, 4-8 (19385); Ixx, 1 (1986); Ixxi (1936); “Natural
History”, T.p. & c. for xxxv (1935); xxxvi, 3-5 (T.p. & c.) (19385); xxxvii, 1-b and
Supplement (T.p. & c.) (1936); xxxviii, 1-2 (1936).—New York Academy of Sciences.
Annals, xxxv, pp. 101-208 (T.p. & c.) (1936).—New York Botanical Garden.
‘Brittonia”’, ii, 1-2 (1936).—Vanderbilt Marine Museum. Sulletin, vi (1935).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 1xiil

OsLo.—Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo. Arbok, 1934; Avhandlinger, I. Mat.-
Naturv. Klasse, 1934; Hvalradets Skrifter (Scientific Results of Marine Biological
Research), Nos. 11-12; Skrifter, I. Mat.-Naturv. Klasse, 1934 (2 vols.) (1935).—
Université de Oslo. Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, xli, 1 (1935).

OTrrawa.—Department of Agriculture. Bulletin, N.S. 180 (1935); Circular 92 (Publica-
tion No. 480) (1935), 93 (1936); Farmers’ Bulletin, 1 (Publication 478), 4 (1936) ;
One reprint from Farmers’ Bulletin 3 (Publication 505) (1936); Report of the
Minister of Agriculture for the Year ended March 31, 1935 (1936); “The Fruit,
Vegetables and Honey Act and Regulations” (Publication No. 476) (1935); Division
of Botany: Progress Report of the Dominion Botanist for the Years 1931 to 1934
inclusive (1935).—Department of Mines. Bulletin, Nos. 74 (Nat. Mus. Canada, Biol.
Ser. No. 20) (19385); 77 (Nat. Mus. Geol. Ser. No. 52) (1935); 79 (Nat. Mus. Biol.
Ser. No. 21) (1936); Report for Fiscal Year ending March 31, 1935 (1935);
Geological Survey of Canada: Memoir, 176 (Text and Maps), 179, 181-188 (19385-
1936).—Royal Society of Canada. Transactions, Third Series, xxix, List of Officers,
ete.; Sections 4-5 (1935).

Pato ALtTo.—Stanford University. Contributions from the Dudley Herbarium, i, 6 (1934);
Stanford University Publications, University Series, Biological Sciences, ii, 8
(4s, Ks Os) (GLOBE).

PaRis.—‘Journal de Conchyliologie’’, Ixxix, 2-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935-1936) ; Ixxx, 1-2 (1936)
(From the Publisher).—Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Archives, 6me
Série, xiii (1935); Bulletin, 2e Série, vi, 5-6 (T.p. & ec.) (1934); vii, 1-6 (1935);
viii, 1-2 (1936).—Société Entomologique de France. Annales, civ, 3-4 (T.p. & ec.)
(1935); ev, 1-2 (1936); Bulletin, xl, 15-20 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xli, 1-11, 13-14 and
Supplement (1936).—Station Biologique de Roscoff. Travaux, Fascicule 12-13
(1934-1935).

PEIPING.—National Geological Survey of China (see under Nanking). Peking Society
of Natural History and Department of Biology, Yenching University. Peking Natural
History Bulletin, x, 2-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935-1936).

PERM.—Institut des Recherches Biologiques a@ VUniversité de Perm. Bulletin, ix, 9-10
(1935); x, 1-5 (1935-1936); Travaux, vii, 1-2 (1935).

PERTH.—Department of Agriculture of Western Australia. Journal, Second Series, xii,
3-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1935); xiii, 1-2 (1936).—Geological Survey of Western Australia.
Annual Progress Report for the Year 1934 (19385); 1935 (1936).—Royal Society of
Western Australia. Journal, xvi, 1929-30 (1980); xx, 1933-34 (1934); xxi, 1934-35
(1935).

PHILADHLPHIA.—American Philosophical Society. Memoirs, i-iv (1935); Miscellanea, i,
2 (1936); Proceedings, Ixxiv, 5 (T.p. & c.) (1934); Ixxv, 1-8 (T.p. & c.) (1935) ;
Ixxvi, 1-2 (1936); Transactions, N.S. xxiv, 2 (T-p. & @.) (1935); xxviExxvili, 1
(1935-1936) ; Library: Annual Report for 1985 (1936).—University of Pennsylvania.
Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory for the Year 1934, Vol. xxxii (1935).—
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. “The Journal of Experimental Zoology’’,
Ibe, 8 (UM, he Ce) (GLY si)) So Ibe-cni, alee} (GM Ce ©) CIPBH=a1OG)) 3 Ib:o-cing al=B} (Gsjo ks 5)
(1936) ; Ixxiv, 1 (1936).—Zoological Society of Philadelphia. 64th Annual Report of
the Board of Directors for the Ten Months ending December 31, 1935 (1936).

PIETERMARITZBURG.—Natal Museum. Annals, viii, 1 (1936).

PITTSBURGH.—Carnegie Museum. Annals, xxiv (bound, complete) (1934-1935); 36th
and 37th Annual Reports for the Years ended December 31st, 1933, and December
olst, 1934 (19384-1935).

PLYMOUTH.—Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Journal, N.S. xx, 3
(1936).

Portici.—Laboratorio di Zoologia generale e Agraria del R. Istituto Superiore Agrario
in Portici. Bollettino, xxix (1936).

Prac.—Deutsche Naturwissenschaftlich-medizinische Verein fur Bohmen “Lotos” in Prag.
Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift ‘‘Lotos”’, Ixxxiii (1935).—Museum Nationale de
Prague: Section Entomologique. Bulletin (Sbornik Entomologickeho Oddeleni
Narodniho Musea v. Praze), xiii (Nos. 108-121) (1935).—Societas Entomologica
Czechosloveniae. Acta, xxxi, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (19384); xxxii, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1935).

lxiv DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

PRETORIA.—Transvaal Museum. Annals, xvii, 1-3 (1935-1936); xviii, 1-4 (1935-1936).

Pusa.—Imperial Institute of Agricultural Research. ‘Indian Journal of Agricultural
Science”, v, pt. 2, 7 Articles; pt. 3, 2 Arts.; pt. 4, 5 Arts.; pt. 5, 8 Arts.; pt. 6, 5
Arts. (1935); Review of Agricultural Operations in India, 1931-32 and 1932-33
(1936); Scientific Reports, 1933-34 (1936).

RENNES.—Société Géologique et Minéralogique de Bretagne. SBulletin, Nouvelle Série, i,
1930-1931 (1934).

RICHMOND.—Hawkesbury Agricultural College. H.A.C. Journal, xxxii, 10-12 (Index)
(1935) ; xxxiii, 1-9 (19386).

Rica.—Latvijas Biologijas Biedriba (Societas Biologiae Latviae). Raksti (Acta), v
(1935).

Rio DE JANEIRO.—IJnstituto Oswaldo Cruz. Memorias, xxx, 2-3 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xxxi,
1-2 (1936).—Jardim Botanico. Arquivos do Instituto de Biologia Vegetal, i, 3
(T.p. & c.) (1934-1935) ; ii, 1-2 (1935); “Rodriguesia’’, i, 1-4 (Contents for Nos. 1-4)
(1935-1936).

RIVERSIDE.—University of California: Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture and
Citrus Experiment Station. Papers, Nos. 294, T.p. & ec. for Vol. xii (Nos. 276-300),
309, 318-326, 329-332, 335-337, 340 (1935-1936).

St. GEORGE’s WEST.—Bermuda Biological Station for Research, Incorporated. Contribu-
tions, Nos. 1-14, 16-37 (1931-1936).

St. Louis.—Academy of Science of St. Louis. Transactions, xxviii, 5-8 (T.p. & c.)
(1934); xxix, 1 (1935).—MWMissouri Botanical Garden. Annals, xxii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.)
(GIMS}5)) 8 sect, Wee (GIES)

San DiEco.—San Diego Society of Natural History. Transactions, viii, 5-15 (1935).

SAN FRANcISCO.—California Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, Fourth Series, xx, 11
(1933) ; xxi, 1-21 (1933-1935).

Sao PAuLo. Museu Paulista. Revista, xix (1935).

Sapporo.—Hokkaido Imperial University. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Series v
(Botany), iv, 2 (1935); v, 1 (1935); Series vi (Zoology), iv, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) (1935).

SEATTLE.—University of Washington Oceanographic Laboratories. Publications in
Oceanography, i, 3-5; ii, 1; iii, 1 (1934-1936); Publications in Oceanography, Supple-
mentary Series, Nos. 16-50 (1934-1936).

SENDAI.—Tohoku Imperial University. Science Reports, Second Series, xiv, 2B (T.p. & c.)
(1935) ; xviii, 1-3 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936) ; Fourth Series, x, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1935-
198G)) S set, 1) (GIB).

SHANGHAI.— Department of Geology of the Shanghai Science Institute. Studies from the
Department of Geology of the Shanghai Science Institute, Separate Prints, Nos. 1-8,
12 (From Journ. Shanghai Science Inst., Section ii, Vol. i, pp. 136, 227-306) (1933-
1935) ; Separate Print No. 1 (From Vol. ii, pp. 1-10, 19385).

SHARON.—Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research. Contributions, xi, 4 (1935);
xii, 1-2 (1936).

Soria.—Société Botanique de Bulgarie. Bulletin, vii (1936).—Société Bulgare des
Sciences Naturelles. Travaux, No. 17 (1936).

STOCKHOLM.—Kunglika Svenska Vetenskapsakademien. Arkiv for Botanik, xxvii, 1-2
(T.p. & c.) (1935); Arkiv for Zoologi, xxvii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1986); xxviii, 1-2
(1935); Arsbok, 1935 (1935); Handlingar, Tredje Serien, T.p. & c. for xiv (1935);
XV, 1-5 (1935-1936); Skrifter i Naturskyddsarenden, Nos. 30-31 (1936).

Sypney.—Australian Institute of Agricultural Science. Journal, i, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1935);
ii, 1-3 (1936).—Australian Museum. Annual Report of the Trustees for the Year
1934-35 (1935); Australian Museum Magazine, v, 12 (T.p. & c.) (1935); vi, 1-3

(1936); Records, xix, 5-6 (1936).—Australian National Research Council. ‘Aus-
tralian Science Abstracts”, xiv, 4 (1935); xv, 1-3 (1936).—Australian Veterinary
Association. “Australian Veterinary Journal’, xi, 5-6 (Index) (1935); xii, 1-4

(1936).—Department of Agriculture, N.S.W. “Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W.’’, xlvi,

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xv

11-12 (T.p. & ec.) (1935); xlvii, 1-10 (1936); Live Stock Diseases Report, No. 11
(1936); Science Bulletin, Nos. 49-50, 52-53 (1935-1936).—Department of Mines.
Annual Report for the Year 1935 (1936).—Drug Houses of Australia Ltd. ‘“Aus-
tralasian Pharmaceutical Notes and News’, N.S. xiv, 11-12 (1935); xv, 1-10 (1936).—
Education Department. “Education Gazette’, xxix, 11-12 (T.p. & c.) (19385); xxx,
1-10 (1936).—Forestry Commission, N.S.W. Report for the Year ended 31st
December, 1934 (1936).—Institutes of Surveyors in Australia. “The Australian
Surveyor’, v, 8 (1935); vi, 1-3 (1936).—Microbiological Laboratory: Department of
Public Health. Report of the Principal Microbiologist for the Year ended 31st
December, 1934 (1935).—Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales. ‘‘The Australian
Naturalist”, ix, 7-8 (T.p. & c.) (1936).—Orchid Society of New South Wales. “Aus-
tralian Orchid Review”, i, 1-3 (1936).—Public Library of New South Wales. Annual
Report of the Trustees for the Year ended 30th June, 1935 (1935).—Royal Society
of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Ixix, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936 ).—
Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. Proceedings for the Year 1935-36
(1936); ‘The Australian Zoologist’”, viii, 3 (1936).—State Fisheries, Chief Secre-
tary’s Department. Annual Report on the Fisheries of New South Wales for the
Years 1934; 1935 (1935, 1936).—Sydney University Science Association. Science
Journal, xiv, 3 (1935); xv, 1 (1936).—Technological Museum. SBulletin, Nos. 14,
pt. 2 (1936); 20 (1935); Six Reprints from Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lxix, by
M. B. Welch (2), A. R. Penfold and F. R. Morrison (3) (1935-1936) and Ixx, by
A. R. Penfold (1936).—‘“‘The Medical Journal of Australia’, 1935, ii, 18-26 (T.p. & c.)
(1935); 1936, i, 1-26 (T.p. & c.) (1936); ii, 1-17 (1936) (From the Editor).—
University of Sydney. Calendar, 1935 (1935); Journal of the Cancer Research
Committee, vii, 2-4 (1935-1936); Sydney University Reprints, Series i, ii, 1-6;
Series ii, ii, 9-18; Series iii, iii, 14-25; Series vi, iv, 18-23; Series viii, ii, 10-29;
Series ix, v, 15-22; Series xiii, iii, 7-10 (1936).

TASHKENT.—Université de lV Asie Centrale. Acta Universitatis Asiae Mediae, Series ii, 4;
Series va, 14; Series vi, 8-9; Series viid, 4; Series viiia, 15-21; Series viiib, 19, 21-29;
Series xiia, 12-13 (1935); Bulletin, Livr. 20-21 (1935).

Toxyo.—Imperial Fisheries Institute. Journal, xxxi, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (19385-1936 ).—
Imperial University of Tokyo. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Section iii, iv, 5-6
(T.p. & c.) (1935-19386); v, 1 (1936); Section iv, iv, 1 (1935).—National Research
Council of Japan. Japanese Journal of Astronomy. and Geophysics, T.p. & ec. for xii
(1934-1935) ; xiii, 1 (1935); Japanese Journal of Botany, viii, 1-2 (1936); Japanese
Journal of Geology and Geography, xii, 3-4 (T.p. & ¢@.) (1935); xiii, 1-2 (1936);
Japanese Journal of Zoology, vi, 3-4 (1935-1936); Report, ii, 4, April, 1934-March,
1935 (1936).—Tokyo Bunrika Daigaku (Tokyo University of Literature and Science).
Science Reports, Section B, ii, 34-43 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936); iii, 44-45 (1936).—
Zoological Society of Japan. Annotationes Zoologicae Japonenses, xv, 2-3 (1935-
1936).

TORONTO.—Royal Canadian Institute. Transactions, xx, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1935).

ToOuULOUSH.—Société d’Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse. Bulletin, Ixvi, 1-4 (T.p. & c)
(1934); Ilxvii, 1-3 (T.p. & ce.) (1935); Ixviii (complete) (1935).

TRING.—Zoological Museum. Novitates Zoologicae, xxxix, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xl, 1
(1936).

TRONDHJEM.—Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab. Forhandlinger, viii, 1935
(1936); Skrifter, 1935, Vols. i-ii (19386); Museet: Arsberetning, 1934 (1935);
Oldsaksamlingens Tilvekst, 1934 (1935).

TUNIS.—Institut Pasteur de Tunis. Archives, xxv, 1-2 (19386).

UpsaLtsa.—University of Upsala. Zoologiska Bidrag fran Uppsala, xv (1935); “Zur
Gynaceummorphologie und Systematik der Verbenaceen und Labiaten nebst bemer-
kungen uber ihre Samenentwicklung”’, by S. Junell (1934); ‘Studien uber Lamelli-
branchiaten des Leptaenakalkes in Dalarna”’, by O. Isberg (1934); ‘“‘Studien uber die
Fangapparate der Branchiopoden, etc.’’, by S. Eriksson (1934); “Untersuchungen uber
den Strukturellen aufbau der Hizelle’’, by G. Jagersten (1935).

URBANA.—University of Illinois. Illinois Biological Monographs, xiii, 3-4 (T.p. & ec.)
(1935); xiv, 1-2 (1935-1936).

lxvi DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

UTRECHT.—Botanisch Museum en Herbarium van de Rijksuniversiteit. Mededeelingen,
Nos. 23-32 (1935-1936).

VERSAILLES.—Centre National de Recherches agronomiques. “Annales des Epiphyties et
de Phytogénétique”’, Nouvelle Série, i, 1934-1935 (1936); ii, 1-2 (1936).

VIENNA.—Naturhistorische Museum in Wien. Annalen, xlvii (1934, 1936).

Warsaw.—Panstwowe Muzeum Zoologiczne (Polish Museum of Zoology). Acta
Ornithologica, i, 138-15 (1935-1936); Annales, xi, 6-10 (1935-1936); Fragmenta
Faunistica, ii, 22-30 (1935-1936).—Secietas Botanica Poloniae. Acta, xi, 4 and
Supplementum (T.p. & e.) (1934); xii, 1 (1935). ;

WASHINGTON.—American Chemical Society. “Industrial and Engineering Chemistry”,
xxvii, 10-12 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xxviii, 1-8 (1936).—Bureau of American Ethnology.
Annual Report, 52nd, 1934-35 (1935).—Carnegie Institution of Washington. Publica-
tions, Nos. 449, 453, 458 (1935); Supplementary Publications, Nos. 12, 14, 15, 17
(1935); Year Book, No. 24 (1935).—National Academy of Sciences. Proceedings,
xxi, 9-12 (T.p. & c.) (1935); xxii, 1-8 (1936).—Smithsonian Institution. Annual
Report of the Board of Regents for the Years ending June 30, 1933 (19385); June 30,
1934 (1935). U.S. Department of Agriculture. Technical Bulletin, Nos. 433, 484 (1935).—
U.S. Department of Commerce: Coast and Geodetic Survey. Serial No. 584; Special

_ Publication, Nos. 199, 204 (1936).—U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins, 843, 847A, ©,
853-855, 859, 862, 864B, 865-866, 868A, 869 (19385-1936) ; Professional Papers, 177-178,
180-181, 183-184, 185H (1935-1936); Water Supply Papers, 657, 676-677, 679A,
680, 741-748, 745-746, 748, 750, 752, 754-755, 759-766, 768, 769, 771, 772, 773H
(1935-1936).—U.S. National Musewm. Proceedings, Ixxxiii, Nos. 2977-2989 (1935-
1936); Report on the Progress and Conditions of the Museum for Fiscal Year ended
June 30, 1935 (19386).

WELLINGTON.—Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Geological Survey
Branch. 29th Annual Report (N.S.), 1934-35 (1935); Geological Memoirs, Memoir
No. 2 (1934); Four separates from N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology, xvi
(1934-1935).—Dominion Museum. “New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology’’,
xvii, 2-6 (T.p. & c.) (1935-1936); xviii, 1-2 (1936).—Royal Society of New Zealand.
Transactions and Proceedings, Ixv, 2-4 (T.p. & ce.) (1935-1936) ; Ixvi, 1-2 (19386).

Woops Houe.—Marine Biological Laboratory. Biological Bulletin, lxix, 2-3 (T.p. & c.)
(IG)RY)) 3 Ibe les} (boy Ke Cea (lB axG)) 2 ibe ab OIRO).

PRIVATE Donors (and Authors, unless otherwise stated.)

Bruce, 8S. L., Amsterdam, Holland.—‘On Particular Binucleate Bodies often found in
Human Faeces” (From Annals Trop. Med. and Parasitology, xxx, 1, 1936);
“Dientamoeba fragilis’ (From Genees. Tijd. voor Nederl.-Indie, Ixxvi, 21, 1936);
“Voorloopig onderzoek naar de practische waarde der cultuur van darmprotozaen”’
(Zool. Afd. Instit. voor Trop. Hygiene, Amsterdam, 1936); ‘‘Tropische Zeikten die
niet in Nederlandsch-Indie Voorkomen’’ (no date).

FituHo, H. da ©. M., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ‘Monographia das Malvaceas Brasileiras.
Fasc. i. O Genero Sida. Revisao das Especies Brasileiras. Pt. 1” (Rio de Janeiro,
1936).

Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough, Wilts, England.—‘‘Exotic Microlepidoptera’”’, iv,
19-20 (Index) (1935-1936).

ReyrcHuer, L., Saint-Nicolas (Waes), Belgium.—‘‘An Appeal to the Youth of the Univer-

sities’ (1935); “Complete Working Plan for an Institute of Dynamic Botany”
(Antwerp, 1935); “Par la Mutation systématique chez les plantes, vers l’Hvolution
systématique” (1935); “Un apport nouveau au procédé de la fécondation par
traumatisme”’; “Un nouveau mode de fécondation par traumatisme directement dans
Vovaire’; “Oswald Kirst’; “Encore la fécondation traumatique”’ (1935-1936).

THE COLONIAL SUGAR REFINING Coy., LTp., Sydney (donor).—‘The Gumming Disease of
the Sugar Cane. Its Dissemination and Control’, by D. S. North (Agricultural

Report, No. 10 (Technical), Sydney, July, 1935).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. lxvii

THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, AUSTRALIA, Sydney (donor).—‘‘Unity in Nature’, by
Professor F. Wood Jones (Reprinted from Journ. Instn. Engrs. Aust., vii, 6, June,
1935).

WATERHOUSE, G. A., D.Sc, B.E., F.R.E.S., Sydney (donor).—‘‘The Problem of the
Pacific’, by C. Brunsdon Fletcher (London, 1918).

WeEtss, Dr.-Ing. W., Dresden, Germany.—‘‘Blatter. Bestimmungstabelle zur Benutzung bei
Mikroskopischen Arbeiten. Teil i-ii’? (Dresden, 1935).

1927
1929
1905
1906
1922
1899

1932
1927
1912

1913

1888
1919
1935
1907

1920
1929
1935

1923
1921
1924
1911
1932
1931
1920

1§21
1926

1901
1927
1930
1934
1905
1903
1936
1899
1924
1932

1901
1931
1933
1908

1928
1925

LIST OF MEMBERS, 19836.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.

*Albert, Michel Francois, ‘‘Boomerang’’, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney.

Allan, Miss Catherine Mabel Joyce, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Allen, Edmund, c/o Mulgrave Mill, Gordonvale, Queensland.

Anderson, Charles, M.A., D.Sc., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Anderson, Robert Henry, B.Sc.Agr., Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Andrews, Ernest Clayton, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., No. 4, “Kuring-gai’, 241 Old South
Head Road, Waverley.

Andrews, John, B.A., Department of Geography, Sydney University.

Armstrong, Jack Walter Trench, “Callubri’, Nyngan, N.S.W.

Aurousseau, Marcel, B.Sc.

Badham, Charles, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Bureau of Microbiology, 98 Macquarie Street,
Sydney.

Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

Barnett, Marcus Stanley, 44 Fox Valley Road, Wahroonga.

Beadle, Noel Charles William, 36 Anglo Street, Chatswood.

Benson, Professor William Noel, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., University of Otago, Dunedin,
N.Z.

Blakely, William Faris, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Boardman, William, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Bourne, Geoffrey, D.Sc., School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney
University.

Brough, Patrick, M.A., D.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., Botany School, Sydney University.

Brown, Horace William, 871 Hay Street, Perth, W.A.

Brown, Miss Ida Alison, D.Sc., ‘‘“Caversham’’, 166 Brook Street, Coogee.

Browne, William Rowan, D.Sc., Geology Department, The University, Sydney.

Bryce, Ernest John, 47 Nelson Road, Killara.

Burges, Norman Alan, M.Sc., 35 Wetherell Street, Croydon.

Burkitt, Professor Arthur Neville St. George Handcock, M.B., B.Sc., Medical School,
The University, Sydney.

Burns, Alexander Noble, ‘“Meringa’’, Fuchsia Street, Blackburn, Victoria.

Buzacott, James Hardie, Meringa (private bag), via Cairns, North Queensland.

Campbell, John Honeyford, I.8.0., M.B.E., Royal Canadian Mint, Ottawa, Canada.

Campbell, Thomas Graham, Flat No. 4, 806 Military Road, Mosman.

Carey, Miss Gladys, M.Sc., 32 Rawson Street, Epping.

Carey, Samuel Warren, M.Sc., c/o Oil Search Ltd., 350 George Street, Sydney.

Carne, Walter Mervyn, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.

Carter, Herbert James, B.A., F.R.E.S., “Garrawillah’’, Kintore Street, Wahroonga.

Chadwick, Clarence Earl, B.Sc., 41 Hannam Street, Arncliffe.

Cheel, Edwin, 40 Queen Street, Ashfield.

Chisholm, Edwin Claud, M.B., Ch.M., Barellan, N.S.W.

Churchward, John Gordon, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Faculty of Agriculture, Sydney
University.

Cleland, Professor John Burton, M.D., Ch.M., The University, Adelaide, S.A.

Colefax, Allen N., B.Se., Department of Zoology, Sydney University.

Coleman, Mrs. Edith, ‘““Walsham’’, Blackburn Road, Blackburn, Victoria.

Cotton, Professor Leo Arthur, M.A., D.Sc., Geology Department, The University,
Sydney.

Craft, Frank Alfred, B.Sc., 64 Boyce Road, Maroubra.

Cunningham, Gordon Herriot, Ph.D., Department of Agriculture, Fields Division,
Plant Research Station, P.O. Box 442, Palmerston North, N.Z.

* Life member.

1929

1934
1932
1936
1934
1929
1925
1928

1927
1921
1926
1920

1932
1930
1914

1908
1930
1911
1886
1930

1935
1932
1936
1936
1912
1911

1910
1936
1901

1925
1919
1897
1885
1928
1922

IGE

1932
alt? )a la

1930

1930

1932

1907
1892

1917
1930

LIST OF MEMBERS. lxix

Dakin, Professor William John, D.Sc., Department of Zoology, The University,
Sydney.

Davidson, Harold James, 11 Melrose Street, Croydon Park.

Davis, Harrold Fosbery Consett, B.Se., St. Paul’s College, Newtown.

Day, Maxwell Frank, 12 Arnold Street, Killara.

Day, William Eric, 23 Galling Avenue, Strathfield.

Deane, Cedric, A.M.I.E.Aust., “‘Cloyne’’, 6 State Street, Malvern, S.E.4, Victoria.

de Beuzeville, Wilfred Alexander Watt, J.P., ‘‘Melamere,’’ Welham Street, Beecroft.

Dickson, Bertram Thomas, B.A., Ph.D., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Division of Plant Industry, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

*Dixson, William, ‘‘Merridong’’, Gordon Road, Killara.

Dodd, Alan Parkhurst, Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane, Q.

Dumigan, Edward Jarrett, State School, Toowoomba Hast, Queensland.

Dwyer, Rt. Rev. Joseph Wilfrid, Bishop of Wagga, Wagga Wagga, N.S.W.

*Ellis, Ralph, 2420 Ridge Road, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
English, Miss Kathleen Mary Isabel, B.Sc., March Street, Yass, N.S.W.
Enright, Walter John, B.A., West Maitland, N.S.W.

Flynn, Professor Theodore Thomson, D.Sc., Queen’s University, Belfast, Ireland.

Fraser, Miss Lilian Ross, M.Sc., ‘“Hopetoun’’, Bellamy Street, Pennant Hills.

Froggatt, John Lewis, B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Rabaul, New Guinea.

Froggatt, Walter Wilson, F.L.S., Young Street, Croydon.

Fuller, Miss Mary Ellen, B.Sc., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Garretty, Michael Duhan, B.Sc., c/o J. H. H. Miller, Esq., Suva, Fiji.

Gay, Francis Joseph, B.Sc., Glebe House, Reid, Canberra, F.C.T.

Gilmour, Darcy, 325 Livingstone Road, Marrickville.

Goerling, August, Marloo Station, Wurarga, Western Australia.

Goldfinch, Gilbert Macarthur, University Club, 70 Phillip Street, Sydney.

Greenwood, William Frederick Neville, F.L.S., F.R.E.S., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining
Co., Ltd., Lautoka, Fiji.

Griffiths, Edward, B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Farrer Place, Sydney.

Griffiths, Mervyn Edward, 99 Sailor’s Bay Road, Northbridge.

Gurney, William Butler, B.Sc., F.R.E.S., 18 Milson Road, Cremorne, Sydney.

Hale, Herbert Matthew, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, S.A.

Hall, Leslie Lionel, 24 Wellesley Road, Pymble.

Halligan, Gerald Harnett, F.G.S., “Coniston”, Marion Street, Killara

Hamilton, Alexander Greenlaw, ‘‘Tanandra’’, Hercules Street, Chatswood.

Hamilton, Edgar Alexander, 16 Hercules Street, Chatswood.

Hardwick, Frederick George, B.D.S., D.D.Se., ‘‘Wyoming’’, 175 Macquarie Street,
Sydney.

Hardy, George Huddleston Hurlstone, Station Road, Sunnybank, Brisbane,
Queensland.

Harris, Miss Thistle Yolette, B.Se., 129 Hopetoun Avenue, Vaucluse, Sydney.

Haviland, The Venerable Archdeacon F. E., Moore Street, Austinmer, South Coast,
N.S. W.

Heydon, George Aloysius Makinson, M.B., Ch.M., School of Public Health and
Tropical Medicine, The University, Sydney.

Holmes, Professor James Macdonald, Ph.D., B.Se., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.G.S., Depart-
ment of Geography, Sydney University.

Hossfeld, Paul Samuel, M.Sc., c/o Deputy Administrator, Alice Springs, Central
Australia.

Hull, Arthur Francis Basset, M.B.E., Box 704, G.P.O., Sydney.

Hynes, Miss Sarah, B.A., M.B.E., ‘Isis’, Soudan Street, Randwick.

Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘‘Cambria’”’, 106 Bland Street, Ashfield.
Jensen, Hans Laurits, Department of Bacteriology, Sydney University.

* Life member.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Johnston, Professor Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., The University, Adelaide,
S.A. :

Joplin, Miss Germaine Anne, B.Se., Ph.D., Geology Department, Sydney University.

Judge, Leslie Arthur, 36 Romsey Street, Hornsby.

Julius, Sir George Alfred, B.Sc., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.Aust., 67 Castlereagh
Street, Sydney.

Kaleski, Robert Lucian Stanislaus, “Thorn Hill’, Moorebank, via Liverpool, N.S.W.
Ixendall, Mrs. W. M., M.Sc. (née Williams), 5 Queen Victoria Street. Drummoyne.

Lawson, Albert Augustus, 9 Wilmot Street. Sydney.

Lee, David Joseph, B.Se., 7 Orpington Street, Ashfield.

Lindergren, Gustaf Mauritz, Swedish Chamber of Commerce, 38 Carrington Street,
Sydney.

Lowndes, Arthur George, M.Sc., 23 Palmer Street, Balmain.

Mackerras, Ian Murray, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.
Magee, Charles Joseph, B.Sc.Agr. (Syd.), M.Sc. (Wis.), Department of Agriculture,
Farrer Place, Sydney.

*Mair, Herbert Knowles Charles, B.Sc., Botanic Gardens, Darwin, Northern

Territory.

Mann, John, Commonwealth Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane,
Queensland.

Martin, Donald, B.Se. c/o University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.

Mawson, Sir Douglas, D.Se., B.E., F.R.S., The University, Adelaide, S.A.

Maze, Wilson Harold, 39 Lucas Road, Burwood.

McCulloch, Robert Nicholson, B.Se.Agr. (Syd.), B.Sc. (Oxon.), Department of
Agriculture, Farrer Place, Sydney.

Mckeown, Keith Collingwood, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

McKie, Rev. Ernest Norman, B.A., The Manse, Guyra, N.S.W.

McLuckie, John, M.A., D.Sc., Botany Department, The University, Sydney.

Melvaine, Miss Alma Theodora, B.Sc., 101 Cook Road, Centennial Park, Sydney.

Messmer, Pearl Ray (Mrs. C. A.), Treatts Road, Lindfield.

Morisset, Lieut.-Colonel Casimir Vaux, “‘Dimby Plains’, Quirindi, N.S.W.

Munch-Petersen, HErik, Ph.B., M.Se. (Haunensis), M.I.F., Veterinary Research
Institute, Story Street, Parkville, Melbourne, N.2, Victoria.

Mungomery, Reginald William, c/o Meringa Sugar Experiment Station, Box 146,
Gordonvale, North Queensland.

Musgrave, Anthony, F.R.E.S., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Newman, Florence Rewa Wear (Mrs. I. V.) (née Burton), B.A., Dip.Ed., ‘““White-
haven”, 5 Lilandilo Avenue, Strathfield.

Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sec., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.L.8., “Whitehaven”, 5 Llandilo
Avenue, Strathfield.

Newman, Leslie John William, F.R.E.S., ‘““‘Walthamstowe’’, 5 Bernard Street, Clare-
mont, W.A.

Nicholson, Alexander John, D.Sc., F.R.E.S., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Noble, Norman Scott, M.S., B.Sc.Agr., D.I.C., Department of Agriculture, Farrer
Place, Sydney.

Noble, Robert Jackson, B.Se.Agr., Ph.D., Department of Agriculture, Farrer Place,
Sydney.

North, David Sutherland, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd., Broadwater Mill,
Richmond River, N.S.W.

O’Dwyer, Margaret Helena, B.Sc., Ph.D., Forest Products Research Laboratory,
Princes Risborough, Aylesbury, Bucks., England.
Oke, Charles George, 34 Bourke Street, Melbourne, C.1, Victoria.

Oliver, Walter Reginald Brook, F.L.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., Dominion Museum,
Wellington, C.1, New Zealand. :
Osborn, Professor Theodore George Bentley, D.Sc., F.L.S., Department of Botany,

The University, Sydney.
Osborne, George Davenport, D.Sc., Geology Department, The University, Sydney.
* Life member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 1xxi

Perkins, Frederick Athol, B.Sc.Agr., Biology Department, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Q.

Phillips, Montagu Austin, F.L.S., F.R.E.S., 57 St. George’s Square, London, S.W.,
England.

Pidgeon, Miss Ilma Mary, B.Sc., ““Winslow’’, 57 Amhurst Street, North Sydney.

Pincombe, Torrington Hawke, B.A., ‘‘Mulyan’’, Beta Street, Lane Cove, Sydney.

Plomley, Norman james Brian, c/o Bank of New South Wales, Threadneedle
Street, London, E.C.2, England.

Pope, Miss Elizabeth Carington, B.Sc., 36 Kameruka Road, Northbridge.

Pratt, Enid Mary, (Mrs. W.), (née Edmonds), M.Se., Congregational Manse,
Broken Hill.

Priestley, Professor Henry, M.D., Ch.M., B.Sc., Medical School, The University,
Sydney.

Raggatt, Harold George, M.Sc., Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Sydney.

Roberts, Frederick Hugh Sherston, M.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, Brisbane, Q.

Roberts, Noel Lee, 24 Meredith Street, Homebush.

Robertson, Rutherford Ness, B.Sc., 15 The Boulevarde, Lewisham.

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, B.Sc, F.R.Z.S., Technological Museum, Harris
Street, Sydney.

Rupp, Rev. Herman Montagu Rucker, B.A., St. John’s Rectory, Raymond Terrace,
N.S. W.

Salter, Keith Eric Wellesley, B.Sc., ‘““Hawthorn’’, 48 Abbotsford Road, Homebush.

*Scammell, George Vance, B.Sc., 7 David Street, Clifton Gardens.

Selby, Miss Doris Adeline, M.Sc., ‘““Marley’’, Werona Avenue, Gordon.

Sherrard, Mrs. Kathleen Margaret, M.Sc., 43 Robertson Road, Centennial Park,
Sydney.

Smith, George Perey Darnell, D.Sc., F.1.C., F.C.S., c/o Lyon’s Boat Shed, The
Spit, Mosman, Sydney.

Smith, Jacob Harold, M.Sc., N.D.A., Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour, Queensland.

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Smith, Miss Vera Irwin, B.Se., F.L.S., ‘““Loana’*, Mt. Morris Street, Woolwich.

Spence, Kenneth Kinross, M.B., Ch.M., 51 Sophia Street, Bondi Beach.

Stanley, George Arthur Vickers, B.Sc., “Clelands”’, 33a Battery Street, Clovelly.

Stead, David G., ‘“Boongarre’’. Pacific Street, Watson’s Bay.

Still, Jack Leslie, B.Sc., 61 Alexandra Street, Drummoyne.

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, M.B., Ch.M., 15 Highfield Road, Lindfield.

*Sulman, Miss Florence, “Burrangong’’, McMahon’s Point.

Sussmilch, Carl Adolph, F.G.S., 11 Appian Way, Burwood.

Taylor, Frank Henry, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S., School of Public Health and ‘Tropical
Medicine, Sydney University.

Tillyard, Robin John, M.A., D:Sc., E.R-S:, £.l.S:, E.R.E.S:., €.M.Z.S:., Dominion
Circuit, Forrest, Canberra, F.C.T.

*Troughton, Ellis Le Geyt, C.M.Z.S., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.
Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D., F.R.E.S., Dauphin Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland.
Turner, Rowland E., F.Z.S., F.R.E.S., c/o Standard Bank of South Africa, Adderley

Street, Cape Town, South Africa.

Veitch, Robert, B.Sc, F.R.E.S., Department of Agriculture, William Street,
Brisbane, Queensland.

Vickery, Miss Joyce Winifred, M.Sc., 6 Coventry Road, Homebush.

Voisey, Alan Heywood, M.Sc., St. George’s Hostel, West Kempsey, N.S.W.

Walker, Commander John James, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.E.S., R.N., ‘““Aorangi’, Lonsdale
Road, Summertown, Oxford, England.

Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.Sc., Science House, Gloucester and Essex Streets, Sydney.

Ward, Melbourne, Pasadena Flats, Cross Street, Double Bay, Sydney.

* Life member.

1934

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Wardlaw, Henry Sloane Halcro, D.Sc., Physiology Department, The University,
Sydney.

Waterer, Arthur S., 13 Kingston Street, Haberfield.

Waterhouse, Douglas Frew, 17 McIntosh Street, Gordon.

*Waterhouse, G. Athol, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S., Science House, Gloucester and Essex
Streets, Sydney.

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E., ‘Rarotonga’, 42 Archer Street, Chatswood.

Waterhouse, Walter Lawry, D.Sc.Agr., M.C., D.I.C. (Lond.), Faculty of Agriculture,
Sydney University.

Watt, Professor Robert Dickie, M.A.. B.Sc., University of Sydney.

White, Neville H., c/o Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, University
of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.

*Whitley, Gilbert Percy, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Wilson, Miss Janet Marion, 8 Lloyd Avenue, Hunter’s Hill.

Womersley, Herbert, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., South Australian Museum, Adelaide, South
Australia.

Woodhill, Anthony Reeve, B.Sec.Agr., Department of Zoology, Sydney University.

Wright, Fred, 35 Bligh Street, Sydney.

Zeck, Emil Herman, 268 Blaxland Road, Ryde.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Hill, Professor J. P., Institute of Anatomy, University of London, University
College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England.

Wilson, Professor J. T., LL.D., M.B., Ch.M., F.R.S., Department of Anatomy, the
New Museums, Cambridge, England.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Bale, W. M., F.R.M.S., 63 Walpole Street, Kew, Melbourne, Victoria.
Broom, Robert, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, Transvaal, South

Africa.
Meyrick, Edward, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts., England.

ASSOCIATE.
Waterhouse, John Talbot, 39 Stanhope Road, Killara.

* Life Member.

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NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SCAPTIA AURIFLUA DON.
(DIPTERA, TABANIDAE).

By Mary E. Futter, B.Sce., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Canberra, F.C.T.

(Plate i; eleven Text-figures.)

[Read 25th March, 1936.]

Introduction.

Although the early stages of many Tabaninae (Tabanus and Haematopota)
have been discovered in other parts of the world, comparatively little is known
of the Pangoniine genera. The larvae and pupae of a few species of the more
specialized genera Chrysops and Silvius have been studied, but Goniops chrysocoma
Osten-Sacken, which has been fully described by McAtee (1911), is the only
generalized Pangoniine of which the breeding habits and early stages are known.
Our knowledge of the immature stages of Australian Tabanidae is small, although
the family is represented here by more than 250 species. The larvae of four
species of Tabanus and one Pangoniine, Silvius notatus Ric., have been briefly
described (Johnston and Bancroft, 1920; Hill, 1921). The discovery of the
breeding grounds and early stages of the generalized Pangoniine, Scaptia auriflua
Don., is, therefore, of considerable interest.

Scaptia Walk. is the dominant Australian Pangoniine genus, nearly fifty
species being known (Ferguson, 1926). It is the Australian representative of
that group of genera with short, broad, mostly hairy bodies, and with the third
antennal segment eight-annulate, of which Pangonia (s.l.) may be taken as typical.
Goniops Ald. also appears to belong to this group and, from the information
available, seems to possess characters in common with some species of Scaptia.
It is, therefore, not surprising that the larva and pupa of S. awriflua, described
below, should show points of resemblance to those of G. chrysocoma.

The writer is indebted to Dr. I. M. Mackerras for the identification of the
species, for information on the Tabanidae, and for assistance in the preparation
of the paper.

The Habits of the Adult.

S. auriflua is a medium-sized, rather ornate species, of which White (1915)
has given an adequate re-description. It is distributed along the southern and
eastern highlands of Australia, from Tasmania and South Australia to southern
Queensland, and is commonly found associated with flowering Leptospermum
growing in swampy country at high altitudes. In January, 1935, the flies were
plentiful on Leptospermum flowers on a small plain at the foot of Mt. Coree
(4,600 ft.) near Canberra, and were also abundant on the flowers of another
species of Leptospermum growing along Alpine Creek, Kiandra, and in a swamp

D

2 NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SCAPTIA AURIFLUA DON.,

near Yarrangobilly (5,000 ft.). Dr. Mackerras informs me that they were very
common on flowering Leptospermum at Barrington Tops (4,500 ft.) in the
summer of 1925. The flies remained resting or moving about on the flowers
for considerable periods, and were not readily disturbed. They frequently rested
beneath the flower clusters and among the inner parts of the bushes, with their
lower surface uppermost, and were then not readily distinguishable in spite of
their bright colouring. Both sexes were present in equal numbers. They were
not seen to hover over or alight on the swamps, although other Tabanids, including
Scaptia ruficornis Macq., had this habit.

Most species of Scaptia suck the blood of mammals, and the females are
usually taken when attacking the collector; males are rarely seen. S. auriflua,
however, made no attempt to bite, and has never been recorded as blood-sucking
by other observers. It is most probable that both sexes feed exclusively on the
nectar of flowers, although the mandibles of the female are not reduced, as
they are in the primitive, non-blood-sucking genus Pelecorhynchus. Possibly
S. auriflua sucks the blood of native animals, but no evidence of this was found.

Notes on the Life-History.

Goniops oviposits on the underside of leaves and guards the egg-mass for
some days, buzzing loudly at intervals. The breeding habits and the egg-masses
of S. auriflua have not been discovered, nor is there any evidence to suggest that
it might possess similar peculiar habits.

The larvae of S. auriflua were discovered in the soil of a restricted area on a
small mountain plain beside Mt. Coree (Plate i, fig. 1). The soil, the moisture
content of which varied over the period when larvae were found, was never dry
nor saturated; in general it was moderately damp. The larvae were just below
the surface and frequently well up among the grass roots. They were present
in the same situation whenever it was examined from October, 1934, to August,
1935. Many other areas in the locality were examined, but the larvae were not
found anywhere else. The surface of the ground was covered with grasses and a
small group of willows was close by (Plate i, fig. 2). Between the willows and
Coree Creek, which was 65 yards distant, the ground was slightly lower and was
covered with marsh grasses, being in places saturated. Since the first larvae
found were full grown, it was assumed that they lived in the swamp and moved
to higher ground to pupate, but this was found to be incorrect, when later search
revealed larvae of all sizes. Moreover, none were found in the wetter soil.

On 7th October, full-grown larvae were present, associated with numerous
Tipulid and some Stratiomyiid larvae.

On 13th and 14th October, full-grown larvae in the proportion of 1 to 50
Tipulids were present, the Tipulids being extremely plentiful.

On 11th November, a few large larvae were present, and most of the Tipulids
had pupated.

On 17th February, half-grown larvae and no Tipulids were found.

On 24th March, larvae of various sizes from half to full grown and no
Tipulids were present. The soil was at its driest.

On 23rd June, very small to nearly full-grown larvae were present, and
Tipulids were again found in small numbers.

On 11th August, small to full-grown larvae were present and Tipulids occurred
in fair numbers. The soil was wetter than it had ever been previously, due to

BY MARY E. FULLER. 3

the fact that snow had fallen to a depth of six inches or more a week earlier.
The larvae were still very close to the surface.

Throughout the whole period, earthworms and cockchafer larvae were present
in the soil. The Scaptia larvae were always contracted when found, probably
due to being disturbed when the soil was turned over. They remained inert and
never attempted to move away.

The first larvae collected were kept each in a separate jar of slightly
moistened soil and supplied with Tipulid larvae as food. As the larvae were full
grown and were not observed to feed, it was assumed that they were at the
resting stage prior to pupation. They remained in this state for approximately
two months (54 to 65 days) before pupating. The pupal stage lasted 15 to 24
days, and the flies emerged in December and January over a period of three
weeks.

As the larvae showed no attempt to attack each other, several were later
kept in each jar. Apparently most of the feeding is done in the winter, as larvae
collected in March and June disposed of earthworms supplied to them, although
actual feeding from a worm was only observed once. The Scaptia larva had
pierced the worm near the middle and had its head buried in the body, part of
which was sucked out. Tipulid larvae placed in the jars were later found
damaged and flaccid, but feeding on these was not actually observed. Some
larvae have been kept successfully in jars of soil and grass roots for five months.
They can withstand starvation, and drying and hardening of the soil for six
weeks without being affected. Larvae subjected to such conditions were
contracted and darkened, but extended and became normal when placed in moist
soil and given food.

The full duration of the life cycle is not known, but the facts that adults
are only on the wing for a limited period in summer, and that larvae in various
stages of growth occur together, suggest that full development may take two,
or even three, years.

The Larva (Text-figs. 1 and 2).

Larvae from 11 to 26 mm. in length were examined and, except for size,
there was no difference in structure between these stages.

The following description is taken from a full-grown larva. The length of
the larva when fully extended is 26 mm. The body is pointed anteriorly and,
unlike most other Tabanid larvae, truncated posteriorly (Text-fig. 2). It is
widest at the 8rd, 4th and 5th abdominal segments. The larva is capable of
contracting to half its length when disturbed. When moving actively it has a
leech-like shape, but takes on a short barrel shape when touched (Text-fig. 1),
the girth increasing by about 2 mm.

As the pigment fades and alters in preserved specimens, the following
description of the colour markings is from a live larva. Beneath the thick
striated integument, which is itself practically colourless, is a layer of pigment
broken up into patches. The pigment is a dark chocolate or purplish-brown,
and varies in amount and extent with individual larvae, and with stages of
growth. It is brightest in colour near the anterior end, and most continuous
and intense on the dorsal surface of the last four abdominal segments. The
patches where the pigment is absent are a pale yellowish colour, and it is only
through these patches that parts of the internal organs are visible. The unpig-
mented patches are rounded or elongated-oval in outline. The lateral regions

4 NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SCAPTIA AURIFLUA DON.,

of the thoracic segments are devoid of pigment, and the junction between
segments is colourless, except for an occasional spot between the posterior
segments. Down the dorsum of the thoracic and first few abdominal segments
there is a long narrow colourless area. On the ventral surface the yellowish
patches are more extensive than the pigmented areas, which simply form a
network of colour around them. The ventral surface of the eighth segment, and
the parts surrounding the anus, are completely devoid of pigment. In general
the arrangement of the pigment in this larva gives it a very characteristic
mottled or spotted appearance.

Text-figs. 1-7.—Scaptia auriflua.
1.—Larva contracted, x 3-6. 2.—Larva extended, x 3:6; a, anus; s, spiracle.
3.—Pupa, x 36; an, antenna; as, abdominal spiracles; ts, thoracic spiracle.

4.—Posterior spiracle, x 80. 5.—Graber’s organ, x 144. 6.—Head of larva,

% 16; ant, antenna; la, labrum; lb, labium; ma, maxilla; mn, mandible;

mp, maxillary palp; sp, salivary pump; tr, tentorial rod. 7.—Antenna, x 64;
fh, flexible hairs.

BY MARY E. FULLER. 5

With the exception of the head, the annulus of the first thoracic segment,
and certain papillae on the eighth abdominal segment, the whole of the integument
is strongly and evenly striated. Between adjacent thoracic segments is a broad
annulus. The annulus of the first segment, which is immediately behind the head,
is covered with close minute spines directed backwards. On the ventral surface
of each thoracic segment are two groups of hairs situated one each side of the
centre in the anterior third. Each is composed of four long, light brown setae
arising from a common base. There is no division of the thorax into dorsal,
lateral and ventral areas, beyond a slight curving of the striae in these regions.
No trace of the anterior spiracles is visible on the thorax.

The integument on the posterior border of each abdominal segment is
thickened, raised slightly, and somewhat irregularly folded. Just behind the
anterior border of each segment the skin is raised all round and folded into a
series of small prominences. Dorsally this forms a continuous ridge, slightly
curved forwards. lLaterally there is a series of small curved ridges with
hollows between and among them, and ventrally there are two parallel ridges
of integument, one being formed by the anterior border of the segment, and one
by the fold behind it. The posterior borders of the segments are more prominent
ventrally, making a series of three ridge-like pseudopods. On the ventral surface
of each abdominal segment except the last there is a transverse series of six
very delicate, colourless hairs in the anterior third.

The eighth segment is entirely different from the others. It is much shorter
and does not bear a ring of projections. Two large pointed papillae arise from
the dorsal surface at the posterior extremity and project backwards, upwards
and outwards. Between them on the vertical face of the segment is the posterior
stigma (Text-fig. 4). There is no indication of a siphon, the spiracle lying flush
with the integument. It is elliptical in shape, consisting of a single narrow
vertical slit with two raised chitinous lips, the edges being finely scalloped.
Below the spiracle are two pairs of short rounded papillae. The anus on the
ventral surface is surrounded by a fleshy ridge, which bears a pair of blunt
papillae projecting downwards and backwards. The four papillae below the
spiracles are striated and each bears a short, fine hair. The pointed dorsal
projections and the anal ridge are finely rugose.

Graber’s organ (Text-fig. 5) is very difficult to discern because of the heavy
pigmentation in the posterior segments. It is never visible from the exterior,
and can only be detected after the eighth segment is macerated and the pigment
scraped out. The organ lies below the integument of the dorsal surface of the
eighth segment just anterior to the pair of projections. It is rounded at the
anterior end and tapered posteriorly. In the larvae examined, which were all
more than half grown, there were only two bodies present. These were large,
black and round, occupying most of the space in the sac, and arranged one in
front of the other.

The head (Text-fig. 6).—The head capsule is very elongated, only the anterior
fifth being visible when extended, the rest being enclosed within the thorax. Of
the portion which is external, a smooth thin membrane which grows out from
the thorax envelops the posterior half, the mouth parts projecting in front of
this. The epicranium is a flat dorsal plate of smooth, brown chitin dividing
into three arms anteriorly. The two outer projections curve round forming the
lateralia, and the central arm continues forward into the rostrum, The chitin

6 NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SCAPTIA AURIFLUA DON.,

is darker along the sides of the epicranium, giving the effect of two stripes.
Posteriorly the chitin of the dorsal plate becomes thinner and is produced into
two lateral arms which curve downwards and fuse with the posterior extremities
of the tentorial rods. At the base each of these epicranial arms is joined to the
tentorial rod by a short curved bar. Just anterior to the basal membrane the
head capsule is completed ventrally by a smooth, flat gular plate lying between.
the lateralia and extending forward to the posterior end of the labium.

The tentorium consists of a pair of dark brown, hollow chitinous rods,
running the length of the head ventrally. These rods end anteriorly just behind
the reduced buccal cavity, and take a downward sweep posteriorly to join the
tips of the epicranial arms. They are each connected near the anterior end,
behind the eye-spot, with the dorsal plate by a curving vertical bar. The eye-
spots are small, dark, reddish masses lying internally beneath the lateralia just
in front of the basal membrane, and not visible from the dorsal surface. The
pharynx, which is chitinized for its whole length, runs below the tentorial rods
anteriorly, and then between them, expanding slightly at the posterior end of
the head.

The salivary pump lies posterior to the gular plate and below the ventral
side of the head internally. It is large, chitinous, and saddle-shaped, having the
concave surface uppermost. A duct running forward from its anterior end opens
in the front of the labium. From its posterior end a duct runs back to the
salivary glands. Valve structures are present in the organ where these ducts
enter it.

The antennae (Text-fig. 7) arise dorso-laterally from the lateralia, and consist
of three segments, the basal one being very elongated, flattened and lying close
against the head. Cameron (1934) and Isaac (1925) describe the antenna of
Tabanid larvae as two-segmented, considering the apparent basal segment to be
a flattened cephalic sclerite. Stone (1930), Boving (1924) and others state that
the antenna is three-segmented. In Scaptia auriflua the large basal segment is
clearly articulated with the head, and readily separated from it. The middle
segment projects sideways and is considerably smaller than the basal one, whilst
the apical segment is very narrow, pointed and setiform. Between the lateralia
and rostrum the chitin is delicate and membranous. Near the base of the
mandibles and between the antennae and rostrum on each side is a comb of fine
hairs which are hidden when the mandibles are withdrawn. They correspond
to the stiff brush of “piercing spines” (Isaac, 1925) in many Tabanids, but are
much finer and less conspicuous.

Mouth Ports.—The anterior extremity of the head is occupied by the prominent
mouth parts. Dorsally the rostrum ends in the laterally compressed labrum with
its up-turned end. Ventrally the two pointed hairy lobes of the labium project
forwards. Between these laterally are the large, conspicuous mandibles with
their associated maxillae.

The labrum (Text-fig. 8) is narrow and blade-like, with a narrow, sharply
up-turned tip composed of hard black chitin. A pair of small setae is present
at the end, and two other groups of setae occur dorso-laterally. On the ventral
surface and laterally in this region is a large area of close papillae, corresponding,
no doubt, to the epipharynx. The labium (Text-fig. 8) is less chitinous than
the labrum and does not project so far forward. It is bi-lobed and covered with
fine hairs. At its base ventrally are a pair of elongated palps projecting forwards.

BY MARY E. FULLER. ii

Dorsally it is fused with the anterior end of the pharynx, which is strongly
chitinous in this region. A pair of lobes from the dorsal wall of the pharynx
grow upwards to meet the ventral surface of the labrum, and associated with
them is a pair of forwardly-directed, sharp, chitinous teeth arising from the
labium. Isaac and Cameron both assert that these structures permanently close
the mouth opening, cutting off the reduced buccal cavity from the exterior, the
liquid food being taken in through the mandibular canal. This specialization of
the labium and pharynx, and the structures connecting the labrum and labium
in Scaptia, closely correspond with the condition described for Haematopota
pluvialis by Cameron and Tabanus rubidus by Isaac. But in Scaptia, although
the mouth appears to be closed by the dorsal pouch of the pharynx and the
chitinous teeth of the labium, it is possible to separate the labrum and labium-
pharynx, thus opening the mouth, by pushing the tip of the labrum upwards or
by pressing from the buccal cavity forwards with a needle, none of the parts
being torn or damaged in the process. It is quite possible that these parts are
not capable of independent movement in the living larva, and the mouth is non-
functional as in Haematopota and Tabanus. Projecting into the back of the buccal
cavity is a pair of triangular masses connected with the tentorium.

The mandible (Text-fig. 9) is a strong, black, slightly curved tusk-like
structure, with a blunt tip, and slightly expanded at the base where it is

Text-figs. 8-11.—Scaptia awriflua.
8.—Labrum and labium, x 52; be, buccal cavity; Ip, labial palp; It, labial teeth;
ph, pharynx; sd, salivary duct. 9.—Mandible and maxilla, x 52; ec, canal;
mp, maxillary palp; o, opening of canal; tm, tip of maxilla. 10.—Abdominal
spiracle of pupa, x 64; f, felt chamber; s, slit. 11.—Posterior end of pupa, x 12
approx.; p, points of aster.

8 NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SCAPTIA AURIFLUA DON.,

connected with the maxilla. The concave inner edge is finely serrated. There
is an opening on the dorsal, convex surface a little behind the tip. This is the
entrance to a canal which runs through the mandible and is continued through
its base. Isaac states that it then continues as a membranous tube amongst the
anterior sclerites of the head, until it ends in the pharynx. The mandible is
more strongly developed and larger in proportion to the other mouth parts in
Scaptia than in the Tabanid larvae described by other workers. The maxilla
(Text-fig. 9) is composed of lighter chitin and works in unison with the mandibles.
It is a fairly broad flat plate produced to a slender point anteriorly: the end of
this projection is hard and black and extends a little beyond the mandible. The
lower edge of the maxilla is heavily fringed with fine hairs. The mavxillary
palp arises near the outer posterior edge and is very large and conspicuous.
The basal segment is a short triangular mass of heavy chitin. The second
segment is large, cylindrical and well chitinized, whilst the apical segment is
fine and slender.

The Pupa (Text-fig. 3).

The pupa is 19 to 22 mm. in length. When newly formed, the thoracic region
and all the anterior end, except the eyes, are a creamy colour, and the abdomen
is bright chestnut. The colour changes to a general light brown, and before
emergence again darkens considerably, the eyes becoming greenish.

The frontal carina is a ridge of light brown, wrinkled chitin with a notch in
the median line. Above the carina is a pair of slight prominences of wrinkled
chitin, each bearing a fine bristle. Below the carina is a pair of small, but
prominent projections placed close together in the median line, and lying
between the eyes ventrally. Below and to each side of these is one fine bristle.
The antennae are short and curved down over the eye. The thoracic spiracles
are short and dark-brown, and do not project much beyond the dorsal surface.
The wing sheaths just reach the fore border of the second abdominal segment.

Except for the first and last, the abdominal segments are all similar. The
first to the seventh are divided into dorsal, lateral and ventral areas by smooth
grooved lines. Each of these segments bears a conspicuous spiracle near the
centre of each lateral area. The spiracle (Text-fig. 10) is a round mound with
a strong chitinous rim which is incomplete anteriorly. Near the posterior edge
of the mound is a curved spiracular slit, opening into a large felt chamber. Every
segment except the first bears a girdle of spines near its centre. The part of
the segment in front of the ring of spines is marked with a network of raised
lines of darker brown than the general surface. The posterior half of the
segment is finely rugose. The girdle of spines, which point backwards, is
continuous. The spines are dark brown, thorn-like structures, and are largest
and strongest on the dorsum, smaller in the lateral areas and very small ventrally.
The lateral spines are produced into long, stiff, colourless setae. In the last
segment the dorsal spines are absent, whilst all the rest bear setae. In the
female pupa there is a median gap ventrally in the ring of spines on the last
segment, whilst in the male there is no break in the ring.

The pupal aster (Text-fig. 11) which in all known Tabanid larvae, except
Goniops, is a series of six large projections on the anal segment, consists of only
two noticeable projections, the dorso-lateral pair. These are strongest and most
outstanding in the male pupa. The ventral pair are reduced to two small knobs,
and the dorsal pair are scarcely distinguishable.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE I.

Migs, 2):

Areas where larvae of Scaptia were found.

BY MARY E. FULLER. 9

Discussion.

The structure of the larval head and mouth parts, the form of the respiratory
organs, and the longitudinally striated integument are all characteristic features
of immature Tabanidae possessed by Scaptia auriflua. The larvae and pupae of
S. auriflua (which, as the species is very closely related to the genotype, S. aurata,
may be taken as representative of the genus) and of Goniops chrysocoma can,
however, be distinguished from all other known Tabanidae by the following
characters:

Larva.—The body does not taper at both ends; there is no siphon;
Graber’s organ is not visible.

Pupa.—The aster is reduced to two large projections at the end of the
terminal segment.

The common possession of these characters by two genera, one North
American and the other Australian, justifies the suggestion that they may
prove to be group characters, sharply distinguishing the “Pangonia”’ group of
genera from the rest of the family. Other points in common between S. auwriflua
and G. chrysocoma are the general opaqueness of the integument, the replacement
of the “piercing spines” by fine, flexible hairs, and the fact that, unlike most
Tabanid larvae, they are found in comparatively dry situations. They, however,
differ from each other in several particulars. Goniops has a characteristic club
shape, whereas Scapiia is more elongate, although when moving along it some-
times assumes a long club form. Also Scaptia is strongly striate, whilst Goniops
has no striae but is papillate. The pupae differ in shape and in the arrangement
of the segmental spines.

These investigations suggest that the characters of the early stages will be
found to throw more light on generic relationships in the Tabanidae than can
at present be obtained from a study of the adults.

Bibliography.

CAMERON, A. E., 1934.—The Life-History and Structure of Haematopota pluvialis Linné
(Tabanidae). Trans.. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, lviii, 1, p. 211.

FERGUSON, E. W., 1926.—Additional Notes on the Nomenclature of Australian Tabanidae.
Bull. Hnt. Res., xvi, 4, p. 293.

Hitt, G. F., 1921.—The Bionomics of Tabanus aprepes and other Australian Tabanidae.
IS, JHDtis IAS, Saul; I> jon Zule

Isaac, P. V., 1925a.—The Head and Mouth-Parts of the larva of Tabanus rubidus Wied.
Mem. Agric. Dept. India. No. 10, Papers on Indian Tabanidae, viii, p. 93.

———, 1925b.—The Mechanism of Suction in the Larva of Tabanus tenens WIk.
Mem. Agric. Dept. India. No. 10, Papers on Indian Tabanidae, viii, p. 97.

JOHNSTON, T. Harvey, and Bancrorr, M. J., 1920.—Notes on the Life History of
certain Queensland Tabanid flies. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxii, 10, p. 125.

McATEE, W. L., 1911.—Facts in the Life History of Goniops chrysocoma. Ent. Soc.
Washington, xiii, 1, p. 21.

MARCHAND, W., 1920.—The Early Stages of Tabanidae (Horse-flies). Monographs of
the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, No. 13, New York.

NEAVE, 8S. A., 1915.—The Tabanidae of Southern Nyasaland with notes on their life-
histories. Bull. Ent. Res., v, p. 287.

Strong, A., 1930.—The Bionomics of Some Tabanidae (Diptera). Ann. Ent. Soc. America,
xox, BD, WW, BGilo

Wess, J. L., and Weis, R. W., 1924.—Horse-Flies: Biologies and Relation to Western
Agriculture. U.S.A. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 1218, 35 pp.

WHuHite. A., 1915.—The Diptera-Brachycera of Tasmania, Part IIl.—Families Tabanidae
and Therevidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1915, p. 19.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
1.—Small plain below Mt. Coree (4,600 feet) showing area where Scaptia auwriflua
larvae are found.
2.—Area on Coree plain where Scaptia larvae occur in the soil.

E

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV.

By JoHn R. MALLocH, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
(Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.)

(Nine Text-figures. )
[Read 25th March, 1936.]

Family TACHINIDAE.
Tribe RUTILIINI.
SENOSTOMA Macquart.

Townsend has recently published some notes on genotypes, including one
dealing with Senostoma variegata Macquart which, he states, following Engel,
is a synonym of Diaphania testacea Macquart.*

The name Senostoma will therefore replace Prodiaphania Townsend in our
list of Australian Diptera, provided someone does not subsequently prove that
this synonymy is erroneous.

I have already dealt briefly with the genus Prodiaphania in this series of
papers (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, 291, 1929), though I was at that time, and
am even yet, uncertain of the exact identity of testacea Macquart. I accepted
this name for what appears, from my material, to be the commonest species found
in central Hastern Australia, particularly in the vicinity of Sydney, N.S.W., and
only a careful examination of type material will prove whether I am correct or
not.

The genus is not difficult to separate from its allies, the chief character being
the very short palpi, which are not as long as the third antennal segment, all
the other genera of the tribe having these organs much longer than the entire
antennae.

I described one new species from Western Australia in my previous paper
and distinguished one new variety of testacea, but it is very difficult to determine
the exact status of some specimens on the basis of external characters, and a
careful study of the genus in the field is required to check laboratory findings.
There are, without doubt, several species involved, and below I present some
additional data intended to facilitate the recognition of those now before me,
though the question of synonymy is not attempted without access to the type
specimens of certain old species.

This summary of results is based almost exclusively upon males submitted
to me by various Australian correspondents.

In this study I have been compelled to make use of the male hypopygial
characters to distinguish several species occurring in the eastern part of the
continent and, as it is almost, if not quite, impossible to present in words a
description that will give a brief but exact picture of these characters, I have

* Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, 1932, p. 40.

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 11

figured them herein. I have found that the principal distinguishing characters
are found in the structure and armature of the inferior forceps (dististyli), the
superior forceps (cerci) being of very similar form throughout my series. The
most remarkable feature consists of a more or less developed extension on the
inner side at the base of each dististylus which is furnished with hairs or bristles
and which is entirely concealed when the hypopygium is in its normal retracted
condition. In the species that I have dissected there is no extension of the
dististyli in one, and here I have a suspicion that the species may be out of
place in Senostoma, though it lacks hairs on the edge of the narrow stripe above
the lower squama (parasquamal tuft). The proboscis is not in such a position
that the palpi are visible without difficulty, but I make them out to be small, so
I retain the species in this genus, the other characters being in accordance with
the generic criteria.

I present below a key to the species which I hope will prove of value in the
identification of, at least, those now in hand. I believe it will be found that there
are a number of other species in Australia, to which continent the genus at
present appears to be confined.

Key to the Species.

ERE VEDIC Snr serene ce eres foc tscctlsice, saves o)ichsneilat cio na.re: cai al cng Suayee tape tebeme eles ce ote waynes, elise: Slisleneriese le onetansns 2
PERG TIT A] CS hurr ar Perc enc bench oR OM eR eo ome ol crete tie secre Bee ai eet MME ESD corse) oi tebnlfsacicl ey Susnel optcenst eebene anes 9
2. Hind tibia with no posterodorsal submedian bristle .................00.c02000% 3
Hind tibia with one or more submedian posterodorsal bristles. .................-- 4

3. Hind metatarsus with a series of dorsal setulose hairs that are longer than the
Sreatestadramercerroty thaussesimentis a.com oiciiscenia ae georgei Malloch

Hind metatarsus with much shorter dorsal hairs; hypopygium as Figure 1 ........
FOQCODDOODOU ODO SD OOO OOOO OOOO HOOD ODOR OdDOE OW COO CUO COON ODO OD eb G WUCAHE 106 105

4. Upper squama not extending more than two-thirds of the distance to apex of the
lower one; wing with no dark transverse mark near base; hind femur with
widely separated strong bristles on the entire extent of the anteroventral surface,

and some on the basal half of the posteroventral surface; fourth tergite of the
abdomen with apical bristles strong and widely separated, about as long as the
EXpOSed pant Of themtensltemwrce-ve ays aise seer cokerieueio aie eae oe ese cygnus, nN. Sp.

Upper squama extending almost to apex of the lower one; wing normally with a
dark transverse mark near base; hind femur with the anteroventral bristles

on apical half only and none on the basal half of the posteroventral surface.. 5

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SNS Mehattetred hoe testacea, var. claripennis Mailoch
Gt DIG DOr OOD OO GO Bide ma Be 6

6. Inferior hypopygial forceps as in Figure 2, with a long heavily chitinized fork at
base which projects forward and is usually concealed, the inner side of the fork

With dense short dark brown hairs; hind metatarsus slender, with a series of

fine bristly hairs above that are a little longer than its diameter .. furcata, n. sp.
Inferior hypopygial forceps either without a fork at base or, if forked, the inner
branch much shorter, stouter, and furnished with longer hairs or bristles .... 7

7. Inferior hypopygial forceps with a stout basal process which is densely covered with
long fine brown hairs (Fig. 3); hind metatarsus with short dorsal setulose

OFEW TESA patiotc ria ee martes nmecies Hick ein cea ieee en SAEED St i 8 OO DR OR testacea Macquart
Inferior hypopygial forceps with comparatively few bristles or bristly hairs on a
DOOGY CECI TAC [ISU GOROMNIMETIGS ccodoceococdoavneksucoedsouucescdoons 8

8. Inferior hypopygial forceps with but few fine short hairs on dorsal surface of the
exposed part (Fig. 4); hind metatarsus with the dorsal setulae not very strong
and distinctly shorter than those on centre of the series on the anterodorsal
SuLiacesotethey hin dati bia meee ra ties yaa ep Tape eta eas ice Ena, victoriae, n. Sp.

Inferior hypopygial forceps with quite dense long bristly hairs on most of the
dorsal surface of the exposed part (Fig. 5); hind metatarsus with strong
bristly setulae on the dorsal surface that are about as long as those at centre

of the anterodorsal surface of the hind tibia ..................... regina, Nn. sp.

12 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

9. Arista with its longest hairs not more than twice as long as its basal diameter;
second visible tergite of abdomen with a pair of well developed apical central
bristles; large species, about 18 mm. in length ............... georgei Malloch

Arista with its longest hairs more than three times as long as its basal diameter.. 10

10. Hind tibia with a well differentiated bristle in the anterodorsal series beyond the
middlestanistae "entirely: Garks SM. Merete a oat eee nieseu aie cael ets Aa ee sp. ?

Hind tibia with the anterodorsal series of short bristles quite even, no outstanding

one beyond middle; aristae black at base, yellowish beyond .............. 11
ial, IDES Goseles, Gye lee igiG IGy reas wot NEE So as agcoadcvonecooaDoKuDOOS testacea Macquart
Smaller species, not more than 13 mm. in length ..... regina, n. Sp.; victoriae, n. sp.

SENOSTOMA GEORGEI (Malloch).

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, 292, 1929 (Prodiaphania).

I have before me three females which apparently belong to this species,
despite the presence of a distinct bristle on the posterodorsal surface of the
hind tibia beyond the middle. All agree in the characters given in the key, the
very much shorter haired aristae and invariable presence of a pair of strong
bristles on the apex of the second visible tergite at centre readily distinguishing
them from others in the material before me. Length, 18 mm.

Localities: Mundaring, and Eradu, W. Australia.

SENOSTOMA TESTACEA Macquart.

Dipt. Hxot., ii, pt. 3, 278, 1843; Suppl. iv, pt. 2, 1851, 193 (Diaphania) ; Malloch,
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, 1929, 292 (Prodiaphania).

This identification ought to be checked by an examination of the type specimen
which is said to be in Paris though not seen by Townsend. I am unable to say
why Townsend has elected to erect a tribe for the reception of four genera
including this and Chaetogaster, naming it Senostomatini. These two genera
have the suprasquamal hairs lacking, but his Philippoformosia has these hairs
present, so it can not be upon that basis that the tribe was erected.

The present species is one of a group of five that are very similar in general
coloration and structure. I have separated one, biarmata, from the others on the
lack of a posterodorsal bristle near the middle of the hind tibia and, in addition
to this character, the hypopygium is very distinct. The others are all rather
alike, being of the same testaceous yellow colour on most of the head, the humeri,
usually the apex of the scutellum, and extensively on the sides of the abdomen,
the female having this last feature less pronounced.

The wings are very distinctly shouldered and normally there is a conspicuous
blackish-brown transverse mark near the bases. The sexes both have a complete
series of short closely-placed setulae on the anterodorsal surface of the hind tibia
which, in one species, at least in the female, has an outstanding bristle in it
beyond the middle. It is noteworthy that in the females there is an irregular
series of strong bristles on the anterior side of the mid femur which extends
from the ventral surface at base upward to the anterior surface before middle,
which series is present in no male now known to me. There is also usually
on the hind femur in the females a more or less conspicuous series of several
bristles on the basal half of the posteroventral surface, which is not found in any
male but cygnus, and the bristles on the anteroventral surface of the same femur
in the females are longer basally than apically, whereas in the males there are
a number of long bristles on the apical third or more and none on the basal
two-thirds.

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 13

The characters cited in the foregoing key to the species coupled with the
figure of the hypopygium (Fig. 3) should serve to distinguish this species as that
to which I assign the name. Length, 16-18 mm.

Habitat: Canberra, F.C.T.; Wentworth Falls, Sydney, Glenreagh, N. S. Wales;
Hidsvold, Queensland.

SENOSTOMA VICTORIAE, 0. Sp.
A slightly smaller and rather darker species than testacea, most readily and
reliably distinguished by means of the hypopygial structures of the male (Fig. 4a).
The hind metatarsus has the dorsal hairs a little longer than in testacea, but

Text-figures 1-6.

Fig. 1.—Senostoma biarmata. a, male hypopygium from the side: b, same
from behind, left side incomplete.

Fig. 2.—Senostoma furcata. a, inferior forceps from below; b, same from
above; c, same from the side showing the basal process.

Fig. 3.—Senostoma testacea. a, inferior forceps from the side showing
short densely haired basal process; b, same from above.

Fig. 4.—Senostoma victoriae. a, hypopygium left side from above; b, same
in profile; c, inferior forceps of a possible variety.

Fig. 5.—Senostoma regina. a, hypopygium from the side; b. same from
above, right side incomplete.

Fig. 6.—Melinda minuta. a. hypopygial forceps in profile; b, fifth sternite
of male, ventral view; c, same more turned upward: d. apical process of same
in profile.

14 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

they are much finer and shorter than the setulae on the anterodorsal surface
of the hind tibia.

Habitat: Gisborne (holotype), Linga (paratypes), Victoria; and Buccleugh,
N.S.W. The last specimen in the United States National Museum.

One female from Gisborne I refer here also.

A male from Mooroopu, N.S.W., in the United States National Museum has
some long hairs on the sides of the prosternum and the dististylus as Figure 4c.
This may be a distinct species, but I do not care to decide upon the basis of a
single specimen in a genus which is rather markedly variable in the matter of
hairing on various parts. .

SENOSTOMA FURCATA, 0. SD.

Similar in general colour and size to victoriae, differing markedly in the
structure of the hypopygium as shown in Figure 2, the basal fork of the inferior
forceps being the most developed in the genus as far as my material shows and
the hairing on it the shortest and densest. The hind metatarsus is rather slender
and has a series of rather widely separated setulose hairs on the dorsum that
are not nearly as long or as strong as the anterodorsal series on the hind tibia.
The anteroventral bristles on the hind femur are not as strong or as long as
those of testacea. Length, 12-13 mm.

Habitat: Canberra, F.C.T., 16.xii.1928, holotype (M. Fuller); paratype, Galston,
2.1.1926, N.S.W. (L. Wood).

SENOSTOMA REGINA, Nl. SD.

Averaging a little smaller and of a more slender build than furcata, with the
hypopygium as in Figure 5. The hind tibia has the anterodorsal series of setulae
long and rather conspicuous, and the setulae on the dorsal surface of the hind
metatarsus are almost equally long, while the tarsus is slightly thicker and
shorter than usual.

Holotype ¢, and allotype, with a series of paratypes of both sexes, Hidsvold,
Qld., December, 1922 (Mackerras). Four female paratypes, Marwood, near
Mackay, Qld., January, 1924 (W. G. Harvey).

SENOSTOMA Sp.?

Two female specimens belonging to this group are distinguished from any
of the others by the presence, beyond the middle of the hind tibia, of a single
outstanding bristle in the anterodorsal series of setulae. Apart from this
character and their being darker coloured, there is nothing to distinguish them
from regina, though it is very probable that they belong to a distinct species
that may have good characters in the structure of the hypopygium for its
recognition. Length, 12-13 mm.

Locality: National Park, Gundamain, N.S.W., January, 1926 (Mackerras).

SENOSTOMA BIARMATA, N. SD.

A larger species than regina, with much larger wings, but of the same general
colour, with the abdomen largely testaceous and with a broad black dorsocentral
vitta. The dark mark near the base of the wing is quite conspicuous and the
shoulder is well developed, while the second section of the costa is about two-
thirds as long as the third. The outstanding structures consist of the lack of a
distinct posterodorsal bristle on the hind tibia, and the exceptional structure of

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 15

the inferior hypopygial forceps which are much broader than usual in the genus
(Fig. 1). Length, 16 mm.
Holotype, S. Australia, no other data (J. B. Cleland).

SENOSTOMA CYGNUS, DN. Sp.

A much darker species than any of those already dealt with, the occiput
and posterior half of genae black, the genal hairs fuscous, the thorax shining
black, with grey dust and four rather inconspicuous dark vittae, the scutellum
reddish-brown; abdomen black, showing reddish to a greater or less degree
according to the angle from which it is viewed, the surface grey-dusted, with a
narrow dark central dorsal line and traces of lateral dorsal checkerings. Legs
black, knees narrowly reddish. Wings brownish hyaline, without any trace of a
transverse dark mark near base. Squamae brownish-yellow, the margin not
darker, the upper one about two-thirds as long as the lower. Halteres fuscous.

Head as in the other species but the epistome more produced, and the
aristae haired as in georgei, the longest hairs about twice as long as its basal
diameter. Ocellar bristles short but evident, the inner marginal bristles on the
orbits more distinct than usual, and the fine hairs carried downward on the
parafacials to near level of apex of third antennal segment. Thorax more strongly
bristled than in typical species of the genus, the dorsocentrals complete though
not large, the sternopleurals 2+1, and the scutellum with 8 marginal and 2 discal
bristles. Postalars 3. Legs shorter and stronger than in the other species, the
bristles stronger, the hind femur with long widely-spaced bristles on entire
extent of anteroventral surface, shorter apically, and some long bristles on basal
half of the posteroventral surface; hind tibia with the usual anterodorsal series
of closely-placed setulae that are not as erect as usual, two posterodorsal and two
anteroventral bristles; hind tarsus normal, the basal segment without long dorsal
setulae, the apices of all tarsal segments with longer bristles than usual. Wings
without distinct shoulder, though more explanate than in typical Tachinidae,
the venation normal. Abdomen ovate, more nearly circular in cross section
than usual, the apical bristles on third visible tergite longer and stronger than
usual. Hypopygium not dissected. Length, 12 mm.

Holotype, Swan River, W. Australia (L. J. Newman).

A most exceptional species in coloration and development of the bristling,
the type of hind femoral armature being similar to that of females of the other
species. I do not consider that it is entitled to removal from this genus.

Rutit1a Robineau-Desvoidy.
Acad. Sci. Paris, Mem. Sav. Etrang., ii, 319, 1830.

RUTILIA TRANSVERSA, 1. Sp.

dg. Very similar to splendida Donovan, differing essentially in having the
upper postocular orbits brassy instead of silvery-white-dusted, and the abdomen
with a broad green transverse band on the anterior half or more of the third
and fourth segments which are divided on the centre of the dorsum by a black
vitta of about their own width.

Head orange-yellow, occiput with a metallic-green sheen which is carried on
to the genae posteriorly but becomes obsolete before attaining their anterior
margins; frons, parafacials, and postocular orbits densely yellow-dusted, the upper
part of the latter brassy and slightly checkered; face less densely dusted, centrally
below shining; antennae and palpi orange-yellow; aristae fuscous; hairs on frons

16 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

and upper half of parafacials fuscous, those on occiput and genae as well as on
lower part of parafacials orange-yellow; postocular cilia black. Frons at vertex
about one-third as wide as either eye; in splendida not more than one-fourth
as wide as an eye, and the frontal orbits are narrower and less densely and shorter
haired. The parafacials are wider and longer haired than in splendida. Thorax
brilliant metallic-green, mesonotum with four black vittae, the central pair
ceasing before midway from suture to hind margin, the sublateral pair a little
longer, the humeri, two spots just in front of suture and large one behind suture
as well as centre of the mesopleura dusted with white. Thoracic hairs all black,
very dense and fine. Sternopleura black, with a green spot above. Abdomen
coloured as thorax, second (first visible) tergite black in front and in centre,
next two with a black apical fascia and central vitta, fifth with a black central
vitta and very narrowly black in front and behind. Third tergite with a series
of very short apical bristles, fourth with a much longer apical series; fifth not
noticeable, depressed in centre at apex. In splendida there are usually no notice-
able apical bristles on the third tergite. Legs black, bristled as in splendida.
Wings as in splendida, the basal black mark very distinct. Squamae yellowish-
white, the margin more noticeably yellow. In splendida the lower squama is
brown or fuscous with darker margin, and the upper one much paler, almost
white. Length, 13-14 mm.

Holotype and 2 paratypes, Swan River, W. Australia (J. Clark).

These male specimens more closely resemble the females of splendida than
they do the male of that species because in the females the abdominal green
fasciae are usually complete, while in the males they are almost invariably
divided, the inner part being spot-like. In females of splendida, however, there
is usually a constriction of the fascia on each side of the central black vitta where
the break occurs in the other sex and there is no indication whatever of any
constriction in the new species. In both species there are some black or fuscous
hairs on either side near the anterior margin of the prosternal plate.

RUTILIA MICROPALPIS Malloch.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, 1929, 298.

I have before me four additional specimens of this species, two from National
Park, N.S.W., one from Sydney, and one from Como, N.S.W., the last being one
of the original localities. The specimen from Sydney is a female, the others are
males.

RUTILIA LEPIDA Guérin.
Rev. Zool., vi, 1848, 268; Engel, Zool. Jahrb., 50, 1925, 373.

A female specimen that I believe belongs to this species, though the pleural
hairs are all black, has a puparium pinned with it. The general colour is brownish-
black, and the form almost cylindrical, slightly tapered at each extremity, and
the surface is quite coarsely transversely wrinkled. The spiracles are set in a
deep terminal cavity and are of the same general form as I figured for Chrysopasta
elegans Macquart in the previous paper in this series. Their general form is more
regular in outline, not at all trifoliate and, though there are several slightly
indicated raised lines, there is not a definite demarcation into separate plates;
the separating line is also much narrower than in the other. Attached is a slip
with the note “Bred from larva of beetle Chlorobapta frontalis Don”. This note
bears out my suspicion that the great majority of the Rutiliini will be found to

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 17

be parasitic upon larger Coleoptera despite the record of Chrysopasta from nest
of a Termite.

I have before me a number of additional specimens that I refer to lepida,
from New South Wales localities: Manly, Sydney, Barrington Tops, Como, and
Wentworth Falls, as well as one from Canberra.

Subgenus NEORUTILIA, nN. subgen.

I am erecting a new subgenus for the reception of a single species which
differs from the more typical forms of Rutilia in having the hind tibia without a
well developed fringe of setulae or isolated strong bristles on the anterodorsal
surface. and no posterodorsal bristle; and the section of the costa between the
apices of the subcosta and the first vein subequal in length to that between the
apices of first and second veins. For other distinguishing characters see the
description of the species below, which is the subgenotype.

RUTILIA (NEORUTILIA) SIMPLEX, 0. Sp.

General colour bright metallic blue-green. Occiput, genae, and frontal orbits
emerald-green, the colour of latter merging into violet on the upper anterior
part of each parafacial; epistome metallic-green with violet’ reflections.
Mesonotum emerald-green, with four narrow incomplete cupreous vittae, blue on
posterior margin behind the bristles; scutellum emerald-green; pleura becoming
more bluish below. No definite white dust, except on humeral angles. Abdomen
a little darker than thorax, each segment with a blackish-blue apical fascia and
similar dorsocentral vitta; no distinct white dusting present. Legs black. Wings
hyaline, with the usual dark basal mark pale brown and very small. Squamae
fuscous, with darker margins.

Head large, as wide as thorax; frons at vertex about one-tenth as wide as
head, widened to anterior margin, the interfrontalia dark brown to black. Vertical
bristles one pair; ocellars lacking; ne proclinate orbitals but numerous fine black
orbital hairs which cease about level of apex of second antennal segment; facial
carina normal; third antennal segment not as long as distance from its apex
to epistome; arista bare; palpi normal. Face, vibrissal angle, and upper part of
genae, pale-grey-dusted, the dust on lower part of postocular orbits white, becoming
obsolete about middle of eye, the orbit green above. All genal hairs short and
dark, the beard pale. Thorax rather more flattened than usual, the scutellum
noticeably flattened and triangular. Mesonotum with shorter hairs than usual,
the bristling normal, except that there are eight or ten bristles in a transverse
series in front of the scutellum and the marginal scutellars number about 22. All
hairs black. Legs black, not very strong, hind tibia almost circular in cross
section, the usual anterodorsal series of short bristles lacking, there being but
short stiff hairs present that are visible only with a high magnification and at
a certain angle. Wings not as large as usual, distinguished by the lengthened
section between the apices of subcostal and first veins. Halteres fuscous.
Length, 20 mm.

Holotype, Hidsvold, Qid., December 22.

I believe this species forms a sort of connecting link between the species
that I placed in my Group 1 containing formosa Rob.-Desy. and its allies, and
section 2 of Group 2 containing regalis Guérin and its allies, as formulated in
my paper published in 1929 as part xx of this series. I have seen no species,
however, in which the hind tibia is as here and the costal divisions are similar
to those of simplex.

18 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

It is unfortunate that it is impossible to give a complete revision of the
species of this genus at this time, as they are undoubtedly of considerable
economic importance apart from their interest as taxonomic constituents. I still
have a number of unworked specimens on hand, but lack of time has prevented
me making as complete a survey of them as I would like to, and I have no
assurance that such an opportunity will present itself within the immediate
future.

Subgenus MicroruTinia Townsend.

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, xxviii, 1914, 23.

This subgeneric name will require to be used in place of Senostoma for that
group of small species in which the sternopleura has 2 or 3 bristles, the hind
tibia has one or more well developed bristles and usually a complete or partial
fringe of setulae on the anterodorsal surface, and the arista is pubescent.

Townsend cited minor Macquart as his genotype when he described the group
as a genus, but he had not seen the species. More recently (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ix, 1932, 39) he gave a few details of the type specimen which he saw in Paris,
and this information leaves no doubt as to the identity of the concept. In this
same paper he proposed the erection of Prosenostoma for the reception of
flavipes B. and B. I can see no reason for this course, unless he considered
that his examination showing only 2 sternopleural bristles justified it. I have
examined some of the original specimens and several additional specimens of
flavipes, and find that there are either 2 or 3 such bristles, the lower anterior
one being variable in development, as usual in the genus where there are anterior
bristles present.

Since the appearance of my paper in these Procrrpines (liv, 1929, 305), in
which I dealt with the group, I have received some additional material containing
one new variety, which I briefly describe below.

RutTiI“iA (MICRORUTILIA) RUFICORNIS Macquart, var. CUPREIVENTRIS, N. var.

Differs from the typical form in having the four black mesonotal vittae much
broader and more conspicuous and the abdomen more definitely coppery than
green. In both sexes the genal hairs are all fulvous-yellow. The abdomen in
the male is semi-diaphanous and coppery, with but faint greenish lustre, a dorso-
central black vitta that narrows from base to apex and becomes violet coloured
on fifth tergite; in the female the general colour is reddish-coppery with golden
to violet reflections, rarely greenish-tinged. The legs in both forms are black
in the male, with the tibiae more or less brownish-yellow, while in the female
they are fulvous to brownish-yellow, with black tarsi. Length, 11-13 mm.

Holotype ¢, allotype, and 8 paratype 9, Barrington Tops, Feb., 1925, Allyn
Range, on Leptospermum (S.U. Zool. Exped.).

CHAETOGASTER Macquart.

Dipt. Exot., Suppl. iv, 1850, 225.

I have already dealt with this genus in one of my papers in this series (these
PROCEEDINGS, liv, 1929, 314), and now add some additional data and two species.
Brauer and von Bergenstamm did not see Macquart’s species, but recently
Townsend has published some notes on it, having seen the type-specimen in
Paris. His short list of characters agrees with those I have already cited and
my identification of violacea is evidently correct.

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 19

The two species represented by males may be distinguished as below. I have
females only of the other.

A. Mesonotum black, distinctly shining, with the usual grey dusting and dark vittae,
mostly bluish to greenish tinged, the scutellum more distinctly violaceous;
abdomen semidiaphanous basally on sides; darker centrally and apically, with
reddish-violet suffusion on nearly the entire dorsum, the whitish dust not
conspicuous, best seen when viewed from behind ............ violacea Macquart

AA. Mesonotum dark metallic-green, with the same grey dusting and vittae as the
genotype, scutellum concolorous, the violet tinge confined to extreme margins
of both and very indistinct; abdomen entirely bright metallic-green, with quite
faint whitish dusting basally ......... oO Oa AiO O CHEE Orcucia. Gee Dae eee eaone viridis, n. Sp.

CHAETOGASTER VIOLACEA Macquart.

Dipt. Exot., Suppl. iv, 1850, 225.
I have before me examples from New South Wales and Victoria.

CHAETOGASTER VIRIDIS, N. Sp.

Smaller than violacea, 14 mm. in Jength, and differing markedly in colour
as in above diagnosis. The frons is also slightly narrower, there are no distinct
presutural acrostichals present, the abdomen has the erect hairs on centre of the
third, fourth, and basal half of fifth, tergites much less developed, and the setulae
on the lateral curves of the tergites much less developed though still stronger
than in most other genera.

Holotype, Comboyne, N.S.W. (Chisholm).

CHAETOGASTER ARGENTIFERA, 0. Sp.

Shining metallic blackish-blue, with distinct silvery-white dusting which is
most conspicuous on the sides of the third to fifth abdominal tergites.

Head brownish-yellow, occiput darkened from near lower margin, bluish-
black on upper half, with whitish dust that is dense and almost silvery on the
upper postocular orbits, frontal orbits brownish, with white dust that merges
into the yellowish dust of the upper parafacials, the interfrontalia dark brown;
antennae and palpi orange-yellow, the former the darker; aristae fuscous. Frons
at vertex about one-fifth of the head width, rapidly widening in front, the inter-
frontalia not obliterated at narrowest point; vertex with four verticals which are
not very long, the ocellar bristles fine, directed forward and slightly divergent;
each orbit with a complete inner marginal series of incurved bristles, no reclinate
upper, and two proclinate supra-orbitals, the area laterad of the bristles finely
haired, both the bristles and hairs ceasing at level of antennal insertion. Para-
facial in profile about as wide as length of eye and more than twice as wide as
third antennal segment; gena almost as high as eye; vibrissal angle slightly
produced, the epistome projecting beyond it, vibrissae well developed and with a
series of setulae above them on lower third of facial ridges; face with the central
vertical carina well developed, narrow. Antennae with third segment about 2:5
times as long as second, rounded at apex; arista distinctly pubescent. Palpi
longer than antennae, dilated slightly at apices; proboscis with the apical section
nearly as long as lower margin of head, and rather thin. Eyes bare.

Thorax blackish-blue, the mesonotum with quite dense white dust when seen
from behind at a low elevation, and with the usual dark vittae very narrow in
that light. Mesonotum with the dorsocentrals 3+4, acrostichals 1+2, and the
prealar rather short; presutural lateral area with only 2 bristles. Mesopleura
with centre densely silvery-white-dusted. Legs black, tibiae centrally more

20 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

brownish. The femora not as noticeably attenuated apically as in the males.
Wings hyaline, slightly infuscated near bases, veins fuscous, darker basally. Inner
cross-vein oblique as usual, but a little beyond apex of level of subcosta instead
of directly below it as in the males, the second costal division more appreciably
shorter than first than in the males.

Abdomen broadly ovate, more distinctly metallic blue than the mesonotum,
the sides of the third to fifth tergites showing silvery-white dust at apices that is
carried to the extreme lateral edges below. The same tergites with discal and
apical bristles centrally, the former rather variable, and without erect setulae on
central line of dorsum. The tergites usually show a violet tinge on apices at the
lateral curves. Squamae white, with narrow fuscous rim and fringe. MHalteres
fuscous. Length, 13 mm.

Holotype and one paratype, 25.2.1923, and 19.3.1922 respectively (G. Lyell).
One specimen in rather poor condition differs slightly from the other two in the
dusting of the fifth abdominal tergite, but I consider it is the same species.

Locality: Brisbane, Queensland, 12.12.1922, no collector’s name on label.

In the other two species the wings are slightly brownish, with bright orange
tinge basally on costa and the veins are also bright orange, which colour is also
found in the squamae. It is also noteworthy that the presutural lateral area in
the males has usually at least three, and generally four bristles in an oblique
series running inward from the posterior to the anterior bristle. I have met
with similar variation in the bristling of the different sexes in some other genera
and do not consider this an important character for the separation of species, and
certainly not a generic criterion.

Macrocuioria Malloch.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, 1929, 326.

This genus was erected for the reception of an Australian species, and below
I describe a variety of the genotype.

MACROCHLORIA CALLIPHOROSOMA, VAr. RUFIPES, Nn. var.

Differs from the typical form in having the legs entirely brownish-red, the
tarsi but slightly darker, and the abdomen usually distinctly violet-blue and not
metallic greenish-blue. Length, 12-15 mm.

Holotype ¢, Toronto, N.S.W., April, 1920. Allotype, same locality, no date.
Paratypes, Kosciusko, 21.11.1926 (Nicholson); Deervale, January, 1921; Lansdowne,
December, 1923; and two from Toronto, N.S.W.

Tribe ACTIINI.
ActiA Robineau-Desvoidy.

Acad. Sci. Paris, Mém. Sav. Etrang., ii, 1830, 85.

I have already published in this series of papers a key to all the species
of this genus known to me from Australia (these ProcrEpInes, lv, 1930, 303). The
new species described below is very similar to darwini, and I restrict the description
to those characters in which it differs from that species.

ACTIA QUADRISETA, 1. Sp.

2. Differs from darwini, to which it will run down in my published key, in
being larger and stouter, in having the setulose hairs on the third wing-vein
extending distinctly beyond the level of the outer cross-vein, and the postsutural
dorsocentral bristles in four well developed pairs. Length, 5 mm.

Holotype, Nyngan, N.S.W., no date (J. W. Armstrong).

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 21

Family CALLIPHORIDAE.
POLLENIA Robineau-Desvoidy.

Acad. Sci. Paris, Mém. Sav. Etrang., ii, 1830, 412.

I have already described one species of this genus from Australia, and now
am able to add two new species, which may be distinguished from each other as
below.

Key to the Species.

1. Antennae and palpi orange-yellow, the latter slightly darkened at bases and the
third antennal segment sometimes slightly darkened on upper margin; the fine
hairs on sides of scutellum basally fuscous to black; male with the frontal
orbits in front with more than one series of bristles, female with a number of
long erect setulose hairs laterad of the inner marginal bristles on the orbits
anteriorly; male hypopygium with the inferior forceps quite long and slender,
their apices slightly spatulate; parafacials with black hairs; scutellum with six
marginal and two discal bristles; hairs on postalar declivity black ............
BGS Coaie DIO ERC CO tte CHO G aie Fee Gib is bee RRR! 5 6 0 Chol oe uisro’o clone One Grass hirticeps Malloch

Antennae and palpi fuscous, third segment of former usually reddish at base; the
fine hairs on sides of the scutellum basally mainly yellow; male with the
frontal orbits anteriorly furnished with one inner marginal series of bristles
andasomesnmtermixe di lone isetulose Nainsuriceerier cio ciceiciclele claire sieaicicue cine 2

2. Mesopleura with black hairs except on the hind margin amongst the bristles; para-
facial hairs all black and setulose; antennae entirely black; scutellum with
six marginal and two disca! bristles; fore tibia with two posterior submedian
[oreneielvass (CE) ag hata ss ee ee ied Gg Guorcioa oO Gicnal a ate Moana oats nigrita, Nn. sp.

Mesopleura with nearly all the discal hairs yellow; parafacial hairs yellow on at
least the lower half; antennae with the third segment reddish at base; scutellum
with eight marginal and usually more than two discal bristles; fore tibia with
OME MOMCSICTE [ONG Jovryoincl samnckelley Gas doscooocccoueconssoonoudsuoE stolida, n. sp.

POLLENIA HiRTICEPS Malloch.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lii, 1927, 318.

I have before me a series of specimens which show that the antennae are
usually entirely orange-yellow, rarely with the third segment browned above. The
parafacial hairs are longer and stronger than in stolida and all black, while the
frontal orbits in the male are much more densely bristled, with these in two or
more series on most of the anterior third and the bristles weaker than those on
the inner margin in stolida. The pleura are not as conspicuously yellow-haired
as in that species, and the postalar declivity and the sides of the scutellum basally
are black-haired. The hypopygial forceps are much more slender and more
noticeably spatulate at apices than in stolida, and the first posterior cell of the
wing is noticeably narrower at apex, sometimes practically closed.

Localities: Barrington Tops, Wentworth Falls (Deec., 1931), Blue Mts., and
Sydney, N.S.W.

One small female from Sydney has only six marginal bristles on the scutellum,
and the antennae appear shorter than usual.

POLLENIA STOLIDA, 0. Sp.

Very similar to hirticeps, but the antennae are black, with the apex of second
and base of third segment reddish, the palpi are fuscous, the parafacials are
partly yellow-haired, the postalar declivity and sides of the scutellum basally are
also largely yellow-haired, the pale pleural hairs are golden-yellow and not
yellowish-brown as in hirticeps, and instead of having the disc of the mesopleura
fuscous haired it is golden-yellow-haired, while the hairs are finer and more
crinkly.

22 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

Structurally the species are rather similar, though the frontal orbits are
less densely bristled in the male and the inner marginal bristles anteriorly are
much stronger than the outer lateral bristly hairs, and in the female there are no
long rather erect setulose hairs laterad of the bristles as in hirticeps. The
antennae are also a little longer, though this character is somewhat variable.
The scutellum has usually eight strong marginal bristles and three or four
discals. In the male the hypopygial forceps are stouter and shorter, with the
apices of the inferior pair bluntly rounded. Length, 10 mm.

Holotype 4, allotype, and 3 paratypes, Wentworth Falls, N.S.W., Dec., 1931
(F. H. Taylor).

There are two males and one female before me in which the parafacial hairs
are entirely yellow and much finer than in the typical form. These may possibly
represent a distinct species, but careful work will be required to establish their
status.

Localities: Sydney (Dec., 1931) and Jenolan Caves, N.S.W.

POLLENIA NIGRITA, N. Sp.

A smaller species than either of the other two, with entirely black parafacial
hairs and antennae, the pale hairs of the thorax brownish-yellow and confined to
the stigmatal region, the posterior margin of the mesopleura, the lower part of the
pteropleura, and the basal part of the sides of the scutellum. The calyptrae
are also paler than in the other two species, being greyish-white with yellowish
margins as against yellowish-brown with darker margins.

Structurally rather similar to stolida, the frontal orbits narrower, each with
a series of strong inner marginal bristles to well above middle and some much
shorter lateral hairs; the parafacial hairs strong, setulose; scutellum with six
strong marginal bristles and two discals. Abdomen more narrowly ovate than in
stolida, the hypopygium concealed but evidently similar to those of the two other
species in general structure. First posterior céll of the wing moderately wide.
Length, 7-5 mm.

Holotype, Yaouk, N.S.W., about 3,500 feet altitude, Jan., 1931 (F. H. Taylor).

I believe that there will be a number of other species of this genus found in
Australia, and to enable students of the group to make comparisons with my
material, I am returning nearly all the specimens to Mr. Taylor so that they will
be available in Australia.

One female has an egg protruding from the apex of the abdomen, so it appears
that the species are oviparous. It will be of interest to discover what the larval
habits of the genus are in Australia, as the nearest relative, P. rudis, of which
we have information is an internal parasite of earthworms in Europe and North
America.

MELINDA Robineau-Desvoidy.
Acad. Sci. Paris, Mém. Sav. Etrang., ii, 1830, 439.

MELINDA MINUTA Malloch.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liii, 1928, 328.
This species was inadvertently omitted from my revisional paper in Part xi
of this series of papers (these ProckrEDINGS, lii, 1927, 299).
I now present figures of the hypopygial characters of the male, the remarkable
spike-like process of the fifth sternite which is usually readily visible in dried

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 23

specimens when the abdomen is viewed from the side being a good distinguishing
character for the species.

I can now record the species from Perth, Narrogin, and Beaconsfield,
W. Australia.

Family CHLOROPIDAE.

In March, 1934, Dr. O. Duda published a paper (Arb. Morph. Taxon. Ent.
Berl.-Dahl., vol. 1, No. 1, p. 39) in which he described a number of Australian
species of this family. Included in the paper there is a key to the species of
Parahippelates Becker, which I consider is properly a synonym of the Huropean
genus Lasiopleura Becker, also the record of an African genus from Queensland.
Below I deal with some of the species in Duda’s paper, and add one new species,
making 104 Australian species in our list.

APROMETOPIS PUNCTIPENNIS Duda.

Op. cit., p. 56.

This species is referable to Caviceps Malloch, and may be distinguished from
flavipes Malloch by the presence of a deep black almost round small spot situated
on the costa at the apex of the second vein. The inner cross-vein is very distinctly
basad of the middle of the discal cell and the outer cross-vein is almost three
times its own length from the inner instead of not twice that length.

Becker described Aprometopis from Africa. He laid particular emphasis
upon the lack of the frontal triangle as a generic character, which might be
considered to some extent as justification for Duda’s course in placing his
Australian species in the same genus, but he also states that the flattened
mesonotum and habitus are similar to those of Hribolus Becker, a genus that
occurs in Hurope and North America. The latter and Aprometopis are both
slender insects, and the figure of the head of the latter given by Becker is
radically different from that of the Australian genus, being distinctly longer than
high, with the face in profile not as high as the eye at middle, and the orbits
showing a series of distinct setulae that are not found in Caviceps.

I have before me two examples of punctipennis from Palmerston, N. Australia,
the type locality, that belong to the same Museum as the type material.

Genus LASsIoPpLEURA Becker.

As noted above, this genus has previously been dealt with under the generic
name Parahippelates Becker in this series of papers (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lvi,
1931, 73). Before me now are three species from the Deutsches Entomologisches
Institut in Berlin, from which collection Duda obtained the material for his paper
referred to above. All three were unknown to me previously and had been set
aside pending an opportunity to describe them, which course has been obviated
by the appearance of Duda’s paper. Some notes are presented below to make
available to Australian students of the group data for the recognition of these
species.

LASIOPLEURA CONOPSEA Duda.
Op. cit., p. 45.
A bright orange-yellow to fulvous yellow coloured species, with the mesonotum
shining, a dark spot on the ocellar region, and most of the abdominal dorsum
and the apical two segments of each tarsus brown.

24 NOTES. ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV,

The very high genae of this species, as shown in Figure 7, with the yellow
genal hairs, and very short haired aristae, readily distinguish it from the next
two dealt with below. The bristle at the lower angle of the back of the head is

Text-figures 7-9.
Fig. 7.—Lasiopleura conopsea Duda.
Fig. 8.—Lasiopleura rufescens Duda.
Fig. 9.—Lasiopleura nigripila Duda.

much less developed than in the other two. The mesonotal bristles are moderately
strong, with the acrostichals quite distinct. The hind tibial spur is slightly shorter
than the apical diameter of the tibia, but it is strong and slightly curved. The
third section of the costa is about 1-5 times as long as the third, and the outer
cross-vein is about twice its own length from the apex of fifth vein. The
scutellum has normally more than two discal setulose hairs. Length, 4-5-5 mm.

Cairns, N. Qld. (coll. Oldenberg; Deutsches Ent. Mus.). This is the type
locality.

LASIOPLEURA RUFESCENS Duda.

Op. cit., 49.

This species is readily distinguished from any other known to me by the
long hairs of the aristae, the longest of these being almost as long as the width
of the third antennal segment. The hind tibial spur is curved and fully as long
as the diameter of the apex of the hind tibia, and the wings are hyaline. Head
in profile as Figure 8, the bristle at lower posterior angle strong and long. Frons
in front orange-yellow, darkened on each side centrally. Thorax rather dull
fuscous, more yellowish on pleura and apex of the scutellum. Mesonotum with the
dorsocentrals and surface hairs rather short, the former consisting of one
presutural pair and four pairs behind the suture, the disc with greyish dust and
faint dark vittae. Scutellum with the basal pair of bristles shorter than the apical
pair, and one pair of fine discal setulae. Legs testaceous, the femora and apices
of tarsi more brownish. Second section of the costa about 1:25 times as long as
third; outer cross-vein about 1:5 times as long as its own length from apex of
fifth. Abdomen brown, slightly shining, the apices of the tergites paler and
with grey dust. Length, 2-5-3-25 mm.

Palmerston,* N. Australia (coll. Oldenberg; D.H.I.). Type locality.

LASIOPLEURA NIGRIPILA Duda.
Op. cit., 48.
A paler species than the preceding one, with the general colour more like
that of conopsea, though the mesonotum is darker. The setulae and bristles are

* Darwin was substituted for Palmerston under Proclamation dated March 3, 1911,
which appeared in the Commonwealth Gazette, No. 18, March 18, 1911. I am indebted
to Mr. K. R. Cramp of the Royal Australian Historical Society, for supplying me with
this information.—F.H.T.

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 25

black and much stronger than in rufescens, especially on the frons and mesonotum,
the latter having four or more pairs of decussate acrostichals quite bristle-like
and, though the dorsocentrals are similarly arranged, they are as strong as the
notopleurals, which is not the case in rufescens. The longest hairs on the aristae
are also distinctly shorter than in that species though longer than in conopsea,
being about half as long as the width of the third antennal segment (Fig. 9).
Length, 3-3-5 mm.
Palmerston, N. Australia (coll. Oldenberg; D.E.I.). Type locality.

LASIOPLEURA GRISEOVITTA, 1. SD.

¢. Head orange-yellow, the frons anteriorly, the face, and genae in front
paler and with slight white dusting; antennae and palpi yellow, aristae brown.
The upper half of each frontal orbit is dull dark brown, the ocellar spot is
fuscous, the triangle is yellowish-dusted though slightly shining, and all the hairs
and bristles are black except on the palpi where most of the hairs are white.
Frons with three pairs of orbital setulae, the usual bristles and some setulose
hairs in centre. Profile much as in nigripila, but the epistome more produced,
the genae higher, and the face not as evidently carinate in centre. Longest hairs
on aristae hardly longer than its basal diameter. Proboscis rather stout, the
labellae short and fleshy. Thorax fuscous to brown, slightly shining, the
mesonotum with a broad central stripe of grey dust that extends over the dorso-
centrals and is most pronounced in front, laterad of this the surface is quite dark
brown; scutellum not as noticeably grey-dusted, yellowish on margin. Bristles
and acrostichals well developed, the former 1+3, the acrostichals extending in
front of the dorsocentrals; the short surface hairs very minute and inconspicuous.
Scutellum with the dise flattened, four marginal bristles, the basal pair slightly
the shorter, and no discal hairs. Notopleurals as usual 1+1. Legs tawny yellow,
the sensory area on hind tibiae showing darker. Hind tibial spur rather strong,
slightly curved, and about as long as the tibial diameter. Wings brownish hyaline,
veins brown. Abdomen dark brown, shining, the hypopygium brownish-yellow
and bulbous. Halteres brownish-yellow. Length, 3 mm.

Type, Mt. Molloy, Qld. (F. H. Taylor).

Type in the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney University.
Representatives of the three preceding species will be sent to the Australian
Museum.

Genus PrIoNOSCcELUS Becker.

Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung., ix, 1911, 99.

This genus was originally described from New Guinea material and is
distinguished from most genera in the Oscinosominae by the thickened hind
femora, which are furnished below with short spines, and the curved hind tibiae
whieh have a short apical process. I have not seen the genus, but Duda has
recorded one species from Australia, the place of record being the paper already
referred to herein.

PRIONOSCELUS MAGNUS Becker.

Op. cit., 99.

Becker states definitely that this species has two small setiferous warts on
the apex of the scutellum as in femoralis, but Duda says that there are no such
warts present. The principal distinction, if Duda is correct, between the two

F

26 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXV.

species is then that in magnus the apex of the scutellum is unarmed and the
palpi are black, while in femoralis there are two small setiferous warts at the
apex of the scutellum and the palpi are red. Unfortunately, the two males he
has recorded from Cairns appear to be intermediate between these forms, having
the apex of the scutellum with two setiferous warts and the palpi black. His
acceptance of magnus as the Australian species may be incorrect, but it would
appear to be binding on us until more data are available.

In addition to the species listed above, Duda has described in his paper two
species which he refers to Gaurax, both from Palmerston, N. Australia; they are
obscuripilus and pleuromaculatus. I have not seen either species and, having no
material in the genus from the type locality, can offer no data on their
relationships.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. IV.
THE ACTIVITY OF MICROORGANISMS IN THE DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER.
By H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society.
(Hleven Text-figures. )

[Read 29th April, 1936.]

Introduction.

The decomposition of the organic compounds which are continually added to
soils under natural conditions, especially in the form of plant residues, is known
to be due chiefly to the action of microorganisms, among which bacteria, actino-
mycetes and lower types of fungi are the most important. This process of
decomposition results in the release of a part of the elements of the decomposed
material as compounds suitable for plant nutrition (water, carbon dioxide,
ammonia, nitrate, etc.) and in the accumuiation of another part of the material
as a slowly decomposing residue of various constituents collectively known as
“humus”. This “humus” is recognized as a natural constituent of most soils
that carry a vegetation, and is of importance by affecting the physical properties
of the soil as well as by acting as a carrier of plant food, especially nitrogen,
which is gradually made available to the vegetation through the slow decom-
position of the humus. The extent to which humus accumulates is known to
depend largely upon the temperature relationships of the soil in question.
Tropical soils, although carrying a luxuriant vegetation, are usually poor in
humus, and in temperate climates Jenny (1928-31) has demonstrated an inverse
relationship between the average annual temperature and the average content
of organic matter and nitrogen in soils, which latter was found to increase 2 to 3
times for each 10° C. decrease in the mean annual temperature. Jenny explained
these phenomena through the accelerating influence of increasing temperature on
the decomposition processes in the soil according to the rule of van’t Hoff.
Following up this idea, Waksman and Gerretsen (1931) showed that although
the rate of decomposition of straw as a whole increased markedly with the
temperature, the rate of decomposition of the various constituents of the straw
was not affected in the same manner by changes in temperature from about 7° C.
to about 37° C. For instance, the resistant lignin was decomposed comparatively
quickly at 37°C., but hardly at all at 7°C., and at this temperature (the
lowest tested) there was a tendency to synthesis rather than to decomposition of
proteid materials. In connection with this important contribution we shall make
a brief survey of the present status of the problem of decomposition of organic
matter in soil. Most of the work in this direction falls into two categories:

A. Decomposition of the soil’s own organic matter (‘“humus’”).—In experi-
ments on this subject, the evolution of carbon dioxide from the soil, either in
laboratory or field experiments, has usually been used as an index of the

28 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

decomposition.* In all experiments where the influence of temperature has been
studied, the rate of carbon dioxide formation has been found to increase with
the temperature, at least within the limits obtaining under natural soil conditions;
important contributions in this respect are due to Russell and Appleyard (1917),
Fehér (1929-35), and Leroux (1934). Counts of microorganisms (especially
bacteria) have frequently been combined with the CO,-determinations, and a
parallelism has sometimes been observed. The bacteria have always been counted
by the plate method or other cultural methods, and determinations of the total
numbers of bacteria have not been made in such experiments, although it is
known that the plate method reveals only a (mostly) small fraction of the total
bacterial flora of soils (Conn, 1918; Winogradsky, 1925; Thornton and Gray, 1934).
The importance of fungi under these conditions is not precisely known.

B. Decomposition of organic materials added to the soil.—Laboratory experi-
ments in this direction are almost innumerable (for references, see Waksman,
1932) and have been undertaken from widely different points of view. <A very
large proportion of them are simple “ammonification”’—or ‘“nitrification’”—experi-
ments with nitrogenous materials used as fertilizers, in which only the accumu-
lation of ammonia and/or nitrate is determined. In many other experiments,
with definite chemical compounds as well as with complex materials, the rate
of CO,-formation or of disappearance of added compounds has been found, some-
times together with determinations of ammonia or nitrate and chemical analysis
of the complex material undergoing decomposition. Such experiments have been
carried out, not only with the complex soil microflora, but also with pure cultures
of soil microorganisms. In many instances, counts of bacteria and fungi have
been carried out by cultural methods, but determinations of the total numbers of
bacteria in quantitative decomposition experiments are lacking, with the notable
exception of a few recent contributions by Jacobs (1931) and Vandecaveye and
Villanueva (1934a-b). Finally, a large number of experiments deal merely with
the influence of addition of organic materials on the number and kinds of micro-
organisms in soil, without quantitative estimation of the rate of decomposition.
On this field microscopic methods have been widely used in recent time, particu-
larly through the studies of Conn (1917), Winogradsky (1925) and Cholodny
(1930).

Among all these investigations we find comparatively few attempts to
correlate the abundance of microorganisms with the intensity of destruction of
organic matter, at least on a quantitative basis. Important steps in this direction
are represented by studies on pure or mixed cultures of soil microorganisms
(bacteria and protozoa) by Cutler and Crump (1929), de Telegdy-Kovats (1932),
and Meiklejohn (1932). As to the fungi, they have been shown again and again
to develop abundantly in soil to which decomposable organic matter has been
added, and to be able to carry out many processes of decomposition as actively
as the bacteria or the mixed soil microflora (see Waksman, 1932), but their
quantitative importance under natural conditions in comparison with the bacteria
still remains unknown. The influence of temperature on separate microbial
processes (nitrification, nitrogen fixation, cellulose decomposition, etc.) has been
studied extensively, but its influence on the decomposition of complex organic
materials as a whole has received remarkably little attention, apart from the

* Good and complete reviews of the literature on carbon dioxide production in soil
are due to Waksman and Starkey (1924) and Leroux (1934).

BY H. L. JENSEN. 29

work referred to above under (A) and the mainly biochemical contributions by
Waksman and Gerretsen (1931), Norman (1931) and Shrikande (1934), and we
have hardly any information at all concerning the influence of temperature on
the number and kinds of microorganisms that arise when organic materials
are added to the soil, or on the relation between the character of this micro-
flora and the nature and intensity of the decomposition processes which it brings
about.

In some preliminary experiments (Jensen, 1935) it was observed that, in
soils with addition of organic materials, the bacteria and fungal mycelia generally
developed most richly at lower temperatures, whereas the rate of CO.-production
increased with the temperature; correlations also appeared to exist between
bacterial numbers, density of mycelium, and production of carbon dioxide. Since
these results suggested a way of finding quantitative expressions for the activity
of each group of microorganisms at different levels of temperature, the experi-
ments were extended and placed on a broader basis. Two series of experiments
were carried out. In the first, the rate of decomposition of the soil’s own organic
matter was estimated by determinations of carbon dioxide production at different
levels of temperature from soils of different character, but without addition of
any organic matter. In the second, similar determinations were made from
soils with additions of three different organic materials. In both series, the
rate of CO,-evolution was compared with the results of periodical estimations of
the density of mycelium by the Rossi-Cholodny method (Jensen, 1935) and the
numbers of bacteria (including actinomycetes), which were determined by direct
microscopic counting as well as on agar plates. The objection has often been
raised against the method of direct counting, that these figures are of little
value, since they include dead as well as living bacteria. This cannot be denied,
but on the other hand Thornton and Gray (1934) pointed out that non-viable
bacteria may produce chemical changes in their environment, although they are
unable to multiply. This contention is undoubtedly well founded; there is ample
evidence that bacterial cells incapable of reproduction may still show such
fundamental biochemical activities as respiration (Cook and Stephenson, 1928;
Ehrismann, 1933*), and proteolysis (Berghaus, 1908; Janke and Holzer, 1929-30;
Moycho, 1933).

Methods.

Carbon dioxide production was measured by the method of Petersen (1926):
a suitable quantity of moist soil, usually 50-60 gm., is placed in a cylindrical bag
of copper wire gauze, approximately 3 x 12 cm., which by means of a nail and a
piece of string is suspended under a rubber stopper that fits tightly into the neck
of a flask of convenient size and shape (square, wide-necked reagent bottles of
600 ¢.c. capacity were used), containing a measured quantity of an approximately
0-05N solution of barium hydroxide. At intervals (usually 24 hours, or 2-3 days
if the evolution of CO, is very slow) the amount of carbon dioxide liberated from
the soil and absorbed by the baryta-water is determined by titration with
standard oxalic acid and phenol-phthalein, similar flasks without soil serving
as blanks. The results from parallel flasks usually agree within + 4:0 per cent.
In the Tables 1-4, the production of CO, is expressed as mgm. produced by
100 gm. of dry soil in 24 hours, unless otherwise stated. The flasks were placed

* This author sums up the matter in the paradoxical sentence: “Die Atmung als
solche ist kein Beweis fiir das Leben.”

30 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

in incubators regulated to the desired temperatures and only removed for the
brief periods (not more than 15-20 min., usually less) necessary to carry out the
titrations and the manipulations involved in the determinations of microorganisms.
The higher temperatures, 28 and 37° C., were obtained in ordinary incubators.
For the lowest range of temperature an electric refrigerator was used; the
temperature of this varied somewhat (from about 4° to about 8°C.) during
the whole experimental period, but not more than 1-2° C. during each single
experiment. A temperature of 14-16° C., with an average of 15° C., was obtained
in an ice- and water-cooled incubator; occasional fluctuations to about 13° and
about 17° C. took place, but only rarely and not for more than a day at a time.
A few experiments were also carried out in a water-cooled incubator at 18—21° C.;
during the colder part of the year, this could also be run at a temperature of
1A? (Cy

To observe the development of fungal mycelium, a clean microscopic slide
was inserted vertically in the soil in each bag (or in two of them, if more than
two parallels were run) with its upper edge on a level with the surface of the
soil, and renewed at intervals of 3-8 days. At the same time a weighed quantity
of soil was removed from each bag for the bacterial counts. After drying and
heat-fixation, the slides were stained after Gram, decolorized with alcohol or
acetone (preferable for heavy clay soil), and counterstained with phenolic
erythrosine. The density of mycelium was then estimated as previously described
(Jensen, 1935): 400-500 microscopic squares of 65 side-length, distributed as
evenly as possible over the whole area of the slide, were examined, and the
percentage of fields showing presence of fungal hyphae was calculated. The
figures from parallel slides usually agreed within 10 per cent., except in the case
of slides very poor in mycelium (less than 2 per cent.).

Direct counts of bacteria were made by the method of Thornton and Gray
(1934): shaking of the soil with a suspension containing a known number of
indigo particles, and determination of the ratio bacteria/indigo. Since only a
small quantity of soil was available in most cases, the same soil suspension was
used for both direct and plate counts: the soil was shaken for 4 minutes with
sterile agar solution, making an initial dilution of 1:3 to 1:15, according to the
number of bacteria to be expected in the soil. 1 c.c. of the suspension was removed
and diluted further for preparation of the agar plates, whereupon 4 or 5 cG.e.
of the initial suspension was shaken for 1 minute with an equal volume of the
indigo suspension. Rose bengale was found to give a better staining than
erythrosine.

Plate counts were made on dextrose-casein-agar (dextrose, 2-0 gm.; casein,
dissolved in dilute NaOH, 0-2 gm.; KH,PO,, 0-5 gm.; MgS0O,, 0:2 gm.; FeCl,, trace;
agar, 20-70 gm.; H.O, 1,000 c.c. pH 6:5-6:7). The plates were incubated for 8 days
at 27-28° C., except those from experiments at 4-7° C., which were incubated for
12 days at 16-18° C. All numbers of microorganisms, direct as well as plate
counts, are expressed as millions per gm. of dry soil.

Nitrate was determined by the Devarda method, after boiling of the soil
extract with sodium hydroxide and potassium permanganate, and ammonia was
determined by the method of Bengtsson: repeated extraction of the soil with
0-5N potassium chloride solution, and distillation of the extract with magnesium
oxide.

“Organic matter’ (Table 1) is expressed as loss on ignition.

31

H. L. JENSEN.

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32 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. .- iv,

Part I—Production of Carbon Dioxide and Numbers of Microorganisms in
Soils without Addition of Organic Matter.

The following soils were used in this series of experiments:

I. Sand soils: 1.—Very light sand, poor in humus, under grass, Cooper Park,
Sydney. 2.—Light sand soil, poor in humus, under bushes, same locality. 3.—
Coarse, dark sand soil, poor in humus, under bushes, Rose Bay Heights, Sydney.
4.——Dark sand soil, fairly rich in humus, from garden, Richmond, N.S.W.

II. Red to brown loam soils: 5.—Heavy, red loam, rather poor in humus, from
wheat field (good crop), Wagga, N.S.W. 6-—Red-brown loam, rather poor in
humus, from pasture, Burragorang Valley, N.S.W. 7.—Heavy, red-brown loam,
rich in humus, from lucerne field (good crop), Northern Tablelands, N.S.W. 8.—
Heavy, red loam, rich in humus, from lucerne field (crop failing), same locality.

Ill. Grey to black loams: 9.—Heavy, grey loam, fairly rich in humus, from
wheat field (poor crop), Wagga, N.S.W. 10.—Heavy, grey loam, fairly rich in
humus, from experimental plots, School of Agriculture, Sydney University. 11.—
Heavy, dark loam, rich in lime and humus, from flower bed, Sydney University.
12—Heavy, dark loam, rich in humus, under grass, Sydney University. 13—
Heavy, dark loam, rich in humus, under trees, covered with heavy grass, Sydney
University.

After air-drying and sieving, the soils were moistened to approximately two-
thirds of their water-holding capacity, and kept for about one week at room
temperature before starting the experiments. Germinating seeds that appeared
during this period were carefully removed. The experiments were run in
duplicate over a period of 10 days, with microbiological analyses after 4 days
and at the end of the experiment. For the bacterial counts, 2 or 2:5 gm. soil was
removed from each parallel flask and used as a composite sample. Slides for the
determination of mycelium were placed in the soil on the first and renewed on
the fourth day. Three temperatures were studied: 15°C., 28°C., and 37°C.
The experimental results are reproduced in Tables 1-3. Table 1 shows, besides
the reaction and the humus and moisture content of the soils, their initial
numbers of bacteria, and the amounts of carbon dioxide produced during the first
24 hours and during the whole 10-day period.

The direct counts of bacteria, at start as well as after 4 and 10 days (Table 2),
are of the same order as those found by Thornton and Gray (1934), whose work
included only clay soils with 1,000 to 4,000 mill. bacteria per gm. The figures
show no correlation with the soil reaction, but show a general, although by no
means proportional, increase with increasing content of organic matter. The
same is true of the plate counts, which, however, vary within much wider
limits; their proportion (also in Table 2) is from about 0:3 to about 13 per cent.
of the direct counts. Although several important groups of soil organisms
(obligate anaerobes, nitrifying bacteria, certain types of cellulose-decomposing
bacteria, etc.) cannot be counted by the ordinary plate method, it does not seem
necessary to assume that the bulk of the bacterial population of the soil is
represented by species which, as such, are unable to develop upon agar media.
It has repeatedly been shown that even in what are generally considered ‘“‘young”
cultures the proportion of cells capable of developing into colonies may be as
low as the proportion of plate to direct counts observed here (Beijerinck, 1909;
Dorner, 1924; Wohlfeil, 1932; Ehrismann, 1933), and this proportion of “viable”
cells may depend not only on the age of the culture and the kind of the organism,

BY H. L. JENSEN. 33

but also on the composition of the medium used for plate counting (Beijerinck,
1909), the nature of the diluent (Wohlfeil, 1932), and other factors.

The yields of carbon dioxide, in the first 24 hours as well as during the whole
period, increase regularly with the temperature, being generally about twice as
high at 28° C. as at 15° C., with a somewhat smaller increase when the tempera-
ture is raised to 37°C. There is at each temperature a marked parallelism
between the direct counts of bacteria and the yields of CO, in the first 24 hours
(see also Text-fig. 1). The total amounts of carbon dioxide increase somewhat,
but very irregularly, with the content of organic matter, and the three last
columns of the table show that the production of carbon dioxide per unit of
organic matter generally decreases with increasing content of organic matter,
i.e, the more humus there is present, the more slowly is it decomposed, as
pointed out by Engel (1934); the very active soil No. 18, however, forms an
exception to this rule.

Table 2 shows the counts of microorganisms and the densities of mycelium
on the 4th and 10th days, and the corresponding yields of carbon dioxide in the
previous 24 hours; the most important results are summarized in Table 3. The
direct counts are very little influenced by temperature. In some cases, especially
No. 4, there is a marked drop in the numbers after 4 and 10 days in comparison
with the initial counts, but in general the changes are not of an order of magnitude
different from the spontaneous fluctuations shown by Thornton and Taylor (1935)
to occur in soil kept under constant conditions of moisture and temperature.*
The plate counts follow the same general rule; a marked increase in bacteria,
most rapidly at 37° C., is seen in the sand soils No. 1-3 and the loam soil No. 5.
The actinomycetes, which never account for any very large proportion of the
plate counts, do not seem to be affected by either the temperature or the time.
Their mycelia were hardly ever seen in the drop-films for direct counting and
were mostly not very conspicuous, although present, on the Rossi-Cholodny
slides. Upon the whole, one does not get the impression that this group of
organisms is of considerable importance in soil to which no decomposable
material has recently been added (cf. Winogradsky, 1925). The development of
fungal mycelium is strongest at 15° C. (in the sand soils equally so at 28°C.),
and stronger in the sand soils than in the loams, particularly the red loams,
which have also by plate counting been found very poor in fungi (Jensen, 1934).
At 37° C. the growth of fungi is rather insignificant, except perhaps in the first
3 sand soils.

As on the first day, the yields of carbon dioxide increase markedly with the
temperature, especially in the interval from 15°C. to 28° C., where they are
approximately doubled. At each temperature, but particularly at 28 and 37°C.,
there is a significant correlation (Fisher, 1930) between direct counts and yields
of carbon dioxide, as shown in Table 3 and Text-figure 1. On the other hand,
the figures for density of mycelium show no correlation whatever with the
CO,-yields. Even when fungi are present in notable quantities, as in No. 2, they
seem rather inactive, confirming the view of Winogradsky (1925), that these
organisms do not partake in the breakdown of soil “humus”. If we assume that
the whole production of carbon dioxide is the work of the bacteria found by

*In soils incubated for longer periods (up to 3 months) a marked drop in bacterial
numbers, both by direct and by plate counts, was observed at 25 to 37°C., but not at
4 to 15°C.

34 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

TABLE 2.
Carbon dioxide formation and composition of microflora in soils without addition of organic matter.
Direct Plate Count.
Soil Time. Temper- | Count of Mycelium.
No. (Day.) ature. Micro- a CO. Efficiency.
(©) organisms. Bact. Act.
Group I.—Sand Soils.
15° 230 2 0:5 4-9 0-7 0-030
4th 28° 230 5 0-5 6:8 ez 0-074
Sila 200 6 0-4 2:9 2°6 0-130
1
15° 290 4 0-4 9-8 0:5 0-017
10th 28° 290 7 0-4 Bory ILO} 0-045
Ollie 240 83 0-4 4-6 YAO) 0-096
4th nlsse 680 4 0-1 20-9 2°6 0-040
Sie 630 19 (0) 4-4 7-0 0-111
2
10th Ie? 610 21 (0) 5:5 4-0 0-066
Bre 560 15 (0) B97 en? 0-129
15° 530 4 0-1 3-9 3-1 0-058
4th 28° 620 5 0-1 8:5 6-3 0-102
Bi? 560 19 (0) 3:4 11583 0-220
3
i152 710 21 (0) 4-7 3°6 0-051
10th 28° . 680 8 0-1 5:8 4-7 0-070
SY/2 550 15 (0) 0-6 8-7 0-158
15° 1,400 83 5 2-9 5:5 0-039
4th 28° 1,360 70 6 8-0 14:3 0-107
87? 1,170 59 6 0:3 15-8 0-136
4
| 15S 1,380 71 aw 4-4 3-9 0-028
10th | 28° 850 50 6 Bolg 8-1 0-099
| Bi? 910 37 5 0:8 8-9 0-098
Group II.—Red to Brown Loam Soils.
ils 1,140 21 5 3°5 6-0 0-053
4th 28° 1,630 35 6 0-6 125 0-077
| B72 1,170 83 6 0-2 13:8 0-118
5 |
| 15° 1,740 56 6 0:8 7:8 0-045
10th 28° 1,590 75 6 (0) 121 0-076
| ile 1,600 88 6 (0) ilaboat 0-069
Se oe
| bye 1,560 25 5 0:8 5:9 0-038
cena |} 28° 1,370 31 6 (0) 10-4 0-076
Sie 1,320 22 i 0:3 15-1 0-114
6
be 1,570 16 4 1:5 698) 0-034
10th 28° 1,310 22 5 0:6 11:8 0-090
Sin 1,480 14 6 (0) 10:7 0-072
—_ | ——
15° 1,810 232 3 295 4-7 0-026
4th 28° 1,800 212 4 1:6 10°3 0-057
ay foe 1,560 173 3 (0) 20:0 0:°128
7 7
15° 1,790 184 5 10:3 4°4 0-025
10th 28° 1,910 197 4 0-6 9°3 0-049
BY (cd 1,810 127 4 (0) 17-4 0-096

BY H. L. JENSEN. 35

TABLE 2.—Continued.
Carbon dioxide formation and composition of microflora in soils without addition of organic matter.—Continued.

Direct Plate Count.
Soil Time. Temper- | Count of Mycelium.
No. (Day.) ature. Micro- %. CO. Efficiency.
(° C.) organisms. Bact. Act.

Group II.—Red to Brown Loam Soils. — Continued.

15° 3,050 98 4 0:2 4°9 0-016
4th 28° 2,940 107 4 (0) 10°5 0-036
37° 2,640 72 4 0:3 18-4 0-070
8 ee ee | |
15° 2,770 108 4 (0) 3°2 0-012
10th 28° 2,580 91 3 0-9 8-1 0-031
37° 2,290 65 5 (0) 15°8 0-069

Group IIT.—Grey to Black Loam Soils.

: 15° 1,820 30 4 5:8 12-2 0-067
4th 28° 1,620 25 7 ike@) 14°5 0-090
37° 1,710 28 u 0:5 22-7 0-133
9 ey
15° 2,040 44 6 3°3 929) 0-048
10th 28 oe 1,930 42 7 0:5 13:0 | 0-067
37° 1,740 98 8 0°3 16°9 0-097
15° 1,620 77 8 0-3 2°2 0-014
4th 28° 1,380 75 9 2°8 3-1 0-022
37° 1,620 68 9 (0) 5:5 0-034
10 >
15° 1,750 87 9 1-2 1:6 0-009
10th 28° 1,550 78 9 4-2 2:4 0-015
37° 1,530 96 12 0:7 5-2 0-034
15° 1,930 98 5 3-1 3°7 0-019
4th 28° 1,910 105 4 0-6 eal 0-048
37° 1,960 100 7 1:3 13°6 0-069
11 —_——.]—_— | | =
iby 1,810 86 5 1-0 3:2 0-018
10th 28° 2,170 84 5 1:4 vo 0-033
37° 1,950 85 5 0-6 12-1 0-062
15° 1,490 34 3 3°6 3°3 0-022
4th 28° 1,500 35 3 isa 5:9 0-039
37° 1,540 33 2 (0) 12°0 0-078
12
15S 1,500 37 3 2-4 2°4 0-016
10th 28° “1,490 36 3 2°6 joa 0-034
37° 1,430 34 3 1:0 9°8 0-069
iby 4,310 285 14 11:9 7:9 0-018
4th 28° 4,660 272 15 4-5 33°5 0-072
37° 4,190 165 16 iLerl 35-4 0-084
13 ————
ily? 4,380 275 18 7:3 6:2 0-014
10th 28° 4,770 250 21 2°5 22°5 0-047
37° 3,470 191 19 1:4 33°9 0-098

36 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,
TABLE 3.
Summary of results in Table 2.
By? (Ge 28° C. ae G,

Number of pairs of observations an ie 26 24 26
Mean and standard deviation of direct counts. . 1,690 + 1,030 1,760+1,114 1,530 +916
Mean and standard deviation of CO, production 4-56+2-699 9-8+6:96 13-6+8-08
Correlation coefficient between direct count and

Co, a ae ae Bye Pie a 0-429 0:775 0-809
Regression coefficient (x10?) of CO, on direct

count 0-112 0-484 0-714

Mean and standard deviation of efficiency of
microorganisms in:
Group I
Groups II+III
Total

0-041 +0-0164
0-027+0-0165
0-032 +0-0173

0-083 +0-0244
0-053 +0: 0232
0-061+0-0264

0-135+0-0403
0-083 40-0280
0-099 +0-0400

dry soil.

per 100 gm.

COs, mgm.

mill.

Direct

count, 1,000 per gm.

direct counts of bacteria
Regres-

Text-figure 1.—Black dots: correlation between
on 4th and 10th day and yields of carbon dioxide in previous 24 hours.
sion lines corresponding to the equations:

15°C.: y = 4:56 + 0:00112 (x — 1690).
28°C.: y = 9°38 + 0-00484 (x — 1760).
37° C.: y = 138°6 + 0-00714 (x — 1530).

Circles: correlation between initial direct counts and yields of COs in the first 24 hours.

BY H. L. JENSEN. 37

direct counting, we may calculate the “efficiency” of the bacteria at the different
levels of temperature as mgm. of carbon dioxide produced by 1,000 millions of
bacteria in 24 hours. This ‘efficiency’, shown in the last column of Table 2,
varies from 0-009 to 0:067 at 15° C., from 0:015 to 0-107 at 28°C., and from
0-034 to 0-220 at 37° C. These figures, the means of which are given in Table 3,
are of an order comparable with that of corresponding values found by Cutler
and Crump (1929) and de Telegdy-Kovats (1932) in work with pure and mixed
cultures of soil bacteria. The maximal efficiency observed here—0-220—corresponds
to a daily CO,-production about equal to the dry weight of the organisms con-
cerned, since the dry matter of 1,000 mill. bacteria can approximately be
estimated at 0:2 mgm. Table 3 also shows that the efficiency of the bacteria
appears to be higher in the sand soils than in the loams, and the ¢ test of
Fisher (1930, p. 107) shows this difference to be significant at 28 and 387°C.
This is probably due to the fact that the sand soils have lower bacterial numbers
than the rest, and the efficiencies of bacterial populations will as a rule decrease
with increasing density of the population (Cutler and Crump, 1929; de Telegdy-
Kovats, 1932; Meiklejohn, 1932). The total plate counts (bacteria plus actino-
mycetes) do not show any correlation with the yields of carbon dioxide at 15° C.;
although positive correlations exist at the higher temperatures, it does not seem
that this fraction of the total microflora is the most important in biochemical
respect. If the plate-counted organisms were alone responsible for all the carbon
dioxide produced, their efficiency would at 15° C. vary from 0-17 (No. 10, 10 days)
to 7:2 (No. 3, 4 days), at 28°C. from 0:27 to 12:1 (same soils), and at 37°C.
from 0-48 (No. 10, 10 days) to 7:7 (No. 1, 10 days). These figures are not only
rather erratic and without any clear relation to the temperature, but they also
appear unreasonably high; for instance, an efficiency of 12-1 corresponds to a
CO.-production approximately 60 times the dry weight of the organisms, which
exceeds the maximal rate of carbon dioxide production in a very young and
actively multiplying culture of Bact. coli in peptone-water at 87° C., according
to Mooney and Winslow (1935).* In the present case we are dealing with
populations in comparative equilibrium and consisting of cells of all ages, where
such enormous efficiencies would appear inconceivable.

The general results of this series of experiments may be summarized thus:

The rate of destruction of the soil’s own organic matter (‘humus’) increases
rapidly with increases in the temperature from 15°C. to 37°C. This is not due
to any increase in the number of microorganisms, which are not significantly
affected by the temperature, but to an increased metabolic activity of the organisms,
among which the bacteria (and not merely the individuals capable of producing
colonies on agar plates) are the most important. The total bacterial flora, as
determined by microscopic counting, shows an average carbon dioxide production
corresponding to approximately 16, 30 and 50 per cent. of the dry weight of
the organisms in 24 hours at 15° C., 28° C., and 37° C. respectively (according to
the total mean efficiencies in Table 3, and assuming that 1,000 mill. bacteria
contain approximately 0:2 mgm. dry matter).

* Mooney and Winslow estimated the maximal rate of COs-production by Bact. coli
in peptone-water (after 1-2 hours at 37°) at 330 grams per hour per kilogram of
bacterial substance; if it be assumed that the bacterial bodies contain 20 per cent. dry
matter, this would correspond to a COs-production about 40 times the weight of dry
matter in 24 hours.

38 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

Part II.—Decomposition of Organic Materials added to the Soil.

In these experiments, three kinds of organic materials were used: oats straw,
as an example of a natural organic material poor in nitrogen; hay (mixture of
young leaves and stems of grasses and white clover, from a grass lawn), as an
example of a similar material richer in nitrogen; and fungal mycelium, as an
example of a microbial substance synthesized and re-decomposed in the soil. The
mycelium was produced by growing a common green soil Penicillium on a
modified Czapek’s solution, containing 5% saccharose, 0:-5% NaNO,, and 0:2%
KH,PO, After 6-8 days’ growth at 28° C. the mats of mycelium were removed,
washed several times with distilled water, dried and ground. The materials had
the following elementary composition:

In per cent. of air-dry material

Carbon* Nitrogen Ratio C/N
Straw tue Ay oie fs ELT durch Np hoes 42-15 0-20 Palit 2 al
Hay Bik Cae EEE a. 1 ER STORM CRE cee ay caro 35:35 2°73 13:0:1
Penicillium-mycelium am cei Rea ue : 51:8 3°52 iator(g al

The materials were used in a finely ground, air-dry condition, and were added
to the following soils in quantities of 1 per cent., on the basis of air-dry soil:

1—A “synthetic soil” made up from 80% pure sand, 18:5% pure kaolin, 1%
calcium carbonate, and 0:5% ferric oxide. Small quantities of a suspension of
garden soil were added, as an inoculum, to the water with which the soil was
moistened. 2—Garden soil, rich in lime and humus (same as No. 11 in the
previous set of experiments), mixed with equal parts of sand. 3.—Acid sand soil
(No. 2 in the previous experiments). 4—Red loam (No. 5 in the previous
experiments).

The following sets of experiments were run: ;

I. “Synthetic soil’ + 1:0% straw + 0:1% NaNO, + 0:025% K,HPO,. 12:0% H,0O.
Temp.: 6—-8° C.; 18-21° C.: 28° C.; 37° C. Duration of experiment: 30 days.

II. Sand-mixed garden soil + 1:0% straw + 0:1% NaNO,. 16:7% H,O.
Temp.: 14-16° C.; 28° C.; 37° C. Duration of experiment: 29 days.

III. Acid sand soil + 1:0% straw + 0:1% (NH,).SO, + 0:08% KH,PO,. 9:5% H,O.
Temp.: 14-16°C.; 28°C. Duration of experiment: 19 days.

IV. “Synthetic soil’? -— 1-0% hay. 11-09% HO. Temp.) 5-62"Cay 1416s:
28° C.;: 37° C. Duration of experiment: 28 days.

V. Sand-mixed garden soil + 1:0% hay. 14:8% H,O. Temp.: 14-16° C.; 28° C.;
37° C. Duration of experiment: 29 days.

VI. Acid sand soil + 1:0% hay. (a) 5:3%, and (b) 10:-4% H,O. Temp.: 19—21° C.
Duration of experiment: 10 days.

VII. Red loam + 1:0% hay. 16:7% H,O. Temp.: 14-16°C.: 37°C. Duration
of experiment: 17 days.

VIII. “Synthetic soil” + 1:0% fungal mycelium. 11:0% H,O. Temp.: 4-5° C.;
13-15° C.; 18-21° C.; 28° C.; 37°C. Duration of experiment: 28-40 days.

IX. Sand-mixed garden soil + 1:0% fungal mycelium. 14:4% H,O. Temp.:
5-6° C.; 14-16° C.; 28° C.; 37°C. Duration of experiment: 28 days.

All experiments were run in triplicate, except Nos. III and VI (duplicate).

* Carbon determinations carried out by Miss M. Cogle, B.Sc., Department of
Medicine (Medical Organic Chemistry), Sydney University.

BY H. L. JENSEN. 39

The course of carbon dioxide evolution in the various experiments is shown
in Text-figures 2-7. The curves are generally of the same type as in the experi-
ments of Starkey (1924), Petersen (1926) and Waksman and Gerretsen (1931);
at the lower temperatures they are mostly of the S-shaped type suggestive of an
autocatalytic reaction (accumulation of respiring organisms). The stimulating
influence of increased temperature is most pronounced in the interval from about

per 100 gm. dry soil.

COs, mgm.

Text-figure 2.—Carbon dioxide production in “synthetic soil’? with straw.
Horizontal columns: percentage of carbon of added straw liberated as CO, at
end of experiment. Black part of columns: percentage of carbon of straw
present as bacterial substance at end of experiment.

Text-figure 3.—Carbon dioxide production in sand-mixed garden soil with
straw (continuous lines), and acid sand soil with straw (broken lines).

Text-figure 4.—Carbon dioxide production in “synthetic soil’ with hay.
Horizontal columns: percentages of carbon of hay liberated as CO, at end
of experiment. Black part of columns: percentages of carbon of hay present as
bacterial substance at end of experiment.

Text-figure 5.—Carbon dioxide production in sand mixed garden soil with
hay (continuous lines), and red loam with hay (broken lines).

40 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

5° to about 15° C. (cf. Petersen, 1926, and Waksman and Gerretsen, 1931), whereas
the increase from 28° to 37°C. has mostly little influence except in the early
stages of the process. After 2-3 weeks the rate of CO.-production is slowing down,
rather suddenly at the higher and more gradually at the lower temperatures, and
after 4 weeks the curves tend to run parallel (a marked exception to this rule is
only seen in Experiment No. IX), i.e., the stimulating influence of temperature
on the decomposition process is most pronounced in the early stages of the
process, in agreement with the observations of Waksman and Gerretsen (1931).
When this stage is reached, more organic carbon has been liberated as CO, at
28-37° C. than at the lower temperatures, i.e., a larger amount of organic material
has been left as the slowly decomposing residue called “humus”. This is most
clearly seen in the experiments with “synthetic” soil, where all the carbon dioxide
comes from the organic material added (see Text-figures 2, 4 and 6).

per 100 gm. dry soil.

COs, mgm.

10 20 30
Days.

Text-figure 6.—Carbon dioxide production in “synthetic soil’ with fungal
mycelium. Horizontal columns: percentages of carbon of mycelium liberated
as CO, at end of experiment. Black part of columns: percentages of carbon of
mycelium present as bacterial substance at end of experiment.

Text-figure 7.—Carbon dioxide production in sand-mixed garden soil with
fungal mycelium.

The results of the periodical microbiological analyses, together with the corres-
ponding yields of carbon dioxide in the previous 24 hours, are found in Table 4,
which also shows the total yields of carbon dioxide, with standard deviations.

The bacteria (as estimated by direct counting, therefore including spores and
mycelial fragments of actinomycetes) are seen to multiply in all cases except
in the acid soil in Exp. No. 3 (pH 5-4 at the start of the experiment), where the
numbers are very low and hardly change significantly. At 4—7° C. the multiplication
is very slow, but eventually the numbers exceed those at the higher temperatures

BY H. L. JENSEN.

TABLE 4,

41

Composition of microflora and production of carbon dioxide in soils with additions of organic matter.

Production of
Temper- Plate Count. Density Carbon Dioxide.
Experiment| ature. Time. Direct of
No. (© (0) (days). Count. Mycelium.
Bact. Act. bo Observed. | Calculated.
7 1,740 713 3 0:7 20-6 —
6-7° 14 2,010 1,496 3 1-2 6-9 —
21 2,270 1,994 (0) 0°3 7-8 —_—
30 2,510 1,823 (0) 0-8 6-3 =
Total CO.-production in 30 days: 262+14-2 mgm.
E
& 7 1,880 1,341 7 1-8 17:7 —
fe 18-21° 14 1,830 994 17 21-0 25-9 —
= 21 1,530 1,034 34 14:1 18-9 —
i 30 1,710 852 28 3-9 IW/O7/ —
‘3 Total CO,-production in 30 days: 625+15-6 mgm.
a ;
5 7 1,460 642 40 21-5 35+4 33-4
yy 28° 14 1,270 591 63 12-3 27-6 21:3
= 21 1,100 591 97 (JOY, 18-0 13-6
30 1,640 605 63 2°4 18-1 12-9
| Total CO.-production in 30 days: 823+48-3 mgm.
f 1,140 619 139 38-2 38-7 63-1
sic 14 1,040 552 242 . 4°3 21-2 7-5
21 1,310 492 193 4°5 13-8 13:9
30 1,210 520 128 1-0 14-0 6-3
Total CO.-production in 30 days: 796-+55-3 mgm.
4 1,750 754 5 17°8 23-5 15:0
9 2,970 591 5 10:7 26-1 20-6
14-16° 15 2,310 544 4 27-8 22)°'7, Zio
21 2,010 456 2 19-0 18-2 ily/ctss
2 29 1,650 — — 8-4 1223 10-4
& Total CO.-production in 29 days: 617+8-7 mgm
+
S 4 2,780 951 41 PANO} 57-6 48-4
q 9 3,010 706 22 8-7 58-4 31:6
3 28° 15 2,800 688 20 7:8 30-2 28-3
Sa 21 2,720 525 2/ 1-0 24:83 22-2,
ro 29 2,640 432 22 0-3 | 18-7 18-4
Oo
3 Total CO,-production in 29 days: 1,041+3-:0 mgm.
E
a 4 2,060 564 66 17-4 75:6 52-2
a8 9 2,550 549 44 2-8 55:3 39-0
ms Bre 15 2,390 343 31 iol 26-8 338)5
21 2,190 275 46 0°5 17-4 26-2
| 29 1,760 180 23 0-2 15-8 1133983
Total CO,.-production in 29 days: 1,125+13-1 mgm.

42 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

TABLE 4.—Continued.

Composition of microflora and production of carbon dioxide in soils with additions of organic matter.

| Production of
Temper- Plate Count. Density Carbon Dioxide.
Experiment ature. Time. Direct of
No. ( (Ch) (days). Count. Mycelium. |
Bact. Act. Bo Observed. | Calculated.
2 6 520 = = 43-1 15-7 17-0
= 14-16° 12 550 — 19-4 4-6 7°83
ail 19 540 = == 17:9 3-4 6-5
B Total CO,-production in 19 days: 186+0-7 mgm.
= |
g
he 6 550 — — 25-8 20-9 31-1
3 28° meena 730 = — Tex 6-2 11-0
“ 19 600 — = 4-8 5-2 7-4
Loe
es Total CO,-production in 19 days: 294+15:6 mgm.
7 650 60 (0) 0:9 7-6 =
12 2,620 TA7 (0) 7-0 14-2 —
5-6° 17 2,660 888 (0 20-0 10:7 —
22 1,590 547 3 21-0 9-2 —
28° 2,260 888 (0) 36°8 8-9 —
Total CO,.-production in 28 days: 262+18-2 mgm.
| |
3 2,530 840 (0) 1:8 39-7 13-9
7 2,430 1,708 (0) 16-1 24-3 20:4
» 14-16° 12 2,700 1,434 3 15-8 16-3 20-9
S 17 2,010 712 9 16°6 11-0 16-5
at 22 1,310 428 8 3-9 8:8 6-2
3 28 1,450 275 4 4-4 8-0 7-0
S Total CO.-production in 28 days: 444+22-3 mgm.
2 |
— 3 | Bree | 858 1 17-3 57-0 37-9
2 7 1,370 376 25 12-3 31-4 221
¥A 28° 12 1,180 638 28 2°6 16-2 9-4
= 17 1,060 448 31 0-5 9-8 6-0
22 1,220 410 28 0:2 7°8 7:0
28 1,410 396 25 0:2 6:7 8:5
Total CO.-production in 28 days: 522+3-:6 mgm.
3 2,490 582 58 21-3 60°8 59°3
7 | 1,360 456 94 2°8 212, 8-6
BY hee | 12 li) as1'60 327 102 0:0 13°3 3°6
17 860 198 102 0-0 10-8 (0)
22 1,260 PhS) IE 10) 15-8 58
28 1,070 205 90 | (0)p7 US 7 1°8

Total CO,-production in 28 days: 608+10:1 mgm.

* Plate counting was impossible in this experiment because of abuniant growth of fungi on the agar
plates.

BY

H. L. JENSEN.

TABLE 4.—Continued.

43

Composition of microflora and production of carbon dioxide in soils with additions of organic matter.

Production of
Temper- Plate Count. Density Carbon Dioxide.
Experiment ature. Time. Direct of
No. (2 Gy) Count. Mycelium.
Bact. Act. oe Observed. | Calculated,
3 3,800 1,124 1 39°8 42-0 33°9
7 2,590 932 38 34-9 30-2 28-2
14-16° 11 3,850 732 29 15-0 16:2 28-8
16 3,190 613 20 21:5 10:9 26-8
22 2,730 531 35 10°5 8-8 18-2
: 29 2,210 435 29 2:4 6°8 11-9
>
g Total CO.-production in 29 days: 536+6-0 mgm.
a
R 3 3,420 850 53 43-5 84-1 74-4
B 7 2,000 702 AT 16°8 26-3 32-4
28° 11 3,740 631 59 25°6 30°5 56:3
on 16 3,120 5038 58 14:9 22-6 39-2
3 22 2,230 533 45 20-7 17:8 38-6
a 29 2,230 479 56 0-5 14:5 15-4
3 Total CO,-production in 29 days: 912+49-6 mgm
2 |
S 3 3,190 766 115 Srl! 80°6 61:3
7 1,730 556 171 1:8 22-4 19-0
30° 11 3,160 472 177 1:9 20-4 50-9
16 2,550 547 185 22, 21-4 37-9
22, 1,780 383 202) 0:7 11:3 18-4
29 1,990 298 164 0-4 10-2 2225
Total CO.-production in 29 days: 803+17:0 mgm.
e |
& a ff @ 2,420 527 2 58:8 44-2 =
ie 19-212 a0 1,720 478 58 26-7 15-9 =
> 8 b i 4 3,030 558 (0) 3250 40-3 —
S S10 e630 338 2 18-1 20-7 =
xz
a Total CO,-production in 10 days: a: 308 mgm.; &: 320 mgm.
3 4,220 455 18 32-2 48-4 38-6
s 7 2,730 337 6 43-3 25°5 32
> Tels rh 2,920 345 8 8-0 18-3 19-3
ae 17 2,530 352 iil 22-6 12-2 22-6
5 Total CO,-production in 17 days: 460-+6-7 mgm.
fe)
rd
Ss 3 3,260 377 36 27-4 112-1 92-9
e 37° 7 2,520 217 48 9:3 38-2 48-2
= 11 2,300 208 47 4-4 25:8 35-8
17 2,070 181 38 3°8 25-7 29-7
Total CO,.-production in 17 days: 806+50-7 mgm.

44 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

TABLE 4.—Continued.
Composition of microflora and production of carbon dioxide in soils with additions of organic matter,

Production of

Temper- Plate Count. Density Carbon Dioxide.
Experiment ature. Time. Direct of
No. (° C.) Count. Mycelium.
Bact. Act. he Observed. | Calculated.
8 510 89 al 2-0 3°8 —
14 1,270 618 1 27-6 10-7 —
4-5° 20 1,850 1,455 1 15:6 17°5 —
28 4,610 2,865 (0) 33-2 23°4 —
40 3,540 3,781 3 e272 12:8 —
Total CO,-production in 40 days: 561+384:2 mgm.
4 1,070 301 1 133933 22-3 5-4
8 2,580 899 (0) 54-2 55:6 36-5
g 13-15° 14 3,290 2,410 14 52-9 39-4 40-7
= 20 3,710 1,951 29 37-6 220 37°3
S 28 2,170 957 23 10-2 15-0 15)833
S 35 2,600 739 21 8:9 9-8 16:3
Fs Total CO,.-production in 35 days: 915+23:5 mgm.
a 4 2,170 1,070 3 | 29-6 61°5 —
= 8 2,070 1,730 14 67-0 67-1 —_—
R 18-21° 14 3,240 2,697 118 34-0 35-4 ==
2 20 2,000 2,354 124 24-6 18-0 —
a 28 3,440 1,933 124 18-0 14-2 —
~ re
> Total CO,-production in 28 day2: 978+48-:9 mgm.
| 4 2,890 787 62 52-0 79°8 79-5
= 8 2,520 2,052 199 27-8 61:5 49-1
28° 14 2,160 h > Paley 236 8-0 25-9 2310
20 1,590 1.815 152 8:0 24-3 19-0
28 2,270 1,101 258 2-9 14:7 Ue(o%R
Total CO,.-production in 28 days: 1,097+31-6 mgm
4 3,090 292 292 42°5 104°3 ilale3o%/
8 2,600 2,011 275 15-8 59-0 60-2
Bylo 14 2,190 1,281 340 3:0 30°7 30-1
20 1,520 730 343 | ilof) 20-4 U0%/
28 | 1,690 472 157 0:3 15-4 15°8
Total CO,-production in 28 days: 1,218+41-8 mgm.
ro 3 1,320 52 0:3 0-3 11-4 —
a 7 8,420 1,426 (0) 3:7 15:6 —
a 5-6° 11 4,680 1,811 (0) 13:9 20:3 =
= 16 7,830 2,024 | (0) 55-9 85°8 =
a, 22 | 6,050 DAdgers| Sad 76-6 25-2 --
ae 28 || ~5;780 2,658 | 3 49°8 211-5 —
ae Total CO,-production in 28 days: 623-+34-8 mgm.

BY

H. L. JENSEN.

TABLE 4.—Continued.
Composition of microflora and production of carbon dioxide in soils with additions of organic matter.

45

Production of
Temper- Plate Count. Density Carbon Dioxide.
Experiment ature. Time. Direct of 5
No (° C.) Count. Mycelium.
Bact. Act. on Observed. | Calculated
i 3 4,210 1,070 2 19-5 55-4 33°3
3 7 3,770 1,180 51 64:0 512 48-8
s 11 3,780 575 131 42-2 47°38 39-7
5 14-16° 16 3,160 493 141 26:3 21/5 28-6
i) 22 2,470 497 143 18-7 9:6 19-7
L 28 2,160 —_— — 1183592 8-0 16-2
2 Total CO,.-production in 28 days: 890-+15-4 mgm
5 ;
ie 3 4,340 947 199 41:8 128-0 79-4
& rl 3,880 1,332 145 41-0 46-0 75:1
a 11 4,070 1,199 88 13-5 21:5 45-1
ar 28° 16 2,570 6382 94 8-5 19-7 27-3
ie) 22 2,050 599 96 13-9 14-4 29-3
S 28 2,260 547 98 PAal¢] 11-7 13-4
o
if Total CO.-production in 28 days: 998-+-8:5 mgm
oo
as}
g 3 3,990 500 201 21:3 149-1 99-6
ig 7 2,250 400 359 13-3 36-4 48-5
io 11 2,560 278 322 3-0 21-7 39:3
Es 37° 16 1,830 224 308 0-8 12-0 19-8
: 22 1,860 189 BOOM 0-2 7:8 19-5
a 28 1,920 187 356 0:7 6:4 Palos
Total CO.-production in 28 days: 959+9-2 mgm.

Mean and standard deviation of direct counts at 4-7° C. 2,960+ 2,039
” ” ” ” ” ” ” 13-16° C. 2,510+992-2
9) ” ” ” ” 3) ” 28° C. 2,220+ 1,001
” ” ” ” ” ” ” 37° C. 2,050+730-9

Mean and standard deviation of density of mycelium at 4-7° C. .. 19-7+21-77
” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” HEAUG? (Ob oc 22°6+15:-39
” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” 28° C. 14°3+13-83
” ” ” ” ”? ” ” ” ” 37° C. 7-1+10-81

Mean and standard deviation of CO.-production at 4-7° C. 14-5+ 7-95
»” ” ” ” 3909.9) ” ” 13-16° C. 22-54+14:77
” ” ” ” 0 ” ” ” 28° C. 31-2+26:12
” ” ” ” ” ” ” > 37° C. 34°44+33:-01

in the same experiment;

this is especially the case in the experiments with

mycelium. As the temperature increases, the multiplication becomes more rapid,

but the numbers do not reach a higher level.

The figures at 15° and 28°C. are

not, on the whole, very different, and the same applies to the few results from
18-21° C. At 37°C. the numbers are, in the later stages of all the experiments,

definitely less than those at the lower temperatures.

What has been said of the

direct counts generally applies to the plate counts of bacteria as well; here the

46 _ CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv, -

reduction in numbers at the higher temperatures is very pronounced. This
general rule: with decreasing temperature a slower multiplication, but eventually
higher maximal numbers than at temperatures favouring rapid multiplication,
agrees perfectly with observations on pure cultures by Gotschlich and Weigang
(1895), Graham-Smith (1920) and Hess (1934). Vanderleck (1918) has shown
in an interesting (but apparently often overlooked) contribution, that surprising
numbers of bacteria may accumulate during a mild frost in soil containing
undécomposed plant residues. The explanation for these phenomena would seem
to be that the low temperature delays the death-rate of the organisms (and
possibly also the rate of disintegration of the dead cells) more than the rate
of reproduction (Loeb, 1908; Cohen, 1922).

As to the kinds of bacteria observed, a large proportion of white and yellow
colonies of corynebacteria (Cor. helvolum or related forms) was seen on the
plates from experiments with hay and fungal mycelium at 5° to 15°C.; at the
higher temperatures they were less conspicuous. Spore-forming bacilli, often in
fine long chains, were frequently seen on the Rossi-Cholodny slides at 15° C. in
the early stages of the same experiments at 15° C. They showed the presence of
endospores after 3 days (cf. Winogradsky, 1925, and Ziemiecka, 1935); after this
time, free spores were often seen in the films for direct counting. The slides
and films from experiments with straw showed the presence of slender, curved
filaments of the Cytophaga-group and small, curved, gram-negative rods which
might be representatives of the “Cellvibrio’-group, but these organisms did not
seem to make a large proportion of the total microflora.

The actinomycetes are shown by the plate counts to be almost absent at
4—7° C. and to be very numerous at 28° C. and 37° C., especially in the experiments
with fungal mycelium. Their numbers nearly always reach their maximum after
the peak period of CO,-production, and remain high when the carbon dioxide
production has become very slow. Microscopically this group of organisms showed
some interesting features. On the Rossi-Cholodny slides their vegetative mycelia
appeared in great abundance after 3 to 7 days at 28° and 37° C. in soils with hay
and fungal mycelium, but at later periods little more was seen of them. The
films for direct counting showed surprisingly few actinomyces-hyphae, even in
cases where they were richly represented on the Rossi-Cholodny slides, but in
such cases the films often contained many long, irregular rods which might be
fragments of actinomyces-mycelia; it seems that the filaments are easily broken
up by preparation of the soil suspension, and thus become included in the direct
counts. These phenomena indicate that the actinomycetes are of most importance
in the earlier stages of the decomposition process, where they accompany and
succeed the vigorous development of fungal mycelium (cf. Ziemiecka, 1935), and
that their high numbers in later stages are mainly derived from spores, which
may be without biochemical significance.

The fungi, like the bacteria, developed very slowly at the lowest range of
temperature, but in some cases (experiment No. IX) they gradually became very
abundant at this temperature. At higher temperatures the mycelia appeared
earlier on the slides. As a whole they seemed to develop most richly at 15°
and 20° C., reaching a maximum after 3 to 11 days and then receding. At 28° C.,
and particularly at 37° C., they tend to disappear quite rapidly after a brief
period of vigorous growth in the first 3-7 days. At the latter temperature their
maximal density is with few exceptions considerably less than at the lower
temperatures in the same experiment. The periods of strongest mycelial growth

BY H. L. JENSEN. 47

generally coincide with the peak periods of carbon dioxide formation. This shows
that the fungi are of chief importance in the early stages of intense decom-
position of organic matter (cf. Waksman and Gerretsen, 1931, and Waksman, 1932),
and that their period of activity is markedly shortened with increasing
temperature.

The mere inspection of the figures gives only an imperfect idea of the
relationships between yields of carbon dioxide, bacterial numbers, and densities
of mycelium; a better picture may be obtained by calculation of the correlations
between these three sets of values, as shown in Table 5. Text-figures 8-11 show
definite linear correlations between the direct counts of bacteria and the yields
of CO, at the different temperatures,* and similar types of scatter-diagrams are
shown by the densities of mycelium and the yields of CO,,.

dry soil.

per 100 gm.

mgm.

COs,

Direct count, 1,000 mill. per gram.

Text-figure §.—Correlation between direct counts of bacteria and yields ofe
carbon dioxide at 4-7°C. Regression line corresponding to the equation:
y = 14-5 + 0:003091 (x — 2960).

Text-figure §.—Correlation between direct counts of bacteria and yields of
carbon dioxide at 13-16°C. Regression line corresponding to the equation:
y = 22-5 + 0:00941 (x — 2510).

Text-figure 10.—Correlation between direct counts of bacteria and yields
of carbon dioxide at 28°C. Regression line corresponding to the equation:
y = 31-2 + 0:0162 (x — 2220).

Text-figure 11.—Correlation between direct counts of bacteria and yields
of carbon dioxide at 37°C. Regression line corresponding to the equation:
“y = 34-4 + 0-03088 (x — 2050).

* The few determinations at 18-21°C. were insufficient to show any significant
correlations; these values have been omitted from the calculations.

48 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

TABLE 5.

Correlations between CO, production, numbers of microorganisms, and density of fungal mycelium.

4-7° C. |14-16° C.| 28°C. 37° C.

Total correlation coefficient between direct count and CO,-

production .. , 0-774 *621 ‘716
Regression coefficient of Cotnradecionte on dizect gain, x 102 0-3091 0-941 1-620 3:088
Partial correlation coefficient between direct count and CO,,

oO
for)
w
for)
(=)
i=)

density of mycelium eliminated ae 0-600 0-565 0-413 0-643
Partial regression coefficient of GoMprodactionte on arest Count,

lOzee 23 — 0-709 0-797 222
Total correlation eocicient) hahieemn density of celia ain |

CO.-production ae 0-640 0-614 0:773 0-726
Regression coefficient of CO.- emodartion on nvconste of Peele 0-234 0-586 1:46 PAV ALTE
Partial correlation coefficient between density of mycelium and

CO,, direct count eliminated .. ao (0-238) 0-536 0-675 0-657
Partial regression coefficient of CO,- mrOdnction on aeneity of

mycelium .. — 0-421 1-150 1-158
Correlation conticion! Between dancer Gans inl deneity of

mycelium .. ae ete at AG oe 0-685 0-361 0-513 0-437
Number of pairs of Barenrations Be j 20 36 35 36
Correlation coefficient between Comnrodneten andl aiksie count |

(Bact.+ Act.) ate Be A ah ue be we 0-452 (0-325) | (0-273) | (0-180)

(Non-significant values are placed in parentheses.)

The simple correlation coefficients between direct count and carbon dioxide
are in all cases significant (Fisher, 1930, Table V.A), and remain so when the
density of mycelium is eliminated by calculations of the partial correlation
coefficients. On the other hand the correlation between plate counts (bacteria +
actinomycetes) and yields of CO, is barely significant at 4-7° C. and insignificant
at the higher temperatures. The numbers of organisms capable of producing
colonies on agar plates are thus clearly less significant than the direct counts as
indices of the biochemical activity of the bacterial population. It is interesting
to note that the ratio between direct and plate counts is, in all these experiments,
and particularly in the “synthetic” soil, much closer (from about 1 to about 10)
than in the previous experiments with soils without addition of organic matter.}
This suggests that the zymogenic flora of bacteria and actinomycetes, which has
arisen in these experiments, consists mainly of species capable of growth on
agar plates, but that the fraction of viable individuals is not necessarily the most
important in biochemical respect. This is in perfect agreement with the results
obtained in the previous series of experiments.

Like the direct counts, the figures for density of mycelium show significant
correlations with the CO,-yields, and at all temperatures except 4-7°C. this
correlation continues to exist when calculated as a partial correlation coefficient
with elimination of direct counts.

+ Some experiments recorded by Jacobs (1931) seem to represent the only previous

case where bacterial numbers have been determined both by direct and plate counting
in soil with addition of a rapidly decomposable material (naphthalene). Here, too, the
direct counts were only 2 to 3 times as high as the plate counts, but unfortunately the
figures cannot be directly compared, since they were obtained from separate experiments.

BY H. L. JENSEN. 49

The partial regression coefficients in Table 5 (calculated by means of the
formulae given by Dawson, 1933) enable us in some measure to compare the effect
of the bacteria and the fungal mycelia in the production of carbon dioxide. At
4—7° C., where the partial correlation between density of mycelium and yield of
CO. is reduced below significance, the effects of the two groups of organisms cannot
be separated simply, although it is obvious that their efficiency is much lower
than at the higher temperatures. At 14-16° C. the partial regression coefficient ~ 10?
of CO, on direct count is 0-709; this means, that with constant density of mycelium
the average daily yield of CO, per 100 gm. of dry soil increases with 0-709 mgm.
when the number of bacteria increases with 100 mill. per gm.; expressed on the
basis of 1 gm. of soil, this increase corresponds to an average production of
0:0709 mgm. CO, per 1,000 mill. bacteria in 24 hours, which we may regard as the
average efficiency of the bacteria at this temperature. The corresponding partial
regression coefficient of CO, on density of mycelium shows, similarly, that with
constant numbers of bacteria the yield of CO, increases with 0-421 mgm. per
100 gm., or with 0:00421 mgm. per 1 gm. of soil, so that a quantity of mycelium
corresponding to a density of about 17% produces on an average the same amount
of carbon dioxide as 1,000 mill. bacteria per gm. of soil. In the cases where the
growth of fungi is most abundant (50-64% density) their activity would thus
seem to be about equal to that of the bacteria (3-4,000 mill. per gm.) present
at the same time, but towards the end of the experiments their activity appears
small in comparison with that of the bacteria. An exception is shown by the
acid soil with straw (experiment No. III), where the fungi appear almost alone
active, but in this soil the rate of CO.-formation is very slow in comparison with
the corresponding experiment (No. II) with alkaline soil, where large numbers
of bacteria are present. In the same way we find from the partial regression
coefficients at 28° C., that the average efficiency of the bacteria is 0:0797 mgm. CO,
per 1,000 mill. bacteria, and that with constant bacterial numbers the yield of CO,
increases with 0:0115 mgm. CO, per gm. soil per 1% increase in density of
mycelium, i.e., 7% density of mycelium is approximately equal to 1,000 mill.
bacteria per gm. soil. At this temperature the fungi seem to display their greatest
activity, although their growth is usually less abundant than at 15°C. After
3 to 8 days their activity appears to exceed that of the bacteria very considerably;
but after 3-4 weeks they have largely ceased to be of importance. Finally, at 37° C.
the average efficiency of the bacteria is considerably increased (0:222 mgm. CO,
per 1,000 mill. bacteria), and a density of 14% mycelium is approximately equal
to 1,000 mill. bacteria per gm. This and higher densities are not very common,
and only in a few cases (experiment No. I after 7 days, No. VII after 3 days,
No. VIII after 4 days) does the activity of the fungi appear to exceed that of the
bacteria (including actinomycetes, which are richly represented at this
temperature).

It should here be pointed out that these calculations represent no more than
a first attempt to estimate the relative importance of bacteria and fungi in the
decomposition processes. The direct counts of bacteria include varying propor-
tions of active and inactive cells (bacterial endospores, and large numbers of
aerial spores of actinomycetes at the higher temperatures), and the method of
estimating the density of mycelium is admittedly not ideal and leaves considerable
room for improvement. Firstly, the number of fields showing presence of mycelium
does not precisely indicate the amount of fungal protoplasm represented by these
mycelia, owing to the very variable thickness (sometimes also number in each
field) of the hyphae observed and, secondly, the slides were in contact with the

50 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

soils for longer periods at the end than at the beginning of the experiments.
But, even with these limitations, the method is felt to be a distinct improvement
in comparison with the plate method. Improvements of the method (actual
measurements of the hyphae, standardization of the time of incubation, etc.) may
lead to more precise estimates.

In the last column of Table 4 are shown the amounts of CO, that would be
expected to have been produced by the amounts of microorganisms observed. These
values are calculated from the partial regression formula (Dawson, 1933):

XK — KX = Dy.3 (Ky — Ke) + Dys.o( Xz — Ks),

where X,, X, and X, represent yields of CO., direct counts of bacteria, and densities
of mycelium, respectively, X,, X, and X, the corresponding mean values (Table 4,
bottom), and b,,., and b,;.. the partial regression coefficients of CO, on direct counts
and density of mycelium, respectively. In some experiments the agreement
between expected and observed values is very close, but in most cases the observed
values are in the beginning higher and at later stages lower than expected. This
is obviously due to the fact that the bacterial counts, as seen in Table 4, tend to
decrease much less rapidly than the rate of carbon dioxide production, i.e., the
efficiency of the bacteria decreases with advancing time (cf. Meiklejohn, 1932,
and Mooney and Winslow, 1935). In the later stages of the experiments at 37° C.,
where the mycelium has practically disappeared, we may calculate the efficiency
of the bacteria as mgm. of CO, per 1,000 mill. bacteria in 24 hours in the same
way as in Table 2; this calculation shows efficiencies of quite the same order as
in the experiments with soils without addition of organic matter (for instance,
0-079-0-081 in experiment No. II after 21-29 days, 0:072-0:125 in experiment No. IV
after 11-28 days) and much lower than the average efficiency indicated by the
regression coefficients. A similar decreasing efficiency has been observed in
cultures of fungi, where the rate of CO.-production per unit of weight of mycelium
is high in young stages where mycelium is being synthesized, but may become very
low when the already-formed mycelium is merely being maintained (Noack, 1920;
ef. also Mazé, 1902; Peterson, Fred and Schmidt, 1922; and Heukelekian and
Waksman, 1925). This time-factor cannot in the present experiments be eliminated
simply by treating the time as a fourth variant, because the regression of carbon
dioxide formation on time is far from linear, particularly at 28° C. and 37° C.

The nitrogen transformation in some of the experiments is shown in Table 6.
In the soils with hay and mycelium the production of nitrate, like that of carbon
dioxide, increases with the temperature and is practically the same at 28° and at
37° C. The hay, with its narrower C:N ratio, has produced more inorganic nitrogen
than the mycelium, the nitrogen-compounds of which do not appear to have been
attacked at all after 4 weeks at 5° C., in spite of the abundant growth of micro-
organisms that took place in this experiment. The soils with straw show an
analogous phenomenon: the actual amount of inorganic nitrogen consumed is
rather constant at the different temperatures, but the amount of organic matter
decomposed to carbon dioxide per unit of nitrogen consumed increases markedly
with the temperature. This is in full agreement with the results of Norman
(1931) who found the “nitrogen-equivalent” (parts of inorganic nitrogen
immobilized per 100 parts of organic matter decomposed) higher at 20° C. than
at 30-50° C. in decomposition experiments with straw. From a practical aspect
this might indicate that the danger of exhaustion of available nitrogen by addition
of straw or similar materials to the soil is graver in the colder than in the
warmer seasons of the year.

BY H. L. JENSEN. 51

TABLE 6.

Nitrogen transformations in soils with addition of organic matter.

Production mgm. C
, (+) or liberated as
Consumption CO, per
Experiment. NH,-N.* NO;-N.* (—) of mgm.
Mineral N Mineral N
(NH, + NO;).| consumed.
No. 2 (sand-mixed garden soil+straw and NaNO;) :
At start of experiment iLoB} 19-3 — —
After 29 days at 14-16° C. 0-0 9-3 —11°3 14:9
Pet tO Os 0-0 8:7 —11:-9 23-9
ob oe aah NARS Cees 0-0 ial o6) —9-1 33°9
No. 3 (acid sand soil+straw and (NH,)250,) :
At start of experiment Bie 0 oe 16-8 4-0 — —
After 19 days at 14-16° C. .. ere 38g ial983 3°8 —5:7 8:9
ET ee rey Or Oe as ate is Talo? B307/ —5-4 14:8
No. 6 (sand-mixed garden soil+hay) :
At start of experiment 1-3 5-4 — —
After 28 days at 14-16° C. 0-8 9°3 +2°6 —
ete, My Peer CG. 0-0 11-6 +4-9 —
op of DO ng CaO 0:8 132 +6:3 —-
No. 8 (red loam-+hay) :
At start of experiment 0:8 PAU — —
After 17 days at 14-16° C. 6:3 Bow +6:0 —_—
oh ist UMS ole tC. 6-2 5-9 +8:°6 —
No. 10 (sand-mixed garden soil+mycelium) :
At start of experiment 1-4 6-7 ee as
After 28 days at 5-6° C. 2-5 5-0 (—0-6) he
aH 65) oh », 14-16° C. 4-2 8-1 +4:2 —
2 Op oO SO 0-0 14-0 +5:9 —
aa 5 “9 ap Ol Ole iLoal iPZe7L +5:-1 —

* Mgm. per 100 gm. of dry soil.

CONCLUSIONS.

A general principle extends through all these experiments: the higher the
temperature, the more organic matter is decomposed to carbon dioxide (and
inorganic nitrogen-compounds) in proportion to the quantity of microorganisms
acting; one might say that the metabolism of the total microflora becomes less
economical as the temperature increases.* This explains partly the rapid
destruction of soil organic matter in hot climates. At low temperatures (4-7° C.)
the microorganisms develop slowly when organic matter is added to the soil, but
owing to the preserving influence of the low temperature, their cell-material
gradually accumulates to a greater extent than at higher temperatures, where the

* The widening influence of increasing temperature upon the ratio of carbon
liberated as CO, to carbon converted into bacterial substance is clearly seen in Text-
figures 2, 4 and 6. The quantities of carbon in bacteria have been calculated on the
assumption that 1,000 mill. bacteria on an average represent 0-2 mgm. dry matter with
50% carbon. To this must be added an unspecified amount of carbon present as fungal
mycelium at 4-5°C., and as residues of previous generations of bacteria.

52 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

development of the organisms is more rapid, but not more extensive, and where
the re-decomposition of the synthesized microbial matter becomes increasingly
rapid. These facts have another important bearing on the problem of humus-
accumulation. The proteid compounds synthesized at low temperature, according
to Waksman and Gerretsen (1931), are obviously identical with the protoplasm
of microorganisms that accumulate under these conditions. The lignins, which also
accumulate at low temperatures (Waksman and Gerretsen, 1931), may combine
with the proteins of the dead organisms (or with protein-like substances actually
secreted by bacteria, according to Simola, 1931), thereby giving rise to those
highly resistant ligno-protein compounds (Waksman and Iyer, 1933) that account
for a very considerable part of the soil humus. According to what has just been
said, these two sources of humus (lignin and microbial protein) will increase in
quantity as the temperature decreases; and when they have been formed, their
rate of decomposition will naturally increase with the temperature.

In cases where organic matter is being decomposed chiefly by fungi, it
might be imagined that more protoplasm would be synthesized than where bacteria
predominate, since the fungi are usually credited with a more economic type of
metabolism than the bacteria (for references, see Kruse, 1910; Stephenson, 1930;
and Waksman, 1932). The generality of this principle may, however, be doubted.
A favourite test object in nutritional studies with fungi has been Aspergillus
niger and related forms, which may convert one-half or even more of the consumed
food-material into cell substance. Similar values were found by Heukelekian and
Waksman (1925) in Trichoderma and Penicillium, but several other fungi seem
to use their nutrients far less economically (Harter and Weimer, 1921; Peterson,
Fred and Schmidt, 1922 (Pen. glaucum less economic than Asp. niger); Hochapfel,
1925). As to the bacteria, Rubner (1906) found Proteus vulgaris able to utilize
up to 25% of the energy of the medium, whereas pathogenic bacteria were far less
economical; this, however, could not be confirmed by Abt (1925), who found
Cor. diphtheriae capable of utilizing some 30 per cent. of the energy of its
nutrients. A utilization of sugar nearly as economical as in Aspergillus has
been observed in Myc. phlei by Stephenson and Whetham (1923) and in other
bacteria by Conn and Darrow (1935), whose experiments are particularly
significant in regard to our problem, since they deal with a type of bacteria that
represent a large proportion of the soil microflora. Even if the fungi as a whole
synthesize somewhat more cell substance from a given quantity of nutrients than
the bacteria, they do not actually seem to build up more protein, since they are
generally much poorer in nitrogen. For instance, the data of Waksman and
Diehm (1931), expressing the ratio of decomposed hemicellulose to assimilated
ammonia-N in solution and sand cultures, do not show significant differences
between fungi and aerobic bacteria (both studied in large numbers), although the
ratio varied strongly within each group of organisms. Simola (1931) found
cellulose-decomposing bacteria consuming nearly as much nitrogen in proportion
to the amount of cellulose decomposed as Trichoderma and Penicillium according
to Heukelekian and Waksman (1925), and Shrikande (1934) even found the
nitrogen-equivalent (parts of inorganic nitrogen immobilized per 100 parts of
organic matter decomposed) much higher with bacteria than with fungi in
decomposition experiments with straw. There is thus no certain evidence that a
decomposition of a given amount of organic materials by fungi would lead to the
formation of more protein (and hence ligno-protein compounds) than a similar
process brought about by bacteria under equal conditions.

BY H. L. JENSEN. 53

SUMMARY.

A study was made of the rate of decomposition of organic matter in soil at
different ranges of temperature in relation to the abundance of microorganisms
present. The rate of decomposition was measured by the production of carbon
dioxide. Bacteria (including actinomycetes) were counted both microscopically
and on agar plates. The density of fungal mycelium was determined micro-
scopically by means of the Rossi-Cholodny method.

In soils without extra addition of organic matter the carbon dioxide production
was generally about 100 per cent. stronger at 28° C. than at 15°C., and about
50 per cent. stronger at 37° C. than at 28° C. The numbers of bacteria were not
appreciably influenced by the temperature within a period of 10 days. Direct
counts showed numbers from about 8 to about 300 times as high as plate counts.
At each range of temperature there was a significant correlation between the daily
yields of carbon dioxide and the directly counted numbers of bacteria, which
appeared to be a better index of the activity of the bacterial flora than the plate
counts. The growth of fungi was more extensive in sand soils than in loam soils,
and was greatly restricted at 37° C. No correlation was found between the density
of mycelium and the yields of carbon dioxide. The decomposition of the soil’s
own organic matter (“humus”) seems to be carried out almost entirely by
bacteria, and the accelerating influence of increasing temperature on this process
is due to stimulation of the metabolic activity of the bacteria, but not to increased
numbers of these organisms.

In soils with addition of undecomposed plant materials (straw, hay, fungal
mycelium) the rate of carbon dioxide formation increased steeply with increases
in temperature from about 5° C. to 37° C. This effect was most pronounced in the
early stages of the decomposition process and at the lower ranges of temperature.
In general the microorganisms tended to develop more slowly, but eventually
to a greater extent, at lower than at higher temperatures, especially 37° C., where
the vegetative growth of the fungi was generally very restricted and always confined
to a brief initial period. Direct counts of bacteria (including actinomycetes)
showed figures only 1-10 times as high as the plate counts. The numbers of actino-
mycetes increased strongly with the temperature. Significant correlations existed
between the daily yields of carbon dioxide and the densities of mycelium, and
between yields of carbon dioxide and directly counted numbers of bacteria, but
not between yields of carbon dioxide and plate counts. The efficiency of the
organisms decreased rapidly with advancing time. The fungi appeared to be
important agents of decomposition during the earlier stages of the process, when
the most intensive destruction of organic matter takes place. The figures suggested
that, especially at 28° C., their carbon dioxide production may, even in alkaline
soil, considerably exceed that of the bacteria; with advancing degree of decom-
position they cease to be of importance. The decreasing rate of decomposition of
added organic materials, together with the increasing accumulation of microbial
substance, seems to offer a natural explanation for the increasing accumulation of
“humus” with decreasing soil temperature.

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54 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MICROBIOLOGY OF AUSTRALIAN SOILS. iv,

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CHoLoDNY, N., 1930.—Uber eine neue Methode zur Untersuchung der Bodenmikroflora.
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CoHEN, B., 1922.—The Effect of Temperature and Hydrogen Ion Concentration upon
the Viability of Bact. coli and Bact. typhosum in Water. Journ. Bact., 7, 183-230.

Conn, H. J., 1918.—The Microscopic Study of Bacteria and Fungi in Soil. N.Y. Agr.
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, and Darrow, M. A., 1935.—Characteristics of Certain Bacteria Belonging to the

Autochthonous Microflora of Soil. Soil Sci., 39, 95-110.

Cook, R. P., and STEPHENSON, M., 1928.—Bacterial Oxidations by Molecular Oxygen. I.
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CuTLEeR, D. W., and Crump, L. M., 1929.—Carbon Dioxide Production in Sands and Soils
in the Presence and Absence of Amoebae. Ann. Appl. Biol., 16, 472-482.

Dawson, S., 1933.—An Introduction to the Computation of Statistics. (London. )

Dorner, W., 1924.—Beobachtungen tber das Verhalten der Sporen und vegetativen
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EHRISMANN, O., 1933.—Uber die Atmung der Diphtheriebazillen. Zeitschr. Hyg., 115,

273-314.
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Frenkr, D., 1929.—Untersuchungen Uber den Zeitlichen Verlauf der Bodenatmung und
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Harter, L. L., and Weimer, J. L., 1921.—Respiration of Sweet Potato Storage-Rot Fungi
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Hess, E., 1934.—Effects of Low Temperatures on the Growth of Marine Bacteria.
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HEUKELEKIAN, H., and WAKSMAN, S. A., 1925.—Carbon and Nitrogen Transformations in
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HocHAPFEL, H. H., 1925.—Untersuchungen tiber die C- und N-Quellen einiger Fusarien.
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Jacogs, S. E., 1931.—The Influence of Antiseptics on the Bacterial and Protozoan Popula-
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JANKE, A., and Houzer, H., 1929-30.—Probleme des Stickstoffkreislaufs. I-II. Biochem.
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JENNY, H., 1928.—Relation of Climatic Factors to the Amount of Nitrogen in Soils.
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JENSEN, H. L., 1934.—Contributions to the Microbiology of Australian Soils. I. Proc.
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BY H. L. JENSEN. 55

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, and GERRETSEN, F. C., 1931.—Influence of Temperature and Moisture upon the
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379-394.

STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. VI.

THE MERISTEMATIC ACTIVITY OF THE FLORAL APEX OF ACACIA LONGIFOLIA AND
ACACIA SUAVEOLENS AS A HISTOGENETIC STUDY OF THE ONTOGENY OF THE CARPEL.

By I. V. Newman, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., Linnean Macleay
Fellow of the Society in Botany.

(From the Botanical Laboratories, University of Sydney.)
(Plates ii-v; fifteen Text-figures.)

[Read 29th April, 1936.]

Introduction.

Taking its origin in Goethe’s (1790) “Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen
zu erklaren”, and regarded by Robert Brown (1840, p. 108) as generally accepted,
the classical theory that the carpel is a modified leaf has held sway for more
than a hundred years. In recent times criticisms ranging from modification to
complete negation of the theory have arisen. So much speculation and assumption
and criticism (of such speculations and assumptions) have been written about
this subject, that the only excuse for adding to the literature is that there are
new relevant facts to be recorded. In spite of frequent reference to the need for
considering primordial stages and the ontogeny of the carpel, the literature
shows few illustrations of these features, particularly of cellular details of the
meristematic tissues concerned. In this paper I will describe and illustrate the
origin of the floral organs in two species of Acacia, showing the relation of their
primordial tissues to the tissues of the floral axis. The central interest will lie
in finding the relation of the carpel primordium to the apex of the flower and
in comparing its mode of origin with that of the other parts of the flower.

The two species, Acacia longifolia Willd. and Acacia suaveolens Willd., were
given by Saunders (1929, pp. 225-7) as illustrations of the theory of Carpel
Polymorphism (1925, etc.). I undertook an examination of them to test the
objections to the theory based on the examination of Acacia Baileyana (Newman,
1933 and 1934). As the work progressed it became clear that important evidence
was here available concerning other criticisms of the old theory of the carpel
that were being raised by McLean Thompson (1929, 1931, 1932, 1934), Hamshaw
Thomas (1931, 1934) and Victor Grégoire (1931). In none of the papers mentioned
do the four authors support their theories by illustrating the cellular details of
the ontogeny of the carpel and its relation to the apical meristems of the floral
axis; and this is the type of evidence that will be presented in the following
pages.

MATERIAL AND MrtHops.
DESCRIPTION OF RELEVANT FEATURES OF THE SPECIES.
Acacia longifolia.
The flowers of Acacia longifolia are in cylindrical spikes. In the bud stage
the only restriction is due to the tight packing of the young flowers on the axis

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 57

of the spike. There is no marked distortion of the flowers. Each flower is in
the axil of a bract which overlaps the bract of the flower next above so that in
the very young condition the surface of the spike consists of the tips of the
subtending bracts. The only distortion is that the flowers are elongated or
flattened in the direction of their axis. The construction of this inflorescence
makes it easy to orientate the material for sectioning, and to determine in
microscopic examination how a flower lies with regard to the axis of the spike.
There are four sepals and four petals. The stamens number approximately
between 90 and 110. The single legume has ten or twelve ovules, in the young
state is relatively small, and in the pod stage long, narrow and almost cylindrical.
In rare cases, more than one legume has been seen in a flower; but the disposition
of the sections was not such as to disclose the relationship of the legumes to one
another or to the axis of the flower. The orientation of the legume to the axis
of the spike appears to have no constancy. The foliage is of the phyllodineous
type, with flat phyllodes having several parallel ‘‘nerves’’.

Acacia suaveolens.

The flowers of Acacia suaveolens are in globular heads borne in axillary
racemes. The young racemes are enclosed in several large imbricate bracts, and
the flower heads are subtended by bracts. In the bud these bracts so tightly
clasp the young inflorescence and flower-heads that there is often a considerable
distortion of the young flowers (Text-fig. 11). The bracts are deciduous at
anthesis. There are no bracts subtending the individual flowers. Such an
arrangement makes it impossible to orientate the material in sectioning, and
often difficult to determine in microscopic examination how a flower lies with
regard to the axis of the flower-head. There are five sepals and five petals,
though sometimes six or four are found. The stamens number approximately
between 60 and 80. The single legume has five or six ovules, in the young state
is relatively massive, and in the pod stage flat, broad and short. The foliage
is of the phyllodineous type, with flat phyllodes having one ‘nerve’’.

MANIPULATION OF THE MATERIAL.

All the material was fixed in a formalin—alcohol solution (50 c.c. absol. ethyl
alcohol, 50 c.c. water, 6 c.c. commercial formalin). In the case of A. suaveolens,
it was found necessary to dissect out as many bracts as possible. In the case
of A. longifolia the young spikes were rolled and squeezed between the fingers
and cut longitudinally, either down the middle of the axis or twice parallel with
the axis. All material was thoroughly exhausted when put into the fixing fluid.
After dehydration and clearing in either xylol or cedar-wood oil, the material
was embedded in paraffin.

Serial sections were cut with a microtome, mostly at a thickness of 6u
(0006 mm.), a few being cut at 4u and 8u. The block was usually cooled with
ice and salt. This material was very hard, probably on account of the hardening
of the tannin in the cells by the fixative. The consequent friction during cutting
invariably generated static electricity that caused disruption of the ribbon as it
left the edge of the knife. This was overcome by producing a high-frequency
brush discharge around the material and knife (Batson, 1920, describes the
method). The stain used, except where specified, was a triple stain comprising
Safranin in 50% alcohol differentiated with 0:005% Light Green in 95% alcohol,
a saturated solution of Orange G in clove oil and a saturated solution of Light

iH

58 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

Green in clove oil. Immersion of the slides in water after the alcoholic safranin
makes the final differentiation of the safranin much easier. There is no use in
giving a schedule, because the times vary with both species and stage of
development.

é
EXAMINATION OF THE MATERIAL.

The necessary details of the photography and drawing, together with the
standardized annotations, are given in the “Notes on the Illustrations” (p. 85).

The first attempt to find the relation of the primordium of the legume to the
apex of the flower was by means of scale models made of plasticene (modelling
material). The models were made at a magnification of approximately 375 from
series of sections 0:006 mm. thick. Sheets of plasticene were rolled to a thickness
of 2:25 mm. (0-006 x 375), and on them were drawn, with the aid of the camera
lucida, the outlines of the component sections of series through young flowers.
The outlines being cut out and superposed in order, scale models of young flowers
were built up.* Models were made of the portion above the sepals at different
stages of development. After smoothing the surface and cutting off the petals
level with the base of the outer stamens (except in Plate v, fig. 51) and cutting
off some or all of the stamens, the models appeared as in Plate vy, figures 51-59.
They represent two critical stages from Acacia longifolia (58-59) and a complete
series of stages from Acacia suaveolens. The additional stages for longifolia are
represented by outline drawings (Text-figs. 1-5).

DESCRIPTION OF THE EVIDENCE.
METHOD OF APPROACH.

In this description I will not use terms whose morphological or spatial
significance could assume an interpretation of the legume or the carpel. The
term “carpel’ assumes an interpretation of the legume, the terms “legume” and
“apex” (of the flower) have a spatial significance in the problem; therefore they
will not be used.

In the succeeding section of the paper the evidence will be interpreted against
the background of knowledge of the vegetative growing point found in recent
literature. In the final section the criticisms of the classical theory will be
discussed and an attempt made at a constructive contribution to the morphology
of the carpel.

THE EVIDENCE.
External appearances.

The young floral axis is approximately cylindrical, with its upper portion
nearly hemispherical. The appearance, from (and including) the insertion of
the petals upwards at the time of the petal primordia,; is shown by a model of
suaveolens (Plate v, fig. 51) and an outline of a section of a young flower with
bract of longifolia (Text-fig. 1). Soon after this stage the outer part of the
convex end of the axis develops into a “shoulder” leaving a central convex area,
which I will call the ‘dome’. On the “shoulder” the stamen primordia arise,
beginning at its edge and in front of the sepals (not shown in the models)
(Plate v, fig. 52 for suaveolens and Text-fig. 2 and Plate v, fig. 59 for longifolia).

* Zimmermann (1928, p. 299) made a model by drawing on and cutting out card-
board, adding paraffin to the appropriate thickness, and sticking together the magnified
sections thus made.

7 See p. 67 for terminology.

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 59

The area of the “shoulder” becomes filled with the primordia of the stamens
during whose early growth the dome becomes higher (Plate v, figs. 53-5 for
suaveolens and Plate v, fig. 59 and Text-fig. 3 for longifolia). The next develop-
ment appears to occur at a younger stage of staminal growth in longifolia than
in suaveolens, i.e., the stage of Plate v, figure 55 is omitted in longifolia. The
regular contour of the dome is obliterated by an ex-centric development that
appears to affect about half—possibly more—of the circumference of its transverse
projection, but does not extend across its vertical centre. The excrescence so
formed has a crescent shape in vertical projection. This stage is represented for
suaveolens by a model (Plate v, fig. 56) and for longifolia by the outline of a
section at a slightly older stage (Text-fig. 4). During this development the
surface of the dome develops a steeper slope. The crescentic excrescence continues
its vertical growth (Plate v, figs. 57-8 and Text-fig. 5) and, above its insertion
on the dome, extends its arms forward in parallel growth so that a definite groove
is formed between them. The margins of this groove, by increase in thickness
and slight curvature of the arms, are brought into close association. Having
an idea of the “solid” appearance of the development of the flower to this stage,
we can turn to the changes in the tissues, of which this is the outward appearance.

Internal Development of Tissues.

In longifolia it will be easy to trace the enlargement of the young developing
flower, for, though it is closely shut in between its own bract and those of
adjacent flowers, there is no great distortion of its shape. But in suaveolens the
difficulty of determining the orientation of the section and the frequent, marked
distortion (cf. Text-fig. 11 and Plate v, figs. 66-8) prevent a comparison of sizes
in the younger stages. For the sepals, petals, and stamens, the description will
not be carried further than the formation of the primordia.*

At the time the sepal initials are formed, the axis is about 0-125 mm. long
in both species, and its breadth is approximately 0:075 mm. in longifolia and
0-1 mm. in suaveolens. The upper surface of the axis is convex, the degree of
curvature varying considerably in suaveolens on account of the distortion. The
three outer layers of cells appear to have been formed with regularity by anti-
clinal division walls which are generally straight. They have very large nuclei
in proportion to their size, and the cytoplasm is very dense, with very little
vacuolation, if any. Beneath these layers are from one to three layers in which
the direction of division is at random, the nuclei are relatively small and the
cytoplasm is increasingly vacuolated the further the cell is from the surface. This
zone merges into the pith of large, much vacuolated cells with small nuclei.
The walls of the vacuolating and vacuolated cells are curved.

In Plate ii, figure 1, of longifolia, the sepal primordia consist of a fold in the
outer layer (increase by divisions with anticlinal wall formation) under which
are cells, continuous with the second layer and some at least of which have been
formed by divisions with periclinal walls. In the younger stage of suaveolens,
shown in Plate iii, figure 19, the initial of the sepal is seen clearly as a fold in
the outer layer under which divisions with periclinal walls have occurred in the
second layer. There may be some contribution from the third layer.

The description of the formation of the petal initials would be a repetition
of that given above for the sepal initials, except for relative differences in age
of the initials illustrated. This stage is shown in Plate ii, figure 2 for longifolia.

* See p. 67 for terminology.

60 STUDIES IN THE

Ke

Text-figures 1-10c.—Acacia longifolia.

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AUSTRALIAN ACACTIAS.

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Magnification, x 80 for Figures 1-5, and x 160

for Figures 6-10c.

1-5.—Longitudinal

sections of young

flowers corresponding respectively with the

models of Acacia suaveolens shown in Plate v, figures 51, 52, 54, (older than) 56 and 57.

Note the hairs on the bracts, sepals and petals.
(sh) before stamens (2), the stamen initials (3),

(1), the “shoulder’’

The stages shown are: petal primordia
the lateral ovule-

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 61

In the left-hand initial some of the cells appear to have been formed from the
second layer by divisions with walls anticlinal to the inclined surface of the fold.
Plate iii, figure 20 shows the petal initial in suaveolens. About this time the cells
of the pith become greatly enlarged and begin to deposit globules of an unidentified
substance which stains heavily with safranin and haematoxylin.

Examples of the distortion of the young developing flower of suaveolens are
shown in Plate v, figures 66-68, in which the three zones of cell layers, based on
nuclear and cytoplasmic conditions and direction of wall formation, can be clearly
observed. These are at a later stage than that just described.

Still maintaining the three zones of tissue, the axis has about doubled its
height above the level of insertion of the petal initials before they have made
much growth. During the stages to be described in this paragraph the petals of
longifolia become considerably larger than those of swaveolens. As the petals
enlarge, divisions with periclinal walls begin to occur just above them in the
second layer of the axis (Plate ii, fig. 3 and Plate iii, fig. 21). These divisions
extend (Plate ii, fig. 4 and Plate iii, fig. 22) from the petals for about one-third
of the distance over the convex upper surface of the axis (Plate ii, fig. 5 and
Plate iii, fig. 23). In this way the shoulder is formed and the central dome is
differentiated. The second layer of the dome is continuous with the second and
third layers of the shoulder, and the third layer of the dome is continuous with
the fourth layer of the shoulder (originally third layer of the axis). This fourth
layer of the shoulder is becoming vacuolated and losing the regular shape of its
cells.

In suaveolens, the last stage of shoulder formation is concurrent with the
beginning of stamen formation. The stamen initials are formed on the shoulder
and, except that the number of cells concerned in each initial is very much
smaller, the same description applies to them as to the initials of the sepals and
petals. A fold in the outer layer of the shoulder of the axis has, underneath it,
cells derived from the second layer by periclinal wall-formation, some possibly
by divisions in a fold of the second layer with walls anticlinal to the inclined
surface of the fold (Plate ii, figs. 6-8, and Plate iii, figs. 23-26).

By the time the stamen initials have developed into primordia about four
cells high, complete vacuolation has extended in the axis to the second or third
layer of cells in the shoulder, i.e., to layers continuous with the second layer of
the central dome. In the central dome itself there are still three layers of cells

bearing organ (4) and the formation of the groove (5). Note the interlocking of the
tips of the petals in 3. Compare these figures respectively with Plate ii, figures 2, 5, 7,
14 and 18.

6.—Transverse section, 0:1 mm. from the base of young organ, 0:18 mm. long
before formation of the ovules.

7a-e.—Representing a series of 55 transverse sections of an ovule-bearing organ
with primordia of the ovules. Sections are 6u, the numbers represented being 2, 6, 11,
88 and 50, beginning from the tip. Tissue is crushed in one part of bB. Note the
continuation of the groove to the tip of the organ, and the ovules arising at the edges
of the incurved arms of the groove.

8.—Transverse section about half-way up a sterile ovule-bearing organ from a
flower of the same staminal development as that of Text-figures Ta-e.

9a, b.—Transverse sections from the base of the style and in the region of ovules
in an organ whose ovules had attained about the development of those in Text-figures
10a-c before sterility set in.

10a-c.—Transverse sections of an ovule-bearing organ through the base of the style,
middle pair of ovules and just below the loculus, at the stage of the mother cell.
Compare b with Plate vy, figure 76.

62 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. vi,

with non-vacuolated cytoplasm and large nuclei. Under these are one or two
layers of intermediate vacuolation. The dome projects further than before and
the cells of its second and third layers appear to have increased in length
vertically to the surface with a slight distortion whereby the direction of their
long axis approaches that of the axis of the flower. The maximum height attained
by the dome is only about the thickness of the three outer layers of cells—between
0:025 and 0:03 mm. In both species there may be variations in the shape of the
dome. In suaveolens they are derived from the general distortion of the young
flower, already described (Plate iii, figs. 25-27). In longifolia the presence of the
bract causes the petals to be pressed down on the growing axis, whereby some
distortion of the dome occurs (Plate ii, figs. 7-8). The development of the dome
appears to be due more to increase in cell size than to cell division; for the
number of cells in each of the two outer rows is between about 15 and 18 before
and after the increase (cf. Plate ii, fig. 6 with fig. 8, and Plate iii, fig. 24 with

fig. 27). The diameter of the base of the dome shows almost no increase at this
stage.

The next stage of development shows a fold in the outer layer of cells of the
dome, occupying less than half of the outline of the dome in vertical section,
and placed to one side of the vertical centre. The space beneath the fold is
filled with cells derived from the second layer mostly by walls that appear to be
periclinal (Plate ii, figs. 9-12 for longifolia and Plate iii, figs. 28-30 for
suaveolens). This corresponds with the stage shown in Plate v, fig. 56. The
radius of curvature of the central dome is much smaller than that of the young
axis during the formation of the sepal, petal and stamen initials; and the cells
of the second and third layers are elongated vertically in the central dome in
contrast to those of the young axis. Remembering these differences, there is no
fundamental divergence of the process just described from the mode of formation
of the initials of the sepals, petals and stamens. The initial described last
develops into the ovule-bearing organ.

If the foregoing description is true, the mode of formation of the initials of
each of the organs of these flowers is essentially the same. The differences that
exist are mainly concerned with the area of the surface of the axis that is involved,
and the radius of the axis at the level concerned.

An examination of Plate ii, figures 3-8, and Plate iii, figures 21-27, shows
that the dome first existed as the residue of the convex upper surface of the
axis after the shoulder had been formed. Its increase in size (height) was by
increase in size and negligible increase in number of cells. Its three outer
layers of cells were continuous with the three outer layers of cells of the rest
of the axis (before shoulder formation) and have the same protoplasmic charac-
teristics. Its origin is in no way comparable with the origin of the initials of
the floral organs below it; it is merely a part of the axis slightly extended by
cell enlargement. The initial of the ovule-bearing organ having been formed,
there remains a part of the dome not involved, and represented in median vertical
section by a region having 8-10 cells in the outer layer (slightly more than half
the number of cells in the original, full contour). With the formation of the
last initial, the slope of the residual portion of the dome becomes steeper. If
the axis of symmetry of the axial tissues of the young flower be followed to the
upper surface, it will be seen to emerge in the centre of the dome; but after the
formation of the last initial, there is an appearance as if this axis were bent
away from the initial. The “flow” of cells from the apex of the large-celled pith

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 63

emerges on the surface at about the seventh or eighth cell of the surface layer
(in median L.S.) from the base of the dome opposite the initial, that is, at the
original centre of the surface of the dome. This point is now slightly displaced
by the formation of the initial of the ovule-bearing organ (cf. Plate ii, figs. 6-8
with figs. 9-12 for longifolia, and Plate iii, figs. 24-27 with figs. 28-30 for
suaveolens, remembering the distortions).

The course of development of the sepals, petals and stamens beyond the
formation of their primordia is not followed in this paper. The story of the residue
of the dome is described below (p. 65). The development of the ovule-bearing
organ will now be described to the stage where its general form and the manner
of bearing ovules are clearly displayed.

When the initial of the ovule-bearing organ has developed into a primordium
of four or six cells in height and six cells in thickness (Plate ii, figs. 13-14 for
longifolia, and Plate iii, figs. 31-32 for suaveolens), the cells are densely cyto-
plasmic and have relatively large nuclei, as in the three outer layers of the axis
in the previous stages. Passing down through the position of the original second
and third layers of the dome, the cells have an increasing degree of vacuolation,
an increase of size and relatively small nuclei. The large, irregular pith cells
now extend to where was the centre of the base of the dome. To either side of
this point there is a distinct difference in the organization of the cells. Those
on the side towards the primordium are larger and slightly vacuolate, compared
with those in the residue of the dome, except that a couple of vertical rows
towards the centre of the base have retained the feature of relatively large nuclei.
The residue of the dome has retained till now the disposition and appearance
of its three (outer) layers; but there is a beginning of change with slight
vacuolation. The increase in size of the cells on the side towards the primordium
is accompanied by an orientation of their length, such that there is an appearance
of a flow of tissue obliquely from one side of the tip of the pith into the
primordium. The residue of the dome has the appearance of having been tilted
about the outer edge of its base as a pivot by the increase in size of these cells.

It must be remembered that, on account of the small dimensions of the
dome, if the fold that was the initial of the ovule-bearing organ were relatively
long, it would be very much curved in the horizontal plane. When such an
initial grows out as the primordium, it must assume a grooved form, opening
towards the space above the residue of the dome. This feature is shown in
the solid by Plate v, figure 58 for longifolia, and Plate v, figures 56-57 for
suaveolens. In longifolia the approximation and final contact of the two arms
of the grooved primordium occurs much more rapidly than in suaveolens; so
that, whereas in some stages a section down the groove of longifolia will inevitably
show one or other of the approximating surfaces, one or two sections can be cut
down the groove of suaveolens without including either surface. It will be noticed
also at this stage that, with the close crowding of the stamens, the space avail-
able for the longitudinal growth of the ovule-bearing organ causes it to grow in
the vertical direction, and brings the arms of the groove down on to the upper
part of the residue of the dome.

Stages in the development of the groove are illustrated in Plate ii, figures
15-18 for longifolia, and Plate iv, figures 33a—37 for suaveolens. During this
development: (1) the region of complete vacuolation and irregular cells, i.e.,
the pith, extends in the residue of the dome to level of formation of the initial
of the ovule-bearing organ; and (2) in the base of the primordium, vacuolation

64 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

of the cytoplasm and the decrease in the nucleus/cell size-ratio has left a small
central longitudinal zone of cells almost unaffected (Plate ii, fig. 16 for longifolia,
and Plate iv, fig. 35 for swaveolens). Dense cytoplasm and relatively large nuclei
are still maintained at the tip and on the arms of the organ. The aspect of these
features as seen in transverse section is shown in the series of sections illustrated
in Plate iv, figures 39a-f (cf. Plate ii, fig. 14), and Plate iv, figures 38a-f
(cf. Plate iv, figs. 34a—b), for longifolia and suaveolens respectively. In each case
the section shown in d@ passes through the upper part of the residue of the dome
whose smaller cells can be seen on the right. Plate ii, figure 18, and Plate iv,
figure 37, show a further stage in both species with a similar distribution of
cellular differences as before, except that marked vacuolation and the reduction
of the nucleus/cell size-ratio has now affected all of the residue of the dome, in
some of whose outer cells there is a deposition of the globules that stain deeply
with safranin and haematoxylin. The arms of the primordium of the ovule-
bearing organ now extend over, and make contact with the upper surface of
the residue of the dome. Their extent in the transverse plane is already much
greater than when the initial was formed.

Neglecting the residue of the dome, we will follow further the development
of the ovule-bearing organ. It extends at the stage shown in Plate ii, figure 18,
and Plate iv, figure 37, about 0:09 mm. and 0:125 mm. respectively above the
insertion of the adjacent stamens. Text-figures 6 (longifolia) and 12 (suaveolens)
show transverse sections of the organ about half-way up when the heights are
0-18 mm. and 0-16 mm. respectively, the arms of the groove being now almost in
contact. Further growth is such that the rate of increase is greater on the
outside of the arms than on the sides nearly in contact. Consequent upon this,
the margins of the grooved organ remain in contact and a central cavity is
formed. Into this cavity the ovules arise as outgrowths from the margins of
the groove. The two series of sections shown in Text-figures 7a-e for longifolia
and 13a—g for suaveolens illustrate this point and show that the groove extends
to the very tip of the organ and below the insertion of the ovules. The part
of the adult organ that is extended for some distance above the ovuliferous
region is a prolongation of the tip, though in passing upwards the grooved
condition is soon lost. Sections made just above, at the middle of, and just below
the ovuliferous region, at the stage of the megaspore mother cell, are illustrated
for both species in Text-figures 10a—c and 15a-—c. In both these last stages the
appressed epidermes of the margins are clearly discernible on the right of the
organ and the midrib on the left.

Four photomicrographs are submitted in confirmation of these drawings
concerning the appressed epidermes. Plate v, figure 70, is of a longitudinal
section through the margins of the organ when it is about 0:25 mm. long in
longifolia. Plate v, figure 69a, is a similar photomicrograph for the organ when
it is about 0-225 mm. long in suaveolens. Plate v, figure 77, is of a section (at
the base of the ovuliferous region) in the series from which Text-figure 15 is
taken, the line of the two appressed epidermes being clearly visible on the right
side of the structure. Plate v, figure 76, is of the same section as Text-figure 10b
and is a clear confirmation of the drawing. An interesting confirmation of the
single curved structure of the ovule-bearing organ is derived from cases of
sterility. In the flower from which Text-figure 8 was taken, the stamens were
at the stage of those in the flower from which Text-figures 7a-e were taken.
Text-figures 9a-b show degeneration that had set in about the stage of Text-

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 65

figures 10a—-c or a little earlier. Text-figure 14 is of suaveolens where sterility
had set in before formation of the ovules (with degeneration). Occasionally
the organ does not have the margins closed together, in which case the ovules
are visible, as shown in Plate v, figure 69b, of suaveolens (length a little more
than 0-25 mm.).

The single curved structure of the ovule-bearing organ can still be discerned
at the time of fertilization. Plate v, figure 78, of longifolia clearly shows the
appressed marginal epidermes to the right and the twin bundles of the midrib
to the left, the ovules being inserted at the margins.*

As we return to a consideration of the residue of the dome, it must be realized
that the great growth taking place in the ovule-bearing organ, and the difficulty
of finding the perfectly median section with respect of two axes of possible
obliquity, make the demonstration of that residue more difficult in later stages.

The oldest stage of the residues of the dome yet illustrated (Plate ii, fig. 18
for longifolia, and Plate iv, fig. 37 for suaveolens) shows the ovule-bearing organ
extending for 0:09 and 0:125 mm. respectively above the insertion of the adjacent
stamens. Plate v, figure 60, a—b, is from the stage in longifolia where that distance
is about 0-2 mm., just before formation of the ovule initials. Some of the cells
of the residue have a copious deposition of the substance that stains deeply with
safranin and haematoxylin. Growth in this region appears to have been by cell
enlargement only. The surface of the residue is now vertical or even leans
outward, so that it has the appearance of being merely part of the surface of the
pedicel or stipe of the ovule-bearing organ. The large cells of the pith, many
containing the deep staining deposition, are seen to extend past the residue of
the dome, between it and the mid-rib of the ovule-bearing organ. The corres-
ponding figures (Plate iv, figs. 40-41) for suaveolens are from a slightly older
stage when the ovule-bearing organ extends about 0:25 mm. above the insertion
of the adjacent stamens. By this stage the ovule primordia have been formed.
The same features just described can be observed here, except that there is not
such a marked deposition of deep staining substance and the residue of the dome
is not so far displaced from its original position. The upper part of the dome
is “clasped” by the folded ovule-bearing organ in this species, so that its upper
surface is less easily discerned in the later stages. This difficulty is illustrated
in Plate iv, figure 42, of the stage of primary megasporogenous cells.

Two further stages are illustrated, about the times of the megaspore mother
cell and the functional megaspore, in suaveolens. Comparing the earlier of these
two stages (Plate iv, figs. 43-46, consecutive sections) with Plate iv, figures 40-42,
it will be seen that much of the growth at the base of the ovule-bearing organ
and all in the residue of the dome is by cell enlargement. The cells of the pith,
some of them with the deeply-staining deposition, extend into the organ between
its midrib and the residue of the dome. The lower part of the surface of the
residue of the dome is now vertical (about 6 or 7 cells in the L.S.), the upper
part (about 4 or 3 cells) is still curved and is “clasped” by the arms of the
ovule-bearing organ. The slight mutual intrusions of the epidermal cells in this
region make it difficult to follow the surfaces clearly, foreshadowing the almost
complete obliteration of them, which is nearly accomplished by the stage of the
functional megaspore (Plate iv, figs. 47-50). In this last stage, the tissue of
the residue of the dome can still just be identified, though, had it not been

* Note that the twin bundles of the midrib are formed from a single primordium.

66 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

Mereaien
rah”

is

Text-figures 11-15c.—Acacia swaveolens.

11.—Transverse section of a little more than a longitudinal half of a raceme, showing
the axis (Az) giving off a pedicel of a flower-head to the left, sections of three flower-
heads and several bracts. fll-fl3 are flowers of which sections are shown in Plate v,
figs. 66-68. This figure shows the tight packing of the raceme with the bracts and the
resultant distortion of some of the flowers. Magnification, x 55.

12.—Transverse section about half-way up a young ovule-bearing organ of 0:16 mm.
length, before the formation of the ovule primordia. Magnification, x 160.

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 67

traced from the beginning, it could not have been discriminated from the tissues
of the base of the ovule-bearing organ. The disposition of the pith and the
deposition in its cells in this stage are but continuations of the conditions in the
earlier stage just described.

The development of the vascular tissue has not been followed far, but it is
evident that the pith extends between the residue of the dome and the single
pro-cambial strand of the early stages of the ovule-bearing organ (Text-figs. 6—T7e,
12-139, Plate v, figs. 60a—b, Plate iv, figs. 40-41). During the development of the
ovules, pro-cambial strands are differentiated beneath them in the margins of the
ovule-bearing organ (Text-figs. 10a—c, 15a—c, Plate v, figs. 76, 78 and fig. 77).

Though I have not traced the residue of the dome in longifolia beyond the
stage shown in Plate v, figures 60a—b, this description is not thereby made appre-
ciably incomplete, because at that stage the residue of the dome was situated
further below the folded arms of the ovule-bearing organ, the later development
of which could not complicate the description as in the case of suaveolens.

INTERPRETATION OF THE EVIDENCE.
INTRODUCTORY.

The foregging description of some of the aspects of floral ontogeny in
Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia is made in order to provide a basis for
the morphological interpretation of the legume, and to contribute to the morpho-
logical interpretation of the carpel. As Schtiepp (1930, p. 339) says: all forms
are produced by growth, and therefore morphology must always become more a
story of formation (Bildungsgeschichte). Having described in detail the appear-
ances of the different stages of that story, we now have to make an interpretation
of them, remembering that the floral apex is a living, re-acting organization.
It is, however, necessary for the sake of clearness to make some temporary
restriction in the angle of approach to the subject. The description has, there-
fore, been made in terms of the histogenesis of an apical meristem giving rise
to lateral organs. In the literature available to me I can find no such account
of a floral apex, and very little reference in the citations. The aim of this paper
is to use the histogenesis as a basis for interpretation, and not to make a detailed
study of histogenesis in the floral apex. It has therefore been necessary to employ
one of the methods of description already in use for the vegetative apex. The
description I have given has been based on accounts of the apical meristem that
are generalized and describe activity, rather than on those that are precise
demarcations of tissue-areas and describe appearances.

Louis (1935, p. 92, footnote) defines his terminology for the early stages
in leaf formation thus: “initium foliaire’ is the very beginning of divisions that
form a protuberance, “primordium foliaire” is still strongly meristematic, ‘‘ébauche
foliaire’ is the protuberance in differentiation. In the terms “initial”,

13a-g.—Representing a series of 40 transverse sections of an ovule-bearing organ
with primordia of the ovules. Sections are 6u, the numbers represented being 2, 4, 7,
21, 29, 30 and 34, beginning at the tip. Note the continuation of the groove to the tip
of the organ, and the ovules arising at the edges of the incurved arms of the groove.
Magnification, x 160 for a-e, and x 80 for f-g.

14.—Transverse section of a young sterile ovule-bearing organ that had not formed
primordia of ovules. Magnification, x 160.

15a-c.—Transverse sections of an ovule-bearing organ at the stage of the mother
cell, through the junction of style and loculus, the region of ovules and just below the
region of ovules. Plate v, figure 77 is of a section through the base of the loculus of
this organ. Magnification, x 160.

68 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

“primordium” and “young .. .’’ I have generally followed that system. (There
are no sharp boundaries between the stages.)

The examinations made in this inquiry were directed primarily to tracing the
initiation of the parts of the flower, and especially the relation of the legume
to the apex. There is not enough detailed evidence collected to permit of much
reference to the origin of the vascular tissue and the connection of the vascular
strands of the floral parts with the axis.

References in the literature to the meristem of the floral apex* seem to be
concerned mainly with physiology or the determination of time and conditions
of flower formation for economic purposes. Klebs (1914) has shown experi-
mentally that flower formation is related rather to quantitative seasonal
differences in nutrition than to qualitative differences in the substances supplied
to the growing apex. Schmidt (1924) records that in Scrophularia the
meristematic layers lie more thickly at the apex at the time of flower formation.
Priestly (1929, p. 63) suggests that the greater depth of meristem in flower buds
is due to a greater thickness of cell walls and consequent increased water supply
through them to the protoplasts; the thickness of the walls is possibly correlated
with the relatively greater proportion of carbohydrates in the supplies to the
apex at the time the flowers are being formed. More closely placed to our
present problem are the many papers on the formation of ‘“fruit-buds” (e.g.,
Barnard and Read, 1932-3, references to literature), which appear to cover the
ground required, but not in sufficient detail of description or illustration to give
any information on the histological details of the floral apex. Such workers
must have a great deal of material that would throw light on histogenetic
problems of the floral apical meristem and on the morphology of the carpel.

So little work, then, has been done on the histogenesis of the floral apical ~
meristem, that caution must be exercised in drawing conclusions in the absence
of detailed and systematic examinations. This paper will have served a useful
purpose if, in attempting to describe the floral in terms of the vegetative apical
meristem, it calls attention to the great field of work here to be found in
connection with morphological inquiry.

THE VEGETATIVE APEX AS A BACKGROUND FOR THE INTERPRETATION.
The Apical Meristem.t
Structure.

We owe our knowledge of the structure of the cells of the apical meristem
of the angiospermous shoot largely to Sachs (1882), Schmidt, Schtiepp, and
Priestly. Differing slightly in details, there is a general agreement among them
that the cells occur in zones that are more or less sharply defined, and of various
numbers of cell-layers. The outer zone is composed of regular, straight-sided,
rectangular cells with relatively very large nuclei and dense, unvacuolated
cytoplasm, which assume their shape on account of external pressure, having no
internal (osmotic) pressure due to vacuoles (Priestly, 1928, pp. 4-6, and 1929,
p. 55). There follows a zone of cells which, though still dividing as rapidly as

* A paper by Grégoire (1931) is not included here, as it is a subject of criticism
on account of the morphological conclusion. It is dealt with below (p. 79).

7 In some species of Acacia (e.g., Baileyana) flower formation and vegetative growth
appear to go on at the same time.

tI regret that Schiiepp’s monograph on the Meristem (1926) is not available to
me in Sydney. I therefore ask to be pardoned if any of my deductions that follow
appear to repeat existing discussions unnecessarily.

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 69

those in the outer zone, are in process of becoming vacuolated. Within and
below is a zone of cells which, having attained vacuolation, are expanding by the
intake of water into the vacuoles. The outer zone is described as “meristematic”
(Priestly, 1929, p. 54), ‘‘typical’ and “embryonic meristem” (Schitiepp, 1917, p. 73,
and 1926), and ‘‘tunica” (Schmidt, 1924). The almost complete predominance of
divisions with anticlinal wall-formation, makes its one to about four layers of
cells genetically distinct. The next zone has been described as ‘“‘vacuolating
dividing” (Priestly, 1929, p. 54) and “half-meristem” (Schiiepp, 1917, p. 73, and
1926). The direction of the nuclear divisions in it is at random. The third zone
is described as “vacuolating expanding” (Priestly, 1929, p. 54) and “lengthening
tissue” (Schiiepp, 1917, p. 73, and 1926). The last two zones comprise the
“corpus” of Schmidt (1924).*

We must not expect these zones to be rigidly marked; for example, Foster
(1935, p. 90) refers to occasional periclinal division-walls in the “tunica” of
Carya Buckleyi. Priestly (1928, pp. 11, 12) points out that the definiteness of
organization of the zones of the meristem depends on the rate of growth, degree
of internal pressure (due to vacuolation and expansion of innermost zone) and
breadth of the apex.

The description given of the structure of the meristematic tissues of the floral
apex of Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia are in general agreement with
the terms outlined above. Before discussing the results of the activity of the
vegetative apex, certain internal and external conditions affecting its operation
will be pointed out.

According to Hrrera’s law, new cell walls are formed in such a direction
that they are of minimum area (Hrrera, 1886).; The truth of this was demon-
strated by Giesenhagen (1909). It seems quite reasonable to consider with
Zimmermann (1928, p. 313) that the function of the “corpus” (Schmidt, 1924),
comprising the zones that are vacuolating and that are expanding (Sachs, Priestly
and Schtiepp), is the extension of the vegetative point, for the random direction
of division walls (vacuolating zone) and the expansion of the cells by intake
of water (expanding zone) will produce increase in volume (expressed mainly
as increase in length). On the other hand, as many have pointed out, the outer
zone, by its divisions with anticlinal wall formation, produces only increase in
surface. Priestly (1928, pp. 10, 11) has suggested that the pressure set up by
the vacuolation of the internal zones compresses the outer zone of fully
meristematic, unvacuolate cells against the cuticle, so that, not only are they of a
rectangular shape, but their long axis is parallel to the surface. The result is
that the minimum area across which new walls can be formed is perpendicular
to the surface of the growing point, thus instituting the difference between the
zones of anticlinal and random direction of wall-formation. The growing point
thus appears within itself to be differentiated as the expression of a system of
pressures and tensions. The increase in surface of the outer zone is a direct
result of the pressure due to increase in volume of the inner zones. There is a
paradox here which will be explained further on.

*In addition, Schtiepp (1917, pp. 60-68) describes in Helianthus annus an apical
group of initial cells that give rise to the two zones of meristematic cells. In the figures
given by Priestly (1928, 1929), Priestly and Swingle (1929), Zimmermann (1928) and
Louis (1935) I can recognize no such group.

+ The term used in this reference is “average constant curve’? (courbure moyenne
constante).

»

70 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. vi,

Usually the apical region of the shoot, particularly when the apical cone is
short, is closely surrounded by the young leaves, which have every appearance of
being pressed against it. The lower part of the apical cone is in contact with the
surface of the youngest leaves. Increase in volume of the cone would cause
flattening of the outer layers of cells of that part of the apex. The consequent
operation of Hrrera’s law to produce anticlinal wall-formation would tend to
emphasize the growth in surface along the faces of the existing leaves, that is,
growth would be parallel with the surface of pressure. This may explain the
origin of new leaves between the existing ones, where the conditions can favour
divisions with periclinal wall-formation, and folding of the surface into the free
space to accommodate the increase opposite the existing leaves. It seems, there-
fore, very reasonable for Schtiepp (1917) to emphasize strongly that (following
Sachs, 1894—-with some modifications) the direction and growth of each meristem
cell is consequent upon the form of the whole vegetative apex and upon its
position in the apex (p. 61); and to conclude that the external differentiation
of the vegetative apex is primary, and the inner differentiation consequent thereon
and secondary. Though a reversal of existing ideas, this leads to a theory which
may explain the progress of the vegetative point from an undifferentiated to a
differentiated condition (p. 75).

We have now seen that it is possible to look for quite simple explanations
of the external and internal differentiation of the vegetative apex. These simple
explanations would not be all-inclusive;* they also assume the process of apical
growth to be in progress; and there still remains the problem of how the process
is started. However, the above ideas will serve as a useful check on interpreta-
tions that may be too rigid or artificial.

Activity.

It has already been pointed out that the manner of growth of the outer, “fully
meristematic” (unvacuolated), cell-layers produces increase in surface of the
apex, and that the manner of growth of the two inner zones produces increase in
volume. It has been shown by Schiiepp that the rate of division in the different
meristematic layers is the same, regardless of the depth from the surface. He
has calculated that such a condition will produce an increase in surface greater
than that necessary for the increase in volume. The result is that the surface
of the apical cone is thrown into folds which become the initials of the leaves
(Schtiepp, 1914, pp. 335-338; 1917, pp. 62, 64-68; 1930, p. 340). Priestly (1929,
p. 62) supports this and points out that the layer(s) immediately under the fold
are generally subject to divisions with periclinal wall-formation whereby they
contribute to the primordium of the leaf. (See also Schiiepp, 1930, p. 340). If the
fold in the outer layer draws out the cells of the next layer(s) so that their
long axis is perpendicular to the original surface of the apical cone, it is under-
standable why the division walls should be periclinal. One of the chief results
of the process is that the leaves are formed from the two to four outer layers
of the apex. Though he does not express it in terms of “folding”, Zimmermann
(1928, pp. 303, etc.) describes the origin of the leaves in Hypericum wralum from
the four outer layers (“tunica’ of Schmidt, 1924, and the “fully meristematic”
zone of Priestly, 1929), by divisions with anticlinal wall-formation in the first
and second layers and enlargement and divisions with periclinal wall-formation
in the third and fourth layers.

*J have not taken the physico-chemical conditions of the apex into consideration,
as I have derived from my investigation no information thereon.

BY I. V. NEWMAN. al

Two difficulties now arise. First, there is the paradox referred to above,
namely: if the surface is increasing in excess of the volume, how can the outer
layers be compressed between the cuticle and the expanding inner zone? The
second difficulty is: if the meristematic layers are all growing equally fast, and
therefore produce folds in the surface, why are these folds localized and not as
rings round the apical cone?

It is a matter of observed fact that growth is not uniform over the whole
circumference of an apex.* Priestly and Scott (1933, p. 242), speaking of the
emergence of leaf primordia, have said: “In phyllotaxis the actual locus of a
new emergence becomes very important. Unfortunately all that can be said
is that every meristematic apex is apparently asymmetric and grows more
rapidly at one point than at any other. This point becomes the centre of a new
fold.” Priestly (1929) and Griffiths and Malins (1930) have described a unit
of shoot growth which does not occupy the whole of the circumference of the
shoot. If this is associated with any form of spiral phyllotaxis, it requires a
revolving segment of increased activity in the apical meristem, producing isolated
folds by an intermittent movement. Schtiepp (1914) has measured the period
of this movement and found that it is rhythmic, with a time interval which is
constant for any one organ of a species. This interval is the “plastochrone”
(Askenasy, 1880, p. 76), which may be associated with movement of the segment
in one or more spirals. Schtiepp (1921) has worked out the geometrical relation-
ships of different types of known leaf arrangements, assuming such a periodical
raising of equal parts from the embryonal mass of the vegetative apex.

Thus the second difficulty is explained by the fact that, though the rate of
meristematic activity is uniform in the meristem perpendicularly to the surface,
it is not uniform parallel to the surface but is more intense in a restricted
segment, subject to periodic fluctuation and displacement. The explanation of
the first difficulty begins at the same point. For over most of the surface
meristematic activity is not occurring at greatest intensity (if at ally). It
seems reasonable to assume that the expansion due to vacuolation will not be
subject to localization like the meristematic activity and will set up a more or
less constant pressure, preparing the outer layers in the more slowly growing
segment for the anticlinal wall-formation to follow.

There has been outlined above a mechanism of growth which is simple, and
operates through internal and external conditions that do not require rigid and
artificial definitions, but allow of a reasonable merging of processes and indefinite-
ness of structural zones. (Zimmermann, 1928, p. 342, concludes that the relation-
ship of the layers of the apex to the leaf varies from case to case.) It is on such
a basis that I have built the description in the earlier part of the paper, and upon
which an interpretation thereof will be made later.t

* Cf. the nutation and circumnutation movements of apices.

7 Absence of meristematic activity from a large segment of the apex would cause
marked distortion whicn is not observed in every case. Activity at the very apex may
be uniform (cf. Schiiepp’s group of initial cells, 1917, pp. 64-66) and the operation of
the varying intensity of activity be confined to a region a little below the apex.

~ Certain work on the processes of the vegetative apex should be mentioned here,
though it is disregarded in the background for the interpretation made in this paper.

Schmidt (1924) has used the idea of an alternation of minimum and maximum area
(minimalflache and maximalflache) during a plastochrone, so that the growing point
inereases during the interval from a minimum area to a maximum area, at the edge
of which the initials of the new leaves arise, reducing the growing point to a minimum
area again. Louis (1935) and Grégoire (1935a) have made strong use of this idea.

2 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

The Lateral Organs.

This inquiry does not follow the development of the lateral organs very far,
and has little to disclose about their vascular connection to the stem. There
seems to be general agreement that, as we pass down the young axis, we find that
vacuolation takes place not only at the centre but at the periphery, leaving a
ring of meristematic tissue (‘‘pro-desmogéne” of Grégoire, 1935a@ and 6b, and
Louis, 1935) which becomes the locus of the procambium; though not necessarily
all of it becomes procambium. It is also to be noted that this process of vacuola-
tion leaves a zone of meristematic tissue extending from the axial ring into
the meristematic tissue of the primordium of the leaf. (See Priestly, 1928,
pp. 12-14, and 1929, p. 74, for the institution of the vascular connection.)

Louis’ description (1935) of the tissues of the young leaf of several species,
including Syringa vulgaris and Arabis alpina, is important for our purpose. The
primordium is first evenly meristematic throughout its volume. Then, a little
distance below the tip of the primordium, vacuolation begins on the ab-axial and
ad-axial sides, leaving an are of meristematic tissue joining the margins of the
primordium and extended upwards to occupy the whole of the cross-section at the
tip. Further vacuolation across this are leaves meristematic tissue at the
margins and in the centre of the young leaf. From the marginal meristems, the
lamina is developed. The central meristem is the locus of formation of the
pro-cambium.

Residual Apex.
As the vegetative shoot is theoretically of unlimited growth, the question of
a residual apex does not arise in the investigations of its manner of growth.
There is, therefore, no body of information against which to set the discussion of
this question which must arise in considering the growth of the flower which is

I have disregarded it because it seems to be really a description of the appearances
only, whereas the ideas of Schtiepp and Priestly, set out above, take us into the realm
of explanation.

Grégoire (1935a and b) regards the leaf primordia as arising on “leaf foundations”
(soubassements foliaires) developed on the vegetative cone as it increases from minimum
to maximum area during a plastochrone; and that on account of this ‘‘foundation’”’ the
leaf grows vertically. This is described with illustrations by Louis (1935, pp. 99-123)
for Syringa vulgaris and Arabis alpina, together with details of the shape of the cone
at successively lower levels, including the “foundations”. Using these terms, Louis
finds it necessary to formulate two types of leaf initiation in the Dicotyledons: (1)
Alternation of minimum and maximum area with the establishment of the leaf founda-
tion, the general type; (2) The development of a lateral protuberance, in a few cases
such as Hippuris vulgaris (pp. 126-130). Zimmermann has described in Hypericum
uralum the histogenesis of the same phenomenon that Louis describes as “soubassement
foliaire”’, without recourse to the terms used by Louis and Grégoire (Zimmermann, 1928,
p. 303, ete.). It seems to me that Louis and Grégoire, in their interpretations, have
failed to recognize that the pressure from within the apex and the restrictions imposed
from without by the existing leaves will in a great degree determine the shape of the
vegetative cone and the shape and direction of growth of the primordia. The recog-
nition of these factors will obviate the necessity to formulate the two types of leaf
initiation in the Dicotyledons, and will prevent what seems to me too rigid and artificial
a description of the phenomena.

Support for the recognition of the influence of pressure by existing organs comes
from Doak (1935), who refers to the bud scales of Pinus having a “binding effect upon
the tissues within” (p. 24); and speaks of certain phases of evolution in Pinws where
“Just as pressures within the compound bud limited, shaped, and displaced the sheath
scales of the dwarf shoot, so the formation of the compound strobilus limited, shaped
and displaced the sporophylls on the simple strobilus” (p. 43).

BY I. V. NEWMAN. ; 73

theoretically of limited growth. The following considerations have a bearing on
the question.

If it is correct to consider with Zimmermann (1928, p. 313) that the vacuo-
lating dividing cells and the expanding cells (‘‘corpus” of Schmidt, 1924), have
the function of extending the vegetative point, and with Priestly (1929, p. 69)
that the vacuolating dividing cells characterize “that region of cell growth and
activity which lays down the node and internode of the ‘articulate’ shoot
organisation”; then, in a shoot of limited growth, it is in that region we must
look for the beginning of an explanation of the limitations of growth.

Two other observations of vegetative apices are significant for the question
of a residual apex. Schtiepp (1914, pp. 332-3) studied growth curves in Lathyrus
latifolius L., and suggested that the initial, rapid growth of the laterals, followed
by slow growth, is due partly to diversion of material to the new ones, leaving a
deficiency for those already formed. Priestly and Scott (1933, p. 242) consider
that the early formation of pro-cambial cells is probably responsible for the fact
that the leaf primordium grows more rapidly than the meristematic apex; and
conclude (p. 266) that primordia, once formed, are competing centres of activity.
Schtiepp (1917, pp. 45 and 76) correlates the proportion of the vegetative cone
involved in the formation of a lateral with the number of shoot parts growing
at any one time (i.e., with the length of the plastochrone). In Hlodea, where
one-tenth of the apex is used up, many parts are growing at one time; but in
Mesembryanthemum pseudotruncatellum, where nine-tenths of the apex is involved,
only one or two parts are growing at the one time. In the latter case there is a
long rest period. It is conceivable that if the growth rate of the apex were other-
wise slowed down, the superposition of the rest period might cause such a delay
that the extent of growth of the last-formed lateral might mechanically and/or
physiologically prohibit further growth of the apex, before the completion of
the rest period.

If meristematic activity occurs periodically in sectors disposed in a spiral
manner on the growing cone, then, under the conditions just indicated, it seems
reasonable to conclude that in a shoot of limited growth there must be a residual
apex. No organ could be strictly terminal.

THE INTERPRETATION.

We come now to review the description given of the floral apex in Acacia
suaveolens and Acacia longifolia, making an interpretation against the back-
ground of the foregoing discussion of vegetative apices. In this interpretation
the term “carpel’ will not yet be used. In examining the photomicrographs,
allowance must be made for slight shrinkage in the fully meristematic cells.

The Apical Meristem.

The floral apex in both these species exhibits three zones of cellular condition:
the fully meristematic zone with dense, unvacuolate cytoplasm, relatively large
nuclei, rectangular cells and predominance of anticlinal wall-formation; the half-
meristematic zone with the beginning of vacuolation, relatively large nuclei and
random direction of division; and the vacuolating expanding zone without division
but with enlargement of cells by intake of water into the vacuoles and with curved
cell walls. That there is not complete regularity of direction of division in the
outer zone is probably due to the apex being broad (Priestly, 1928, p. 12), with
consequently less pressure to flatten the outer layers. Probably, it is also partly
due to a lessening of the pressure on account of the diminishing expansion of

I

74 ; STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

the inner zones concurrent with the limitation of growth. This diminishing
expansion of the inner zones is explained by the fact that the vacuolating dividing
zone appears frequently to consist of one layer only, and rarely of more than
two. If these expanding zones are normally the cause of growth in length, we
are witnessing the limitation of that growth.

The Sepals, Petals and Stamens.

There is the regular formation of the initials of the sepals and petals by
folding of the outer layer of cells and the projection into the fold of the next
layer or two, mostly by divisions with periclinal walls.

The formation of the shoulder is an interesting variation from the growth
of a vegetative apex. I doubt whether there is any special significance in it. A
possible explanation is that the external restrictions of the growing petals cause
them to compress tangentially the adjacent cells of the outer zone of the apex
so that the operation of Errera’s law results in divisions with periclinal wall-
formation.

Although the formation of the stamens appears to follow the normal process
of folding of the outer layer with periclinal wall-formation below it, there is to be
sought a reason for the sudden change in the size of the folds compared with
the initials of the sepals and petals. Is it due to a diminished size of the segment
of meristematic activity? That here we have many parts growing together can
be correlated with the fact that in the formation of any one of them only a very
small fraction of the apical cone is used up. There is no evidence against their
formation in spiral sequence. They are not formed simultaneously.

The Relation of the Legume to the Apex.

The formation of the shoulder leaves the central part of the apex as a small
dome composed only of fully meristematic cells. By the time the stamen
primordia are all formed, this dome, which is all that is left of the meristematic
apex, has increased in size slightly. This increase, due almost entirely to cell
enlargement, is laterally restricted by the growing stamens and the other parts
of the flower so that the small apex is forced to extend vertically by elongation
of its cells. As the vacuolating dividing zone does not extend into the apex,
there is no means of producing a normal lengthening of it. At this stage the
vacuolating dividing zone has almost been changed into the expanding zone.
Apical growth has nearly ceased.

By the asymmetric incidence of meristematic activity, a lateral fold is formed
in the outer layer of the apex; the lower layers protrude into the fold by
divisions with periclinal wall-formation; and thus the initial of the legume is
formed in the same manner as those of the other parts of the flower and of
vegetative leaves. The small radius of the apex at the time causes the initial to
have a strongly curved insertion, so that the primordium is curved from the
beginning. The growth of the primordium is not just a vertical extension from
its insertion on the apex. The meristematic tissue at the tip increases the length,
and the meristematic tissues on the margins extend the breadth of the lamina
of the legume. The legume is thus initiated and the plan of its structure
differentiated in the same manner as for vegetative leaves. The spatial restriction
to which it is subjected forces it into a vertical position. Excess growth in the
abaxial part causes the marked curving which produces the close contact of the
margins, whose appressed epidermes at later stages undergo a slight mutual
intrusion which nearly makes them indistinguishable. The ovules are produced

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 75

at the margins of the lamina of this leaf-like organ, the legume, which has been
so folded that they develop into an enclosed space. Above the region of formation
of the ovules the growth of the margins and the excess growth on the abaxial
side diminish acropetally, so that the central cavity is continuous upwards with
a closed groove which becomes merged into the surface of one side of the
cylindrical style. The groove reappears at the tip of the style as the stigmatic
surface, which is slightly depressed and laterally displaced.

After the formation of the initial of the legume, the residue of the apex
(dome) passes from the fully meristematic condition to a condition of complete
vacuolation without further meristematic activity (even in the early stages of the
process). We have thus witnessed the suppression of the apex,* which is
displaced laterally and overtopped by the developing legume. Slight mutual
intrusion of the epidermes of the residue of the apex and of the lamina of the
legume (where the two are in contact) makes it almost impossible to distinguish
them in the later stages. At a period later than shown in this paper the residue
of the apex would assume the appearance of being but a small part of the short
stalk of the legume.

The relation between the early development of the legume and the suppressed
apex has been demonstrated by a series of models made in “plasticene” (modelling
material). These models were made differently from those described earlier.
They were moulded by hand according to measurements of certain of the illus-
trations of Acacia suaveolens in this paper (see explanation of the Figures for
identification). They are of the same magnification as those illustrations
(approximately). White plasticene was used to represent the apex just before
the formation of the initial of the legume, and the residue of that apex thereafter.
Grey plasticene was used to represent the legume at all stages of development.
These models were cut longitudinally so that the cut surface would present the
same aspect as the illustrations upon which they were based. The complete
models are shown in Plate v, figures 61-65. The cut models are shown in Plate v,
figures 71-75, together with the originals from which their measurements were
taken. The gradual displacement of the suppressed apex, and the clasping of
its top by the base of the lamina of the legume, is clearly shown.

On the evidence brought forward in this paper, I can see no other conclusion
than that the legume in the two species examined is a lateral laminar organ
developed on an apex which is immediately suppressed; that the initiation and
differentiation of the legume is not significantly different from those of a
vegetative leaf; and that the ovules are formed on the margins of the lamina
of the legume.

DISCUSSION.
INTRODUCTORY.

This histogenetic study of the floral apex and initiation of the floral appendages
of Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia has been designed to test recent
criticisms and variations of the classical idea of the carpel as a modified leaf.
The evidence presented herein is the cellular details of the meristematic activity
of the floral apex that gives rise to the initials of the floral organs. In the case
of the legume, the study is continued as far as the formation of the ovule
primordia. This evidence shows clearly that (1) the legume takes its origin
by the meristematic activity of cells occupying a lateral position on the floral

* See above (‘“‘Residual Apex’”’, p. 72) for possible causes.

76 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

apex; (2) the residue of the apex loses its meristematic activity, the apex thereby
becoming suppressed; (3) the legume is a single, laminar structure which by
incurving and adpression of its margins encloses a central cavity; (4) the ovules
arise on the incurved margins of this laminar structure.

The work of Priestly and Swingle (1929) on regeneration has emphasized the
fact that cells can resume the meristematic state long after they have lost it,
if the appropriate conditions are set up. This obviously happens after fertilization,
when the legume renews its growth. There is therefore no reason against renewed
meristematic activity producing vascular tissue in the uppermost parts of the
floral axis where there were no procambia at the time of formation of the legume
primordium. It would then be easily possible for the pod to appear to receive
the whole of the residual vascular cylinder after the exsertion of the androecium.
The minuteness of the residual apex alone, before or after the renewed
meristematic activity, might also cause this appearance. At the time the first
procambia are formed in the primordium of the legume, the vertical distance is
very small within which the level of their insertion is to be determined—in the
cases of Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia it is only about 50u. Differences
in level within such a distance may easily be obliterated or even reversed by
the growth that takes place up to the stage of fertilization, and still more so
after fertilization. It is reasonable, therefore, to regard a study of the vascular
anatomy after the very earliest stages as being not competent to determine
whether or not the legume is terminal. This is especially so if transverse sections
only are used. (The same considerations would apply to any gynoecial structure
under morphological interpretation.) Moreover, a multitude of the types
examined can add no weight to any conclusions, if the manner of examination
is not competent to reveal significant evidence.

In this paper I have studied ontogeny and meristematic activity. That is to
say, a close series of stages of the coming into being of the parts concerned has
been examined and illustrated with cellular details of the meristematic tissues
involved. This study has led to interpretations different from some that are
claimed to have as their basis an examination of ontogeny and meristematic
activity, or that follow expositions of the necessity for such examinations
(Grégoire, 1931, pp. 1288-9; Thomas, 1934, p. 177; Thompson, 1931, p. 75, and
1934, p. 7). The studies of these workers appear to me to lack the necessary
closeness and earliness of the series of stages described, the presentation of
cellular details of the tissues and the illustration of longitudinal sections. There
is serious danger of calling “ontogeny” that which is not ontogeny because
it includes so few truly early developmental stages and is not of sufficient detail.

For the reasons outlined above I have taken little notice of vasculation after
the primordial stages, in this inquiry, and will not make much reference thereto
in discussing the literature. The questions of the vascular anatomy of the legume
will be found discussed with references to the relevant literature in papers by
Parkin (1929), Eames (1931), Arber (1933), Bancroft (1935), Joshi (1935), etc.,
in addition to the four propounders of the theories I am discussing.

CRITICISM OF RECENT THEORIES.

We now come to consideration of the theories of the four workers mentioned
at the beginning of this paper who oppose or modify the classical theory of the
carpel. It is to be understood that I can only speak in so far as they refer to the
legume—particularly the Acacia legume—or make reference to the carpel in

BY I. V. NEWMAN. iat

general. There will not be a detailed comparison of the evidence produced in
this paper with the evidence and conclusions given by these writers. But I will
ask the reader to bear in mind the content and nature of the evidence presented
herein and the remarks made above on the competence or incompetence of
different types of evidence. The common elements of the different theories will
be discussed together.

If the evidence, the interpretation, and the criticisms of types of evidence
that have been given above are valid, then the following propositions are not
true: (1) The legume is a terminal structure; (2) the legume is not a single
folded structure; (3) the legume is not a foliar structure.

(1) The legume is a terminal structure—This statement is made by Saunders
(1929). She bases it on the claim (p. 225) that the “whole residual vascular
cylinder in the Leguminosae is continued directly into the gynoecium”. The
evidence presented in support of this claim consists of transverse sections of
well advanced legumes shown in outline, with no significant illustrations of cell
detail. There are no longitudinal sections, no close series of early developmental
stages nor an exposition of terminality being a necessary consequence of the whole
residual vascular cylinder* entering the gynoecium. For Acacia suaveolens she
produces no evidence on this question, because Figures 1-3 do not include the
level of exsertion of the legume from the floral axis.

In making this statement, Thompson; (1929, pp. 16-17, etc., and 1931, pp. 11,
ete., and 75—conclusion) appears to have regarded the “dome”, that is, the
remainder of the apex after the formation of the stamens, as the initiation of
the legume. The evidence he presents (neglecting sectional views of adult
flowers) consists almost entirely of outline drawings of serial transverse sections
at various stages of development. The one longitudinal section illustrated is of
Acacia spadicigera, and demonstrates clearly the necessity for the study of
tissues (1931, fig. 63). The outline of the “gynoecium” in this figure is almost
identical with the outline of the legume plus the residue of the apex shown in my
Plate ii, figures 13-15, and Text-figure 4 for Acacia longifolia and Plate iii, figures
31, 32, 34a and 35 for Acacia suaveolens.

Grégoire (1931, pp. 1289 and 1294) makes the statement with regard to the
carpel in general. His figures are very few and show no developmental series or
details of tissues (see Postscript, p. 88).

Arber has discussed cases of leaves that are described as terminal (1930,
pp. 301-2). One of these is that of Gigantochloa (1928, p. 184); but in the evidence
presented there is the same lack of close developmental series and cellular detail
of tissues. Attention is re-directed to the tentative argument made above that
an organ cannot be terminal.t

If the legume is not terminal, we expect to find some cases where the apex
has not been suppressed. Such a case was found in Acacia Baileyana, where an
apex had produced a young flower after the formation of the legume. The young

* This question of the ‘‘whole residual vascular cylinder’ is bound up with the
conception of the unit of shoot growth. Cf. Griffiths and Malins (1930) and Priestly
and Scott (1933).

+In a later paper (1934) Thompson propounds a theory which is incompatible
with this, but he does not definitely withdraw his frequent and unequivocal statement
ot terminality of the legume made in the papers referred to here.

¢See “Residual Apex” (p. 72). Also compare the idea of the unit of shoot
growth (Griffiths and Malins, 1930, and Priestly and Scott, 1933).

78 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. vi,

flower had the appearance of growing out of the base of the legume (Newman,
1933, p. 154).

If the ontogenetic and histogenetic evidence presented in this paper is repre-
sentative of the evidence that could be produced from other Leguminosae by
similar methods of study, then the legume is a lateral organ. The legumes of
Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia are certainly lateral organs.

(2) The legume is not a single folded structure.—This proposition is part
of Saunders’ application of the Theory of Carpel Polymorphism to the Leguminosae
(1925, p. 142, and 1929). Her statement that the legume consists of two carpels,
one fertile and the other sterile, is incompatible with the ontogenetic and histo-
genetic evidence given herein* for Acacia suaveolens (illustrated by her, 1929,
Figs. 1-3) and Acacia longifolia (referred to by her, 1929, p. 227). She illustrates
with outline drawings of transverse sections (1929), except in two figures with
cell detail, one of which (Fig. 79) shows the legume a single folded structure
(the other does not bear on the point).

Grégoire (1924) regards the legume (of Papilionaceae) as not folded because
he interprets its primordium as annular. In the cases described here the
primordium is certainly not annular. The figure given by Grégoire is a transverse
section of a legume long after the primordial stage. His objections to the single
structure based on dehiscence have been met by the description of the pod of
Acacia Baileyana (Newman, 1934, p. 238).

I can only conclude from the evidence presented herein that, if it is repre-
sentative of what could be found by similar methods in other Leguminosae, then
the legume is a single folded structure.+ The legumes of Acacia suaveolens and
Acacia longifolia are certainly single folded structures (similarly for Acacia
Baileyana, Newman, 1933, pp. 153-6, and 1934, p. 238).

(3) The Legume is not a foliar structwre.—In discussing the two preceding
propositions we were dealing with descriptions of facts. The differences between
the descriptions were due to differences in the methods of examination and
presentation. This proposition introduces morphological interpretation, which is
naturally influenced by our description of the facts, and consequently by the
methods of examination and presentation.

Thomas (1931, pp. 660-2, and 1934, pp. 186-8 and figs. 12, 13A—C) has described
the hypothetical evolution of the Angiospermous carpel from a cupular structure,
beginning with a cupule like that of Gristhorpia (Caytoniales). He derives the
follicle from such a form by fusion of two ovaries in such a way that the cupules
became concrescent and, curving over, enclosed the ovules which were axial
organs. In this process the last traces of the stem might be included on the
side of the structure away from the ovules. From this hypothetical type he
derives the legume. His comparative evidence (from present-day forms) in
support of this hypothesis does not contain close ontogenetic series or illustration
of cellular detail of tissues at the very earliest stages of development. The
ontogeny of the legume presented in the present paper plainly shows the ovules
to arise on the margins of a single folding laminar structure, a process incom-

* Similarly for Acacia Baileyana (Newman, 1933, pp. 153-6, and 1934, p. 238).

7 Thompson (1929 and 1931) has supported this view, though in a later paper
(1934, p. 8) he seems to suggest a multiple structure, viz.: “Other forms of accepted
carpel, such as the legume, likewise arise, singly or in series, by union of emergences
from the sporogenous tissue of the axis.” I cannot find where he has withdrawn the

earlier view.

BY I. Vv. NEWMAN. 79

patible with a derivation such as suggested.; There is also incompatibility
between the hypothesis and the ontogeny with regard to the stigma (cf. Thomas,
1934, fig. 13A-C).

Grégoire (1931, pp. 1288-9) says he will study: (1) the behaviour of the
central part of the floral axis during formation of the carpel primordia, (2) the
meristematic activity itself which originates the carpellary protuberances
(ébauches), (3) the structure and activity of the floral meristem that produces
carpel primordia compared with a vegetative cone concerned with the forming of
leaves. He claims to find that (1) the centre of the floral apex forms or could
form a carpel, (2) there are two distinct types of primordia, and (3) there are
two distinct types of apical meristem. He concludes that the carpel is an organ
sui generis and not a modified leaf (p. 1300). He does not show developmental
series or cellular detail in illustration of his contentions. In the earlier part
of this paper it has been shown in Acacia suaveolens and longifolia that (1) the
legume is lateral to a suppressed apex, (2) the primordium of the legume arises
similarly to those of vegetative leaves, (3) the structure and activity of the
meristem of the floral apex is of a type known for vegetative apices (allowing
for the limitation of growth).

The description of the legume as terminal and its interpretation as a phyllo-
clade is made by Thompson (1929 and 1931). In a later publication (1934) he
introduces a startling theory in which the accepted parts of the flower are
discarded and replaced by emergences from a sporogenous axis (pp. 6-7). In
reference to the legume he says (p. 8): “Other forms of accepted carpel, such as
the legume, likewise arise, singly or in series, by union of emergences from the
sporogenous tissue of the axis. ... Whatever be their final state or form, they
are here considered sporogenous phylloclades, in view of their origin from the
sporogenous tissue of the axis. As they are enlarged, they carry with them
portions of the original sporogenous tissue which may, locally, be sterilized. The
sporogenous tissue carried by the phylloclades may be increased as growth
proceeds. When ovules emerge from this sporogenous tissue, ovuliferous
phylloclades are in being and not carpels, as commonly received.” The evidence
presented in the paper, which primarily deals with Scitamineae and Ranunculaceae,
is largely diagrammatic and does not contain close developmental series, longi-
tudinal sections or cellular details (except for one figure of an advanced stage).
The detailed description of the developmental series with cellular detail of longi-
tudinal sections given above for Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia cannot
be reconciled with that quotation.

It thus appears that the above theories, which deny foliar nature to the
legume, are not compatible with the evidence of the ontogeny in Acacia suaveolens
and Acacia longifolia. The evidence produced here is more detailed and of a
more necessary type compared with the evidence shown in support of the theories
referred to. It is compatible with the legumes of these two species (and by
suggestion of all Leguminosae) being foliar structures.*

7 Joshi (1935) adversely criticizes Thomas’s theory from the standpoint of anatomy.
There is a reply added by Thomas.

* Judging from the description and figures given by Salisbury (1931, pp. 558-9,
figs. 14-15 and Plate xviii, figs. 2-4) of the achene of Ranunculus parviflorus L., a close
series of stages of development would show clearly the foliar structure with the ovule
on the margin, though extreme reduction has caused the apparent axillary origin of
the ovule.

80 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. vi,

POSITIVE IMPLICATIONS OF THE EVIDENCE.

We come now to attempt to assess the implications for morphological theory
of the evidence and its interpretation that have been set forth in the foregoing
pages. The enquiry began in order to investigate the claim that the legume of
two species of Acacia is terminal and composed of two carpels, one fertile and
the other sterile. In addition to determining those points in the negative, it has
expanded into a description of the histogenesis of the floral apex in terms
similar to those used by some writers in describing the meristematic activity
whereby a vegetative apex gives rise to the emergences known as leaves. There
are, therefore, two subjects for consideration. The first is the contribution to be
made to the morphological understanding of the legume. The second is the
contribution to be made to the morphological understanding of the flower.

It is clearly recognized that this discussion is of limited application, because
only two species are examined, and the course of development is not traced far
beyond the initiation of the primordia, except in the case of the legume. But
there has been examined and illustrated, with cellular detail of close develop-
mental series, the ontogeny of the floral apex, that is, the process whereby the
undifferentiated (surface of the) floral apical meristem gives rise to the floral
organs. It is claimed that such a study is the most essential requirement for
morphological interpretation. Unfortunately, it seems to be very scarce in the
literature of floral morphology.

The Legume.

It has been demonstrated that the legume is a single infolding laminar
structure that arises laterally to the apex of the floral axis in a manner funda-
mentally similar to that of leaves on the vegetative apex, and that it bears ovules
on the margins of the lamina. These facts are in harmony with the interpreta-
tion that it is a single carpellary structure of foliar nature. The final proof of
the foliar nature would require more evidence than is provided in this
investigation.

Foster (1935) finds a histogenetic difference between the foliage leaf and
the cataphyll of Carya Buckleyi var. arkansana at a very early stage (0:09-0-:1 mm.
high) of the primordia, though they both arose from the same layers of the apical
meristem. The difference lay in the distribution of the meristems within the
primordia (pp. 101, 114, 124, 126). He refers (p. 88) to the conclusion of Schiiepp
(1929), that ‘differences in the distribution of types of tissue, and in the intensity
and duration of their growth must form the basis for the difference between
foliage leaves and bud scales’. A comparison is therefore indicated of the
distribution of the meristems in the legume with that in foliage leaves (of the
same species especially). This aspect of the subject was only slightly examined by
me, but the indication was that the distribution of meristems in the primordia of
the legumes of Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia correspond with that in
the foliage leaves of a variety of species (of other genera) examined by Louis
(1935).

A discussion of the morphology of the legume would be incomplete without
consideration of the vascular anatomy. Saunders (1929) and Thompson (1929,
1931) have discussed it from points of view opposed to the monocarpellary
interpretation of the legume. Eames (1931, with reference to the legume) and
Arber (1933) discuss vascular anatomy and find in it support for the foliar nature
of the carpel. These discussions are based on vasculation of the gynoecium at

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 81

relatively advanced stages. There is, therefore, nothing in this paper with
which to contrast them. It is to be noted, however, that the relative positions of
the primordium of the midrib, the extension of the pith and the suppressed apex,
together with the later origin of the primordia of the marginal bundles appear in
keeping with a foliar interpretation.

After considering the facts of ontogeny described in this paper, and discussing
them in relation to facts and ideas put forward by other workers, I can see no
reason for doubting that the legumes of Acacia suaveolens and Acacia longifolia
are of foliar nature; rather does the evidence support that morphological
interpretation.

The Flower.

The ascription of a foliar nature to the legume, that is, to the monocarpellary
gynoecium of the Leguminosae, immediately raises the question of the morphology
of the flower. Is it a modified leafy shoot? This question has been discussed by
many recent workers from various points of view. I will only add certain
comments which arise out of the present study.

The special contribution of this paper to the subject is the deseription of the
meristematic activity of the floral apex with cellular detail, and the comparison
thereof with the similar activity of at least some types of the vegetative apex.
It has been seen that there is fundamentally no difference between them, except
the limitation of growth of the floral axis. The appendages are initiated in the
same manner on vegetative and floral apices. In the floral apices of the two
Acacia species we have seen the limitation of growth by the failure of formation
of the vacuolating dividing tissue which is the tissue responsible mainly for the
production of node and internode (Priestly, 1929, p. 69). Priestly and Swingle
(1929, p. 27) refer to the work of Koch (1893) in which he showed that ‘in
practically all trees and shrubs the new lateral buds arise some time after the leaf
initials have appeared at the growing point, at a time when the internodal develop-
ment taking place makes these axillary meristematic groups distinct in origin
from the meristematic tissue crowning the apex’. With the absence of activity
to form the internode, it is understandable that buds would be absent from the
axils of floral appendages.

The considerations which arise out of the study of the histogenesis of the
floral apices of Acacia longifolia and Acacia suaveolens, taken in comparison with
accounts given by other workers of vegetative apices, cannot be regarded as
contrary to, but as favourable to the interpretation of the flowers of these two
species as modified leafy shoots.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.

In some recent criticisms and modifications of the classical theory of the carpel
as a modified leaf there is little presentation of evidence from primordial stages
or with cellular detail. This paper studies both these aspects in Acacia longifolia
and Acacia suaveolens in an attempt to find the relation of the carpel primordium
to the apex of the floral axis.

There is a description of the relevant features of the species, the methods of
manipulation of the material and the methods of examination including the
construction of plasticene models from serial sections.

The evidence is first presented without use of the terms “apex”, “legume”, or
“carpel’.

82 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

The description of the external appearance of the development of the young
flower records the formation of a “shoulder” on the apex after the formation of
the petals. This “shoulder” is the seat of origin of the stamens and leaves a central
“dome” which becomes slightly accentuated and gives rise to the ovule-bearing
organ on one side of it.

The description of the internal appearance of the development of the young
flower begins with the formation of the sepal initials and passes in close stages
to the production of ovules. Particular attention is given to the distribution of
the types of meristematic tissues and the vacuolated tissue. Three zones are
recognized: fully meristematic, vacuolating dividing, and vacuolating extending,
the first being the outer zone of from two to four layers. ;

The sepals and petals arise as folds in the outer layer under which divisions
take place in the second layer with periclinal wall formation. The shoulder arises
in the second layer by divisions with periclinal wall formation, the activity not
extending over the central third of the longitudinal sectional contour and thus
instituting the ‘dome’. The stamens arise on the shoulder in the same manner
as the sepals and the petals.

The enlargement of the “dome” is almost entirely by increase in cell size,
spatial restriction causing the enlargement to express itself as increase in height.

The ovule-bearing organ arises laterally on this “dome” in the same manner
as the sepals, petals and stamens arose, namely, by folding of the outer layer with
divisions with periclinal wall-formation in the cells of the second layer, below the
fold. The smallness of the ‘‘dome” causes the initial of the ovule-bearing organ
to have a curved insertion. Restriction of space brings the primordium of the
ovule-bearing organ into an erect position. Its early growth is by meristematic
activity of the apex and margins. It assumes the form of a groove whose margins
meet and, by differential growth of the inner and outer surfaces, enclose a cavity.
Into this cavity the ovules grow from the edges of the arms of the groove. The
assumption of the erect position by the organ brings the lower surface of the
arms of the groove into close contact with the upper surface of the residue of the
“dome”.

The growth of the base of the ovule-bearing organ displaces the residue of
the “dome”, which finally appears to be but a part of the surface of the short
stalk of the ovule-bearing organ. The tissues of the residue of the “dome” can
be traced through the stages of development at least as far as the stage of the
functional megaspore, by which time there is a strong tendency to the obliteration
of the distinction between them and the adjacent tissues.

Apart from notice of the procambia of the ovule-bearing organ little notice is
taken of the vascular tissues. The pith extends between the procambium of the
midrib of the ovule-bearing organ and the residue of the “dome”.

The foregoing description was made in terms of the histogenesis of an apical
meristem giving rise to lateral organs. Such a description of floral ontogeny
could not be found in the literature available to me here.

As a background for the interpretation of the evidence presented in this
paper there is a discussion of recent work on the meristematic activity of the
vegetative apices in the Angiosperms. Emphasis is laid on the response of the
apex as a living entity to the mechanical influence of the formed lateral organs.
The asymmetric distribution of meristematic activity is discussed in relation to
the limitation of growth, and an argument advanced for the impossibility of an
appendage being terminal in origin, so that there must always be a residue of the
apex.

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 83

The evidence is interpreted as being compatible with all parts of the flowers
of these two species being modified leaves. The legume arises laterally on the
apex, the histology of whose suppression is observed. The legume is a single
laminar structure growing in a manner similar to some vegetative leaves and
bearing the ovules on its margins. The interpretation is illustrated by a series
of models moulded according to measurements made of certain photomicro-
graphs, and displayed in conjunction with those photomicrographs.

There is a discussion of the type of evidence necessary for a basis of morpho-
logical conclusions that imply some kind of ontogenetic process.

Bound up with recent theories of Saunders—Carpel Polymorphism—(1925 and
1929), Grégoire (1931), Thomas (1931 and 1934) and Thompson (1929, 1931, 1932
and 1934) are the following propositions: (1) the legume is a terminal structure;
(2) the legume is not a single folded structure; (3) the legume is not a foliar
structure.

After discussion, bearing in mind the evidence produced in this paper and
comparing its nature with that of the evidence shown in support of the above
propositions, it is concluded that: (1) the legume is a lateral structure; (2) the
legume is a single, folded structure; (3) the evidence is compatible with the
legume being a foliar structure (certainty on this point requires a wider study
than that made in this paper).

The positive implications of the evidence are reviewed, with the conclusions
that there is no reason for doubting that the legumes of Acacia longifolia and
Acacia suaveolens are of feliar nature, and that it is reasonable to interpret the
flowers of these species as modified leafy shoots.

I wish to express my tharks to Dr. P. Brough for his encouragement and
criticism, to Assistant-Professor J. McLuckie for calling my attention to some of
the literature on apices and for his criticisms, and to Professor Osborn, to whom
I am indebted for the facilities of his department.

Literature Cited.

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Ann. Bot., 42, p. 184.

,1930.—Root and Shoot in the Angiosperms: A Study of Morphological
Categories. New Phyt., 29, p. 297.

, 1933.—Floral Anatomy and its Morphological Interpretation. New Phyt., 32,
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ASKENASY, E., 1880.—Ueber eine neue Methode, um Vertheilung der Wachstumsintensitat
in wachsenden Theilen zu bestimmen. Verh. Nat-med. Ver. Heidelberg, N.F., 2,
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BANcROFT, H., 1935.—A Review of Researches Concerning Floral Morphology. Bot.
Remew, 1, p. 11.

BARNARD, C., and Reap, F. M., 1932-3.—Studies of Growth and Fruit Bud Formation.
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BATSON, O. V., 1920.—De-electrification of paraffin ribbon by means of high-frequency
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BRIEGER, F. G., 1935.—The developmental mechanics of normal and abnormal fiowers in
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Brown, R., 1840.—On the Relative Position of the Divisions of Stigma and Parietal
Placentae in the Compound Ovarium of Plants. Ex Dr. Horsfield’s “Plantae
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Doak, C. C., 1935.—Evolution of Foliar Types, Dwarf Shoots, and Cone Scales of Pinus.
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Eames, A. J., 1931—The vascular anatomy of the flower with refutation of the theory
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Brrera, L., 1886.—Sur une condition fondamentale d’équilibre des cellules vivantes.
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Foster, A. S., 1935.—A histogenetic study of foliar determination in Carya Buckleyi var.
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GIESENHAGEN, K., 1909.—Die Richtung der Teilungswande in Pflanzenzellen. Flora, 99,
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GOETHE, J. W. von, 1790.—Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklaren.
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GREGOIRE, V., 1924.—L’organogénése de l)Ovaire et de la Déhiscence du Fruit (Note
préliminaire). Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique, 56, p. 134.

, 1931.—La valeur morphologique des carpelles dans les Angiospermes. Bull.
Acad. Roy. Belgique, Cl. d. Sci., Ser. v, 17, p. 1286.

, 1935a.—Données nouvelles sur la morphogénése de l’axe feuillé dans les
Dicotylées. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 200, p. 1127.

,1935b.—Les liens morphogénétiques entre la feuille et la tige dans les
Dicotylées. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 200, p. 1349.

, 1935¢.—Les anomalies florales des Primula et la valeur du placenta central.
Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruawelles, Ser. B, 55, p. 297.

GRIFFITHS, A. M., and MAuins, M. E., 1930.—The unit of shoot growth in the dicoty-
ledons. Proc. Leeds Philos. Soc., 2, p. 125.

JosHi, A. C., 1935.—Criticism of Dr. Thomas’s recent Hypothesis on the Nature of the
Angiospermous Carpel. Journ. Bot., 73, p. 286. (With a reply by Dr. H. Hamshaw
Thomas, p. 291.)

Kuess, G., 1914.—Uber das Treiben der einheimischen Baume speziell der Buche. Heidel-
berger Akad. Wiss. Math-naturw. Kl. Abhandl., 3. (Quoted from Priestly and
Swingle, 1929, p. 82.)

Ixocu, L., 1893.—Die vegetative Verzweigung der héheren Gewdchse. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot.,
25. (Quoted from Priestly and Swingle, 1929, p. 27.)

Louis, J., 1935.—L’ontogénese du systeéme conducteur dans la pousse feuillée des
Dicotylées et des Gymnospermes. La Cellule, 44, p. 87.

NEWMAN, I. V., 1933.—Studies in the Australian Acacias. II. The life history of
Acacia Baileyana (F.v.M.), Part 1. Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot. 49, p. 145.

, 1934.—Studies in the Australian Acacias. III. Supplementary Observations
on the Habit, Carpel, Spore Production and Chromosomes of Acacia Baileyana
F.v.M. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lix, p. 237.

FARKIN, J., 1926.—Comments on the Theory of the Solid Carpel and Carpel Poly-
morphism. New Phyt., 25, p. 191.

Prigstuy, J. H., 1928.—The meristematic tissues of the plant. Biol. Rev. and Biol. Proc.
Cambridge Philos. Soc., 3, p. 1.

, 1929.—Cell Growth and Cell Division in the Shoot of the Flowering Plant,
New Phyt., 28, p. 54.

, and Scorr, L. I., 1933.—Phyllotaxis in the Dicotyledon from the Standpoint
of Developmental Anatomy. Biol. Rev. and Biol. Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc., 8,
p. 241.

—, and SWINGLE, C. F., 1929.—Vegetative Propagation from the Standpoint of
Plant Anatomy. United States Dept. of Agric. Techn. Bull., 151.

Sacus, J., 1882.—Vorlesung tiber Pflanzenphysiology. Leipzig. (Quoted from Schtiepp,
UU sey 7b)

, 1894.—Physiologische Notizen. VIII. Mechanomorphose und Phylogenie.
Flora, 78, p. 215. (Quoted from Schtiepp, 1917, p. 61.)

SALISBURY, E. J., 1931.—On the Morphology and Ecology of Ranunculus parviflorus L.
Ann. Bot., 45, p. 539.

SAUNDERS, E. R., 1925.—On Carpel Polymorphism. I. Ann. Bot., 39, p. 123.

———,, 1929.—Illustrations of Carpel Polymorphism. IV. New Phyt., 28, p. 225.

ScHmMipT, A., 1924.—Histologische Studien an phanerogamen Vegetationspunkten. Bot.
Archiv., 8, p. 345. (Quoted from Priestly, 1929, pp. 58, 62; Louis, 1935, p. 98; and
Zimmermann, 1928, p. 303.)

ScuUerp, O.,1914.—Wachstum und Formwechsel des Sprossvegetations-punktes der
Angiospermen. Ber. Deutschen Bot. Ges., 32, p. 328.

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 85

ScHUEPP, O., 1917.—Untersuchungen tiber Wachstum und Formwechsel von Vegetations-
punkteny “Jahrb: wiss) Bot. 5%, ps Liv.
, 1921.—Zur Theorie der Blattstellung. Ber. Deutschen Bot. Ges., 39, p. 249.
, 1926.—‘‘Die Meristeme”’. Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie. Abt. I, Teil 2.
(Quoted from Priestly, 1928, pp. 1 and 6.)

—, 1929.—Untersuchungen zur beschreibenden und experimentellen Entwick-
lungsgeschichte von Acer Pseudoplatanus L. Jahrb. wiss. Bot., 70, p. 743. (Quoted
from Foster, 1935, p. 88.)

————, 1930.— Versuch einer entwickelungsgeschichtlichen Characterisierung des
Blattes von Lathyrus. Proc. ith Int. Bot. Congr. Cambridge, p. 339.

THomas, H. H., 1931.—The Early Evolution of the Angiosperms. Ann. Bot., 45, p. 647.
, 1934.—The Nature and Origin of the Stigma. New Phyt., 33, p. 173.
THOMPSON, J. McL., 1929.—Studies in Advancing Sterility. Pt. IV. The Legume.

Publn. Hartley Bot. Lab. Liverpool, 6. i
, 1931.—Studies in Advancing Sterility. Pt. V. The Theory of the Leguminous
Strobilus. Pwubln. Hartley Bot. Lab. Liverpool, 7.
——,1932.—The Theory of the Leguminous Strobilus. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond.,
145, p. 98.
, 1934.—Studies in Advancing Sterility. Pt. VII. The State of Flowering
known as Angiospermy. Puwbln. Hartley Bot. Lab. Liverpool, 12.
ZIMMERMANN, W. A., 1928.—Histologische Studien am Vegetationspunkt von Hypericum
uralum. Jahrb. wiss. Bot., 68, p. 289.

Notes on the Illustrations.

All the drawings were made with the aid of the camera lucida, the magnifications
being determined by direct measurement.

All the preparations from which the photomicrographs were made were stained with
Safranin, Orange G and Light Green (except with Haidenhain’s Iron Alum Haematoxylin
tor Plate ii, fig. 3, and Plate v, figs. 60a, b), giving red nuclei, golden cytoplasm and
green walls. The source of light was a Philips’ Tungsten are lamp. The light was
passed through Wratten F (red) and density filters, and the source focussed on the
back lens of the condenser by which it was focussed on the object. The cover glass
correction collar on the objective (and sometimes the tube length) was adjusted for
each photograph. On account of this the magnifications vary slightly, so that they
have been given in round figures for the photomicrographs. Panchromatic plates were
used. All figures in the plates are photomicrographs except the photographs of models
shown in Plate vy, figures 51-59, 61-65 and 71-75. :

A few special annotations are indicated in the explanations of the figures. The
following annotations have been standardized and apply in all cases:

ade, appressed epidermes; (arrow) >>—->, the original centre of the upper surface
of the axis, i.e., for the description (pp. 58-67) the original centre of the ‘‘dome’’, and
for the interpretation (pp. 67-75) et seq., the original centre of the apex of the flower; DG,
inner limit of the groove; br, bract; G, groove; L, for the description the ovule-bearing
organ, for the interpretation, et seq., the legume; mb, marginal bundle (or its pro-
cambium); mr, midrib (or its procambium); ov, ovule; P, pith; pe, petal; se, sepal;
sG, surface of the groove; st, stamen.

EXPLANATION OF PLATHS II-V.
Plate ii—Acacia longifolia.

Photomicrographs of the whole or part of longitudinal sections of young flowers.
Notice the distribution of the meristematic tissue. Magnification of all figures, x 240.

Fig. 1.—Shows sepals have arisen by cell division in second layer of the apex, under
a fold in the outer layer.

Fig. 2.—Formation of the initials of the petals by cell division in the second layer
of the apex, under a fold in the outer layer.

Figs. 3-5.—Stages in the formation of the “shoulder’’ (sh) by divisions with
periclinal walls in the second layer of the apex except in the part represented by the
central third of the sectional contour. The central part forms the ‘‘dome’’. Note the
large-celled pith.

Figs. 6-8.—Origin of the initials of the stamens by cell divisions in the second
layer under folds in the outer layer of the shoulder (sh). Variations in the shape of the
apex (dome) and the axis. These figures are at slightly advancing stages. In 7, the
section does not pass through any stamens on the right.

86 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi,

Figs. 9-13.—Progressive stages in the formation of the initial of the ovule-bearing
organ (legume) on one side of the apex (dome) and by multiplication of the cells of
the second layer with periclinal wall formation under a fold in the outer layer.

Figs. 14-18.—Development of the grooved structure of the primordium of the ovule-
bearing organ (legume) which is forced into a vertical position by lack of space. The
residue of the apex (dome) is displaced laterally and the arms of the groove extend
above it, enclosing the original centre of the apex (dome). In 17 the section is slightly
inclined to the plane of the groove and misses the midrib. (See Plate v, fig. 60a, b,
for the next stage of longifolia.)

Plate iiii—Acacia suaveolens.

Photomicrographs of the whole or part of longitudinal sections of young flowers.
Notice the distribution of the meristematic tissue. Magnifications of all figures, x 240.

Fig. 19.—Shows a sepal initial arising by cell division with periclinal wall formation
in the second layer of the apex under a fold in the outer layer.

Fig. 20.—Shows initials of the petals formed by cell divisions in the second layer
of the apex with periclinal wall formation, under a fold in the outer layer.

Figs. 21-23.—Stages in the formation of the “shoulder” (sh) by divisions with
periclinal walls in the second layer of the apex, except in the part represented by the
central third of the sectional contour. The central part forms the ‘“‘dome’’. Stamen
initials are already forming at the end of this process. The section for 22 is slightly
displaced from the centre. Note the large-celled pith with the beginning of deposition
of deeply-staining granules, which in the figures frequently appear as brightly shining
bodies (red stain, red filter, panchromatic plates).

Figs. 24-27.—Origin of the initials of the stamens in the second layer of the
“shoulder” (sh) under folds in the outer layer. 25-27 show the regularity of the layers
of the apex (dome), although there has been distortion by external pressure in the
cases of 25 and 26. In this species the dome is defined later than in longifolia, cf.
figure 24 with figure 6 on Plate ii. In 26 the section does not pass through any stamens
on the right.

Figs. 28-31.—Progressive stages in the formation of the initial of the ovule-bearing
organ (legume) on one side of the apex (dome), by multiplication of the cells of the
second layer with periclinal wall formation under a fold in the outer layer.

Fig. 32.—Section passes down the groove which is becoming pronounced. The
groove is wider than in longifolia and requires more than one section to show its extent.
Stage of development is about that of longifolia shown in Plate ii, figure 15. Displaced
tissue is lying above the darkly staining cells of the pith. ;

Plate iv.

Figs. 33a to 38f.—Acacia suaveolens. Magnification, x 240.

Showing the grooved nature of the young ovule-bearing organ (legume) which is
forced into a vertical position by lack of space. The residue of the apex (dome) is
displaced laterally and the arms of the groove extend above it enclosing the original
centre. Notice the distribution of the meristematic tissue.

Figs. 33a, b.—Two sections in a longitudinal plane inclined to the plane of the
groove, so that 33b includes the edge of the base of one side of the groove. The
inclination to the plane of the groove makes the slope of the residual apex appear less
steep. These are the two outside of three consecutive sections. Age younger than that
of stage shown in Plate iii, figure 32.

Figs. 34a, b.—Two longitudinal sections down the groove; they are the outside
ones of four consecutive sections, 34b is encroaching on the arm of the groove. Older
stage than 32.

Figs. 35, 36.—Two longitudinal sections down the groove; they are the outside
ones of three consecutive sections. 36 includes the face of the groove. Older stage than
34a, Db.

Fig. %7.—Longitudinal section down the groove and including one face of it.
Older stage than 35, 36 and than the stage of longifolia shown in Plate ii, figure 18. Note
the great increase in cell size compared with figures 35, 36.

Figs. 38a-f.—Transverse sections of a young ovule-bearing organ (legume) about
the stage of figures 34a, b. The series represents twelve sections at 64, beginning at
the tip, of which Nos. 1, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 are shown. Though the midrib is indicated
in d and e, it has scarcely been initiated yet. Detailed comparison of this series with
figures 34a, b, will show the correspondence of the distribution of the meristematic and

BY I. V. NEWMAN. 87

vacuolating tissues. (The two organs appear reversed in aspect in these illustrations.)
Note that the organ is grooved to the apex.

Figs. 39a-f.—Acacia longifolia. Magnification, x 240.

Transverse sections of a young ovule-bearing organ of about the stage of Plate ii,
figure 14. The series represents ten sections at 6u, beginning at the tip, of which
Nos. 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 10 are shown. This series is of a stage younger than that shown
for suaveolens. Comparison of this series with Plate ii, figure 14, will show the corres-
pondence of tissues. (Organs reversed in aspect.)

Figs. 40-50.—Acacia suaveolens. Magnification, x 120.

Progressive and serial longitudinal sections of the central upper portion of the
floral axis with the whole or part of the ovule-bearing organ (legume), showing the
organ assuming an apparently terminal position with the lateral displacement, and
suppression of the residue of the apex (dome), and the approach to obliteration of the
boundaries between the upper part of the apex (dome) and the lower part of the arms
of the groove, i.e., the lamina of the ovule-bearing organ (legume).

Figs. 40-41.—Consecutive sections showing the ovule primordia on the margin of
one of the arms of the groove, and the demarcation between the lower part of the arm
and upper part of the residue of the apex (dome). Same stage as Text-figure 13.

Fig. 42.—At the stage of the megasporogenous cell. Section is not truly vertical,
hence the demarcation between the arm of the ovule-bearing organ (legume) and the upper
part of the residue of the apex (dome) is not clear. It can be traced by the large cells
of the hypodermis.

Figs. 43-6.—Consecutive sections at the stage of megaspore formation. The plane
of section is not quite parallel with the plane of the groove. The maximum demarcation
between the arms of the ovule-bearing organ (legume) and the residue of the apex
(dome) would be underneath the junction of the arms. On account of the inclination
of the plane of section, the four sections are needed to show the entirety of this line
of maximum demarcation which can be followed from left to right in passing from
figure 43 to 46. Away from this line there is some interpenetration of the cells of the
two epidermes. The junction of these epidermes is shown in figure 43 by a dotted line.
Note the extension of the dark staining deposition in the pith cells between the
midrib and the residue of the apex (dome), and the bands of thickening on some of
them.

Figs. 47-50.—Consecutive sections at the stage of the functional megaspore. As
figures 43-46, except that the aspect is reversed and the line of demarcation is more
easily traced by the more prominent hypodermis. Note the bands of thickening on
some of the outer cells of the pith. By this stage it is only possible to identify the
residue of the apex (dome) because of having traced it from the beginning.

Plate v.

Figs. 51-57.—Models of part of young flowers of Acacia suaveolens to show the
development of the shoulder (sh) and the “‘dome’’ and the origin of the ovule-bearing
organ from one side of the “dome’’. The explanation is in the text. The black dot is
at the original centre of the apex (dome). AIl the stamens have been cut off in 56
and the central ones in 55 and 57. Except in 51, the petals have been cut off below
the level of the stamens. The cards bearing the numbers have a width representing 50u.

Figs. 58-9.—Models of part of young flowers of Acacia longifolia, showing the
shoulder (sh), the “dome” and the young lateral ovule-bearing organ. Stamens have
been cut off from the centre of 58. Black dot the original centre of the apex (dome).
Explanation in the text. The cards bearing the numbers have a width representing 50uy.

Figs. 60a, b.—Consecutive longitudinal sections of a young ovule-bearing organ of
Acacia longifolia at a stage just before the formation of ovule primordia. Shows the
displacement of the residue of the apex (dome). The section is slightly inclined to the
vertical. The line of demarcation between the lower part of the arm of the ovule-bearing
organ (legume) and the upper part of the residue of the apex (dome) is still clearly
discernible. The deeply staining deposition in the cells of the pith extends between the
midrib and the residue of the apex (dome). Magnification, x 150.

Figs. 61-5.—Models showing the relation of the legume to the suppressed apex of
Acacia suaveolens. White plasticene was used to represent the apex and grey plasticene
to represent the legume. The models were made from measurements of illustrations as
follows: 61 from Plate iii, fig. 27; 62 from Plate iii, fig. 30; 63 from Plate iii, fig. 31;
64 from Plate iv, figs. 35 and 36; and 65 from Plate iv, figs. 40 and 41, and Text-fig. 13.

88 STUDIES IN THE AUSTRALIAN ACACIAS. Vi.

Black dot represents the original centre of the apex. Explanation in text; see also ~
Figs. 71-75 on this Plate. Magnification, x 96.

Figs. 66-8.—Longitudinal sections of young flowers of Acacia suaveolens, Showing
the regularity of the zonation of the tissues in spite of the distortion by the various
compressions due to the pressure of the bracts and adjacent flowers (fl). These are
photographs respectively of flowers 1, 2 and 3 in Text-figure 11, but not all from the
same section. Magnification, x 150.

Figs. 69a-70.—Longitudinal sections of the ovule-bearing organ (legume) perpen-
dicular to the plane of the groove and through the appressed margins, showing the
appressed epidermes and portion of the upper part of the axis. 69a, of Acacia suaveolens,
is at the same stage as Text-figure 13 and passes through the region about where the
marginal bundles will form. 69b is of a similar stage of the same species as 69a, but
the margins have not completely closed together, so that ovule primordia are exposed;
a filament has been partly inserted into the open base of the organ. 70 is of Acacia
longifolia at a stage slightly older than shown in Text-figure 6. Magnifications, x 120.

Figs. 71-75.—Correspond with 61-65 of Acacia suaveolens. The models are cut down
longitudinally, the two halves of each opened out to show the disposition of the apex
and legume in progressive stages of development. With each opened model is placed a
copy of the photomicrograph from the measurements of which it was constructed. ‘The
photographs of the models have been brought to the same magnification as the photo-
micrographs. For the correspondence of, the models and photomicrographs see the
explanation of figures 61-65 on this Plate. A careful comparison of the distribution of
the white (apex) and grey (legume) in the opened models with the cellular arrange-
ment in the associated photomicrographs will demonstrate clearly the interpretation of
the legume as lateral on a suppressed apex. The photomicrograph in 75 was reversed
(cf. Plate iv, fig. 41) for ease of comparison. Magnification, x 240 for 71-4, and x 120
fOTOS

Figs. 76-78.—Transverse sections of the ovule-bearing organ (legume) showing
the appressed epidermes of the incurved margins. 76 is of Acacia longifolia, and is a
photomicrograph of the section shown in Text-figure 10b. 77 is of Acacia swaveolens
and is of a section of the base of the loculus of the ovule-bearing organ (legume)
figured in Text-figure 15. 78 is of Acacia longifolia at about the time of fertilization,
when the appressed epidermes of the incurved margins are still clearly to be seen.
Maegnifications, x 120.

Postscript, added 22nd April, 1936.

After I had completed the foregoing paper, Professor V. Grégoire kindly sent
me a reprint of a recent paper of his (Grégoire, 1935c) in which he shows cellular
detail in illustrations of the floral apex of Ranunculus scleratus and the vegetative
apex of Lonicera periclymenon. He points out (p. 299) that whereas the vegetative
cone has a tunic enveloping a corpus furnished with an initial region that can
cause elongation in growth, the floral summit has only a meristematic cloak
(‘“Manchon”) covering a mass of parenchyma and cannot grow in length. Dis-
cussing certain abnormalities in flowering described by Brieger (1935) in Primula,
he attributes the presence or absence of sepals in different forms of proliferation
to the difference in meristematic organization between vegetative and floral
apices. Sepals are developed by the organization of a vegetative apex, from which
there is a transition to the floral type of apex by the time of formation of the
initials of the petals. It seems to me that the differences described by Grégoire
are of a similar kind to those that I have described and attributed to limitation
of growth.

Finality in the interpretation of the flower will only be attained after very
wide inquiry. In the meanwhile, it is well to emphasize that the classical inter-
pretation is that the carpel is a modified fertile leaf and the flower a modified
leafy shoot. A different appearance in the meristematic organization of the
two forms of apex should, therefore, not be regarded as necessarily antagonistic
to that interpretation.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE II.

ae
88:

Acacia longifolia —Longitudinal sections of young flowers.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE II.

Acacia suaveolens.—Longitudinal sections of young flowers.

PLATE Iv.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936.

le
ks

RISA

39a-f).

gifolia (

33a-38f; 40-50); A. lon

Acacia suaveolens (

PLATE V.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936.

s
=
°
°

. Ad

eons.

wn

tt,
we

-~~-—

longifolia.

Acacia suaveolens and A.

NOTES ON SARCOPHAGINAE IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA.
By G. H. Harpy.
[Read 27th May, 1936.]

In his Revision of the Sarcophaginae of the Oriental Region, Mr. R. Senior-
White (1924) considered that five species of Sarcophaga reach the Australian
Region. It has become evident that specific relationships as then understood by
that author need modification, and the relationship is one of groups, not species.
It is due ta the courtesy of Mr. Senior-White that I have been able to compare
his reference collection of mounted genitalia taken from Indian species, finding
there relationships that were not detected through the illustrations that he has
hitherto published. I feel very grateful for the loan of this collection, for it
has permitted me to gain an insight into various structures that otherwise may
have taken years to acquire.

The assessment of the relationship between Indian and Australian
Sarcophagas.

Before me are 25 species of Sarcophaga from Australia, 37 from India and
Ceylon, and 1 from the Philippines. Amongst these 27 alliances are found, and it
is possible further alliances have been overlooked or even a few species misplaced
in Parasarcophaga, for the Oriental material is represented by genitalia only,
one example for each of the 37 species. Also these, being mounted on slides,
sometimes have their parts obscured, and it is not easy to reconstruct various
structures that may have been overlapped by others. Nevertheless, I have
concluded that 57% of the Indian, and 28% Australian species belong to subgenus
Parasarcophaga, whilst a further 13% Indian species fall in groups containing 32%
Australian species. The remaining 30% Indian and 40% Australian species are
without mutual affinities recognized at present. The list is as follows:

Subgenus PARASARCOPHAGA.
(Australian. ) | (Oriental. )
albiceps-group.
omega J. & T., 1921; gamma J. & T., 1921. albiceps Meigen, 1826; knabi Parker. 1917;
flavipalpis 8.-W., 1924; hirtipes Wied.,
1830; orchidea Bott.

misera-group.

misera Walker, 1849; kohla J. & H., 1923; dux Thomson, 1868; harpax Parker. 1897:
eta J. & T., 1921. scopariformis S.-W., 1927: tsushimae
S.-W., 1924.
peregrina-group.
peregrina Desv., 1830. fuscicauda Bott., 1912.
Miscellaneous.
aurifrons Macq., 1846. aurifrons Dol., 1856 (= doleschalli J. & T.,

1921); ballardi S.-W., 1924: khasiensis
S.-W.; annandalei S.-W., 1924: kempi
S.-W., 1924; walayari S.-W... 1924:
| caudagalli Bott., 1912: futwris S.-W..,
1924; ostindicae S.-W.. 1924: bam-
bridget S.-W., 1925: haemorrhoidalis
Meig.. 1826.

90

NOTES ON SARCOPHAGINAE IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA.

Subgenus SARCOPHAGA (with propleura bare).
ruficornis-group.

Kappa, Jes h.. LO 2d. ruficorivis Fab., 1794.
crinita-group.
emia J. & H., 1923. | erinita Parker, 1917.
Subgenus ————— (with propleura hairy).

antilope-group.

alpha J. & Ti, 1921; zeta J. & T, 1921; antilope Bott., 1913; henryi S.-W., 1924;

beta J. & T., 1921; furcata Hardy, flavinervis S.-W., 1924.
1932.
impatiens-group.

impatiens Walker, 1849; tryoni J. & T., banksi S.-W., 1924 (Philippines).

1921.
Miscellaneous.
(Propleura bare.) (Propleura ??.)
depressa Desv., 1830; bancrofti J. & T., melaneura Meig., 1826; gravelyi S.-W.,
1921; spinifera Hardy, 19382. 1924; pattoni S.-W., 1924; calcifera
(Propleura hairy.) Bott., 1912; aspinata S.-W., 1924;
epsilon J. & T.,. 1922; omikron J. & T., haematodes Meig., 1826; falculata v.
1921; hardyi J. & T., 1922; ? fergusoni persicae S8.-W., 1924; pusana S.-W.,
J. & T., 1922; littoralis J. & T., 1922; 1924; beesoni S.-W., 1924; talonata
froggatti Taylor, 1917; alcicornis S.-W., 1925; orientaloides S.-W., 1924.

Hardy, 1932.
As the propleural character of the Indian species is unrecorded, I am not

able to group these under their respective subgenera, but I note that the posterior
clasper has a subapical bristle on pattoni, calcifera and talonata, and a median
bristle on gravelyi and beesoni. The others do not have any bristle apparent.

nr

(J)

Key to genera of Australian Sarcophaginae.
First radial vein bristly. Propleura bare. Three postsutural dorsocentral bristles.

Posterior clasper with two bristles on the posterior half .......... ? Helicobia
MiESt: pradialse Vein! MATE? vos 7ey.ccecsowcdeces cro seie Nes tere eG See ue Tar ees cat eel cReueroy Ore es ae een 2
Three postsutural dorsocentral bristles. Propleura bare. Posterior clasper without

ISTISEIES Pi Bagecese eas le aar sb Oeil cco he Dame eeue rated chee eatem ean GHC eaeN eo Ne ? Blaesoxipha
Four postsutural dorsocentral bristles. Propleura with hairs, or bare. Posterior

ClaSsperswithaibristlesii, -mywewehey ene mii ekeesr orciel chon me Sarcophaga Meig.

Key to species of Australian “Sarcophaga.

Propleura withehairsganwalbundance myers beeen Subgen. ———. 14
Propleura bare, or at most with a limited amount of black bristly hairs confined to
COTAET S.-i ih eee ter ele rae Rae eT HON aaa Taste) nica ewian ous Pec TY Sule NGus deus uekeeau Stor oe ern ote 2
Posterior clasper with a pair of closely adjacent, rarely widely separated, subapical
DLIStles: ~ ekod ccys Be See eee re Naas, cy dius ietrallen elias AO bonesteleie ls Subgen. PARASARCOPHAGA. 3
Posterior clasper with bristles otherwise arranged ........ Subgen. SarcopHaGa. 9

Subgenus Parasarcophaga.

Propleura with a few black bristly hairs in centre .............. peregrina Desv.
Propleura (entirely? Wave. (oe ctcter snc oie ekore ich usicmabeuey me ycuewelomoncweueucnsRelecetelclt Rene nAIcton Ronen 4
Anterior appendage in the form of a cup-shaped process arising from a stalk ......

OEIC AR EIR EROS EMER UCR RAL PEL. ocr nig DiS ico. choo. Ora RON DAMIR albiceps-group. 5
Anterior appendage otherwise! £LOrmMed! eis ci cusreloycsctereieuerelors oc steheleuMelod melon torent oa ete 6
Process of anterior appendage widely diverging .................0.. gamma J. & T.
Anterior appendage compact, the process being short ................ omega J. & T.
With one or more rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars .............. fi
WHithOUt SIC aDrListlv DIAC aAINS ye 15 ccs tye oicepaeroes li avaleMe elslate mmOleionse ion misera Walk.
Anterior appendage with two pairs of foliaceous parts .............. kohla J. & H.
Anterior appendage with only one pair of foliaceous parts ...............2+042- 8
Anterior appendage excessively long, projecting considerably beyond apex of sheath

PE AERA T Ie R RATER CES, CREE TORES ATC) LR RCHEROR CREATOR CAPONE OOOO YO cheher OTLO 0 shTO CU Wey GomeLe

Anterior appendage normal in length, about as long as sheath .... aurifrons Macq.

BY G. H. HARDY. 91

Subgenus Sarcophaga.

9. With three bristles spaced wide apart on posterior clasper ..............-+.0:: 10
Walla Ob? Ome Ly Chl POSAMOO CGEM: soucacsegcunns0d0bocDbUGUObOLaOGONN 11

OMe Genitalsseementy red! yee ce te oe cee oe MO es Poe alia g ale erties as securifera Vill.
Genitalascsmentti blacks iy, oy schs qatar setors eer eee nen el eco eieiele kappa J. & H.

ils CN oes alee Kern CSG po San aio POOR GtES HOO ODA OO Cab Hols oOo ODED Ome coe bancrofti J. & T.
PATIENTS aD LAC hsv rayraticn chee once evan s:scte! Sey Sieeia acco Rew PCa oR Sie aN one Ce mene lions ic ollay sans) sh oxouslcuss siiems sieusxane dats 12

12. Bristle on posterior clasper placed subapically ..................... depressa Desv.
BTistlenonmposterionsclasper iplacedaibasallyalm ements aoe ee oeeicnte 13

13. With two rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars ............ synia Hardy
With one row of black bristly hairs behind postoculars ............ spinifera Hardy

Subgenus —————.

14. With bristle on posterior clasper placed from the median to the subapical position
Epes cea aia aU Aaa SBS ois ang MiraireViah') doa “steeNstsiye or tenes vo kousl Sytewe cern SEE UEES gu Meal sis s)-o Tegel eden acala:ts caenslepeneuce 15)

With the bristle on the posterior clasper placed basally ...................... 26
l5aeeAnterior clasper: Difide ye Se iaiaic ccs ate eee eee) eee cune ee antilope-group. 16
Anterior clasper often with a large flange but not bifid ...................... 20

16. Cleft of anterior clasper reaching base; apex of sheath at most bifid .......... ile
Cleft of anterior clasper not reaching base; apex of sheath trifid .............. 18

Wen am entsmonewande projecting -esnisis aileron aioli eireneicichok os icin oicks alpha J. & T.
Milamentsenotrto: ber Getected! ~ yrclexesia cushsneien sicher sen orcieea eve ain tere slices eaicwen newer set@ Je & E.

18. Second abdominal segment with a pair of median subapical bristles .. howensis J. & H.
Second abdominal segment without such bristles ...............5...-.-.-+ee02- 19

19. With the normal knob in membrane anterior to claspers .............. beta J. & T.
epi lv Omte SU Chik 0 Dy Hareier= cases Mourn cusaemensreveitensnere) eireuey Meme cueiten itBomen sta: lial onchiskontsicoiree he furcata Hardy

20. With the bristle on posterior clasper placed subapically ..................... 21
With the bristle on posterior clasper placed in the median position ............ 22

Pil, IPOGtEdioe Oger inom Hae! [roRCh .5ocKodgodcnesoooonDUeoosGUbOOoGD epsilon J. &T.
iPosterionsclaspermlongy andy slender ci aeons ieee neice cichoeieicioe omikron J. & T.

22. Anterior appendage with a hook-shaped process ..............-20000-e ee eeee 23
Anterior appendage without a hook-shaped process ............2.-e2eeeeeeeee 24

23. Both presutural and acrostichal bristles present ................. impatiens Walk.
OnlyasoresuLunalmacnrostichal'si presenta serene reece iel ian iencneaen aera ie tryoni J. & T.
PAePAnLEMOLTClLISpeCEEySenclysarlcnedarOLwanrd Surreal -riinn neice cussciuceencnerer ewes 25
Anterior claspervabnuptly bent forwards) soecec-ses-oee ds dae soe alcicornis Hardy

2 Deerescucellarvacrostichal SeSthOn own rican alee acer rsicrsraee it rien roti hardyi J. &T.
Prescutellar acrostichals absent, or at most very weak .......... ? ferguson J. & T.

26. Both presutural and prescutellar acrostichals present ............ littoralis J. & T.
Onilyespnesutunallacrostichals presemts ees-y-reieyerereneicieledeieienerenenel sree) natal froggatti Taylor

At present only about one-third of the species can be identified with any
assurance from the female, although more than two-thirds have been allied by
breeding, by capture in copula and by field observation. In cases where females
have been associated with their respective males, an asterisk (*) has been placed
in the following key. Further aid may be given when the species have a
restricted distribution; for instance, S. aurifrons occurs abundantly in the south-
eastern quarter of Australia, whereas S. kohla seems to be limited to Queensland.
Similarly 8S. hardyi is not known from Queensland, so any females there that
have the same recorded characters may be regarded as either the unknown
females of S. furcata or of S. ? fergusoni. It seems probable that S. tryoni has a
wider frons than that on WS. froggatti, although this character may be obscure on
bred specimens.

Very few of the females are to be recognized by superficial characters seen
at a glance, but the red apex to abdomen on securifera, the red antennae on
bancrofti and the quite distinct appearance of VS. littoralis, with its very wide
frons, lend themselves to ready recognition. S. peregrina may be readily isolated,
its group of bristly hairs on the propleura being distinctive, but the mass of
the species fall into two subgenera on the propleural character and may be further
divided on certain bristle characters.

92 NOTES ON SARCOPHAGINAE IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA.

In 1927, J. R. Malloch (These PRrOocEEDINGS, lii, 334) suggested that certain
unused characters, including the propleural one, might be used to ally sexes, but
he overlooked the important point that the most closely allied species are generally
difficult to recognize from females, and these are usually consistent in the
characters he mentions. Malloch’s suggestion does not seem very helpful for
Australian forms, and I would suggest that characters he uses for specific recog-
nition might be studied first for their value in group recognition. Again, Malloch’s
suggestion that the female genital segments might be used as specific indices
apparently does not apply to Australian forms. When breeding these flies in
numbers, I found that characters within the vagina may prove valuable, though
not of use in practice. On freshly-emerged females, it is possible to extrude the
vaginal skin and study the plates and depressions there, but I know no means
of doing this once the integument becomes hardened.

Key enabling the sexes of some Australian species of Sarcophaga to be allied.

1. Genital segment red on both sexes. Propleura bare, male without, female with only
prescutellar, acrostichals. Without black bristly hairs behind postoculars.

((IL ates XOX NBT OY=10 1) beanie eect tee oRor oa er ONC Rcectenc ania cearerer aca a caclonmerearee meclatc: oe *securifera Vill.
Genital segment black or brown on male, black on female ....................4- 2
2X, APARLO) ONE} OD eke ham] OFF NES ies auc cicke crOEO-DIDTEIORLOnG rer OL OL ROLOEsa OAD TO co Dla AidudiaccholekerOmolo oloarog'G o'6 0 O.010 6 3

Propleura with hairs varying from 2-3 black bristly ones to moderately plentiful
but confined to the central area. Only prescutellar acrostichals present. Two

rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars .............. *neregrina Desv.
Propleura hairy, the hairs light-coloured and occupying all or most of the area .. 7

3. With one or more rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars .............. 4
Without black bnristlyashairs behind ipostoculars ane ee eee 6

4. Both presutural and prescutellar acrostichal bristles present.

Two rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars .............. *synia J.& H.
One row of black bristly hairs behind postoculars .............. spinifera Hardy
Onlyatprescutellar-acrostichals presenter cae eererie cee nr ee ce Re Roe 5
With two rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars ..................e..sc0
*qurifrons Macq.; *kohla J. & H.

At most with only one row of black bristly hairs behind postoculars.
PAMUENITIAS WLM! | avs ciavens ey Strate or eerer ona eee eke Reena eT Oreo uesen ee Caen: bancrofti J. & T.
ANTON VELA: Sarai tee spatena eres ree Neate ea eae eT ESET ee Re cae ora en ee *eta J. &T.
6. Both presutural and prescutellar acrostichals present ......................+-eeee.
*omega J.& T.; *kappa J.& T.; *depressa J.& T.; usually *gamma J. & T.

or

Only prescutellar acrostichals present .. *misera Walk.; sometimes *gamma J. &T.

7. With two rows of black bristly hairs behind postoculars .......... *ensilon J.&T.
WiHthouL black bristly hairs bpehind ms postoculanrs seamen eee 8

8. Both presutural and prescutellar acrostichals present ..................0000% 9
Prescutellar /acrostichals! absent 2.2)5)ace ssi *tryoni J.&T.; *froggatti Taylor

9. With a pair of median discal bristles on second abdominal segment .. howensis J. & H.
Without median discal bristles on second abdominal segment .................. 10

10. Thorax with central stripe rather obscured. Head yellow only below. Frons of
female unusually wide, nearly twice the width of an eye .... *littoralis J. & T.

Thorax with the central stripe normal. Frons of female normal. Head entirely
VOM OW? 5 oie capd fe 2 corshone ue leucrs spouse teusust ayehajoleteuenetemeusicueHeusie sions acueke sansten ore bleh hon ae Ga ae iil

ikil-) AMM Ube ell WEES o ae ongoeneona Doan eoUnGoModn oogonia doGOD oO G0 *alpha J.&T.;
zeta J.&T.; *beta J.&T.; *impatiens Walker; alcicornis Hardy; *omikron J. & T.

BONS VClLOW:? sip cis eieke aie econo siseeccus *hardyi J.& T.; ? fergusoni J.&T.; fureata Hardy

Subgenus PARASARCOPHAGA J. & T.

Originally I relied upon the presence of closely associated bristles placed
subapically on the posterior clasper for the recognition of this subgenus, but
apparently this character is variable for exotic species. Nevertheless, where the
character does occur, it seems advisable to place the species in this subgenus and
add thereto forms that appear to be obviously allied though without the character.

BY G. H. HARDY. 93

The Indian forms listed above under this subgenus include ballardi and
annandalei, which species appear to have only one subapical bristle, whilst ballardi,
doleschalli and khasiensis come near the misera-group. Another set of mutually
related forms appears to be annandalei, kempi and walayari; and the relationship
is obscure in regard to caudagalli, futuris and ostindicae unless the last be related
to the albiceps-group; it is like bambridgei in being without an apparent bristle
on the posterior clasper. Although haemorrhoidalis does not seem to belong
to this subgenus, it is relegated there as it conforms to these bristle characters.

SARCOPHAGA MISERA group.

To the eighteen names already listed under this group, there is now added:
tsushimae Senior-White, 1924, India.—The nature of the anterior appendage
on this species shows a gradation between this group and certain species listed
by me in the miscellaneous Parasarcophaga.

SARCOPHAGA MISERA Walker.

Sarcophaga ceylonensis Curran, Amer. Mus. Novitates, No. 375, 1929, 10
(mec Parker, 1923).

A record of this species from Victoria by Curran and his remarks suggesting
the use of Parker’s name for the Australian form, overlook the remarks on Parker’s
species published in 1927; these species are not identical specifically. Moreover,
there seems to be no reason why Walker’s name should not be used for the species
which is not difficult ta recognize from the female, and Major H. E. Austen has
identified specimens by comparison with the type.

Subgenus SArRcoPpHAGA Meig.

There appear to be two groups in the Indo-Australian element, separable by
the propleura being bare or hairy, and I am able to ascertain this character at
present for the Australian species only. Those with the bare propleura, consisting
of five species only, fall into relationship with the typical subgenus Sarcophaga
as far as I am at present able to ascertain, and I have been able to ally two
Australian species with exotic forms, suggesting group values.

SARCOPHAGA RUFICORNIS group (new group).

Forceps rather long and strongly bent at apex (as figured by Senior-White,
not by Johnston and Hardy, whose figure was drawn from a different angle). The
anterior and posterior claspers of almost equal length and the bristle on the
latter placed subapically. The aedeagus has the inner process projecting beyond
the sheath and the anterior appendage is short.

Two species: ruficornis Fabricius, 1794, India; kappa Johnston & Tiegs, 1921,
Australia (illingsworthi Parker, 1922, Australia = kappa).

There can be no doubt concerning the alliance between these two species,
for the structure of their genitalia is essentially the same. I have examined the
structure on an Indian specimen having the organs exposed in the ordinary way,
as well as the genitalia mounted by Senior-White.

SARCOPHAGA CRINITA group.

Hardy, Australian Zoologist, xiii, 1934, 52.

The Indian crinita does not have the minute indentation at the apex of the
forceps; a basal flange covers the lower half of the anterior clasper, but this
is not symmetrical on both sides; the clasper on one side of the aedeagus is as
illustrated by Senior-White, i.e., almost furcate, but that on the other side is

94 NOTES ON SARCOPHAGINAE IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA.

normal. Owing to the nature of the mounting, I am unable to ascertain if the
bristle at the base of the posterior clasper is present, but there is a subapical
bristle present, this being an addition that might be fortuitous.

From Manus, an island of the Mandated Territory of New Guinea, Mr. N. E. H.
Caldwell secured a specimen of this group whose genitalia conform remarkably
well with the figure given for S. kankauensis Baranoff, from Formosa.

SARCOPHAGA BANCROFTI J. & T.

Johnston and Hardy, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xlviii, 1923, 122.

Hitherto the characters of this species have not been made out with assurance,
but now a small series of specimens with well extracted genitalia has enabled
me to ascertain the true characters. The figure given by Johnston and Hardy is
moderately accurate. The forceps are broad, the claspers are of about equal
length, and a median bristle occurs on the posterior one. The anterior clasper
is strongly curved. The apex of the sheath terminates in a slender process along
which the apex of both filaments lies protected and, when in their normal position,
they are not easily detected as being structures apart from the sheath. The lobe
is stout and the anterior appendage small with the tip curved, but not to the
extent showing in the published figures.

It will be noted that the apex of the sheath is not split, as shown in the
figures, but appears to be so because of the filaments occurring there. Also, it is
suggested below that the type of S. fergusoni may prove to be identical with this
species but confused with quite a different species standing under the same name.
A conspicuous feature of S. bancrofti lies in the antennae being red, or yellow if
very pale, instead of black.

Hab.—Queensland: Goondiwindi, 5 males, October and November, 1935. One
specimen has the genitalia mounted on a cellulose slip in Canada balsam, displaying
the various parts of the aedeagus.

Subgenus :

Those species that have the propleura covered with hairs come into this
section; this character has not been taken into account, so far as I have yet
ascertained, under named divisions standing as genera and proposed by various
authors.

SARCOPHAGA ANTILOPE group.

Hardy, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lii, 1927, 448.

To the six names that have been listed under this group must be added:
henryi Senior-White, 1924, India; flavinervis Senior-White, 1924, India; furcata
Hardy, 1932, Australia.

The little knob anterior to the claspers is missing on furcata, and I did not
detect it on henryi. The anterior clasper is very shallowly bifid on flavinervis,
which species has also a hook-shaped process suggesting an alliance with the
impatiens-group.

SARCOPHAGA IMPATIENS group.

Hardy, Austr. Zool., viii, 1934, 53.

To the two species placed under this group must be added: banksi Senior-
White, 1924, Philippines.

The remarkable similarity of the genitalia of this species to those of the
Australian tryoni suggests a close relationship, but there is no hook-shaped process
on the anterior appendage and the claspers are comparatively small, the anterior

BY G. H. HARDY. 95

one being without the flange. Nevertheless the bristle on the posterior clasper is
in conformity with the group and the general features are similar.

SARCOPHAGA ? FERGUSONI J. & T.

Johnston and Hardy, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xlviii, 1923, 124; fig. 1 only.

The type of S. fergusoni may be a specimen of S. bancrofti, for there is much
to suggest this. Other specimens standing under the name apparently belong
to a different subgenus and conform in genitalia to the figure given by Johnston
and Hardy to supplement the drawing of the damaged genitalia on the type.
Some new specimens before me have the form of genitalia corresponding to the
latter figure, but show the anterior appendage full and rather broadly developed
and without the curved apex. The apex of the sheath has, in addition, a pair of
laterally spreading processes not shown in the figure. Moreover, the posterior
clasper is twice as long as the anterior one and not like that drawn from the type
which corresponds more closely to that on bancrofti. It is probable that Johnston
and Hardy confused two species in the inferior material before them.

Hab.—Queensland: Goondiwindi, 2 males, November, 1935.

SARCOPHAGA OMIKRON J. & T.

Johnston and Hardy, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xlviii, 1923, 120.

Most specimens hitherto collected are in inferior condition, but the present
series shows the posterior clasper to be longer than the anterior, slender, well
curved and with a subapical bristle.

Hab.—Queensland: Goondiwindi, October and November, 1935; 3 ¢@, 4 9.

Genus BLAESOXIPHA Loew.

Blaesoxipha Loew, Wien. Hnt. Monatsch., v, 1861, 384.—Locustivora Johnston
and Tiegs, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv, 1923, 187.

During the plagues of grasshoppers in the years 1934-1935, Mr. J. A. Weddell
bred a parasite that is presumably identical with that described by Skuse, as the
host is the same. This form, Masicera pachytyli Skuse, which Coquillet placed
as a Sarcophaga, is apparently in no way generically distinct from other grass-
hopper parasites recorded under the generic name Blaesoxipha, and corresponds
very well in its generic characters with those given by Lundbeck in his Diptera
Danica. The two species known to me as occurring in Australia have most of
their characters in common, but differ slightly in their genitalia. I have been
unable to ally either of these with exotic species which have been adequately
described during recent years, so they are probably indigenous forms and not
introduced ones.

The following characters, unless otherwise stated, apply to both species.

Head: Only the inner vertical bristles present; ten frontals, the vibrissa and
three facials, a second row of weak facials and a row of three bristles near the
eye, nine orals. The postoculars have, below them, black bristly hairs that tend
to form two further rows. One strong postvertical pair and a paired row of four
further bristles extend behind the ocellar tubercle. Thorax: three humeral bristles,
two posthumeral, four notopleural, two being very much reduced, one presutural,
two supraalar, three intraalar, one being weak, one postalar, three _ pre-
sutural and three postsutural dorsocentrals, a paired row of acrostichals
complete, the anterior pair and the posterior pair being well developed and the
intermediate ones may also be more or less conspicuously developed but some-

96 NOTES ON SARCOPHAGINAE IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA.

what variable in this respect. Four pairs of scutellar bristles are strongly
developed. Except for two large bristles above the coxae and the adjacent
bristly hairs, the propleural region is bare. The mesopleural row is well
developed and, in addition, further bristles may develop along the upper margin.
A row of three sternopleurals and the pteropleural and hypopleural bristles
are all normal. Abdomen: On the first segment laterally, there are three sub-
marginals and about four discals arranged in two rows. The following segments
each have a median pair of subapicals and laterally about five submarginals.
Legs: the femora have the system of bristles conforming to that of Sarcophaga,
but the hairs are invariably short. Wings: as in Sarcophaga, including the bristles
on the vein R,;. Terminalia: the forceps taper more or less uniformly to the
apex and are contiguous to the apex, i.e., they do not diverge apically as in
Sarcophaga, but lie adjacent for their whole length. The forceps are without
hairs, but bristles occur on a limited area giving a roughened appearance there.
No bristle has been detected on the claspers, which are curved but otherwise
simple. The anterior clasper is somewhat strongly curved and much broadened
out on one species. The aedeagus has the two hinged segments as in Sarcophaga,
but the apical one is much reduced and consists of a shaft, at the apex of which
two small processes occur anteriorly, and then comes the sheath, simple in outline
and partly enveloping the anterior appendage, which is also simple in outline
and consists of a paired curved tapering part, blunt at the apex. The sheath and
the anterior appendage lie closely adjacent to each other, and on one species the
outline of the sheath is distended by the formation of flattened lobes, one at the
apex slightly bent rearwards and one at each side tending still further to hide
the anterior appendage.

Key to species of Blaesoxipha.

Anterior clasper about twice as broad at apex as at its narrowest part. Sheath of
aedeagus with three rather small but well developed lobes, one at the apex and

BWO) ty ptle KSI OS vigetey cy ses, 25s ce ouese bs Sylva Conse pee syak wey Cheated suomoutenercaehe aed pachytyli Skuse
Anterior clasper hardly broadened at apex. Sheath of aedeagus with lobes hardly if at
AUT TAISCEM TAT ee airs, o reg seeks yo1 iran aoe alle Ore a NE ee OG Col a faye a EELS Lio ORL SN SI Score ee agate ar a eT oa Sp.

BLAESOXIPHA PACHYTYLI Skuse.

Masicera pachytyli Skuse, Agric. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 1891, 251.—Sarcophaga
pachytyli Coquillet, Insect Life, v, 1892, 22.—Locustivora pachytyli Johnston &
Tiegs, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxiv, 1923, 187.

Hab.—New South Wales, Queensland, and probably widely distributed over
other mainland States.

References.
SENIOR-WHITE, R., 1924a.—A revision of the subfamily Sarcophaginae in the Oriental
Region. Rec. Indian Mus., xxvi, 1924, 193-283.
, 1924b.—New and little known Oriental Tachinidae. Spolia Zeylanica, xiii, 1924,

103-119.
————,, 1924c.—- New Ceylon Diptera. Spol. Zeyl., xiii, 1924, 209-212.
—_———., 1927.— Notes on Oriental species of genus Sarcophaga. Spol. Zeyl., xiv, 1927,

77-83.
Harpy. G. H., 1927.—Notes on Australian and Exotic Sarcophagid Flies. Proc. LInn.
Soc. N.S.W., lii, 1927, 447-459.
, 1932.—Some new Australian Sarcophagid Flies and notes on others. Australian
Zoologist, vii, 1932, 275-281.

, 1934.—Notes on Sarcophagid Flies. Austr. Zool., viii, 1934, 50-53.

BY G. H. HARDY. 97

Postscript, added 23rd May, 1936.—In a letter Dr. Boris Rohdendorf has
kindly given me notes that tend to show where the above species come within
his scheme of classification. There are two notes intimately connected with the
above paper:

“The species antilope Bott. and other closely allied species must be referred
to the genus Chrysosarcophaga Towns. 1932, type superba Towns. 1932, Solomon
Isl., vide Baranov, 1934 .. .”

“The species aspinata S.W. is a Blaesoxipha.”

AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA.
NOTES AND NEW SPECIES. NO. X.
By H. J. Carter, B.A., F.R.E.S.

[Read 27th May, 1936.]

CUCUJIDAE.

There is considerable confusion, both in collections and catalogues, in the
genus Platisus, largely due to an initial mistake by Lacordaire (Atlas, ii, pl. 21,
fig. 11) in which, under the name P. obscurus Er., he figures the common New
South Wales species P. angusticollis Reitt. This mistake was repeated by Olliff
(These Proc., 1885, p. 210). The Junk Catalogue has another variation of it. As
pointed out by Reitter, who knew Erichson’s type, P. obscurus Er. is quite easily
distinguished from his own two species by the toothed sides of the prothorax.
There is no reason for the generic separation of P. bicolor Oll. (= P. (Cucujus)
coloniarius Oll.).

The list should, I think, stand as follows:

PLatTisus Er.: (1) angusticollis Reitt. (syn. obscurus Lac. (nec Er.);
(2) coloniarius Oll. (syn. bicolor Oll.); (3) integricollis Reitt.; (4) moerosus
(Ipsaphes) Pase.; (5) obscurus Er.

N.B—Ipsaphes nitidulus Macl. = Platycotylus inusitatus Oll. It is also very
near Doliema spinicollis Fairm., but, on a re-examination of the much begummed
type, I cannot detect the spines that characterize Fairmaire’s species. It is not
a Platisus, as placed in the Junk Catalogue.

HyYMAEA PARALLELA, n. Sp. Text-fig. 1.

Elongate, oblong; mostly nitid black, oral organs, apex of pronotum and
greater part of elytra red; sparsely pilose.

Head subtriangular, eyes very prominent—less acutely so than H. succinifera
Pasc., tumid behind eyes, front coarsely punctate, the punctures tending to coalesce
longitudinally; antennae long, perfoliate, 1 very stout, 2-8 piriform, 9-10 rounded
and transverse, 11 oval, longer than 10. Prothorax longer than wide, convex
laterally, apex produced in middle, anterior angles obsolete, base truncate, hind
angles obtuse, sides slightly widest behind middle, with some lateral angulations;
one near front, another, at widest part. marked by a pustule. Disk coarsely
punctate, the punctures tending to coalesce, their intervals rugose; some widely
placed pustules, two, near middle, slightly in advance of lateral pustules.
Scutellum transverse, oval. H#lytra distinctly wider than prothorax at base,
shoulders rather square, sides parallel for the greater part; disk rather flat,
striate-punctuate, the striae not well defined, the punctures large, round and
close, the intervals very narrow and, in general, flat, here and there forming
irregular raised lines—the 5th especially—and clothed with sparse, pale, upright

BY H. J. CARTER. 99

hair; the black markings in rather irregular patches; of these, two oblique patches
extend from beneath the shoulders to the 3rd interval near middle; a square
patch behind these at middle and one or two ill-defined streaks near base.
Underside nitid-black, everywhere closely and strongly punctate. Dim. 4 mm. long.

Hab.—Victoria: Warburton (F. EH. Wilson).

A narrow, elongate species, without tubercles on the elytra. Two examples,
including the holotype, in the South Australian Museum.

N.B—H. laticollis Cart. was described as having “head placed vertically”.
This was due to the setting of the type example. A second example sent me
has the head inserted quite as in H. succinifera Pasc. My species has been omitted
from the Junk Catalogue though described in 1908. The 3 species may be
distinguished as follows:

Hymaea.
il, IPOMNOVAboa WaW@onE WwKIACIGS sosgbococduvguccouanF OCS HOU ObDOOoGBDUOBUE laticollis Cart.
IDrOMG ibe Wha WRX scsocduvceuducceo ooo ODD GUO CUOODOD DOD do OOD dOODOGOUE 2
Elytral humeri with elongate tubercles: 2322) 3). aemciecde ss 6 suceinifera Pasc.
My tralwbuimMenisswialLhoucgmeuUbenrcles) sys -ccyecnicicneiel ween enneneienel=)-ritelen = parallela, n. sp.

bo

DASCILLIDAE.
EPILICHAS (?) NIGRINUS, 0. Sp.

Blongate-ovate; subnitid-black, antennae, underside and appendages red, legs
testaceous.

Head: eyes large and prominent, antennae long and strongly serrated, 1 ovoid
stout, 2 very small, 3-10 serrate, 3 and 10 smaller than the rest, 11 lanceolate.
Prothorax: apex rounded, narrower than head, sides widest at base, nearly straight
at basal fourth, thence sharply narrowed, and devolute to apex, margins only
near base evident from above, disk uniformly, very minutely and densely punctate,
and rather thickly pilose with short, upright hair. Scutellum large and oval.
Elytra little wider than prothorax, sides nearly straight for two-thirds of length;
striate, without defined punctures in striae, intervals nearly flat at middle, more
convex at base and apex; very minutely punctate -with feeble transverse strigae,
surface closely pilose, underside impunctate and pubescent. Coxae approximate.
Dim. 15 x 35 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Healesville (F. EH. Wilson).

A single example taken by my friend is clearly allied to E. serraticornis Cart.,

from which it differs in colour, more elongate and less convex form and denser
clothing. Holotype in Coll. Wilson.

SCARABAEIDAE.
PANELUS HOPSONI, n. sp. Text-fig. 2.

Ovate; piceous-black, sides of head, narrow margin of apical third of prothorax,
also underside and legs red; antennae and palpi testaceous.

Head wide, basal two-thirds rounded, sides subangulately narrowed towards
apex, clypeus bidentate, the triangular teeth limiting a circular excision; whole
surface with close, round, cellulose punctures; antennae 10-segmented with
trilamellate club. Prothorax: apex arcuate-emarginate, anterior angles subacute,
sides lightly obliquely widened from base to apical third, thence abruptly narrowed
to apex; posterior angles obsolete (rounded off); surface with round punctures
larger and slightly less dense than on head. Scutelluwm none. EHlytra widest
at middle, each with six rows of finely impressed, geminate striae, without
visible punctures; intervals flat and finely, not closely, punctulate. the two nearest

100 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA,

suture sublaevigate. Tibiae carinate and bowed, the anterior tridentate at apex.
Underside closely, not coarsely, punctate, the apical segment of abdomen with large
punctures. Dim. 44 x 22 mm.

E.H.Zeck Del.
1.—Hymaea parallela, n. sp. 3.—Cisseis goerlingi, n. sp.
2.—Panelus hopsoni, n. sp. 4.—Stigmodera (Castiarina) truncata, n. sp.

Hab.—N.S.W.: Barrington Tops (H. J. Carter).

I took one example in rotting leaves in January, 1927, which I dedicate to
the memory of John Hopson, the late naturalist of this region, whose help and
friendship were delightful concomitants of a beautiful district. It is the largest
of described Australian species, distinguished from P. bidentatus Wilson by the
distinct geminate striae of its elytra. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

PANELUS POLITUS, 0. Sp.
Castaneous, highly polished, hind margins of prothorax infuscate, and parts of
elytra feebly so, antennae testaceous.

BY H. J. CARTER. 101

Head shaped like the ace of spades (with a rounded base and a bidentate
apex), the clypeal teeth acutely produced and a little recurved, their interspace
triangular. Sides of head foliate and concave; surface finely, not closely,
punctulate. Prothorax widely transverse and subrectangular, apex lightly bisinuate,
base arcuate, sides nearly straight for basal three-quarters, thence abruptly and
strongly narrowed to the widely obtuse and scarcely emarginate front angles;
disk uniformly punctulate, the punctures much larger than on head. Elytra widely
ovate and convex, with about six fine, but distinctly impressed, striae, the two
nearest suture on each geminate (two very fine close striae, the rest single) ;
intervals flat and apparently impunctate. Tibiae bicarinate and strongly arched
externally, less arched internally, fore tibiae tridentate at apex. Dim. 3 x 2 mm.
(approx.).

Hab.—N.8.W.: Dorrigo (W. Heron).

A species characterized by its polished and almost glabrous (even to the legs)
surface, while the subfoliate head is peculiar. It is nearest to P. pisoniae Lea in
colour and size, but differs in the more evident striae and laevigate intervals of
elytra. P. pisoniae is also said to have bidentate front tibiae, but this may be
sexual. I have a short note on it from the late A. M. Lea, as to its distinction
from his species. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

A cotype of P. pisoniae Lea, sent for examination by Mr. Womersley, is less
than 13 mm. long, more convex than P. politus, with clearly impressed punctate
striae. The clypeal teeth are shorter, the head itself less elongate, the foliate
sides obliquely revolute.

The five Australian species may be tabulated as follows:

Panelus.
Pee Eolytrary Gwathis Zemin ate.) SEViMe) hve ees cress leretersyiites same bow a eobe ree icine eve eases oiebeiteheasts, sha Bhat als 2
Elytra with single striae ......... Rete ene a oat crate ocr ROO Cele EMCI Hee Goto 3
2. Posterior angles of prothorax obsolete, 4 mm, long .................. hopsoni, n. sp.
Posterior angles of prothorax obtuse, 2 mm. long ...- pygmaeus Macl.; arthuri Blckb.
SC olounN black awithmred spots en cece aicie cre cnaicee canciones eicieneis here ieee! bidentatus Wils.
ColOUTERed LOrMCASCAIES OWS Ms coo ieycd es caisewe He eal ENS oops ned ONO Oe STONES Le eee eer sees ae oie Beas 4
Amerecads centlyveaconcavexrelytralastriae taint anemic oer pisoniae Lea.
Headsconcaverat sides: elytralestrigie distincGess seme cee cmc ceeetieec: politus, n. sp.

PEDARIA INTERRUPTA, ID. SD.

Black, nitid, antennae and tarsi reddish, upper surface sparsely setose, the
setae short and bristly.

Head subvertical, very wide and flat, coarsely punctate, clypeus obtusely
bidentate, with widely arcuate bay. Prothorax: apex and base subequally wide,
the former lightly arcuate-emarginate, anterior angles slightly advanced and
rounded, the arcuate base more or less parallel to apex, sides sinuate, with a
light medial enlargement; disk with a few smooth prominent rugae, surrounded
by irregular coarse punctures having a longitudinal tendency. A wide depression
at middle of basal half, bounded by oblique rugae. Elytra rather squarely ovate,
the suture forming twin carinae enclosing fine striae: on each elytron three
rows of longitudinal pustules, these more elongate on inside row, smaller and
more distant on outer rows; a well-defined costiform pustule near each shoulder;
intervals between these rows containing two pairs of well-marked geminate
striae, the striae becoming undulate towards apex. Whole underside. (including
front femora) very coarsely punctate, the mesosternum carinate, with two rows of
very large transverse punctures on each flank, anterior tibiae tridentate, the three
teeth rather wide apart, post tibiae widely triangular. Dim. 4 x 2-5 mm.

102 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA,

Hab.—Queensland: Benarkin (L. Wassell), Bundaberg (C. Bates).

Two examples in my cabinet differ from the two described Australian species
(geminata Macl. and alternata Lea) by the elytral sculpture with its interrupted
costae and the more strongly defined geminate striae. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

PEDARIA METALLICA, D. Sp.

Nitid, head violet-bronze, prothorax and elytra dark blue, the former with
metallic gleams, upper surface with short, sparse, bristly setae of a whitish
colour, underside and legs coppery-bronze, glabrous, antennae pale red.

Head wide and rather flat, its basal two-thirds subparallel, thence obliquely
narrowed to the bidentate clypeus, this with two triangular teeth, separated by
an arcuate bay, surface coarsely punctate, with an undulate ridge traversing the
forehead, clypeus and margins subhorizontal. Prothorax strongly transverse,
apex nearly straight for the greater part, anterior angles advanced and acute,
sides feebly rounded at middle, abruptly, arcuately, narrowed near front angle,
widely rounded off behind, base arcuate; disk moderately convex and uneven, a
wide, subtriangular depression having its apex at middle of base and bounded
by wide, oblique, almost impunctate, rugae; the depression and lateral regions
strongly and rather closely punctate, the medial apical half very sparsely and
coarsely punctate. Hlytra oblong-ovate, each with 8 pairs of geminate carinae,
besides a pair of sutural carinae more widely separated than the rest, the 2nd
and 4th intervals with setiferous punctures, the 3rd with one or two elongate
pustules; setae more evident at sides and apex. Metasternum with sparse,
foveate punctures at base and sides, abdomen and femora with close round
punctures. Front tibiae with three well separated teeth at apex, hind tibiae
widely triangular. Dim. 34 x 2 mm.

Hab.—N.S.W.: Clarence River (Macleay Museum).

A single example in the Macleay Museum has no record of capture, except
the printed locality label. It is clearly distinct from other described species,
not only by its metallic surface, but by the elytral sculpture, with the well
raised but fine geminate carinae. A second example, from Stanthorpe, Queensland
(E. Sutton), sent for determination, is in the Queensland Museum. Holotype in
the Macleay Museum.

The four recorded Australian species may be tabulated as follows:

Pedaria Castelnau.

i, ‘Colour black i223 < SS ore hess og oes hs alle See Spagna ve amen ewan Modcu i eyeieN Meheceter- Beicneie ea aaa 2
Colour mMetallicy piacere eee eres Fcc Monae atone cia aeees metallica, n. sp.
2. My tra “without spustmles sir cirecs xe Care ieee ensteniea Meieten er eteueNer ates alternata Lea.
Ely tray with pustules: Soeee cis ene carte cee eee orcerene omens nr ciceieuchenuealicasasy Clene cee mensiencli ket kamen 3
SLU ELA DUSLITLES SIN alle and arOUIIG arereet-n se einen en retemaie renee fesieienet: geminata Macl.
Elytralpustules clongatevand (costiformer. sys cis ee teteete 1) eed oe interrupta. n. sp.

BUPRESTIDAL.
MELOBASIS IMPRESSA, Nn. Sp.

Elongate-ovate; nitid, concolorous coppery bronze; somewhat explanate, more
ry less pubescent.

Head densely punctate, with smooth medial space terminating behind in a
fine sulcus; sparse pubescence consisting of long silvery hair. Eyes large,
moderately prominent. Prothorar: apex lightly, base more strongly bisinuate,
widest behind middle, sides well rounded, narrowed to the acutely-produced
anterior angles, a little sinuate before the subrectangular hind angles; disk finely

~

BY H. J. CARTER. 103

and irregularly punctate, with silvery hair, sparse in middle, more dense at
sides; a medial carina feebly indicated, an oval depression near each lateral
margin behind middle. Scutellum rather small, nodulose (or subcarinate) in
middle. Hlytra slightly wider at shoulders than prothorax, sides subparallel on
basal half, thence narrowed behind, subapical margins serrulate, extreme apices
rounded, extreme border evident from above throughout; disk irregularly
impressed and punctate, each with four large impressions, the first behind
humeral angle, the second, transversely oval, premedial, a subelongate postmedial
one and a lighter depression between the two former; the depressions bounded
by light vermiculate rugosity; two more clearly defined, straggly costae extending
from the postmedial impression to apex; everywhere variably punctate, the
punctures in general round and distinct, those near suture showing a subseriate
tendency. A sparse pubescence near shoulders and margins. Underside densely
punctate, sparsely pubescent. Dim. 15 x 5 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Wurarga district (Mr. A. Goerling).

Four examples, sent by Mr. Goerling, of Marloo Station, Wurarga, show a
species that is unique in sculpture, though deviating less from the normal than
M. abnormis Cart. The elytra at first appear to have been slightly crushed
by pressure, but the symmetry of the impressions disproves this. Holotype in
Coll. Carter.

MELOBASIS WANNERUA, Nl. Sp.

Convex, oblong; head, prothorax, underside and legs golden-green, elytra
brassy, greenish at sides and base, tarsi and antennae blue.

Head densely, finely punctate, with indistinct short pubescence. Prothoraz:
apex and base subtruncate, base very feebly bisinuate; sides lightly, arcuately
narrowed from base to apex, anterior angles obtuse, posterior subrectangular;
disk very minutely punctate, finely strigose at sides; two shallow foveae in
front of middle, medial line indicated only at base and apex. Scutellum small,
depressed. Hlytra: sides almost straight, apical third with margins denticulate;
striate-punctate, intervals nearly flat, those near suture slightly rounded, the
strial punctures irregular, the general surface transversely wrinkled, feebly
concave near suture. Prosternum densely punctate near front, more sparsely
behind, metasternum sparsely and finely punctate, abdomen closely and finely,
the apical segment densely so and truncate at apex between two strong spines.
Dim. 10 x 4 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Wanneru (H. W. Brown).

Two examples under examination, both J, show an approach to M. derbyensis
Blkb. in colour and the striate-punctate elytra (rather uncommon in the genus).

Mr. Clark has kindly compared it with the type of Blackburn’s species, and the
following distinctions are noted:

derbyensis Blkb. wannerua, Nn. sp.

Head at eyes wider than base of pro- narrower than base of prothorax; feebly
thorax; clothed with white recumbent pubescent.
hair.

Prothorax sides well rounded, and more sides feebly rounded, less elongate.
elongate.

Elytra strongly depressed at base. scarcely depressed,

Colour golden-bronze throughout. green, elytra brassy-green.

Holotype in Coll. Carter.

104 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA,

CISSEIS GOERLINGI, n. sp. Text-fig. 3.

Elongate, parallel; head coppery-bronze, pronotum opaque bluish, with lateral
pubescence, elytra blue with white pubescent spots. Underside metallic bronze
with green and metallic reflections.

Head very finely punctate, with shallow longitudinal sulcus at base, feebly
pubescent. Prothorax convex, strongly transverse, widest at middle, apex lightly
arcuate, base bisinuate, sides widely rounded, lateral carinae parallel for the
greater part, meeting behind at a sharp angle, with a subobsolete, white pubescent
vitta above carinae; disk finely, transversely striolate, with two circular
depressions, with faint signs of white flocculence. WScutellum transverse, bronze.
Elytra not as wide as prothorax at its widest part, and more than thrice as long;
subparallel for the greater part, each separately, and rather widely, rounded at
apex; subapical margins minutely serrulate, as also margins of abdomen. Disk
with 6 large round, white pubescent spots and faint indications of a subapical
pair; suture near base coppery. Segments of abdomen with white lateral
impressions. Dim. 14 x 5-5 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Wurarga (Mr. A. Goerling).

Four examples examined. It belongs to my Section 1 (These Proc., 1923, p. 163),
but is distinguished from all recorded species by its wide prothorax with elongate,
parallel elytra narrower than prothorax. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

ANILARA SUBIMPRESSA, Nl. SD.

Oblong-oval; nitid bright bronze above, underside and appendages obscure

bronze.
Head uniformly convex, eyes not prominent, widely separated, surface finely
scalose-punctate. Prothorax transversely convex, apex and base nearly straight,
the latter lightly bisinuate; widest in front of middle, sides here well rounded,
thence arcuately narrowed to apex, behind nearly straight; disk finely punctate
in middle, transversely rugose towards base, alveolate punctate at sides, a large
depression near each side at middle. Scutellum elongate-ovate, punctulate. Hlytra
of same width as prothorax at base, feebly compressed behind shoulders, sides
nearly straight for the greater part, widely, separately rounded at apex, subapical
margins serrulate, abdominal margins more coarsely serrate; a _ subcostate
impression originating at shoulders obliquely inclined inwards to basal third,
thence gradually obsolescent, tending towards, but not reaching suture; a second
short, subobsolete impression at base, between the former and scutellum; surface
scalose-punctate, strongest at sides and apex. Underside finely alveolate punctate;
mentum subrectangular, minutely, transversely striolate. Dim, 4-5 x 2 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Tammin (H. W. Brown).

Four examples sent are clearly distinct from A. subcostatus Blkb., the only
other subcostate species, by smaller size, brighter colour, and finer sculpture.
The undersides of the two are widely different, especially the mentum, which is
granulose in subcostatum. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

STIGMODERA (CASTIARINA) TRUNCATA, 1D. sp. Text-fig. 4.

Elongate, oblong, rather flat. Head and pronotum dark greenish-bronze,
elytra yellow with basal margin, two fasciae and preapical mark greenish-blue,
the premedial fascia bifurcating laterally, its forward branch extending to basal
margin at the shoulders, lateral margins sanguineous throughout. Underside and
Jegs dark olive-green, with some bronze reflections.

BY H. J. CARTER. 105

Head finely punctate, with shallow medial sulcus. Prothoraxr widest at base,
thence lightly and arcuately narrowed to apex; apex and base very lightly
bisinuate, anterior angles unseen from above, hind angles subacute; densely
and finely punctate on disk, with smooth medial line terminating behind in a
small fovea. Scutellum subcordate, depressed in middle and impunctate. EHlytra
enlarged at shoulders, compressed behind them, apices truncate, the margins
everywhere entire: striate-punctate, the seriate punctures round and regular,
becoming smaller toward apex; intervals nearly flat and transversely wrinkled,
those on lateral half finely and closely punctate. Prosternum strongly,
metasternum finely punctate, abdomen rather densely clad with recumbent white
hair. Dim. 14-15 x 543 mm. ;

Hab.—Western Australia: Moore’s River (H. W. Brown).

Mr. Brown still succeeds in finding new species of his favourite group in
Western Australia. Two examples (one returned to its captor) belong to
Section XIV of my tabulation (Aust. Zool., 1931, p. 365) near S. cupreoflava Saund.,
but the dark parts more or less olive-green, the truncate apices and sanguineous
sides of elytra readily separate it from its neighbours. In one of the examples
the dark areas predominate, i.e. fasciae and preapical mark are wider. There
is no external character to denote sex. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

TENEBRIONIDAE.
NycTOzOILUS SUBSCULPTUS, n. sp. Text-fig. 5.

Widely ovate, convex; dull black above and below, tarsi with red tomentum
beneath.

Head rather closely and finely punctate; epistoma rounded in front and
meeting antennal orbit at a wide angle, the latter subhorizontal, an elongate
depression near base; antennae extending to base of prothorax, 3rd segment
longer than 4-5 combined, 8-11 less enlarged than usual. Prothoraz 4 x 8:3 mm.,
apex arcuate-emarginate, anterior angles subacute, base subtruncate, posterior
angles obtuse, not produced, sides rather widely rounded without sinuation, widest
near middle. Foliate margins wide and subhorizontal, with a very thin border,
disk smooth, without distinct punctures, some undefined foveae near middle, and

5.—Nyctozoilus subsculptus, n. sp.

a slight transverse depression near base. Scutellum transversely triangular.
Elytra widest behind middle, not much longer than wide (11 x 943 mm.), a row
of punctures within a subobsolete border, surface with vague costae, about four on
each, connected by equally vague vermiculations, the suture slightly raised and

106 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA,

nitid near middle. Abdomen strigose, the two apical segments finely punctate.
Dim. 16 x 93 mm.

Hab.—Central Queensland: Aramac district (Mr. F. Bradshaw).

A wide convex species that stands near N. ruficornis Cart. in my table of the
genus (These Proc., 1925, p. 235). But the antennae and tarsi are black, or nearly
so, while the elytral sculpture is less pronounced than in ruficornis, or indeed
any other species before me. Holotype, K43425, in the Australian Museum.

PLATYPHANES PLANATUS, DT. SP.

Oblong-oval; above varicolorous, dark green and purple intermingled, purple
predominating on the pronotum and apical area of elytra; legs and underside
dark red, antennae and tarsi pale red.

Head finely punctate, antennae short, segment 1 stout, 2 short, 3-4 sub-
cylindric, 5-10 successively shorter and wider, 11 narrower than 10, oval.
Prothorax 43 x 8 mm., arcuate-emarginate at apex, angles advanced but widely
rounded, base bisinuate, much wider than apex, posterior angles subrectangular,
sides arcuately narrowed from base to apex, a narrowly raised margin, a little
explanate near front angles, disk somewhat depressed, finely and rather closely
punctate, without medial line or foveae. Scutellum large, triangular. Hlytra
(17 x 10 mm.) wider than prothorax at base, shoulders rounded, subparallel
for the greater part; very finely striate-punctate, with about ten feebly marked
striae, seriate punctures small, intervals quite flat, minutely punctate. Flanks of
prosternum with fine longitudinal strigae, sides of metasternum strongly punctate,
middle regions almost impunctate, basal segments finely strigose. Dim. 22 x 10 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Wurarga (Mr. A. Goerling).

A single example of this fine species is a rather close ally of the Queensland
P. chalcopteroides Cart. in form and dimensions, but is readily separated by its
much finer sculpture, the striae scarcely discernible except under a lens. Holotype
in Coll. Carter.

ADELIUM HIRSUTUM, 0. Sp.

Oblong-ovate; dark violet-bronze, subopaque. Whole upper surface rather
thickly clothed with long, dark, upright hairs.

Head coarsely, sparsely punctate, with a longitudinal sulcus on each side,
extending from behind eyes to the clypeal suture. Antennae stout, segments more
or less piriform, successively widening to apex, 11 unusually large and ovate,
3 as long as 4 and 5 combined. Prothorax rather convex, apex arcuate, anterior
angles widely obtuse and depressed, base truncate, posterior angles obtuse, little
but clearly defined by a small postlateral sinuation. Widest at middle, sides
evenly rounded, without definite foliation; disk coarsely punctate, the round
punctures closer and more regular than in A. pilosum Pasc., with a few smooth
transverse raised spaces near middle. Scutellum smooth and nitid. Hlytra wider
than prothorax at base, shoulders rounded, sides very lightly arcuate; punctate-
striate, the strial punctures large, round or oval, and closely set; intervals
convex, the space between the seriate punctures also raised, intervals dotted with
setae bearing long hairs. Prosternum with coarse, sparse punctures; post-
intercoxal process subtruncate. Dim. 11 x 5 mm.

Hab.—N.S.W.: Wee Waa (?S8S. W. Jackson).

A single g example, generously given me by Mr. H. Davidson, came from
a collection, originally Mr. Jackson’s, lately acquired by the former. It is a
very distinct species belonging to Section 1A of my revision (These Proc., 1908,

BY H. J. CARTER. 107

p. 272) and readily separated from A. pilosum by smaller size, evenly rounded
prothorax (subangulate in pilosum), the regular strial punctures of the elytra, and
the more strongly pilose upper surface, this extending even to the head. The
three pilose species, A. barbatum Cart., A. pilosum Pasc. and A. hirsutum, exhibit
three degrees of hairiness, the first two sometimes needing a close examination
to show this. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

BrRYCOPIA BAROSSAE, Nl. Sp.

Ovate; nitid-bronze, pilose above, appendages red.

Head rather coarsely punctate, clypeus rounded, eyes, from above, round and
moderately prominent, antennae slender, segment 3 as long as 4-5 combined,
4-8 oblong-obeonic, gradually widening, 9-10 subtriangular, 11 narrowly ovate,
much longer than 10. Prothorax transverse, widest at middle, apex nearly straight,
anterior angles sharply rectangular, base feebly, convexly arcuate, hind angles
widely obtuse, sides with four subequal crenulations, forming angles, the widest
part clearly angulate and setose within margin; disk coarsely setose-punctate,
without medial line or defined foveae. Hlytra much wider than prothorax at
base, striate-punctate, the strial punctures round, diminishing in size towards
apex, intervals lightly convex, irregularly punctulate-setose, a pale, upright hair
springing from each such puncture. Legs rather thin, post tarsi having ist
segment shorter than the rest combined. Dim. 4-5 mm. long.

Hab.

Three examples are before me. Two of these have long been in my cabinet,
confused with B. minuta Lea. The third example is in tne Macleay Museum.
While superficially like B. minuta in size and form, it can be readily separated by
(1) the pilose surface, (2) the elytral punctures round, more distant and smaller
than the squarish, closer punctures of B. minuta Lea. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

South Australia: Barossa (A. H. Elston), also in Macleay Museum.

BrRYCOPIA BROWNI, N. Sp.
Ovate; nitid-bronze.

Head coarsely punctate, antennae moniliform, the three apical segments
subspherical, little wider than preceding. Prothorax widest behind middle, sides
well rounded, strongly sinuate behind, anterior angles obtusely rounded off,
posterior angles rectangular, disk coarsely and rather closely punctate, without
any sign of medial sulcus. Hlytra wider than prothorax at base, shoulders
squarely rounded; striate-punctate, the striae deep and wide near suture, narrower
towards sides, strial punctures large, round and rather close; intervals flat
and clearly punctate, the 5th wider than the rest. Dim. 7 x 3:6 mm.

Hab.—? Queensland (H. W. Brown).

A single example given me some years ago by Mr. Horace Brown as from
Queensland, but unlabelled, was erroneously placed with B. cheesmani in my
cabinet, but may be distinguished from that species as follows:

cheesmani Cart. browni, N. sp.
Colour, subnitid violet-bronze. nitid brighter bronze.
Disk of pronotwm, with medial sulcus. | not sulcate.
Prothorax widest at middle, sides feebly | widest behind middle, sides strongly
sinuate behind, hind angles obtuse. | sinuate behind, hind angles rectangular.
Intervals of elytra uniformly wide, strongly 5th interval wider than rest, intervals less
punctate. strongly punctate.

Holotype in Coll. Carter.

108 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA,

BRYCOPIA DENTICULATA, 1. Sp.

Ovate; nitid-bronze, antennae and tarsi red.

Head strongly, rather closely punctate, clypeus rounded and bearing a few
prominent setae; a long seta on each side in front of eye. Antennae rather
long, extending to base of prothorax, segment 3 twice as long as 4, 4-8 subequal,
moniliform, 9-11 of increasing size, 9-10 subtriangular, 11 oval, twice as long as 10.
Prothorax: apex and base truncate, all angles obtuse, widest at middle, sides
here strongly, subangulately widened, markedly sinuate behind, the sinuation
starting from a denticulation, one or two other denticulations at margin, in
number slightly varying in the five examples before me, one near middle bearing
a prominent seta; lateral foliation narrow; disk uniformly and coarsely punctate,
without sign of a medial line. EHlytra ovate, slightly wider than prothorax at
base, widest at middle, moderately convex, shoulders rather squarely rounded;
striate-punctate, the punctures large on basal half, becoming smaller to apex;
intervals flat and impunctate. Prosternum with a few irregular punctures at
middle, more evenly and closely on the flanks, meso and meta sternum and
abdomen sparsely, the apical segment densely punctate. Dim. 3-4 mm. long.

Hab.—Western Australia: King George’s Sound (in Australian Museum).

Five examples bear a label of recent date, but the specimens have been
for some time in the Museum. In my table it stands near crenaticollis Cart.,
which, however, is twice the size. B. minuta Lea has distinct pilose clothing,
among other differences. B. denticulata is the sole representative of the genus
in Western Australia. There are no evident sex characters. Holotype in the
Australian Museum. _

BRYCOPIA HARRISONI, nD. SD.

Dark bronze above and below, widely ovate, glabrous, moderately nitid,
antennae and legs dark, tarsi and palpi red.

Head coarsely, closely punctate, eyes large, moderately prominent, coarsely
faceted; antennae moniliform and strongly pilose, segment 1 stout, 2 small, 3-6
subequal, 7-11 gradually enlarged, a pseudo 12th appearing like a small, pale
nodule at apex of 11th. Prothoraz convex, strongly transverse, widest at middle,
apex and base truncate, sides widely and evenly rounded, anterior angles widely
obtuse, posterior forming a subdentate rectangle, border near hind angle feebly
crenulate; disk closely, evenly, rather finely punctate, a longitudinal depression
on each side towards hind angle. Elytra slightly wider than prothorax at base,
and less than twice as long, shoulders rather squarely rounded, striate-punctate,
the striae defined, seriate punctures round, close and regular; intervals flat, finely
and irregularly punctate. Epipleurae and sternal area strongly punctate, abdominal
segments impressed at sides. Dim. 54 x 22 mm.

Hab.—N.8.W.: Barrington Tops (Sydney University Expedition, 1925).

A single example has escaped notice till now. It is a short, wide species
nearest B. cheesmani Cart. in general facies, but readily distinguished by the
absence of a medial line on the pronotum (well marked in cheesmani), and the
much finer striae and punctures, both seriate and interstitial, of elytra. Holotype
in the Macleay Museum. In my table (These Proc., 1920, p. 247) it would follow
B. crenaticollis Cart. thus:

9. Elytra concolorous, form convex.

Sa. Sides of prothorax strongly crenulate throughout ......... crenaticollis Cart.
9b. Sides of prothorax feebly crenate behind only .............. harrisoni, Nn. sp.

BY H. J. CARTER. 109

BRYCOPIA MUSGRAVEI, nN. Sp.

Widely ovate; very nitid bronze above, antennae, palpi, legs and underside
red, tarsi pale red.

Head coarsely, subsparsely punctate, antennae moniliform, segment 1 stout,
2 small, 3 longer than 4, 4-6 equal, 7-11 successively wider than preceding, 10-11
opaque, 11 much larger than 10. Eyes large, round and prominent. Prothoraz:
apex and base truncate, anterior angles widely obtuse (bluntly rounded at tip),
widest before the middle, sides widely rounded, narrowed, but scarcely sinuate,
towards the rectangular hind angles; border entire; disk rather sparsely and
irregularly punctate, with some raised smooth areas here and there, the punctures
round and generally smaller than on head, without foveae or medial sulcus.
Scutellum small and inconspicuous. EHlytra wider than prothorax at base, humeri
rather squarely rounded, widest behind middle; striate-punctate, the striae rather
deep, the seriate punctures large and round, separated by a space less than the
diameter of one, intervals flat, the 3rd and 5th clearly wider than the 2nd and 4th,
the latter with a single row of minute punctures, the wider intervals with, at
least, 2 rows of punctures. Prosternum coarsely, abdomen finely punctate. Dim.
5 x 23 mm.

Hab.—N.S.W.: Near Cutler’s Pass, Williams River (A. Musgrave and T. G.
Campbell).

A single example in the Australian Museum is named after the Museum
entomologist who found it. It is very closely allied to the Tasmanian species
B. coelioides Pase. (= diemenensis Cart.), from which it differs in (a) more widely
rounded sides of prothorax, (b) 3rd and 5th elytral intervals wider than rest
(intervals uniformly wide in coelioides Pasc.). Holotype in the Australian
Museum.

CISTELIDAE.
NOcAR SUTTONI, N. Sp.

Widely ovate, convex; nitid black, antennae and legs piceous, feebly pubescent
at sides of pronotum and elytra, also on abdomen.

Head finely punctate, antennal segments subconic. Prothorax: front angles
widely rounded, base bisinuate. its angles acute; disk closely punctate. JHlytra
striate-punctate, the striae well marked, seriate punctures well defined, with trans-
verse strioles overlapping intervals; these very lightly convex, clearly and closely
punctate. Underside closely and distinctly punctate. Dim. 9 x 5 mm.

Hab.—Northern New South Wales: Rivertree (E. Sutton).

Five examples were sent as captured on Angophora flowers. It is nearest
to N. funereus Cart. in colour and to N. convexrus Macl. in size. The latter species
is, however, brown with quite flat and excessively finely punctured elytral intervals.
It is separated from N. funereus by (1) larger size, (2) piceous antennae and
legs, (3) antennal segments more elongate, (4) elytral intervals lightly but clearly
convex with stronger sculpture. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

CURCULIONIDAE.
ACANTHOLOPHUS SUTTONI, Nn. sp.
Elongate-ovate. Black, the inter-tubercle spaces with grey scalose clothing,
appendages brown, underside nitid black, glabrous, save for fine, grey setae.
Head: rostrum narrower than head, dorsal surface widening to the front, the
external ridges converging to the base of intercristal ridge, with two shallow

110 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA.

foveae near base; supraorbital crests large, biramate, the anterior branch small
and rather closely welded to the subconical posterior branch, the latter curved
backward; intercristal ridge wide, well raised and continuous with anterior rami.
Prothorax 54 x 8 mm., apex sinuate, the medial area produced over head, disk
with three transverse impressions extending to the median tubercles, ocular
lobes prominent, median area flat, bounded by rows of six large rounded tubercles,
the 6th (at base) small, the 4th triplicate and subconnected, lateral tubercles
dentate, triangular (somewhat as in A. marshami Kirb., but more robust), the
anterior tooth biramate, the anterior branch smaller; between the lateral teeth a
small rounded tubercle evident below the plane of disk; a conical tubercle also
on each side of apical lobe and some scattered granules on depressed area of
disk. Elytra 16 x 10 mm., ovate, widest slightly behind middle, base truncate,
wider than base of prothorax, apex widely rounded; disk with seven rows of
tubercles, besides the less evident rows of punctures. Of the rows of tubercles,
the 3rd, 5th and 7th contain those of larger size, those in 3rd and 5th rounded,
in 7th conical; the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 6th rows contain smaller, round tubercles;
between the regular rows a few irregular granulose tubercles also. Apical segments
of abdomen finely punctate, the apical with a subgranulose margin. Tibiae
without evident sexual character.* Dim. 25 x 10 mm.

Hab.—South Queensland: The Pyramids, Wyberba district (E. Sutton).

The largest species of the genus known to me, that I gladly name after its
discoverer, the naturalist of the Stanthorpe region. It is one of the marshami
group in Ferguson’s table of the genus (These Proc., 1921, p. 26).

CERAMBYCIDAE.

Hesthesis plorator Pasc.—Typical examples of this have the elytral apices
oblique. Two examples taken by Mr. F. E. Wilson at Woori Yallock, Vict., and an
example from Ringwood, Vict., in my collection, have clearly truncate apices,
though with the characteristic production at the sutural angle.

Coptocercus trimaculatus Hope, and C. crucigerus Hope, by a mischance, were
transposed in my tabulation (These Proc., 1929, p. 130). OC. crucigerus should
appear in line with No. 8 on p. 130.

I wish to express my thanks to Mr. HE. H. Zeck and Miss N. B. Adams for their
drawings of the new species illustrated.

C

* As the example in hand is probably 9, this character awaits confirmation. <A
second example, recently sent by Mr. Sutton, is @ and has the intermediate tibiae with
a subapical emargination.

A CHECK LIST OF THE NEW SOUTH WALES PTERIDOPHYTES.
By Atma T. MELVAINE, Science Research Scholar of the University of Sydney.
[Read 27th May, 1936.]

There has been no comprehensive publication on the nomenclature of the
Pteridophytes of New South Wales since the Census of 1916. Since then there
have been some radical changes in our knowledge of the systematics of the
Filicales, and some changes in nomenclature. These changes are embodied in this
list, which is intended to cover all the past nomenclature of the Pteridophytes
which has been in use in this State. Brief explanatory notes have been inserted
where it has been considered necessary.

All the species listed are represented by New South Wales specimens in the
National Herbarium, except where otherwise indicated.t Some of these may be
represented by specimens whose localities are not given.

LYCOPODIALES.
LYCOPODIACEAE.

PHYLLOGLOSSUM Kuntze, in Mohl and Schlechtendal, Bot. Zeit., 1843, 721.

*P. Drummond Kuntze, l.c. (M.&B.; C.)

Lycoropium Rupp., Fl. Jen., 1718, 32.

. Selago L., Sp. Plant., 1753, 1102.

. varium R.Br., Prodromus, 1810, 165.

. cernuum L., 1.e.

. densum Labill., Nov. Holl. Plant., ii, 1806, 1104.

. clavatum L., l.c., var. fastigiatum Benth., Fl. Austr., vii, 1878. (L. fastigiatum
R.Br.)

. laterale R.Br., l.c., p. 165.

. carolinianum L., l|.c., p. 1104.. (M.&B.; D.; C.)

SUSRS a Sais

Sis

*

SELAGINELLACEAE.
SELAGINELLA Beauv., Prodr. des familles de 1]’Aeth., 1805, 101.
*S. Preissiana Spring, Mem. Acad. Brux., 1842, 61. (M.&B:; C.)
S. uliginosa Spring, l.c., p. 60.
S. Belangeri Spring, 1.c., 1849, 242.

y Explanation of abbreviations:

*—No specimens from New South Wales in the National Herbarium, Sydney.

B.—Recorded by Bentham, Flora Australiensis, 1878, but no specimens in the
Herbarium.

M. & B.—Recorded by Moore and Betche, A Handbook to the Flora of New South
Wales, 1893, but no specimens in the Herbarium.

C.—Recorded by Maiden and Betche, A Census of New South Wales Plants. 1916,
but no specimens in the Herbarium.

D.—Recorded by Domin, Beitrdge zur Flora und Pflanzengeographie Australiens. in
Bibl. Bot., Bd. XX, but no specimens in the Herbarium. Most of Domin’s records for
New South Wales were, however, taken from other authorities.

112 CHECK LIST OF NEW SOUTH WALES PTERIDOPHYTES,

ISOETACEAE.

IsortTes L., Skanska resa, 1751, 420.

A species of Isoetes is recorded for New South Wales and there are specimens
from the Victorian side of the Murray River in the National Herbarium.
These plants are certainly not /. Drummondii, nor do they seem to conform
to descriptions of any other species.

PSILOTALES.
PSILOTACEAE.

TMESIPTERIS Bernh., Schrad. Journ., ii, 1800, 131.

T. tannensis Bernh., l.c., including 7. elongata Dang. and T. lanceolata Dang.

Psitotum Sw., Schrad. Journ., ii, 1800, 109.

P. nudum (L.) Griesb. in Veget. d. Karaiben, 1857, 130. (P. triquetrum Sw.;
Lycopodium nudum L.)

FILICALES.
OPHIOGLOSSACEAE.

OpHiocLossumM L., Gen. Plant., 1753, 503.
O. coriaceum A. Cunn. in Hk., Comp. to Bot. Mag., ii, 1836, 367. (0. gramineum

R.Br.)

O. costatum R.Br. Prodr.

Some specimens of Ophioglossum collected by Mr. H. Cheel in the Orange
district have been identified by him as O. Prantlii C.Chr. (O. lanceolatum Prantl,
0. vulgatum var. lanceolatum Luerss., O. vulgatuny var. gramineum Bailey) in
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1924, with the proviso that this species may not be
specifically distinct from O. lusitanicum Linn. The specimens are indistinguish-
able from the common Australian species O. coriaceum A. Cunn. which is the
Australian counterpart of O. lusitanicum, having ovate to ovate-lanceolate sterile
fronds.

O. pendulum L., Sp. Plant. ed. ii, ii, 1763, 1518.

BotrycHium Sw., Schrad. Journ. 18007, 1801, 8, 110.

B. lunaria (L.) Sw., l.c.

B. australe R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 164. (B. ternatum var. australe Domin.)

MARATTIACEAE.

ANGIOPTERIS Hoffm., Comm. Soe. Reg. Gotting., xii, 1793?, 29.
A. evecta Hoffm., l.c. Recorded in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 24, 1909, 367.

OSMUNDACEAE.

TopEA, Schrift. Akad. Erfurt., 1802, 14.

T. barbara (L.) Moore Ind., 1857, exix. (Osmunda barbara Thunb.)
LEPTOPTERIS Presl, Suppl. Tent. Pterid., 1845, 70.

L. Fraseri (Hk. and Grey.) Presl, l.c. (Todea Fraseri Hk. and Grev.)

SCHIZAEACEAR.

LycopiumM Sw., Schrad. Journ., 1800", 1801, 106.

L. scandens (L.) Sw., l.c.

ScHizAEA Sm., Mem. Acad. Turin, v, 1793, 419.

S. bifida Willd., Schrift. Akad. Erf., 1802, 30.

S. dichotoma (l.) Sm., l.c., p. 422, t. 9. The var. Forsteri is recorded by Domin
(Bibl. Bot., Bd. xx, p. 207) as occurring in New South Wales, but he states
that he himself has not seen true specimens from Australia.

BY ALMA T. MELVAINE. 113

S. fistulosa Labill., Nov. Holl. Pl. Ins. Sp., ii, 1806, 103.
S. rupestris R.Br., l.c., p. 162.

MARSILEACEAE.

MarsILEa L., Gen. Plant., 1753, 799.

M. angustifolia R.Br., l.c., p. 167. Recorded in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 30, 1905,
374.

M. Brownii A.Br., Monatsber. Ak. Berl., 1863, 418. (M. quadrifolia Benth.,
non L.)

M. Drummondii A.Br., Linnea, 25, 1853, 721.
var. Nardu Benth. impl., Fl. Austr., vii, 1878, 674. (M. Nardu A.Br.)

M. exarata A.Br., Monatsber. Ak. Berl., 1870, 732.

M. hirsuta R.Br., l.c., 167.

PILULARIA.
*P. Novae-Hollandiae A.Br., l.c. (B.; C.). (P. globulifera Benth., non L.)

GLEICHENIACEAE.

GLEICHENIA Sm., l.c.

G. circinata Sw., 1|.c., p. 107.—This species was originally described by Swartz in
1801 from a limited number of specimens. Robert Brown, in 1810, from a
larger supply of material, discarded Swartz’s species as insufficiently described
(charactere haud conveniente), and described three species of Gleichenia:
G. microphylla, G. rupestris, and G. speluncae (l.c., p. 161). Of these,
G. microphylla is apparently synonymous with G. circinata but more care-
fully defined; it is frequently given as a variety of G. circinata (v. Domin,
e.g.). G. rupestris is a glabrous form without the hirsute rachis of Swartz’s
species and has fronds which are glaucous below. G. speluncae is described
as “frondibus furecatis ... lobis semiovatis planis membranaceis subtus
glaucis, capsulis 3-4 exsertis’. In the National Herbarium, Sydney, the only
specimens which agree with this description are a few fronds which are
membranous and only once or twice forked. They appear to be juvenile
fronds of Brown’s G. rupestris. Thus the specimens may be classified as
G. circinata which has priority despite its imperfect description, and Brown’s
G. rupestris which is worthy only of varietal rank.

var. rupestris Benth. impl., Fl. Austr., vii, 1878, 697.

G. dicarpa R.Br., l.c., p. 161.

G. flabellata R.Br., 1.c.

G. flagellaris (Bory) Spreng. Syst., iv, 1827, 25. (G. laevigata (Willd.) Hk.)
Recorded in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 1909, 366.

G. linearis (Burm.) Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc., ii, Bot. i, 1880, 428. (G. dichotoma
Hk.; G. Hermanni R.Br.)

PLATYZOMA R.Br., l.c.

P. microphyllum R.Br., l.c.

HYMENOPHYLLACEAE.

TRICHOMANES L., Sp. Plant., ii, 1753, 1907.
*T. omphalodes (Vieill.) C.Chr., Ind. Fil., 1906, 646. (ZT. peltatum Bak.) (C.)
*T. Bauerianum Endl., Prodr. Fl. Norf., 18338, 17. (U7. apiifolium Presl; T.
meifoium F.v.M., non Bory.) (B.; D.; C.; M.&B.)
T. digitatum Sw., var. calvescens Benth. impl., l.c., p. 12. (UZ. calvescens V.d.B.;
Hymenophyllum Cattlettii C. Moore.)
Cc

114 CHECK LIST OF NEW SOUTH WALES PTERIDOPHYTES,

. humile Forst., Prodr., 1786, 84. (M.&B.; C.)

. javanicum Bl., Enum., 1828, 224.

parvulum Poir., Encycl., viii, 1808, 64.

. rigidum Sw., Prodr., 1788, 137.

. venosum R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 159.

. vitiense Bak., Journ. Linn. Soc., ix, 1866, 338.

HYMENOPHYLLUM Sm., Mem. Acad. Turin, v, 1793, 418.

H. australe Willd., Sp. Plant., 5, 1810, 527. (AH. javanicum Spreng.)

H. bivalve (Forst.) Sw., Schrad. Journ., 18002, 1801, 99. Recorded in Wing’s
Southern Science Record, June, 1888.

H,. flabellatum Labill., Nov. Holl. Plant., ii, 1806, 101. (H. nitens R.Br.)

H. marginatum Hk. and Grev., Ic. Fil., 1829, i, t. 34. Recorded in Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., 8, 1884, 469, and 37, 1912.

H. pumilum C. Moore, Hk. and Bak. Syn. Fil., 1874, 464.

H

H

15L

BARR AR

. rarum R.Br., l.c., p. 159 (H. lucens C. Moore).
. tunbridgense (L.) Sm., in Sowerb. Engl. Bot., 1794, t. 162.
. peltatum Poir. Recorded in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1916.

SALVINIACEAR.
AZOLLA Lam., Encycl. meth., i, 1783, 343.
A. filiculoides Lam. var. rubra Diels. (A. rubra R.Br.).
A. pinnata R.Br., l.c., p. 167.

DICKSONIACEAE: Subfamily DIcKSONIEAE.

CutciTa Presl.

C. dubia (R.Br.) Maxon, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 12, 1922, 458. (Davallia dubia
R.Br.; Dicksonia dubia Gaud.; Sitolobium dubium Brack.; Balantium dubium
(R.Br.) Copel.)

Dicksonta L’Her., Sertum anglicum, 1788, 30.

D. antarctica Labill., Nov. Holl. Plant., ii, 1806, 100. (D. Billardieri F.v.M.)

D. Youngiae C. Moore, Proc. Hort. Soc., also in Hk. and Bak. Syn. Fil., 1874, 461.

Subfamily DENNSTAEDTIINAE.

DENNSTAEDTIA Bernh., Schrad. Journ., 18007, 1801, 124.

D. davallioides (R.Br.) Moore, Parker’s Cat., 1858. (Dicksonia davallioides R.Br.;
Davallia dicksonioides F.v.M.)

HyYpo.Lepis Bernh., Schrad. neu Journ., 17, 1806, 34.

H. tenuifolia (Forst.) Bernh., l.c.

H. punctata (Thunb.) Mett. (Dryopteris punctata (Thunb.) C.Chr.; Polypodium
punctatum Thunb.; Phegopteris punctata Mett.) The transfer of this species
and the next to Hypolepis from Polypodium, Dryopteris, etc., is already
widely accepted. Anatomical features are definitely in accord with a
Dicksonioid relationship, and the species are only superficially similar to
the Polypodiums and Dryopteroid ferns with which they have commonly
been classified.

H. rugulosa (Lab.) J.Sm., Bot. Mag., |xxii, 1846, Comp. 8. (Dryopteris punctata
subspecies rugosula C.Chr.; Phegopteris punctata var. rugulosa v. Alder
v. Rosenberg; Polypodium rugosulum Labill.; Phegopteris rugulosa Fée;
Phegopteris rugosula Mett.)

CYATHEACEAE.

ALSOPHILA R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 158.

A. australis R.Br., l1.c.

BY ALMA T. MELVAINE. 115

A. Cooperi F.v.M., Fragm., v, 1866, 117. (A. excelsa R.Br. var. Coopert C. Moore,
Hbk. Fl. N.S.W., 1893, 505, as a synonym.)

A. Leichhardtiana F.v.M., l.c., 1865, 53.

A. Loddigesii Kuntze, Linnea, 20, 1847, 7; Bak. Syn. Fil., 458.

CYATHEA Sm., Mem. Acad. Turin, v, 1793, 416.

C. Lindsayana Hk., Sp. Fil., 1865, 25.

POLYPODIACEAE: Subfamily DAVALLIOIDEAE.

DAVALLIA Sm., l.c., p. 414.

D. pyxidata Cav., Descr., 1802, 278.

NEPHROLEPIS Schott., Gen. Fil., 1834, t. 3.

N. cordifolia (L.) Presl, Tent. Pterid., 1836, 79. (Aspidium cordifolium Sw.)

ARTHROPTERIS J.Sm., Hk. f., Fl. N.Z., ii, 1854, 43.

A. Beckleri Mett., Novara Exp. Bot., i, 1870, 213. (Aspidiuwm ramosum var.
eumundi Bailey.)

A. obliterata (R.Br.) J.Sm., Cat. Cult. Ferns, 1827, 62. (Aspidium ramosum
Palis.)

A. tenella (Forst.) J.Sm., Hk. f., FI. N.Z., ii, 1854, 43. (Polypodium tenellum.)

Linpsaya Dryand., J.Sm., Mem. Acad. Turin, v, 1793, 4138.

L. cuneata (Forst.) C.Chr., Ind. Fil., 1906, 392. Recorded in Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., 1886, 929.

L. dimorpha Bailey, Hbk. Queensland Ferns, 1874, 19.

*T, incisa Prentice, Journ. Bot., 1873, 295. (M.&B.; D.; C.)

L. linearis Sw., Schrad. Journ., 1800, 1801, 78.

L. microphylla Sw., l.c., p. 79. Including var. gracilescens Domin.

Subfamily PTEROIDEAE.

Prrripium Gleditsch, Scolopi. Flora Carniolica, 1760, 169.

P. aquilinum (U.) Kubn., v. Deck. Reisen, iii*, Bot. ii, 1879. Including var.
pseudocaudatum Domin and var. aequipinnulum Domin. (Pteris aquilina L.)

HistTiopTeris (Agardh.) J.Sm., Hist. Fil., 1875, 295.

H. incisa (Thunb.) J.Sm., l.c. (Pteris incisa Thunb.)

Preris L., Hort. Cliff., 1737, 443.

P. longifolia L., Sp. Plant., ii, 1753, 1074. (Including var. brevipinna Domin.)

P. umbrosa R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 154.

P. tremula R.Br., l.c. (P. arguta F.v.M., non Ait.)

P. tripartita Sw., Schrad. Journ., 1800°, 1801, 67. (Pteris marginata Bory.)

P. comans Forst., Prodr., 1786, 79. Including P. Hndlicheriana Agardh.

*P. ensiformis Burm., Fl. Ind., 1768, 230. Recorded, without specific locality, by
Domin; doubtful.

AcrosticHum L., Gen. Plant., 1737, 785.

A. aureum L., Sp. Plant., ii, 1753, 1069. The old subfamily Acrosticheae has
been clearly shown to be composite in nature and many of its original
constituents have been removed. Developmental studies of this and other
species of Acrostichum show that the genus is unmistakably a Pteroid
derivative. The soral condition of the ‘“Acrosticheae” has been attained
by loss of the indusium and soral spread in most of the subfamilies of the
Polypodiaceae, but nearly all those which show the Acrostichoid state give
evidence, in their other features, of their true relationships. In Acrostichum
itself, the sporangia do not originate simultaneously all over the surface but,

116 CHECK LIST OF NEW SOUTH WALES PTERIDOPHYTES,

like the Pteroid ferns, begin their development marginally, spreading towards
the centre.

Subfamily GyMNOGRAMMOIDEAE.

This is a composite subfamily comprising Schizaeoid and Osmundaceous
derivatives, centred around the old genus Gymnogramme. The group includes
a large percentage of the old subfamily Pterideae, which have been shown to
conform to an Osmundaceous or Schizaeoid, exindusiate type, rather than to the
bi-indusiate Dicksonioid type from which originated the Davallioid and Pteroid
ferns. A true indusium is phyletically absent, but the leaf margin is often
membranous and recurved over the sorus in imitation of this structure.

The chief superficial distinguishing features between genera of this group,
such as Pellaea, and Pteroid ferns, is the consistent occurrence of hard dark,
often polished, petioles and rachides. :
CERATOPTERIS Brongn., Bull. Soc. Phil., 1821, 186.

C. thalictroides (L.) Brongn., l.c-—This species has usually been separated from
the Polypodiaceae because of its somewhat irregular sporangial characters.
These are marked irregularities of the annulus, and great variations in spore
output, both of which features are typical of primitive ferns in general,
and are seen in a small group of rather rare ferns classified with Ceratopteris.

ANOGRAMMA Link, Fil. Sp., 1841, 137.

A. leptophylla (.) Link, l.c. (Grammitis leptophylla Sw.)

ADIANTUM L., Gen. Plant., 1737, 782.

A. aethiopicum L., Syst. Nat., ed. x, ii, 1759, 1329.

A. formosum R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 155.

A. diaphanum BI., Enum., 1828, 215.

A. hispidulum Sw., Schrad. Journ., 1800, 1801, 82.

A. affine Willd., Sp. Plant., v, 1810, 448. <A. Cunninghami Hk. is apparently
synonymous with this species, though Christensen separates them. He states
that A. affine occurs only in New Zealand, while A. Cunninghami is common
to Australia, New Zealand and several of the Pacific islands. In New Zealand,
however, the two are not separated (Cheeseman, Hbk. FI. N.Z., 1914), and the
distinction, which is based on the glaucous or non-glaucous character of the
pinnules, is unsatisfactory, since all intermediate states of glaucousness are
found. ;

The var. intermedium Benth. is excluded: the distinction (length of
indusia) is not valid. There is almost no difference between length and
breadth in most of the indusia, nor is the difference, where it exists, constant.

PELLAEA Link, Fil. Sp., 1841, 48, 59.

P. falcata (R.Br.) Fée, Gen. Fil., 1850, 129. (Pteris falcata R.Br.) The variety
nana Bailey is excluded. Many plants in different localities have been
examined and, though a few extremes are separable, the characters of tufted
rhizome and close or overlapping pinnae, which distinguish the variety,
are by no means constant. One finds all combinations of the two characters,
which seem to be a feature of the habitat.

P. paradoza (R.Br.) Hk., Sp. Fil., ii, 1858, 135. Including var. normalis Domin,
lc. (Pteris paradoza Bak.)

DoryortTeris J.Sm., Journ. Bot., iii, 1841, 404.

D. concolor (Langsd. and Fisch.) Kuhn., v. Deck. Reisen, iii*®, 1879, Bot. 19.
(Pteris concolor Langsd. and Fisch.; Pteris geraniifolia Raddi.)

BY ALMA T. MELVAINE. ibe

CHEILANTHES Sw., Syn. Fil., 5, 1806, 126.

C. tenuifolia (Burm.) Sw., l.c., 1806, 129, 332. The variety Sieberi Benth. impl.
is excluded: the character of an almost erect rhizome is quite inadequate
as a distinguishing feature. The species has its leaves crowded on the
rhizome, so that a short rhizome gives a tufted appearance; most of the
rhizomes examined are short, and apparently slow growing.

NoOTrHOLAENA R.Br., l.c., p. 145.

N. Brownii Desv., Prodr., 1827, 220. (N. vellea R.Br.; Cheilanthes vellea F.v.M.)

N. distans R.Br., l.c., 146. (Cheilanthes distans A.Br.)

Subfamily DRYOPTEROIDEAE.

CysTopTeRIsS Bernh., Schrad. neu. Journ., 1°, 1806, 5, 26.

C. fragilis (.) Bernh., l.c. (Woodsia laetivirens Prentice.) Although the true
systematic position of this fern is by no means certain, it is usually included
in the section Woodsieae of Dryopteroid or Aspidioid ferns, and will be
classified here until a better position can be assigned to it.

Dryopreris Adans., Fam. des Plant., ii, 1763, 20.

D. decomposita (R.Br.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Plant., ii, 1891, 812. (Aspidium
decompositum R.Br.) Including D. lanciloba var. glabella Benth. impl. This
is the reference given in Maiden and Betche’s Census, though Bentham does
not mention the name glabella. (D. glabella (A. Cunn.) C.Chr.)

D. acuminata (Lowe) Watts, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 41, 1916, 380. The variety
cristata Watts, l.c., is excluded; D. acuminata has a tufted rhizome, but the
type specimen of the variety has a creeping one, with its leaves much closer
together than on the typical creeping rhizomes of D. decomposita and
D. queenslandica. This, however, is a common feature of the early stages of
tufted rhizomes, and the cristate character of the fronds is almost certainly
an aberrant one: no further crested fronds could be found in the same
locality, though several similar rhizomes were unearthed.

D. tenera (R.Br.) C.Chr., l.c., p. 297. (Aspidium tenerum Spreng.)

*D. setigera (BI.) O. Kuntze, l.c., p. 813. (Aspidium tenericaule Thw.; A. uliginosa
Kuntze.) (M.&B.; B.)

D. queenslandica Domin, Bibl. Bot., Bd. xx, p. 44. (D. Baileyii Maiden and Betche;
Polypodium aspidioides Bailey.) Maiden and Betche were undoubtedly right
in referring this species to Dryopteris, and in requiring a name other than
that already used for an American species (aspidioides), but this alteration
had already been effected by Domin, three years prior to the publication
of the Census of Maiden and Betche.

D. gongylodes (Schkuhr) O. Kuntze, l.c., p. 811. (Aspidium unitum Sw.)

D. parasitica (L.) O. Kuntze, l.c. (Aspidium molle Sw.)

D. truncata (Poir.) O. Kuntze, l.c., p. 814. (Aspidium truncatum Gaud.)

*D. prolifera (Retz.) C.Chr., l.c., p. 286. (Polypodium proliferum Presl.) (B.;
M.&B.; C.)

POLYSTICHUM Roth., Rom. Mag., 21, 1799, 106.

P. aculeatum (L.) Schott., Gen. Fil., 1834, ad. t. 9. (Aspidium aculeatum Sw.)
The plants of this species vary tremendously in the degree of scaly develop-
ment, and of proliferation from the frond. A large collection from all
over the State shows a degree of constancy in the type from any one
ecological situation, a fact which indicates that the variations are probably
due to habitat. The number of buds formed on the frond varies too with
environmental conditions, as the cultivation of wild plants will readily

“118 CHECK LIST OF NEW SOUTH WALES PTERIDOPHYTES,

show. A specimen from Robert Brown’s collection, which he named
P. proliferum, is nearly glabrous, and bears a single bud near the apex of
the frond. One rarely finds plants without any buds, and all are apparently
capable of proliferation when conditions are favourable. Maiden and Betche’s
varieties (the species P. proliferum and P. vestitum of Diels and Christensen)
are therefore excluded.

P. aristatum (Forst.) Presl, Tent. Pterid., 1836, 83. (Aspidium aristatum Sw.)
*var. carvifolium Maiden and Betche. (P. carvifolium (O. Kuntze) C.Chr.) (C.)

P. adiantiforme (Forst.) J.Sm., Hist. Fil., 1875, 220. (Aspidium capense Willd.;
A. coriaceum Sw.)

P. hispidium (Sw.) J.Sm., Journ. Bot., iv, 1841, 195. (Aspidium hispidium Sw.)

Subfamily ASPLENIOIDEAR.
ATHYRIUM Roth., Rom. Mag., 23, 1799, 105.
A. umbrosum (Ait.) Presl, Tent. Pterid., 1836, 98. (Aspleniuwm umbrosum J.Sm.)
var. semidivisum HE. C. Chisholm, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lix, 1934, 143.

A. humile Watts, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 41, 1916, 380. The name is included
here until further material can be found. It is highly probable that the
type specimen is a juvenile frond of Diplazium japonicum Beddome.

DiepLtAzium Sw., Schrad. Journ., 18007, 1801, 61.

D. maximum (Don) C.Chr., l.c., p. 235. (Asplenium maximum Don.)

D. japonicum (Thunb.) Beddome, Supplement to the Ferns of Southern India,
etc., Madras. There has always been some doubt as to the occurrence of
this species in New South Wales, owing to a description from a doubtful
specimen in Bentham’s Flora Australiensis, but recent collections from
several localities in the North Coast district have confirmed the original
record.

ASPLENIUM L., Gen. Plant., 1737, 783.

A. nidus L., Sp. Plant., ii, 1753, 1079.

A. attenuatum R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 150.

var. multilobum F.v.M., Fragm., v, 1866, 131.

A. flabellifolium Cayv., Descr., 1802, 257.

A. trichomanes L., Sp. Plant., ii, 1753, 1080.

A. obtusatum Forst., Prodr., 1736, 80. (A. marinum F.v.M., non L.)

var. difforme Benth. (A. difforme R.Br.)

A. adiantioides (L.) C.Chr., Ind. Fil., 1906, 99. (A. falcatum Lam.) The var.
caudatum Benth. impl. is excluded; it is given specific rank by van Rosenburg
in Malayan Ferns (1908), where it is distinguished by the position of the
higher sori which are “sub-parallel and nearly close to the costa, occupying
the lower part of the veins”. In A. adiantioides they are “erecto-patent,
and not sub-parallel to the costa’. In the New South Wales specimens
at least, the variety is not constantly separable.

*4,. Hookerianum Col., Tas. Journ., ii, 1884, 169. (B., doubtful.)

*A. praemorsum Sw., Prodr., 1788, 130. (A. furcatwm Thunb.) (B.; C.)

A. bulbiferum Forst., Prodr., 1786, 80.

A. flaccidum Forst., l.c.

PLevRosoruUS Fée, Gen. Fil., 1850-52, 179.

P. rutifolius (R.Br.) Fée, l.c., p. 180. (Grammitis rutifolia R.Br.; Gymnogramme
rutaefolia Hk.)

BY ALMA T. MELVAINE. 119

Subfamily BLECHNOIDEAE.

BLECHNUM L., Sp. PIl., ii, 1753, 1077.

B. cartilagineum Sw., Syn. Fil., 1806, 114, 312. Including the four varieties of
Domin: var. normale, var. appendiculatum, var. tropicum, var. wood-
wardioides.

B. serrulatum Rich., Act. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris, i, 1792, 114.

B. Patersoni (R.Br.) Mett., Fil. Lips., 1856, 64, t. 4. Including var. normale
Domin (Lomaria elongata var. Cunninghamiana Hk.), and var. elongata (B1.)
Domin. (Lomaria Patersoni Spreng.)

B. discolor (Forst.) Keyserling, Polyp. et Cyath. Herbarii Bungeana, 1873, 66.
(Lomaria discolor Willd.) Including var. normale Domin, var. nudum
Domin, var. bipinnatifidum Domin.

B. lanceolatum (R.Br.) Sturm., Enum. Pl. Crypt. Chil., 1858, 25. (Lomaria
lanceolata Spreng.)

B. penna-marina (Poir) Kuhn, Fil. Afric., 1868, 92. (Lomaria alpina Spreng.)

B. capense (L.) Schlecht., Adumbr. Fil., 1825, 34, t. 18. (Lomaria capensis Willd.;
L. procera Spreng.) Including var. Gregsoni Watts. Exact localities for the
many varieties which he has set up are not given by Domin. The New
South Wales specimens, though very variable, cannot be separated into
constant varieties, with the exception of var. laevigatum (Blechnum capense
subspecies laevigatum Domin), which has Blechnoid and not Lomarioid
fertile fronds.

var. laevigatum, nov. comb.

B. fluviatile (R.Br.) Lowe, Salom. Nom., 1883, 115. (Lomaria fluviatilis Spreng.)

Doopia R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 151.

D. aspera R.Br., l.c. (Woodwardia aspera Mett.)

D. caudata (Cav.) R.Br., lc. (Woodwardia caudata Cav.) The variety media
Benth. (D. media R.Br.) is inseparable from the species, which varies
tremendously. Bentham himself, who transferred Brown’s species to varietal
rank, notes that he can find no difference other than size, and that inter-
mediate specimens are numerous.

var. Atkinsoniae nomen nudum.—Woolls refers in his Flora of Australia, with-
out description, to this plant (from Kurrajong), which has apparently never
been described. Betche, on an herbarium sheet, notes that ... “the
variety Atkinsoniae is ... worthy of specific rank”. There are no specimens
in the National Herbarium bearing the name Atkinsoniae. It should, there-
fore, be deleted from a list of New South Wales ferns.

D. maxima J.Sm., Bot. Mag., 72, 1846, Companion, p. 27. (D. blechnoides A. Cunn.
Woodwardia aspera var. blechnoides F.v.M. impl.)

Subfamily DIPTEROIDEAE.

This subfamily has been separated by Bower (The Filicales, vol. iii, p. 200),
and in it he has placed the genera Cheiropleuria, Platycerium and Pleopeltis
(Malayan species), adding a note that probably many species of Polypodiwm, and
especially Cyclophorus, would eventually be placed in the group. The constituent
genera are shown to be derivatives of a Dipteris type, probably of Gleicheniaceous
ancestry. They are superficially characterized by a reticulate venation of the
Anaxetum type, and by simple, bifid or not highly divided leaves. They are
always ex-indusiate. Below are included the New South Wales species of Pleopeltis
(Polypodium) which conform generally to the characters of the subfamily, and
also the single species of Drynaria which is found in this State.

120 CHECK LIST OF NEW SOUTH WALES PTERIDOPHYTES,

PLEOPELTIS Humb. et Bonpl., Pl. aequinoct, Paris, 1805-1818.

P. Brownii (Wickstr.) Fournier, Bull. Soc. Fr., 16, 1869, 424. (Polypodium
Brownii Wickstr., Polypodium attenuatum R.Br.)

P. pustulata (Forst.) Moore, Ind. Fil., 1857.

P. diversifolia (Willd.), nov. comb. (PI. Billardieri Moore; Polypodium diversi-
folium Willd.).—The complicated synonymy of these two species has caused
much confusion. The solution of the problem is clearly given by Domin (l.c.),
who summarizes the situation as follows: the two species Polypodium
pustulatum and P. scandens, set up by Forster in 1786, were only one species.
In 1806 Labillardiére described a plant from Tasmania which he said was
identical with Forster’s P. scandens, but he expressed doubt as to the validity
of Forster’s two species. However, Labillardiére’s plant, which he called
P. scandens, was certainly different from Forster’s species: it was described
again in 1810 by Willdenow as P. diversifolium, and in the same year by
Robert Brown as P. Billardieri. Domin says that, if Forster’s names are
synonymous, and scandens is therefore deleted from the genus as a specific
name, then Labillardiére’s P. scandens must have precedence (for the
Tasmanian plant), and Willdenow’s P. diversifolium and Brown’s P.
Billardieri are synonyms of it. C. Christensen considers that P. diversifolium
Willd. was the first true name for this species and, as this name is now
generally in use, it has been adopted here. Christensen and Domin have
adopted P. pustulatum Forst. for the other species. Unfortunately both
Bentham, and Moore and Betche used the name scandens, now generally
regarded aS a synonym. Thus a reversal of the nomenclature in use in this
State becomes necessary: Polypodium pustulatum of the Flora Australiensis
(also of Bailey, Moore and Betche, etc.) must become P. diversifolium Willd.,
and P. scandens Forst. of Bentham, Bailey, etc., must become P. pustulatum
Forst. Since their characters are those of the Dipteroid ferns and not of
the true Polypodiaceae the generic name Pleopeltis has been adopted.

CycLopHorus Desv., Berl. Mag., v, 1811, 300. (Niphobolus Kaulf.)

C. serpens (Forst.) C.Chr., Ind. Fil., 1906, 201. (Polypodium serpens Forst.)

C. confluens (R.Br.) C.Chr., l.c., p. 198. (Polypodium confluens R.Br.)

DryNARIA (Bory) J.Sm., Journ. Bot., iv, 1841, 60.

D. rigidula (Sw.) Beddome, Ferns Brit. Ind., 1869, t. 314. (Polypodium rigidulum
Sw.)

HyMENOLEPIS Kaulf., Enum Fil., 1824, 146.

H. spicata (1. fil.) Presl, Epimeliae botanicae, 1849, 159. (Acrostichum spicatum
L.)

PLATYCERIUM Desv., Prodr., 1827, 213.

P. bifurcatum (Cav.) C.Chr., l.c., p. 498. (P. alcicorne Desv.)

P. grande (A. Cunn.) J.Sm., Journ. Bot., iii, 1841, 402.

Subfamily PoLyPpopirar.

A systematic study of the Ferns such as Bower has undertaken in The
Filicales, vols. i, ii, and iii, shows clearly that species of Polypodiwm which are
commonly classified in the subgenus Hu-Polypodium are not closely related to
species such as are included in this list with the Dipteroid ferns, though they
are usually classified together in the subfamily Polypodieae. Only two species of
the subgenus Hu-Polypodium occur in New South Wales, and it seems justifiable
to include these as true members of the old subfamily Polypodieae.

BY ALMA T. MELVAINE. 121

Potypopium L., Gen. Plant., 1753, 784.

P. Billardieri (Willd.) C.Chr., l.c., p. 518. (P. australe Mett.) Maiden and
Betche used the name P. australe Mett. in preference to P. Billardieri, in
order to avoid confusion, though they recognized that P. Billardieri had
priority.

*P, grammitidis R.Br., Prodr., 1810, 147. (C.)

In the making of this list the collections of Pteridophytes in the National
Herbarium, Sydney, have been invaluable. I wish to express my thanks to Mr.
Cheel, of the Herbarium, who placed the collections at my disposal, and to
Professor Osborn, of the Department of Botany, Sydney University, for advice
and helpful criticism.

CONTRIBUTION TO A KNOWLEDGE OF PAPUAN TIPULIDAE (DIPTERA).

By CHARLES P. ALEXANDER, Massachusetts State College, Amherst, Mass., U.S.A.

(Communicated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.)
(Seven Text-figures.)

[Read 24th June, 1936.]

The material included in the present paper is chiefly from the mountains of
the Central Division of Papua north of Port Moresby, and was collected by Mr.
K. J. Clinton of the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, The
University of Sydney. The collection contained eight species, six being described
as new. The subgenus Paramongoma is recorded for the first time from Papua.
I express my very sincere thanks to Professor Harvey Sutton, Director of the
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, for submitting this material to me
for study. All types and uniques are preserved in the collection of the School.

LIMONIINAE.
LIMONIINI.
LIMoONIA (LIMONIA) LONGEANTENNATA, nN. Sp. Figs. 1, 3.

Size small (wing, ¢, 4 mm.); general coloration of thorax dark brown,
the praescutum more reddish-brown; femora yellow, with a narrow, subterminal,
dark ring; wings with a uniform brown tinge, the stigma very small, subcircular
in outline; male terminalia with the basistyle armed at tip with three groups of
modified setae; dististyle profoundly divided into a dusky clavate outer lobe and
an oval inner lobe that is produced into a slender spinous point.

g. Length about 3-5 mm.; wing, 4 mm.; antenna about 2-7 mm.

Rostrum black, about one-third the length of remainder of head; palpi black.
Antennae (¢) of unusual length for a member of this subgenus, being only a little
shorter than the entire body, black throughout; flagellar segments long-cylindrical,
with short glabrous apical pedicels; terminal segment subequal in length to the
penultimate, strongly narrowed and pale at apex. Head grey, more silvery-grey on
front; eyes large, rather broadly contiguous on vertex.

Pronotum dark brown. Mesonotal praescutum more reddish-brown, somewhat
darkened behind; scutal lobes dark brown, the median area and the scutellum
more testaceous-brown; mediotergite dark brown. Pleura uniformly dark brown,
the dorso-pleural region and meron somewhat brighter. MHalteres dark brown,
the base of stem narrowly pale. Legs with the fore coxae darkened, the remaining
coxae more yellowish; trochanters yellow; femora yellow, with a narrow
subterminal dark ring, the actual tip a little narrower, yellow; tibiae and tarsi
brown; claws small. Wings (Fig. 1) with a uniform brown tinge; stigma very
small, subcircular in outline, darker brown; veins brown, macrotrichia
conspicuous, black. Venation: Sc, ending shortly before midlength of the long Rs,
Se, at tip; free tip of Sc, and R, in transverse alignment; m a little longer and

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 123

more arcuated than basal section of M,; m-cu just beyond fork of M; anal veins
parallel for almost the entire length of 2nd A.

Abdominal tergites dark brown, the basal sternites more yellowish-brown;
terminalia obscure yellow, the outer lobe of dististyle more infuscated.
Male terminalia (Fig. 3) with the tergite, 9t, large, the caudal margin
gently emarginate, the low, broad, lateral lobes with long, conspicuous setae.
Basistyle, b, short, the ventro-mesal lobe conspicuous, at apex armed with three
groups of spines and setae, including a low mass of tubercles shortly before
apex, an outer apical lobe set with long setae, and an inner apical row of four
flattened black fasciculate setae. Dististyle, d, single, produced into a long
clavate lobe, with very long erect setae; main body of style elongate-oval, at
apex drawn out into a straight, slender, spinous point. Mesal-apical lobe of
gonapophysis, g, a long flattened blade, the apex obtuse.

Holotype, ¢, Onoba, Papua, altitude about 2,000 feet, July, 1935 (K. J. Clinton).

The present fly is readily distinguished from similar small species of the
subgenus by the unusually elongate antennae of the male, pattern of the femora
and, especially, the structure of the male terminalia.

LIMONIA (LIBNOTES) ONOBANA, Nn. sp. Fig. 4.

General coloration obscure yellow, the praescutum with a black median stripe
that spreads out in front to cover the humeral and lateral portions of the
sclerite; halteres yellow; femora obscure yellow, the tips very narrowly clearer
yellow, the fore femora with a narrow brown subterminal ring; wings tinged
with yellowish-grey, margined with dusky, cells C and Sc more infumed; Sc,
ending just before fork of Rs; Rs gently arcuated; m-cu just beyond one-third
the length of cell lst m,; anal veins slightly convergent at bases; abdomen black.

6. Length about 6-5 mm.; wing, 7-5 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae black, the outer segments a little paler;
flagellar segments oval, with short apical pedicels; terminal segment elongate,
about one-half longer than the penultimate. Head dark grey.

Pronotum black. Mesonotal praescutum with the ground-colour obscure
yellow, with a median black stripe that is widened in front and extends laterad
across the humeral and lateral portions of the sclerite, restricting the ground-
colour to broad sublateral areas; at about midlength of the segment, the black
stripe sends cephalad a small lateral point or spur, isolating a linear ground
dot on either side of the midline; scutum with the median area yellow, the lobes
black; scutellum black, paler basally, the parascutella yellow; mediotergite dark,
the cephalic portion paler. Pleura obscure yellow, the propleura and a narrow
longitudinal stripe across the anepisternum and pteropleurite to and including the
pleurotergite, blackened; fore coxae and a small vague area on sternopleurite
darkened. Halteres pale yellow throughout. Legs with the fore coxae darkened,
as described; remaining coxae obscure yellow; trochanters obscure yellow; fore
femora obscure yellow, with. a very narrow, brown, subterminal ring, the yellow
apical portion a trifle broader than the ring; middle and posterior femora obscure
yellow, becoming a little darker outwardly, but without distinct dark annuli, the
tips narrowly clearer yellow; tibiae and tarsi yellowish-brown, the terminal tarsal
segments blackened. Wings tinged with yellowish-grey; cells C and Sc more
infumed, passing into brownish-yellow outwardly; bases of cells R, M, Cu and
1st A slightly darkened; a narrow dusky border around the wing, somewhat
more extensive on the apical portions; a tiny cloud at origin of Rs; stigma small,

124 PAPUAN TIPULIDAE,

oval, darker brown; veins dark. Venation: Sc relatively short, Sc, ending just
before fork of Rs, Sc, at tip of Sc,; Rs gently arcuated; free tip of Sc, and R, in
transverse alignment; inner ends of cells 2nd M, and M, in transverse alignment;
m-cu just beyond one-third the length of cell ist M,; anal veins slightly convergent
at bases.

Abdomen black, the terminalia only a little brightened. Male terminalia
(Fig. 4) with the tergite, 9t, relatively narrow apically. Basistyle, b, long and
slender, the ventro-mesal lobe basal in position, provided with long coarse setae.
Dorsal dististyle a short curved blackened horn, the tip acute. Ventral dististyle,
vd, a small oval lobe, with long setae; rostral blade long and conspicuous, pale,
compressed, at apex narrowed into a small spinous point.

Holotype, ¢, Onoba, Papua, altitude about 2,000 feet, July, 19385 (K. J.
Clinton).

By Edwards’s key to the species of Libnotes (Journ. Fed. Malay St. Mus., 14,
1928, 74-80) the present fly runs more or less directly to Limonia (Libnoteés)
trifasciata (Edwards) of the Federated Malay States, a very different fly. The
peculiar structure of the male terminalia is somewhat as in an otherwise entirely
distinct species to be described, in a later paper of the series, from Kavieng,
New Ireland.

LIMONIA (LIBNOTES) CLINTONI, n. sp. Fig. 2.

General coloration grey; praescutum with a brownish crossband behind the
anterior margin, together with two comma-shaped brown spots beyond midlength
of the sclerite; fore legs entirely black; wings faintly tinged with yellow, sparsely
patterned with brown; free tip of Sc, in virtual transverse alignment with R.,;
abdomen dark brown, the terminalia brownish-black.

6. Length about 11 mm.; wing, 15 mm.

Rostrum brownish-black; palpi black. Antennae with scape black, pale at
base; pedicel brownish-yellow; flagellum yellow; flagellar segments long-oval, the
longest verticil of each subequal in length to the segment; terminal segment
about one-fifth longer than the penultimate. Head light grey; anterior vertex
reduced to a very narrow strip that is only a little wider than the diameter of a
single ommatidium.

Pronotum reddish-brown, darker on posterior border. Mesonotal praescutum
chiefly greyish-pruinose, with a brownish crossband behind anterior margin,
continued backward across the humeral and lateral borders to the suture; a pair
of intermediate brown dashes, shaped like commas, placed just beyond midlength
of praescutum; scutum whitish, the lobes with more greyish centres; scutellum
and mediotergite whitish, the latter with a brownish-black lateral line, widened
posteriorly. Pleura whitish-grey, with narrow, broken, dark brown, longitudinal
lines on anepisternum and pteropleurite, and again across fore coxae and ventral
sternopleurite. Halteres with stem yellow, its base infuscated, the knob blackened.
Legs with the coxae whitish, the fore coxae marked as above described;
trochanters whitish; fore femora entirely black; middle and hind femora brown
basally, passing into black at or near midlength; all tibiae and tarsi black;
vestiture of legs relatively short and inconspicuous, short and spinous on femora,
longer and more appressed on distal segments. Wings (Fig. 2) long and narrow,
faintly tinged with yellow, the costal cells more saturated; a restricted dark
pattern that is confined to the veins and distributed as small areas as follows:
Areulus; origin of Rs; at intervals along cord; outer end of cell 1st M,; tip of
Se, and R,; at distal ends of veins M,, Cu,, lst A and 2nd A; veins bright yellow,

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 125

black in the clouded areas. Venation: Free tip of Se, lying immediately basad
of R., so as to appear virtually in alignment with it; cell 2nd M, about one-third
longer than cell M;; m-cu just beyond one-fifth the length of lower face of cell
ist M.; anal veins convergent basally.

Abdomen dark brown, the basal tergites darker laterally, the intermediate
ones further darkened medially at base; terminalia small, brownish-black;
sternites paler.

Holotype, 3, Onoba, Papua, altitude about 2,000 feet, July, 19385 (K. J.
Clinton).

This interesting and very distinct Libnotes is named in honour of the
collector, Mr. K. J. Clinton. It belongs to the notata complex of species, being
most readily distinguished from all described allies by the extensively blackened
legs.

Figures 1-7.

b, basistyle; d, dististyle; g, gonapophysis; t, tergite; vd, ventral dististyle.
1. Limonia (Limonia) longeantennata, n. sp., venation.

Limonia (Libnotes) clintoni, n. sp., venation.

Limonia (Limonia) longeantennata, n. sp., terminalia.

Limonia (Libnotes) onobana, n. sp., terminalia.

Trentepohlia (Paramongoma) lucrifera, n. sp., venation.

Trentepohlia (Mongoma) longisetosa, n. sp., venation.

Gonomyia (Lipophleps) jurata, n. sp., venation.

SiGe ON Ge DN

ERIOPTERINI.
TRENTEPOHLIA (PARAMONGOMA) LUCRIFERA, Nn. sp. Fig. 5.

General coloration of thorax uniformly brownish-yellow; antennae with scape
yellow, pedicel and flagellum brown; legs pale brownish testaceous; wings pale
yellowish-grey, unmarked; veins pale; macrotrichia of veins very reduced in
number; R.,3,, Subequal to R,,, alone, both a little longer than R,.

©. Length about 3:8 mm.; wing, 3-7 mm.

Rostrum and palpi brownish-yellow. Antennae with the scape yellow;
pedicel and flagellum brown; flagellar segments suboval, the verticils short.
Head brownish-yellow.

126 PAPUAN TIPULIDAE,

Mesonotum and pleura almost uniformly brownish-yellow, without distinct
markings. Halteres pale. Legs with the coxae and trochanters yellow; remainder
of legs pale brownish testaceous, the tarsi a little paler, dirty white. Wings
(Fig. 5) pale yellowish-grey, unmarked; veins pale. Macrotrichia of veins
virtually lacking, there being two or three on vein R, near stigmal region and
two or three scattered trichia on distal section of vein R;. Venation: Ro,s,,
subequal to R;,,, both a little longer than R.; cell 1st M, elongate, exceeding
vein M,,. beyond it; m-cu just before fork of M; distal section of Cu, subequal
to m-cu and about equal to the space along wing-margin between veins Cu, and
Ist A.

Abdominal tergites brown; sternites paler brown.

Holotype, 2, Onoba, Papua, altitude about 2,000 feet, July, 1935 (K. J. Clinton).

Trentepohlia (Paramongoma) lucrifera is allied to species such as 7. (P.)
banahaoensis Alexander, JT. (P.) chionopoda Alexander and T. (P.) pusilla
Edwards, differing from all in the venation, especially the subequal veins Rois.
and R,,,, the latter exceeding in, length vein R, alone.

TRENTEPOHLIA (MONGOMA) LONGISETOSA, Nl. SDP. Fig. 6.

General coloration dark brown; legs brownish-black, the outer tarsal
segments paling to dirty yellow; tarsi short, especially the posterior pair in male;
all femora with short spines at base; wings strongly tinged with dusky; costal
fringe (¢) long and conspicuous; vein Rg, oblique, cell R, at margin exceeding
one-half the extent of cell R;.

6. Length, 55-6 mm.; wing, 6-7 mm. Q. Length, 65-8 mm.; wing, 6-5-8 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae black throughout; flagellar segments
subcylindrical; longest verticils subequal in length to the segments. Head
brownish-black.

Thoracic dorsum and pleura uniformly dark brown, the dorsopleural region
and pronotum even darker in colour. Halteres dusky. Legs brownish-black, the
outer tarsal segments paling to dirty yellow; tarsi short, especially the posterior
tarsi in male (femora, § mm.; tarsi, 5:3 mm.), which are much shorter than the
femora; femora with several (12-15) short black spines at base. Wings (Fig. 6)
with a strong dusky tinge, the wing-tip narrowly more darkened in outer radial
field; stigma small and inconspicuous; cells C and Sec more yellowish-brown;
veins brownish-black. Costal fringe (¢) unusually long and conspicuous, exceeding
in length the width of cell ist M, at base; in female, costal fringe dense but
short and normal. Venation: Basal section of R; relatively long, exceeding two-
thirds of Rs; Ra»,.,, gently sinuous, exceeding Rs; vein R,; much more oblique
than in brevipes, cell R, at margin exceeding one-half the extent of cell Rs; Ray
only about one-third to one-half R,; cell 1st M, short, the veins and cells beyond
it correspondingly lengthened.

Abdominal tergites and terminalia brownish-black; sternites brown, the
caudal borders of the segments narrowly darkened.

Holotype, J, Maini, Papua, altitude about 6,300 feet, July, 19385 (K. J. Clinton).
Allotopotype, 9. Paratopotypes, 4 ¢, 9. Paratypes, 1 3, 1 9, Kone, Papua, altitude
about 5,000 feet, July, 1935 (K. J. Clinton).

By my key to the regional species of Trentepohlia (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
lx, 1935, 66), the present fly runs to Trentepohlia (Mongoma) brevipes Alexander
(New Britain, New Guinea), which shows several features in common, as the
darkened femora and tibiae and the shortened tarsi, but is very different in the

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 127

pattern and venation of the wings and in the short costal fringe of the male sex.
In the long costal fringe of the male, the present fly agrees with 7. (M.) costo-
fimbriata Alexander (New Britain), a species with entirely different leg-pattern.

TRENTEPOHLIA (PLESIOMONGOMA) NOVAE-BRITTANIAE Alexander.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1x, 1935, 66-67.
1 9, Maini, Papua, altitude about 6,300 feet, July, 1985 (K. J. Clinton).

TRENTEPOHLIA (TRENTEPOHLIA) PICTIPENNIS Bezzi.
Philippine Journ. Sci., xii, D, 1917, 115.
Inawi, Papua, July, 1985 (K. J. Clinton). |

GoNOMYIA (LIPOPHLEPS) JURATA, Nn. sp. Fig. 7.

General coloration of mesonotum dark grey, the scutellum light yellow, with
a dark spot medially at base; antennae with pedicel large, bright orange; meso-
pleura dark brown, scarcely variegated by brighter: knobs of halteres dusky;
legs black; wings with a strong brown suffusion, the costal border narrowly
yellow; macrotrichia of veins numerous; Sc, ending opposite origin of Rs;
abdomen black.

9. Length about 455 mm.; wing, 4:2 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae with scape obscure orange; pedicel
enlarged, bright orange; flagellum black throughout; flagellar segments oval, the
outer ones more elongate-oval; terminal segment shorter than the penultimate.
Head grey.

Pronotum above obscure brownish-yellow, the pronotal scutellum brighter
yellow. Mesonotal praescutum and scutum dark grey, the pseudosutural foveae
dark; humeral and lateral portions of praescutum not or scarcely brightened;
scutellum light yellow, with a darker median spot at base; mediotergite grey.
Pleura dark brown, scarcely variegated by brighter. Halteres obscure yellow,
the knobs dusky. Legs with the coxae yellowish-brown; trochanters a little
brighter; remainder of legs black. Wings (Fig. 7) with a strong brownish
suffusion; cells C and Sc yellow. Macrotrichia of veins relatively abundant,
including a series on distal two-thirds of vein lst A and a few on outer end of
vein 2nd A. Venation: Sc, ending opposite origin of Rs, Se, close to its outer
end; Rs long, arcuated; basal section of vein R; long, approximately one-half r-m;
m-cu shortly before the fork of M.

Abdomen black, the bases of the terminalia brownish-black; cerci horn-yellow.

Holotype, ?, Onoba, Papua, altitude about 2,000 feet, July, 19385 (K. J. Clinton).

Gonomyia (Lipophleps) jurata is generally similar to species such as G. (L.)
fijiensis Alexander and G. (L.) kertesziana Alexander, yet is very distinct in all
details of coloration, especially of the legs, wings and abdomen.

A REDESCRIPTION OF SOLOMYS (“MUS”) SALAMONIS RAMSAY.
By Eviis Le G. TroucutTon, C.M.Z.S.*
[Read 27th May, 1936.]

It is of interest to note of the ‘New species of Mus from the Island of Ugi,
Solomon Group”, described in the ProcrEpines for 1882 by E. P. Ramsay, then
Curator of the Australian Museum, that not only was it the first indigenous rat
reported from the group, but actually the second species of non-chiropterous
mammal to be recorded as well, although a remarkably varied murine and
chiropterous fauna has since been listed from the Solomons.

Representatives of the only marsupial inhabitant, a geographical race of
Cuscus (Phalanger orientalis breviceps Thomas), and the first collection of bats,
had previously been obtained during the voyage of ‘H.M.S. Herald’ in 1855
by the famous naturalist John Macgillivray, and Dr. F. M. Rayner, who presented
the material to the British Museum.

Apparently the next definite attempt at collecting in the group occurred some
twenty-five years later; when, by courtesy of the naval authorities, Alexander
Morton, then assistant taxidermist at the Australian Museum, accompanied the
punitive expedition on board ‘H.M.S. Cormorant’, despatched in 1881 to investigate
tragic happenings in the Solomons.

An excellent collection of birds included striking novelties described in the
ProcEepines for 1882, in which Morton also supplied interesting ‘‘Notes on the
Cruise” and wrote concerning collecting on Ugi Island, near San Christoval in
the south-eastern extremity of the group, that ‘Mammals were very scarce, an
opossum, Cuscus orientalis, the species common throughout the islands, and a Rat,
an undescribed species of Mus, being the only species obtained”.

In reviewing the important collections of mammals sent to the British Museum
by the late C. M. Woodford, C.M.G., following his arrival in the Solomons in 1886,
Oldfield Thomas repeatedly misquoted the locality of Mus salamonis as being
Florida Island, although it is perfectly clear from Ramsay’s title and description,
as well as Morton’s account, that Ugi was the type locality. The implied
uncertainty of habitat, coupled with the impossibility of deciding its generic
affinities from the brief description, therefore led to the species being generally
regarded as of doubtful authenticity.

Although the holotype skin unfortunately disappeared many years ago, careful
examination of the “old collection” crania in the Museum resulted in the discovery
of the holotype skull, the identity of which is definitely established by comparison
with Ramsay’s illustrations. The description of the hairless tail showed the
animal to be of the arboreal Uromys type, and the cranial features now prove it
to belong to the closely allied genus Solomys, originally provided by Thomas
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) ix, 1922, 261) for his Uromys sapientis from Ysabel

* Contribution from the Australian Museum.

BY E. LE G. TROUGHTON. 129

Island, east central Solomons. Also included in the genus is a third species,
S. salebrosus Troughton (Rec. Austr. Mus. xix (5), 1936, 341-354) recently
described from Bougainville Island at the north-western extremity of the group.

It is indeed satisfactory to confirm the status of this interesting species,
described in the ProcrEpINGS more than fifty years ago, and to amplify its
description in accordance with the needs of modern mammalogy.

SOLOMYS SALAMONIS Ramsay.

Mus salamonis Ramsay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vii, 1882 (1883), p. 43, Pl. ii (v),
figs. 1-7. Usgi Island.

Diagnosis.—A pale, grizzled, “light ashy grey”, rather harshly furred animal,
with the termination of palate and the bullae and other features quite typical of
Solomys. Differing from the allied forms by its smaller size, decidedly broader
and straighter margined interorbital region, and smaller tympanic bullae. Habitat:
Ugi Island, near San Christoval, south-eastern Solomons.

External characters.—According to Ramsay, “General colour of the fur, of a
light ashy grey, somewhat grizzly, and pencilled with black, the base of the hair
mouse colour, the tips almost white: long black hairs extending about half an
inch beyond the fur, which is slightly harsh to the touch; the tail bare, scaly;
the whiskers long, blackish; the ears small, inside grey, on the outside covered
with minute hairs.”

Holotype skull—Compared with a topotypical skull of S. sapientis, possessing
all features regarded as typical of the genus, though the narrowing of the
mesopterygoid fossa anteriorly is less marked, with a corresponding reduction of
the palatal emargination, and the bullae are relatively smaller, less inflated, and
more transparent. Interorbital region comparatively broad and straight-sided, the
margins not markedly concave as in sapientis, or sinuous as in salebrosus. Palatal
foramina distinctly smaller in the slightly larger skull, and decidedly constricted
in their anterior third instead of evenly bowed as in the topotype sapientis.
Zygomatic plate wider, and broadly convex instead of straight in profile, the
upper edge more rounded but not projecting above as in Ramsay’s figure.

Dentition—Size and pattern of upper molars quite as in the allied forms,
but the lower series differing unusually in being longer and much heavier than
the upper row, the greater width being most evident in m,, the greatest width
of which is 2:9, against 2-6 mm. in the specimen of sapientis, while the posterior
lamina is 2:1 against 1-6 mm. and obviously larger, giving the lower row a broadly
angulate appearance posteriorly.

Dimensions of holotype, male.—In spirit, vide Ramsay: Head and body 216;
tail 224; pes 44-3; ear, from top of head, 13 mm.

Skull: Greatest length 49; basal length 43-8; zygomatic breadth 28-1: inter-
orbital width 8-9; nasals 17-8 x 5:3; palatal length 25-9; palatal foramina 6:2 x 2:8;
upper molar row 10:4; width of m' 3; lower row 10-5; bulla, length 5:9, breadth,
including meatal tubercle, 6-4 mm.

Holotype.—Skull only in existence, registered No. A.11257 in the Australian
Museum. Collected about May, 1881, by Alexander Morton, Assistant Taxidermist
to the Museum, on Ugi Island, off the northern coast of San Christoval in the
Solomons group.

Comparison with allies—The description has been amplified in comparison
with sapientis because of its intermediate range. Although it is quite possible
that examination of a series of skins of salamonis might tend to link superficially

E

130 REDESCRIPTION OF SOLOMYS SALAMONIS.

the three forms, specific distinction is most advisable at present and appears fully
justified by the cranial and dental differences.

Various dimensions indicate that salamonis is the smallest form, with smaller
and less inflated bullae than either ally, while the interorbital region is compara-
tively much broader and has almost straight margins, instead of them being
evenly concave as in sapientis, or sinuous as in salebrosus. It agrees with
sapientis in having the tail longer than the head and body, instead of averaging
shorter as in salebrosus, but differs from sapientis in the comparatively much
heavier lower molar row.

Remarks.—The members of this genus are apparently the Solomons represen-
tatives of the large arboreal Uromys of the Aru Islands, New Guinea, and north-
eastern Queensland. The habits are evidently similar, as U. caudimaculata of the
mainland has been reported to knock down and gnaw coconuts in the Cairns
district, while Mr. N. S. Heffernan, when District Officer at Ysabel Island, observed
of S. sapientis that ‘‘the big and large-toothed rats, called ‘Vanete’ by the natives,
are wonderfully active and must be almost entirely arboreal as they crack the
Ngali (Canarium) nuts and gnaw the coconuts, and are found in trees felled by
the natives who eat them’’.

The habits of S. salamonis are doubtless the same, and it is fortunate, in
view of the large and varied rat population of the group, that the dense vegetation
which led to the development of many arboreal forms in the Solomons may also
prevent them affecting the food supplies of the natives, as various species are
reported to be doing in parts of New Guinea.

THE STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND PETROLOGY OF AN ARHA NEAR YASS,
NEW SOUTH WALES.

By KATHLEEN SHERRARD, M.Sc.
(Plates vi-vii; nine Text-figures. )
[Read 24th June, 1936.]

A study of the geology of the neighbourhood of Yass was undertaken to
determine the nature of the igneous rocks, and their relationship to the sediments.
In addition, it was hoped to find a zone fossil to enable correlation to be made
with rocks of other districts.

The area studied comprises the whole or portion of the parishes of Hume,
Yass, Warroo, Boambolo, Bowning, Derringullen and Nanima; Shire of
Goodradigbee; Counties of King, Murray and Harden.

The town of Yass is situated on the Yass River, a tributary of the Murrum-
bidgee. It is 1,620 feet above sea-level, on the Southern Highlands of New South
Wales, 198 miles by rail, south-west of Sydney. A short branch line connects the
town with the Sydney-Melbourne railway line. It is 33 miles by road, north-west
of Canberra.

About 50 square miles has been studied in detail, stretching from the town
for 7 miles south, and from a north and south line through the town, for 3 miles
east and 3 miles west. The remainder of the 120 miles shown in the sketch map
(Text-fig. 9) has been examined cursorily.

PREVIOUS LITERATURE.

Jenkins (1878a) described the igneous and sedimentary rocks of Yass and the
surrounding country. He separated the fossiliferous beds into lower (Yass beds)
and upper (Hume beds) horizons, subdividing these further. He classed Yass
and Hume beds within the Silurian formation, separating them from the Murrum-
bidgee limestone. He noted the absence of graptolites. Later (1878b) he described
trilobites collected by himself. David visited Yass (1882) shortly after joining
the Geological Survey. He mapped the area and noted the geological structures.
Mitchell, in two early papers (1886, 1888), dealt principally with the geology of
Bowning, describing a synclinal structure there, and the fossil content of the beds.
He refers to the presence of graptolites “from mica sandstones in the Lower
Trilobite bed on the east side (i.e., of the syncline), and in shaly sandstones on
the west side in the Great Shale bed”. In later papers (1919-1923) he describes
trilobites and brachiopods from the district.

Geology owes a debt to Mr. A. J. Shearsby for his study (1911) of the
geology and palaeontology of the district. His descriptions and map cover a
wide area and systematize the previous observations. As well as his published
work, his knowledge and guidance are always at the service of inquirers. Harper
(1909), dealing principally with the area afterwards submerged by the Burrenjuck
dam, referred to the Yass porphyry, which is considered of Post-Devonian age.

132 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS, N.S.W.,

Mann (1921) regarded the igneous rocks at Yass as intrusive on account of the
presence of contact-breccias. Htheridge (1894-1917) described fossils from many
parts of the area, and several other short references are to be found (Cotton,
1923; Wilkinson, 1876).

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

A parallelism is to be noted in the physiographical features of the area
shown on the map (Pl. vii), three ridges running approximately NNW.-SSE.,
with two intervening valleys, being the most pronounced features. On the
eastern ridge is situated the Douro Trigonometrical Station, and on the second
are the Laidlaw and Racecourse Stations. These names have been used in
writing of the localities. The third is referred to as the Huralie-Warroo ridge,
Euralie homestead and Warroo Trigonometrical Station being situated on it. The
eastern valley, viz., that between Douro and Laidlaw ridges, is occupied by the
town of Yass, the main street of which, Cooma Street, occupies the lowest ground
and was formerly alongside a water-course flowing into the Yass River. The
westerly valley is drained by two tributaries of the Yass River, Booroo Ponds
Creek and Reedy Creek, which are fed by drainage from Laidlaw and HBuralie—
Warroo ridges. The Yass River has cut a passage across the ridges, but not
before it was greatly deflected by them. Pronounced swingings to the north mark
the river’s course, when it first meets each ridge, and only after some distance
of northward flow has a westerly course been carved, along which the river
has the nearly vertical sides of a young stream. Across the softer beds of the
valley between Laidlaw and Euralie ridges, the Yass River pursues the low-
banked straight course of a mature stream. Differential erosion is responsible
for the ridges. It will be shown that they mark the outcrop of coarse-grained
igneous rocks, while the valleys have been carved in softer sedimentary rocks.
Coarse gravel deposits in places, above the present river, mark levels of its
former course. Alluvium has been deposited by the tributaries to Reedy Creek
and Booroo Ponds Creek at points where their flow has been slackened by arrival
on the relatively flat ground where sandy shales outcrop, after descent from
higher land, as in Portions 16, the western part of 18, and southern 15, Parish
of Hume. The course of Warroo Creek is checked by hard igneous rocks in
Portion 62, Parish of Boambolo, and alluvium has been deposited, which here,
as elsewhere, masks the geology. The lower course of Reedy Creek is marked
by rather high, open banks rising to about 50 feet above the valley.

GENERAL GEOLOGY.
(Note.—The numbers, as S.53, refer to specimens and thin sections in the
author’s collection.)

a. Igneous Rocks and Tuffaceous Sediments.

The junctions between the different rocks of the area lie along more or less
parallel lines, on account of their conformability. They are folded into a
geosyncline with a pitch to the north-west. Igneous rocks are either interbedded
or intrusive along bedding-planes. Transgressive intrusion plays but a minor
part. With one or two possible exceptions, all rocks belong to the Upper Silurian
system. The oldest members of the synclinal structure are exposed beside the
river immediately north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station, where a fine-
grained, quartz-rich, highly micaceous, black tuff, 20 feet wide, dips WSW. at
20 degrees. This bed underlies a finer, more iron-stained type, which has a

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 133

steeper dip in the same direction. A thin section of this rock can hardly be
distinguished from a felspathic mica sandstone, although it is probably of
tuffaceous origin, since all its fragments are angular. Poorly preserved specimens
of Orthoceras occur within it. A similar micaceous sandstone, rich in Leperditia
shearsbii Chapm. (1909), on the same line of strike outcrops in Portion 100,
Parish of Yass, and in a section on the opposite bank of the Yass river in Portion
14, Parish of Yass, described by Shearsby (1911) and regarded by him as the
type section of the Yass beds, or lower member of the Upper Silurian rocks of
the district. The section is about half a mile downstream from the railway bridge.
The beds here are richly fossiliferous with Ceratioceras, Cycloceras, Leperditia,
Pterinea, Spirifer, Barrandella, etc. Closely comparable lithologically and strati-
graphically with these is a bedded rock (S.27) outcropping in Douro Creek, Portion
22, Parish of Hume. Tuffs and thin limestone bands are intercalated in some of these
sections, and calcium carbonate has percolated into some of the tuffs, for example,
into that exposed in a rock cutting on the Hume Highway, 13 miles east of Yass.
Well marked bands of limestone, striking at 7 degrees, outcrop in Portions 107
and 108, Parish of Yass. This is a porous rock of a fragmental nature, with
broken corals, quartz grains and fragments of tuff. Almost the whole of the low-
lying Rifle Range in Portion 8, Parish of Hume, is covered by limestone, in places
strongly contorted, apparently by the neighbouring porphyry intrusion.

Overlying the series of fine tuffaceous sediments with intercalated limestone,
near Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station (Text-figure 5), occurs a coarse-grained grey
igneous rock, whose fragmental nature is not apparent until it is examined in
thin section. In a hand specimen the rock resembles a porphyry, but it proves
to be a coarse crystal tuff (Pirsson, 1915), with large angular fragments of
quartz and felspar, some of which fractured in place before consolidation of the
rock (see Petrological Descriptions). The fractured edges of adjoining fragments
in some cases undoubtedly match, and would interlock if they could be brought
into contact (Text-figure 6). The same feature has been detected in the
“porphyroides” of the French and Belgian Ardennes (Poussin and Renard, 1876,
1897), and is also noted in the quartz-porphyry tuffs of the Yass District; it is
discussed below. Coarse crystal tuff covers a large part of the area, being found
in Portions 100, 103, 106, Parish of Yass, and in Portions 18 and 20, Parish of
Hume, as well as in the Parishes of Boambolo and Warroo. The rock outcropping
along a narrow ridge through Portions 45, 49, 53 and 57, Town of Yass, SSE. of
Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station, though perhaps better described as a volcanic
grit, is regarded as of similar origin. By the conversion of its matrix into
secondary silica, the volcanic grit passes into quartzite, for example in the rifle
range in the east of Portion 8, Parish of Hume, near the border of the quartz-
porphyry. The relationship of coarse crystal tuff, volcanic grit and quartzite to
quartz-porphyry tuff will be discussed later.

The fossils collected near Yass by Shearsby (1911) from coarse-grained igneous
rocks, hand-specimens of which resemble porphyries, probably occurred in rocks of
this type, and the presence of fossils further supports the theory of their pyro-
clastic origin.

The crystal tuffs, etc., junction with porphyry along a nearly straight north-
west and south-east line, running parallel to the strike of the sediments, and
passing through a point 150 yards north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station.
The porphyry is a grey and white coarse-grained rock. easily to be confused with
the crystal tuff, until examined in thin section, when it proves to be a normal

134 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS. N.S.W..

quartz-porphyry with a devitrified ground-mass (see Petrological Descriptions).
Careful collection and examination in thin section of specimens every twenty-
five yards north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station has failed to disclose
any rocks with texture transitional between that of crystal tuff and porphyry.
A sharp junction separates the types (Text-figure 5). Hexagonal jointing has
developed in the porphyry, an exposure in a rock pavement showing traces of
well-marked joints bearing at 75 degrees, 195 degrees and 315 degrees. On the
edge of a steep slope to the river, 50 yards north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical
Station, porphyry columns 7 feet high and 2 feet in diameter are exposed. In a
quarry within the golf links, in Portion 8, Parish of Hume, columnar develop-
ment is also found.

Xenoliths of tuff, fine- and medium-grained, several inches in diameter, are
not uncommon in the porphyry, and are regarded as being due to dislodgment
by the porphyry during its intrusion.

Ten yards to the west of Racecourse Trigonometrical Station, the porphyry
has suffered devitrification (Harker, 1909; Shand, 1927; Tyrrell, 1926) so intense
as to have become almost a quartzite. (S.477; see Petrological Descriptions.) This
is the furthest extension to the south-east of the Laidlaw ridge porphyry. To the
north-west the outcrop trends across the Yass River, which has cut a passage
through porphyry from Portion 108, Parish of Yass, to Portion 97, Parish of Yass.
From Portion 97 a line running roughly south-east marks the junction of porphyry
with tuffs. The intrusion of the porphyry is pictured as having taken place in
the manner of a sill, since its junctions on both sides with neighbouring bedded
strata run nearly parallel with their strike, viz., north-west and south-east.

Evidence of the period at which the intrusion of the porphyry took place
has not been obtained. Its mineral contents ally it with the interbedded tuffs
of the area, and it has undergone devitrification to about the same extent as they.
These circumstances suggest that the intrusion took place shortly after the
laying down of the tuffs. The river has exposed, in Portion 97, Parish of Yass,
the junction between the porphyry and a fine-grained rock (Text-figures 1, 2).

Tuff? Porphyry. Porphyry. Tuff?
Text-figs. 1, 2.—Relations between quartz-porphyry and fine-grained rock in
Portion 97, Parish of Yass.

The conclusion that the fine-grained rock is intrusive into the porphyry seems
inescapable. It occurs in masses up to 18 by 6 inches in cross-section, and is also
seen in thin strings, about half an inch in width and 30 to 40 feet long, ramifying
through the porphyry in all directions. These veinlets are generally dark-blue-
grey in colour, though some are red. Thin quartz-veins are also present. For a

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 135

width of 100 feet, the exposed face of the porphyry contains these inclusions.
The porphyry is finely jointed here, joint-planes being only half an inch apart in
places, and the rock is rotten. The fine-grained material is a dense, blue homo-
geneous material, suggesting a chert. Extremely fine and even-grained, in thin
section it is nearly isotropic, though small rectangular fragments of secondary
quartz can be discerned and minute mica flakes are arranged as though along
bedding-planes. In places, mica flakes are concentrated in strings at right
angles to the bedding-planes. With a high-power objective, a devitrified mass of
spherulites, probably all of secondary quartz, can be detected. This material
may have been intruded into the solid porphyry, which caused its very rapid
cooling and solidification as a glass, and it has subsequently become devitrified.
It is also possible that movements along the junction of porphyry and the fine-
grained material have formed a kind of fault-breccia, causing the squeezing of
the fine-grained rock into the porphyry. A sharp junction separates normal
porphyry from that associated with the fine-grained material (Text-figures 1, 2).
Whatever the origin of the breccia-like rock, it seems that the thin string-like
veins must be intrusive. The microscopic character of this fine-grained material
is similar to that of rocks from the Parish of Boambolo described below (S.101
and 8.577), which have been classified, though somewhat doubtfully, as fine tufts.
In this connection, however, it is noteworthy that Cox and Wells (1920), writing
of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of North Wales, state ‘‘the true rhyolites of
Mynydd-y-Gader bear an extraordinary resemblance to tuffs’. Benson (1915) has
described an intrusion of a tuffaceous breccia at Tamworth, N.S.W., of a grain-
size, however, coarser than the intrusive material described here.

To the south-west, the porphyry of the Laidlaw ridge is succeeded by fine-
to medium-grained tuffs, about 1,000 feet in thickness. The best section is exposed
by the Yass River, upstream from Hatton’s Corner, in Portions 94 and 97, Parish
of Yass, where the dip is 15 to 30 degrees WSW. In the direction of dip, tuffs
outcrop for an average width of 800 yards and vary in texture, but the mineral
constituents remain uniformly quartz, altered felspar, chloritized biotite and iron
oxide set in a devitrified groundmass. Texturally, three main divisions may be
distinguished: medium-grained (type 1), bedded or banded (type 2), and fine-
grained (type 3). Tuffs from all over the area have been grouped according to
these divisions. Type 2 includes tuffs whose bedding traces are sometimes only
detected with the aid of the microscope. These, and indeed most rocks of Type 2,
are probably variants of types 1 or 3, local pressure having caused re-orientation
of the minerals with their long axes parallel. In other parts of the area, rhythmic
banding appears to be due to periodic variations in the nature of the deposit, for
example, in a road-cutting in Portion 7, Parish of Warroo. Fine-grained tuff
(type 3) adjoins the Laidlaw ridge porphyry to the south-west and is overlain
by medium-grained tuff (type 1), which in turn underlies bedded tuff (type 2)
(Text-figure 3). A fractured face of type 3 is exposed in the municipal quarry
in the south-east of Portion 8, Parish of Hume, 150 yards south of Racecourse
Trigonometrical Station, where doubtful traces of fossils may be found. About
50 yards to the west of the quarry the tuff is intensely devitrified, showing geodes
of agate and chalcedony. Normal devitrification has probably been reinforced
by invasions of siliceous solutions along the junction of tuff and porphyry (Harker,
1909; Shand, 1927; Tyrrell, 1926). In places this type of tuff is spotted, the
spots being centres of advanced devitrification. The spots are sometimes visible
to the naked eye, semetimes only in thin section (S.420).

136 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS, N.S.W..

The medium-grained tuff (type 1) overlying type 3, outcrops for 600 yards
across the dip. A tributary to Black Bog Creek exposes a 20-foot section of this
tuff dipping west at 10 degrees. It is grey when fresh, as in Portion 8, Parish
of Hume, near the boundary of Portion 111, Parish of Yass, or in the bed of the
Yass River, where it contains narrow veins of red siliceous material. Its outcrop
is interrupted by a coarse agglomerate, which forms two persistent bands standing
six to nine inches above the level of the tuffs and running parallel to their
bedding. The bands are of low boulders and are about 40 feet apart. Each band
is about 10 yards wide and strikes SSH. The bands are continuous across much
of Portion 8, Parish of Hume, and may be followed across Portion 94, Parish of
Yass, nearly to the Yass River, and in the opposite direction nearly to the
municipal quarry. At the south-west corner of the rifle range, in Portion 8,
Parish of Hume, the band of agglomerate widens out considerably into a circular
area about 25 yards in diameter. Mr. Shearsby has traced agglomerate into
Portion 55, Parish of Yass, north of the Yass River (personal communication).

The fragments making up the agglomerate are of fine (type 3) and medium tuff
(type 1) up to half an inch across. The rock is an interbedded pyroclastic rock,
and for some miles follows the bedding of the tuffs and is not transgressive. It
has been deposited after a period of intense explosive activity.

Another interruption in the deposition of medium-grained tuff (type 1) in
Portion 8, Parish of Hume, is shown by a restricted outcrop of coarse crystal
tuff similar to that found north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station, but here
containing limestone fragments, which occurs 100 yards west of the south-west
corner post of the rifle range. It is probably connected with a much weathered
volcanic conglomerate outcropping in the bank of the Yass River, in Portion 97,
Parish of Yass, 50 yards from the boundary of the porphyry, where it is clearly
interbedded with tuffs (Text-figure 3). Another small outcrop of coarse crystal
tuff occurs within the rifle range.

The sequence of tuffs in Portion 8, Parish of Hume, is brought to a close
by the bedded tuff (type 2), which can be seen dipping at 10 degrees SW.,
conformably below limestone in the bed of Yass River, near the junction of
Portion 8, Parish of Hume, with Portion 94, Parish of Yass, and also in the bed
of Booroo Ponds Creek, about half a mile south-east of its junction with the Yass
River.

Agglomerate does not outcrop across the valley along which the Wee Jasper
Road now runs; indeed, the absence of such a competent bed may explain the
development of a valley between the ridges capped by agglomerate, for agglomerate
can be traced again south-east of the junction of the Wee Jasper and Gums Roads,
Portion 14, Parish of Hume, where it strikes SSE., parallel to the strike of the
tuffs. It accompanies a suite of tuffs similar to those in Portion 8, Parish of
Hume. No section is exposed, but a traverse ENE. from the corner of the Wee
Jasper and Gums Roads shows that the agglomerate is interbedded with the
medium-grained tuff (type 1), beneath which fine tuff of type 3 outcrops. The
fine tuff overlies coarse crystal tuff, whose direction of strike is the same as that
of the coarse crystal tuff to the north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station,
and they are lithologically similar. Included among the tuffs on this traverse
are some which have undergone such intense devitrification that they are now
almost pure quartz. It is considered that silica solutions percolating between
bedding planes, or along concealed strike fault planes, have accelerated the
devitrification process in these cases.

(St)

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 137

No porphyry is exposed in this traverse. Sir Edgeworth David noted (1882)
that the Laidlaw porphyry does not outcrop south of Racecourse Trigonometrical

nS

PAL ios soo vores | vere: 8

Zz

x

< c

site a MEDIUM
aS GRAINED TUFF
x

x
x
x “ a0

‘ : :
:
ie
*

4 : ae
a & ¢ o ¢
Ye « 5 UGE :
’ by

s : Jor LY fs Yass River ——
Da 4/7 Up LU, DF as Ke j fr
‘- GUL eo fan od
UY. ‘ty /,. b Aa /,
Up
10 50 100 Yards oY
Oe :
é : ; 1G = Pit, /
Text-figs. 3, 4.—Sequence of rocks exposed by the Yass River in Portion 94, 4 NS ~>y 1
Parish of Yass (Fig. 3), and Portion 64, Parish of Warroo (Fig. 4). fe faaet: a)
Text-fig. 5.—Ideal section from Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station to the <7; LD
Yass River, Portions 112 and 113, Parish of Yass. ee 6 ix

The country east of Gums Road is well grassed, and outcrops are poor.
Along the junction of Portions 17 and 18, Parish of Hume, east of Gums Road,
fine tuff (type 3) is succeeded by coarse crystal tuff, dipping WSW. at 20 degrees.
Agglomerate is not exposed here. To the south, Portion 148, Parish of Boambolo,
and adjoining portions are covered by a green, dense tuff, with a smooth surface
and waxy lustre, dipping NNW. at 15 degrees. The rock is extremely fine-grained
and intensely devitrified, perhaps best described as a chert or halleflinta (Harker,
1919). It is, indeed, doubtful if this rock was originally a tuff, but since, in the
hand-specimen, it resembles the undoubted tuffs of Portion 202, Parish of Warroo,
and of the municipal quarry, in spite of the greater devitrification visible in a
thin section, it is described here as a fine tuff belonging to type 3 (S.101, S.577).
Agglomerate lithologically identical with those previously described, and with a
dip varying between W. and NNE., separates the fine tuff from a bedded tuff of
type 2, which, in turn, overlies coarse crystal-lithic tuff (8.155), containing remark-
able elliptical xenoliths of pink crystal tuff of a type which can be matched in
outcrops elsewhere in the area, notably near the 7-mile post on the Wee Jasper
Road. The matrix of the crystal-lithic tuff is the normal crystal tuff familiar
north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station. In Portion 108, Parish of
Boambolo, remarkable tors, 10 feet high, are formed of this rock, and it caps a
bold hill in Portion 90, Parish of Boambolo.

The Euralie-Warroo ridge forms the western limb of the geosyncline, of
which the rocks of the Laidlaw Ridge are the eastern members, and the structure

138 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS, N.S.W..

of which will be described later. Approaching the ridge from the east the rock
sequence of the eastern limb in Portion 8, Parish of Hume, is passed over in
the reverse order (see Geological Sketch Section, Plate vii). A conformable
series made up of a blue-grey slate (regarded as the indurated equivalent of the
Barrandella shales, described below), a resistant limestone, lithologically exactly
similar to the Bowspring limestone (described below), and a medium-grained
tuff (type 1 or 2), all dipping at 100 degrees ENE., is passed over in travelling
from east to west in Portion 64, Parish of Warroo (Text-figure 4). This dip is
regarded as due to local overfolding or faulting, because slightly to the north
in Portion 148, Parish of Warroo, the limestone is dipping at 75 degrees ENE.,
and to the south, in Portion 60, Parish of Warroo, the medium-grained tuff and
agglomerate dip to the north-east at 40 degrees, and at 60 degrees ENE., in
Portion 15, Parish of Boambolo. Agglomerate interrupts the tuff sequence at
EKuralie, as elsewhere in the area. It is lithologically similar on the Huralie
ridge to other outcrops, standing up in a resistant low wall which runs parallel
to the strike of the tuffs. The repeated association of this rock in conformity
with the same tuff sequence is a strong argument for a similar origin for all,
that is a pyroclastic origin for the agglomerate. Cuttings on the Goodhope Road,
immediately west of the Euralie turn-off, and on the bank of Yass River, east
of the junction with Euralie Creek, expose a tuff of type 3 underlying agglomerate,
followed by a medium-grained tuff (type 1) with interbedded thin bands of
limestone and sandstone (Text-figure 4).

At the Yass River, in Portion 64, Parish of Warroo, near the junction of
Euralie Creek, the sequence of fine- and medium-grained tuffs is succeeded by a
coarse-grained crystalline rock, which seems best described as a quartz-porphyry-
tuff. It differs materially from the porphyry of the Laidlaw ridge, but resembles
the crystalline rock forming a fringe on the east of the area, and is discussed
with it later.

To the south of Euralie, the sequence of fine- and medium-grained tuffs is
succeeded by coarse crystal tuff, similar to the rock so named elsewhere in the
area, and quite distinct from the quartz-porphyry-tuff of Euralie. Coarse crystal
tuff forms the Warroo Trigonometrical Station ridge and extends in a direction
generally south-south-east from Portion 213, Parish of Warroo. Quartzite outcrops
in Portions 59, 64, 103 and 147, Parish of Warroo, are considered to have
developed from coarse crystal tuff by devitrification intensified by the attack
of siliceous solutions (see Petrological Descriptions).

The Douro ridge, on the east of the area, is formed of a coarse-grained quartz-
porphyry which, like that of the Laidlaw ridge, meets sediments (tuffaceous
sandstones) along its western border in a line parallel to the strike of the
sediments, and so is regarded as having been intruded between bedding planes.
Xenoliths of tuff, the coarse crystal and the bedded varieties, are not uncommon
in the porphyry. Along their junction, both porphyry and tuffaceous sediments
have been intensely devitrified and acted upon by siliceous solutions. Porphyry
outcropping in Portion 24, Town of Yass, and bedded tuff in Portion 47, Town
of Yass, have been converted to chert. In Portion 32, Parish of Hume, the
porphyry and banded tuff are almost completely silicified. The process is less
complete in Portion 21, Parish of Hume, 300 yards north of the Hume Highway,
where the otherwise normal Douro porphyry, grey and coarse-grained, contains
large patches (4 inches in diameter) of chalcedonic silica enveloping primary
quartz and altered plagioclase crystals. A strip about a quarter of a mile wide
running generally north-west and south-east along the margin of the porphyry

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 139

has been affected. The invasion of siliceous solutions seems to have been the
last phase of the intrusion of the Douro porphyry, affecting the western margin
of the porphyry itself as well as the adjoining tuffaceous sediments. The paral-
lelism of this line of intrusion to the strike of the sediments is considered to be
due to the intrusion, as a sill, of the Douro porphyry between the bedding planes
of the tuffs and tuffaceous sediments. The passage of siliceous solutions along
bedding-planes, or possibly along concealed strike-fault planes, accounts also for
the replacement by silica of some of the corals in the Bowspring limestone, near
Hatton’s Corner, and for the occurrence of quartz crystals, sometimes double-
ended, half an inch in length in the tuffaceous grits in Portion 45, Town of Yass.
Fresh specimens of the Douro porphyry can be obtained in a quarry 150 feet
above the left bank of the Yass River about half a mile up-stream from the
Hume Highway bridge in the town, at a point called Hibernia Crescent (Shearsby,
1911). It is a coarse-grained, greyish-green rock, rich in quartz, and contains
xenoliths of quartz-grit up to fifteen inches across. This quartz-grit is related
to coarse crystal tuffs outcropping nearby, notably the volcanic grit of Portions
45, 49, 53 and 57, Town of Yass. The xenoliths were probably displaced by the
porphyry during its intrusion between bedding-planes of the tuffs. Porphyry
outcropping in Portion 21, Parish of Hume, half a mile north of the Hume
Highway, also shows large included fragments of fine bedded tuff (type 2).

Forming a fringe on the east of the area, the rock outcropping in Portions
23, 24, 26, 27 and 30, Parish of Hume, and from Portions 6 to 16, Parish of Nanima,
suggests, like the Euralie “porphyry”, a normal quartz-porphyry in the hand-
specimen, but an examination in thin section reveals differences. Though pheno-
crysts of idiomorphic quartz, plagioclase, chlorite and apatite: bring the rock into
line with the porphyries, small irregularly-shaped quartz and felspar fragments
are packed so closely between the phenocrysts that the interstitial ground-mass
is reduced to a minimum. Some of the quartz phenocrysts are shattered, the
fragments remaining close together, with mere threads of interstitial. ground-
mass between them (Text-figure 7).

The name “quartz-porphyry-tuff’” has been adopted to describe this type. They
are vividly recalled, when reading descriptions of the rocks of the Belgian and
French Ardennes by Ch. de la Vallée Poussin and A. Renard (1876, 1897). These
rocks, previously known as “porphyroides’”, the authors say, are composed of
crystals of felspar, which are cracked, broken and rounded off on the angles, and
of crystals of quartz with corroded borders and seldom idiomorphic. They have
so little cement as to have almost a granitic texture except that crystals have
such poorly defined contours. They say, further, “it is noticeable that adjacent
fragments have belonged to the same crystal’, and that fragmentation is so
general that the rocks must be clastic. The authors put forward the alternative
hypotheses that the minerals composing these rocks were either of volcanic
origin, and were projected directly into sea-water, fracturing on impact; or that
they are the disintegrated products of a rock attacked by atmospheric agents,
and are still in situ. T. G. Bonney (1885) considers these rocks of the French
Ardennes to have been lavas, and ascribes the present fragmental condition of
their mineral components to devitrification. Though both are composed mainly
of quartz, plagioclase and chlorite, the crystal tuffs of the Yass district differ
from quartz-porphyry-tuff in being composed of mineral grains, all of which have
been corroded or worn by attrition, since none show crystal outlines. They are
packed even more closely than in the quartz-porphyry-tuff, so that the proportion

140 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS. N.S.W..

of crystals to matrix is higher. Felspar is greatly altered and unidentifiable, while
comparatively fresh in the quartz-porphyry-tuff, and secondary minerals, such as
calcite, are common in crystal tuff. The constituents of the crystal tuffs may have
come from the same source as those forming the quartz-porphyry-tuffs, but they
have undergone considerable weathering before consolidation, while those of
the quartz-porphyry-tuff consolidated without so much intermediate weathering.

The outcrops of both tuffs show parallel strikes, and crystal tuff in Portion 18,
Parish of Hume, is conformable in dip and strike with Upper Silurian limestone.
It has been shown already that lithologically similar crystal tuff in Portion 112,
Parish of Yass (i.e., NE. of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station), is interbedded
with fossiliferous Upper Silurian sediments. It is concluded, therefore, that the
quartz-porphyry-tuff, like the crystal tuff, is Upper Silurian in age.

A belt of igneous rock which covers most of Portions 25 and 28, Parish
of Hume, and Portions 7, 8, 71 and 72, Parish of Boambolo, is composed of a
tuffaceous type, which differs from the quartz-porphyry-tuff in having a marked
flow structure, and a higher proportion of ground-mass to phenocrysts. It is
described as a rhyolite-tuff. The direction of the elongation of the outcrop is
almost a direct south-south-eastern continuation of the Laidlaw porphyry, whose
outcrop was interrupted at Racecourse Trigonometrical Station, but no evidence
has been found to connect them. It seems likely that the rhyolite-tuff is also
interbedded with the Upper Silurian rocks, but it is also possible that it is
connected with the Devonian rocks to the south of this area.

b. Sedimentary Rocks.

The sedimentary series forms an elliptical enclave bounded by the igneous
rocks already described. The sedimentary rocks and the tuffs are conformable
where junctions are observable at Hatton’s Corner and near EHuralie.

The sedimentary series, ushered in by the Bowspring Limestone at Hatton’s
Corner, has been described by Shearsby (1911), who gave the name to the
limestone. This limestone, about 300 feet thick, conformably overlies bedded
tuff and outcrops across about 250 yards horizontally, its dip increasing from
10 to 30 degrees SW. It is crystalline and fragmental, the fragments often being
in the form of elliptical boulders, about 3 inches along their greatest diameter,
which are almost in contact. At Hatton’s Corner, a cliff of the limestone, 90 feet
high, is exposed, and is made up of alternate rows, each about 3 inches wide, of
grey-blue ridges formed of such boulders, separated by less resistant material. A
freshly-broken specimen has a brecciated appearance, while fossil fragments are
exposed on a weathered surface.

Four hundred yards of shales, named ‘“Barrandella” by Etheridge (1904),
succeed the Bowspring limestone, dipping 10 degrees WSW., the bed being about
250 feet thick. They are compact, blue-grey, indurated, micaceous shales. They
break with a semi-concave fracture, and show no sign of a slaty cleavage, nor
trace of close bedding planes. The abundant Barrandella is preserved in almost
transparent calcite with a pearly lustre.

Lithologically, the Barrandella shales vary only slightly from the sandy
shales which overlie them. These are somewhat coarser in grain and contain
more iron. Occasionally a greater concentration of iron has caused the formation
of a pronounced ridge, on the weathered surface of which a rich fauna has been
preserved, especially fragments of Dalmanites. Both types of shale break up
along closely-set, somewhat curved joint-planes after exposure to the atmosphere

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 141

for any length of time, when it is difficult to obtain a specimen larger than
one cubic inch, except from beds with a high iron content. The sandy shales
outcrop for about 2 miles across the dip, that is, to the south-west, and for a
considerable distance to the south-east and north-west. They are occasionally
interrupted by thin bands of limestone, which may represent conformable inliers
of the underlying limestone. Indeed, a_synclinal fold can be observed in the
Bowspring limestone on the north bank of the Yass River, about Portion 148,
Parish of Yass, near Hatton’s Corner. What evidence of dip is available supports
this view, notably in the case of the limestone outcropping at the 5-mile post
on the Wee Jasper Road (see Map, Plate vii), which is probably the locality
referred to by Etheridge (1894, 1907) as Old Limekilns Ridge. Concealed strike
faulting, however, may have caused the repetition. The Yass River has exposed
a series of anticlines and synclines in the sandy shales (see Pl. vii). The angle
of folding becomes steeper westward, until, near Reedy Creek, a cliff face shows
dips up to 80 degrees, as well as fracture (PI. vi, fig. 11).

Highly dipping folds continue west of Reedy Creek, the strata exposed in
the banks of the Yass River being nearly vertical, while the rock has become
indurated to slate. Just before reaching the junction of Huralie Creek and the
Yass River, a limestone band is crossed, as has already been described. This
limestone is regarded as being the Bowspring limestone thrown up in this place
by synclinal folding. It dips ENE. at 100 degrees or WSW. at 80 degrees, tuff
outcropping to the WSW. An overfold must be postulated if this limestone is
the Bowspring bed, and with almost vertical folding, an overfold may be expected,
though faulting may intervene. The limestone outcrop is twice crossed by the
Yass River at EHuralie, striking across Portion 144, Parish of Yass, and being
met again in Portion 103, Parish of Warroo, on the left-hand bank, while imme-
diately to the east is shale (Barrandella, also thrown up by the syncline) striking
NW. and with an almost vertical dip. The fossils recorded by Shearsby (1911)
from limestone at Euralie, and by Etheridge (1907) from limestone and shale
in Portions 53, 126 and 161, Parish of Yass, and from Portion 103, Parish of
Warroo, which are all close by, give forms nearly identical with those from the
Bowspring limestone and the Barrandella shales at Hatton’s Corner, lending
palaeontological support to the hypothesis of the synclinal fold.

Strong folding has been traced along Booroo Ponds Creek in Portion 7.
Parish of Hume, and in cuttings along the Goodhope Road, such as about 5-1 miles
from Yass, where folding and fracturing of the strata may be seen, and in the
bed of Reedy Creek at the Goodhope Road. Along the Wee Jasper Road, cuttings
expose comparatively low dips.

In Portion 62, Parish of Boambolo, near its junction with Portion 15, shafts
have been sunk to exploit galena-bearing quartzites, dipping SW. at 60°. They
are succeeded to the south-west by shales, with Favosites, Mucophyllum crateroides,
Atrypa reticularis, A. pulchra, Stropheodonta conica, Barrandella, etc., regarded
as the equivalent of the Barrandella shales, which give place in turn to
a limestone, lithologically similar to the Bowspring type. The occurrence of a
fault has been tentatively suggested to account for the sudden change of dip
found about 400 yards to the south-west, where fine tuff (type 3) and agglomerate
dip at about 60 degrees to the north-east in Portion 15, Parish of Boambolo.
The presence of galena lends support to the postulation of a fault plane, which
would provide an avenue for the mineral vapours.

Mitchell (1886) recorded a synclinal structure, with axis beneath Bowning
Hill, illustrating it by a geological section. His west-dipping strata are

142 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS. N.S.W..

exposed in Sharpening Stone Creek in Portions 7 and 8, Parish of Yass, while
strata dipping 40 degrees east may be seen in Portion 94, Town of Bowning.
Along the railway line between Bowning and Binalong, about Portion 146, Parish
of Bowning, soft shales rich in brachiopods also dip at 40 degrees east. Beds
exposed in the cutting near Bowning railway station are dipping 85 degrees east,
and those exposed in Bowning Creek near the railway line have a practically
vertical dip also. This synclinal structure is regarded as a continuation to the
north-west of the Yass geosyncline (Text-fig. 9).

STRATIGRAPHICAL HORIZON.

The discovery of graptolites not far from Yass (Sherrard, 1934) has made
possible the correlation of this locality with other Silurian areas. Monograptus?
was recorded by Shearsby (1911). Mitchell (1886) also makes a brief reference
to the collection of “graptolites from mica sandstones in the Lower Trilobite
bed on the east side” (i.e., of the syncline) “and in shaly sandstones on the west
side”. i
In the course of the present work, graptolites have been found in Portion 34,
Parish of Derringullen, to the west of the road to Boorowa, 7 miles north-west
of Yass. The fossils occur in a fine-grained felspathic sandstone, probably of
tuffaceous origin. It forms a prominent ridge, 200 feet above the road, and is
lithologically similar to the sandy shales found to the west of Hatton’s Corner
in ridges of which Dalmanites and other forms have been preserved. Indeed, the
graptolite-bearing strata are believed to be extensions to the north-west of these
sandy shales, since both overlie the same series, viz., the Barrandella shales. The
Barrandella shales form the bed of Limestone Creek, a quarter of a mile to the
east of the graptolite-bearing strata, and are richly fossiliferous, as Shearsby
(1911) has recorded. Going eastward from Limestone Creek, Bowspring lime-
stone, tuffs and porphyry are passed over, as at Hatton’s Corner (Text-fig. 9).

In Portion 34, Parish of Derringullen, Monograptus is very common, and is
associated with brachiopods, remains of both being found on the same slab of
sandy shale. The specific determinations of Monograptidae have been made
under the direction of Mr. R. A. Keble, Palaeontologist to the National Museum,
Melbourne, who generously gave the writer the benefit of his extensive experience.

The following forms have been identified: Monograptus vomerinus Nich.,
M. flemingii Salt., M. dubius Suess, M. vulgaris Wood, M. cf. nilssoni Barr.,
M. colonus Barr., var. compactus Wood.

These forms indicate Zones 26 to 33 of Elles and Wood (1913), from which
it is inferred that this bed and its continuation at Hatton’s Corner are equivalents
of the beds at the base of the Lower Ludlow division and at the top of the
Wenlock division of the Upper Silurian of Britain. The equivalent bed in
Victoria is the Yarravian, as defined by Thomas and Keble (1933).

The writer hopes to have the opportunity of publishing full descriptions of
these forms later.

Slabs with brachiopods and graptolites on the same surface have also been
submitted to Mr. Keble, and the following identifications made:

Atrypa fimbriata (7) is associated with Monograptus vomerinus

A. reticularis L. sp. a4 3 » WM. ef. nilssoni
3 ,», M. vomerinus
C. bipartita 9 5 » M. cf. nilssoni

Chonetes melbournensis Chapm. ,,

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 143

Nucleospira australis McCoy is associated with M. vulgaris

N. australis se » M. flemingu
N. australis 56 7 » MM. vomerinus
Meristella sp. x 5 » MM. vulgaris
Meristella sp. 90 00 » MM. dubius
Meristella sp. 5 3 » MM. vomerinus
Barrandella linguifera Sby.

var. Wilkinsoni Eth. fil. A 33 » MM. dubius

The association of graptolites with brachiopods of the class Articulata in
arenaceous deposits is unusual. Ruedeman (1934) notes the association of small,
primitive Inarticulata with graptolites in black, carbonaceous shales, while such
an association in such shales has been described by the writer (1929).

PETROLOGICAL DESCRIPTIONS.

Quartz-porphyry.—The Laidlaw ridge quartz-porphyry (S.389; Pl. vi, fig. 1)
is a coarse-grained grey and white rock composed of white felspathic crystals,
some of which are idiomorphic, transparent quartz grains, and some black
idiomorphic ferro-magnesian crystals. It is not uncommon for the black crystals
to stand out from a broken surface so as to be detachable whole. Xenoliths of
fine-grained material are frequent. In thin section, the phenocrysts of quartz
are found to be much cracked and so much corroded that crystal boundaries are
seldom perfect. The large hypidiomorphic plagioclase crystals are about Ab,,An,,,
while some are zoned, and are slightly clouded by alteration. There are also
some smaller plagioclases, and idiomorphic green biotite flakes somewhat
chloritized. Accessory minerals include apatite, some galena and probably rutile.
The fine-grained ground-mass making up about two-thirds of the rock consists of
a devitrified mass of intergrown felspar and quartz showing spherulitic structure,
with minute chlorite flakes.

This rock is referred to as “normal quartz-porphyry” throughout the paper.
The porphyry in the neighbourhood of the Douro Trigonometrical Station differs
somewhat. Its colour is greenish and it contains few white felspars. In thin
section, devitrification of the ground-mass is seen to be more intense than in
the Laidlaw rock, while the proportion of ground-mass to phenocrysts is nearly
1:1. Large apatite crystals show remarkable inclusions of rutile along cleavage
planes intersecting at 120 degrees (8.10).

Quartz-porphyry-tuff—These rocks are coarse in grain and greyish-green in
colour. Mineral phenocrysts and fine-grained xenoliths stand out well. Thin
sections show closer packing of the phenocrysts than in the porphyry. Small,
angular or rounded grains of quartz and felspar are packed between large, hypidio-
morphic, corroded and cracked quartz crystals, prismatic felspars of composition
about Ab,,An,, and flakes of chloritized biotite. Apatite is common, generally
containing rutile inclusions along cleavage planes. Sphene is rare. The strongly
devitrified ground-mass, showing spherulitic structure, occupies not more than
10-20% of the area. Traces of flow-structure are not uncommon. In places, the
character of the broken edges of adjoining pieces of quartz shows unmistakably
that they originally belonged to one quartz crystal, which must have fractured
on the impact when it came to rest after violent extrusion (Text-figure 7).
Typical of this tuff is the rock outcropping in Portion 23, Parish of Hume, at
the intersection of the Hume Highway and the road from Yass to Canberra
(S.169; Pl. vi, fig. 2). A further example occurs on the Huralie ridge, where

144 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS, N.S.W..

specimens have been collected from Portion 62 (S.143) and 115 (S.604), Parish
of Warroo. The rock of Portion 6, Parish of Nanima, is also typical (S.173).

aS
mY | eer

G ~ ae a
PAY
<
6. 7.

+}

‘

Text-fig. 6.—Fractured quartz crystal in coarse crystal tuff (S.220),
Portion 100, Parish of Yass. Drawn with camera lucida. x 25.

Text-fig. 7.—Fractured quartz crystal in quartz-porphyry-tuff (S.173),
Portion 6, Parish of Nanima. Drawn with camera lucida. x 25.

Text-fig. 8—Quartz crystal with corroded and jagged outline from rhyolite-
tuff (8.572), Portion 71, Parish of Boambolo. Drawn with camera lucida. x 25.

Rhyolite-tuff—The rock of the narrow igneous tongue stretching south from
Portion 25, Parish of Hume, has been described as a rhyolite-tuff, from the fluidal
texture of its ground-mass. In a hand-specimen it differs only slightly from a
quartz-porphyry or from a quartz-porphyry-tuff. Pink and cream felspar, glassy
quartz and black ferro-magnesian minerals are the phenocrysts set in a greyish-
green ground-mass. In addition chalcedonic patches about 1 inch in diameter
are not infrequent. In thin section, the quartz fragments are seen to be of the
most remarkable outline, corrosion having carved out re-entrant angles in their
edges, leaving them serrated and jagged (Text-fig. 8; Pl. vi, fig. 3). The felspar
is intensely altered to sericite and kaolin, and cannot be more exactly identified.
Chlorite occurs in flakes, parallel to, and across the cleavage, calcite sometimes
penetrating between cleavage laminae. Galena and apatite are accessories. Small
angular pieces of quartz and felspar are packed between the larger fragments of
these minerals. Flow-structure is pronounced in the ground-mass. Some lithic
fragments are present. The ground-mass when fluid has taken a course around
some of the phenocrysts, corroding them. The ground-mass is highly devitrified,
now consisting of an intergrowth of secondary quartz and felspar spherulites. The
chaleedonic patches observed in a hand-specimen are due to local greater devitri-
fication, which has formed larger spherulites. S$.572 from Portion 71, Parish of
Boambolo, shows these characters (Pl. vi, fig. 3).

Devitrified Porphyries——In some cases, intense devitrification has practically
converted porphyry into chalcedony, chert or quartzite (Harker, 1909; Shand,
1927; Tyrrell, 1926). An intermediate stage is seen in Portion 21, Parish of
Hume, 400 yards north of the Hume Highway, where more than half the ground-
mass of the porphyry is chalcedonic (S.449). In thin section, the rock is like
a normal quartz-porphyry, except that the secondary quartz in the ground-mass

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 145

is coarse enough to be seen with a low-power objective. The chalcedonic portions
are nearly opaque. In Portion 24, Town of Yass, the porphyry (S.387) has
become chertified. In thin section, it is a mosaic of secondary quartz, with a few
primary quartz grains, and iron-oxide skeletons of what have been biotite crystals.
Solution channels, now filled with secondary quartz, traverse ground-mass and
mineral grains alike. A rock in Portion 32, Parish of Hume, like quartzite in
a hand-specimen, is identical with chertified porphyry (S.63) in thin section.
The same applies to the chalcedoniec type found 10 yards due west of Racecourse
Trigonometrical Station (S.477).

Correlation of types described.—lIt is noticeable that the types, quartz-porphyry,
quartz-porphyry-tuff and rhyolite-tuff have all the same mineral composition. All
contain much quartz, the felspar where fresh enough for identification is in each
case about Ab,,An,, while the ferro-magnesian constituent is always chloritized
biotite. Apatite is well represented in all. They differ, however, in texture.
It seems probable that all originated from the same magma, and that their
differences are due to different methods of extrusion or intrusion.

Coarse crystal tuff—Fresh hand-specimens of this rock in some cases, for
instance north-east of Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station (8.393), are difficult to
distinguish from a porphyry, though in some cases the crystal tuffs are more like
grits. They are grey-green in colour, weathering to a honey-yellow, and contain
conspicuous grains of glassy quartz, opaque white felspar and a dark ferro-
magnesian mineral. In thin section, the close packing of the quadrangular and
triangular quartz and clouded felspar grains at once distinguishes these rocks
from porphyry. Smaller fragments of the same minerals and of chlorite fill
interstices. Calcite grains are common in some, though not found in all the
tuffs. Apatite and chalcopyrite are also present in small amount. The scanty
and nearly opaque matrix is secondary quartz. These rocks correspond closely
to the definition of crystal tuff proposed by Pirsson (1915) and those described by
Wells (1925) from North Wales. Rocks 8.73, nine miles from Yass on the Wee
Jasper Road, Portion 1, Parish of Boambolo; 8.77, seven miles from Yass on
the Goodhope Road, Portion 177, Parish of Warroo (Pl. vi, fig. 4); and S.239,
Portion 18, Parish of Hume, are all typical crystal tuffs (Text-fig. 6).

Crystal-lithic tuff—This rock is a special case of the coarse crystal tuff, since
it contains rounded fragments of coarse and fine tuffs, as well as quartz and
felspar crystals, in a matrix identical with that of the coarse crystal tuffs. The
rock so formed is very resistant, forming tors in Portion 108, Parish of Boambolo
(S.155). In thin section, though not in the hand-specimen, a resemblance to the
agglomerates may be noted.

Volcanic grits —The quartz-grits which form a conspicuous ridge to the north-
west and south-east of Portion 45, Town of Yass (S.483), are composed of rounded
quartz grains and an occasional iron-oxide cube, the whole being poorly cemented
by an earthy paste. In thin section, the quartz grains are found to be sub-
quadrangular, often due to attrition against one another, being sometimes in
contact without the interposition of cement. The quartz grains, like those in
the crystal-tuff outcropping nearby on the Wee Jasper Road (S.26), show numerous
gaseous inclusions. The scanty matrix is of secondary quartz, felspar and
calcite. These grits are crystal tuffs, in which quartz is present in greater
proportion than is usual with the Yass crystal tuffs. It has also suffered greater
wear. They recall the volcanic grits of the Lower Palaeozoic series of North
Wales (Cox and Wells, 1920).

F

146 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS. N.S.W..

Quartzites—Closely related to these grits are the quartzites or silicified grits
found in Portion 8, Parish of Hume, immediately west of the middle of the rifle
range (8.488), and in Portion 103, Parish of Warroo (S.157) and elsewhere. The
slightly greater development of secondary quartz as a cement marks the only
difference between the volcanic grits and these quartzites, whose origin is no
doubt similar. The action of siliceous solutions is probably responsible for the
difference between the quartzites and the grits. The cracks, strains and inclusions
in the quartz of the quartzite (S.157) from Portion 103, Parish of Warroo, are
also too much like those in the quartz of the Huralie agglomerate (S.126) from
Portion 64, Parish of Warroo, to admit of doubt as to their similar provenance.

Agglomerates—These fragmental rocks are almost identical throughout the
area. They contain quadrangular green to brown pieces of tuff, one-quarter to
one-half an inch across, set in a matrix, which also contains glassy quartz and
earthy felspar grains. The pieces of tuff are almost in contact. A weathered
surface is rough and pitted. In some cases the matrix is more highly silicified
than in others (S.229 from the junction of Gums and Wee Jasper Roads, Portion
14, Parish of Hume). The agglomerates might be described as coarse lithic tuffs.
Their character is uniform, although outcrops are widespread, and they have not
been observed to be transgressive relatively to the interbedded tuffs, indeed they
are everywhere conformable to them. In thin section, the lithic fragments are
seen to be of fine tuff (type 3) and medium tuff (type 1), comparable with tuffs
outcropping elsewhere in the area. §.182, for instance, from Portion 8, Parish
of Hume, near Hatton’s Corner (PI. vi, fig. 6) contains fragments comparable with
the medium tuff, $.204, an outcrop of which occurs in Portion 8, Parish of Hume,
near the junction with Portion 111, Parish of Yass, as well as fragments compar-
able with the fine tuff, 8.5, from the municipal quarry. As well as tuff, large
angular quartz grains and altered felspar fragments are found in the devitrified
matrix.

Medium Crystal Tuffs (Type 1).—This term has been used to describe a
series of tuffs in the area, whose grain-size is about equal to that of table sugar,
though they frequently contain scattered larger quartz grains. Their colour
varies from grey to pink.

In thin section, the often nearly opaque ground-mass is found to be completely
devitrified. It contains angular grains of primary and secondary quartz, and
occasionally of weathered felspar and calcite. The last is regarded as detrital,
though in some cases it may be an alteration product from felspar. Nodular lumps
of interlocking crystals of secondary quartz and felspar are present in some of
these tuffs, and may even be detected as white spots in the hand-specimen. They
represent centres where devitrification has been greater than in the remainder
of the rock. An example of a medium tuff (Type 1) is from Portion 8, Parish
of Hume, immediately south of Portion 111, Parish of Yass (8.204; Pl. vi, fig. 7).

Banded or Bedded Tuff (Type 2).—These vary in colour from greenish-yellow
to blue-black, while in grain-size, varieties of bedded tuffs are found to correspond
to both medium and fine types (Types 1 and 3) among the non-bedded tuffs. A
bedded structure is not always visible in the hand-specimen, but in thin section
the long axes of rectangular or triangular grains of quartz, prisms of felspar and
thin mica flakes are seen to be in a parallel arrangement within a devitrified
matrix. There are tuffs with coarse mineral grains in bands about half an
inch in width in the bed of the Yass River beneath the Bowspring limestone, in
Portion 94, Parish of Yass (S.33), and tuffs of stages intermediate between that

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 147

and the tuff at the intersection of the Goodhope and Euralie Roads, Portion 7,
Parish of Warroo, where minute mineral grains are arranged in bands one-tenth
of an inch wide (S.281). In the finer-grained tuffs, the bedding-planes are marked
by colour banding (S.281; Pl. vi, fig. 8) or by small, discontinuous mica flakes
(S.261). In the finer varieties the proportion of matrix to mineral grains is
higher than in the coarser.

It is probable that this group includes tuffs whose bedding or banding is the
result of two different causes. Hither pressure has been the major cause, resulting
in the parallel rearrangement of the mineral grains, as in S.33, from Portion 94,
Parish of Yass, or slow settlement of fine particles has taken place under quiet
conditions of accumulation as in Portion 7, Parish of Warroo (S.281).

Fine-grained tuff (Type 3).—In Portion 202, Parish of Warroo (S.2), this
type is a dense yellowish-green rock, with earthy cream-coloured spots. In
thin section, minute angular fragments of quartz and felspar are seen, set in an
iron-stained ground-mass composed of nodular lumps of secondary quartz almost
in contact, a few being quite large. These are the spots seen in a hand-specimen
and are centres of greater devitrification than the rest of the rock. Bedding
planes are roughly marked by discontinuous shreds of mica. The matrix between
the devitrified lumps is nearly isotropic. A similar tuff (S.129) from the junction
of the Yass River and Euralie Creek contains numerous large quartz and calcite
grains (Pl. vi, fig. 9). The dense green, homogeneous, waxy-lustred rock of
Portion 148, Parish of Boambolo, and adjoining portions (S.101, S.577) resembles
the matrix of S.2, the minerals being distinguishable only with the high-power
objective, with which may be seen secondary quartz.. Tiny, brown-mica flakes,
showing a rough parallelism, mark the bedding. The material contained within
porphyry, beside the Yass River in Portion 97, Parish of Yass (Text-figures 1
and 2), in thin section closely resembles these types (8.624; Pl. vi, fig. 10).

Limestones.—The limestones are crystalline and coloured bluish-grey on a
fresh surface. A brown weathered surface may show ribbon-shaped rock fragments,
coral remnants or cavities from which fossils have been detached. A thin section
shows their fragmental character, all organic remains are broken, and angular
quartz-grains, sometimes large, are common. Pieces of tuff are also occasionally
included. Recrystallization of calcite is observable.

Sandy shales—The sandy shales are homogeneous, greenish-brown dense
rocks with rare mica flakes. Examination with the microscope shows the quartz
grains to be angular, often in contact along one side, with a micaceous, ferruginous
or calcareous cement. The quartz grains are all small. In rocks standing out as
ridges, such as that which contains graptolites in Portion 34, Parish of Derringullen
(S.379), they are larger than in the rock of Portion 14, Parish of Hume, east
of Wee Jasper Road (S.714).

SUMMARY.

A series of conformable beds of Upper Silurian age is described, one of the
uppermost containing graptolites typical of beds at the junction of the Lower
Ludlow and the Wenlock divisions of the Upper Silurian of Britain and corres-
ponds with the Yarravian of Victoria. The series includes tuffaceous and
sedimentary members and, subsequent to deposition, was folded unevenly, steeper
dips resulting in the western portion of the area. A geosyncline was formed
about a north-west and south-east axis, with a pitch to the north-west. In places
intense folding has been relieved by faulting. Perphyry was intruded between

148 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS. N.S.W..

bedding planes subsequently, though evidence of the exact time of intrusion
has not been obtained. The age of the porphyry is considered to be but little
later than the deposition of the sediments and it is greatly devitrified.

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BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD. 149

Invasion of siliceous solutions along bedding-planes followed the porphyry,
causing a greater intensity of devitrification in their neighbourhood, and the
development of quartz crystals. Mineral vapours followed, resulting in the
deposition of galena, etc.

Outcrops of rhyolite-tuff may represent a Devonian deposit connected with
outcrops south of this area, or may be interbedded with the Upper Silurian series.

Lastly, alluvium was deposited by several streams, while high-level gravels
mark alterations in the course of the Yass River.

Acknowledgements.

The writer is indebted to Professor L. A. Cotton, M.A., D.Sc., of the Sydney
University, for his kind assistance and advice during the course of this work,
and for the facilities granted her for study at the Geological Department of the
Sydney University. She also wishes to thank Assistant-Professor W. R. Browne,
D.Sc., of the Sydney University, for the help he has given her, and Mr. R. A.
Keble, of the National Museum, Melbourne, for his guidance in the determination
of graptolites. Mr. A. J. Shearsby, of Yass, has also aided her with his intimate
knowledge of the Yass District, which assistance she wishes to record here
with thanks.

References.

BENSON, W. N., 1915.—Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of New
South Wales. Part V. Geology of Tamworth District. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
xl, 1915, p. 540.
BoNnNEY, T.4G., 1885.—Remarks on Stratified and Igneous Rocks of the Valley of the
Meuse in the French Ardennes. Proc. Geol. Assoc., xxii, 1885, p. 247.
CHAPMAN, F., 1909.—On a new species of Leperditia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., n.s., XxXii
(1), 1909, p. 1.
Corron, L. A., 1923.—Notes on the Geology of Yass-Canberra Area. Pan-Pac. Sci.
Congress, Guide-book to Yass-Canberra, etc., 1923.
Cox, A. H., and Weuus, A. K., 1920.—Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of Arthog-Dolgelley.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Ixxvi, 1920, p. 254.
Davip, T. W. E., 1882.—Report on the Fossiliferous Beds, Yass. Ann. Rep. Dept. Mines
N.S.W., 1882, p. 148.
ELLEs, G. L., and Woop, FE. M. R., 1913.—British Graptolites, Part X. Pal. Soc., 1xvii,
1913.
EXTHERIDGE, R., JNR., 1894.—Description of a proposed new genus of Rugose Coral.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., iv, pt. 1, 1894, p. 11.
, 1904.—The Occurrence of Pisocrinus ... in the Yass District. Rec. Aust. Mus.,
v, pt. 5, 1904, p. 289.
—_————,, 1907.— Monograph of the Silurian and Devonian Corals of New South Wales,
Part II. The Genus Tryplasma. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 138, 1907.
, and MircHELL. J., 1917.—Silurian Trilobites of New South Wales. Proc. LInn.
Soc. N.S.W., xlii, 1917, p. 480.
Harker, A., 1909.—The Natural History of Igneous Rocks, 1909, p. 225.
, 1919.—Petrology for Students, 5th edit., 1919, p. 252.
Harper, L. F., 1909.—Geology of the Murrumbidgee River District. near Yass. Rec.
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., ix, pt. 1, 1909, p. 1.
JENKINS, C., 1878a.—Geology of Yass Plains. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., iii, 1878, p. 21.
, 1878b.—lbid., p. 216.
Mann, C. W., 1921.—Preliminary Note on the Occurrenee of Porphyritic Intrusions at
Yass, N.S.W. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.. lv, 1921, p. 180.
MITCHELL, J.. 1886.—Geology of Bowning. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., i (2nd series),
1886, pp. 1059 and 1193.
—, 1888.—Geological Sequence of the Bowning Beds. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci..
i, 1888, pv. 291.
.1919.—Some Additional Trilobites from New South Wales. Proc. LInN. Soc.
N.S.W., xliv, 1919. pp. 441 and 80a0.

150 GEOLOGY OF AN AREA NEAR YASS, N.S.W.

MITCHELL. J.. 1923.—Strophomenidae from ... Bowning, N.S.W. Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., xlviii, 1923, p. 465.

, and Dun, W.S., 1920.—The Atrypidae of New South Wales. Proc. LInn. Soc.
N.S.W., xlv, 1920, p. 266.

Pirsson, L. V., 1915.—Microscopical Characters of Volcanic Tuffs. Amer. Journ. Sci..
Sere, 25 ox, Silay, tos Gal,

POUSSIN, DE LA VALLEE, and RENARD, A., 1876.—Mémoire sur les caractéres minéralogiques
et stratigraphiques des roches dites plutoniennes de la Belgique et de l’Ardenne
Francaise. Mém. Cour. et Mém. Sav. Etrangers Acad. Roy. Belg.. xl, 1876 (Quarto),
243 pp.

—, 1897.—Les tufs keratophyriques de la Mehaigne. Mém. Cour. Acad. Roy. Belg.,
(8vo), liv, No. 3, 1897, p. 1.

RUEDEMAN, R., 1934.—Palaeozoic Plankton of North America. Mem. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
19384, No. 2, p. 33.

SHAND, S. V., 1927.—Eruptive Rocks, 1927, p. 114.

SHeEARSBY, A. J., 1911.—The Geology of the Yass District. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
sou, WOM, jo, IO

SHERRARD, KATHLEEN, 1929.—Notes on a phyllocarid and a brachiopod ... Proc. Roy.
SOG, WiGliag Wesb, SS CB), WOAH, jo, 18345,

, 1934.—Exhibit to Geological Section, Royal Society of New South Wales.
Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Ixviii, 1934, p. xlviii.

THomaAs, D. E., and Kesue, R. A., 1933.—Ordovician and Silurian Rocks ... Proc. Roy.
SOG, WiGion MS, SIRT (BN 5 10s Bae

TYRRELL, G. W., 1926.—Principles of Petrology, 1926.

WELLS, A. K., 1925.—Geology of Rhobell Fawr District. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1xxxi,
UMP, yo. <!Ge%,

WILKINSON, C. S., 1876.—Report of Progress of the Geological Survey ... 1876. Ann.
Rep. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., 1876, p. 149.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI-VII.
Plate vi.

1.—Quartz-porphyry, Laidlaw Trigonometrical Station, Yass (8.389), showing
corroded quartz, altered plagioclase and mica set in a devitrified ground-mass. Crossed
nicols. x 64.

2.—Quartz-porphyry-tuff, Junction, Hume Highway and Canberra-Yass Road (8.169),
showing large corroded and cracked quartz crystals, felspar prisms and chips of quartz
and felspar between them. Crossed nicols. x 63.

3.—Rhyolite-tuff, Portion 71, Parish of Boambolo (8.572), showing jagged outline
of quartz grains, quartz and felspar chips, and flow structure in ground-mass. Ordinary
light. x 62.

4.—Coarse crystal tuff, Portion 177, Parish of Warroo (8.77), showing quartz,
felspar and chlorite grains nearly in contact. Ordinary light. x 6%.

5.—Crystal-lithie tuff, Portion 90, Parish of Boambolo (S.155), showing fragments
of coarse and fine crystal tuffs, quartz and felspar grains. Ordinary light. x 63.

6.—Agglomerate, near Hatton’s Corner, Portion 8, Parish of Hume (8.182), showing
fragments of different varieties of tuff, quartz grains, etc., in a highly silicified matrix.
Ordinary light. x 63.

7.—Medium-grained crystal tuff (Type 1), Portion 8, Parish of Hume (8.204),
showing quartz fragments, some fractured, patches of secondary quartz resulting from
devitrification. Ordinary light. x 64.

§.—Banded tuff (Type 2), Portion 7, Parish of Warroo (S.281). Ordinary light. x 2.

9.—Fine-grained tuff (Type 3), Euralie, Portion 64, Parish of Warroo (S.129),
showing xenocrysts of quartz, altered felspar and calcite, strings of brown mica-flakes.
Ordinary light. x 63.

10.—Fine-grained tuff (?) within porphyry, Portion 97, Parish of Yass (S.624),
showing small mica flakes intermittently marking bedding-planes, with strings of larger
flakes crossing at right angles. Ordinary light. x 63.

11.—Folded and faulted sediments in the bank of Yass River, near the mouth of
Reedy Creek.

Plate vii.

Geological Sketch-mapn and Section of the Yass district.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE VI.

Rocks from Yass District.

Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1936.

GEOLOGICAL

FAULT

PARISH BOUNDARIES

*.M_S. delt,

BOUNDARIES
‘UNDEFINED GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARIES _ _

LINES

SH

RECENT

y 4
OF Ye vAy isis ACCovioM
Ba 75) ? DEVONIAN ? oR | > .
UPPER SILURIAN? x
——
> QUARTZ PORPHYRY
he 4 Turr
i T
x 1 R
2 y Sots
Xe *| SANUY SHALES
1
¥
¥ x
UPPER oie
”~ ,
a

x

1

I

1
*

TINE ANO MEDIUM
GRAINED TUFFS

NS

TUTFACEOUS
SANDSTONES
“

Geological

wsw

Euralie Creek

SKETCH

SECTION

Reedy Creek
Hatton's

ALONG

A-B

Yass River
Corner

PLATE vil,

Sketch-map of the Yass district

' : ier ae = or, r i =e
ee = 2aAAGHUD “og ARVO 1039 :

i ge ne a 22) AMID. "Yay190.1030 aint

he is SAV TN
‘SiRAGMUGE ° He iad

; a
a he ty nee = ee

A COMPARISON OF THE RYDAL AND HARTLEY EXOGENOUS
CONTACT—-ZONES.

By GrerMAINE A. JopLIN, B.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Geology,
University of Sydney.

(One Text-figure. )

[Read 24th June, 1936.]

Introduction.

In dealing with the exogenous contact-zone at Hartley (Joplin, 1935) it was
pointed out that the Upper Devonian (Lambian) Series at Hartley could probably
be correlated with rocks of similar age at Rydal. Thus, in discussing the incipient
metamorphism at Hartley, it was assumed that the original sediments were
similar to well-defined types at Rydal.

It may now be shown that this assumption was correct, as there is a very
close parallelism between the hornfelses of both aureoles.

It is not proposed to describe the Rydal aureole exhaustively, but merely to
place on record certain similarities with the exogenous contact-zone at Hartley.
Possibly, if further field studies were undertaken and further material examined
microscopically, other assemblages might be revealed; but as Rydal lies only
about 10 miles from Hartley, as the sedimentary series is similar and as the
Rydal granite represents only another part of the great Hartley—Bathurst bathylith,
it seems unlikely that any very notable dissimilarities will be found. The writer
feels confident that further study of the Rydal aureole would reveal other
assemblages that have been described from Hartley.

The Primary Hornfelses of Hartley and Rydal.

Sixteen primary hornfels types were recognized in the Hartley aureole and
eleven of these have been discovered at Rydal, as well as one assemblage which
has not been met with at Hartley.

The hornfelses were collected along the Bowenfels Road on the south-eastern
side of Cox’s River Bridge and in the old and new railway cuttings north of
Sodwalls. As the Rydal types are exactly similar to those of Hartley, it is not
proposed to repeat detailed descriptions of the assemblages, but a comparison of the
two aureoles is made in the following table, from which it will be seen that, as at
Hartley, the Rydal aureole is characterized by a ‘wet’ medium-grade
metamorphism.

152 RYDAL AND HARTLEY EXOGENOUS CONTACT-ZONES,

Primary Assemblage. | Hartley. Rydal.

. Andalusite-cordierite-biotite

. Andalusite-biotite-orthoclase

. Cordierite-quartz
. Cordierite-plagioclase
. Plagioclase-biotite .. es

6. Amphibole-plagioclase-biotit:

7. Amphibole-diopside-plagioclase-biotite
8. Amphibole-diopside-plagioclase

9. Amphibole-plagioclase oe te BG Fe 3 Ae
10. Diopside-plagioclase ae an 20 aa ie a os 4
11. Plagioclase-diopside-epidote. .

12. Plagioclase-diopside-wollastonite .. 5a ae at i Bt 7
13. Diopside-grossular-wollastonite
14. Vesuvianite-diopside
15. Wollastonite-diopside

16. Sandstone Hornfels ..
17. Grit

Or PRP 0 be

bt+++4++44+

T

[++++++4+4+4+14

+++4++
+4114

The Absence of Certain Primary Assemblages at Rydal.

Reference to the above table will show that the andalusite-biotite-orthoclase
assemblage has not been met with at Rydal. Only one example of this type was
recorded at Hartley; this was found as a boulder and has never been met with
in situ. It is, therefore, not a prominent type, and it is not surprising that it
has not been discovered at Rydal, especially in view of the fact that the study
of this aureole is incomplete.

Again it will be noted that no assemblages. containing wollastonite occur at
Rydal. In dealing with the Hartley aureole it was pointed out that such
assemblages were developed only at short distances from the contact. At Rydal,
so far as the present writer is aware, the calcareous beds (Spirifer-bearing
quartzites) do not outcrop closer than 800 yards from the contact, and the rocks
contain quartz and calcite, which Eskola (1922) has shown to be a low-
temperature assemblage.

Finally, the vesuvianite hornfels appears to be absent from Rydal, but in
the Hartley aureole this was recorded from a single locality and it might be
found at Rydal if more detailed work were carried out.

Metasomatism.

As at Hartley, greisenization, or the development of white mica, is common
in the sandstone hornfelses and in the cordierite- and andalusite-bearing assemb-
lages at Rydal.

The development of andradite, prehnite, scapolite, etc., which was noted in
many parts of the Hartley aureole, appears to be absent at Rydal, and this may
be explained again by the fact that the more calcareous types do not occur very
close to the contact.

Zoned Calcareous Nodules near Sodwalls.
A “purple-hornfels” with light calcareous patches occurs at the junction of
the old and new railway lines on the Rydal side of Sodwalls at a distance of
about 600 yards from the contact. The patches may be scattered through the

BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 153

body of the rock, but they are often concentrated on certain horizons and, though
sometimes irregular in shape, are usually flattened ellipsoids. They vary in size
from half an inch to about two inches in length, and show a rude zoning.

Examined microscopically, the well-defined zones are seen to consist of
different mineral assemblages, and the less-defined ones are due to the relative
abundance of a certain mineral in a given assemblage (see Text-fig. 1).

The “purple-hornfels” (Joplin, 1935) which encloses the calcareous bodies
consists for the most part of biotite, quartz, and plagioclase, but a little amphibole
is usually present and this becomes more abundant, together with calcite, in the
immediate vicinity of the calcareous body.

Text-fig. 1.
A.—Biotite-plagioclase-amphibole-quartz assemblage.
B.—Plagioclase-amphibole-quartz-sphene assemblage with plagioclase > amphibole.
C.—Amphibole-plagioclase-sphene assemblage with a little quartz and amphibole

> plagioclase.
D.—Plagioclase-amphibole-sphene assemblage with plagioclase > amphibole.
E.—Amphibole-calcite-sphene assemblage.
F.—Amphibole-sphene-iron ore.

The separate nodules show a good deal of variation in the order of the
different zones, but consist mainly of the amphibole assemblages listed in the
above table. Diopside may or may not be present.

Text-figure 1 is a diagram of one such nodule, and a critical examination of
this indicates that the centre is richer in lime, and that this gradually decreases
outwards, that magnesia attains local abundance in certain zones but is present
throughout, that alumina is absent in the centre but occurs in the outer zones
where silica also becomes prominent. The last oxide, in the form of quartz, is
something of an anomaly, as it has been found in large irregular grains with
calcite and amphibole in the centres of some of the nodules.

The junction between the biotite-bearing and biotite-free assemblages is very
sharply defined and, as may be seen by reference to Text-figure 1, another well-
marked junction occurs between an amphibole-rich and an amphibole-poor
plagioclase-amphibole-sphene zone.

The origin of these bodies is somewhat obscure. Ward (1912) and Waterhouse
(1916) have described calcareous patches and veins in shaly rocks in Tasmania,

G

154 RYDAL AND HARTLEY EXOGENOUS CONTACT-ZONES.

and they postulate addition from the magma; but the mode of occurrence, the
frequent concentration of the nodules on a definite horizon, and the zoning make
it difficult to explain the origin of the Rydal bodies in this way.

Twenhofel (1926) states that calcareous concretions are very common in
claystones, and it seems likely that the nodules were concretions in the original
tuffaceous silt which is now represented by the “purple-hornfels”’.

As regards the zoning, two alternative explanations suggest themselves, either
that there was reaction between the concretion and the enclosing rock during
metamorphism, or that the original concretion was laminated concentrically.

It is unlikely that much diffusion would take place at such a distance from
the contact and, moreover, sharply defined beds of calcareous and purple horn-
felses occur elsewhere and these can be shown to correspond to the Spirifer-bearing
quartzites and soft purple shales of Mt. Lambie (Joplin, 1935, p. 19). Further-
more, the zones do not show a gradual transition, as might be expected if diffusion
took place during metamorphism.

It seems likely, therefore, that the nodular concretions had an original
concentric lamination and that each layer represents different admixtures of
ealcite and clay (Twenhofel, 1926, p. 503). The nodules may have been built
up around fossils, but as no structure remains this point is obscure.

References.

Eskoua, P. E., 1922.—On Contact Phenomena between Gneiss and Limestone in Western
Massachusetts. Journ. Geol., xxx, 284.

JopLIN, G. A., 1935.—The Petrology of the Hartley District. III. The Contact Meta-
morphism of the Upper Devonian (Lambian) Series. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ix,
pp. 19, 20.

TWENHOFEL, W. H., 1926.—Treatise on Sedimentation, pp. 498, 501, 503.

Warp, L. K., 1912.—The Origin of Certain Contact Rocks with a High Content of Lime
and Magnesia. A.A.A.S., xiii, 176.

WATERHOUSE, L. L., 1916.—The South Heemskirk Tin Field. Bull. Geol. Surv. Tas..
21) sp) 124. ;

THE UPPER PALAHOZOIC ROCKS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF
BOOROOK AND DRAKE, N.S.W.

By A. H. Voisry, M.Sc.
(Plate viii; one Text-figure. )
[Read 29th July, 1936.]

The object of this paper is to describe the rocks outcropping in the Drake
and Boorook Districts in north-eastern New South Wales and to place the fossil
zones in their correct positions in the sequence.

A short stay was made at Rivertree during February, 1934. Tabulam and
Drake were visited during June and July, 1934. In January, 1936, the Boorook
and Crooked Creek fossil beds were examined and their relationship to the Drake
volcanic formations was established beyond doubt.

The geological sketch-map (PI. viii) is not accurate in detail, but serves
to indicate the fossil localities, and, roughly, the areas occupied by the series
into which the strata have been divided. The mapping of the units within the
series has unavoidably been left until a later date. Mr. H. C. Andrews (1908)
said of the area: “It is a difficult area to map accurately, i.e., in which to supply
a connected sequence of geological events. Instead of containing several strong
lines of rock junctions, whose succession in time might thus be readily grasped,
it consists of a mass of insignificant and overlapping lava flows, sandwiched in
with which are certain fossil beds. Dense jungle growths are common, which
still further complicate mapping work.’

He, however, did map the rocks around Drake, and his map may be considered
typical of the whole area occupied by the volcanic beds.

Previous Literature.

E. C. Andrews (1908) detailed the history of the area, reported the discoveries
of fossils and described the past mining activities. He also discussed the general
characteristics of the ore deposits and their probable origin. This report, so far
as the writer is aware, is the only record of geological field-work in the area
which comes within the scope of this paper. J. B. Jaquet (1896) reported on
the Lunatic Goldfield but did not deal with the general geology. Many references
to Drake are to be found in literature, notably by Browne (1929), David (1932),
Richards and Bryan (1923, 1924), Sussmilch (1935) and Walkom (1913). These
writers have confined themselves to discussions based upon the work of Andrews
(1908).

STRATIGRAPHY.

The Upper Palaeozoic strata between Boorook and Tabulam are bounded by
granite on the east, west and south. Both granite and sediments are overlain in
places by Jurassic rocks belonging to the Clarence Series.

The older beds have been divided into two main Series, the Emu Creek
Series which is, in all probability, Carboniferous in age, and the Drake Series,
which is probably Permian. The latter has been subdivided into a Lower and an
Upper Division. The Lower consists chiefly of lavas, agglomerates and tuffs, and

156 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE,

the Upper of tuffs, mudstones, and occasional lava flows, and characteristically
possesses prolific fossil horizons.

Andrews (1908) observed that the Drake mudstones and tuffs (Upper
Division) were younger than the volcanic beds (Lower Division), but he referred
the latter to two distinct periods, ‘an older consisting mainly of rhyolites and a
younger mainly of andesites”.

While no definite divisions are likely to hold throughout the area, owing to
the discontinuity of most of the beds, an arbitrary boundary has been fixed between
the Lower and Upper Divisions. This boundary is indicated on the map and
sections, but it must be emphasized that it is only approximate. It does not
mark any great change in the nature of the deposits, but separates a zone which is
prolific in fossil remains from one in which fossils are less numerous owing to
the greater amount of volcanic material, chiefly lava, which makes up the sequence.
No fossils appear to have been found in Andrews’ older volcanics (lower part of
Lower Division).

The relationship between the Emu Creek Series and the Drake Series has not
been established beyond doubt, but the dark mudstones and tuffs belonging to
the former seem to dip beneath the Drake volcanic rocks in the south-western
corner of the Parish of Jenny Lind and also in the northern part of the Parish
of Antimony. However, the outcrops are poor, and insufficient time was available
to determine this point, important though it is. In spite of this admission of
doubt, from field evidence alone the greater age of the Emu Creek Series may be
accepted with slight reservation. The palaeontology is sufficient to clinch the
matter.

The northward extent of the Emu Creek Series was not investigated far
beyond Emu Creek, but the beds continue at least to Pretty Gully.

The following table shows the succession of beds which has been established:

Estimated

Age.

Name of Series.

Rock Types.

Thickness
in Feet.

Correlation.

recent

Jurassic

Permian

Carboniferous

ons | Clarence Series.

| Drake Series.

Upper Division

Lower Division

Emu Creek Series.

Alluvium and
creek gravels.
Conglomerates,
sandstones,
shales with
fossil wood.

and

Fossiliferous
mudstones and
tuffs, with some
lava flows in
lower portion.

|

_Lavas, agglomer-

| ates, breccias
and tuffs, with
some fossilif-
erous beds.

Dark rhythmically-
bedded mud-
stones and tuffs
with lighter-
coloured sandy

beds.

2,000 +

5,000 +

Very thick,
but no
estimate
made.

Walloon
Series.

Silverwood
Fault-Block
Series, and
Lower
Bowen
Voleanics.

Neerkol (?)
Series.

BY A. H. VOISEY. ay i

CARBONIFEROUS.
Emu Creek Series.

It must be made clear that the tuffs, sandstones, and conglomerates belonging
to the Emu Creek Series are lithologically and palaeontologically quite distinct
from the rocks belonging to the Drake Series, and must not be confused with them.
Andrews (1908) appears to have recognized this, for he says: “The fossiliferous
slates at Drake had been observed to be gently folded only. Towards Jump-Up,
however, the strata possessed a vertical dip; thence to Pretty Gully the dip fell to
40°. Thus a tangential thrust from the east was suggested, unless the Drake
rocks proper should be decidedly younger than the Pretty Gully series.”

The name “Pretty Gully Series” would be retained for the Jump-Up beds but
for the fact that the present writer did not visit Pretty Gully, and does not feel
justified in using this name. Moreover, Andrews did not define the Pretty Gully
Series further, and did not discuss the rocks. Hence the name “Emu Creek Series”
will be used for the beds outcropping around Jump-Up Hill, although it is
probable that the Pretty Gully beds could be correlated with them.

The lowest units of the series which were examined outcrop near the junction
of Kangaroo Creek and Emu Creek, and consist of dark-grey indurated tuffs, fine
in grain and rhythmically bedded with tuffaceous sandstones and occasional thin
bands of conglomerate. All members of the series are hard and, in many places,
intensely mineralized.

The fine-grained tuffs grade into dark grey mudstones and all the members
bear witness to the fact that they are water-sorted; the pebbles in the conglomerate
bands are well rounded and water-worn. The coarser beds are generally lighter in
colour than the mudstones and tuffs, and are subordinate to them.

A horizon with remarkably prolific Fenestellidae outcrops on a spur between
Kangaroo Creek and Emu Creek. The whole slope is strewn with fragments of
rock crammed with the polyzoans. The material is a very hard, silicified light-
blue to greyish-blue mudstone, highly impregnated with pyrites throughout. Its
appearance is far different from the Fenestellidae mudstones of the Drake Series.

Only one specimen of Spirifer striata was found amongst the Fenestella and
crinoid stems. My attention was drawn to this horizon by Miss Dorothy Smith
and Mr. Arthur Smith of Cheviot Hills Station.

Probably overlying this Fenestellidae horizon by a couple of hundred feet
is the Jump-Up Hill fossil horizon from which Andrews and the writer have
collected a number of forms. These will be listed and discussed later.

The fossils are preserved in mudstone and fine-grained sandstone, probably
tuffaceous, and are most abundant in the road cuttings ascending the hill. Many
can be obtained in Jump-Up Creek. The beds are not nearly so indurated or so
mineralized as those in the vicinity of the Fenestellidae horizon, but they are
nevertheless very hard. The fresh sandstone is bluish-grey in colour, but weathers
to a light-brown. The rocks are somewhat disturbed in the vicinity of Jump-Up
Hill but the overlying beds continue with a general westerly dip of about 60° for
at least 3 miles up Emu Creek. Although faulting may have caused some
duplication, there is no doubt that a great thickness of rhythmically-bedded
mudstone and sandstone overlies the Jump-Up horizon.

Near the boundary of the parishes of Antimony and Callanyn, the creek
exposes a peculiar agglomerate. It contains irregular fragments of fine bluish-
grey tuff set in a tuffaceous matrix. This rock is interbedded with tuffs similar
to the fragments it contains.

158 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE,

It is in this locality that lava flows occur and seemingly overlie the west-
dipping Emu Creek beds. Although an examination was made the actual contact
was not found.

PERMIAN.
Drake Series.
(a) Lower Division.

The magnificent suite of volcanic rocks outcropping around Drake has been
partly described by Andrews (1908). Detailed petrological work on the numerous
rock types is most desirable, but the writer had not the time necessary for this,
so has very little to add. Andrews (1908, p. 11) writes: ‘“‘The lavas of the Drake
district present a difficult problem as regards detailed sequence of events. They
are studies in minutiae. Frequently, within the limits of a 10 or 20-acre block,
as many as a dozen rock sub-types may be found.”

He has divided the volcanic beds into two groups: ‘“(a) One productive of
whitish to grey felsites, purple and green lavas, tuffs and breccias, and practically
devoid of stratification planes. (bd) A younger one, productive of blue and purple
agglomerates, breccias, lavas and tuffs deposited on a sinking sea floor.”

This division is upheld from a descriptive point of view, but there seems to
be no need to make the break very significant. Andrews, himself, suggests that
his older series may represent (1) the actual sites of small vents or (2) masses
thrown out of neighbouring small vents. No evidence contributing to the problem
was collected, but the detailed map given by Andrews is sufficient to show that his
opinions are backed by much field-work and are worthy of consideration.

No records of fossils from the older volcanic beds have been found, and
this is hardly surprising, since they are made up of so much lava and agglomerate.
Stratification is much more marked in the younger volcanic beds than in the
older, and the marine fossils found in the tuffs and mudstones between lava flows
and agglomerates show that most were laid down under water.

Andrews submits the following list of fossils from Drake:

Martiniopsis subradiata var. deltoidea Eth. Stenopora (dendroid form).
fil. Trachypora wilkinsoni Eth. fil.

Fenestella sp. Hyalostelia.

Strophalosia jukesii Eth. fil. Entoliuwm.

Productus undatus ?. Modiola.

Spirifer stokesi Konig. Aviculopecten (new sp.:).

Zaphrentis sp. Orthoceras.

Knowing that most of the beds around Drake belong to the Lower Division of
the Drake Series, one feels justified in considering that these fossils may be
referred to the younger volcanic portion of the sequence.

Fragmental fossil remains, including Monilopora, Trachypora, Fenestellidae,
crinoid ossicles, and Spiriferaceae, were found in the tuffs and mudstones out-
cropping in Girard Creek, about three miles west of Cheviot Hills Station. These
sediments are interbedded with most spectacular agglomerates containing angular
to sub-angular blocks, chiefly of felsite lava, up to nearly two feet across.

Several thousand feet of these tuffs and agglomerates, with occasional lava
flows, are exposed between Cheviot Hills and Crooked Creek. At the top of
this succession is a unit, about 200 feet thick, which, though an agglomerate at
the base, passes upwards into a green tuff resembling an andesitic lava. The
gradual change in texture from fragments more than a foot across to minute
particles in the top-most portion may be traced.

BY A. H. VOISEY. 159

Overlying this horizon is a mudstone bed full of Trachypora wilkinsoni. This
has been taken as the base of the Upper Division of the Drake Series in this
locality.

Andrews described the Girard Creek beds thus: “In many cases a conglomerate
bed will contain numerous angular and subangular blocks; or, again, a con-
glomerate mass will pass gradually into an agglomerate. Here, commingling
of two processes is evidenced—in shallow water agglomerates have been primarily
thrown out, where probably the sea reduced the mass to a conglomerate; often-
times, however, the imposition of fresh agglomerate deluges checked the process
of pebble formation. Redistribution with partial to complete rounding by waves
of breccias and agglomerates intermittently discharged from volcanoes is most
probably the origin of the great majority of such rock masses.”

Another section of the younger volcanic beds which was measured at Boorook
ascending the hill between the ruins of the treatment plant on the Cataract River
and the old Boorook township site, gives the following sequence:

Approx. thickness

(In descending order.) in feet.

Trachyte and trachytic tuff Deas Mato is nap Ea ae, ee eee GID)
INS SIOMERATCH PF cdudtite ocesuuly lace ee ee ee We ik 50
Trachyte cst eek aah Means oe he 40
Helsitemands telsite-preccial... Vela er ee 200
Greyafelsites: s.. 5 pe) ee a eet PRs Arte cone 30
Felsite-breccia ALS PORTRAIT E Sich it (ace Cates Re At CRS 30
PPE ST ST EC yey voy sn 0 ie de etsta cts ee esas alee wai 40
PID OTOMER ATC oy Boks farcry een rea won bu ureige y nish Sys 20
Green trachyte Dn See ek eye aera Deer en steer eat. yee SOLO
Volcanic breccias and agglomerates .... .. .. 200
Grey trachyte SAT NTs Eka) Dee tenet Exh huiick Can he cieoea ware ame CN)

810

These are overlain by the Upper Division of the Drake Series. The Cataract
River has only cut down as far as the grey trachyte, so that the underlying beds
are not exposed in this locality. According to Andrews, however, the Cataract
flows through felsite-breccias and lavas for miles downstream and the banks are
high and almost impassable.

It is not possible to give a reliable figure for the thickness of the volcanic
beds. A most conservative estimate, based on the section from Crooked Creek
down Girard Creek to a point about two miles north-east of Cheviot Hills Station,
is about 5,000 feet. The lower members of the Series have not been located
definitely, though the lavas in the north-east of the Parish of Antimony must be
among them. It is of importance to determine whether the volcanic rocks are
underlain by marine fossil beds and also a Glossopteris horizon, as is the case
at Silverwood.

(6) Upper Division.

Fossiliferous mudstones, tuffs and quartzites inter-bedded with breccias,
agglomerates and occasional lava-flows follow conformably upon the main volcanic
beds of the Lower Division of the Drake Series. The diminution in the amount
of voleanic material and the greater development of the fossiliferous marine
sediments are the characteristic features of this portion of the sequence.
Eventually, the volcanic beds pass into mudstones which have a thickness
exceeding 1,000 feet. As the rocks overlying the mudstones were not examined,
it is not known whether the vulcanism continued after the deposition of these
beds.

160 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE,

A specimen section measured down a spur leading into Sawpit Gully, Boorook,
is as follows:
Approx. thickness

(Descending order.) in feet.
Massive dark-grey mudstones ei ecteala 1,000
Fossiliferous mudstones (Zone ‘‘D’’) Ds AND) eto 200
Felsite-lava Feih HEDIS lee en RAM Pi SMES De HA bb ea dane es bok 20
Coarses tufisMandmbrecciaiss eee 100
Mudstones and cherts (Zone “C”’) .. .. .. .. 100
Felsite-breccias and coarse tuffs ee De tenn tee 8 Ss 100
Coarse breccia ERT eced | ee OR Le a ane Rae 10
Coarse tuffs with quartzite bands (Zone “B”) .. 100
Fenestellidae mudstone (Zone “A’’) Jb 20
ASSelONIVET ATC Mc. ees oh USS Gh Stak Met i ehredek neck owe Ta fo 10
Fenestellidae mudstone (Zone ‘“‘A’’) aacpugie cee Boe 50
Breccias and coarse tuffs .. aN one Heeler ane 100
1,810

The above thicknesses are approximate only and the units vary greatly
throughout the district. The fossils collected from each bed will be given, but
it is probable that most of the forms range throughout the above section.
Collecting could only be carried on for a very short time, and numerous additions
will be made to the lists when further work is done.

Immediately overlying the breccias and tuffs which form the basal unit of
the above section is a band of calcareous mudstone crammed with fossils, chiefly
Fenestellidae and crinoids. This is Zone “A” and contains Zaphrentis sp.,
Martiniopsis subradiata and Spirifer sp. (F36370-1 Australian Museum Collection) ;
Trachypora wilkinsoni and Monilopora cf. nicholsoni appear to occur low down
in the Upper Division in the Crooked Creek locality, but the sequence was not
examined in any detail there.

The Fenestellidae mudstone is bluish-grey in colour when fresh, and is very
tough. During decomposition it becomes buff-coloured and friable. The rock is
made up of layers of fossils alternating with sediment. Weathering gives a
concertina-like appearance to the outcropping blocks. An agglomerate with
included rock fragments up to two inches across splits the Fenestellidae mudstone
and the overlying bed is similar to that below (Zone “A’’).

Fossils are present, even in the coarse tuffs which follow, but, in the main,
are fragmental, except in the quartzite and mudstone bands which are interbedded
with these. They are mainly pectens and are so numerous that, in places, the
quartzite is entirely made up of shells which have been replaced by silica. They
include Deltopecten subquinquelineatus McCoy sp., Aviculopecten sprenti Johnston,
and Aviculopecten englekardti Etheridge and Dun. Fenestella sp., Protoretepora
ampla Lonsdale (?) and crinoid stems are also present in Zone “B” (Specimens
F36367—9, Australian Museum Collection).

Felsite breccias and tuffs overlie the pecten horizon and then comes a most
prolific fossil bed, a calcareous mudstone (Zone “C”) containing:

Aviculopecten englehardti Eth. and Dun. Fenestella sp.

Aviculopecten cf. flexicostatus Mitchell. Stenopora tasmaniensis Lonsd. (?).
Aviculopecten sp. Myonia carinata Morris.

Productus (?) brachythaerus. Myonia (7?) corrugata Fletcher.
Taeniothyris subquadrata. Martiniopsis subradiata.

Crinoid stems. Strophalosia cf. gerardi King (?).
Zaphrentis sp. Strophalosia cf. jukesi Bth.

(Specimens F36344-F36366 Australian Museum Collection.)

BY A. H. VOISEY. 161

Strophalosia is one of the commonest fossils in this zone and certain sections
of the beds are made up almost entirely of this shell. In some parts the dendroid
Stenopora is dominant and in others, Fenestella.

Coarse tuffs with fragmental fossils follow, and above these a felsite-lava flow
outcrops.
On top of the felsite is a calcareous mudstone band (Zone “D’’) containing:

Monilopora cf. nicholsoni Eth.
Trachypora wilkinsoni Eth. fil.
Crinoid stems. (Cyathocrinus?).
Fenestella sp. Strophalosia gerard.

(Specimens F36329-31, F36335-43 Australian Museum Collection.)

The two corals are most numerous and they were used in tracing the bed
along the ridge for about a mile, as they could be seen from a distance in the
fragments of rock strewn over the surface. The lowest 200 feet of the mudstone,
which makes up the rest of the section, contain numerous fossils, mainly corals,
but the higher beds are practically devoid of them—only a few crinoid ossicles
being found. The mudstone becomes less calcareous and more massive and
compact. It is a dull black in colour and very fine-grained, for the most part,
but is slightly more sandy in its lower portions. This sandy rock is lighter in
colour, but has a blotchy appearance owing to the presence of dark irregularly-
shaped inclusions. After several hundred feet, through which there is some
variety in texture and colour, the mudstone becomes more uniform and apparently
devoid of lamination and bedding planes. It is rather cherty and some harder
parts give rise to falls in the creeks running west from the hills, but generally
outcrops are poor. The beds are easily traced because they decompose to a
characteristic yellow soil containing fragments of the crumbling rock.

Astartila sp.
Calyx plate of crinoid

This mudstone represents a complete change in the nature of the sedimen-
tation. All through the underlying beds volcanic material is the main component
right to the lowest part of the Drake Series that was examined. There is no
important structural break, however, as the tuffs may be seen to pass upwards
into the mudstone and fossils similar to those in the tuffs, ascend well into the
unit.

Fossils have been obtained in the hills bordering the granite for several miles
north of Boorook. They also occur on the eastern side of the Cataract River
and at Red Rock, where Mr. E. C. Andrews collected Aviculopecten englehardti.
Between Crooked Creek and the stock route, the following forms were obtained:

Crinoid stems (Phialocrinus?). Cladochonus cf. tenwicollis McCoy.

Trachypora wilkinsoni Eth. fil.
Zaphrentis gregoriana De Kon.
Monilopora cf. nicholsoni Eth.

Aviculopecten englehardti Eth. and Dun.
Fenestella sp.
Spirifer sp.

(Specimens F36324-8 Australian Museum Collection.)

These come from similar

beds to those at Boorook as described above.

Andrews (1908) records these additional types from somewhere along Crooked

Creek:

Stenopora (small dendroid form).
Fenestella fossula Lonsd.

Fenestella internata Lonsd.

Fenestella sp.

Protoretepora (n. sp.).

Penniretepora grandis McCoy (De Kon.).
Hyalostelia.

Productus subquadratus Morris.
Martiniopsis subradiata Sby.

Spirifer vespertilio G. Sby.

Aviculopecten squamuliferus Morris.
Aviculopecten elongatus McCoy (De Kon.).
Stutchburia compressa Morris (?).

162 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE,

These fossiliferous beds undoubtedly continue for many miles to the north
into the Rivertree District. It will be interesting to see whether the Eurydesma
cordata recorded by Andrews from that locality comes from strata which can be
correlated with some part of them.

Plumbago Creek Series.

Limestone, interbedded with hard slates and cherts, outcrops beside Plumbago
Creek, just north of the point where the main road between Tabulam and Drake
crosses the stream. The general strike of the series is north-north-west and the
dip is west-south-west at about 60°. The invading granite cuts obliquely across the
strike.

The limestone has been marmorized by the adjacent granite and no fossil
remains were identified from it. The other sediments have been converted to
hornfelses in places and are hardened elsewhere. Black slates contain fossils
resembling Pachydomus but not definitely determinable. Breccias and tuffs related
to those found around Drake are present, so it is probable that the Plumbago
Creek Series will be connected in some way to the Drake Series. It has been
kept separate because no limestone was found anywhere else and the northward
extensions of it and the associated rocks were not followed far enough to connect
them with any known beds.

JURASSIC.
Clarence Series (Walloon?).

The Clarence Series between Tabulam and Casino consists of conglomerates,
grits, sandstones and shales with plant remains. A basal conglomerate is well
exposed by the road cuttings just west of Tabulam Bridge. The water-worn
pebbles are arranged in lenticular bands in sandstones and grits. Much of the
material may be identified, as it has been derived from the Upper Palaeozoic rocks.

The beds appear to be estuarine in origin. This belief is strengthened by the
fact that numerous fossil tree-trunks were found in the overlying sandstones and
grits to the east of Tabulam. Their occurrence is reminiscent of those at Warwick,
Queensland, and it is possible that both are on the same horizon.

The age of the series is probably Jurassic and equivalent to the Walloon
Series of Queensland. There has been an overlap of these beds on the lower
members of the Mesozoic suite (David, 1932).

INTRUSIVE ROCKS.
The Granites.

The map (Plate viii) shows that the Upper Palaeozoic rocks are intruded by
granite both to the east and west of Drake. The eastern mass is overlain by the
Clarence Series, but the western forms the high plateaus of New England. The
granite makes poor outcrops around Boorook Station, and only the aplitic dykes
which traverse the main rock were examined. One such dyke is found near the
Station yards.

More than twenty different phases of the granite were collected from the
Stanthorpe and Rivertree Districts (D.R. 3339 to D.R. 3358). For further details
with regard to the New England Granites, see Andrews (1903).

BY A. H. VOISEY. 163

PALAEONTOLOGY.
Emu Creek Series.
Andrews (1908) records the following fossils from Jump-Up Hill:

Strophalosia, sp. ind. Spirifer cf. strzeleckii Morris.

Productus subquadratus Morris. *Reticularia cf. lineata Martin.

*Spirifer cf. lata McCoy. *Wenestellidae.

Spirifer sp. nov. Aviculopecten cf. mitchelli Eth. fil and Dun.

(* Carboniferous type.)
The above were considered by Mr. W. S. Dun to be a mixture of Upper
Marine and Lower Marine forms.
The writer collected two sets of fossils, one being given to the Australian
Museum and the other to the University of Sydney. From the first, Mr. Fletcher
has identified the following forms:

Cladochonus tenuicollis McCoy (?). Stutchburia cf. compressa.
Strophalosia gerardi King (?). Aviculopecten ptychotis McCoy sp.
Spirifer striata. Aviculopecten cf. pincombei Mitchell.
Spirifer pinguis (?). Aviculopecten sp.

Spirifer vespertilio. Phillipsia collinsi Mitchell.
Reticularia lineata. Crinoid stems.

Fenestella sp.
(Specimens registered F36372-F36379 Australian Museum Collection.)

Mr. Fletcher adds the following note:

“In the Jump-Up Hill beds, two pygidia and a thorax of Phillipsia cf. collinsi
Mitchell were identified, with Spirifer striata and Spirifer pinguis. These are
Carboniferous forms and when taken with the Carboniferous types recorded by
Mr. BE. C. Andrews, it would appear that the facies of the Jump-Up Hill beds
would be rather Carboniferous than Permian. In the same beds Stutchburia
compressa is found, but this genus probably extends into the Carboniferous.
Aviculopecten ptychotis is also a Carboniferous species.”

From the second collection, Dr. Ida Brown recognized the Phillipsia and
Cladochonus tenwicollis as Carboniferous forms and showed the collection to Dr.
F. W. Whitehouse, who has kindly supplied this information: The fossils belong to
“a, fauna equivalent to that found in the Neerkol Series of Queensland. From
that fauna few species have been described. The types of spiriferids, productids
and fenestellidae agree well with the Queensland types.

“In the collection the following genera are represented: Cladochonus,
Fenestella, Pustula, Spiriferina, ‘Spirifer’ (spp. mult.), Schizophoria, Retzia (?),
Modiomorpha, Aviculopecten and Phillipsia.

“The Neerkol Series is known in Queensland at Stanwell, Cannindah and
Mt. Barney.”

He is also of the opinion that the fauna is newer than the Amygdalophyllum
horizon.

It is generally agreed, therefore, that the Jump-Up Hill horizon is of
Carboniferous age. Mr. Dun’s view that the beds were Permo-Carboniferous was
probably influenced by the collections from adjacent areas occupied by the Drake
Series.

Exact correlation of the Emu Creek Series with other areas will have to be
made later by those acquainted with the Queensland Carboniferous beds. The
writer has held the view that it might be Neerkol, and this has been strengthened
considerably by Dr. Whitehouse’s remarks.

164 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE,

J. H. Reid (1930) advocated an Upper Carboniferous age for the Jump-Up
Hill beds on the evidence of the fossils collected by Andrews. It is hoped that
the additional forms which have been collected will be of assistance in the deter-
mination of the exact age of the Series.

Though Fenestellidae zones are not uncommon in Carboniferous and Permian
areas, the presence of the prolific band near Jump-Up Hill lends more support
to a correlation with the Neerkol beds.

The writer is still opposed to the inclusion of any pait of the Kempsey or
Silverwood beds in the Neerkol, and consequently cannot agree to placing any of
the beds belonging to the Drake Series there (Voisey, 1934a, 1935).

Drake Series.
Taken as a whole the fossil fauna of the Drake Series is as follows:

Cladochonus cf. tenwicollis McCoy. Spirifer vespertilio.
Trachypora wilkinsoni Eth. fil. Productus undatus (7).
Monilopora cf. nicholsoni Eth. Taeniothaeris subquadrata.
Zaphrentis gregoriana De Ison. Productus brachythaerus.
Cyathocrinus (?). Myonia carinata Morris.
Phialecrinus (?). Myonia (?) corrugata Fletcher.
Protoretepora ampla Lonsdale (?). Stutchburia compressa.
Fenestella sp. Astartila sp.
Fenestella fossula. Deltopecten subquinquelineatus McCoy sp.
Fenestella internata. Aviculopecten sprenti Johnston.
Penniretepora grandis. Aviculopecten englehardti Eth. and Dun.
Hyalostelia. Aviculopecten cf. flexicostatus Mitchell.
Stenopora tasmaniensis Lonsdale (7). Aviculopecten squamuliferus Morris.
Strophalosia gerard. Aviculopecten elongatus McCoy (De Kon.).
Strophalosia cf. jukesi King (7). Hyalostelia.
Martiniopsis subradiata var. deltoidea Eth. Entolium.

fil. Modiola.
Spirifer spp. mult. Orthoceras.

Spirifer stokesi Konig.

All these forms were found in, or above the volcanic rocks, so must be above
the Glossopteris horizon which occurs below the Volcanic Beds at Silverwood, if
correlation between the lavas is accepted.

Conclusive proof of the existence of prolific Monilopora cf. nicholsoni and
Trachypora wilkinsoni beds at the top of the Series definitely overlying the
voleanic beds, has an important bearing on the interpretation of the Silverwood
fault-blocks. (Richards and Bryan, 1924; Reid, 1930; Voisey, 1935.)

It is unfortunate that a Hurydesma cordata horizon was not found in the
Boorook-Drake Districts, but, if the views of the writer are correct, this should
be discovered below the Volcanic Series (Voisey, 1935).

In a broad sense the Silverwood Fault Block Series, the Drake Series and the
Macleay Series are correlated with one another and all are considered to be
Lower Permian in age.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.

The Upper Palaeozoic strata are generally horizontally disposed or slightly
undulating between the western granite and Drake, but between Drake and
Tabulam they have been folded and faulted. In the Drake Series near Tea-Tree
Creek, a vertical position has been attained. At the bridge where the road crosses
the Creek, the unconformable junction of an outlier of the Clarence Series with
the volcanic beds may be seen.

BY A. HH. VOISEY. 165

The folding has been roughly on a north-north-west, south-south-east axis.

The old Boorook township site is in the core of a syncline which pitches
towards the north. It is a very gentle fold. The beds on the limbs of the
syncline dip into the hill at angles generally about 5°. The northward pitch is
demonstrated by the outcrop of the mudstones. This is roughly V-shaped, widening
to the north. :

Wherever rocks belonging to the Emu Creek Series have been seen they are
steeply folded, but this may be because the disturbed zone happens to include
them. Nevertheless, the conformity of the Emu Creek Series and Drake Series
is open to doubt.

Going westward from Jump-Up Hill along Emu Creek the beds dip west at
angles between 40° and 60°, but here and there they are much faulted.

Red

Aon
Cataract Crooked
River ea CK

Lunatic
Mines Girard CK E
2 -? DRAKE SERIES

CLARENCE SERIES

Ws Ww yy oS ORAKE SERIES

GRANITE Tog ow YT oD oe a fy 22 a
Scale aA
een SECTION RUNNING EAST FROM BOOROOK. =

THROUGH LUNATIC MINES.

A parallel might be drawn between the Drake and Kempsey Districts. In
both cases there are areas of intense folding of Upper Palaeozoic beds to the
east and gently folded beds to the west. It seems that pressure came from an
easterly direction. The marginal beds yielded to the force and, by collapsing,
allowed it to expend itself on them, thus protecting the strata to the west.

The New England granite was intruded into the Drake rocks after the
folding had taken place. It cuts across the strike of the beds. This was some
time before the Jurassic sediments were deposited, for these rest upon planed-
down granite surfaces. That the diastrophism occurred between Middle Permian
and Jurassic times is thus proved, but in all probability it marked the close of
the Palaeozoic Era (David, 1932).

Richards and Bryan (1924) offered the suggestion that the ‘“Permo-
Carboniferous” fossils collected in the Drake District might have been obtained
from isolated fault blocks let down into Devonian strata, the structures then
resembling those at Silverwood. However, no rocks remotely related to the
Silverwood Series (Devonian) were found in the area examined and the volcanic
units were found to be continuous for many miles.

The sediments belonging to the Clarence Series formerly covered a much
greater area west of their present boundary, but they have been removed by
erosion. An outlier at Kettle’s Lift remains, and this is being worn away
rapidly.

The beds dip easterly at a very low angle and form the western rim of the
Clarence Basin.

PHYSIOGRAPILIY.
Boorook and Drake are situated on the eastern fall of the New England
Tableland near the head-waters of the Clarence River.

The Cataract River collects Boorook Creek, Crooked Creek, and numerous
tributaries as it flows northward from Sandy Hills to Rivertree, where it joins

166 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE,

the main stream. The Clarence turns southward and eventually reaches Tabulam
where it collects the drainage from Drake which enters it by means of Plumbago
Creek and the Timbarra River.

The dissection which has occurred may be judged by the steep fall of the
country from Tenterfield just west of the Main Divide to Tabulam. The heights
are: Tenterfield, 2,831 feet; Drake, 1,650 feet; Tabulam, 410 feet.

Between Tenterfield and Boorook high granite hills rise to over 3,000 feet
and continue northwards as the Boonoo Boonoo Heights. East of Boorook Station
the creek falls into the Cataract which flows through narrow gorges carved out
of the resistant lavas of the Drake Series. Both this river and its tributary,
Crooked Creek, are aptly named. Travelling is difficult through this region, but
access may be had by means of tracks which follow the more gentle spurs.

The response of the sub-horizontal rocks to rapid erosion is the main feature
of the physiography, and both the Clarence Series and the Drake Series (in part)
may be studied in this connection. The Clarence Series occupies the lower
regions, and cliffs are formed where the hard sandstone beds alternate with
softer slates. These are common on all sides but the east, as the dip of the
units in this direction is sufficient to give rise to a dip-slope. As a great deal
of the country has been cleared, these sandstone bluffs make conspicuous features
as they rise above the undulating grassy areas and usually a number of trees
remain on them. Sometimes two bands may be seen in the one hill.

The big difference in resistance to erosion between the lavas and sediments
of the Drake Series has led to the development of benches round the hills.

As the streams have cut down into the Lower Division, the fossiliferous beds
of the Upper Division occupy the ridges between the valleys. The natural
contouring of the highlands by means of these resistant bands is somewhat
obscured by the thick vegetation. Along the stock route between Sandy Hills
and Drake, one goes from terrace to terrace. On some of these terraces, outliers
of the overlying bed form small hills. One unit in particular, an agglomerate
from the top of the Lower Division of the Drake Series, gives rise to such
outliers since it is underlain by a resistant tuff band.

Between Cheviot Hills and Emu Creek the topography is neither so interesting
nor is its evolution so clear. Outcrops are poor, and in the north the rocks are
similar in type and dip steeply. Here deep gullies, tending to conform with the
strike, lead into the main creek and the spurs fall steeply into them.

In the south-eastern corner of the area the old granite surface upon which
the Clarence Series was laid down has been re-exposed during recent times and
the streams are at work cutting downwards into it.

The sequence of events leading up to the formation of the present topography
is similar to that of the whole coastal region, and the matter has been discussed
elsewhere. (Craft, 1933, etc.; Andrews, 1903; Voisey, 1934).

GEOLOGICAL HIsTory.

Marine mudstones, sandstones and conglomerates were deposited, during
Carboniferous times, in a sea which had its location in the position now described
as north-eastern New South Wales. Rhythmic deposition was a characteristic
feature of this thick series of rocks.

With the beginning of Permian times, vuleanism broke out and volcanoes
which were situated in the region about Drake poured lavas over the sea-floor.

BY A. H. VOISEY. 167

Tuffs and mudstones were laid down between the lava-flows and in these sediments
the remains of marine animals were preserved. Eventually the activity of the
volcanoes declined, and a thick deposit of mudstone was spread over the sea
floor.

Pressure from the east affected the sediments, some of which yielded under
the strain, fracturing and folding taking place in some areas; but the western
portions were protected and remained practically horizontal. The invasion of
the rocks by granite followed, metamorphosing them and introducing the
auriferous, cupriferous and argentiferous quartz-reefs. Uplift and subsequent
erosion led to the exposure of the granite and the reduction of the area to
comparatively level country over which an inland sea transgressed during
Jurassic times. Fresh-water conglomerates, sandstones and shales were laid down,
and among them were preserved the logs and plant remains washed in by the
rivers.

Eventually the sea receded and uplift brought the Clarence Series under the
influence of erosive forces which reduced Eastern Australia practically to sea-
level, leaving only a low divide. Basalts were poured out over this surface.
Uplift occurred at the end of the Tertiary Era and subsequent erosion has led
to the development of the present-day topography.

CONCLUSION.

The most outstanding results obtained from the field-work in the Drake and
Boorook districts are as follows:

(1) The Drake volcanic beds have been separated from the Jump-Up Hill
beds and the basis for such separation has been given.

(2) Suites of fossils were collected from each series and arranged in their
correct stratigraphical positions.

(3) The relationship between the Boorook and Drake rocks was determined
beyond doubt.

(4) A zone extraordinarily rich in Trachypora wilkinsoni and Monilopora
cf. nicholsoni was proved definitely to overlie the volcanic beds of the
Drake Series.

It is hoped that the data collected will be useful to palaeontologists and to
future workers in a most fascinating locality.

Acknowledgements.

I desire to thank Dr. Ida Brown, of Sydney University, Mr. Fletcher, of the
Australian Museum, and Dr. F. W. Whitehouse, of Queensland, for their notes
upon the fossils. I am indebted also to Messrs. T. Hodge-Smith and R. O.
Chalmers for their capable work in cataloguing the material which I have given
to the Australian Museum.

Geological work at Drake, Boorook and Tabulam has always been a pleasure—
largely because of the help and hospitality given to me by numerous residents.
My grateful thanks are due to them, especially to the following: Mr. and Mrs.
Arthur Smith of Cheviot Hills, Mr. and Mrs. Clarence Smith of Boorook, Mr. and
Mrs. Hunter Smith of Drake, Mr. G. Purvis Smith of Sandy Hills, Rev. Schmitzer
and Mr. and Mrs. Fergusson of Tabulam.

168 UPPER PALAEOZOIC ROCKS, BOOROOK AND DRAKE.

Bibliography.

ANDREWS, E. C., 1903.—The Tertiary History of New England. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.,

vil, pt. 3.
, 1905.—Geology of New England Plateau. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.. viii.

——_——,, 1908.—Report on the Drake Gold and Copper Field. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.,
Mineral Resources, No. 12.

BROWNE, W. R., 1929.—An outline of the History of Igneous Activity in New South
Wales till the close of the Palaeozoic Hra. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., liv.

Crart, F. A., 1933.—The Coastal Tablelands and Streams of New South Wales. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lviii.

Davin, T. W. E., 1932.—Explanatory Notes to a New Geological Map of Australia.

JAQUET, J. B., 1896.—Report on the Lunatic Goldfield. Ann. Report Dept. Mines and
Agriculture, N.S.W., pp. 126-128.

Rep, J. H., 1980.—The Queensland Upper Palaeozoic Succession. Queensland Geologicat
Survey Publication, No. 278.

RicHArRDs, H. C., and Bryan, W. H., 1923.—Permo-Carboniferous Voleanic Activity in
Southern Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xxxv.

,1924.—The Geology of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley Area. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Queensland, xxxvi.

SussmitcH, C. A., 1935.—The Carboniferous Period in HEastern Australia. Report
A.N.Z.A.A.S., Vol. xxii.

Voisny, A. H., 1934a.—A Preliminary Account of the Geology of the Middle North Coast
District of New South Wales. Proc. LINN. Soo. N.S.W., lix.

————, 1934b.—The Physiography of the Middle North Coast District of New South
Wales. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Ixviii.

,1935.—An Interpretation of the Silverwood-Lucky Valley Upper Palaeozoic

Succession. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xivi, 1934 (1935).

WaALKOM. A. B., 1913.—Stratigraphical Geology of the Permo-Carboniferous system in
the Maitland-Branxton District. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvili.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.
Geological sketch-map of the Boorook-Drake district.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE VIL.

Sketch Geological Map of the
CLARENCE SERIES

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THE DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV.

FAMILY TIPULIDAE. PART II.*
By CHaArLes P. ALEXANDER, Massachusetts State College, Amherst, Mass., U.S.A.
(Communicated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.)

(Seventeen Text-figures.)
[Read 26th August, 1936.]

The materials included in this instalment are chiefly from the mountains
of north-eastern New Guinea, the majority from Edie Creek, where they were
collected by Mr. Frank H. Taylor. Additional materials were sent to me by Mr.
Taylor and Professor Harvey Sutton, collected by Mr. Norman Ferguson and
Dr. E. A. Holland, and forming a valuable addition to our knowledge of the
Tipulidae of this little-Known area. All types and uniques are preserved in the
collection of the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, the University
of Sydney. As before, I express my very sincere thanks to the Director of the
School of Public Health, Professor Harvey Sutton, and to my very good friend
and co-worker, Mr. Frank H. Taylor, for this continued co-operation in studying
the Tipulidae of the Territory of New Guinea.

The rich collections studied herewith add no fewer than nine generic and
subgeneric groups to those hitherto known from the Territory, of which
Dolichopeza, s.s., Helius, s.s., and Hurhamphidia, are included here. A number
of the large and conspicuous autochthonous Australian genera of the subfamily
Tipulinae that might reasonably be expected to extend their range into New
Guinea remain undetected and, in the light of the collecting done by Mr. Taylor,
it may be expected that most of these, at least, do not occur within the Territory.
Such genera, as Clytocosmus, Platyphasia, Plusiomyia and Ptilogyna, with branched
antennae, and Leptotarsus and Semnotes, with the antennae simple and reduced,
include the largest and most conspicuous crane-flies within the Australian faunal
limits.

TIPULINAE.
TIPULA (PAPUATIPULA) LEUCOSTICTA Alexander.
Tipula leucosticta Alexander, Philippine Journ. Sci., liv., 1934, 444-446.—
Tipula (Papuatipula) leucosticta Alexander, ibid., lvii, 1935, 114-115.
Known hitherto only from Bogadjim (Stephansort), Astrolabe Bay, north-
eastern New Guinea, collected 30th March, 1900, by Biro. Two females, Kavieng,
New Ireland, 31 January—14 February, 1934 (F. H. Taylor).

NEPHROTOMA FLAVOPOSTICATA, N. sp. Text-figs. 1, 7.

Mesonotal praescutum yellow, with velvety-black stripes, the median one
plumbeous on central portion; scutellum black; pleura orange, unmarked; legs
black, the posterior tibiae (¢) or middle and hind tibiae (2) broadly yellow on

* Continued from These PROCEEDINGS, Ix, 1935, 51.
H

170 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV,

central portion; wings strongly tinged with blackish, cell Se and stigma darker;
abdomen ((), including terminalia, almost uniformly blue-black.

¢6.—Length, 12-13 mm.; wing, 10-11 mm. 9?.—Length, 135-14 mm.; wing,
11-5-12 mm.

Sexes feebly dimorphic in colour.

dg. Frontal prolongation of head orange, the dorsal surface and conspicuous
nasus black. Antennae black, the apex of scape a little reddened; antennae of
moderate length, if bent backward extending to just beyond root of halteres;
flagellar segments moderately incised. Head orange, without occipital brand.

Pronotum orange. Mesonotal praescutum yellow, with three velvety-black
stripes, the median one with posterior half and central portion of anterior half
more plumbeous in colour; lateral stripes straight; scutum yellow, the lobes chiefly
velvety-black; scutellum blackish-plumbeous, margined laterally with more velvety-
black, the parascutella yellow; mediotergite yellow, on posterior third with a
plumbeous area that is narrowly bordered with black. Pleura orange, the pleuro-
tergite more yellowish-orange. MHalteres black. Legs with the coxae orange;
trochanters yellow; femora black; fore tibiae black; mid-tibiae light brown, the
base and apex blackened; posterior tibiae bright yellow, blackened at both ends;
all tarsi black. Wings (Fig. 1) with a strong blackish tinge, cell Sc and stigma
darker brown; veins brown. Stigma with only five or six trichia. Venation:
Se, ending shortly beyond origin of Rs; cell M, very short-petiolate to narrowly
sessile.

Abdomen uniformly black, with bluish reflexions; the paratype from Maini
shows restricted yellowish areas on bases of tergites two to four. Male terminalia
(Fig. 7) relatively small. Ninth tergite, 9t, produced medially into two flattened
divergent ear-like points; a blackened stub at each outer lateral portion of tergite.
Both dististyles darkened; inner style, id, with a very low dorsal crest; apical
beak unusually slender. Gonapophyses appearing as tiny oval pale plates,
subtending the base of aedeagus.

®. Similar to male, differing as follows: Antennae shorter; scape and pedicel
brown. Halteres somewhat paler in colour. Legs with both middle and hind
tibiae yellow on central portions. Abdomen with basal two tergites and basal
four sternites obscure yellow, the outer segments more blackened. In the Maini
paratypes, the amount of pale colour is somewhat more restricted.

Holotype, ¢, Hdie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 9, in copulation and carded with type. Paratopo-
types, 1 g, 1 9; paratypes, 1 ¢, 2 2, Maini, altitude about 6,300 feet, July, 1935
(K. J. Clinton).

Nephrotoma flavoposticata is readily distinguished from the other described
regional species of the genus by the coloration of the posterior tibiae. The
nearest allies are various members of the melanura group, especially N. dimidiata
(de Meijere) and N. fumiscutellata Alexander.

NEPHROTOMA KAVIENGENSIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 8.

General coloration yellow; occipital brand not indicated; pronotum orange-
yellow; mesonotal praescutum with three black stripes that are confluent or
virtually so, the median stripe velvety-black on cephalic portion, the posterior
three-fourths nacreous, polished; lateral stripes velvety-black, extended laterad
to margin of sclerite; scutellum black; wings greyish; stigma small, dark brown;
abdomen with basal six segments orange, the posterior borders of the segments
narrowly and evenly darkened; subterminal segments black; male terminalia
with beak of inner dististyle slender, spinous; gonapophyses bispinous at tips;

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. aly(al

caudal margin of eighth sternite produced medially into a narrow compressed
point.

6. Length about 12 mm.; wing, 10-5 mm.

Frontal prolongation of head fulvous, unmarked; palpi pale brown. Antennae
(3) of moderate length, if bent backward extending to the wing-root or
approximately so; scape and pedicel orange; flagellum brownish-black; flagellar
segments moderately incised, with verticils that are shorter than the segments.
Head fulvous-orange, the occipital brand not differentiated; a vague dusky cloud
on anterior vertex adjoining the inner margin of eye; vertical tubercle entire or
virtually so.

Pronotum orange-yellow. Mesonotal praescutum with three black stripes,
the polished black laterals virtually confluent with the broad median vitta, the
latter velvety-black on anterior fourth, the remainder of stripe polished nacreous;
outer stripes continued laterad to margin, restricting the yellow ground-colour to
humeral triangles and narrow lines adjoining the suture; scutum yellow, each
lobe with a velvety-black area; scutellum velvety-black, parascutella yellow;
mediotergite yellow, with an oval nacreous area at posterior border. Pleura and
pleurotergite yellow, the anepisternum and sternopleurite vaguely marked with
pale reddish-yellow. Halteres yellow, the base of knob infumed. Legs with the
coxae and trochanters yellow; femora obscure brownish-yellow; tibiae brown; tarsi
black. Wings with a greyish tinge; prearcular region and cells C and Se more
yellow, the latter cell slightly deeper in colour; stigma small, oval, dark brown;
veins dark. Stigmal trichia about fifteen in number. Venation: Cell M, very
short-petiolate.

Abdomen with basal six segments orange, the posterior borders very narrowly
ringed with brownish-black, the bands uniform in width or virtually so; outer
segments black; terminalia more brownish at tip. Male terminalia (Fig. 8) with
the tergite, 9t, extended caudad into two submedian spinous points. Outer dististyle,
od, with the apical point relatively short. Inner dististyle, id, with the terminal
beak a slender sclerotized spine; a low dorsal crest. Gonapophyses, g, terminating
in two acute spinous points. Highth sternite, 8s, sheathing, the median portion
produced caudad into a narrow point, on ventral portion strongly compressed;
surface of sternite with long coarse black setae.

Holotype, 4, Kavieng, New Ireland, 4 February, 1934 (F. H. Taylor). Paratopo-
type, g, 11 February, 1934.

This fly is allied to species such as Nephrotoma dimidiata (de Meijere),
N. melanura (Osten Sacken) and N. speculata (de Meijere). It differs from all
described forms in the pattern of the praescutum and the structure of the male
terminalia, notably of the inner dististyles, gonapophyses and eighth sternite.

DoLICHOPEZA (DOLICHOPEZA) TAYLORIANA, N. Sp. Text-figs. 2, 9.

General coloration of mesonotal praescutum dark brown, the humeral region
yellow; a transverse, dark brown girdle on mesepisternum; legs with genua, tips
of tibiae, and all but proximal portions of basitarsi, white; wings with a weak
brown tinge, conspicuously patterned with darker brown on cord and outer
longitudinal veins; anterior cord oblique, with Rs lying most distad; Sc, opposite
Rs; cell 2nd A narrow; male terminalia with the tergite produced laterad into
triangular darkened lobes.

6-—Length, 95-10 mm.; wing, 11-115 mm. ¢%—Length, 11-12 mm.; wing.
12-12-5 mm.

Frontal prolongation of head yellow above, darkened laterally; palpi dark
brown. Antennae with the scape yellow, pedicel white; flagellum black; antennae

I DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV,

($) of moderate length, if bent backward extending about to base of abdomen;
flagellar segments long-cylindrical, gradually decreasing in length outwardly,
the terminal segment oval, about one-third the penultimate; verticils of inter-
mediate segments much shorter than the segments themselves. Front yellow;
vertex light brown. :
Pronotum darkened medially, paling to yellow on _ sides. Mesonotal
praescutum with an intermediate pair of stripes that become darker and nearly
confluent behind, similarly fusing with the very extensive lateral darkenings;
humeral region extensively light yellow; scutal lobes extensively dark brown, the

Text-figs. 1-10.

Nephrotoma flavoposticata, n. sp., venation.

Dolichopeza (Dolichopeza) tayloriana, n. sp., venation.
Dolichopeza (Dolichopeza) percuneata, n. sp., venation.
Limonia (Libnotes) hollandi, n. sp., venation.

Limonia (Libnotes) consona, n. sp., venation.

Limonia (Pseudoglochina) procella, n. sp., venation.
Nephrotoma flavoposticata, n. sp., male terminalia, details.

8. Nephrotoma kaviengensis, n. sp., male terminalia, details.

9. Dolichopeza (Dolichopeza) tayloriana, n. sp., male terminalia.
10. Dolichopeza (Dolichopeza) percuneata, n. sp., male terminalia.

Amon f Ww HS

(Symbols: b, basistyle; g, gonapophysis; id, inner dististyle; od, outer dististyle;
s, sternite; t, tergite.)

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 173

cephalic portion, adjoining the suture, paler; scutellum testaceous-yellow in middle,
darker posteriorly and on sides; mediotergite infuscated. Pleura yellow, with a
transverse dark brown girdle occupying the anepisternum and sternopleurite,
being a continuous extension of the lateral praescutal stripes; pleurotergite
similarly darkened. Halteres moderately long, the stem dusky, the extreme base
more greenish; knobs blackened. Legs with the coxae and trochanters yellow;
femora brown to brownish-black, the tips narrowly white to greenish-white,
preceded by a more intensely blackened area; tibiae black, the bases narrowly
white, the amount subequal to the femoral brightening, the tips more extensively
whitened, very narrowly so on fore tibiae, more extensive on posterior tibiae where
nearly the distal sixth is involved; fore and middle basitarsi blackened on proximal
portion, the outer half or more yellowish-white; posterior basitarsi almost entirely
white, the proximal fourth or fifth infuscated; outer tarsal segments white or
greenish-white. Wings (Fig. 2) with a weak brown tinge, patterned with darker
brown, more conspicuously so at the stigma and as broad seams on both anterior
and posterior cords; outer radial and medial veins more narrowly seamed with
brown; veins brownish-black. Holotype with a series of about thirty macrotrichia
in cell R,;, not evident in the remainder of type series. Venation: Anterior cord
oblique, but not as markedly so as in percuneaia, n. sp.; Sc, ending opposite Rs;
outer medial forks of moderate depth; m-cu gently arcuated, about one and one-
half times its length before the fork of M; cell 2nd A narrow.

Abdominal tergites obscure yellow, the bases and apices of the segments dark
brown, the latter more broadly so; sixth tergite more uniformly darkened; sternites
and terminalia more uniformly obscure yellow. Male terminalia (Fig. 9) with the
tergite, 9t, produced laterad into triangular darkened lobes, the caudal margin
entire, gently emarginate. Both dististyles only feebly sclerotized, the apex of
inner style, id, densely hairy.

Holotype, ¢, Hdie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 9. Paratopotypes, 1 dg, 1 @.

I take very great pleasure in dedicating this handsome crane-fly to Mr.
Frank H. Taylor, who collected the majority of the new and rare Tipulidae
discussed in the present report. The nearest ally is Dolichopeza (Dolichopeza)
percuneata, n. sp., which differs conspicuously in the venation and pattern of the
wings, and in the structure of the male terminalia. Both species find their only
near described allies in the eastern Australian fauna, since no member of the
typical subgenus had been discovered west of Papua in the Austro-Malayan islands,
their place being taken by other subgeneric groups of Dolichopeza that have
evidently been derived from the Oriental faunal region, as Hunesopeza Alexander,
Mitopeza Edwards and Nesopeza Alexander. The presence of macrotrichia in cell
R, of the wing of the holotype specimen of the present fly and not in the remainder
of the type-series is distinctly puzzling, since macrotrichia in the wing-cells of
other species have been found to be relatively constant both in number and
distribution.

DOLICHOPEZA (DOLICHOPEZA) PERCUNEATA, nN. Sp. Text-figs. 3, 10.

General coloration of mesonotum brownish-black; pleura yellow, with a
transverse brownish-black girdle covering the anepisternum and sternopleurite;
legs black, the genua very narrowly white, the tips of all tibiae somewhat more
broadly so; tips of basitarsi and succeeding tarsal segments snowy-white; wings
unusually narrowed at base; Rs very short, lying far distad of the other elements
of the anterior cord; medial forks deep; cell 2nd A very long and narrow; male

174 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV,

hypopygium with the outer dististyle expanded at apex into an obtuse spatulate
head.

d6.—Length about 8 mm.; wing, 9 mm.

Frontal prolongation of head brownish-yellow; palpi brownish-black. Antennae
black, the scape and pedicel a trifle paler; flagellar segments cylindrical, the
verticils shorter than the segments. Head with the front yellow, the vertex more
castaneous, the posterior orbits darker.

Pronotum brownish-black above, yellow on sides. Mesonotal praescutum
brownish-black, the humeral region of the yellow ground-colour; median region
of praescutum a little paler behind; scutal lobes brownish-black posteriorly, much
paler in front, adjoining the suture; posterior sclerites of notum brownish-black,
the scutellum paler on anterior portion. Pleura yellow, the anepisternum and
sternopleurite brownish-black, a direct continuation of the lateral portions of the
praescutum, forming a conspicuous transverse girdle; pleurotergite dark brown.
Halteres very long and slender, black. Legs with the coxae yellow; trochanters
testaceous; femora black, the tips very narrowly snowy-white; tibiae black, the
extreme bases white, the tips more broadly so, the amount subequal on all legs or
somewhat narrower on the mid-tibiae, including one-eighth or less of the segment;
tarsi dusky, the outer ends of basi-tarsi and the remaining tarsal segments snowy-
white. Wings (Fig. 3) unusually narrowed at base into a petiole; strongly tinged
with brown, the prearcular field and cells C and Sc more yellowish-brown; stigma
small, darker brown; a very narrow and restricted brown seam on anterior cord;
veins brownish-black. Venation: Rs unusually short, transverse, lying far distad,
some distance beyond Sc,, delimiting the proximal end of stigma; cord unusually
oblique, the fork of M lying most basad; outer medial forks deep; m-cu about
one-half its length before fork of M; cell 2nd A long but reduced to a narrow
strip.

Abdominal tergites black, with a yellow ring at near midlength of the
individual segments, this subequal to or a trifle narrower than the blackened
base and apex of the segment; subterminal sclerites and terminalia more uniformly
blackened; sternites more extensively light yellow, the incisures narrowly darkened.
Male terminalia (Fig. 10) small and with few distinctive features, other than the
dististyles. Ninth tergite, 9t, with the caudal margin narrowly blackened. Outer
dististyle, od, expanded at apex into an obtuse spatulate head. Inner style, id,
shorter, more narrowed outwardly, the tip obtuse, the basal three-fourths with
long, coarse setae.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

By Skuse’s table to the Australian species of Dolichopeza (Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., (2) 5, 1890, 60), this fly runs to Dolichopeza (Dolichopeza) annulipes
Skuse. It is somewhat more closely allied to D. (D.) dorrigensis Alexander and
D. (D.) kurandensis Alexander, of eastern Australia. The nearest ally is
undoubtedly D. (D.) tayloriana, n. sp., as discussed under that species. The
venation, with Rs lying far distad, and with the cord unusually oblique, is some-
what suggestive of that found in the genus Scamboneura Osten Sacken, and marks
the extreme condition in this venational peculiarity so far discovered in the genus
Dolichopeza.

MEGISTOCERA FUSCANA (Wiedemann).

Nematocera fuscana Wiedemann, Dipt. Hxot., 1, 1821, 29. 1 J, Salamaua, New
Guinea, 16 December, 1933 (F. H. Taylor).

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 175

LIMONIINAE.
LIMONIINI.
LIMonriIA (LIMONIA) EXPEDITA, N. Sp. Text-fig. 11.

General coloration of mesonotal praescutum reddish-brown, with a dark brown
median stripe; pleura reddish-brown, with a narrow blackish longitudinal stripe;
halteres chiefly blackened; legs black, the femoral bases brightened; wings with a
brownish tinge; stigma oval, darker brown; costal fringe (¢) long and
conspicuous; cell M, open by the atrophy of m; abdominal tergites black; male
terminalia deeply notched medially; dististyle single, produced into a curved
blackened spinous point.

do. Length about 4:2 mm.; wing, 5 mm.

Rostrum obscure yellow; palpi black. Antennae black throughout; flagellar
segments oval, with short glabrous apical pedicels. Head grey, lighter on front.

Pronotum dark brown above, paler laterally. Mesonotal praescutum high and
gibbous, reddish-brown, with a dark brown median stripe, the lateral stripes paler
and ill-defined; scutum reddish-brown, the centres of the lobes darkened; scutellum
brown, darker posteriorly; mediotergite dark brown. Pleura reddish-brown, with
a narrow blackish longitudinal stripe extending from the fore coxae to the
abdomen, passing beneath the root of halteres. Halteres pale basally, the distal
portion of stem and the knobs blackened. Legs with the fore coxae blackened,
the remaining coxae and all trochanters reddish-yellow; femora obscure yellow
basally, passing into black at near midlength; tibiae and tarsi black. Wings
with a brownish tinge; stigma oval, darker brown; veins black. Costal fringe
(g) long and conspicuous, though sparse. Venation: Sc long, Sc, ending about
opposite three-fourths the length of Rs, Se, some distance from the tip of Sc,
the lattter about one-half longer than r-m; free tip of Sc, and R, both pale and
in transverse alignment; basal section of R,,, long, exceeding one-half the length
of Rs; cell M, open by the atrophy of m; m-cu just before fork of M; anal veins
gently convergent at bases.

Abdomen with tergites and terminalia black; sternites obscure yellow, the
incisures dusky; terminal segments more uniformly darkened. Male terminalia
(Fig. 11) with the tergite, 9t, profoundly notched medially, the lateral lobes
glabrous, darkened, their tips obtuse. Basistyle, 6, with the ventro-mesal lobe
very low and stout. A single dististyle, d, from a swollen pale base, the distal
half narrowed into a curved blackened spine, the tip acute, the surface with
scattered setae and setulae, including one spinous bristle at near one-fourth the
length that may be homologous with the usual spines of the rostral prolongation
found throughout the genus. Gonapophyses, g, with the mesal-apical lobe very
broad and flat, pale, the apex irregularly obtuse.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
Ge He Taylor):

The type-specimen is in very indifferent condition, both wings being badly
torn. The species is so distinct that its recognition will be simple. It is the only
species of the subgenus Limonia so far described from the Australasian region
in which cell M, of the wings is open by the atrophy of m, rather than by that of
the basal section of vein M;. In the Oriental fauna, various members of the pacata
group, such as pacata Alexander, pacatella Alexander, and others, possess this
character.

LimoniA (LIBNOTES) HOLLANDI, n. sp. Text-figs. 4, 12.

General coloration obscure yellow, conspicuously patterned with brownish-
black and black; antennae black throughout; tips of femora narrowly blackened;

176 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV,

wings weakly tinged with brown, sparsely patterned with darker brown; Rs very
strongly arcuated, perpendicular at origin or nearly so; cell 1st M, elongate, with
m-cu at near midlength; m and basal section of M, subequal; anal veins convergent
at bases; male terminalia with the dorsal dististyle present as an acute rod;
rostral prolongation of ventral dististyle broadly flattened, produced into a slender
apical point; gonapophyses with mesal-apical lobe slender, the margin with
microscopic denticles.

d-—Length about 6:5-6:7 mm.; wing, 6-65 mm. 9%—Length about 7 mm.;
wing, 7 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae black throughout; flagellar segments (¢)
®short-oval, the first subglobular, the outermost more elongate; terminal segment
a little exceeding the penultimate, pointed at tip; apices of flagellar segments
glabrous but not constricted into necks; longest verticils subequal in length to the
intermediate segments. Head dark grey, the occiput and posterior vertex with a
velvety-black area; anterior vertex reduced to a linear strip in both sexes.

Pronotum dark brown, more or less pruinose. Mesonotal praescutum brownish-
yellow, with a broken brownish-black pattern, the usual three stripes narrow,
especially the median one, the laterals confluent at their anterior ends with the
median vitta, isolating two linear strips of the ground-colour on posterior half of
sclerite before the suture; lateral and humeral portions of praescutum similarly
darkened; scutum pale medially, the lobes darker, more intensely blackened
along their mesal edges; scutellum black, the parascutella a little paler; postnotum
almost uniformly darkened. Pleura brownish-yellow, striped longitudinally with
blackish, including a more dorsal area across propleura and anepisternum, and a
scarcely separated line across the dorsal sternopleurite and ventral meron; ventral
sternopleurite clearer yellow. Halteres obscure yellow at base, the outer portion
dusky, the extreme tip more yellowish. Legs with the coxae pale, the fore coxae
a trifle darkened; trochanters yellow; femora obscure brownish-yellow, the tips
narrowly but conspicuously blackened, the amount subequal on all the legs, the
dark apex preceded by a very narrow, scarcely evident, clearer yellow ring; tibiae
brownish-yellow, the tips very narrowly darkened; tarsi brownish-yellow, passing
into black. Wings (Fig. 4) weakly tinged with brown, restrictedly patterned with
slightly darker brown; cells C and Sc more brownish-yellow; the dark areas
include arculus, origin of Rs, cord, outer end of cell Ist M,, and the small stigma;
wing-tip and longitudinal veins very narrowly and insensibly seamed with brown;
veins dark, paler in costal region. Venation: Sc moderately long, Sc, ending
opposite r-m, Sc, at tip; Rs short and very strongly arcuated at origin, being
perpendicular or virtually so; free tip of Se, and R, in transverse alignment;
m-cu at near midlength of the long cell 1st M,; m and outer deflection of M,
subequal; anal veins slightly convergent at origin.

Abdomen bicolorous, the tergites brownish-black, the bases of the individual
segments narrowly yellow; sternites obscure yellow, the dark colour vaguely
shown on the outer segments; pleura variegated with darker; eighth segment (2)
obscure yellow; terminalia brownish-yellow. Male terminalia (Fig. 12) with the
caudal margin of tergite, 9t, gently emarginate, the lateral lobes low and obtuse,
with strong setae. Ventromesal lobe of basistyle, b, simple. Dorsal dististyle, dd,
a strong chitinized rod, the tip acute. Ventral dististyle, vd, deeply bilobed, the
outer lobe dusky, with conspicuous setae; inner lobe consisting of the broadly
flattened rostral prolongation which is extended into a long slender point, the
entire prolongation pale yellow. Gonapophyses, g, with mesal-apical angle long

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 177

and straight, the inner edge with very acute microscopic denticles. Ovipositor
with cerci very slender, the tips acute.

Holotype, g, Kavieng, New Ireland, 16 February, 1934 (Dr. E. A. Holland).
Allotopotype, ?, carded with type. Paratopotype, d-.

This very distinct crane-fly is named in honour of the collector of the type
series, Dr. E. A. Holland. The species is most generally similar to Limonia
(Libnotes) perkinsi (Grimshaw), widely distributed in the Pacific Islands,
differing notably in the coloration, venation, and structure of the male terminalia.

Limonta (LIBNOTES) OBLIQUA (Alexander), var.

Libnotes obliqua Alexander, Rec. South Australian Mus., ii, 1922, 232.

1 g, 1 2, Bulolo, New Guinea, altitude 2,200 feet, 26 December, 1933 (F. H.
Taylor).

The problem of specific distinction is well shown in the present pair of
individuals (vide papers by the writer: Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ix, 1935, 60-61;
Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 43, 1936, 89).

LIMONIA (LIBNOTES) soLomMonis (Alexander).
Libnotes solomonis Alexander, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9) xiii, 1924, 39.

Recorded from several Pacific Islands (Solomons, New Britain, Santa Cruz,
Reef Islands). Pondo, New Britain, 28 November, 1933 (F. H. Taylor).

LIMONIA (LIBNOTES) CONSONA, n. Sp. Text-figs. 5, 13.

General coloration of thorax brownish-black, the humeral region of praescutum
obscure yellow; femora black, the tips narrowly and abruptly yellow; tarsi paling
to light brown; wings greyish-yellow, the ground almost concealed by an extensive
brown pattern that appears as crossbands and seams to the veins; basal section of
R,,, about one-half Rs; cell ist M, relatively small, about one-half the length of
cell 2nd M.; m-cu beyond midlength of cell 1st M,; male hypopygium with the
ventral dististyle large and fleshy, the rostral prolongation with two very unequal
spines, the inner one reduced to a seta.

¢6-—Length about 9-5 mm.; wing, 11 mm.

Rostrum dark brown; palpi brownish-black. Antennae black; flagellar
segments long-oval; verticils shorter than the segments. Front dusky; posterior
portions of head grey; anterior vertex reduced to a linear strip.

Pronotum brownish-black. Mesonotum brownish-black, the humeral region
of praescutum obscure yellow, the remainder of the sclerite entirely occupied by
a dorsal black shield; median region of scutum and scutellum obscure yellow.
Pleura brownish-black, including the dorso-pleural membrane. MHalteres dusky,
the knobs more infuscated. Legs with the coxae dark brown; trochanters obscure
testaceous yellow; femora black, the tips narrowly and abruptly yellow, the amount
subequal on all legs; tibiae black; tarsi paling to light brown; claws with a long
slender spine at near midlength. Wings (Fig. 5) with the ground-colour greyish-
yellow, almost covered by extensive brownish clouds and cross-bands, including
a broad area crossing the basal cells beyond arculus; a second band at level of
origin of Rs, not involving cells C or Sc; broad areas along cord and outer end
of cell 1st M,; most of cells beyond cord suffused, variegated only by small diffuse
areas of the ground; cells C and Se chiefly yellow; stigma small, short-oval,
darker brown; veins brown. Venation: Sc, ending opposite or just beyond r-m,
Se, a short distance from tip; free tip of Sc, in virtual alignment with R.; basal
section of R,,; about one-half Rs; cell 1st M, relatively small, about one-half cell

}

5
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Poy LIBRARY |S
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178 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV,

2nd M.; m-cu beyond midlength of cell 1st M,, longer than distal section of Cu,;_
anal veins gently divergent.

Abdominal tergites, including terminalia, brownish-black, the extreme bases of
the intermediate segments pale; sternites a little brightened. Male terminalia
(Fig. 13) with the tergite, 9t, moderately notched, the setae of the lateral lobes

15

Text-figs. 11-17.

11. Limonia (Limonia) expedita, n. sp., male terminalia.

12. Limonia (Libnotes) hollandi, n. sp., male terminalia.

13. Limonia (Libnotes) consona, n. sp., male terminalia.

14. Limonia (Thrypticomyia) spathulifera, n. sp., male terminalia.

15. Orimarga (Orimarga) papuicola, n. sp., venation.

16. Helius (Hurhamphidia) auranticolor, n. sp., male terminalia.

17. Helius (Hurhamphidia) melanosoma, n. sp., male terminalia.
(Symbols: a, aedeagus; b, basistyle; d, dististyle; dd, dorsal dististyle;
g, fonapophysis; i, interbase; id, inner dististyle; od, outer dististyle;

t, tergite; vd, ventral dististyle. )

almost all marginal. Basistyle, b, much smaller than the ventral dististyle, with
normal small ventromesal lobe. Ventral dististyle, vd, large and fleshy, its rostral
prolongation stout, with two spines of very unequal size, the outer one a strong
black spike, the inner spine basal in position, reduced to a mere seta. Gonapo-
physes, g, with the inner margin of the mesal-apical lobe irregularly serrulate.

Holotype, g, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Limonia (Libnotes) consona is a large, striking species that requires no
comparison with any of the numerous regional forms so far described. By

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 179

Edwards’ key to the species of Libnotes (Journ. Fed. Malay St. Mus., 14, 1928,
74-80), the fly runs to LZ. (L.) montivagans (Alexander), of Java, an entirely
different species.

Limonia (DICRANOMYIA) SORDIDA (Brunetti).
Dicranomyia sordida Brunetti, Fauna Brit. India, Dipt. Nematocera, 1912,
pp. 382-383.
Widespread throughout the Oriental Region. The present material is definitely
referable to sordida rather than to the allied illingworthi (Alexander), charac-
teristic of the Pacific Islands.

Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935 (F. H. Taylor).
Maini, Papua, altitude about 6,300 feet, July, 1935 (K. J. Clinton).

LimMoniA (THRYPTICOMYIA) ARACHNOPHILA (Alexander).

Dicranomyia (Thrypticomyia) arachnophila Alexander, Philippine Journ. Sci.,
Xxxlil, 1927, 301.

Recorded from the Philippines and New Britain. Numerous specimens of
both sexes, Salamaua, New Guinea, 21 August, 1935 (Norman Ferguson).

Mr. Ferguson furnished notes of unusual interest relating to the habit of
these flies of resting and dancing on spiders’ webs and long strands of spiders’
silk. Similar habits in this same species had been discussed by the writer in an
earlier paper (l.c., xxxiii, 1927, 299), but in the present instance, instead of only
a few individuals being involved, Mr. Ferguson states that many hundreds of
individuals were encountered.

In this material of arachnophila, the wing-tips are slightly infumed, but not
so markedly so as in apicalis (Wiedemann), fuwmidapicalis (Alexander) and
spathulifera, n. sp. The male terminalia lacks the two especially modified elongate
setae at the outer lateral angle of the ninth tergite, and the conformation of the
rostral prolongation and its spines is distinctive of the present fly.

Limonia (THRYPTICOMYIA) SPATHULIFERA, 1. Sp. Text-fig. 14.

General coloration dark plumbeous-grey; proximal fifth of basitarsi blackened;
wings hyaline, the cells beyond cord very strongly infumed; Sc, ending a short
distance before origin of Rs; m-cu at near three-fifths the length of cell 1st M,;
abdomen black, the basal segment brown; male terminalia with the aedeagus
expanded at apex into a subcircular oval spatula, the surface provided with
numerous setae.

6.—Length, 5-55 mm.; wing, 6-63 mm. 9%-—lLength, 5-5-5 mm.; wing,
6-6-2 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae relatively elongate, black; flagellar
segments long-oval, with short pedicels and very long verticils. Head dark grey.

Pronotum and mesonotum almost uniformly dark plumbeous-grey. Pleura
heavily grey pruinose, the sternites more testaceous. Halteres with base of stem
yellow, the outer end and knob blackened. Legs with the coxae and trochanters
testaceous-yellow; femora black, the bases restrictedly paler; tibiae black; tarsi
snowy-white, the proximal fifth of basitarsi black, the amount of the latter subequal
on all legs. Wings hyaline, the cells beyond cord very strongly infumed; stigma
long-oval, even darker brown; veins black. Venation: Sc relatively long, Sc,
ending a short distance before origin of Rs, the distance on costa about as long
as the basal section of vein M,,,.; free tip of Sc, far before R., R, alone exceeding
m-cu; m-cu at near three-fifths the length of cell 1st M..

180 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. Ivy,

Abdomen black, only the basal tergite and sternite brown. Male terminalia
(Fig. 14) with the tergite, 9t, transverse, the caudal margin gently emarginate,
each side with five setae, of which two are much stronger and placed close
together. Basistyle, b, with ventro-mesal lobe unmodified. Ventral dististyle, vd,
with the spines separated, the more basal from a low tubercle, the outer sessile.
Aedeagus, a, at apex expanded into a subcircular to transversely oval spatula of
thin membrane, this set with numerous setae, all of which are directed mesad
and caudad.

Holotype, g, Admiralty Group, Lombrum, Manus Island, 19 February, 1934
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 9, carded with type. Paratopotypes, 2 ¢, 2 9,
on cards.

The most similar described species is Limonia (Thrypticomyia) fumidapicalis
(Alexander), of north-eastern Australia. This has the wing-tip much less strongly
darkened, Se longer, with Sc, ending opposite the origin of Rs, and with the
details of structure of the male terminalia quite distinct. The peculiarly dilated
apex of the aedeagus is different from that of all other species of the subgenus
so far discovered.

LIMONIA (PSEUDOGLOCHINA) PROCELLA, Dn. Sp. Text-fig. 6.

General coloration of mesonotum dark brown, with a more brownish-yellow
median line; a broad, pale yellow, longitudinal stripe across pleura, the ventral
sternopleurite and meral region dark; tibiae white, with a single, relatively narrow,
dark ring at near midlength; wings whitish subhyaline, the stigma conspicuous;
Se relatively long, Sc, ending distinctly beyond fork of Rs; medial fork deep;
m-cu approximately its own length beyond fork of M; cell 2nd A narrow; abdominal
segments bicoloured.

g.—Length, 55-65 mm.; wing, 58-68 mm. 9.—Length, 6-6-5 mm.; wing,
6-6-5 mm.

Rostrum and palpi brownish-black. Antennae black; flagellar segments oval,
with very short, glabrous, apical pedicels; verticils about as long as the segments.
Head light brown.

Pronotum pale brownish-yellow. Mesonotum brownish-yellow down the central
portion, the sides darker, the praescutum a little more intensely coloured in
front and laterally. Pleura chiefly pale brownish-yellow, the ventral sterno-
pleurite and meral region brownish-black. Halteres dusky, the knobs even darker.
Legs with the coxae darkened; trochanters obscure yellow, the fore pair darkened;
fore femora yellow, very narrowly darkened at base, the tip a little more exten-
sively so; middle femora dusky on basal half, outwardly paling to whitish, the
tips narrowly blackened; posterior femora almost uniformly blackened, the tip
a little more intense; all tibiae snowy-white, with a single, relatively narrow,
darkened ring at near midlength; tarsi white. Wings (Fig. 6) whitish subhyaline,
unmarked except for the oval, dark brown stigma; veins brown. Venation:
Se relatively long, Sc, ending some distance beyond fork of Rs, in cases extending
to just before the level of r-m; Sc, opposite origin of Rs or nearly so; medial fork
deep; m-cu beyond the fork of M, the distance variable, usually approximately
equal to the length of the vein itself; distal section of Cu, a little longer than
m-cu; cell 2nd A narrow.

Abdominal tergites bicolorous, dark brown, the caudal portions of the segments
obscure yellow; lateral borders of second tergite darkened; sternites obscure
yellow, the outer segments restrictedly darkened subapically; terminalia small,
dusky.

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 181

Holotype, ¢, Kavieng, New Ireland, 14 February, 1934 (F. H. Taylor). Allotopo-
type, 9, carded with type. Paratopotypes, 12 g, 2, 10-16 February, 1934 (Taylor
and Holland).

The nearest ally is Limonia (Pseudoglochina) kobusi (de Meijere) of Java
and Sumatra, which differs in the coloration of the thorax and in the wing-
venation, especially the less oblique cord, longer Sc, and slightly narrower cell
2nd A. Both species agree in having a single narrow tibial ring and with m-cu
some distance beyond the fork of M.

LIMONIA (PSEUDOGLOCHINA) EVANESCENS, 0D. SD.

Antennae ((¢) relatively long; flagellar segments with glabrous apical necks,
the main body of the segments with long dark pubescence; tibiae white, with a
single, nearly evanescent, dark ring at near midlength; wings with Sec, ending
shortly before the fork of M; m-cu at or close to the fork of M; abdominal
tergites bicolorous; sternites and terminalia uniformly yellow.

6.—Length about 5-5 mm.; wing, 5 mm.

Rostrum and palpi testaceous brown. Antennae relatively elongate, much
longer than in procella, n. sp.; flagellar segments oval to long-oval, with long
conspicuous glabrous apical pedicels; surface of segments with a dense conspicuous
erect pubescence that is only a little shorter than the verticils; in procella, the
pubescence of the flagellar segments is short and relatively inconspicuous. Head
dark.

Pattern of mesonotum not readily discernible in unique type because of method
of mounting, but apparently much as in procella. Pleura chiefly pale, dark brown
on the ventral sternopleurite. Halteres dusky, the knobs darker. Legs with the
fore femora white, narrowly dark brown at both ends; mid-femora dusky on basal
half, the outer half paling to white, the tips narrowly darkened; posterior femora
infumed, the central area somewhat more brightened; tibiae white, with a very
narrow, scarcely indicated, pale brown ring at near midlength, this being so faint
as to be virtually evanescent; tarsi white. Wings subhyaline, unmarked except
for the small, oval, dark brown stigma; veins brown. Venation: Sc relatively
short, Se, ending just before the level of the fork of M; medial fork of moderate
depth; m-cu at or very close to fork of M, shorter than the distal section of vein
Cu,; cell 2nd A relatively narrow but long.

Abdominal tergites dark brown, the caudal borders narrowly brownish-yellow;
sternites and terminalia uniformly yellow.

Holotype, ¢, Admiralty Group, Lombrum, Manus Island, 19 February, 1934
(F. H. Taylor).

The nearest regional ally is the type of the subgenus, Limonia (Pseudoglochina)
pulchripes (Alexander) of northern Queensland, distinguished by the leg-pattern
and details of venation. In the present fly, the dark tibial ring is so pale and
narrow as to be nearly lacking.

ORIMARGA (ORIMARGA) PAPUICOLA, Nn. sp. Text-fig. 15.

General coloration light grey, the praescutum and scutum scarcely variegated
by darker grey; knobs of halteres moderately infuscated; wings subhyaline,
unmarked; macrotrichia of outer radial and medial veins abundant; free tip of
Se, far before R,; Rs and R,,,; subequal; R,,, about twice R, alone; abdomen
brownish-black.

0.—Length about 7 mm.; wing, 5:8 mm.

Rostrum grey; palpi brownish-black. Antennae black, the scape pruinose;
flagellar segments oval, gradually decreasing in length outwardly. Head grey.

182 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. IV,

Pronotum and mesonotum uniformly light grey, the praescutum and scutum
scarcely variegated by darker grey. Pleura dark grey. Halteres white, the knobs
moderately infuscated. Legs with the coxae dark, heavily pruinose; trochanters
pale brown; remainder of legs broken. Wings (Fig. 15) subhyaline, unmarked;
veins pale. Macrotrichia of veins relatively abundant, including complete series
on outer radial and medial veins, with about 25 on R,; 30 on distal section of
R,.,; 40 on distal section of M,,,; and 35 on distal section of M,; no trichia on Rs,
main stems of M or Cu, or either anal vein. Venation: Free tip of Sc, far before
R,, the distance approximately one-half longer than the latter vein; Rs and R.,,
subequal; R,,, about twice R, alone; M,,, a little shorter than M,; m-cu about
opposite two-thirds to three-fourths the length of Rs; cell 2nd A relatively long
and wide.

Abdomen brownish-black, including the bases of the ovipositor; cerci dark
brown.

Holotype, 9, Hdie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(hoes Taylor):

The only described regional species of Orimarga with which this fly may be
profitably compared is Orimarga (Orimarga) hypopygialis Alexander (Celebes).
The latter differs in coloration and, especially, in the details of venation, including
the strongly angulated Rs, loss of the free tip of Sc,, longer R,,., deeper cell M,
and position of m-cu.

Henius (HeELIus) ANAEMICUS Alexander.

Helius (Helius) anaemicus Alexander, Philippine Journ. Sci., xlix, 1932,
254-255.

Hitherto known from the Loochoo Islands, Formosa, Luzon and Mindanao,
in all cases at low altitudes. Two male specimens, Kavieng, New Ireland, 16
February, 1934 (Dr. E. A. Holland). A wing of one of the specimens shows
abnormal venation. By existing keys, the fly runs to Helius (Helius) wnicolor
(Brunetti), a very different species.

HELIUS (HURHAMPHIDIA) AURANTICOLOR, nN. sp. Text-fig. 16.

General coloration light orange, the terminal abdominal segments black;
head grey; halteres pale throughout; legs obscure yellow, the outer ends of the
tibiae and tarsi paling to white; wings tinged with yellow, the veins very pale;
a conspicuous pale brown cloud extends from the stigma along the anterior cord
to the fork of M; male terminalia with the dististyles apical in position.

do6.—Length about 4 mm.; wing, 4-6 mm.

Rostrum about equal in length to remainder.of head, brown; palpi darker
brown. Antennae short, pale brown throughout; flagellar segments long-oval;
verticils much exceeding the segments. Head light grey; anterior vertex about
as wide as the rostrum.

Pronotum and mesonotum entirely light orange, unmarked. MHalteres pale
throughout. Legs with the coxae and trochanters pale orange-yellow; femora
obscure yellow; tibiae a trifle darker, especially the posterior legs, the outer ends
and tarsi paling to white; genua not brightened. Wings with a yellowish tinge,
variegated only by an oblique, pale brown cloud extending from the stigma along
the anterior cord to the fork of M; veins very pale yellow, a trifle darker in the
clouded area. A few macrotrichia on outer ends of veins R,,,, M,,. and Ms.
Venation: r-m a little less than its own length before the fork of Rs; cell 1st M,
large, its inner end lying proximad of other elements of cord; m shortened; m-cu
about its own length beyond fork of M.

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 183

Abdomen obscure yellow, the seventh to ninth segments, inclusive, black; more
basal tergites vaguely darkened medially on basal ring. Male terminalia (Fig. 16)
with the basistyle, b, slender, terminating in a small glabrous blackened point;
dististyles apical in position; outer style, od, extended into a long point; inner
style, id, with a conspicuous incision at near midlength, delimiting a conspicuous
basal lobe.

Holotype, g, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Helius (Hurhamphidia) auranticolor is very different from the other described
species of the subgenus in the light orange colour of the thorax, in conjunction
with the patterned wings.

HELIUS (EURHAMPHIDIA) MELANOSOMA, nN. sp. Text-fig. 17.

General coloration polished black; mesonotal praescutum strongly arched;
knobs of halteres darkened; legs dirty white, the tarsi clearer; snowy-white;
wings strongly tinged with grey, the stigma dark brown, conspicuous; abdomen
bicoloured, black, the posterior borders of the intermediate segments broadly pale.

d6.—Length, 4-8-5 mm.; wing, 5-5-2 mm.

Rostrum longer than remainder of head, black; palpi black. Antennae black
throughout, about one-half longer than the rostrum. Head black, sparsely pruinose.

Pronotum and mesonotum polished black, the praescutum very strongly arched.
Pleura polished black, the dorso-pleural membrane pale. Halteres white, the knobs
infuscated. Legs with the fore coxae blackened, mid-coxae infuscated, posterior
coxae yellow; trochanters obscure yellow; remainder of legs chiefly dirty white,
the femora and tibiae somewhat more obscure than the snowy-white tarsi; terminal
tarsal segments darkened; genua vaguely brighter than the adjoining parts of the
femora and tibiae. Wings rather strongly tinged with grey, cells C and Sc weakly
infumed; prearcular region whitish; stigma oval, darker brown, conspicuous;
veins brown. Costal fringe relatively long and conspicuous. Venation: Sc, ending
just before level of r-m, Sc, at its tip; r-m variable, from about its own length to
nearly twice this distance before the fork of Rs; m-cu beyond midlength of cell
Ist M,.

Abdomen conspicuously bicoloured, black, the caudal borders of segments two
to six, inclusive, broadly pale; subterminal segments and terminalia black. Male
terminalia (Fig. 17) with the sternite bearing blackened cushions on either side
of midline, these densely set with microscopic setulae. MBasistyle, b, slender.
Outer dististyle, od, terminating in a simple, gently curved point; inner style, id,
longer. Interbasal plates, i, produced into long straight spines.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Paratopotype, J.

Helius (Eurhamphidia) melanosoma is readily distinguished from all other
described regional allies by the polished black colour of the body and by the
wing-pattern.

TWO NEW AUSTRALIAN FLEAS.

By Karu JoRDAN, Ph.D., F.R.S.
(Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.H.S., F.Z.8.)

(With two Text-figures.)
[Read 29th July, 1936.]

The fleas here described were submitted to me for study by Mr. Frank H.
Taylor, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, University of Sydney, to
whom I tender my best thanks. The Xenopsylla is particularly interesting, as it
is a connecting link between the fleas known as X. hawaviensis Jord. 1932 and
X. vexabilis Jord. 1925. The series of Queensland specimens sent by Mr. F. H.
Taylor leaves no doubt in my mind that hawaiiensis (Sandwich Is.), meseris

(Queensland) and vexabilis (Franklin Is., South Australia) are subspecies of one
species.

Text-figs. 1, 2.—Stivalius molestus, n. sp.

XENOPSYLLA VEXABILIS MESERIS, N. subsp.

This Queensland race is characterized as follows: Chaetotaxy as in
X. hawaiiensis, i.e., bristles more numerous, especially on abdominal sternites, than
in X. v. verabilis; the numbers being (on the two sides together) :

On sternite: 161) In, Vv. VI. VIt.
Ae MESCTIS IC. ureiethe > 5 7-9 8-9 8-10 7-10 9-11
ae, VELAUIISTS, sees 6 6 6 6 6
Res MEBETAS: Lo Nena iele 9-10 9-10 10 10 13
x

~v, vexavilis 9 2.20.25. 6 1 8 8 8

BY KARL JORDAN. , 185

Bristles on outer surface of sternite VIII of ¢ (on one side) from stigma
downwards in X. v. meseris 16-21, in X. v. verabilis 13. Bristles on outer surface
ot tergite VIII of 9 (on one side), inclusive of marginal ones, in X. v. meseris
25-28, in X. v. verabilis 19.

Modified Segments.—¢: as in X. v. vexrabilis, the membraneous ventral margin
of process P of clasper does not extend to middle, whilst in X. v. hawaiiensis at
least half the ventral margin is membraneous. @: spermatheca as in X. v. verabilis,
smaller than in X. v. hawaiiensis, but its head shaped as in some specimens of that
subspecies.

Hab.—Queensland: Ingham, Nov., 1935, on Rattws culmoruwm, collected by Dr.
Baldwin; a series of ¢ and several 9.

STIVALIUS MOLESTUS, n. sp. (Figs. 1 and 2).

Females only. Near St. rectus J. & R. 1922 (Queensland) and St. mordaxr
J. & R. 1922 (New Guinea), but differs in the head and tail-end. Pale vertical
margin of frons (fig. 1) longer than in the two allied species, the head resembling
in shape the head of a male rather than of a female; the pale portion of the
frontal margin about one-fourth longer than the more strongly chitinized dorsal
portion (which ends at the slight dorsal incrassation above the antennal groove).
Sternite VII (fig. 2) sinuate as in the allied species, but the sinus less deep, the
two large subapical bristles below the sinus being placed vertically below the
deepest point of the sinus, whereas in both St. mordar and St. rectus they are
placed farther back on the ventral lobe. Tergite VIII apically sinuate as in other
species, the lobe above the sinus as in St. rectus, but more rounded.

Hab.—Queensland: Ingham, November, 1935, on Rattus culmorum. collected
by Dr. Baldwin; 7 9.

HH

INTRODUCTORY ACCOUNT OF THE GEOLOGY AND PETROLOGY OF THE
LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT.

PART I. GENERAL GEOLOGY.

By M. D. Garretty, B.Sc., late Science Research Scholar and Deas-Thomson
Scholar of the University of Sydney.

(Plate ix; one Text-figure.)
[Read 26th August, 1936.]

Scope of Paper.—This paper deals with the General Geology of about 170
square miles of country between Spring Valley and Bungendore, and eastward to
Tarago, on the eastern side of Lake George, on the Southern Tableland of New
South Wales. A second paper will deal with the Petrology of the area. The
work was done partly in 1934 as Deas-Thomson Mineralogy Scholar, a thesis
embodying the results being presented as portion of the work for an Honours
Degree in that year. During part of 1935 the mapping was continued with the
aid of a Deas-Thomson Research Scholarship, and a Science Research Scholarship
of the University of Sydney. Owing to his unexpected departure for Fiji, the
writer was unable to extend the field examination of some of the more interesting
occurrences, but feels that the chances of continuing it in the near future are
sufficiently remote to warrant the publication of the results thus far obtained.

The accompanying map (PI. ix) is based on the parish maps issued by the
Department of Lands. To facilitate reference in the text, a grid system has been
incorporated. Numbers in brackets refer to specimens, a suite of which is being
lodged in the Museum of the Department of Geology at Sydney University.

Previous Records.—Practically the only references to the geology of the neigh-
bourhood are contained in ‘‘The Limestone Deposits of N.S.W.” (Carne and Jones,
1919), and the “Report on the Federal Territory” (Mahony and Taylor, 1913).
Both these deal with the limestone deposits. On the physiographical side, the
origin of Lake George has been discussed at some length by Taylor (1907), and
several brief references occur in various recent papers by Craft (1928-33).

Acknowledgements.—The writer wishes to record his appreciation of the
constant advice, and friendly and encouraging criticism given freely throughout
the work by Dr. W. R. Browne. He also desires to acknowledge the practical
hospitality of the residents of the district, and in particular that accorded by
Mr. and Mrs. W. Overend, of Mount Fairy, and Mr. D. White, of Willeroo Station.

Summary.—Owing to the general absence of fossils and lack of suitable
exposures, a definite chronological scheme cannot be given, but the general
succession is briefly as follows: The Mount Fairy Series, of shales, phyllites, lime-
stones, tuffs, and minor igneous zones, has, in common with an associated series
of amphibolites, been injected by gneissic granite, accompanied by strong folding,
and the formation of hybrid or contaminated types. The amphibolite series may
possibly be a remnant of an older igneous mass than the shales, which are
Silurian. A group of Devonian rocks, including Middle and probable Upper

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 187

Devonian, overlies unconformably the Mount Fairy Series and gneissic granite.
Following an epi-Devonian period of igneous injection, erosion supervened until
the outpouring of Late Tertiary lavas took place.

THE Mount Farry SERIES.

This name is given to a group of rocks covering an extensive area in the
southern and eastern parts of the district. Shales form the chief rock type, but
phyllites, sandstones, tuffs, limestones, and minor intrusions also occur, some of
which are certainly of Silurian age, and all may well be.

Sedimentary Types.

The dominant rocks are sediments, ranging from fine shales through sandy
shales to grits. They are usually brownish-yellow in colour, but in places white,
brown, grey, and chocolate shales occur, as in a creek (H.13)* two miles north of
Sally Trigonometrical Station. Black slaty and cherty phases do not occur in
general, but are fairly well developed in a limited area between about G.10 and
E.13. They would seem to be related in some way to the proximity of the main
granite mass of the lake. The possibility should not be overlooked that they may
belong to an older system, perhaps even Ordovician. Fossils were not found.

So far no definite fossils have been found in the Mount Fairy shales. In the
Cookbundoon—Goulburn region numerous graptolitic remains have recently been
found (Naylor, 1935) in beds of similar aspect. On Fairy Meadow Creek, between
the Public School site and the railway line (J.5), deformed radiolaria occur in a
dark cherty band among the shales. A similar rock from Sandhills Creek in
southern J.4 contains better preserved types. The bands, a few inches thick in
the shale series, contain identifiable Spumellaria and Nasselaria, in which the
centrosphere is visible in some cases. Radiolaria also occur in a slate inclusion
in one of the “intrusive tuffs” from Fairy Meadow Creek and probably are abundant
in the adjacent rock.

Occasional zones of a more phyllitic character occur in the shales in the main
area of the Mount Fairy Series. These could not be shown to bear any constant
relation to visible occurrences of granite, but may reflect its presence below the
surface. There are also phyllites and mica schists in that part of the area in
which the amphibolites and hornblende schists occur in mass, near Red Hill.
These occur as bands (intercalated or xenolithic?) in the amphibolite series, and
also as xenolithic bands in the granite. On the map they are indicated by the same
symbol as the normal Silurian beds, but they are easily recognized, since they
occur well away from the main shale series.

Lithologically, these rocks appear to be more highly metamorphosed than the
rocks of the Mount Fairy Series which, in addition to shales, includes slates,
sericite-chlorite-schists, schistose grits, and the like. The Red Hill phyllitic group
has not reached the biotite stage of regional metamorphism, but is still in the
chlorite zone, into which the rocks of the Mount Fairy Series fall. Both types
have suffered maximum stress, indicated by shearing and fracture, and this to a
later time than that of the crystallization of the granite (q.v.). We must then
compare them as purely regionally altered types, when the difference in maximum
metamorphism amounts at most to a temperature difference wholly within the
chlorite zone. This, especially in view of the apparent greater heating effects of
the granite near the lake, as shown by the effects on the basic rocks, does not
seem sufficient justification in itself for placing the phyllites in an older series.
Further discussion of the age really turns upon the interpretation given to the

* Grid reference to map.

188 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

amphibolite series of Red Hill, as being (a) bedded volcanics or pyroclastics, of
Silurian or, less probably, older age; (0) epi-Silurian gabbro, comagmatic with
the granite; (c) epi-Ordovician gabbro. This is discussed elsewhere. Here it may
be said that should (c) be correct, the phyllitic series must be pre-Silurian, while
in the other cases it could, and probably would, be Silurian.

Pyroclastic Types.

Pyroclastic types are not conspicuous members of the series. A hard dark
band (1594) in the shales on Sandhills Creek near Emu Flat Creek was sectioned
to see whether radiolaria might not be present. The rock is an extremely fine-
grained quartz-tuff; radiolaria are wanting. Probably such tuffs, in narrow bands,
are common in the series. About one mile west of the Tarago-Willeroo crossroads,
in 1.11, a small outcrop of banded rock (1951) occurs. In hand-specimen there
is often a contortion of certain bands (only), reminiscent of the contorted varves
of the Seaham district, and probably due to the same cause, namely, slumping in
the soft sediments. Moreover, slides show that there is unmistakably a cycle of
deposition of the type found in varves. Layers of coarser and limonite-rich
material pass gradually into finer ones, to end abruptly at the commencement of
another coarse band. The bands vary in width from 1 mm. to 0:3 mm. The writer
is of the opinion that this rock is the consolidated product. of very fine showers
of volcanic ash, settling in water. The intervals between showers, though not
long, were sufficient to allow of the settling of the finer ash which would remain
suspended in the water for some time. An opportunity has since occurred of
examining certain rhythmic tuffs in northern Viti Levu, Fiji, and an analogous
structure has been observed to be not uncommon in these latter types. Unfor-
tunately the field-relations of the Tarago occurrence are somewhat obscure, but
there does not appear to be any reason to doubt that it forms part of the Mount
Fairy Series.

Igneous Types.

Associated with the Mount Fairy Shales there is developed, along Merigan
Creek and the railway line in eastern J.9 and J.10, a group of hypabyssal and
possibly pyroclastic types. There is not much evidence on which to decide whether
these are interbedded, intrusive, or both in part. Time did not allow of very
detailed mapping, but it appears probable from the field relations that some at
least of the felsite is in the form of one or more interformational sills or
laccoliths. Owing to alteration, the origin of the rocks is rather obscure, but
tuffs, felsites, rhyolites, and even obsidians probably occurred. These will receive
more detailed treatment in Part II.

In north-western K.11 chiefly, there is a series of igneous and pyroclastic rocks.
They are possibly related to the Devonian occurrences just to the north, but on
the other hand their field relationship to the Mount Fairy Series suggests that
they form part of this series. The boundary is steeply inclined to the strike of the
shales on the southern margin of the group, but there is no evidence suggesting
faulting, nor is there any distinction in elevation between them. Possibly the
igneous types, which are acid, were very viscous and built up an elevated structure
without much lateral extension, to be surrounded by shales. The chief types are
quartz and felspar porphyries, tuffs, and a coarse rhyolite-breccia, all now much
altered.

“Intrusive Tuffs.”

Chiefly on Fairy Meadow Creek and Sandhills Creek there is a development
of rather anomalous types. Concordant in general with the shales and slates,

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 189

and yet showing in places minor signs of transgression, there are rocks which in
thin section appear to be of clastic origin. Field-evidence cannot indicate much
beyond the transgressive relation, and thin sections are in a measure unsatis-
factory on account of a certain amount of silicification and albitization that has
occurred. In Fairy Meadow Creek, 14 chains above the junction with Sandhills
Creek, K.5, a rock (1716) of this nature occurs, with a number of xenoliths or
fragments of slate embedded in it. On the same creek, haif a mile above the
junction, another (1715) shows a quite definitely transgressive relation to the
sediments, but a section shows characters suggestive of a clastic or brecciated
origin. Other quite definitely intrusive examples occur on these creeks, tongues
of the rock cutting across the shales, and including detached fragments of the
wall material.

Rocks exhibiting these peculiar features occur elsewhere in the Silurian of
the State. However, a recent summary of their occurrence and characters (Browne,
1929, pp. xv-xvi) renders further notice here unnecessary. Not much fresh light on
their origin can be shed by the study of the material from this district.

Limestones.

The limestones of the Mount Fairy Series occur in a belt of isolated outcrops
covering several square miles, and exposed chiefly by Sandhills and Fairy Meadow
Creeks, to the south-east of Mount Fairy (Mahony and Taylor, 1913; Carne and
Jones, 1919, p. 286). Considerable interest attached to the main deposit—the
only one considered in detail by these authors—on account of its proximity to the
Federal Capital, and a proposal to make use of it for cement for the chief buildings
of Canberra.

The limestone occurs in two belts trending meridionally, and with discon-
nected outcrops. The more eastern of these (K.4) passes through Swampy Creek.
The other, narrower but more elongated, runs northwards along Sandhills Creek
and then up Fairy Meadow Creek.

The eastern belt includes outcrops up to 22 chains in width. The main mass,
cleft by Swampy Creek, occurs on the southern side of Sandhills Creek, but
another series of outcrops occurs to the north of the latter stream. The general
strike of the limestone of this belt is a little west of north, and the dominant dip
is high to the west. The limestone is massive and jointed; nevertheless the
writer found a number of places where intercalated shales gave reliable dips,
though considerable variations occur. One determination near the eastern edge
of the main mass, rendered certain by the presence of both shale and fossil bands,
gave a strike of 355° and a dip westerly at 65°, and others, somewhat similar,
were obtained. Variations may be seen, particularly near the stream at the
northern end of the main mass. A determination, strike 115°, dip southerly at
45°, was succeeded just to the south by a strike of 140° and dip of 60° to the
south-west, with a regular gradation between. These dips may indicate subsidiary
transverse pitching folds in the main flexure of the limestone, or may be taken
as contributory evidence of the existence of large-scale faulting.

Faulting in the associated shale series is very common. Some of the faults
are normal, while many are thrusts. Often the throw is indeterminate, but in
many cases it is of a small order. Faulting also occurs in the limestone, and
there is evidence of the existence of at least one major fault. The latter, perhaps
influencing the dip anomalies mentioned above, seems, while not clearly defined,
to run from west-south-west to east-north-east along and past the northern edge
of the main limestone mass. Such faults as this would need to be plotted and

190 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT.

taken into account in any exhaustive examination of the limestone masses for
economic purposes.

The western belt occurs about 30 chains to the west of the eastern. It is
much narrower, having only about one-third the maximum width of outcrop of
the eastern belt. The outcrops are disconnected, and occur chiefly along Fairy
Meadow Creek to Mount Fairy and beyond. A reddish soil which is probably
terra rossa occurs in a hollow at the railway line where the surveyed road crosses
it in portion 21, Parish of Merigan, a little north of Mount Fairy (J.6). This
would be a continuation of the western belt almost directly due north for about a
quarter of a mile from the Mount Fairy Public School masses. The length of the
belt is thus a few chains short of two miles. Some of the limestone masses on
this belt show good stratification, especially those near the school site (J.5-6).
One of these shows an excellent exposure of crumpled limestone, indicating fairly
considerable depth of cover during folding. The limestone of this belt is given
by Carne and Jones as striking N.10° W., and dipping H.10° N. at 65°. However,
one determination gave a westerly dip of 30° for the limestone on Sandhills Creek
near Fairy Meadow Creek.

The boundaries of the limestone outcrops are sometimes quite clear, as on
the downstream side of the main mass on Sandhills Creek, but most of those
elsewhere, except in creeks, are obscure. Near Mount Fairy and at the lower
junction on Sandhills Creek, the gradation by intercalated bands into shales is
easily seen; there is no sign of a faulted or eroded junction. The associated
sediments are similar to the Silurian beds elsewhere in the district, with some
exceptions. There is a greater proportion of coarser beds. Fine and coarse grits
and tuffs are associated with the shales west of the limestone belts, and some
carbonaceous shales also occur. The rocks actually in contact with the limestone
on the west are shales, and between the two belts there are reddish shales.
Downstream from the eastern belt, typical shales again occur at the junction,
but some chains further down a more siliceous assemblage is found, of quartzites,
shales, and phyllites.

Fossils are not numerous in the limestone, and even when they do occur,
well preserved and identifiable specimens are rare. They are best developed at
the extreme eastern edge of the main mass, on the creek. Forms collected
include Favosites (several types, massive and dendroid, probably including
F. gothlandicus); a large Syringopora and smaller fossils of the same type;
numerous crinoid stems and ossicles. Professor L. A. Cotton has found* a thick
band of Conchidium (Pentamerus) knightii in one of the tunnels which were
excavated for the purpose of ascertaining the extent of the limestone. The fossil
was also found in one of the caves. It links the limestone with other similar
ones at Marulan and elsewhere, being considered a restricted form. The limestone
was considered by the late Mr. W. S. Dun to be indubitably of Upper Silurian
age, and there seems no evidence to the contrary.

The question, however, arises as to the age of the western belt, since it is
the eastern one which contains the above fossils. Fossil traces were found in
the western belt, but not well enough preserved for identification. In favour
of the limestones being of similar general age, we have the very similar strikes
and degree of dolomitization of the two belts. The apparent gradation in each
case into the shales between indicates continuous sedimentation. Moreover,
the occurrence of a similar sequence of two belts, one thick, and the other narrow.

* Personal communication.

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 191

or a succession of thin beds, at Bungonia, Marulan, and Windellama, is significant.
These are all Upper Silurian, as is the main belt on Sandhills Creek, and their
existence is not inconsistent with the suggestion that the western belt on
Sandhills Creek is likewise of Upper Silurian age.

A series of large caves exists in the main limestone mass, but they were
not explored. As there cannot be caves below stream level, any of importance
are likely to be confined to the eastern belt. The weathering of the limestone
is of the orthodox type. The characteristic terra rossa is present in many
places, though largely washed off by sheet erosion.

The suitability of the limestone for cement making has been considered
by the Federal Government, more especially in connexion with the building of
the Federal City. Two reports issued (Mahony and Taylor, 1913; Parl. Papers,
1916) contain information on this subject. Analyses, plans, cement tests, and
tonnage estimates are given. Tunnels more than 200 feet in length have been
driven into the main mass, which has been contour surveyed. Quite recently
the dolomitic portion of the deposit has been opened up. The rock is being
used by Hoskins’ Iron and Steel Works at Port Kembla, presumably for lining
furnaces.

Conditions of Deposition.
The dominance of shales in the series indicates the general prevalence of

quiet sedimentation in water free from violent or persistent currents. Some
reliable conclusions may be drawn from consideration of lithological features.

The very widespread occurrence of the Mount Fairy shales requires for its
explanation the postulation of a sea of considerable area. That this was marine,
in part at least, is shown by the association of radiolaria and of limestone beds.
However, study of the rocks cannot fail to convince one of the applicability of
Barrell’s generalization that such seas in past geological time may have been
wide, but certainly were not deep (Barrell, 1917). The intercalation, at intervals,
of beds of fine sandstone, and even occasional grits, points either to continued
shallow-water deposition or to an inconveniently rapid oscillation of the strand
line. The limestones also contribute to this conclusion, inasmuch as corals
flourish at a depth not greater than about 120 feet. A somewhat more subtle
significance lies in the frequent occurrence in the shales and fine sandstone of
miniature current-bedding. Good examples occur on a creek (southern part of F.4)
tributary to Dry Creek, and also on Sandhills Creek at a number of places in
J.3 and J.4. The deposition within the limit of occasional current action is
obvious. But whereas currents may stir sediments at quite considerable depth,
these must have been stirred at very small depth. For the thinness of the
current-bedded bands (half an inch or less) requires very feeble currents, acting
not far from the surface. At a greater depth stronger currents would have to
be present, and these would have scoured out channels in the fine sediment. and
could not have failed to stir feet of the muds, rather than a centimetre.

Signs of cycles in the sedimentation, and also in the contemporaneous
vulcanicity, are common. On a large scale, we have the alternation of sandstones
and shales. At Rocky Point, also, rhythmic banding of a large order of magnitude
is very well shown in numerous exposures. There is some doubt about the
correlation of the isolated Rocky Point mass with the Mount Fairy Series, on
account of this banding, and also because of the indurated and rather more
arenaceous type of sediment. Alternation of limestone and shale bands in the

192 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT.

creek near Mount Fairy (J.5-6) is very regular. The distinct rhythm displayed
by banding in the varve-like tuffs from I.11 has been commented upon already.

In a number of places the periodic banding in the shales or sandstones is
very pronounced, and invites investigation with a view to possible determination
of the nature or period of the cycle, as has been done by Gilbert and others.
On Dry Creek in F.3 is such an exposure, and another is in a measurable
position in the creek bed at Mount Fairy near the railway line. Alternations
are excellently exposed in the slates on Taylor’s Creek where it turns from north
to west (G.9). The average thickness of the bands is about one-third of an
inch. On Sandhills Creek, J.4, the average thickness of the bands, which are
very well shown, is half an inch and three inches respectively. At the same
place there is also a rhythm, of magnitude decreasing upwards from 18 inches
to a fraction of an inch, of bands with strongly marked current-bedding, and
laminated white shale beds between. The thicker current-bedded bands are not
simple, but multiple, again illustrating the feebleness of the current action, even
though prolonged more than usual. The picture conveyed to the imagination
is one of unsettled conditions of deposition, periodical in incidence, but of waning
intensity.

Palaeogeography and Climatology.

The palaeogeography of the Mount Fairy Series is somewhat obscure. At
present it is not easy to state the bounds of the area over which rocks of this
age outcrop. The Upper Silurian sea apparently was not deep, but was undoubtedly
extensive. The limestones may point to the possible existence of a shore line
to the east of Mount Fairy, though there is no reason to doubt that, in such
a palaeozoic shallow-water sea, coral reefs could flourish far from land. The
presence of volcanic rocks and, to a less extent, of pyroclastics, in the Tarago
area suggests active volcanoes near the land, or perhaps on it. But such out-
pourings could quite easily have originated in submarine eruptions, a view which
is indeed favoured by the occurrence of extensive deuteric alteration in them
and by the abundant occurrence of these types of rock in the Silurian of the
Cooma-Canberra region.

Climatic conditions in Upper Silurian time represented by the Mount Fairy
Series were evidently moderate. The limestones indicate warm seas, for a time
at least. It may be suggested that the clouds of volcanic ash emitted from
time to time may have exercised a pronounced temporary cooling, as has often
been urged by advocates of certain climatic theories, and has been indicated by
modern instrumental observations by Abbott and others.

Structure of Mount Fairy Series.

It seems difficult to come to any other conclusion than that the Mount Fairy
Series has been closely folded into a series of almost isoclinal overfolds, with
axial planes dipping west. On seeing, throughout the district, numerous instances
of this close folding—folds with a wave length of a few yards and even less—
it does not seem reasonable to assume, on consideration of the uniform nature
of the beds, that the close folding is but local, especially in view of the total
absence of any evidence of the existence of more open folding. Excellent illus-
trations of the isoclinal folding may be seen in the following exposures: Hmu Flat
Creek, in north-eastern 1.3, where the validity of the subsidiary corrugation test
for anticlines and synclines finds an excellent demonstration; on Sandhills Creek

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 193

numerous sections illustrate the close folding, as in south-western J.4 and north-
western J.3; at the Mount Fairy Railway bridge, and in the cutting about 400
yards south of it (both in J.5), where the close folding may be seen; the big
bend in Taylor’s Creek in G.9—a storehouse of illustrations of various features
of the Mount Fairy Series—shows the close folding to advantage, and also its
discrepant attitude to the cleavage.

The almost invariable dip to the west, both of bedding and of schistosity, is
strong evidence in favour of isoclinal folding, especially in view of the very
variable amount of dip, precluding one large simple fold with corrugations. Excep-
tions with regard to both bedding and schistosity dip do occur, but are rare. An
easterly dip of beds is to be seen near the bend of the road in K.12, and also on
the Bungendore road just south of the area shown in the map. These anomalies
are easily explained as the accidental exposure of the short east-dipping limbs, or
as a local, rather more open, folding.

If close folding be such an essential feature as is thought, there must have
been considerable crustal shortening due to pressure (from the west, see Hobbs,
1914). It is likely that the isoclinal folds dipping west form part of the one limb
of a huge synclinorium (or anticlinorium); following the mechanical principles
involved, the folds probably represent part of the eastern limb of a synclinorium,
and the beds to the west of Lake George, with a large proportion of easterly
dips,* could represent the western limb. Another result of the isoclinal folding
is that it is quite impossible to form any idea, with data now available, of the
thickness of the Mount Fairy Series.

Exposures showing the close folding of the shales also indicate a considerable
pitch for the folds. A dominant direction of pitch cannot be given from the
data known. One effect of the pitch is to modify to some small extent the observed
values of strike and dip. The general strike is north or a little west of north.
But considerable variations, partly along lines of shear, occur, up to 45° and
even 80°. Darwin (“Geological Observations”, p. 251) mentions the dominant
northerly strike. No definite relation could be seen between the local strike of
the shales and the boundaries of the granite, though the latter is, in general,
concordant. Occasional belts of silicification occur in the shales, and run parallel
to the strike. This is probably due to the penetration by magma and magmatic
waters along these lines (see under “Gneissic Granite”, below).

Geological Age.

Evidence of the age of the extensive Mount Fairy Series is as yet indirect
and inconclusive. The shale series has not so far yielded fossil remains. Reasons
have been given already for placing the Mount Fairy Limestones in the Upper
Silurian. The eastern belt is interbedded with sediments on the eastern side; its
western boundary is indefinite. The western belt is interbedded, as may be seen
near Mount Fairy. There is no evidence that these limestones have faulted
junctions with the shales. It seems fairly certain from this point of view that,
so far as stratigraphical continuity is maintained, the Mount Fairy Series is of
Upper Silurian age. An unconformity is later described between the Mount
Fairy Series and a Middle Devonian Series, indicating the pre-Devonian age for
the former as a probability. The granites which inject the Mount Fairy Series
form what Billings has termed a synchronous batholith, and reasons are later

* Personal observations by writer.

194 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

given for regarding them as probably of epi-Silurian age; in this case there is a
strong presumption that the sediments are of Upper Silurian age, in part at least.

Conclusions based on lithology will always remain open to criticism, but due
consideration of it must often be of service. In the present case, there can be no
doubt that the lithological criteria are sufficient to place the Mount Fairy Series
as pre-Devonian, as shown by comparison with nearby Devonian types—the coarse
Middle and Upper Devonian of the Tarago-Goulburn district, and the Lower
Devonian volcanics of the Murrumbidgee area. The great dissimilarity of the
shales to Devonian rocks of this part of the State is paralleled only by the closeness
with which they resemble the characteristic type of the Upper Ordovician and
Silurian of the surrounding region.

From a consideration of the foregoing factors, the writer has concluded that
the Mount Fairy Series is certainly pre-Devonian, and probably Upper Silurian in
age, though there is a possibility that it is, in part, of Lower Silurian age. Lower
Silurian rocks have recently been described from the neighbourhood by Naylor
(1935).

DEVONIAN.

Rocks of Devonian age occur on Woolowolar Ridge, and its northerly extension
across the road towards Tarago. Briefly, the succession consists of limestones, at
and near the base, followed by a thick series of red beds, and then by shales,
sandstones, felsites, and porphyries in alternating fashion. The general structure
appears to be a syncline pitching to the south, probably with one or more cross
fractures.

Limestones.

The chief outcrops were mapped as well as practicable. Some of them are
mentioned by Carne and Jones (1919). Outcrops occur to the north and south
of the road-cutting in K—L.12; this mass is about 60 yards by 150 yards, elongated
east and west. Two rather irregularly exposed outcrops occur on the hill about
half a mile north of this one, and a small one some chains south of the creek.
Further exposures were found in the large tributary creek in northern K.12, inter-
bedded with shales and other sediments.

Dips are easily obtained in the main mass, both in the creek and the road-
cutting. The strike is N.20° W., and the dip westerly at 20-25 degrees and more.
Bedding is well developed, and accentuated by intercalated shale bands. Dips
in the next northerly outcrops are not obvious, but some of the limestone in the
more easterly of the two outcrops is bedded, in the bank of the creek. The strike
obtained, N.5° W., with westerly dip, accords with the observation of Carne and
Jones. Along the tributary creek the limestone bands and calcareous shales were
found to strike from 90° to 150°, dips varying from north at 60° to south-west at
25-51°. These latter beds are apparently part of a series of sediments, fairly
closely folded, and of steep pitch.

Fossils were sparingly present in the larger deposits. The chief forms found
were Favosites sp. and Receptaculites ? australis; these were obtained from the
smaller of the two outcrops in north-eastern K.12. The presence of Receptaculites
indicates that the limestone is probably of Middle Devonian age, since in New
South Wales this fossil is characteristic of the Middle Devonian, though it is
also found sparingly in the Upper Silurian. Confirmatory evidence of the age of
the Tarago limestones is to be found in their probable continuation northwards
at Lake Bathurst, where they are quite fossiliferous in places, and brachiopods of
Devonian aspect occur.

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 195

Red Beds.

The Red Bed Stage comprises a thick series of boulder beds and tuffs out-
cropping as a horseshoe-shaped exposure to the south of Tarago. The deposit
varies from a very coarse boulder rock, with individuals up to three feet in
greatest diameter, to a fine-grained rock with grainsize less than one millimetre.
The boulders are well rounded, and are chiefly of much altered aphanitic acid
rocks. A detailed search was made for scratched or faceted pebbles such as
would suggest ice or fluvio-glacial action, but none was found. The large boulders
are well seen in the section along Merigan Creek, K.11. Splendid sections are
also to be seen in some of the gorges on the western side of Woolowolar Ridge.
One of these is deeply incised into the mass, K.10, and the gorge walls give an
impressive idea of the magnitude of the deposit, which is possibly one of the
finest conglomerates to be seen in the State.

There is not only no positive evidence that the beds are fluvio-glacial, but
there is definite circumstantial evidence against it. The underlying limestone
has its connotations, though of course there may have been a time-break between
it and the conglomerates. Moreover, there is no evidence of Devonian refrigeration
in the State—or continent—as far as the writer is aware. The red colour of the
beds has also certain climatic implications, as will be seen below, and these do
not include excessive cold. The finer material is at least dominantly pyroclastic;
the boulders are rounded, occur in more or less separate beds, and may or may
not be of pyroclastic origin. The most appropriate name for the rock is probably
tuffaceous conglomerate.

The brilliant red coloration of the Red Bed Stage is a striking characteristic.
Red beds are often referred to as indicating in some vague way that the rocks
were formed under arid conditions—presumably on the precedent of the red sands
at present forming by exsudation in some deserts. Dorsey (1926) has shown that
the redness is not due to a relatively high iron content, nor yet only to the
presence of ferric iron-oxide—the form in which it is usually present in sediments.
The question, he points out, really turns upon the state of hydration in which
it is present, which may vary from 2F'e.0,.3H,O to Fe.O,. The latter (haematite)
is red, while each of the four hydrates has another colour. As pointed out also by
Tomlinson (1916), the conditions necessary to produce the dehydrated ferric oxide
need not coincide with those undergone by the rock at any stage. For this oxide,
once formed, is stable, and may be deposited as sediment under totally different
conditions. The chief factors in the production of the anhydrous oxide are time
(it being slowly spontaneous) and heat (by which it is accelerated). Dorsey
shows that optimum conditions are found “not in deserts—which are practically
never red—nor in semi-arid climates, but in warm, moist, heavily forested regions
similar to the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the earth today”.

Dorsey states that, once formed, the red colour is permanent unless the oxide
be chemically reduced. From this and field evidence he deduces that red beds
are best formed under continental or freshwater conditions, the reducing effect in
marine deposits being inhibitive. This makes the question of the occurrence of
limestone with the Red Beds at Tarago an interesting one. Tomlinson remarks
that where limestones do occur with red beds they are nearly, or quite, barren of
tossils. This is also true of the only limestone at Tarago actually seen to underlie
the Red Beds, but the few fossils which do occur in it are sufficient to indicate
its marine origin. There may have been a time break between the limestone
and red beds, and deposition of the latter under continental conditions, after uplift.
Again, possibly the violent current carrying the boulders, or the rapid showering

196 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT.

of ash and boulders—depending on the precise origin—was sufficient to cause the
local suspension of true marine reducing conditions.

Mapping of the Red Bed Stage south of the road shows the outcrop to have a
horseshoe shape, with the apex to the north, on the road. The western limb thins
out and disappears, and the eastern one does likewise at about the same latitude.
Dips could not be obtained on the eastern limb, owing to the weathered outcrops.
At the apex, the beds are crushed and shattered, and dips meaningless. In the
western limb, good exposures enable dips to be read from bands of finer or coarser
material. The dips thus obtained are of doubtful general value. Some were to
the east, but others were to the west. Evidence of contortion, crushing, and close
folding in cuttings shows that the dips would be expected to vary in this way.
More reliance should be placed on the obvious connotations of the relation of
outcrop to contour, which make it unreasonable to consider the structure as other
than a syncline pitching to the south. This pitch makes it seem likely that the
Red Bed Stage continues as a sub-surface mass some distance further south than
shown on the map. The effect would be that of the spreading out in plan of the
superincumbent quartzites and other rocks. Possibly there has been transverse
faulting of the structure about along the line of the Tarago road-cutting, with
probable uplift of the structure to the north. In the section, the Red Beds are
indicated as being folded in a syncline, with minor folding or corrugation of the
whole. Owing to the absence of what may be taken as a general dip, and to the
presence of minor folding and possibly strike-faulting, it is difficult to assess the
probable thickness of the Red Bed Stage. The greatest normal width of outcrop,
on the north-western side, is 24 chains. From this the maximum thickness would
be, with a dip of 30°, about 800 feet, and with a dip of 70°, 1500 feet.

The Red Bed Stage must be either Middle or Upper Devonian in age. The
apparent structural continuity with the limestone supports a Middle Devonian age,
since there are reasons for believing an unconformity to separate the Middle and
Upper Devonian in this region. Similar rocks, though not with the abundance
of large boulders, occur associated with the limestone of Middle Devonian age at
Lake Bathurst; they also occur underlying the white quartzites of Memorial Hill,
Goulburn.

Felsites, Quartzites, etc.

Overlying the Red Bed Stage in the synclinal trough there occurs a series of
felsites and porphyries, with quartzites and slates. The slates are both black and
grey. The quartzites weather into boulders which much resemble those weathered
out from the red beds after the haematite coating has been removed, and have
thus rendered the mapping of the latter difficult in places. The felsites and
porphyries appear to be flows interbedded with the sediments. With regard to
structure, these rocks present difficulties which are not easily overcome. Dips
are obtainable only on the western slope of the ridge, and have a dominant
westerly nature. If the beds be truly conformable with the Red Beds, they should
be expected to partake of the synclinal structure. Hither the synclinal structure
is very asymmetrical, or the two series are unconformable. The felsite-quartzite

Text-figure 1.
Sections drawn along the lines shown in the map (Plate ix). ‘The thickness of
the wind-blown sand is probably considerably exaggerated. The folding of the
Silurian and Devonian systems, and the sub-surface boundaries, are diagram-
matic only, as is also the faulting in the limestone of section A-B. In section
C-D, the Upper Devonian is shown as resting conformably upon the Middle
Devonian Red Beds and Limestone, though possibly there may here be an
unconformity. as discussed in the text.

197

GARRETTY.

M. D.

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198 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

group shows close resemblances to Upper Devonian rocks in the surrounding region
which have been studied by the writer. The suggestion of an unconformable
relation of Upper to Middle Devonian is supported by the recent work of Dr.
Ida A. Brown (1932).

To the north of the Tarago road-cutting, olive-coloured shales, quartzites,
and calcareous shales occur interbedded with the limestones (see above). It is
not clear whether these rocks are of Middle or Upper Devonian age. The lime-
stones are not fossiliferous here, but it is to be expected that they are related to
the nearby Receptaculites beds. Besides these beds associated with the limestone
bands, there is also an extensive series of felsites and quartzites to the north
and west of Tarago. In the railway cutting north of Tarago, the folding of the
beds is well seen. The general strike is 135°, and the overfolds pitch to the north-
west, and have axial planes dipping to the south-west; the general dip of the beds
is north-east at about 60° in the central part of the cutting. In the northern part
of the cutting there is a dominant south-westerly dip; here an interbedded felsite
band is followed by shales, and then quartzites. Further west, in the neighbour-
hood of Tarago Trigonometrical Station, felsites, tuffs, and quartzites occur.

To the west of Tarago, a prominent range of mountains trends west-north-west
through Tower Hill, and turns northwards to pass to the east of Spring Valley;
another branch follows around the northern shores of Lake George. This range
consists practically entirely of massive white quartzites, in places standing up in
conspicuous walls. There is little sign of structure in these quartzites, and very
few dip or strike determinations could be made. The few which were made gave
no predominant trend for the rock. In the north-western corner of the map there
is a greater tendency for brown and yellow shales to accompany the quartzite.

These quartzites are regarded as of Upper Devonian age by lithological analogy
with other rocks in the neighbourhood, such as the Goulburn quartzites. Their
strong overlapping of the Mount Fairy Series and the gneissic granite, well seen
on the map, also supports this view.

Relation of Devonian to Silurian.

Unfortunately, exposures showing this relation directly are scarce. No clear
indication may be seen in the Tarago district, although consideration of the
Devonian synclinal structure—for the Middle Devonian at least, which may itself
be unconformable beneath the Upper Devonian—and the isoclinal folding of the
Silurian, indicates unconformability. It is probable that the Middle Devonian lies
unconformably upon the Silurian. The case for the Upper Devonian, if this be
granted, must follow immediately. Independent evidence is to be found in the
overlapping mentioned above, and the irregular lower surface of the quartzites
to be found along the north-eastern foreshores of Lake George.

TERTIARY TO RECENT.

The deposits of this age are of minor importance. They comprise basalt,
lateritic beds, and various soils.

Basalt.—A patch of basalt occurs 13% chains to the west of the Tarago—Boro
Road, L.11. It forms a capping to gravels with predominant quartz and quartzite
pebbles. In turn, a layer of ironstone caps the basalt. The latter is about 20 feet
in thickness, and occurs on a flank of the wide valley which runs northwards to
join Mulwaree Creek to the south of Tarago. The mass is seen to separate two
minor creeks flowing into this meridional valley; it seems likely that the flow
filled the course of a lateral valley to the main stream, covering the gravels
therein, and causing the diversion of the drainage. There are no field criteria by

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 199

which a definite age may be assigned to the basalt, other than that it is later than
the underlying gravels. A similar degree of uncertainty holds with regard to
these. Microscopical evidence indicates the similarity of the rock to the group
of “Plateau Basalts” of this State (Browne, 1933), which are probably the most
common type of Tertiary extrusive on the Central and Southern Tablelands.

Lateritic types—A deposit of lateritic rock, a few chains square, in L.11, is
probably to be related to the former presence of basalt; similar basalt occurs
nearby. In H.13 also, and surrounding areas, patches of ferruginous material
occur associated with gravels and white quartzite. Here again, these types are
no doubt due to the action of a former covering of basalt, silicifying and impreg-
nating with iron the underlying rocks.

The occurrence of a thin layer of ferruginous material on the surface of the
bedrock of many streams is of interest; this coating, which may have a pisolitic
structure, is often overlain by many feet of alluvium. There is evidence that the
deposition was not confined to any period of the Tertiary, but that it is even going
on at present. Favour is not found with the idea that it is due to leaching of the
underlying rocks. The simplest explanation of the occurrence, which resembles
that of a viscous fluid flowing down the bare rock channel, is that the material
has come in solution from above. Surface water sinking through the alluvium
dissolves out some of the iron and carries it to the bedrock, down along which it
percolates as a sub-surface stream, depositing the iron again among the gravels
as it goes.

GNEISSIC GRANITE.

Under this heading are included not only the typical gneissic granite found
in the vicinity of the Lake, but also those variants of it, such as felsites and
porphyries, which occur as well.

General Occurrence.

As seen on the map, the gneissic granite outcrops chiefly as a large, more or
less elongated body in the central part of the area. Omitting the alluvium and
Devonian quartzites, the western boundary of the gneissic granite on the map may
be taken as the eastern boundary of Lake George. On the eastern side the granite
is bounded by the Mount Fairy Series. In the latter series many exposures of the
granite are uncovered, as to the south-west of Tarago. The general elongation
of the part of the bathylith exposed is a little west of north.

Nature of the Bathylith.

The gneissic character of the rock is more pronounced on the western side
than to the east. On the eastern side there is also a greater tendency for the
occurrence of masses of porphyry and felsite associated with the granite. The
general elongation of the granite-mass corresponds with the direction of average
strike of the Mount Fairy Series. Apophyses and tongues from the main mass
also have this trend. The foliation of the gneiss is likewise predominantly parallel
to this general direction, with minor deviations. On the other hand the relation
“the banding or foliation (of the gneiss) being parallel to the boundary of the
intrusion” (Browne, 1931, p. 115) implied or expressed by many workers, is not
at once apparent here. But the bathylith has only just begun to be uncovered,
as is shown elsewhere, and variations in the topography produce marked changes
in the boundaries. The foliation actually is approximately parallel to the solid
(as opposed to surface) boundaries. There is reason for believing that ridges
such as Governor’s Hill, D.7, and Osborne Ridge, F.4, represent the original shape
of the roof of the bathylith, and the walls are thus, here, at least, steep.

200 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

Although the bathylith in general conforms to the average strike of the shales,
I have stated above (‘‘Mount Fairy Series”) that it is by no means usual for the
strike and dip of the shales to accord with the boundary of the nearby igneous
rock. Indeed, as may be seen from the map, especially in H.8, the strike of the
shales is frequently distinctly oblique to the contact. It was found that the
tendency for this to occur was greatest near the more felsitic phases of the
intrusive mass, and especially well marked where apophyses of felsite or porphyry
have insinuated themselves into the sediments. These facts were interpreted as
indicating a decrease in the power of penetration of the magma as the emplace-
ment of the bathylith progressed. The magma, forced up along an axis of
structural weakness, was at first able to soften and absorb without deformation
the folded shales, but later on, as the injection neared completion, the magma was
unable to carry this out so effectively. Instead, it resorted to a forcible thrusting
aside of the sediments, exhibiting a determination to displace, if not to absorb,
them. It is possible that in these later phases we have an example of the transition
from bathyliths of the synchronous type to those of subsequent type (see below).
Since the preparation of the map and manuscript for this paper, the writer has
noted with interest the description by Mayo (Mayo, 1935) of similar thrusting
effects in the Sierra Nevada, California.

The occurrence of felsitic phases of the granite is interesting, as it does not
seem to be usual in bathyliths of this type. As stated above, they are more
prominent to the east, but it was not practicable to map them separately from
the granite. No doubt they were injected somewhat later than the more coarsely
erystalline granite, but before the cessation of regional stresses. In support of
this may be quoted the occurrence of the felsites as dykes cutting the granite.
An example is an east to west dyke, five to six feet across, of banded felsite (1588)
with marked flow structure, seen especially well on weathered surfaces, in I.5.
Again, on Dry Creek, felsite veins and plugs cut the laminated granite. The
aplites and pegmatites, when they occur, are also distinctly later than the granite.
Pegmatite was not seen to cut the country rock at any place.

Using the criteria recently enunciated (Browne, 1931) for distinguishing
synchronous from subsequent bathyliths, the present example in the main may
be placed in the former category, except for the possible transition noted above.
With the proviso that but little pegmatite is present, the occurrence accords with
each of the criteria given for this group, and not with any of those for the subse-
quent group.

The main folding of the Mount Fairy Series is inexplicable other than as
having antedated the intrusion of the magma. On the other hand a large body
of facts could be assembled to show the continuance of stress until after the
completion of the crystallization of the rock. The petrographical and field
evidence both point to this.

Xenolitns.

Xenoliths are common in the granite, and they are of several different kinds.

Blocks of slate rifted off from the roof have become engulfed in the magma.
For the most part these do not differ petrographically from the country rock.
Assimilation is not seen in progress. Xenoliths found near the margins are found
to be undeorientated, and it would appear that the remarks of various writers on
the oriented inclusions of related bathyliths apply to the more or less marginal
ones. Slate xenoliths well away from the margins of the mass were found in
eeneral to show considerable rotation from the usual limits of strike of the
massive slates.

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 201

A dark porphyritic rock occurs as xenoliths in several places, as on Dry Creek
in G.4. The white phenocrysts in the rock stand out on weathered surfaces; they
are of heavily sericitized plagioclase. Sulphides of two colours occur, the more
brassy being better crystallized. In thin section the rocks show alteration of
the felspar, and change of augite to hornblende.

Irregularly distributed through the granite, over most of the area, dark
xenoliths occur which vary from uralitized dolerites to epidiorites and even
schistose types. Most of them contain a good deal of sulphide. Some of those
near the main amphibolite mass of Lake George show resemblances to it. Others,
while they must have been dolerites, are of obscure origin. The distribution, and
examination of the outcrops of the rocks leave little doubt as to their occurrence
as xenoliths.

SPRING VALLEY GRANITE.

In the vicinity of Spring Valley, in the extreme northern section of the map,
is shown the southern part of a granite-mass extending to the north. It is bounded
for the most part by amphibolites of the Red Hill type. Owing to interruption of
the work, this granite was not followed far to the north. While it may be a
further extension of the gneissic granite just described, there is also a possibility
that it may be younger. In handspecimen the granite is of a massive type in
comparison with the Lake George material. There is a large granite bathylith
extending from the Goulburn-Gunning road southwards through Wologorong and
Tarago Lagoon, and it is possible that the Spring Valley occurrence may be a still
further southerly extension of this. In a thesis presented at Sydney University
in March, 1935, this was regarded as being of Upper Devonian (Kanimbla) age.

THE AMPHIBOLITE SERIES.

Under this head are included rocks of several modes of field occurrence, and
also rocks of greatly differing constitution. To the north and east of Lake
George these basic types occur as a meridional belt extending from Spring Valley
to Bungendore. Further exposures occur to the east of this, along the Willeroo-
Tarago road. The rocks are for the most part intimately associated with the
gneissic granite, and in part form hybrid types with it. The numerous dark
erystalline xenoliths to be found almost anywhere in the granite-gneiss are in
many cases undoubtedly derived from the amphibolite masses.

The larger outcrop near the north-western corner of D.4 is typical of the
hornblende-schist group. The rocks have the appearance of a bedded group (see
strike and dip direction on map). MHornblende-schists, some of which contain
clouded felspars, epidote, and porphyroblastic felspars, form the chief type, but
hybrid zones and zones of more massive amphibolite also occur. ‘These will be
described in more detail in Part II.

The more massive and less obviously banded part of the basic series is best
illustrated by reference to specimens from the area about Red Hill, C.6. Some of
the types here are very similar to those occurring in D.4 mentioned above, but
others of them are not. Hybridization has been fairly extensive, and all gradations
into gneissic granite are to be found in the field. Tongues of progressively lighter
or darker coloured material weave their way, with indefinite margins, among the
slightly less acid or basic host.

The area of amphibolites shown on the north-eastern foreshores of Lake
George, just west of Kenny’s Point, contains types which are again in intimate
relation to the granite-gneiss, and which differ considerably from the rocks occur-
ring at Red Hill. Augen structure is common in the amphibolites. Cores of

J

202 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

augite are sometimes seen within the amphiboles. There is here also much
evidence in the field of absorption of blocks of the more basic rock in the later
granitic types of magma. ;

To the north and east of the Kenny’s Point group, further large masses of the
amphibolite series are met with. These are not so variable as those just discussed,
however, and are dominantly fine-grained hornblende-schists.

It is rather difficult to decide what was the origin of the members of the
amphibolite series. On the one hand, we have the evidence of field. structure
and occurrence, and that of the microscopic examination of slides, to indicate that
the rocks of D.4 especially have their origin in bedded igneous rocks or basic tuffs.
On the other hand, most of the occurrences other than those in D.4 appear to have
commenced with massive basic igneous rock, suggested by the Red Hill types, for
example. The microscopical evidence indicates also that there was a first period
of regional metamorphism, converting the rocks into various kinds of hornbiende-
schists. The chief question is to reconcile these. It may be that the greater part
of the mass was originally an igneous intrusion of gabbroic nature, and that
the more sheet-like southern portion was due to the development of sills or
dactylitic intrusions into the country rock at the extremity.

The age of the amphibolite series cannot be definitely stated. It may be con-
sidered as an epi-Silurian intrusion probably comagmatiec with, and heralding
the injection of the gneissic granite. According to this view, the phyllitic group
of the Mount Fairy Series near Red Hill would be explained as occasioned by the
additional heat supplied by the gabbro during the regional metamorphism which
must have closely followed the latter, but preceded the granite; the latter follows
from the consideration that the strain effects of the granite-gneiss are not
sufficiently strong to suggest that the same stresses could have formed the
hornblende-schists. However, the facts pointing to the amphibolites being older
than the Mount Fairy Stage form a more convincing assemblage. In the first
place the pronounced regional metamorphism which they have undergone strongly
suggests their having been involved in an earlier strong orogeny—of. the type
believed to have closed the Upper Ordovician in this part of the State. The
phyllites and mica-schists of Red Hill may not really belong to the Mount
Fairy Series at all, but to an earlier group. An epi-Ordovician age for these
basie rocks would also supply an analogy to the rather similar basic rocks
tound further south in the Bungendore-Cooma region. The presence of hybrid
gradations between the amphibolites and granite-gneiss certainly would seem to
favour their having been injected in fairly quick succession, leaving little time
for the earlier rock to cool off. But the fact remains, that the basic rock must
have completely solidified and been regionally metamorphosed before the intrusion
of the granite, seeming to make residual heat of little importance. Moreover, the
influence of the heat content of a rock mass on its absorption by a later mass is
at present an unknown quantity. Earlier ideas required the supply of a consider-
able amount of heat to effect absorption. Bowen has shown this to be erroneous,
on theoretical grounds, and the recent considerable amount of study given to
cases of extensive assimilation and contamination seems to minimize its importance.

Summing up, it appears that the most likely age of the original basic
intrusions forming the amphibolite masses of the Lake George District is epi-
Ordovician.

Minor IGNEOus INTRUSIVES.

Basic Rocks of Lower Crisps Creek.—Outcropping in Crisps Creek, K.12, twelve

to twenty chains above the road bridge is a group of diabasic rocks, which appear

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 203

to cut the sedimentary series as dykes trending 295°. They can be followed a couple
of chains up the hill on the north bank in places. On the south they are obscured
by rapid weathering; there is an outcrop in a small road-cutting, but none shows
at the surface. Some of the rock includes fragments of the surrounding slate.
The intrusion (1858) is about five feet wide, and is typical.

Thin sections show the rocks to belong perhaps to the quartz-dolerite group.
Carbonation and albitization have taken place; the augite is in many cases repre-
sented by quartz, chlorite, and carbonate. The dykes appear perhaps to have a
relation to numerous quartz-dolerite dykes occurring in the Shoalhaven Valley,
which are of post-Devonian and probably pre-Kamilaroi age. All that can be
said for the Tarago dykes is that they are post-Silurian.

Quarte-dolerite, Reedy Oreek—As with the dykes just mentioned, this is
probably to be related to the Shoalhaven quartz-dolerites, which the writer intends
to describe in a future paper. It occurs as a dyke twenty feet wide cutting the
Mount Fairy Shales in Reedy Creek, K.4, about 30 chains below the main mass
of limestone. A dyke of quartz-porphyry occurs two chains higher up, but there
does not seem to be any connexion between them. The rock resembles in thin
section the quartz-dolerite dykes of Crisps Creek.

Composite dyke, Sandhills Creek.—The types involved here are dolerite, aplite,
and porphyritic dolerite, again showing features characteristic of the quartz-
dolerite group. In north-western J.3, on Sandhills Creek, a dolerite dyke about
20 feet wide cuts the Mount Fairy Shales in an east-to-west direction. The dyke
contains a sub-central band, two to three feet thick, of aplite. The relation of
this to the parent dyke is not clear, but it appears that it split the latter after its
intrusion, after the manner of composite intrusions. A few yards downstream
large blocks of a porphyritic dolerite were found. Although not actually found
in situ in the dyke, it is very probable that it is an associated type, and is here
grouped with it.

Tachylytic basalt.—Specimen 1548 was collected in the railway cutting in
south-eastern G.4. It shows the contact of aplite and tachylytic basalt. Thin
sections show clearly that the aplite is intruded by the basalt. The rock is an
intrusive basic type which, from its freshness, is probably no older than Devonian
at most, since it shows no sign of the epi-Silurian diastrophism, and the felspars
are quite fresh; possibly it is as recent as Pliocene. The rock may be related to a
doleritic type (1552) from G-H.4. It is in the form of an inverted V, in the
granite, the outcrop being an inverted V in the cutting wall, and two parallel
bands in the floor. Possibly the shape is related to the joint system of the granite.
This “dyke” trends at 40°. No slide is available.

Hornblende-epidote Rock.—This is an unsatisfactory type. In the southern
part of 1.4, in a tributary of Emu Flat Creek, basic rocks occur as bands a few
feet thick, apparently interbedded with the Mount Fairy Shales. They are
represented by specimens 1668 and 1669. Slides show that the rock consists of
brown, with some bluish-green, hornblende in idiomorphic grains; associated with
radiating epidote. This is a peculiar type, and no clues. are known as to its
origin.

Emu Flat Creek Dolerites—A number of melanocratic rocks occur on Emu
Flat Creek and nearby, in 1.4. It is difficult to say definitely whether these are
intrusions or xenoliths in the granite, since they are exposed only in the stream
channel, and the critical junctions were largely covered. One of the masses
contains coarse porphyritic phases, and is also intimately cut by an aphanitic
type, which distinctly intrudes the granite as well, sending out tongues and

204 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

seeking out the joint planes. On the other hand, at the old road crossing an
exposure of basic rock more resembles a large xenolith. Moreover, this rock
is distinctly more altered and different in thin section from the others. Very
probably it is a xenolith while the others are dyke-rocks.

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

While the details of physiographic structure to be found in many regional
settings are also to be found in the Lake George District, the discussion of the
physiographic history of the area on modern lines can be satisfactorily dealt
with only when treated as portion of a much larger unit. Broadly speaking, we
may regard the Tarago to Bungendore area as an example of internal drainage—
demanding some special explanation—superimposed on the conditions which must
previously have obtained at the main divide between the coastal and western
drainage systems. Discussion of this peculiar condition is left to a later paper,
as it involves a much larger area than that dealt with in this paper.

Outcrop and Contour.—Much of the diversity of topographical detail is directly
related to the geological structure. Prominent hills and ridges abound, and can
in most instances be correlated with the nature of the rock. The steep hilly
country to the south of the Tarago—Willeroo road occurs largely in slates, as do
the surrounding flatter parts. However, the slates here have been considerably
indurated by the granite close beneath. Intensely silicified bands are followed
exactly by the minor ridges. The eminences of Sally Trigonometrical Station and
Mount Ellenden (Governor’s Hill) present slopes reaching 45°. (These slopes
are quite stable in the present cycle of erosion, and most of them have a soil
mantle.) The Sally group of hills consists of slates, but they have been indurated,
and much impregnated by silica and iron. The ridges of Governor’s Hill and
Osborne Trigonometrical Station are composed of hard granite-gneiss. The marked
elongation of these is probably due to the gneissic structure of the rock. The
ridge of Osborne Trigonometrical Station is bounded on the east by low-lying
slate country; on the west the change in topography is not so marked, as
igneous rock, though of less massive type, continues. The hard flanks of
Governor’s Hill are bounded on the west by a soft amphibolite-slate complex,
and on the east by jointed felsitic rocks. Possibly, also, the present surface
represents fairly closely the original roof of the bathylith.

The Woolowolar Ridge, south of Tarago, is part of a long ridge running
north to near Goulburn. Near Tarago at all events it shows all the signs of being
due to differential erosion. It is built of resistant quartzites and felsites, and
bounded on the east by weathered granite, and the west by soft shales. The
rugged range running from Tarago to Spring Valley and along the north of Lake
George, apparently owes its elevation to the same cause. As pointed out else-
where, the chief rock type involved is a dense quartzite; where this gives way
to granite or amphibolite, there is at once a change to lower ground.

Gullying.—A characteristic feature of the landscape is the extensive gullying
which has gone on. An impressive picture of the apparently rapid erosion that
has taken place is seen by standing in G.4 and looking westwards to Osborne
Ridge, when a whole hillside seared with many gashes is viewed. The best
example is perhaps in G.5, on Wright’s Creek, which is here quite impassable,
presenting vertical banks 20 feet high. Numerous observations, such as the
occurrence of ox skulls in the alluvium banks, and the crossing of gullies by
surveyed map roads, indicate that the gullying took place since white occupation,
and during the last century. Deforestation at once comes under suspicion. How-

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 205

ever, such gullying was found to occur in places well away from any killed timber,
gradually engulfing the vegetation. It may be that the rapid erosion at present
occurring is not wholly to be attributed to deforestation, but is only affected in
degree thereby. Whether the cause is a difference in annual rainfall, season of
maximum precipitation, rate of precipitation, etc., is not clear. Bearing on this,
Craft (1935) has just published the results of relevant observations on the Upper
Murray Valley.

Aggradation of Low-lying Areas.—Many of the smaller streams in their lower
courses pursue channels now very ill-defined, though the older parish maps show
them clearly. Apparently this aggradation is of recent occurrence, and to be
correlated with the extensive gullying noted above. Wright’s Creek, D.4, shows
both features very well. In many cases where the alluvium thus deposited has been
later again cut into by the stream, regular alternations of coarse and fine beds
occur.

Wind-blown Sand.—At various places along the eastern shore of the lake,
considerable areas of a fine white quartz-sand with rounded grains occur. Notable
among these are the large flats of the Currandooly and Willeroo Stations. These
accumulations are especially found opposite breaks in the higher land on one or
both sides of the Lake. The sand is economically valuable, supplying a constant
flow in the streams, ample scope for wells, and much arable land. The sand is
evidently wind-borne, and probably derived, in the last instance, from the lake
bed. f

EcoNoMIC GEOLOGY.

Mention has been made above of the economic bearing of the deposits of
limestone, dolomite, wind-blown sand, and alluvial flats of the district. Of
importance also are the weathered granite or saprolite, much used as a road-
surfacing material, and the soft shales, which have been used for brick-making.

Occasional pyritic replacements of the Mount Fairy Series have occurred near
exposures of the granite. One such, a little south of the Tarago—Willeroo road,
has been prospected by several deep shafts. At Currawang, there occurs a zone
of mineralization of the amphibolite series, in which there has been considerable
deposition of copper sulphides. The workings could not be examined, though
there is evidence of a good deal of activity in the past, the ore being smelted
locally. The surrounding areas of amphibolite show more pyrites as disseminated
grains than is usual (see Carne, 1908, p. 341).

In portion 21, Parish of Mulwaree, and about one mile south-west of Tarago
Trigonometrical Station, is a deposit of barytes, replacing limestone. This lime-
stone is evidently a small outcrop to be grouped with the other Devonian lime-
stones of the vicinity. Specimens of the limestone in all stages of replacement
by the barytes may be obtained. The deposit does not appear to be very extensive.
It is not possible to say whether the deposit is a groundwater replacement or is
to be attributed to one of the nearby granites.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

The earlier part of this history is rather vague. Probably earliest among
those rocks of which we have knowledge were the gabbroic antecedents of the
amphibolites, perhaps injected into a shale series now represented by the Red Hill
phyllites; regional metamorphism converted these to amphibolites and hornblende-
schists, and phyllitic types, respectively. Following extensive denudation, a
shallow marine Upper Silurian (and possibly Lower Silurian) geosynclinal basin
of considerable dimensions received muds and sands with considerable regularity

206 GEOLOGY OF LAKE GEORGE DISTRICT,

—a regularity displayed also by the occasional mild storms. At times, possibly
far from land, coral reefs flourished, apparently at least twice. Occasional volcanic
vents, on the shoreline or in the water, or both, emitted lavas which, in places,
became interbedded with the sediments. Some of these, at least, seem to have
been injected among the muds on the sea floor. Very regular emissions of ash
took place at times. At the close of the Silurian, an orogeny ensued which
compressed the rocks in the geosyncline into close folds; it was before this compres-
sional movement had ceased that injection of granitic magma took place, insinua-
ting itself among the bands of sediment, and also partaking of the impressed
directional structures; movement had not ceased when the granite-gneiss had
solidified.

Probably during the Lower Devonian, erosion was taking place on a consider-
able scale. The Middle Devonian saw shallow submergence of the land in another
basin, and coral reefs again flourishing. Then followed, after an uncertain period,
the ejection of coarse pyroclastic material, succeeded by some shale, flows of
felsite, and finally a considerable thickness of sandstone. At some stage between
the formation of the Middle Devonian reefs and the end of the deposition of the
sandstone, there probably occurred a period of folding—the late Middle Devonian
folding. Next occurred the intrusion of another granite, this time during tensional
rather than compressional conditions, and at the close of another orogeny—the
Kanimbla epoch—which folded the Devonian rocks and further dislocated the
older ones, the sandstones were converted to quartzites. At some period later
than this occurred the injection of most of the minor intrusives of the area—
notably those of the quartz-dolerite kindred.

Erosion supervened, and has continued to the present day. In all probability
the major stream-pattern of this part of the State was established as far back
as the Triassic, but the internal drainage of the Lake George Basin is a later
feature. Towards the end of the Tertiary, outpourings of basaltic lava covered a
limited portion of the area. Probably at this stage the sand accumulations had
begun to form, but these may be later than the Kosciusko Epoch, especially if
this be related to the formation of Lake George. The Kosciusko Epoch did not
leave any distinguishing marks on the area, except in so far as it may have
affected the drainage of the region as a whole.

References.

BARRELL, J., 1917.—Rhythms and the Measurement of Geological Time. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Amer., 1917.

Brown, Ipa A., 1932.—Late Middle Devonian Diastrophism in S.E. Australia. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 323-331.

BROWNE, W. R., 1929.—Presidential Address. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, Part i.

—, 1931.—Notes on Bathyliths and Some of their Implications. Journ. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., Ixv, 112-44.

————, 1933.—Presidential Address. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1933, 1-95.

CARNE, J. E., 1908.—Copper Deposits of N.S.W. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Res. No. 6.

————, and Jones, L. J., 1919.—The Limestone Deposits of N.S.W. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.,
Min. Res. No: 25.

Crart, F. A., 1928.—The Physiography of the Wollondilly River Basin. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., liii, 618-650.

-——_—_—_ , 1931-2.—The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. Parts i to vi.
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvi-lvii, 1931-1932.

————., 1933.—The Coastal Tablelands and Streams of N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
lviii, 437-460.

,1935.—The Relationship between Erosion and Hydrographic Changes in the

Upper Murray Catchment, N.S.W. Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ix, 121-144.

Dorsey, G. E., 1926.—Origin of Red Beds. Journ. Geol., 1926, 131.

Proe. Linn, Soc. N.S.W,, 1936.

QUATERNARY UPPER DEVONIAN

Ea) Alluvium and
u Wind Blown Sand

Quartzites, _
Slates. & Felsites

TERTIARY MIDDLE DEVONIAN

, [Lo] Olivine Basalt
“7

Red Beds

J Limestone

PLATE 1X,

UPPER SILURIAN

Til] Mount Fairy
MMW Series

Igneous and
YAR
eee *yroclastic

Ay Limestone
GRANITIC TYPES

Granite and
Cranite Cneiss

Felsitic
Phases

BASIC TYPES

= Amphibolite and
= = Hornbende Sc his

Seems tig

ee,

ste \
HN

\
Wal

hr

aig CHAINS

SMILES:

BY M. D. GARRETTY. 207

Hopss, W. H., 1914.—Mechanics of Formation of Arcuate Mountains, Part ii. Journ.
Geol., xxii, 166.

Manony, D. J., and Tayuor, T. G., 1913.—Report on a Geological Reconnaissance of the
Federal Territory.

Mayo, E. B., 1935.—Some Intrusions and their Wall Rocks in the Sierra Nevada. Journ.
Geol., xliii, 673-689.

Naytor, G. F. K., 1935.—Note on the Geology of the Goulburn District, with Special
Reference to Palaeozoic Stratigraphy. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1xix, 75-85.

Parliamentary Papers, 1916.—Fed. Govt. Parl. Standing Committee on Public Works;
Proposed Cement Works for Federal Capital. Melbourne, 1916.

Taytor, T. G., 1907.—The Lake George Senkungsfeld, ete. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1907,
325.

TOMLINSON, C. W., 1916.—The Origin of Red Beds. Journ. Geol., 1916, 153, 238.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Geological Map of the Mount Fairy District. The heavy line around Lake George
is the surveyed boundary of the Lake George Parish, as given by maps of the Lands
Department; the actual topographic boundary is slightly at variance with this. The
wavy lines shown in certain portions of the Mount Fairy Series and the granite-gneiss
represent zones of silicification. A-B, C-D, H-F, are section lines (see Text-figure 1).

Arrows indicate strike and dip of beds; square brackets, strike and dip of schistosity ;
crossed strike line shows vertical schistosity.

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Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE X.

CHARLES HEDLEY.
1862-1926.
(Memorial Series, No. 5.)*
(With Portrait.)

Charles Hedley, one of the most celebrated of Australian naturalists and a
world authority on Conchology, was born at Masham, Yorkshire, 27th February,
1862. He was the second son of Canon T. Hedley, a distinguished scholar and a
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

On account of his delicate health, Hedley’s school life was limited to about
four years at Hastbourne College, which he attended with his two brothers, Herbert
and Cyril. At this school it was the custom to offer each year a prize for the
best collection in some branch of natural history, and Hedley was awarded the
prize for a collection of shells, which shows that his taste for conchology was
manifested at an early age. At the close of his school career Charles and his
younger brother Cyril were taken by their parents to the Riviera, where during
winter they lived at Mentone and in summer at St. Martin Lautosque in the
Alpes Maritimes. While at Mentone Hedley amused himself collecting shells,
and one day, while thus employed, he observed a stranger who seemed to be
similarly engaged. Hedley entered into conversation with the stranger, who
turned out to be G. F. Angas, a well-known Australian conchologist, who had at
one time been Secretary to the Australian Museum, Sydney. At this time Hedley
had no thought of emigrating to Australia and no premonition that he himself
would one day be a distinguished member of the Australian Museum staff.

At Mentone he purchased a book on land shells written by A. Moquin-Tandon,
and to the reading of this work he attributed the stimulus which launched him
on his career as a conchologist.

Hedley was a life-long sufferer from asthma, and in search of a more genial
climate he left England in 1881 for New Zealand, intending to prosecute sheep-
farming. He found the climate of New Zealand too damp for his health, and in
September, 1882, came to Sydney, where he met Dr. George Bennett, Dr. J. C.
Cox, Mr. John Brazier, and other well-known naturalists. From Sydney Hedley
went west to Hay, in the hope that an inland climate would be beneficial, but his
expectations were not realized, and he next journeyed to Queensland, living first
at Nerang and later on Stradbroke Island, Moreton Bay, where he took up an
oyster lease. He found that he enjoyed the best health when living close to the
sea, and for the rest of his life, except for brief intervals of travel, he resided near
the Australian coast.

In 1884 he took up fruit-growing at Boyne Island, Port Curtis, where he
obtained material for his first published paper, “Uses of some Queensland Plants”
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, v, 1888, 10-13). Here, when driving in a sulky, he
met with an accident and fractured his left arm. This was badly set and it was

*It is much regretted that unforeseen circumstances were responsible for the delay
in preparation of this Memorial.—Eb.
SS

210 CHARLES HEDLEY.

found necessary to break the bone and re-set it, which left him with a shortened
and partially disabled arm. Finding that he could no longer undertake any
laborious work, he left Boyne Island in 1888, and for about two years he resided
in Brisbane, where he occupied himself in collecting and doing voluntary work at
the Queensland Museum. On ist January, 1889, he was appointed an officer of
the Queensland Museum, and in May of the same year he was elected a member
of the Linnean Society of London.

While at the Queensland Museum Hedley met Sir William Macgregor,
Administrator of British New Guinea, who was preparing to return to that island,
and offered to accompany him in order to investigate the land shells. Macgregor
demurred, remarking, “Yon land is no place for a sick mon”. Later, in 1890, he
invited Hedley to form one of his party, an invitation which was joyfully accepted,
and he was thus given the opportunity of visiting that fascinating region and
penetrating to some unexplored parts.

While Macgregor visited the Louisiade Archipelago, Hedley, with one
companion, remained at Milne Bay, where he made important collections. He
afterwards travelled overland to meet Macgregor on his return to Port Moresby,
and the Administrator was so impressed by the young man’s courage, resourceful-
ness, and energy, that he offered him a magistracy in Papua. But by this time
Hedley had definitely set his mind on a scientific career and the flattering offer
was declined. An attack of malaria forced him to return to Brisbane, where
he proceeded to study the shells he had collected in Papua. Finding, however,
that his work was hampered by lack of adequate collections and of library
facilities, he resigned his post at the Queensland Museum and, towards the end
of 1890, removed to Sydney which, at that time, was the home of a coterie of
enthusiastic conchologists. Sydney became his home until his death.

On ist April, 1891, Hedley commenced work at the Australian Museum as
Assistant in charge of land shells, and on 1st January, 1896, he succeeded Brazier
as conchologist. He was now fairly launched on his career as a conchologist,
and a long succession of important papers. attest his ability, industry, and
versatility. On 20th December, 1908, he became Assistant Curator, and, on
the death of Robert Etheridge, Junior, in January, 1920, he was appointed
Acting Director, until, on 14th February, 1921, he became Principal Keeper of
Collections. He resigned this post on 30th March, 1924, to become Scientific
Director to the Great Barrier Reef Committee, a position he occupied until his
death. In August, 1926, he had returned to his home in Sydney and was happily
preparing to attend the Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress in Tokyo, when he
contracted a cold; more serious illness followed, and he died on 14th September.
His remains were cremated, and his close friend, Mr. EH. C. Andrews, conveyed
his ashes to Queensland, where, in the presence of the Australian delegates to
the Congress, they were scattered on the waters near the Great Barrier Reef,
which he knew and loved so well, and the fauna of which he had done so much
to elucidate.

Hedley’s earliest writings were concerned mainly with land shells. His
memorable paper on the Land Mollusca of New Guinea was published by this
Society (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi, 1891, 67-116; 685-698) and illustrated by a
fine series of pen and ink drawings; for Hedley was a skilful delineator, and his
accurate and artistic illustrations greatly enhanced the value of his scientific
writings. Hedley was at first more interested in molluscan anatomy than in
systematic conchology, but after his appointment on the staff of the Australian
Museum he became more and more drawn to taxonomic work. For this he
needed works of reference, and he spared no pains to accumulate an extensive

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 211

library of conchological literature, drawing freely on his private income to enrich
the Museum library which, consequently, has a magnificent collection of books
and papers on the subject, including numerous rare works which can not be found
in many scientific libraries of much greater size. At this time, too, Hedley began
the preparation of a card catalogue of all publications dealing with Australian
Mollusca; this grew through the years until it formed a complete guide to the
literature and a most useful instrument for research. This catalogue, which on
his death was presented to the Museum by Mrs. Hedley, is so comprehensive that
one marvels that he could find the leisure to compile it; for the work was done
mainly in unofficial hours, showing how completely Hedley was absorbed in
scientific work to the exclusion of other interests.

Gradually Hedley became well equipped for research on Australian Mollusca,
and with characteristic energy and determination he attacked the great work of
disentangling the confused synonymy of many forms, rehabilitating specific names,
preparing adequate illustrations for many unfigured species, and clearing up many
obscure points of identification and nomenclature. He thus established a solid
foundation for further research, and did most useful work in compiling lists of
the marine shells of Queensland, New South Wales, and Western Australia, besides
assisting in the preparation of other lists. For New South Wales Hedley listed
1,200 species, every form being well figured and its scientific history fully
elucidated. His output of papers on systematic conchology was very large, as
evidenced by the list of his publications appended. Of these one of the largest
and most important was his monograph on the Australian Turridae (Rec. Austr.
Mus., xiii, 1922, 213-359), illustrated by more than 200 fine figures.

Though perhaps the Marine Mollusca bulked most largely in Hedley’s writings,
his early interest in the land and freshwater shells never abated and, just prior
to his retirement from the staff of the Australian Museum, he was engaged on an
illustrated monograph of the Land Mollusea of Hastern Australia. He had reviewed
the literature, many drawings were completed, and certain groups had been
revised, but with much reluctance the project was relinquished and the notes
already prepared were embodied in his last conchological paper, ‘‘SSome Notes on
Australian Land Shells” (Austr. Zoologist, iii, 1924, 215-222).

Hedley was greatly interested in the investigation of the continental shelf of
Australia and the deeper waters beyond. Since the visit of the “Challenger” in
1874, no one had dredged in depths greater than about one hundred fathoms
round the Australian and New Zealand coasts, but Hedley attacked depths as
great as 800 fathoms and made many interesting and valuable discoveries; he
himself investigated the deep-sea shells resulting from these enterprises (Rec.
Austr. Mus., vi, 1905-07, 41, 211, 288, 356). This deep-sea work was largely
financed by Hedley himself, who was ever ready to draw on his private purse,
if by so doing he could contribute to the advancement of scientific investigation.

The Mollusca obtained by the F.1.S. “Hndeavour’ were submitted to Hedley
and described in a series of Reports published by the Federal Government.

Another subject which had a strong fascination for Hedley was the formation
and the life of coral reefs. This was stimulated by his participation in the
expedition to Funafuti organized by the Royal Society of London in 1896. During
his stay of two and a half months on the atoll, Hedley amassed a large collection,
particularly of invertebrates and ethnological objects, and made many valuable
scientific observations. The results were published by the Trustees of the
Australian Museum (Mem. Austr. Mus., iii, 1896-1900), to which Hedley contributed
the general account and the sections on Mollusca and Brachiopoda, and on
Ethnology, a subject of which his knowledge was considerable. He made many

KK

212 CHARLES HEDLEY.

trips to the Great Barrier Reef of Queensland, and in collaboration with Mr.
(now Professor) T. Griffith Taylor he propounded a theory of the formation of
atolls by the action of the prevailing winds (Rept. Austr. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1907
(1908), 397-413). On his appointment as Scientific Director to the Great Barrier
Reef Committee he commenced a systematic investigation of the corals, and had
assembled a large collection and much detailed information when this work was
ended by his lamented death.

Hedley was greatly attracted by the problems presented by the Antarctic,
and the relations of its fauna to that of the lands to the north. For twenty years
or more he pondered over these problems and, in 1912, contributed an important
paper at a meeting of the Linnean Society of London (‘The Palaeogeographical
Relations of Antarctica”, Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., Session 124, 1911-12, 80-90). In
this paper Hedley crystallized his views regarding the southern origin of many
forms of life now found in Australia and elsewhere. Previous to this he had had
the opportunity of describing the Antarctic Mollusca gathered by the Shackleton
Expedition of 1907-1909, and he later investigated and described the Mollusca of
the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-14, led by Dr. (now Sir) Douglas
Mawson.

Hedley was greatly interested in the distribution of Mollusca and other forms
of life, and his important contributions to the study of zoo-geography made his
name widely known to others than conchologists. One of his earliest essays on
this subject was “The Range of Placostylus: a Study in Ancient Geography”
(Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vii, 1893, 335-339; reprinted Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
(6), xi, 1892 (1893), 435-439), in which he deduced ancient land-connections
from the distribution of this large and striking terrestrial mollusc. This was
followed by articles on the relation of the fauna and flora of Australia to those
of New Zealand, the faunal regions of Australia, a zoo-geographie scheme for the
Mid-Pacific, and others. Hedley’s contributions to this fascinating subject would
entitle him to an honoured place in the scientific world even though he had
written nothing else. ;

Hedley was a seasoned traveller and an indefatigable collector, and undertook
many expeditions, mostly at his own expense. He had visited New Guinea, the
Gulf of Carpentaria and the islands in Torres Strait, and had an intimate
knowledge of the Great Barrier Reef and of many Pacific islands. In his later
years he was able to indulge his desire to see more distant lands and paid visits
to Alaska and Hast Africa. He was very anxious to see South America and the
Himalayas, but his death at a comparatively early age left this desire unfulfilled.

Hedley would face any danger or hardship if by so doing he was enabled to
attain his object. Mr. E. C. Andrews who, in 1901, accompanied him on a trip
to the North Queensland coast, writes as follows of their experiences: “So
thoroughgoing were his naturalistic instincts that he examined every plant and
animal of promise in the area visited, especially in connection with its adaptation
to its environment. To this work he devoted himself whole-heartedly day and
night. If the coral reefs were submerged he prosecuted his examination of them
waist and shoulder deep. ... No mountain was too high or too densely clothed
with jungle for him to scale; no swamp, infested with mosquitoes, snakes and
crocodiles, prevented him from using it as a short cut in his work. Once on the
Outer Barrier Reef off Green Island he was almost cut off by the high spring tides,
and sharks were swimming freely over the reef before he was rescued. ... The
roughest and plainest fare and accommodation he accepted cheerfully, if only
thereby he was enabled to visit some distant and choice gathering ground. In the
jungle along the Johnston River he found an aboriginal bark canoe. To see

Co

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 21

it was to covet it for the Museum collection, but to secure it meant the taxing
of the accommodation on the tiny 26-footer. Hedley solved the problem by
sleeping in it, making a bed of the bare ribs of this harsh receptacle. Perhaps
in these adventures the dominant note struck, as it appeared to his companions,
was his unfailing cheerfulness, unselfishness, consideration for the comfort of his
comrades, and his indefatigable energy in the promotion of Museum work.”

In appearance Hedley was striking and handsome, six feet in height, with a
spare and wiry frame. As a young man he wore only a moustache, but later he
grew a beard, and it is thus that he will be remembered.

He was so completely wrapped up in his scientific work that he had few
hobbies, the principal being a penchant for long walks and mountain climbing.
He was a tireless pedestrian, and nothing gave him more pleasure than a long
foot journey through the Australian bush. Those who had the privilege of
accompanying him on some of his rambles retain a delightful memory of his
pleasant companionship. For, in spite of his devotion to scientific work, he had
very high social gifts and was a fluent and entertaining conversationalist, and a
polished and courteous man of the world. He had a well stocked mind, for not
only was he an accomplished zoologist, he also had a sound knowledge of botany
and ethnology, and, particularly in his later years, he turned with enthusiasm
to the subject of geology, to which he made some original contributions. He was
a close observer of nature and had the faculty of illuminating any subject in an
inimitable manner, enlivening his discourse with anecdote and flashes of humour,
so that the way seemed shorter and blistered heels were forgotten.

Enough has been said to indicate the wide scope of Hedley’s work and the
versatility of his genius, but his services to science did not end with his own
researches and publications and his many productive collecting trips. He inspired
others with his own enthusiasm, and by example and precept he spurred them to
put forth their best efforts. Thus his spirit still lives and animates many who
were fortunate enough to have his friendship and warm encouragement. He had
a genius for detecting promise in younger men, and their subsequent achievements
justified his insight and gave him the greatest gratification. “Did I not pick
winners?” he would say, with a genial and delighted smile.

He was a writer of delightful and lucid prose, and some of his papers contain
passages of great beauty. No better example could be cited than his peroration to
his article on the Palaeogeographical Relations of Antarctica: “In the long
perspective of past time Antarctica appears to fade and form like a summer
cloud, now extending a limb, now shedding it, now resolving into a continent,
now dissolving into an archipelago. At present it lies dead and cold under its
white winding-sheet of snow. By the light of the magician’s lamp we watch the
summer of the cycles dawn. The glow of life returns, the ice mask melts, green
spreads a mantle. At last a vision comes of rippling brooks, of singing birds, of
blossoming flowers, and of forest glades in the heart of Antarctica.”

A fine example of the wide sweep of. his knowledge and his charm of style is
afforded by his Presidential Address to the Royal Society of New South Wales
(Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlix, 1915, 1-77), in which he dealt in a masterly
manner with the shore ecology of the Sydney district.

The high esteem which Hedley enjoyed among his fellows is evidenced by the
honours he received during his lifetime. He was a Fellow of the Linnean and
Malacological Societies of London, a Corresponding Member of the Zoological
Society of London and of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, and an
Honorary Member of the Royal Societies of Victoria, Queensland, South Australia,
and Western Australia, Shortly before his death he was elected a Fellow of

214 . CHARLES HEDLEY.

the New Zealand Institute. He was a Past President of the Linnean, Royal, Royal
Zoological, and Naturalists’ Societies of New South Wales, and in 1909 he was
President of Section D (Biology) of the Australasian Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. In 1916 he was awarded the David Syme Prize for Scientific
Research, and in 1925 he received the Clarke Memorial Medal of the Royal
Society of New South Wales.

C.A.

LIST OF PAPERS BY CHARLES HEDLEY.
(Compiled by Tom Iredale.)
1888.

Uses of some Queensland Plants. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., v, 1888, 10-13.

A List of the Land Shells Recorded from Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., v, 1888,
45-70.

Description of a New Slug: with Notes on Other Terrestrial Mollusca. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Qld., v, 1888, 150-153.

1889.

On Aneitea graeffei, and its Allies. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., v, 1889, 162-173.

Note (on Mr. Tryon’s Errata). Proc. Roy. Soc. Qlid., v, 1889, 179.

Anatomical Notes on the Helicidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vi, 1889, 62-63.

Notes on Queensland Land-Shells. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vi, 1889, 100-1038.

Notes on the Helicidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vi, 1889, 120-121.

Anatomical Notes on the Helicidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., vi, 249-251.

Mollusca. Report Govt. Sci. Hxped. Bellenden Ker Range, 1889, folio ed., 34; 8vo ed.,
90-91.

1890.

Description of a New Rhytida from New Guinea. Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guwinea, 1888-89,
App., p. 65.

On the Structure and Systematic Position of Cystopelta. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2)
v, 1890, 44-46.

On Parmella etheridgei, Brazier. Rec. Aust. Mus., i, 1890, 78-80.

List of the Mollusca collected by Sir W. Macgregor on the Fly River. Ann. Rep. Brit.
New Guinea, 1889-90, App., 115.

1891.

The Land and Fresh-Water Shells of Lord Howe Island. Rec. Aust. Mus., i, 1891,
134-144.

On the Anatomy of Some Tasmanian Snails. Proc, LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi, 1891,
19-26.

The Land Molluscan Fauna of British New Guinea. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi,
1891, 67-116.

On Hadra gulosa, Gould. Rec. Aust. Mus., i, 1891, 196-197.

Description of a New Marine Shell. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi, 1891, 247.
(With C. T. Musson.)

Note on the Ova of Helicarion robustus Gould. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi,
1891, 248.

1892.
Remarks on Australian Slugs. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), ix, 1892, 169-171.
On a Collection of Land and Fresh-Water Shells. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi,
1892, 551-564. (With C. T. Musson.)
The Land Molluscan Fauna of British New Guinea. Anatomical Supplement. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vi, 1892, 685-698.

On the Structure and Affinities of Panda atomata Gray. Rec. Aust. Mus., ii, 1892,
26-31.
Observations on the Charopidae. Part I. Proc; Winn: Soc: NesSiw., (2); ‘vil, wsa2,

157-169.
On the Genus Perrieria. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vii, 1892, 311-313.
Uses of Shells among the Papuans. “British New Guinea’’, by J. P. Thomson, 1892,

FPR9_98
2O0-L00,

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 215

1893.

On the Origin of the Land-Snail Fauna of Queensland, Australia. Nautilus, vi, 1893,
124-125.

The Range of Placostylus: a Study in Ancient Geography. Proc. LINN. Soo. N.S.W.,
(2), vii, 1893, 335-339. Reprinted in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), xi, 1893, 435-439.

Schizoglossa: a New Genus of Carnivorous Snails. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), vii,
1893, 387-392. (Note: first published in Abstract, Dec. 5, 1892, p. v.)

Reference List of the Land and Fresh-Water Mollusca of New Zealand. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., (2), vii, 1893, 613-665. (With H. Suter.)

An Enumeration of the Janellidae. Trans. New Zeal. Inst., xxv, 1892 (1893), 156-162.

Note on Endodonta (Flammulina) infundibulum Hombr. and Jacq. Nautilus, vii, 1893, 35.

Pholas obturamentum: an Undescribed Bivalve from Sydney Harbour. Rec. Aust. Mus.,
ii, 1893, 55-57.

On the Relation of the Fauna and Flora of Australia to those of New Zealand. Natural
Science, iii, 1893, 187-191.

On Parmacochlea fischeri, Smith. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Macleay Memorial Volume, 1893,
201-204.

Notes on Papuina. Nautilus, vii, 1893, 73-74.

Gundlachia: a Victorian Desiderata. Vict. Naturalist, x, 1893, 148.

1894.

A New Papuina. Nautilus, vii, 1894, 136.

Notes to the Above. (Suter’s Additions Ref. List Land. F.-W. Mollusca of New Zealand.)
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), viii, 1894, 502-508.

Description of Caecum amputatum, an Undescribed Molluse from Sydney Harbour. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), viii, 1894, 504.

On the Australian Gundlachia. Proc. LInN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), viii, 1894, 505-514.
Reprinted in Nautilus, ix, 1895, 61-68.

Note on the Relation of the Land-Mollusca of Tasmania and of New Zealand. A711.
Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), xiii, 442-443.

The Faunal Regions of Australia. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., v, 1893 (1894), 444-446.
Reprinted in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), xiv, 1894, 390-392, and in Amer. Naturalist,
xxix, 1895, 674-676.

Letter proposing ‘‘Torres Archipelago’ and ‘‘Kermadec Trough”. Rept. Awst. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., v, 1898 (1894), 496-7.

On the Value of Ancylastrum. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., i, 1894, 118.

On Some Naked Australian Marine Mollusca. Part I. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2),
ix, 1894, 126-128. :

Description of Calliostoma purpureocinctum, a New Marine Australian Shell. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), ix, 1894, 35-36.

Note on the Destruction of young Oysters at Vaucluse by the operations of a boring
molluse (Ricinula marginatra Blain.). Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), ix, 1894, 185.

Helices carried by Birds. Nawtiluws, viii, 1894, 72.

A Shell Hunt Forty Feet Under the Sea. Nawtilws, viii, 1894, 85-88.

The Land Molluscan Fauna of British New Guinea. Second Supplement. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., (2), ix, 1894, 384-392.

Mollusea as Purifiers of Water. Journ. Malac., iii, 1894, 73.

1895.

Conchological Notes. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), ix, 1895, 464-466.

Notes on Australian Shipworms. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), ix, 1895, 501-505.

Notes on West Australian Land-Shells. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., i, 1895, 259-260.

A Query as to the Synonymy of Rhysota armiti, Smith. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), xvi,
1895, 201.

Dendrotrochus, Pilsbry, assigned to Trochomorpha. Rec. Aust. Mus., ii, 1895, 90-91.

Mollusca of the Oriental Region. Jowrn. Malac., iv, 1895, 53-55.

Pterosoma, Lesson, claimed as a Heteropod. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., i, 1895, 333-335.

On a Molluscan Genus New to, and Another Forgotten from, Australia. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Vict., vii, n.s., 1895, 197-200.

Considerations on the Surviving Refugees in Austral Lands of Ancient Antarctic Life.
Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxix, 1895, 278-286. Reprinted in Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., (6), xvii, 1896, 113-120.

1896.

Notes on Mollusca from the Alpine Zone of Mount Kosciusko. Rec. Aust. Mus., ii, 1896,
101-105.

216 CHARLES HEDLEY.

Description of Pugnus, a New Genus of Ringiculidae, from Sydney Harbour. Rec.
Aust. Mus., ii, 1896, 105-106.

Notes on Anatomical Characters (of Mollusca). Rep. Sci. Res. Horn Eauped. Central
Aust., pt. 2, Zool., 1896, 220-226.

The imputed Jealousy of Huropean Workers on Australasian Faunas by Local Writers.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), xvii, 1896, 258-260.

Stray Notes on Papuan Ethnology. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2), x, 1896, 613-617.

Description of a New Species of Astraliwm from New Britain. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
xxi, 1896, 107-109. (With Arthur Willey.)

General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti. Awst. Mus. Mem., iii, 1896, 1-71.

1897.

Description of a New Papuan Land Shell. Rec. Aust. Mus., iil, 1897, 11-12.

Descriptions of New Land Shells. Rec. Aust. Mus., iii, 1897, 44-48.

The Ethnology of Funafuti. Awst. Mus. Mem., iii, 1897, 229-304. ;

Stray Notes on Papuan Ethnology. Part II. Proc Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxii, 1897,
288-291.

The Savage of the Pacific. The Antipodean, No. 3, 1897, 43-48.

1898.

Mollusca (of Sydney). Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Handb. Sydney and the County of
Cumberland, 1898, 136-142.

The Broadening of Atoll-islets. Natural Science, xii, 1898, 174-178.

Description of a New Bivalve, Lima alata, from Santa Cruz. Rec. Aust. Mus., iii, 1898,
84-85.

Further Notes on Australasian Shipworms. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxiii, 1898, 91-96.

Descriptions of New Mollusca, chiefly from New Caledonia. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
xxiii, 1898, 97-105.

Contributions to a Knowledge of the Fauna of British New Guinea. Part V. Mollusca.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxiii, 1898, 369.

1899.

The Mollusea of Funafuti. Part i. Gasteropoda. Part ii. Pelecypoda and Brachiopoda ;
Supplement. Aust. Mus. Mem., iii, 1899, 395-488, 489-510, 547-565.

A Review of the Systematic Position of Zemira, Adams. Rec. Aust. Mus., iii, 1899,
118-120.

A. Shipworm, New to Australia. Rec. Aust. Mus., iii, 1899, 134.

Summary of the Fauna of Funafuti. Aust. Mus. Mem., iii, 1899, 511-535.

A Zoogeographic Scheme for the Mid-Pacific. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxiv, 1899,
391-417.

Description of a New Genus, Auwstrosarepta, and Notes on other Mollusca from New
South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxiv, 1899, 429-434.

Descriptions of New Land Shells, with Notes on Known Species. Rec. Aust. Mus., iii,
1899, 151-154.

1900.

Turricula scalariformis, Ten.-Woods—its Occurrence in New South Wales. Rec. Aust.
Mus., iii, 1900, 219.

Scala revoluta, Hedley—its Occurrence in Fiji. Rec. Aust. Mus., iii, 1900, 219.

1900-1923.

Studies on Australian Mollusca. Parts i-xiv. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxv, 1900, 87-100;
xxv, 1900, 495-513; xxv, 1900 (1901), 721-732; xxvi, 1901, 16-25; xxvi, 1901 (1902),
700-708; xxvii, 1902, 7-29; xxvii, 1902 (1903), 596-619; xxix, 1904, 182-212; xxx,
1905 (1906), 520-546; xxxiii, 1908, 456-489; xxxvili, 1913, 258-339; xxxix, 1914 (1915),
695-755; xli, 1916 (1917), 680-719; xlviii, 1923, 301-316.

1901.
The Marine Wood-borers of Australasia and their Work. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
viii, 1901, 237-255.
Some New or Unfigured Australian Shells. Rec. Aust. Mus., iv, 1901, 22-27.
A Revision of the Types of the Marine Shells of the “Chevert’” Expedition. Rec. Awst.
Mus., iv, 1901, 121-130.
1902.
A. Day on the Great Barrier Reef. Nautilus, xv, 1902, 97-100.
Notes on Tasmanian Conchology. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1902, 77-78.
A New Australian Volute. Rec. Aust. Mus., iv, 1902, 309.

MEMORIAL NOTICE, 217

Notes on Tasmanian and West Indian Conchology. Nautilus, xvi, 1902, 49.
William Legrand. (Obituary.) Nawtilus, xvi, 1902, 60.

1902-1908.
Scientific Results of the Trawling Expedition of H.M.C.S. “Thetis”. Mollusca. Part i.
Brachiopoda and Pelecypoda; Part ii. Scaphopoda and Gastropoda. Aust. Mus. Mem.,
iv, 1902, 285-324; 1908, 325-402.

1908.
Notes on the Zoology of Paanopa or Ocean Island and Nauru or Pleasant Island, Gilbert
Group. The Mollusca. Rec. Awst. Mus., v, 1903, 4-5.

1904.
Additions to the Marine Molluscan Fauna of New Zealand. Rec. Aust. Mus., v, 1904,
86-97.
The Habitat of Gomphina moerchi Angas. Rec. Aust. Mus., v, 1904, 114.
Le Pére Lambert, S. M. (Obituary.) Nautilus, xvii, 1904, 119.
The Effect of the Bassian Isthmus upon the Existing Marine Fauna: a Study in Ancient
Geography. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxviii, 1904, 876-883.

1905.

South Australian Nudibranchs, and an Hnumeration of the known Australian Species.
Trans. Roy. Soc. South Auwst., xxix, 1905, 1384-160. (With Herbert Basedow.)

Report on the Mollusca collected by Mr. Herbert Basedow on the South Australian
Government North-West Expedition, 1903.. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Auwst., xxix, 1905,
161-165.

Mollusca from One Hundred and Eleven Fathoms, East of Cape Byron, New South
Wales. Rec. Aust. Mus., vi, 1905, 41-54.

On a Large Example of Megalatractus aruanus, L. Reo. Aust. Mus., vi, 1905, 98-100.

1906.

A Pteropod Alias. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., vii, 1906, 5.

Mollusca from Three Hundred Fathoms, off Sydney. Rec. Aust. Mus., vi, 1906, 211-225.
(With W. F. Petterd.)

Results of Dredging on the Continental Shelf of New Zealand. Trans. New Zeal. Inst.,
Xxxvili, 1906, 69-75.

On some Highteenth Century Names that relate to New Zealand. Mollusca. WN.Z. Col.
Mus. Bull., No. 1, 1906, 48-49.

Trederick Strange, the Conchologist. N.Z. Col. Mus. Bull., No. 1, 1906, 50.

1906-1907.

The Mollusca of Mast Head Reef, Capricorn Group, Queensland. Parts i-ii. Proce.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxi, 1906, 453-479; xxxii, 1907, 476-513.

1907.

The Results of Deep Sea Investigation in the Tasman Sea. I. The Expedition of
H.M.C.S. “Miner”. i. Introductory Note on the First Deep Sea Cruise. Rec. Aust.
Mus., vi, 1907, 271-2. (With W. A. Haswell.)—ii. The Expedition of the “Woy Woy”.
Mollusca from eight hundred Fathoms, thirty-five miles east of Sydney. Rec. Aust.
Mus., vi, 1907, 356-364.—Mollusca from Highty Fathoms off Narrabeen. Rec. Auwst.
Mus., vi, 1907, 283-304.

1908.

Coral Reefs of the Great Barrier, Queensland: a Study of their Structure, Life-
Distribution, and Relation to Mainland Physiography. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
xi, 1908, 397-413. (With T. Griffith Taylor.)

Mollusca from One Hundred Fathoms, Seven Miles East of Cape Pillar, Tasmania. Ree.
Aust. Mus., vii, 1908, 108-125. (With W. L. May.)

Occasional Note, No. 1. Sepia braggi Verco—a Record for the State. Rec. Aust. Mus.,
vii, 1908, 134.

1909.

Descriptions of New and Notes on other Australian Polyplacophora. Rec. Aust. Mus.,
vii, 1909, 260-266. (With A. F. Basset Hull.) Correction in Rec. Aust. Mus., vii,
1910, Addl. page at end of volume.

A Revised Census of the Terrestrial Mollusca of Tasmania. Rec. Aust. Mus., vii, 1909,
283-304. (With W. F. Petterd.)

Mollusca from the Hope Islands, North Queensland. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiv,
1909, 420-466.

218 CHARLES HEDLEY.

1910.

The Marine Fauna of Queensland. (Presidential Address, Sect. D.) Rept. Aust. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., xii, 1910, 329-371.

Torres Strait (Abstract of Lecture). Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xii, 1910, 372.

Presidential Address—‘‘The Submarine Slope of New South Wales.’’ Proc. LINN. Soc.
INE SAW) xexcxavey OOS a= 2/25

The Evolution of the Queensland Coast. Awst. Nat., ii, (2), 1910, 19-20.

The Mangrove Swamp. Aust. Nat., ii, (2), 1910, 21.

The Genus Cremnobates, Swainson. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., ix, 1910, 131-152. (With
H. Suter.)

W. F. Petterd. (Obituary.) Nautilus, xxiv, 1910, 72.

1911.
British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-9 (Shackleton). Reports, Vol. ii, Biology, pt. i,
Mollusea, 1911, 1-8.
Presidential Address.—‘‘A Study of Marginal Drainage.” Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
Sqm, Wall, tess).
The Nomenclature of Harpa. Nautilus, xxv, 1911, 65-66.

1911-1914.

Report on the Mollusca obtained by the F.1.S. “Hndeavour’’, chiefly off Cape Wiles, South
Australia. Part I. Zool. Results of the Fishing Experiments carried out by the
Kis. hndeavoure. UI0OI-N05 ete Ol 89-1 Parte Sih Biol, ive swilEs
“Hyndeavour”, ii, 2, 1914, 638-74.

1912.

An Index to the Land Shells of Victoria. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melb., No. 4, 1912, 5-15.
(With J. C. Cou.)

Descriptions of some New or Noteworthy Shells in the Australian Museum. Rec. Aust.
Mus., vili, 1912, 131-160.

Strange Names for Old Acquaintances. Nautilus, xxvi, 1912, 45-47. (With H. A.
Pilsbry.)

Conchological Chat from London. Nautilus, xxvi, 1912, 85-88.

The Palaeogeographical Relations of Antarctica. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., 124, 1912,
80-90. Reprinted in Smithson. Inst. Ann. Report, 1912 (1913), 443-453.

On Some Land Shells collected in Queensland, by Mr. Sidney W. Jackson. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., xxxvii, 1912, 253-270.

The Polyplacophora of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvii,
1912, 271-281. (With A. F. Basset Hull.)

POMBE
Lamarck’s Collection of Shells. Nawtilus, xxvi, 1913, 118-120.
On the Nomenclature of Drupa. Nautilus, xxvii, 1913, 79-80.
Report on Museum Administration in the United States. Aust. Mus. Misc. Series, viii,
OS Pale ie

1914.
The Australian Journal of Dr. W. Stimpson, Zoologist. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
xlviii, 1914, 140-151.
Description of a New Recent Pholadomya (Ph. tasmanica). Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., xi,
1914, 132-133. (With W. L. May.)
The Marine Invertebrates. N.S.W. Handbook, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1914, 353-362.
The Bondi Anticline. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxix, 1914, 316-321.

1915.

Presidential Address: An Ecological Sketch of the Sydney Beaches. Journ. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., xlix, 1915, 1-77. (Reprinted in the N.S.W. Hducational Gazette, ix,
1915, 323-344.)

Tasmanian Relics in the Havre Museum. Papers Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1914 (1915),
81-82.

Charles Turnbull Harrison. (Obituary.) Biol. Results ... “Hndeavour’”’, 1909-14, III,
1915, x-xii.

SG:

Report on Mollusca from Elevated Marine Beds, ‘‘Raised Beaches’, of McMurdo Sound.

British Antarctic Expedition 1907-9 Reports, Geology, Vol. ii, 1916, 85-88.

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 219

Further Notes on Bursa rubeta, L. Journ. Conch., xv, 1916, 41-42.

Transport of the Coco-Nut across the Pacific Ocean. Scientific Australian. xxi, 1916,
82-84. (Reprinted in Man, xvii, 1917, 12-13.)

A Preliminary Index of the Mollusca of Western Australia. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc.
West. Aust., i, 1916, 152-226.

Mollusca. Australasian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14, Scientific Reports. Series C, Zool.,
MY Ite, 1 IA, aso

1917.

Notes on Operculum Evolution. Nawtilws, xxx, 1917, 97-99.

Report on an Australian Sponge. Scientific Australian, xxii, 1917, 55-56.

Has Lymnaea an Auriculoid Ancestry? Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., xii, 1917, 125-126.

Description of a New Shell from Caloundra. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., xxix, 1917, 55-56.

The Economics of Trochus niloticus. Aust. Zool., i, 1917, 69-73. (Reprinted in Scientific
Australian, xxiii, 1917, 32-33.)

The Father of the Horse. Scientific Australian, xxiii, 1917, 31.

Notes on the Victorian Species of Bullinus. Rec. Aust. Mus., xii, 1917, 1-8.

1918.

A Check-List of the Marine Fauna of New South Wales. Part I. Mollusca. Jow?n.
Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., li, 1918, M1-M120.

Narrative of an Expedition of Exploration in North-Western Australia by Herbert
Basedow. Special Report. Mollusca. Trans. Roy. Geogr. Soc. Aust., South Aust.
Branch, xviii, 1918, 263-288.

Henry Suter. (Obituary.) Nawtilus, xxxii, 1918, 72.

1929.
Henry Suter, 1841-1918. (Obituary.) Trans. New Zeal. Inst., li, 1919, ix-x.
Supplementary Note. (To a New Discogiossid Frog from New Zealand, by A. R.

McCulloch.) Trans. New Zeal. Inst., li, 1919, 448-449.

The Portobello Marine Fish-Hatchery and Biological Station. Scientific Australian,
xxv, 1919, 105-106.

A Review of the Australian Tun Shells. Rec. Aust. Mus., xii, 1919, 329-336.

About Hands. Aust. Zool... i, 1919, 203-4.

The Harvest of the Tropic Seas. Science and Industry, Official Journal of the Common-
wealth Institute of Science and Industry, i, 1919, 465-469.

Notes on the Rock-Oyster Fishery of Auckland. N.Z. Journ. Science and Techi., ii,
1919, 365-366.

Wild Animals of the World, being a Popular Guide to Taronga Zoological Park. 1919.

1920.

On Siphonalia dilatata of Suter’s Manual. N.Z. Journ. Science and Techn., iii, 1920, 54.

A Revised Name for a New Zealand Trochoid. N.Z. Journ. Science and Techr., iii,
1920, 54.

Cominella quoyi, Kiener. N.Z. Journ. Science and Techn., iii, 1920, 55.

Verconella adusta: a Correction. N.Z. Journ. Science and Techn., iii, 1920, 70.

Concerning Edenttellina. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond., xiv, 1920, 74-76.

1921.

Blackfellows’ Pictures. Aust. Mus. Mag., i, 1921, 7-10.

A Revision of the Australian Tridacna. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiii, 1921, 163-172.
The Depths of the Sea. Aust. Mus. Mag., i, 1921, 48-52.

A Revision of the Australian Turridae. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiv, 1922, 213-359.

1922.
How Savages use the Sea Shells. Aust. Mus. Mag., i, 1922, 163-167.

19238.

Notes on Some Australian Cassis. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiv, 1923, 46-48.

A Talk about Shells. Aust. Mus. Mag.. i, 1923, 233-237.

The Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Queensland Govt. Intelligence Bureau, 1928, 1-52.

Aboriginal People of the Sydney District. Pan Pacific Science Congress. 19238, Guide-
book Excursions, Sydney District, 19238, 1-4.

On a Thalassoid Element in the Australian Molluscan Fauna. Vict. Naturalist. xi,
1923, To-7%.

The Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Queensland Geogr. Journal. xxxviii, 1928, 105-109.
(With H. C. Richards.)

220 CHARLES HEDLEY.

The Largest Hippopus. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiv, 1923, 138.
A Supposed Molluscan Egg-Nidus. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiv, 1923, 139.

1924.

Australian Pearl Fisheries... Aust. Mus. Mag., ii, 1924, 5-11.

A Bucket Dredge. Nautilus, xxxvii, 1924, 118-120.

Some Notes on Australian Land Shells. Awst. Zool., iii, 1924, 215-222.

A Revision of the Australian Pinnidae. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiv, 1924, 141-153.

Some Naticoids from Queensland. Rec. Aust. Mus., xiv, 1924, 154-162.

Differential Elevation near Sydney. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lviii, 1924, 61-66.
The Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Natural History, xxiv, 1924, 62-67.

1925.

On a Tanganyika Beach. Naztilus, xxxviii, 1925, 109-112.

A Geological Reconnaissance in North Queensland. Trans. R. Geog. Soc. Aust., Qld.
Branch, i (n.s.), 1925, 1-28.

The Natural Destruction of a Coral Reef. TJbid., 35-40.

A Raised Beach at the North Barnard Islands. TIbid., 61-62.

The Townsville Plain. Ibid., 63-66.

Coral Shingle and Beach Formation. Ibid., 66.

An Opacity Meter. TIbid., 67-68.

A Disused River Mouth at Cairns. Ibid., 68-72.

The Surface Temperature of Moreton Bay. Ibid., 149-150.

The Queensland Harthquake of 1918. Jbid., 151-156.

Report of the Scientific Director [Great Barrier Reef Committee]. Jbid., 157-160.

1926.

Recent Studies on the Great Barrier Reef of Queensland. Amer. Journ. Sci., 5th Ser., xi,
1926, 187-193.

Hunting Trick of the Man-o’-war Hawk (Fregata minor). Hmu, xxv, 1926, 280-281.

The Biology of the North West Islet, Capricorn Group. Corals. Aust. Zool., iv, 1926,
249-250.

The Discovery of the Great Barrier Reef. Scottish Geog. Mag., xliii, 1926, 154-159.

Article on Mollusca. Austr. Encyclopaedia, ii, 1926, 132-136.

QGICAD

Wid,

eon re e py

THE ADRENAL GLAND IN NEW-BORN MAMMALS.
By GEOFFREY BOURNE, D.Sc., Australian Institute of Anatomy.
(Plate xi; twenty Text-figures.)

[Read 30th September, 1936.]

For this work the adrenals of the following species were examined: (1) Two
new-born specimens of Hquus zebra; (2) one new-born Ursus maritimus (Polar
Bear); (3) one young specimen (a few weeks old) of Arctocephalus doriferus
(Seal); (4) one late fetus of Delphinus delphus (Dolphin); (5) one ten-inch
pouch-embryo of Dendrolagus bennettianus (Tree Kangaroo); (6) one ten-inch
pouch-embryo of Macropus giganteus (Kangaroo); (7) one four-inch female and
one five-inch male pouch-embryo of Macropus ruficollis; (8) one young female
specimen of Macropus agilis.

The two young zebras were obtained by courtesy of the Zoo authorities in
Western Australia, and other glands described were obtained from preserved
specimens in the possession of the Australian and National Museums, and the
Western Australian Museum.

As a result of the imperfect fixation of the glands in the museum specimens,
accurate details regarding the cells could not be given, but it-was possible to
distinguish the various zones and to make some degree of comparison with other
forms.

Fixation and Staining.
The adrenals of the zebras were removed and divided into various sections.
One portion was placed in 10% formalin for two days, then washed, imbedded,
and sectioned. The sections were stained by the haemalum-eosin method.

Other sections of the zebra adrenal were treated in various ways. A portion
was fixed in formalin for 24 hours; frozen sections were treated with Scharlach R
and Sudan III to demonstrate fats and lipoids, and then mounted in glycerine
jelly. Another portion was treated with osmium tetroxide (osmic acid) to test
for the presence of unsaturated fat. In addition a portion of one gland was
fixed in a mixture of 3% potassium bichromate 2 parts, 1% chromic acid 2 parts,
and 2% osmic acid 1 part, for twenty-four hours, then placed in 2% osmiec acid
for four days at 30° C. (Kolatchev’s method); the resulting sections demonstrated
the Golgi apparatus.

For mitochondria another piece of gland was placed in the above fixative for
twenty-four hours, washed, mordanted for six days in 3% potassium bichromate,
washed, and sectioned. The sections were stained by the classical acid-fuchsin-
picric-acid method.

The Staining of the Vitamin C.

Of two further pieces of gland, one was placed in the present author’s
modification of Giroud and Leblond’s acetie acid silver nitrate mixture for two
hours in the dark and kept at room temperature. Another piece was placed in
acetic acid gold chloride for a similar time and under identical conditions. The
composition of the silver nitrate solution was 2% silver nitrate with 5 c.c. of

A

222 THE ADRENAL GLAND IN NEW-BORN MAMMALS.

glacial acetic acid added to each one hundred cubic centimetres of the silver
nitrate solution. The gold chloride solution was of a similar strength. The
results obtained by these two methods were identical.

Treatment of Museum Specimens.

The adrenals removed from museum specimens were spirit-preserved. They
were washed in distilled water for 48 hours, treated with 10% formalin for a
further 48 hours, washed with distilled water for 24 hours, and were then
dehydrated and sectioned. The sections were stained by the haemalum-eosin
method as for the fresh adrenals.

Previous Work.

Hill (1930) described the microscopic and macroscopic appearances of the
adrenal glands in young and adult specimens of Primates, Carnivores and
Ungulates. He found that a foetal cortex was present in those specimens of
young Primates which he examined, and stated that in young Carnivores and
Ungulates the main mass of the gland was composed of cells which were morpho-
logically similar to those of the “foetal cortex” of Primates.

The “foetal cortex” might be called an enlarged boundary zone between cortex
and medulla. It is present in the human foetus and in the very young of both
sexes, and was discovered in 1911 by Elliott and Armour. Starkel and
Weegrzynowsky, Kern, and Thomas published on the same subject at about the
same time. This cortical zone is not found in any other mammals lower than
the Primates, and its absence from the human foetal adrenal in cases of
anencephaly has led certain authors to claim a relationship between brain develop-
ment and the presence of the “foetal cortex”. It is of interest in this connection
that the “foetal cortex” is only present in the adrenal gland of such members of
the mammalian order as show a distinct advance in cerebral development over
the members of the other orders.

The presence of large quantities of lipoid in both brain and adrenal gland
may be a factor of some significance, but the “foetal cortex” is sometimes almost
devoid of lipoid.or may contain only relatively small amounts. Cooper (1925)
mentions that at times the cortical cells may show marked reduction of lipoid, but
she points out that as lipoidal material is apparently concerned with the develop-
ment of the central nervous system and the sexual gland, therefore “it seems
reasonable to expect the suprarenal body, which is presumably an important
source of lipoidal material, to produce large amounts of this substance at those
periods of life when the development of the sexual organs and the nervous system
is greatest, namely, at puberty. Ordinary histological examination of the gland
appears to support this presumption .. .”

Hill has published a summary of the more important papers dealing with the
development of the adrenal gland in various animals, e.g., Jackson, 1913;
Donaldson, 1919; Dewitsky, 1912, on rats; Elliott and Tuckett, 1906, on guinea-pigs;
Lucas-Keene and Hewer, 1927, on the human adrenal; and Howard-Miller, 1927,
on the X zone of the adrenal in mice. The animals examined by Hill include
new-born Carnivores (kittens, leopard cub, pups, bear cub), Ungulates (lambs,
pigs, goats and foetal hippopotami and calves), and Primates (Pithecoid monkeys,
Macaques and Lemurs).

The Adrenals of New-Born Specimens of Equus zebra.

The adrenals in both specimens were elongated, smooth, rounded bodies of a
light colour and were in each case attached intimately to the antero-mesial

BY G. BOURNE. 223

borders of the corresponding kidneys (Fig. 1). The sizes were: Left adrenal,
12 mm. long, 3 mm. antero-posterior thickness, and 3-5 mm. wide. Left kidney,
long axis 40 mm., width 25 mm., and dorso-ventral thickness 15 mm. The gland
was attached to the kidney by a plentiful investment of connective tissue which
anchored it firmly in position.

On section, the gland showed a thin outer rim of cells and a more voluminous
medullary part. Just beneath the capsule was a striking zone of elongated dark-
staining cells which were arranged side by side with the long axes parallel to the
capsule, and these cells formed columns which bent round through 180 degrees
at the capsule and returned to the main body of the cortex.

The major portion of the cortical rim was made up of large cells with big
vesicular nuclei as described by Hill for other Ungulates. Hill, however, found,
beneath the capsule, a zone of small, darkly-staining cells not oriented in any
glomerular fashion, and he comments that even in a three-weeks-old pig he is not
able to find any glomerular arrangement of these cells. The young zebra adrenal,
then, is an exception to the Ungulates examined by Hill in that, even at birth,
a definite zona glomerulosa is present.

Near the glomerular zone the cortical cells with vesicular nuclei have
scattered among them cells of similar size but with much more chromophillic
nuclei. As the central medullary portion is more closely approached, these cells
gradually become fewer and fewer and, closer to the medullary portion, large
cells with very vesicular, weakly-staining nuclei make their appearance. Thus in
a stained section of the gland we obtain a gradation of shading from the darkly-
staining glomerular region to the lightly-staining medullary portion. This is
shown very well in Plate xi, fig. 1.

The cells of this cortical rim were not oriented in any particular direction.
This differs from the arrangement in the adrenals of the animals examined by
Hill, in which he found the cortical cells arranged in short columns radiating
from the centre of the gland.

The boundary zone between the cortical rim and the medullary portion is
rather well defined and, although tongues of cortical material penetrate into the
medullary portion, they are well marked off from the central or medullary region
of the gland.

Immediately within the cortical portion were groups of very large cells with
a pale-staining cytoplasm and very large, somewhat vesicular nuclei. They were
in some cases isolated, but where they occurred near the cortical rim they were
aggregated into groups with the long axes of the cells parallel with one another
and at right angles to the boundary line. They were separated from the cortical
rim by a single layer of flattened fibroblasts. These cells constituted the true
medullary cells (Fig. 3). In addition to these, there were numerous other cells
of a smaller size with vesicular, but more intensely staining nuclei and light-
staining cytoplasm. These were scattered through the medullary portion of the
gland and were very similar in nature to cortical cells. In addition, large cells
with a much more deeply staining nucleus were present and numerous cells similar
to those described near the boundary zone were found scattered through the
so-called medullary portion. Also, there was a goodly admixture of large well-
formed fibroblast cells with typical oval nuclei. The so-called medulla of this
gland is thus a mixture of cortical elements and medullary elements and the
gland may be described as consisting mainly of cortex, as Hill has found for other
Ungulates.

Hill regards the main mass of the cells in the Carnivore and Ungulate adrenals
as being similar to those of the “foetal cortex” of Primate adrenals. The foetal

224 THE ADRENAL GLAND IN NEW-BORN MAMMALS,

cortex, however, is, as Hill mentions, a zone which subsequently degenerates and
takes no part in the formation of the adult cortex. No signs of degeneration
have been observed in the zebra adrenal by myself, or by Hill in the adrenals of
non-rrimate animals examined by him. In the human foetal cortex, however,
degeneration produrts, in the form of numerous melanin granules, have been
found to be present, as a number of authors have observed.

6 Us

Fig. 1.—Relationship of the left adrenal to the left kidney in the new-born Hquus
AAAs a <a

Fig. 2.—Arrangement of cells in the zona glomerulosa in Hquus zebra. x 500.

Fig. 3.—Arrangement of medullary cells at boundary between cortex and medulla
in Hquus zebra. x 1,750. -

Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Golgi apparatus in the cells of the adrenal of the new-born
Equus zebra. Fig. 4, a cell from the cortical rim; Figs. 5 to 8, cells from the central
portion of the gland.

In Ungulates, Hill has shown that the foetal cells modify directly into the
cells of the adult adrenal without any degeneration. I have not been able to
obtain a series of zebra adrenals to confirm this fact.

The young zebra adrenal showed a paucity of lipoidal material in nearly
all of its cells. Unsaturated fat also was found to be very rare in most of them
(osmium tetroxide test).

A number of cortical cells showed the presence of two or three globules of
lipoid enclosed in a small area which stained intensely black with osmium
tetroxide, thus indicating the presence of unsaturated fat. This was also observed
in occasional cells of the adrenal of the flying Phalanger (Petawrus breviceps)
and may indicate that one of the substances associated with the elaboration of
the lipoid droplets may be unsaturated fat. The presence of grey granules in some
of the cells indicated the presence of fat of a higher degree of saturation.
Mitochondria were found to be present in all the cells and were observed to be
typically granular and to be scattered amongst the lipoidal globules (where
present), but there did not appear to be any association between them and the
lipoid droplets. No filamentous mitochondria were observed in any of the cells.
This result (granular mitochondria) is in accord with the work of the previous
authors on the adrenal gland. Pleknik (1902) and Bonnamour (1902) have found
granular fuchsinophilic material, which they regarded as mitochondria, in the
cells of the adrenals of various animals. Mulon (1910) found rod-shaped mito-
chondria in the zona glomerulosa cells of the guinea-pig adrenal. Rogoff (1932)
quotes Seecof as having found the mitochondria of the adrenal to occur most

bo
bo
or

BY G. BOURNE.

commonly in the form of minute rounded granules, taking the rod-shaped and
filamentous form only very infrequently.

Golgi Apparatus.

All the cells of the zebra adrenal showed the presence of a Golgi apparatus.
In the cells of the cortical rim it was of a very compact nature and appeared
to be composed of a sphere with numerous internal anastomosing branches (Fig. 4).
This was the only type of apparatus found in the outer region, and no signs of
hypertrophy of the apparatus as described by the present author in the adrenals
of other animals was observed. This is in agreement with the suggestion (Bourne,
1934) that the Golgi apparatus is associated with the production of the lipoid
droplets in the cortical adrenal cells, for here, where there are very few lipoid
droplets, the Golgi apparatus is quite small and appears inactive. In the central
portion of the gland the Golgi material, in some cells, was of the form just
described and in others it showed a greater variety of forms (Figs. 5-8). Although
the shape of the apparatus varied in these cells, it may be seen that it was still
compact and showed no signs of hypertrophy.

Vitamin C.

The material presumed to be vitamin C was found to be aggregated chiefly
in the central part of the gland and in the inner part of the true cortex. The
zona glomerulosa and the outer portion of the zona fasciculata gave no reaction
with either of these techniques, so it is probable that reduced vitamin C is absent
from this portion of the gland (PI. xi, fig. 2). Giroud and Leblond (1934) have
found the adrenals of adult rats and guinea-pigs examined by them to contain
no vitamin C in the zona glomerulosa, but they found it to be present plentifully
in the zona reticularis and the zona fasciculata. The form taken by the vitamin
was identical in the two techniques, that is, finely granular, with a slight tendency
towards perinuclear condensation. The granules were found to be solid, not
hollow as in the adrenals of a human foetus examined by the author. The fact
that the outer portion of the glands gave no reaction with silver nitrate is not
absolute proof that the vitamin is absent from this region, as Harris (1933) has found
that in some cases the regions which do not stain with silver nitrate actually
contain varying quantities of the reversibly oxidized vitamin, but he considers
a positive result with silver nitrate a definite indication of the presence of the
vitamin.

Ursus maritimus.

The adrenals of a new-born polar bear were examined. The glands were found
to occupy the antero-mesial borders of the corresponding kidneys and showed a
regular oval shape in transverse section. The surfaces were quite smooth and
were covered by a thick loosely-investing capsule. The relations of the glands
with the corresponding kidneys are shown in figure 9.

In section (Fig. 10) the glands did not appear to possess a definite medulla.
There was an outer peripheral, denser, rim of cells and the main body of the
gland appeared to be composed of mixed cortical and medullary elements. The
peripheral cells showed in parts the structure of a zona glomerulosa.

Arctocephalus doriferus.
A young specimen a few weeks old was examined. The glands were elongated,
and possessed a thick but loosely-investing capsule. The surfaces of the two
adrenals were smooth. Both glands were situated on the anteromesial borders

226 THE ADRENAL GLAND IN NEW-BORN MAMMALS,

of the corresponding kidneys to which they were firmly attached (Fig. 13). The
capsule sent practically no trabeculae into the interior of the gland. The cortex
was fasciculated and there was a small zona glomerulosa and a small zona
reticularis (Fig. 14). Thus, even at this early age in the seal, the typical adult
structure of the gland is present. In 13-day-old members of the Carnivora vera,
Hill found a zona glomerulosa and an incipient zona fasciculata to be present.

19

Fig. 9.—Relation of the adrenals to the kidneys in Ursus nuaritimus (new-born). x 3.

Fig. 10.—The thin cortical rim surrounding a central portion containing mixed
medullary and cortical elements. Portion of the cortical rim may be seen to possess a
zona glomerulosa. x 5.

Fig. 11.—Position of adrenals in Delphinus delphus. x }.

Fig. 12.—Thin cortical rim with well defined zona glomerulosa. x 4.

Fig. 13.—Arctocephalus doriferuws. Position of adrenals. x 4.

Fig. 14.—Adrenal of young Arctocephalus doriferus, showing the three typically
differentiated zones of the adult gland. »x 5.

Fig. 15.—Macropus ruficollis. Position of adrenals. x j.

Fig. 16.—WMacropus ruficollis. Showing strands of cortical material penetrating the
medulla. Pouch-embryo. x 4.

Fig. 17.—Wacropus gigantews. Position of adrenals. x i.

Fig. 18.—Macropus giganteus. Partly differentiated adrenal of pouch-embryo,
showing zona glomerulosa. x 4.

Fig. 19.—Dendrolagus bennettianus. Position of adrenals. x }.

Fig. 20.—Dendrolagus bennettianus. Adrenal of pouch-embryo, showing slightly
fasciculated cortical rim. ~x 3.

BY G. BOURNE. 227

Delphinus delphus.

A late foetus was examined. Hach gland was placed cranially to the corres-
ponding kidney and was intimately attached to the dorsal body-wall (Fig. 11).
The surface of the gland was smooth, though the shape was irregular. The cortex
was rather difficult to distinguish from the medulla, and there was a typical thin
rim of cells surrounding the gland, which stained much more intensely than the
deeper portions. A zona glomerulosa was present also in this animal. The central
region, as in the previous animals examined, was composed of mixed cortical and
medullary elements (Fig. 12).

The pouch-young of three Marsupials of the family Macropidae were examined.
In all three the adrenals were situated typically on the antero-mesial borders of
the corresponding kidneys, and their surfaces were quite smooth (Figs. 15, 17, 19).

Dendrolagus bennettianus.

The adult gland of this Marsupial possessed a well-defined broad cortex,
together with a rather imperfectly formed zona glomerulosa. In a 10-inch male
pouch-embryo (Fig. 20), the cortex was in the form of a thin rim which possessed
a slight degree of fasciculation and an indistinct zona glomerulosa. A number of
trabeculae extended through the cortex and cut off portions of this region of the
gland into separate islets of cells. The central portion of the gland contained both
cortical and medullary elements as in the young Hutherian adrenal. The central
cells were irregularly arranged.

Macropus giganteus.

A 10-inch pouch-embryo showed an adrenal with but a thin rim of cortex
which was, however, definitely fasciculated and possessed a well-defined zona
glomerulosa. The central portion again contained mixed cortical and medullary
elements (Fig. 18).

Macropus ruficollis.

Four- and five-inch female and male pouch-embryos were examined. The
cortex was composed of a rim of completely undifferentiated cells irregularly
arranged. Some of the cells in this region, however, were arranged in strands
and some of these strands entered the medulla to form a network, in the meshes
of which the medullary cells lay in groups. This condition is quite primitive
(Fig. 16).

Macropus agilis.
A young female specimen possessed adrenals which showed a thin differentiated
cortex and a well-defined voluminous medulla which contained chiefly medullary
and only a few occasional cortical cells.

Summary.

Hill’s work on the adrenal glands of young Carnivora and Ungulates has been
supported by the examination of other members of the same orders. In addition,
it appears that the adrenals of members of the Metatheria Macropidae also pass
through a stage comparable with that of the adrenals of the non-Primate EKutherian
Mammal.

A similar stage may be seen in the adrenals of the Porpoise (Delphinus
delphus). A young seal (Arctocephalus doriferus), however, possessed an adrenal
in which a definite differentiated cortex was present, thus constituting a difference
from the adrenals of members of the Carnivora vera, examined by Hill.

228 THE ADRENAL GLAND IN NEW-BORN MAMMALS.

Acknowledgement.—I am very much indebted to Mr. L. Glauert, Curator of
the W.A. Museum, to Mr. E. Le G. Troughton and Dr. C. Anderson of the Australian
Museum, Sydney, and Mr. D. Mahony and Mr. C. W. Brazenor of the National
Museum, Melbourne, for making available preserved specimens for some of this
work.

References.

Bourne, G., 1933a.—Vitamin C in the Adrenal Gland. Natwre, Vol. 131, 19338, 874.
, 1933b.—The Staining of Vitamin C in the Adrenal Glands. Aust. Journ. Hap.
Biol. Med. Sci., Vol. xi, 1933, 261.

, 19338¢e.—Vitamin C in the Adrenal Gland of the Human Foetus and the Physical
State of the Vitamin in the Gland Cell. Nature, Vol. 132, 1933, 859.

, 1984.—A Study on the Golgi Apparatus of the Adrenal. Aust. Journ. Hap.
Biol. Med. Sci., Vol. xii, 1934, 123.

BoNNAMOUDR, S., 1902.—Recherches histologiques sur la sécretion des capsules surrénales.
C.R. Assoc. Anat., 4° Session, Montpellier, 1902.

Cooper, EH. R. A., 1925.—The Histology of the more important Endocrine Organs at
Various Ages. Oxford Univ. Press. 1925.

DpwiTsky, W., 1912.—Beitrage zur Histologie der Nebennieren. Ziegl. Beitr., Bd. 1xi,
1912, 431.

DoNALDSON, J. C., 1919.—Relative volumes of cortex and medulla of the adrenal of the
albino rat. Alm. Journ. Anat., Nol. sev, 1919, 29

EvuiotTtT, T. R., and Armour, R. G., 1911.—The Development of the Cortex in the Human
Suprarenal Gland and its Condition in Hemicephaly. Jowrn. Path. Bact., Vol. xv,
1911, p. 481.

———,, and Tuckett, I., 1906.—Cortex and Medulla in the Suprarenal Glands. Journ.
Physiol., Vol. xxxiv, 1906, 350.

GiroupD, A., and LEBLOND, C. P., 1934.—Localisation histochimique de la Vitamin C dans
le cortex surrénales CuR: Soc: Biol., t. 115, 19345 705.

Harris, L. J., and Ray, S. N., 19383.—Vitamin C in the adrenal Medulla. Biochem.
Journ., Vol. 2%, -19383, 2006.

Hinit, W. C. O., 1930.—Observations on the growth of the Suprarenal Cortex. Journ.
Anatomy, Vol. Ixiv, 1930, 479.

,1933.—The Suprarenal Cortex in Monkeys of the Genus Pithecus. Journ.
Anatomy, Vol. lxviii, 19338, 19.

HoOWARD-MILLER, E., 1927.—A Transitory Zone in the Adrenal Cortex which shows age
and sex Relationships. Am. Journ. Anat., Vol. xl, 1927, 251.

JACKSON, C. M., 1913.—Post-natal growth and variability of the body and various organs
in the albino rat. Am. Journ. Anat., Vol. xv, 19138, 1.

, 1919.—Post-natal development of the Suprarenal Gland and the Effects of
Inanition upon its growth and Structure in the Albino Rat. Am. Journ. Anat.,
Wok seq ails), (Aral.

Keren, H., 1911.—Ueber den Umbau der Nebennieren im Extra-uterinen Leben. Deutsch.
Med. Wochschr. Leipsig, May 24, 1911, 971.

Lucas-KEENE, M. F., and Hewemr, EH. E., 1924.—Glandular Activity in the Human Foetus.
Lancet, ii, 1924, 111.

; , 1927.—The Development of the Human Suprarenal Gland. Journ.
Anat., Vol. Ixi, 1927, 302.

MutLon, P., 1910.—Sur les Mitochondries de la Surrénale. C.R. Soc. Biol., t. 68, 1910, 917.

PLEKNIK, J., 1902.—Zur MHistologie der Nebenniere des Menschen. Arch. f. Wik.
Anatomie, Bd. 60, 1902, 414.

Rocorr, J. M., and Stewart, G. N., 1932.—Special Cytology. 1932 Edition.

STARKEL, S., and WEGRZYNOWSKY, L., 1910.—Beitrag zur Histologie der Nebennieren bei
Feten und Kindern. Arch. f. Anat. Physiol., 214.

Tuomas, E., 1911.—Ueber der Nebenniere des Kindes und Ihre Veranderungen bei
Infektions Krankheiten. Ziegls. Beitr. zur path. Anat., etc., 1911, 283.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Figure 1.—Section through adrenal of new-born Hquus zebra. The thin rim of
cortex with definite zona glomerulosa may be easily distinguished. x 80.

Figure 2.—Vitamin C in the adrenal gland of the new-born Hquus zebra. The
absence of the stain from the outer portion of the cortical rim may be easily noted.
x $0. (Gold chloride method.)

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE XI.

New-born Equus zebra.—1. Section through adrenal;
2. Vitamin C in adrenal gland.

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA.
PART I. SYSTEMATICS.

By Consetr Davis, B.Sc.
(From the Zoology Department, Sydney University.)

(Forty-three Text-figures. )

[Read 30th September, 1936.]

Introduction.

The Embioptera represent an order in which some doubt still exists regarding
internal anatomy, embryology, and general bionomics; moreover, certain sclerites
are of doubtful homology, particularly the cercus-basipodites, and the relation of
the genital aperture of the male to the ninth and tenth sternites is obscure.

With regard to internal anatomy, the earlier reports (e.g., Grassi and Sandias,
1896; Melander, 1903) are incomplete and conflicting; and although a report has
been published more recently by Mukerji (1927), this description is of a different
family from that to which the Australian forms belong. Certain details (e.g., of
ovariole structure) have not yet been examined. With regard to embryology,
three late stages have been described by Melander (1903), but this is the only
work on the subject yet published. The bionomics of several foreign species have
been detailed (e.g., Imms, 1913), but the life-cycles, feeding habits, and general
ecology of the Australian species are almost completely unknown.

It is evident, therefore, that there is need for a considerable amount of
research on all these aspects. Since, however, the two species most abundant
near Sydney are undescribed, while previous descriptions of the third common
species lack details of the diagnostic characters of greatest importance (the male
terminalia), it is necessary to deal with the systematics of the order before
proceeding to more general questions.

Except in the remarkable instance recorded by Froggatt (1905) of huge
numbers of Embioptera occurring at the refinery of the Colonial Sugar Refining
Company at Pyrmont—an occurrence recorded again for 1913 by Friederichs
(1923)—this order has never been regarded as common in New South Wales.
However, search in the field locally has revealed that three species are both wide-
spread and abundant. The descriptions of species from other States are based
on material forwarded by Mr. L. Glauert, of the Western Australian Museum;
Mr. A. Tonnoir, of the Division of Economic Entomology, C.S.I.R., Canberra; Mr.
J. Clark, of the National Museum, Melbourne; Mr. H. M. Hale, of the South
Australian Museum, Adelaide; Dr. R. J. Tillyard; and Mr. F. H. Taylor. Certain
species from the Hast Indies were kindly forwarded by Dr. Lieftinck, of the
Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg, for examination. My thanks are due to all of
these, and to those who have collected material locally; in the latter case,
acknowledgement is made when dealing with the species concerned.

B

230 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

All the Embioptera yet discovered in Australia belong to the family
Oligotomidae, in which the venation is more specialized and reduced than in the
Embiidae. Some of the Australian forms, more especially some of those here
described as new, must be regarded as being amongst the most specialized and
advanced in the whole order. The absence of the primitive Embiidae suggests
that the order reached Australia late in evolutionary history, probably from the
Indo-Malayan region.

As far as practicable, the instructions laid down by Ferris (1928) have been
adhered to in specific descriptions. The females are all so similar that, although
certain species can be recognized one from another, no exact determination of
the species can be made from the female alone. In consequence, the female is
described fully only in the first species dealt with, and in subsequent species only
points of special importance are mentioned. The females described have been
taken in association with males of the species stated, and no records have been
admitted where there was any possibility of more than one species living in the
situation examined.

I follow Ferris’s interpretation in designating an allotype female where the
male only was known to the original author, and vice versa. Others of the
series from which such an allotype has been selected have been designated para-
allotypes.

All measurements were made with a calibrated ocular micrometer; this was
also used continually in the preparation of diagrams, to ensure correct proportions
and magnifications. The measurements, although made accurately, must not be
taken with too much emphasis; they serve as an indication rather than a mathe-
matically certain statement. The averages have been calculated from as large a
series as was available, but in a few cases this was strictly limited. With regard
to upper and lower limits, in such a variable group one must always be prepared
to find an individual lying outside the limits here stated, which are laid down
merely on material to hand. Total lengths are especially deceptive, as the reading
varies according to whether the abdomen is extended or telescoped, especially
with the female before and after oviposition. All measurements of total length,
head length, and ratios, are exclusive of wings, cerci, antennae and palps. Ratios
have been calculated from averages for the series concerned.

Since the colour varies greatly with the time since the final ecdysis, an
attempt has been made to give data of mature and fully darkened specimens in
all cases.

Family OLIGOTOMIDAER.

With regard to the males, the chief family criterion is the reduced venation,
neither R,., nor M being branched in either wing. When the species is wingless,
it must be referred to its family on other characters: the left hemitergite of
abdominal segment 10 bears a process, and the left cercus-basipodite is present as
a distinct process.

As Friederichs (1914) has already noted, the weakness of certain veins in
the wing, although a reliable family character for foreign species, does not hold
for all Australian species. This character is discussed below under the considera-
tion of genera within the family.

The females of the family Oligotomidae can be distinguished from those of
the family Embiidae by the reduced first abdominal sternite.

It becomes necessary to separate certain Australian species from the genus
Oligotoma, and therefore a diagnosis of Oligotoma sens. str. is appended below.
This diagnosis, besides excluding the local species, for which new genera are

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 231

erected in this paper, also excludes satisfactorily the species of the North American
genus Anisembia Krauss.

Genus OLtigotoma Westwood, 1836.

Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., xvii, 1836, 373.—Genotype, O. saundersi Wwd., 1836,
loc. cit.

To this genus, in the limited sense, are assigned those Oligotomidae in which
the right hemitergite of abdominal segment 10 of the male is produced backwards
from its outer margin to a long, straight or slightly sinuous process, at least three
times as long as broad, and the second segment of the left cercus is subcylindrical,
at least three times as long as broad, and. distinctly sutured off from the first
segment. When wings are present in the male (as is usual), the veins R,,,, M,
and Cu, are obscure, being represented by little more than pigment-bands.

Absence of wings is apparently a character of no generic significance, being
convergent. Thus, within the genus Oligotoma sens. str., there is described below
a species with the type form possessing a winged male, and with geographic sub-
species in which the male is wingless. The species Anisembia texana (Mel.) has
winged and wingless males occurring in the same colony, as also has one of the
species described below under a new genus. Other forms are also wingless, e.g.,
the genus Monotylota, family Embiidae.

OLIGOTOMA GURNEYI GURNEYI Frogg., 1904. Figs. 1, 11, 18, 25, 32.
O. gurneyi Froggatt, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1904, pp. 672-673.

Concerning this species, Friederichs wrote (1914, p. 248): “Whilst in Sydney
I had the opportunity of examining the type (male) of Froggatt’s Australian
Embiid....Itis a dry specimen without an abdomen. The neuration characterises
it as an Oligotoma. ... The (unforked) posterior portion of the radial ramus is
only well-developed at its proximal end, the remaining part being only faintly
indicated. The same is true of the median and the cubitus. The eye as seen from
above is almost circular (as in Enderlein’s figure of O. saundersi). It is possible
that it may be one of the cosmopolitan species (saundersi or latreillei), but a
reliable identification of this specimen is obviously out of the question.”

Zeck (1930) described and excellently figured a specimen ((@) taken near
Sydney (the type locality) as O. gurneyi Frogg. This identification did not rest on
a comparison with the type, and the terminalia were not figured in detail. This
specimen has since been lost.

From a comparison of material taken around Sydney and elsewhere with
the type (in which the head characters are still quite distinct) and with
Friederichs’s remarks, it can be stated with certainty that the material is
O. gurneyi Frogg.; and that Zeck’s description was of this species. The additional
data are given below with Mr. Zeck’s permission. Since other subspecies are
described, the name becomes O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg.

6. Length, 7-6-11:°3 mm., av. 92 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:22:30 (lengths). Colour: Dorsally, the sclerites are rich golden-brown, the
mesoscutum and metascutum slightly paler, the head with darker symmetrical
tracery, the eyes black. Ventrally, the colour is slightly paler, especially abdominal
sternites 1-8. Intersegmental membranes cream. Wings with veins bordered by
broad bands of pale brown. Head (Fig. 18): Length, 1:23-1:76 mm., av. 1:49 mm.
Ratio of length to maximum breadth 10-0:8:2. Broadest at eyes, lateral margins
slightly convex and convergent posteriorly, smoothly rounded at posterior limit.
Eyes prominent, reniform. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 21;

232 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

maximum total length, 455 mm. Four basal segments with lengths typically in
the ratio 3:2:5:3. Distalia subcylindrical with rounded extremities (Figs. 25a, b).

(Note.—It is unusual to find an Embiopteron with the complete number of
antennal segments on both sides. This fact has been noted by Friederichs (1906)
and Mukerji (1927). The former explains the loss of antennal segments by
supposing that a predatory insect or spider occasionally seizes the antenna
projecting from the gallery in which the insect lives, whereupon it darts back-
wards, losing portion of its antenna. Mukerji gives the explanation that the
antennae are occasionally nibbled by individuals of the same species, and figures
an alimentary canal containing several antennal segments. Whatever the true
eause, the descriptions here given include the greatest number of segments
observed in the material available; it is impossible to say whether this corres-
ponds in all cases to the complete number, as the last remaining segment rounds
itself off at the subsequent ecdysis. In some cases, where specimens have a high
and equal number of segments to each antenna, it is probable that this represents
the complete number.)

Figs. 1-10.—Terminalia of males of Australian Oligotomidae, viewed dorsally. (x 25.)

1.—Oligotoma gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. 2.—O. gurneyi Frogg. centralis, nov. 3.—
O. gurneyi Frogg. spinulosa, nov. 4.—O. gurneyi Frogg. subclavata, nov. 5.—
O. tillyardi, nov. 6.—O. glauerti Till. 7.—O. latreillei (Ramb.). 8.—Notoligotoma
hardyi (Fried.). 9.—WN. nitens, nov. 10.—Metoligotoma reducta reducta, nov.

Fig. 6a, termination of 10 LP, O. glauerli Till. (x 63); fig. 7a, termination of 10 RP,,
O. latreillei (Ramb.) (x 63).

5, ninth tergite; 10 L, 10 R, left and right hemitergites of tenth abdominal segment;
10 LP, process of 10L; 10 RP, 10 RP, outer and inner processes of 10R; LC, LC,,
first and second segments of left cercus; RC,, RC,, first and second segments of right
cercus; LCB, RCB, left and right cercus-basipodites; H, hypandrium or sub-genital
plate; HP (HP, HP,), appendages of H; A, structure probably representing aedeagus.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 233

Mouthparts: The mandibles are the only part showing considerable variation
throughout the order, and are of some use as systematic criteria. In this species
(and all the subspecies within it) the mandibles are very typical (Fig. 32): each
with a semicircular concavity about half-way down the inner margin, the left
with three, the right with two fairly sharp teeth distally. The genus Aposthonia
was erected by Krauss (1911) and confirmed by Friederichs (1934), the main
generic character being the mandible structure, as described for the above species.
The species with which these authors were dealing was A. vosseleri Krauss,
related to O. gurneyi Frogg. on other characters also. However, the male
terminalia and other characters for these species are so close to the genotype of
Oligotoma that it seems incorrect to propose a genus on such small differences. I
am therefore demolishing the genus Aposthonia; if every species of Oligotoma,
which differed from the genotype by as little as do O. vosseleri (Krauss) and
0. gurneyi Frogg., were placed in a separate genus, the result would be a number
of genera monotypic or nearly so, and the* natural relationships of the species at
present placed in the genus Oligotoma would be masked.

Thorax: Prothorax with sides diverging slightly posteriorly, and with a small
rectangular area separated off by a slight transverse groove, one-quarter of the
length from the anterior margin (‘‘apotom” of Enderlein). Meso- and metathorax
with triangular scuta and lateral sclerites. Legs normal for the order, the first
segment of the fore tarsi dilated, the second legs slender, the hind femora
noticeably swollen, the hind tarsi with one bladder ventrally on the first and
second segments (‘“‘sohlenblaschen” of Verhoeff). Wings: Forewing, length
6:7-9:3 mm., av. 7-6 mm.; breadth 1-7-2:3 mm., av. 1:9 mm. Hindwing, length

234 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

5:3-7:-5 mm., av. 6:1 mm.; breadth 1:6—-2:3 mm., av. 1:8 mm. Venation characteristic
of the genus. Abdomen: First seven segments, viewed dorsally, subequal; eighth
slightly shorter, ninth only one-half as long ag first and slightly asymmetrical;
tenth as long as first.

Terminalia (Fig. 1): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally to left and right
hemitergites (10L, 10R respectively). 10R produced backwards and inwards
from its outer margin to a long, thin, slightly sinuous process (10 RP,), heavily
chitinized, tapering distally but ending smoothly. Inner margin of 10RP,,
anteriorly, curving inwards to overlie a second flap-like process, 10 RP, (median
plate of Mukerji, 1935, p. 2, fig. le, mp.), more heavily chitinized medially. First
segment of right cereus (RC,) subcylindrical, arising from a vestigial annular
cercus-basipodite (RCB) lateroventrally to 10R; second segment (RC,) also sub-
cylindrical. Left hemitergite produced distally to a dagger-shaped process
(10 LP), curving slightly to the left and bearing distally a small hook directed
forwards and downwards. First segment of left cercus (LC,) clavate, produced
on the inner side, near its distal end, to a small blunt process; second segment
(LC,) subcylindrical. Ventrally (fig. 11) the subgenital plate or hypandrium (H)
is produced backwards and slightly to the left to a broad blunt termination, the
extremity of which is only weakly chitinized. Right margin of free portion of H
slightly sinuous. Left cercus-basipodite (LCB) well developed, fused to the left
margin of H for the greater part of its length, but curving outward distally to a
smoothly-tapered termination.

The hypandrium undoubtedly includes the ninth sternite, but whether or not
it consists of other structures fused thereto (e.g., valves of the tenth sternite)
cannot at present be definitely stated.

°. Length, 9:1-11-1 mm., av. 10:0 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:23:40. Colour: Dorsally, sclerites dark brown with reddish tinge, shiny, with
a paler central line in the abdominal region indistinctly merging into the general
colour. Hyes black, intersegmental membranes cream. Abdominal sternites 1-7
pale brown, remainder darker; abdominal pleurites 1-7 as elongated dark bars
of chitin laterally. Head: Length, 1:28-1:44 mm., av. 1:37 mm. Ratio of length to
maximum breadth 10-:0:8-4. Lateral margins very slightly convergent posteriorly,
smoothly rounded behind. Eyes small. Antennae: Maximum number of segments
observed, 19; maximum length, 2-7 mm. Segments shorter than corresponding
segments of g, the combination moniliform.

The thicker and more ovoid antennal segments of O. vosseleri (Krauss) gave
Friederichs his other point of differentiation between Oligotoma and Aposthonia;
but, as he states himself, the difference is not marked enough to be very
significant.

Mouthparts normal for the order, the mandibles showing none of the modifica-
tions found in the g. Thorax: Pronotum similar to that in the 4; mesoscutum
subrectangular, broadest just behind anterior margin, thence tapering slightly.
Metascutum with lateral margins convex, widest at about one-third its length
from the posterior margin. Legs as in the ¢ but stouter. Wings absent as in all 9
Embioptera. Abdomen: First three tergites subequal, the next three each slightly
longer, the seventh as long as the first, the eighth a little shorter; the ninth only
half as long as the first, the tenth slightly longer, subtriangular. Tenth sternite
divided longitudinally to two subtriangular valves. Small annular cercus-
basipodites present. Gonopore a transverse slit between eighth and ninth sternites.

Habitat.—Sydney, N.S.W., W. B. Gurney, 6-10-02 (holotype $); Exeter, N.S.W.,
N. J. B. Plomley, 26-4-35 (homotype ¢) and 6-6-35 (allotype ?, para-allotype ? and

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 235

homotype di); Eastwood, N.S.W., L. Gallard, 1934 (homotype ¢¢); Callubri,
via Nyngan, N.S.W., J. Armstrong, 16-10-34 (homotype gd) and 1-9-35 (homo-
type gf and para-allotype 9); Tallong, N.S.W., A. Simpson, 26-5-36 (homotype J
and para-allotype 2); Melbourne, Vic., F. A. Singleton, 23-6-26 (homotype );
Gippsland, Vic., date and collector unrecorded (National Museum collection)
(homotype 3g); Ferntree Gully, Vic., J. Clark, 31-5-36 (homotype 4); Bulnarring,
Vic., A. D. Butcher, 31-5-36 (homotype ¢); Launceston, Tas., V. V. Hickman,
29-6-30.

Situation—Most commonly in galleries in rough bark or old fence-posts;
occasionally in dendroid lichens growing on bark. Winged males occasionally
taken at light. One specimen has been taken in the nest of the ant Colobopsis
gasseri Forel, in a log.

Distribution of Types—Homotype ¢ (plesiotype) on slide, homotype ¢ and
allotype ? in alcohol, Macleay Museum, Sydney University. Homotype males and
para-allotype females forwarded to the British Museum; the Australian Museum,
Sydney; and the Western Australian Museum, Perth. Homotype males forwarded
to the National Museum, Melbourne; the South Australian Museum, Adelaide;
the C.S.I.R. collection, Canberra; the Cawthron Institute, Nelson, N.Z.; and the
Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg,* Java. The damaged holotype male is in the
C.S.I.R. collection, Canberra.

OLIGOTOMA GURNEYI AGILIS Frogg., 1904.

Oligotoma agilis Frogg., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1904, pp. 673-674.

O. agilis was described by Froggatt from a female, probably immature. The
holotype is a dry, carded specimen in fair condition, but lacks, of course, any good
specific characters. This specimen was taken under granite boulders on the hill
behind the students’ quarters, Experiment Farm, Wagga, N.S.W. Recently I was
able to collect a long series from the southern aspect of this hill, amongst dead,
fallen foliage under boulders; there were no Embioptera on the northern aspect.

There can be no doubt that this series belongs to the same species as Froggatt’s
specimen. When reared to maturity, they proved to be a wingless species—
approximately thirty males were taken, none with any sign of wings or wing-buds.
The colour is slightly darker than in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg., but the terminalia
and other characters are identical. O. agilis is therefore reduced to the status of
a geographic subspecies, the following being its diagnosis:

6. Length, 9-T-11-2 mm., av. 10-5 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:24:35. Colour: Dorsally, head and thoracic sclerites chocolate-brown, abdominal
selerites slightly paler. Ventrally, head and thoracic sclerites chocolate-brown,
abdominal sclerites lighter, except 6, 7, 8, and 9 (9 = hypandrium, very dark).
Leg segments chocolate-brown. Inter-segmental membranes cream. Head: Length, |
1:41-1:62 mm., av. 1:55 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10-0:8-6. Eyes
slightly less prominent than in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. Antennae: Maximum
number of segments observed, 15; maximum length, 3:9 mm. Segments as in
O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. Mouthparts as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogs. g. Thorax
and legs as in the female of O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. Wings absent. Abdomen
and terminalia as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. J.

9. Length, 9:5-11-1 mm., av. 10-4 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:26:36. Colour as in the male, the terminal abdominal sternites likewise being
darker than the rest. Head: Length, 1:41-1:62 mm., av. 1:48 mm. Ratio of length
to maximum breadth, 10:0:9-0. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed,

* See postscript at end of paper.

236 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

19; maximum length, 3-2 mm. The remaining characters are as in the female of
O. gurneyi gurneyt Frogg.

Habitat—Granite hill behind students’ quarters, Experiment Farm, Wagga,
N.S.W., W. W. Froggatt, 1904 (holotype 9); the author, 12-2-36 (coll.), 20-3-36
et seq. (matured) (allotype ¢, long series of para-allotype ¢ and homotype Q).

Situation—Frogegatt’s specimen is recorded as being taken amongst granite
boulders. The author’s specimens were mostly taken in galleries among dead
grass and Callitris foliage between granite boulders, while a few were in galleries
in the bark of Callitris trees, close to the ground.

Distribution of Types—Allotype ¢ on slide, para-allotype g and homotype @ in
alcohol, Macleay Museum; para-allotype males and homotype females forwarded to
the British Museum, the National Museum, the Australian Museum, the Western
Australian Museum, and the South Australian Museum; para-allotype males
forwarded to the Cawthron Institute and the Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg.
Froggatt’s holotype female is in the C.S.1I.R. collection, Canberra.

Figs. 11-17.—Terminalia of males of Australian Oligotomidae, viewed ventrally,
certain dorsal structures omitted. (x 25.)

11.—Oligotoma gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. 12.—O. tillyardi, nov. 13.—O. glauerti Till.
14.—O0O. latreillei (Ramb.). 15.—Notoligotoma hardyi (Fried.). 16.—N. nitens, nov.
17.—Metoligotoma reducta reducta, nov.

Lettering as in Figs. 1-10.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 237

Note.—Specimens taken in 1913 at Pyrmont, N.S.W., at the store of the
Colonial Sugar Refining Co., were referred by Friederichs (1923) to what was
then O. agilis Frogg., the reason being that the species appeared to have a wingless
6 or a wingless form of the @, and was different in colour from O. gurneyi Frogg.,
and that only these two species were then known from New South Wales.

Although the form known then as O. agilis Frogg. has since been shown to be
a wingless subspecies of the other then-known species, I am not inclined to agree
with Friederichs, in view of the wide spatial and ecological difference between
Pyrmont and Wagga. If Friederichs’s assumption, that the Pyrmont specimens
included a wingless form of male, be correct, it is more likely that they belonged
to one of the wingless species described below from near Sydney.

The point can only be cleared up by collecting mature males from the Pyrmont
locality. I recently searched this without success, possibly because of the season.
The locality seems very favourable for Embioptera, because (1) there are numerous
steam-outlets, so that the general temperature and humidity are high, (2) there
are great quantities of raw sugar lying about, accumulated on floors, rafters and
posts, and Hmbioptera have been observed to eat sugar readily in captivity.

OLIGOTOMA GURNEYI Frogg. HILLI, n. subsp.

This subspecies, from near the Cotter Reservoir, F.C.T., is, like the last,
wingless; and the male terminalia are identical also. It is differentiated from
O. gurneyi agilis Frogg. mainly on colour, size and head-length:breadth ratio. The
characters of differential importance are given below.

6. Length, 6:4-8-7 mm., av. 7°77 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:17:29. Colour: Dorsally, sclerites deep, rich brown, head very dark, pronotum
darker than rest of body. Paler areas mid-dorsally on meso- and metathorax and
abdomen; terminalia darker. Somewhat paler ventrally (except head and sub-
genital plate). Intersegmental membranes cream. Head: Length, 1:17-1:50 mm.,
av. 1:37 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:6:°9. Antennae: Maximum
number of segments observed, 19 (specimens with 18 segments on each side were
common); maximum length, 4:6 mm.

©. Length, 7-5-11:7 mm., av. 95 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:29:48. Colour as in the 4, the eighth sternite dark laterally, and the ninth and
tenth sternites dark throughout. Head: Length, 1:07-1:27 mm., av. 1:17 mm.
Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:8-:2. Antennae: Maximum number of
segments observed, 19 (specimens with 18 segments on each side were common).
Maximum length, 2:°8 mm.

Other characters of both sexes as in O. gurneyi agilis Frogg.

Habitat—Near Cotter Reservoir, F.C.T., G. F. Hill, 8-8-29 (holotype ¢, para-
type gg and 99); the author, 13-2-36 (immature); R. V. Fyfe and the author,
30-5-36 (allotype 9, long series of paratype Jf and Q).

Situation—In galleries under stones, among the roots of grasses and of the
fern Cheilanthes tenuifolia, and lichens.

Distribution of Types—Holotype ¢ on slide, allotype 9, paratype gg and 99
in alcohol, Macleay Museum. Paratype males and females forwarded to the
British Museum, the National Museum, the Australian Museum, the Western
Australian Museum, the South Australian Museum, the C.S.I.R. collection, the
Cawthron Institute and the Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg.

I am naming this subspecies after Mr. G. F. Hill, its discoverer.

OLIGOTOMA GURNEYI Frogg. CENTRALIS, n. subsp. Fig. 2.
This geographic subspecies is erected for certain specimens (¢) taken in
localities in Central Australia. It differs slightly from O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg.

238 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

in characters of the terminalia, as well as in colour and generally larger size.
The significant characters are given below.

S. Length, 9:5-12:-7 mm., av. 11-4 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:26:34. Colour: General coloration pale golden-brown, eyes black. Head:
Length, 1:41-1:76 mm., av. 162 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth,
10-0:8°3. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 17; maximum
length, 3:2 mm. Wings: Forewing, length 7:4-9-°9 mm., av. 8-9 mm.; breadth

Figs. 18-24.—Heads of males of Australian Oligotomidae, dorsal view. (x 20.)

18.—Oligotoma gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. 19.—O. tillyardi, nov. 20.—O. glauerti Till.
21.—O. latreilles (Ramb.). 22.—Notoligotoma hardyi (Fried.). 23.—N. nitens, nov.
24._—Metoligotoma reducta reducta, nov.

Ghana Dba ADaa 4}

Figs. 25-31.—Antennal segments of males of Australian Oligotomidae. a, four basal
segments; b, typical distalia. (x 20.)

25.—Oligotoma gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. 26.—O. tillyardi, nov. 27.—O. glauerti Till.
28.—O. latreillei (Ramb.). 29.—Notoligotoma hardyi (Fried.). 30.—WN. nitens, nov.
31.—Metoligotoma reducta reducta, nov.

Figs. 32-38.—Mandibles of males of Australian Oligotomidae, dorsal view. (x 20.)

32.—Oligotoma gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. 33.—O. tillyardi, nov. 34.—O. glaverti Till.
5.—0O. latreillei (Ramb.). %36.—WNotoligotoma hardyi (Fried.). 37.—N. nitens, nov.
33.—Metoligotoma reducta reducta, nov.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 239

1-8-2:-5 mm., av. 2:1 mm. MHindwing, length 6:-4-8-5 mm., av. 7-6 mm.; breadth
1-8—2-5 mm., av. 21mm. TYerminalia (fig. 2): The process 10 RP,, instead of being
smoothly tapered distally, ends in two closely-approximated points. The left
cercus-basipodite is bluntly rounded distally, and the free portion projects upwards.
The first segment of the left cercus has the process on the inner side more
anteriorly placed than in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg., so that the segment has an
altogether different appearance, with a considerable distance between the process
and the junction with the second segment.

All other characters as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. J.

°. Unknown.

Habitat—Macdonnel Downs, Central Australia, 8-30, S. Australian Museum
Expedition (holotype ¢ and paratype ¢¢); Alice Springs, Central Australia, Sir
Douglas Mawson, 11-27 (paratype ¢).

Situation.—Winged males taken at light.

Distribution of Types—Holotype ¢ and paratype gg (slides), South Australian
Museum; paratype males, Macleay Museum, British Museum, and Western Aus-
tralian Museum.

Variations —Winged males from Lucindale, S.A., F. Secker, 1912, and Adelaide,
S.A., A. M. Lea, 28-5-29 (taken at light), agree with the above examples in most
points. While the left cercus-basipodite is similar to that of the typical Central
Australian forms, the first segment of the left cercus approaches rather more
closely to the Hast Australian O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg., and the termination of
the outer process of the right hemitergite of the tenth abdominal segment
(10 RP,}, which ends smoothly in the Hast Australian form, and in two
approximated points in the Central Australian form, is in these specimens
intermediate.

A small series taken at Julia Percy Id., Victoria, by the McCoy Society
Expedition, 2-36 (under stones), contained one mature male. This specimen had
genitalia similar to the males from Lucindale and Adelaide, but was wingless
(like the subspecies agilis Frogg. and hilli, nov.), and in colour approached more
to the subspecies agilis Frogg. than to the subspecies centralis, nov. The females
in association with this male were very similar to those of O. gurneyi agilis
Frogs.

These specimens are regarded as intermediates between the geographic
subspecies gurneyi Froge. and centralis, nov., pending the discovery of more
material.

OLIGOTOMA GURNEYI Frogg. SPINULOSA, n. subsp. Fig. 3.

This subspecies, erected for specimens (4) from Western Australia, is of
the same general appearance as the last subspecies described, but is slightly more
variable in size, and has small but important differences in the male terminalia
distinguishing it from the last subspecies and from O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg.
Points of systematic distinction are given below.

od. Length, 8-7-13:8 mm., av. 11:1 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:21:23. Colour: Deep golden-brown, eyes black. Head: Length, 1:69-2:26 mm.,
av. 1:91 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:8-5. Antennae: Maximum
number of segments observed, 20; maximum length, 4:2 mm. Wings: Forewing,
length 8-2-10:°0 mm., av. 9-1 mm.; breadth 2-0-2-5 mm., av. 2:3 mm. Hindwing,
length 6-7-8:-5 mm., av. 7:6 mm.; breadth 2:0-2-5 mm., av. 2:2 mm. JTerminalia
(Fig. 3): The process 10 RP,, as in the last subspecies, ends in two closely-
approximated points. The process 10 LP is slightly thinner and more sinuous

240 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

than in the previous subspecies, and the small hook at the end of 10LP is
considerably longer, thinner, and more sinuous. The left cercus-basipodite is
fused throughout, as far as its posterior limit, to the hypandrium, and near the
posterior end gives off at right angles a sharp free spine projecting to the left.
The first segment of the left cercus is different from that in O. gurneyi gurneyi
Frogg. in that it is produced inwards from the junction with the second segment
more markedly, the inward process being more distally placed.

All other characters as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. @.

©. Unknown.

Habitat——Morgan’s, nr. Mt. Margaret, W.A., per L. Glauert, 10-33 (holotype J
and paratype di); Lake Violet, East Murchison District, per L. Glauert, 10-27
(paratype ¢).

Situation.—The specimens from Morgan’s were taken swarming after rain,
the Lake Violet specimen was taken at light.

Distribution of Types.—Holotype ¢ on slide, paratype ¢ in alcohol, Macleay
Museum; paratype males forwarded to the British Museum, the Australian
Museum, and the ‘Western Australian Museum.

OLIGOTOMA GURNEYI Frogg. SUBCLAVATA, nh. subsp. Fig. 4.

This subspecies is erected for some very interesting specimens (¢) taken in
North Australia. The smaller size, and noticeable differences in the terminalia,
differentiate it clearly from the other subspecies. The diagnostic characters
are given below.

6. Length, 6:4-7-5 mm., av. 7:2 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:23:31. Colour: General coloration yellowish-brown (including the broad
bands beside the wing-veins). Eyes black. Head: Length, 0:75-1:12 mm., av.
1:02 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:7-6. Antennae: Maximum
number of segments observed, 16; maximum length, 3:2 mm. Wings: Forewing,
length 5:1-5-5 mm., av. 5-4 mm.; breadth 1:3-1:-4 mm., av. 1:4 mm. MHindwing,
length 4:3-4-6 mm., av. 4-4 mm.; breadth 1:3—-1-4 mm., av. 1-4 mm. Terminalia
(Fig. 4): The process 10 RP, ends in two closely-approximated points. The left
cercus-basipodite is very similar to that of O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg., but
somewhat blunter distally. The process 10 LP is somewhat broader than in
O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg., but the hook at the distal end is identical. The
greatest difference lies in the first segment of the left cercus; in all the previous
subspecies this has some inwardly-directed process, but here the segment is
thickened distally, but rounded off.

All other characters as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. ¢.

2. Unknown.

Habitat—Daly Waters, North Australia, F. H. Taylor, 1-11-34 (holotype ¢ and
paratype dd); Anthony’s Lagoon, North Australia, F. H. Taylor, 5-11-34
(paratype ¢).

Situation.—Winged males taken at light.

Distribution of Types.—Holotype ¢ on slide, paratype ¢ in alcohol, Macleay
Museum; paratype males forwarded to the British Museum and the Western
Australian Museum.

Note.—This subspecies is the closest of all the subspecies to the Hast Indian
species O. vosseleri (Krauss). The latter is well figured by Silvestri (1912, fig. 6).
The differences of importance are (1) O. vosseleri (Krauss) lacks the terminal
hook at the extremity of the process 10 LP, which is, on the contrary, present

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 241

in all subspecies of O. gurneyi Frogg.; (2) the left cercus-basipodite in O. vosseleri
(Krauss) (c in Silvestri’s figure) is more distinct from the hypandrium, being
free practically throughout and curved outwards to a point distally.

It is probable that O. gurneyi Frogg. suwbclavata, nov., is the most primitive
of the six subspecies, and that the species originated in the North, differentiating
as it radiated from that centre.

Key to the subspecies of Oligotoma gurneyi Frogg. (cc).
1. First segment of left cereus roundly club-shaped ................ subclavata, nov.
First segment of left cercus produced to a process on the inner margin .......... 2
2. Left cercus-basipodite fused along its inner margin to the hypandrium, and at its
posterior extremity produced outwards to a sharp spine; hook at end of process of

left hemitergite of tenth abdominal segment long and very thin .. spinulosa, nov.
Left cercus-basipodite not as above; hook of process of left hemitergite shorter and
LOWE CES SRC ERG ENCORE cen ole clot anc Peu'oy tack ha cea CoO EEG IDLO che ner cnet D someting Creed niaro ola 3

3. Outer process of right hemitergite of tenth abdominal segment ending in two closely-
approximated points; left cercus-basipodite broadly rounded at posterior end and

PEO GUCCAMUD WATS Sicieo lhe teeie en een Re aes sores octet coe tayeae ics eecytone aes centralis, nov.

Outer process of right hemitergite and left cercus-basipodite both smoothly tapered
AEADOSLETIOR (OXCTNOMTEVS 5s ci.nsiaaueroue rece eae irote oe cits re, elon as ensstioticivonsuasieoytetis usiie sigs erie apreielyagieu aver onc erients 4

dbo» NAVSDOEXE\0 ly, Sapcaeae Pato iesorceni peo el mac aareR Oke aro occ) Ovo. .GUs)-6 ort ob ame eee aeng ests inmrcl erates gurneyi Frogs.
BVV PINES ES Sie theese Siesta cian avciraneat euet aves esta, Cieu IS SP PON Seeeie ed ote obra ovis sive Nau dautoyeH{an sre waiie covtentenie pat sheaneneh SBale MeN te be kerieme 5

5. Length of specimens in series examined 6:4-8-7 mm., av. 7-7 mm.; average ratio of
INGEWOlIN NEA, tor INCEYEEIoneeeiliciny al@e@)s OS) GoonosooonodveoaoucoduoUDHOBUOHS hilli, nov.
Length of specimens in series examined 9-7-11-2 mm., av. 10:5 mm.; average ratio of
head lene thecomnead—breadchw lO l0FESiGue-garteeta-telcveuen tietereiarey = betarencnct ieee agilis Frogs.

Note.—It seems, for the present, wise to consider the six types as geographic
subspecies, although some might consider that the last three described deserve
specific status. Whether O. gurneyi agilis Frogg. and O. gurneyi Frogg. hilli, nov.,
are true geographic subspecies, or merely local varieties of O. gurneyi gurneyi
Froge., will only be shown by the examination of more material from other
localities.

OLIGOTOMA TIBLYARDI, ns Sp) Mies) 5; 12, 19926, 33:

6. Length, 7:-4-9-7 mm., av. 8:9 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:22:30. Colour: Golden-brown, the head slightly darker, eyes black. Wing
veins bordered with broad pale-brown bands. Head (Fig. 19): Length, 1:31-1:48
mm., av. 1:40 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10-:0:7-:8. Broadest at
the eyes, the lateral margins slightly convex and convergent behind. Eyes
reniform, prominent. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 19;
maximum length, 4:6 mm. Basal four segments (Fig. 26a) with lengths typically
in the ratio 4:2:6:5. Distalia elongate, narrowest at proximal end, sides slightly
diverging and relatively straight (Fig. 260). Mouthparts normal, mandibles
(Fig. 33) somewhat slender; the left with three sharp distal teeth directed slightly
inwards, and a blunt tooth on the inner margin behind these; the right with two
distal teeth, and basal to these on the inner margin a concavity with a blunt
tooth posterior to it. Thorar: Structure similar to that of O. gurneyi gurneyi
Frogs. ¢. Legs as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. g. Wings: Forewing, length
7-5-8°5 mm., av. 7:9 mm.; breadth 1:9-2:0 mm., av. 270 mm. Hindwing, length
6-1-7-:2 mm., av. 6-7 mm.; breadth 1-:9-2:0 mm., av. 1:9 mm. Venation characteristic
of the genus. Abdomen: Except for the terminalia, as in O. gurneyi gurneyi
Froge. 3.

Terminalia (Fig. 5): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally to left and right
hemitergites (10 L, 10R respectively). 10R produced backwards and inwards

242 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

from its outer margin to a long, thin, straight process (10 RP,), heavily chitinized
and terminating in two closely-approximated points. Inner process (10 RP.)
similar to that in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg., somewhat blunter. First segment of
Tight cercus (RC,) subcylindrical, arising from a vestigial annular cercus-
basipodite (RCB) placed latero-ventrally to 10R. Second segment (RC,) sub-
eylindrical, thinner than RC,. Left hemitergite produced distally to a process
(10 LP) terminating in a forcipate structure, the inner tooth sharply pointed
and heavily chitinized, the outer lobe blunt and more membranous, and projecting
somewhat dorsally; both lobes curved in towards each other distally. First
segment of left cercus (LC,) curved inwards considerably from junction with
second segment (LC.), the distal, inner extremity somewhat flattened. LC. sub-
eylindrical. Ventrally (Fig. 12), the hypandrium (H) projects backwards, with
convergent lateral margins, to a blunt termination with two angles. Minute
nodules distally and on right-hand margin of H. Left cercus-basipodite (LCB)
lying along left-hand margin of H proximally, curving out distally to a free,
tapered termination.

°. Unknown.

Habitat—Morgan’s, nr. Mt. Margaret, W.A., per L. Glauert, 10-33 (holotype ¢
and paratype gd).

Situation.—Swarming after rain.

Distribution of Types.——Holotype ¢ on slide, paratype ¢ in alcohol, Macleay
Museum. Paratype males forwarded to the British Museum, the Australian
Museum, the Western Australian Museum, the South Australian Museum, the
C.S.I.R. collection, the Cawthron Institute and the Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg.

Il am naming this species in recognition of the work done by Dr. R. J.
Tillyard on the Western Australian Hmbioptera.

Note.—The forcipate termination to the process of the left hemitergite is a
character convergent to the Embiid genus Rhagadochir. In one specimen of -
O. tillyardi, nov., a small, rounded body was found between the lobes of the forceps;
this probably represented a spermatophore.

OLIGOTOMA GLAUERTI Tillyard, 1923. Figs. 6, 13, 20, 27, 34.

Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., ix, pt. i, 1923. ;

This species has been well described by Tillyard (l.c.). Whilst transferring
the holotype ¢ and a paratype ¢ from deteriorated glycerine jelly mounts to
balsam, I was able to examine the terminalia critically in comparison with those
of other Australian species. Certain measurements were also made to bring the
description into line with those of the other species. The following description is
given with Dr. Tillyard’s permission.

3. Length, 9-5-10°0 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio 10:24:34. Colour:
Golden-brown, eyes black, wing-veins bordered with pale brown. Head (Fig. 20):
Length, 1:44-1:49 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:7°8. Antennae:
Maximum number of segments observed, 21; maximum length, 75 mm. Four
basal segments with lengths typically in the ratio 4:2:5:4 (Fig. 27a). Distalia
(Fig. 276) longer than those of any other Australian species. Mouthparts normal,
mandibles (Fig. 34) slender, similar to those of O. tillyardi, nov., but with the
blunt basal tooth of the left mandible bilobed. Thorax and legs as in O. gurneyi
gurneyi Frogg. g. Wings: Forewing, average length 8-8 mm., average breadth
22 mm.; hindwing, average length 7-5 mm., average breadth 2:2 mm. Venation
characteristic of the genus. Abdomen: Except for the terminalia, as in O. gurneyi
gurney Frogg. g.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 243

Terminalia (Fig. 6): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally to left and right
hemitergites (10 L, 10R respectively). 10R produced backwards and inwards
from its outer margin to a long, thin, straight process terminating in two
closely-approximated points, the right-hand point placed somewhat dorsally to the
left. Inner process (10 RP.) almost identical with that of O. gurneyi gurneyi
Frogg. First segment of right cercus (RC,) subcylindrical, arising from a
vestigial annular cercus-basipodite (RCB) lateroventral to 10R. Second segment
(RC,) subcylindrical, thinner than first. Left hemitergite produced backwards to
a narrowing process (10 LP) with sinuous margins, terminating in an anchor-
like hook (Fig. 6a). First segment of left cercus (LC,) curving inwards strongly
from junction with second segment (LC,) and ending in a blunt, round
termination. LC. subcylindrical. Ventrally (Fig. 13), the hypandrium is produced
backwards to a rounded termination, with a median longitudinal chitinous
structure (HP), probably a spine, posteriorly, but not projecting. To the left
of HP there is a trace of a membranous structure, possibly tubular, which may
represent the aedeagus. Minute nodules at posterior extremity of right-hand
margin of H. Left cercus-basipodite (LCB) fused proximally to anterior part of
left margin of H, but distally curving upwards and inwards to a bluntly-rounded
termination.

©. Unknown.

Habitat—Milly Milly Stn., Murchison River, W.A., L. Glauert, 26-5-22
(holotype ¢ and paratype Jd).

Situation.—Taken at light.

Location of Types.—The holotype ¢ is in the Western Australian Museum,
and a paratype d in the Macleay Museum.

OLIGOTOMA LATREILLEI (Rambur), 1842. Figs. 7, 14, 21, 28, 35.

Embia latreillei Rambur, Hist. nat. Neur., 1842, p. 312.

This tropicopolitan species is recorded from several localities in Queensland.
As it is somewhat variable throughout its extensive range, the complete description
is appended for the Australian examples.

6. Length, 6-6-8-3 mm., av. 75 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:20:34. Colour: Pale-brown, head a little darker, eyes black. Wing-veins
bordered with broad bands of pale-brown. Head (Fig. 21): Length, 1:23-1:39 mm.,
av. 1:30 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:7:7. Eyes prominent; sides
of head converging slightly posteriorly, rounded off at back. Antennae: Maximum
number of segments observed, 20; maximum length, 3-5 mm. Four basal segments
with lengths typically in the ratio 3:2:4:3 (Figs. 28a, b). Mouthparts normal,
mandibles (Fig. 35) slender, the left with two narrow, sharp teeth distally, then
two fairly sharp teeth, and behind these a slight bilobed projection, on the inner
margin; right mandible with two sharp teeth distally and a slight projection
behind these on the inner margin. Thorax and legs as in O. gurneyi gurneyi
Frogg. ¢. Wings: Forewing, length 5:1-6:6 mm., av. 5-5 mm.; breadth 1-3-1-6
mm., av. 1:4 mm. Hindwing, length 4:3-5-3 mm., av. 4-6 mm.; breadth 1:3-1:5 mm.,
av. 14 mm. Venation characteristic of the genus. Abdomen: Except for the
terminalia, as for 0. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. 2.

Terminalia (Fig. 7): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally to left and right
hemitergites (10 L, 10R respectively). 10R produced backwards and inwards
from its outer margin to a long, thin, slightly sinuous process (10 RP,) distally
curving slightly to the right to a blunt termination, to the left of which is a

244 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

small pointed process. It is in this termination of 10 RP, (Fig. 7a) that variations
occur in examples from other localities; the present examples resemble specimens
examined from New Caledonia and the Dutch East Indies, and are fairly close
to the figure given by Enderlein (1912) of an example from Formosa. Inner
process of 10R (10 RP.) very similar to that in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. Left
hemitergite produced backwards to a dagger-shaped process, lacking any terminal
appendage. Right and left cerci each composed of two subequal, subcylindrical
segments (RC, RC., LC,, LC.); the former arising from a vestigial annular
cercus-basipodite (RCB) lateroventral to 10R, the latter from a free cercus-
basipodite (LCB) proximally separating LC, from the hypandrium, and distally
curving round to a blunt termination. Ventrally (Fig. 14) the hypandrium (H)
narrows posteriorly and curves to the left; its distal extremity is weakly chitinized,
and appears to end in a tubular structure, probably an aedeagus (A). A spiral,
heavily chitinized process (HP,) is attached to the left-hand margin of H near
its distal extremity, and curves under H, then upwards and round; at the base
of HP, a minute hook (HP,) is given off towards the left.

2. As yet unrecorded from Australia. Specimens from Noumea, New
Caledonia (A. M. Lea, date unrecorded), taken in association with a male referred
to this species, are in general colour reddish-brown, and of the following
dimensions: Length, 7:7-8:1 mm., av. 7:9 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the
ratio 10:20:31. Head-length, 1:24-1:30 mm., av. 1:28 mm. Ratio of head-length to
maximum breadth, 10-0:8:0. Maximum number of antennal segments observed,
20; maximum length, 1:9 mm.

Australian localities——Brisbane, Q., Dr. R. J. Tillyard, 10-15; Townsville, Q.,
F. H. Taylor, 1928; Camooweal, Q., F. H. Taylor, 9-11-34 ().

Situation.—Winged males taken at light, or occasionally swarming in the
daytime.

Distribution of Material—lIdentified males in the Macleay Museum, and
forwarded to the National Museum and the Western Australian Museum. In the
South Australian Museum are identified specimens (G5 2) sinosan Noumea, New
Caledonia.

Key to the Australian species of Oligotoma (<¢).

1. First segment of left cercus subcylindrical; process of left hemitergite of tenth
abdominal segment dagger-shaped, and with no hook or other appendage distally
she ta Sh elke bile iey Wate gaWele vox Vovaiaiche Taelom nan ede Fone os Rare ne MSMR Se are R crete ch awrereercae ations latreillei (Ramb.)

First segment of left cercus noticeably clavate; process of left hemitergite with an
appendage at the, distalvextremityasys jon eae ieee ele ie oso ence abe 2

First segment of left cercus not curved inwards to any great extent from the
junction with the second segment; process of left hemitergite terminating in a
simple spine produced forwards and downwards ................ gurneyi Frogs.

First segment of left cercus curved, produced inwards a considerable distance
from the junction with the second segment; termination of process of left

bo

hemiterpite NOt" as) ADOVE hiss cess olor wool eee aka ees Cac or ee I ee ee 3
3. Process of left hemitergite terminating in a forcipate structure ...... tillyardi, nov.
Process of left hemitergite terminating in a simple anchor-like process .. glawerti Till.

Genus NoroLicoroMa, Nn. gen.

Genotype, Notoligotoma hardyi (Friederichs) 1914.
Oligotoma hardyi Friederichs, Rec. W.A. Mus. and Art Gall., Vol. 1, pt. 3, 1914.
This genus is proposed for the above species and a species, described later,
which agrees closely with it. The diagnosis is as follows: Australian Oligotomidae
with the second segment of the left cercus greatly reduced, less than twice as long
as wide, and not distinctly divided from the first segment, which carries minute

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 245

nodules; left cercus-basipodite fused intimately with hypandrium; right hemi-
tergite of tenth abdominal segment massive and subtriangular, lacking any long,
thin, backwardly directed process as in Oligotoma, but with a dorsal process
directed forwards and bearing nodules. Left hemitergite produced backwards
from its inner margin to a narrow, dagger-shaped process. Veins R,,;, M and Cua
in the wings (when present) less obscure than in Oligotoma.

All the above characters refer to the males only.

Hind tarsi in both sexes with two minute bladders (“sohlenblaschen”) on
the first segment and one on the second segment.

This genus is convergent to the genus Anisembia Krauss (1911) with species
from Texas, Mexico and California. It is structurally differentiated by the form
of the process of the right hemitergite in the male, and by the number of tarsal
bladders.

NOTOLIGOTOMA HARDYI (Fried.), 1914. Figs. 8, 15, 22, 29, 36.
Oligotoma hardyi Fried., 1914, l.c.
Friederichs’s types (3) have been lost. The species has been re-described well
by Tillyard (1923), and from his description I have been able to identify material
from localities in Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales. In
association with the last named was a female which has been designated allotype,
and described here.
do. Length, 8-8-11:(0 mm., av. 95 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:21:24. Colour: Pale golden-brown, eyes black; wing veins bordered by broad
pale-brown bands. Head (Fig. 22): Length, 1:49-1:76 mm., av. 1:65 mm. Ratio
of length to maximum breadth, 10-0:8-4. Sides relatively straight, somewhat
convergent, and posteriorly rounded off rather sharply. Eyes reniform, prominent.
Antennae (Figs. 29a, b): maximum number of segments observed, 19; maximum
length, 4:3 mm. Basal four segments with lengths typically in the ratio 3:2:5:3.
Mouthparts normal, mandibles (Fig. 36) large, the left terminating distally in
three incurved teeth, behind which, on the inner side, is a blunt projection and
then a definite concavity; the right similar, but with two instead of three teeth
distally. Thorax: Structure similar to that in Oligotoma gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. J.
Legs normal, but with the hind tarsi possessing two minute bladders ventrally
on the first segment and one on the second. In specimens of the genus Oligotoma
examined there was only one such bladder distally on each of the first two hind
tarsal segments. Wings: Forewing, length 7-9-10-°9 mm., avy. 9:8 mm.; breadth
1:9-2:8 mm., av. 2-4 mm. Hindwing, length 6-4-9-6 mm., av. 8-4 mm.; breadth
1-:8-2:7 mm., av. 2:3 mm. Disposition of veins typical of the family, but with more
cross-veins, and with the veins R,,;, M and Cu, less obscure than in the genus
Oligotoma. Abdomen, except for the terminalia, as in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. J.
Terminalia (Fig. 8): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally to left and right
hemitergites (10 L, 10R respectively). 10R subtriangular, massive, the distal
vertex (10 RP,) projecting backwards and inwards; a hook-like process (10 RP,)
arises dorsally about half-way along the inner margin of 10R, and curves over,
upwards and forwards, and bears minute nodules. Right cercus of two sub-
cylindrical segments (RC,, RC,), and arising from a vestigial annular cercus-
basipodite (RCB) lateroventrally to 10R. Left hemitergite subtriangular, and
produced backwards from the inner margin to a dagger-shaped process (10 LP).
Left cereus very typical, clavate, the first segment (LC,) produced inwards to a
blunt process, and bearing minute nodules along the inner margin; second segment
(LC,) not sutured off, but represented by a subconical projection on the distal tame
and outer margin of LC,. Ventrally (Fig. 15), the hypandrium (H) is a large QGICAF
fo)

hese LIBRARY

2
NUR

246 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

plate, rounded behind, but with a narrow, heavily-chitinized, finger-shaped process
(HP) projecting upwards from the centre of the distal margin. Left cercus-
basipodite (LCB) intimately fused to H, curving away from it distally to another
finger-shaped process, adjacent to HP, pointing outwards, and heavily chitinized.

9. Length 11-8 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio 10:31:45. Colour:
Head red-brown with darker tracery dorsally; body sclerites red-brown with paler
mottling; intersegmental membranes cream. Legs red-brown, antennal segments
golden-brown, eyes black. Head: Length, 1:37 mm. Ratio of length to maximum
breadth, 10-:0:8:8. Structure typical of that in female Oligotomidae. Antennae:
Maximum number of segments observed, 19; maximum length, 2-4 mm. Segments
much shorter than in the male. Mouthparts normal. Thorax: “Apotom” fairly
distinctly divided off from rest of pronotum. Mesoscutum and metascutum with
sides convex, each widest at a distance from the front equal to about one-third of
its length, the metascutum narrowing rather markedly behind its widest point.
Legs as in the male, somewhat stouter. Abdomen and terminalia normal.

Habitat—Perth, W.A., 6-12 (Friederichs’s types, ¢); Caversham, W.A., 6-15,
C. Kerruish, per L. Glauert (4); Castle Hill, nr. Townsville, Q., 3-9-22, G. F. Hill
(g and immature); Callubri, via Nyngan, 21-7-35, J. Armstrong (0, allotype 92).

Situation.—The Western Australian specimens were taken at light, the Towns-
ville specimens in galleries under stones, and the Nyngan specimens in galleries in
rough bark.

Distribution of Material—tIdentified males in the Macleay Museum and for-
warded to the British Museum, the National Museum, the Australian Museum, the
Western Australian Museum, the South Australian Museum, the C.S.I.R. collection
and the Cawthron Institute. Allotype ? in the Macleay Museum.

NOoTOLIGOTOMA NITENS, n. sp. Figs. 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 39-41.

This species has a dimorphic g, winged and wingless forms occurring even
in the same colony. Except for the presence or absence of wings and consequent
modification of the thoracic sclerites, no significant difference can be observed
between these forms in size or any other character.

Length, 6:4-10:-7 mm., av. 9:1 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:22:32. Colour: Black, very shiny; wings when present with veins bordered
by broad bands of very dark grey. Head (Fig. 23): Length, 1:00-1:53 mm.,
av. 1:38 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:6:9. Broadest at the
eyes, the lateral margins converging thence posteriorly, slightly sinuous. Hyes
comparatively small. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 23;
maximum length, 5:9 mm. Basal four segments (Fig. 30a) with lengths typically
in the ratio 3:2:5:3. Distalia (Fig. 300) subcylindrical, smoothly rounded. Mowth-
parts normal, mandibles (Fig. 37) small and stout, the left with three inwardly-
directed teeth distally and. basad to these a blunt projection; the right similar
but with only two distal teeth. Thorax (winged ¢): Pronotum with “apotom” fairly
distinct, the groove representing the narrowest point, the broadest point at the
posterior margin. Mesothorax and metathorax with subtriangular scuta and
lateral sclerites. (Wingless g): Pronotum similar to winged ¢. Mesoscutum
subrectangular, broadest at about one-third of its length from anterior limit,
thence tapering slightly posteriorly. Metascutum subrectangular, broadest at one-
quarter of its length from the posterior limit. Legs as in N. hardyi (Fried.),
the hind femora more incrassate, the hind tarsal bladders more pronounced
(Fig. 39). Wings (when present) (Fig. 40): Forewing, length 4:0-7:0 mm.,
av. 59 mm.; breadth 1:0-1:6 mm., av. 14 mm. MHindwing, length 3-5-5:-7 mm.,

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 247

av. 5:0 mm.; breadth 1:0-1:6 mm., av. 1-4 mm. Otherwise as in N. hardyi (Fried.).
Abdomen, except for terminalia, normal.

Terminalia (Figs. 9, 16): Similar in general structure to those of N. hardyi
(Fried.). Just distal to the process 10 RP, is a small slender spine, placed
ventrally on 10R and projecting inwards. The process HP is not nearly so
pronounced or heavily chitinized. The left cercus is very typical, the first
segment (LC,) subtriangular, and with minute nodules at the distal apex and on
a small tooth on the inner margin just behind the apex. The second segment
(LC,) is more or less spherical, arising from the distal part of LC,, and separated
therefrom only by a slight narrowing, and not by any suture.

©. Length, 6:-9-12:5 mm., av. 9:°7 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:27:36. Colour: Dorsally, the whole a deep umber-brown, very shiny, especially
mesoscutum and metascutum. Antennae, palps, legs and cerci tending to golden-
brown. Body sclerites, ventrally, somewhat paler. Intersegmental membranes
cream. Head: Length, 1:07-1:55 mm., av. 1:33 mm. Ratio of length to maximum
breadth, 10:0:8:4. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 23;
maximum length, 3-7 mm. Segments short and rounded, the combination monili-
form. Mouthparts normal. Thorax: As in N. hardyi (Fried.) 9; the metascutum

41

Fig. 39.—Hind leg of Notoligotoma nitens, nov. ¢&. (x 25.) F, femur; T, tibia;
T,, T., T,, tarsal segments; B,, B,, B,, tarsal bladders (sohlenblaschen).

Fig. 40.—Right fore- and hind-wings of Notoligotoma nitens, c. (x 6%.) Standard
lettering for venation.

Fig. 41.—Dorsal view of head and thorax of 2 Notoligotoma nitens, nov. (x 12%).
(Note: The head is tilted slightly forwards, exaggerating the ratio of breadth to length.)

Fig. 42.—Dorsal view of head and thorax of 2 Metoligotoma reducta reducta nov.
(x 128.)

Fig. 43.—Ventral view of last three abdominal segments of 9 Metoligotoma reducta
reducta. (x 25.)

248 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

is widest at about one-third of its length from anterior limit, thence converging
noticeably posteriorly (Fig. 41). Legs as in the ¢. Abdomen and terminalia
normal.

Habitat.—Sylvania, N.S.W., the author, 29-10-34 (holotype winged ¢@) and
11-8-35 (allotype 2 and paratype 99); Mortlake, N.S.W., Froggatt Collection,
24-10-09 (paratype wingless 4); Kenthurst, N.S.W., L. Gallard, 15-9-17 (paratype
winged 4); Carlton, N.S.W., H. C. Hall, 18-7-31 (paratype winged ¢); Neutral Bay,
Sydney, N.S.W., G. Dun, 5-33 (paratype winged ¢); Dee Why, N.S.W., R. V. Fyfe,
21-10-33 (paratype wingless ¢); Myall Lakes, N.S.W., N. J. B. Plomley, 24-8-34
(paratype winged ¢); Hlanora Heights, N.S.W., the author, 7-10-34 (paratype
winged and wingless ¢¢); Eastwood, N.S.W., L. Gallard, 1934 (paratype winged
and wingless gf); Sherbrooke, N.S.W., Miss G. Rodway, 27-8-35 (paratype winged
dg, and 9); Wogamia, via Nowra, N.S.W., Miss G. Rodway, 29-8-35 (paratype winged
and wingless ¢g, and 2); Sublime Point, nr. Austinmer, N.S.W., A. Simpson,
16-4-36 (paratype 99); Austinmer, N.S.W., the author, 9-8-32; Galston, N.S.W., the
author, 20-9-34; Killara, N.S.W., M. Day, 7-10-34; Gloucester, N.S.W., H. Davidson,
14-10-34; Bamarang, N.S.W., Miss G. Rodway, 12-2-35.

Situation.—This species is found most frequently forming galleries in the
rough bark of certain trees (e.g., Casuarina torulosa, and various Hucalypts) or in
old fence-posts. It is also found amongst the lichen Cladonia on rocks, and in
similar situations. The winged males are sometimes taken at light.

Distribution of Types.—Holotype ¢ (winged) on slide, paratype wingless J
(morphotype) in alcohol, paratype wingless ¢ on slide, allotype 2 in alcohol,
Macleay Museum; paratype males and females forwarded to the British Museum,
the National Museum, the Australian Museum, the Western Australian Museum,
the South Australian Museum, the C.S.I.R. collection, the Cawthron Institute, and
the Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg.

Note—The male figured by Tillyard (1926, p. 120) as Oligotoma gurneyi
Frogg. is not of that species, but apparently N. nitens, nov.

Key to the Species of Notoligotoma (¢).
Second segment of left cercus subconicai; process to hypandrium slender and heavily

Chitinized colour sSo0lden-pEowny panne onion hardyi (Fried.)
Second segment of left cercus more or less spherical; process to hypandrium short,
blunt, and not very heavily chitinized; colour black, shiny ........ nitens, nov.

Genus METOLIGOTOMA, Nn. gen.

Genotype, Metoligotoma reducta reducta, nov.

Wingless Oligotomidae, the males having the left cercus clavate and one-
segmented, and furnished with minute nodules on the inner surface; the first
segment of the right cercus reduced to a broad base for the accommodation of the
second segment; the left hemitergite produced backwards from its inner margin
to a slender, sinuous process; the right hemitergite subtriangular and with a
foliaceous dorsal process; and the left cercus-basipodite a small free sclerite.

Both sexes have two minute bladders placed ventrally on the first segment
of the hind tarsi, and one bladder on the second segment.

METOLIGOTOMA REDUCTA REDUCTA, n. Sp. et subsp. Figs. 10, 17, 24, 31, 38, 42, 48.

3S. Length 6:7-10:°9 mm., av. 8-4 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:14:19. Colour: To the naked eye the general colour appears to be dull black.
Under the binocular the body sclerites are seen to be very dark brown rather
than true black; head black; cerci, intersegmental membranes, and near the
joints of antennae and legs cream; antennal and tarsal segments deep golden-
brown. Head (Fig. 24): Length, 1:81-1:97 mm., av. 1:92 mm. Ratio of length

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 249

to maximum breadth, 10:0:8°3. Minutely punctate, broadest at the eyes, lateral
margins running back thence, almost straight, to the posterior angles, and
converging sharply. Hyes relatively very small. Antennae: Maximum number of
segments observed, 20; maximum length, 3:7 mm. Basal four segments (Fig. 31a)
subcylindrical, somewhat variable, but with the lengths typically in the ratio
5:2:4:2. Distalia (Fig. 31b) more rounded. Mouthparts normal, mandibles
(Fig. 38) massive, the left with two sharp points distally, two blunter teeth
inside these, and a small blunt tooth immediately posterior to them. Right
mandible with two sharp points distally and a bilobed tooth on the inner margin
a little behind the apex. Thorax: Pronotum with sides almost straight, and
broadest at posterior end. “Apotom’ not very distinctly divided off. Mesoscutum
subrectangular, broadest at about one-third of its length from anterior limit;
sides convex. Metascutum also subrectangular, with convex sides, and broadest
at about one-quarter of its length from posterior limit, thence converging slightly.
None of the thoracic nota as broad as the head. Legs normal, the fore femora
somewhat incrassate, the hind femora greatly swollen; hind tarsi with two
bladders ventrally on the first segment, one on the second. Wings absent.
Abdomen: First seven segments, viewed dorsally, subequal; eighth tergite slightly
shorter; ninth tergite only half as long as first; tenth segment a little longer
than ninth.

Terminalia (Fig. 10): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally to left and right
hemitergites (10 L, 10 R respectively). 10R subtriangular, the distal apex pointing
downwards and inwards (10 RP,). From near the inner margin of 10R there
arises a foliaceous process (10 RP.) projecting to the left and slightly upwards,
but in a more or less horizontal plane; 10 RP, subrectangular, somewhat corru-
gated, not heavily chitinized. First segment of right cercus (RC,) attached above
to lateroventral part of 10 R, below to outer margin of hypandrium; no cercus-
basipodite present. RC, reduced to a base, broader than long, for the accommoda-
tion of the second segment (RC,), which is subcylindrical. Left hemitergite
subtriangular, the inner margin produced backwards to a slender, slightly sinuous
process (10 LP), heavily chitinized; proximal part of 10 LP overlapped by 10 RP..
Between 10 L and 10R, just distal to the ninth tergite, there appear to be several
small chitinous plates connecting the proximal parts of 10L and 10R. Left
cercus (LC,) one-segmented, arising lateroventrally from the body of 10 L; clavate,
the distal part of the inner margin forming a blunt face bearing many minute
teeth. Left cercus-basipodite (LCB) a small, slender, free sclerite, between the
base of LC, and the left margin of the hypandrium; LCB ending bluntly. Ventrally
(Fig. 17), the hypandrium (H) is produced from its right-hand margin to a
long, pointed process (HP,), not free, for the right-hand margin is attached to
RC,, and the inner margin to another sclerite (HP,) which fills up the concavity
between H and HP, HP, subtriangular. Dorsal to the plate HP, and projecting
between it and the dorsal sclerites is a subconical structure (A) probably repre-
senting the aedeagus; the right-hand margin of A is chitinized, the rest
membraneous. Note: Both 10 RP, and LCB are somewhat variable.

@. Length, 12-0-13:0 mm., av. 12-4 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:24:40. Colour: Head golden-brown with darker tracery; pronotum deep golden-
brown, with paler areas (as in Fig. 42). Mesoscutum and metascutum and
abdominal tergites dark brown at lateral borders, ranging through golden-brown
to a longitudinal cream central line. ‘Selerites of leg and antennal segments
golden-brown, the former paler near the joints. Intersegmental membranes cream.
Ventrally, the body sclerites are pale-brown to cream, the thoracic sclerites,

250 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

abdominal pleurites 2-7, and lateral margins of abdominal sternites being darker
than the rest. Head: Length, 1:60-1:71 mm., av. 1:65 mm.; ratio of length to
maximum breadth, 10:0:8:4. Structure normal for the family. Antennae:
Maximum number of segments observed, 14; maximum length, 2:3 mm. Segments
shorter than in the Q@, distalia more or less spherical, the combination moniliform.
Mouthparts normal. Thorax and legs as in the Q, the widest point of the
mesoscutum slightly more anteriorly placed. Abdomen and terminalia normal
(v. Fig. 48).

Note—Females taken at Austinmer, N.S.W., in association with typical males,
were smaller and darker than in the above description. They were mature, and
in most cases guarding eggs, so that the bodies were shrunk subsequent to ovi-
position. The following details of this series are given:

Colour: Dorsally, dark brown, no head pattern; trace of pronotal pattern and
mid-dorsal longitudinal line. Eyes black. Ventrally, sclerites pale brown with
darker areas, especially on eighth sternite. Legs dark brown, paler near joints;
membranes cream. Length, 7:7-8:4 mm., av. 7:9 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in
the ratio 10:18:25. Head-length, 1:33-1:60 mm., av. 1:47 mm. Ratio of head-
length to maximum breadth, 10:0:8:2. Maximum number of antennal segments
observed, 15; maximum antennal length, 2-4 mm.

Members of this series have not been designated paratypes. It is probable,
however, that the females of this species are more variable than the first description
implies.

Habitat—Hlanora Heights, N.S.W., M. Day, and D. Waterhouse, 16-9-34 (holo-
type g and paratype gf); N. J. B. Plomley, 18-12-34 (paratype ¢) and 27-5-35
(paratype ¢); Jooriland, Burragorang Valley, N.S.W., the author, 1-1-33 (para-
type 4, allotype ? and paratype 92); Austinmer, N.S.W., the author, 30-9-34 and
23-8-36 (paratype dd); coll. 1-3-36, matured 1-4-36 et seq. (paratype gd, and 99);
Myall Lakes, N.S.W., N. J. B. Plomley 24-8-34 (paratype ¢); Mt. Tambourine, Q.,
W. H. Davidson, 1-9-24; Tomat Falls, nr. Wollondilly River, N.S.W., the author,
23-8-34; Springwood, N.S.W., and Lawson, N.S.W., D. Waterhouse, 1-10-34;
Mittagong, N.S.W., D. Lee, 30-7-35; Lower Burragorang Valley, N.S.W., R. T.
Walker, 6-36.

Situation—In the mat formed by Polypodium serpens, P. confluens, or
Dendrobium linguiforme, growing on rock faces; also amongst dead leaves,
especially in the mat formed by fallen Casuarina needles.

Distribution of Types——Holotype ¢ on slide, paratype ¢¢ on slide and in
alcohol, allotype 2 in alcohol, Macleay Museum; paratype males and females
forwarded to the British Museum and the Western Australian Museum; paratype
males forwarded to the National Museum, the Australian Museum, the South
Australian Museum, the C.S.I.R. collection, the Cawthron Institute and the
Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg.

METOLIGOTOMA REDUCTA INGENS, nN. subsp.
This subspecies is divided off on account of its great size and paler colour.
The significant characters are given below; the remaining characters are the
same as for the respective sexes of M. reducta reducta, nov.

3g. Length, 12:0-14-2 mm., av. 12°83 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:15:18. Head-length, 2:93-3:41 mm., av. 3:26 mm. Ratio of head-length to
maximum breadth 10-0:8:2. Maximum observed number of antennal segments,
13; maximum antennal length, 3:8 mm. Colour: Head dark-brown, eyes black;
dorsally, body sclerites dull brown, with paler pattern on prothorax and pale mid-

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 251

dorsal line on mesoscutum, metascutum and abdominal tergites; ventrally, body
brown, abdominal sternites, especially hypandrium, darker than the rest. Legs
and antennae golden-brown, intersegmental membranes cream.

9. Length, 14:4-18-7 mm., av. 15:8 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:21:31. Head-length, 2:13-2:67 mm., av. 2-41 mm. Ratio of head-length to
maximum breadth, 10-0:8-0. Maximum number of antennal segments observed, 18;
maximum antennal length, 3:3 mm. Colour: Head golden-brown with dark-brown
tracery. Remaining parts as in the J, the abdominal sternites around the genital
aperture dark.

Habitat—Black Mountain, nr. Canberra, F.C.T., R. V. Fyfe, 25-1-35 (holo-
type 6d, allotype 9, paratype gf and 99); the author, coll. 13-2-36, matured 27-3-36
(paratype 99), and coll. 29-5-36 (paratype 99).

Situation.—Amongst dead, fallen Hucalypt leaves, forming a moist, decaying
mass on the ground.

Distribution of Types.—Holotype ¢g on slide, paratype ¢ and allotype 9 in
alcohol, Macleay Museum. Paratype ¢ and 9 forwarded to the Western Australian
Museum, and paratype females forwarded to the British Museum, the National
Museum, the Australian Museum, the South Australian Museum, the C.S.I.R.
Collection, the Cawthron Institute and the Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg.

Key to the Subspecies of Metoligotoma reducta, nov. (cc).

Length of specimens in series examined, 6:7-10-9 mm., ay. 8:4 mm.; head-lengths of
specimens in series examined, 1:81-1:97 mm., av. 1:92 mm.; colour to the naked eye
Ghat UNE Wea) ESTs Atte a cron oneicaeneed Old, ON Sacto EMCI OT CELS 0 Ol01G 0.0 Ore CHEROICICU AT cae enOREICH CHER ICHS iieraa reducta, nov.
Length of specimens in series examined, 12-0-14:2 mm., av. 12-8 mm.; head-lengths of
specimens in series examined, 2:93-3:41 mm., av. 3:26 mm.; colour to the naked eye
[SERON AOL totcec orcackc eR OrCe CRC Me CHEST nIGeRGGEEEA To. Dickie 6.0.00 Octo Bie CAS InIR ree oe eecmeR re aceot aia ingens, nov.

Key to the Australian Genera of the Family Oligotomidae (cv).

1. Second segment of left cercus distinctly separated from first by a clear suture, sub-
cylindrical, more than three times as long as thick; right hemitergite of tenth
abdominal segment produced backwards from its outer margin to a _ process,
straight or slightly sinuous, at least three times as long as broad (eg., Fig. 1,
10 RP,). Hind tarsi with less than two bladders on the second segment. Winged

OLWANSICSS Ahk a's Beace son ae wave a eI ON Uae MRR eter ene a eesti, eee ake Oligotoma Westwood
Second segment of left cercus reduced or absent; process of right hemitergite not as
above. Hind tarsi with two bladders on the second segment .............. 2

2. Second segment of left cercus reduced in length, less than twice as long as thick,
and not separated from first segment by a distinct suture; first segment of right
cercus subcylindrical, longer than thick. Winged or wingless .. Notoligotoma, nov.

Second segment of left cercus absent; first segment of right cercus reduced, broader
nein Jones; WHMIS 4 ce od'o oo onon ooo on Coo.sone do Ob DOU doo Metoligotoma, nov.

RELATIONSHIPS OF AUSTRALIAN SPECIES.

(The following discussion refers to the males.)

Although the members of the genus Oligotoma are less specialized in most
characters than those of the genera Notoligotoma and Metoligotoma, the latter two
genera could not have been derived directly from Oligotoma, since they possess a
very different and rather more generalized right hemitergite.

Taking, then, a hypothetical Oligotomid lacking the outer process to the right
hemitergite characteristic of the genus Oligotoma, we can on the one hand reach,
from such an ancestor, the simplest of members of the genus Oligotoma (such as
O. latreillei (Ramb.) ), and, on the other, such genera as Notoligotoma and
Metoligotoma.

From a generalized species of Oligotoma the three autochthonous Australian
species of this genus are derived chiefly by various modifications of the process
of the left hemitergite (terminating in O. gurneyi gurneyi Frogg. and subspecies

252 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA, I,

in a simple hook, an advance on the Sumatran O. vosseleri (Krauss), in which it
lacks any terminal process; in O. glauerti Till. in an anchor-like appendage; and
in O. tillyardi, nov., in a forcipate structure convergent to that in the Hmbiid
genus Rhagadochir). Concomitant with this is the development of the first segment
of the left cercus; from the primitive subcylindrical type, the inner process is
developed (as in the series O. gurneyi Frogg. subclavata, nov., O. gurneyi gurneyi
Frogg., and O. gurneyi Frogg. spinulosa, nov.), and becomes greatly exaggerated
in O. glauerti Till. and O. tillyardi, nov. Other minor differences, as in the left
cercus-basipodite, also supervene.

On the other hand, the development of the genera Notoligotoma and
Metoligotoma is marked chiefly by the reduction or loss of the second segment
of the left cercus, present as a small, unsutured protuberance in Notoligotoma,
but completely lost in Metoligotoma. This loss is convergent to that in the genus
Anisembia, and is a continuation of the process by which the more generalized
recent Embioptera with two-segmented cerci on both sides developed from their
Permian ancestors with many-segmented cerci on both sides. The reduction or
loss of the second segment of the left cercus in Notoligotoma or Metoligotoma can
likewise be traced in ontogeny, when it is gradually resorbed in the last ecdysis,
the penultimate instar possessing normal cerci with two subcylindrical segments
on both sides. In Metoligotoma, the first segment of the right cercus is also
reduced.

In both these genera, the hind tarsi develop an extra bladder. Metoligotoma,
however, is probably not derived directly from Notoligotoma, as its right hemi-
tergite has an altogether different form of process, and its left cercus-basipodite
is more primitive. ;

List of References.

CHAMBERLIN, J. C., 1923.—A Revision of the genus Anisembia, with description of a new
species from the Gulf of California. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., xii, 16, pp. 341-351,
figs. a-j.

EXNDERLEIN, G., 1912.—Embiiden, in Coll. de Sélys Longchamps, fasc. 3.

Ferris, G. L., 1928.—The Principles of Systematic Entomology. Stanford Univ. Pub.,
Biol. Sciences, Vol. v, No. 3.

FRIEDERICHS, K., 1906.—Zur Biologie der Embiiden. Mitt. Zool. Mus., bd. iii, hft. 2.

, 1914.—A New Species of Embiid from West Australia. Rec. W.A. Mus. and
ATE GO VOlwi texty to.

, 1923.—Okologische Beobachtungen tiber Embiidinen. Capita Zoologica, Deel ii,
anak ile

, 1984.—Das Gemeinschaftsleben der Hmbiiden und Naheres zur Kenntnis der
Arten. Archiv. fiir Naturgeschichte, bd. iii, hft. 3.

, 1935.—Check-list of the Embiidae (Embioptera) of Oceania. Bernice P. Bishop
Mus., Occ. Pap. Vol. xi, No. 7. (Honolulu.)

FRroccATT, W. W., 1904.—Notes on Neuroptera and Descriptions of New Species. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxix, 1904 (1905), pp. 671-674.

, 1905.—Ibid., xxx, p. 175.

GRASSI and SANDIAS, 1896-7.—English translation of paper, Q9.J.M.S., 39 and 40.

Imns, A. D., 1913.—On Hmbia major, sp. nov., from the Himalayas. Trans. Linn. Soe.
London, Zool., Vol. xi, Pt. 12.

*Krauss, H. A., 1911.—Monographie der Embien. Zoologica, 32.

MBELANDER, A. L., 1902..—Two New Embiidae. Biol. Bull. Marine Biol. Lab. Woods Hole,
Mass., Vol. iii, Nos. 1-2.

,1903.—Notes on the Structure and Development of Hmbia texana Mel. Ibid.,
Vol. iv, No. 3.

* Unavailable in Australia.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 253

MvuKERJI, S., 1927.—On the Morphology and Bionomics of EHEmbia minor, sp. nov. Rec.
Ind. Mus., Vol. xxix, Pt. 4, pp. 253-282.

, 1935.—On Two Undescribed Forms of the Genus Oligotoma, with a Description
of the External Genitalia of Oligotoma michaeli, and Distributional Records of Some
Indian Forms. Ibid., Vol. xxxvii, Pt. 1.

OKAJIMA, G., 1926.—Description of a New Species of Oligotoma from Japan, together
with some notes on the Family Oligotomidae. J. Coll. Agr. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, vii, 4,
pp. 411-432.

SILVESTRI, F., 1912.—EHEmbiidae from Java and Krakatau. Tijd. voor Entomologie, 1912,
pp. 333-335.
TILLYARD, R. J., 1923.—The Embioptera or Web-spinners of Western Australia. Jowrn.
JARO IRONS ISOGs) Wolo, so de, ale
, 1926.—The Insects of Australia and New Zealand, p. 120.
WESTWOOD, J., 1836.—Characters of Embia, a genus allied to the White Ants. Trans.
Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., xvii, pp. 369-374.

ZEcK, E. H., 1930.—Some Notes on Oligotoma gurneyi Frogg. Aust. Zool., vi, Pt. 2

a.

Postscript, added 27th August, 1936.—Since the completion of this paper, information
has been received from Dr. Lieftinck that the Embioptera which were forwarded to the
Zoological Museum, Buitenzorg, Java, have now been transferred to the Museum of
Natural History at Leyden, Holland.

STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA.
PART II. FURTHER NOTES ON SYSTEMATICS.

By Consett Davis, B.Sc.
(From the Zoology Department, Sydney University.)

(Plate xii; seven Text-figures.)
[Read 28th October, 1936.]

Since the completion of the first paper of this series (Davis, 1936), two
interesting new species have been discovered. Since material of both of these
species is being used for anatomical and embryological study, it is necessary to
describe them forthwith. This paper is accordingly to be regarded as supple-
mentary to the former paper, and the prefatory remarks to, and methods used in,
that paper apply here also.

Genus MeEtToLicoToMaA Davis.
METOLIGOTOMA PENTANESIANA, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2, 4, 6.

o6.—Length 6:3-9-7 mm., av. 8-0 mm. Ratio head:thorax:abdomen, 10:16:22
(lengths). Colour: Living specimens appear dull greyish-brown to the naked eye.
Details of the colour of preserved specimens are as follows: Head deep golden-
brown with darker symmetrical tracery, eyes black. Sclerites of thorax and
abdomen, dorsally dark brown, paler symmetrical pattern on pronotum, paler
mottling on mesoscutum and metascutum, and paler mid-dorsal line in abdominal
region (as in M. reducta reducta m., 9). Ventrally, sclerites brown with paler
areas, especially on anterior abdominal sternites; hypandrium very dark brown.
Segments of antennae, legs and cerci golden-brown. Intersegmental membranes
cream. Head: Length 1:40-2:12 mm., av. 1:69 mm. Ratio of length to maximum
breadth 10:0:8-1. The variation in head-structure in adult males is interesting,
some (fig. 1) having the head with almost straight lateral margins, converging
posteriorly, as in M. reducta reducta m., g; in others (fig. 2), the lateral margins
of the head are noticeably convex, and rounded off posteriorly, as in adult females
of the family—that is, the larval form is fairly closely retained. Mature males
with larviform heads have been noted very rarely in M. reducta reducta m. and
M. reducta ingens m., but in this species the occurrence is frequent. Antennae:
Maximum number of segments observed, 18; maximum total length, 3:6 mm. Four
basal segments with lengths typically in the ratio 5:2:3:2; distalia subcylindrical,
margins straight and diverging distally. Mouthparts with mandibles similar to
those of M. reducta reducta m., $: the left with two sharp, inwardly-directed teeth
distally, two blunter teeth behind these, and posterior to them a blunt process on
the inner margin; the right with two fairly sharp distal teeth, directed inwards,
and a bilobed tooth behind these on the inner margin (fig. 1). In males with
head-structure approaching larviform, the mandibles are intermediate between
those described above and those present in the immature stages (fig. 2). Thoraz,

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 255

legs and abdomen (except terminalia) as in M. reducta reducta m., ¢. Wings
absent.

Terminalia (figs. 4, 6): Tenth tergite divided longitudinally into left and
right hemitergites (10 L, 10 R respectively). 10R and its processes 10 RP,, 10 RP.,
similar in general form to those in M. reducta reducta m., but with 10 RP,
terminating more bluntly, and 10 RP, of different form, the left-hand part being
only very weakly chitinized. Segments of right cercus (RC, RC.) as in
M. reducta reducta m.; 10L small, and giving rise to a process (10 LP) from
the posterior limit of its inner margin. 10 LP sinuous, somewhat slender, ending
bluntly, and giving off dorsally a sharp spine, directed towards the left, near
its posterior extremity. Left cercus (LC,) one-segmented, with minute nodules
at its posterior extremity and on a rounded protuberance half-way along its
inner margin. Left cercus-basipodite (LCB) projecting backwards between base
of LC, and hypandrium to a tapered point; LCB membraneous except along its
outer margin. Right cercus-basipodite wanting. Hypandrium (H) and its

Figs. 1-3.—Dorsal view of heads of adult males, showing mandible structure. x 124.
1. Metoligotoma pentanesiana, nov., fully developed head; 2. M. pentanesiana, nov., head
capsule of mature male retaining larviform features; 3. M. extorris, nov.

Figs. 4-5.—Dorsal view of male terminalia. x 25. 4. M. pentanesiana, nov.;
5. M. extorris, nov.

Figs. 6-7.—Ventral view of male terminalia, certain dorsal structures omitted. x 25.
6. M. pentanesiana, nov. 7. M. extorris, nov.

(9. Ninth abdominal tergite; 10L, 10R, left and right hemitergites of tenth
abdominal segment; 10 LP, process of 10 L; 10 RP,, 10 RP,, outer and inner processes of
10R; RC, RC,, first and second segments of right cercus; LC,, one-segmented left
cercus; LCB, left cercus-basipodite; H, hypandrium; HP,, HP,, appendages of H; A,
membraneous structure possibly representing aedeagus.)

256 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA. II,

appendages (HP,, HP.) as in M. reducta reducta m. Between HP, and 10 RP,
there projects a conical, membraneous structure, chitinized medially (A); this
may represent the aedeagus, but appears to be placed further dorsad than usual
for this structure, so that it may belong morphologically, not to the aedeagus,
but to the right hemitergite.

9—Length 8:0-10-6 mm., av. 94 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:19:27. Colour: Living specimens appear dark brown, without the greyish hue
seen in the male; and there is more of the cream intersegmental membrane in
evidence. In detail, preserved specimens have the same coloration as the male,
somewhat paler, and the sternites around the genital aperture are very dark brown.
Head: Length 1:47-1:82 mm., av. 1:69 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth,
10:0:8:5. Structure normal for the family. Antennae: Maximum number of
segments observed, 16; maximum total length, 2-6 mm. Segments as in M. reducta
reducta m., 9. All other characters as in M. reducta reducta m., 9.

Habitat—Most northerly of the Five Islands, near Port Kembla, N.S.W., the
author, 2.8.36 (paratype ¢) and 13.9.26 (holotype dg, allotype 2 and long series of
paratype ¢ and 9).

The island on which the insects were collected is an isolated trachy-andesite
mass, more than a mile from the shore. The portion of the island not subject to
wave action is approximately 100 yards in diameter (Pl. xii, fig. 1).

Situation—Forming galleries under and between stones, among dead
vegetation (especially of Hnchylaena tomentosa and Mesembryanthemum
aequilaterale), and among the fleshy stocks of the herb Plectranthus parviflorus.

Disposition of Types—Holotype ¢ (in clove oil), allotype 9 and paratype J
(in alcohol), Macleay Museum, Sydney University. Paratype males and females
forwarded to the British Museum, the Australian Museum, the National Museum,
the South Australian Museum, the Western Australian Museum, the C.S.I.R.
collection, the Cawthron Institute and the Leyden Museum.

METOLIGOTOMA EXTORRIS, nD. Sp. Figs. 3, 5, 7.

o6.—Length 11:-4-14:1 mm., av. 12-5 mm. Head:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:17:23. Colour: Head black, tergites of thorax and abdomen dark brown, the
pronotum with paler symmetrical pattern, the mesoscutum and metascutum with
a paler median line fading out in the abdominal region. Ventrally, sclerites brown
with paler areas, especially in the abdominal region. Hypandrium very dark
brown; segments of legs golden-brown, of cerci and antennae dark brown. Inter-
segmental membranes cream. Head (fig. 3): Length 2:23-2:77 mm., av. 2:51 mm.
Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:7:9. Eyes small, but prominent for the
genus; behind the eyes the lateral margins of the head expand in another protu-
berance, then converge to the posterior limit, where a fairly sharp angle is formed
on each side. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 18; maximum
total length, 41 mm. Four basal segments with lengths typically in the ratio
5:2:3:2; distalia as in the previous species. Mouth parts with mandibles (fig. 3)
having teeth disposed as in the previous species. Thorax, legs and abdomen
(except terminalia) as in M. reducta reducta m., 3. Wings absent.

Terminahia (figs. 5, 7): Disposition as in M. reducta reducta m. and
M. pentanesiana, noy., with the following points of difference: (1) The process
10 RP, is slender and smoothly tapered; (2) the process 10 RP. is of different
shape, and the left-hand margin, weakly chitinized, has a crenulate appearance;
(3) the process 10 LP, simple in M. reducta m. and subspecies, and bearing a
prominent spine in M. pentanesiana, nov., has a slight dorsal projection near its

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 257
termination. 10LP is somewhat stouter than in the other species, and 101 _
smaller; (4) the left cercus (LC,) curves in distally to a finger-shaped process,
bearing minute nodules; minute nodules are also present on a rounded protuber-
ance on the inner margin of LC,; (5) the left cercus-basipodite (LCB) is a very
large membraneous structure, running back to a rounded extremity. LCB chitinized
only along its outer margin.

9.—Length 9:4-15:0 mm., av. 12-2 mm. MHead:thorax:abdomen in the ratio
10:23:35. Colour: Head golden-brown with dark brown symmetrical tracery.
Tergites of thorax and abdomen dark brown, pronotum with golden-brown
symmetrical pattern, mesoscutum and metascutum with paler mottling, abdominal
tergites with a pale mid-dorsal line. Ventrally dark brown with paler areas;
abdominal sternites 1-7 dark only at lateral margins, abdominal pleurites dark
brown. Sternites 8 and 9 dark throughout. Segments of antennae, legs and cerci
golden-brown; intersegmental membranes cream. Head: Length 1:53-2:12 mm.,
av. 1:79 mm. Ratio of length to maximum breadth, 10:0:8-0. Structure normal
for the family. Antennae: Maximum number of segments observed, 18; maximum
total length 3:1 mm. Segments as in M. reducta reducta m., 9. All other
characters as in M. reducta reducta m., 9.

Habitat—Brush Island, near Ulladulla, N.S.W., the author, 6.9.36 (holotype J,
allotype 9, paratype males and females). Brush Island (Pl. xii, figs. 2, 3) is a
doleritic mass, approximately half a mile in length, less than half a mile from
the mainland at Murramarang Point, some twenty miles south of Ulladulla.

Situation.—Forming galleries amongst dead vegetation, particularly inside the
hollow stems of dead plants of Tetragonia expansa.

Disposition of Types.—Holotype ¢ (in clove oil), allotype 9 and paratype g
(in alcohol), Macleay Museum. Paratype males and females forwarded to the
British Museum, the Western Australian Museum and the National Museum.

Key to the Species of Metoligotoma (<<).

1. Left cercus finger-shaped distally (fig. 5) .......... 2610 1G 0 ORES ERGOT E Des extorris, NOv.

ISeLiECEECUSHNOtealS) DOVE cicmeterrcne eects Ss ie Sis sieee eure Seed uetede ove uetlevs' saya) ie. paws lou orratepeiemeyerenauel > = 2

2. Process of left hemitergite of tenth abdominal segment simple ........ reducta m.

Process of left hemitergite of tenth abdominal segment with a prominent dorsal

FS OMEAYS) oj soem Gira HOG OORT OE O20 GF Osc ee MCE IEEE PO) iri ees AcE at mE pentanesiana, nov.
Discussion.

The species Metoligotoma extorris and M. pentanesiana are interesting from
the point of view of evolution; both apparently represent species formed under
the influence of isolation by some form of orthogenesis (in the literal sense, that
is, not implying any directive force).

Both islands have been separated from the mainland by erosion of sedimentary
rocks lying between, and it is probable that a large part of the fauna and flora is
relict from the time of separation.

The environment is similar in each case, though varying slightly from that on
the mainland.

The developments of the process of the left hemitergite of the tenth abduminal
segment are particularly important, .when we remember that this process has
developed a forcipate appendage twice within the order by convergence
(Rhagadochir spp., Oligotoma_ tillyardi m.). The spine developed in
M. pentanesiana appears to be the initiation of a similar structure, but as yet it
would appear to have no functional importance, as in O. tillyardi m., so that an
explanation of its development by selection would be incorrect.

258 STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN EMBIOPTERA. II.

Reference.

Davis, C., 1936.—Studies in Australian Embioptera, Part I: Systematics. Proc.

Soc. N.S.W., Vol. Ixi, p. 229.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.
Fig. 1.—Most northerly of the Five Islands, off Port Kembla, N.S.W.
Fig. 2.—Brush Island and Murramarang Point, near Ulladulla, N.S.W.
Fig. 3.—Situation on Brush Island where Metoligotoma extorris occurs.

LINN.

Proc. Linn. Soc. IV.S.W., 1936. PLATE Xan

1.—Most northerly of the Five Islands, off Port Kembla.
2, 3.—Brush Island, near Ulladulla.

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NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXVI.

By Joun R. Matuocu, Arlington, Virginia, U.S.A.
(Communicated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.ES., F.Z.S8.)

(Four Text-figures.)
(Read 28th October, 1936.]

The paper now presented furnishes descriptions of two remarkable Australian
Diptera regarding the family location of which there is at least an element of
doubt. I have long deferred dealing with them because of my intention to present
a comprehensive synoptic key to the so-called acalyptrate Diptera, and these and
other confusing species have been largely responsible for a protracted delay in
bringing my paper to completion. I am now publishing the descriptions as a step
towards the elimination of the problem of the family status of the two Australian
species.

Family ASTEIIDAE.

Without going into the question of the distinctness of this group from the
Drosophilidae, I provisionally place herein the new genus described below.

NOTHOASTEIA, nN. gen.

Generic characters.—Wing venation much as in Liomyza Macquart, but the
outer cross-vein is lacking and the sixth vein is well developed though incomplete
(Fig. 1). Head wider than thorax, flattened, the frons broad, eyes elongate
(Fig. 2); antennae with the third segment broken off in type, probably short and
rounded at apex; frontal bristles weak, one vertical on each side rather notice-
able, the ocellars not distinguishable; eyes stiff short-haired. Thorax slender,
slightly convex above, the humeri tumid, with one short bristle and some hairs;
notopleurals short; scutellum short, but both it and the posterior part of the
mesonotum so much damaged by the pin that exact details can not be ascertained.
Legs moderately long and strong, with no distinct bristles, rather numerously
haired.

Genotype, the following species.

NoTHOASTEIA PLATYCEPHALA, nN. Sp. Figs. 1, 2.

Head testaceous yellow, frons darkened above and with grey dust on the dark
part, the orbits yellow, vertex brown, darkest at ocelli; hairs yellow. Thorax
yellow,.the mesonotum shiny black and slightly grey-dusted; scutellum apparently
black. Legs entirely yellow. Wings hyaline, veins pale. Abdomen largely
destroyed, but dark at base, the sex of the specimen indeterminable. Halteres
cream-coloured.

Head as in Figures 2 and 2a, distinctly wider than thorax, partly abraded so
that exact details of the bristling can not be given. The flattened and widened
form is different from that of any genus of Asteiidae known to me, the only
approach to it being found in a Hawaiian genus that differs in having the second

260 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXXVI,

wing-vein much shorter and in other details. Humeri quite prominent, prosternal ~
plate small. Legs with numerous pale hairs and no bristles, all femora rather
thick, the hind pair distinctly longer than their tibiae. Wings narrow, rather
pointed, costa to apex of fourth vein, with some fine costal hairs (Fig. 1). Length,
2-5 mm.

Type, Brisbane.

It is possible that careful search on the inner sides of windows, and especially
those of outhouses, will produce specimens of this interesting species, and so
provide material for a thorough examination of features not preserved in the
damaged type specimen.

Figs. 1-2a.—Nothoasteia platycephala. 1, wing; 2, head in profile; 2a, head
from above on left, from below on right.
Figs. 8-4a.—Waterhouseia cyclops. 3, wing; 4, head of male in profile; 4a, head
: from in front, incomplete.

Family ANTHOMYZIDAE.

My reason for placing the new genus described below in this family is that
the wing venation and presence of vibrissae appear to associate it most closely
with this group. The extremely narrow frons, however, sets the genus apart, and
several other characters, such as the markedly convex mesonotum, serve to
distinguish it from any genus known to me. I admit that the assignment to
Anthomyzidae is tentative and subject to rectification upon discovery of the
female, as that sex may provide characters that will throw a new light upon the
relationships.

WATERHOUSEIA, nN. gen.

Generic characters.—Distinguishable from any acalyptrate genus by the
remarkable structure of the head (Fig. 4), the eyes covering almost the entire
sides, and the frons in front of the ocelli reduced to not more than one-sixth of
the head-width, widening gradually to anterior margin. The bristles consist of
three pairs of orbitals, the ocellar pair, four verticals, the inner pair much longer
than the outer, and a divergent pair of postverticals. The vibrissae are well
developed, the eyes are extremely short haired, the proboscis is short and fleshy,
and though the palpi do not show in the type specimen they are no doubt present.
The arista is subnude. Thorax highly arched, with the following bristles: 1
humeral, 2 notopleurals, 1 presutural, 1 supra-alar, 2 postalars, 2 or 3 pairs of
dorsocentrals, 4 scutellars, and 2 sternopleurals. Postscutellum well developed.

BY J. R. MALLOCH. 261

Legs normal. Wing as Figure 3. Abdomen elongate, slender, cylindrical, the
hypopygium small.
Genotype, the following species.

WATERHOUSEIA CYCLOPS, n. sp. Figs. 3, 4.

Male.—A shiny black species, with the mesonotum dull black, the venter of
abdomen and the tibiae and tarsi brownish-yellow, wings slightly smoky, veins
black, halteres with yellow stalks and black knobs. :

Head as wide as thorax, occiput excavated in centre above, face almost flat;
genae linear, parafacials invisible in profile (Fig. 4); frons very narrow (Fig. 4a).
Mesonotum much elevated, with many decumbent stiff black hairs. Scutellum bare
except for the 4 marginal bristles. Legs shrunken in type, the fore femora
apparently with series of well developed bristles on the anterodorsal and postero-
ventral surfaces, the hind femur with an outstanding bristle on anterior surface
beyond middle, mid legs broken off; preapical tibial bristle lacking. Wings as
Figure 8. Length, 3 mm.

Type, Blue Mts., N.S.W., 15.4.1922 (Ferguson). In Health Dept. collection.

The genus is dedicated to Dr. G. A. Waterhouse in recognition of his assistance
in presenting several of this series of papers to the Society.

Corrigendum.

In “Notes on and Descriptions of New Species of Australian Diptera’, by
John R. Malloch, Australian Zoologist, viii, pt. ii, 1935, p. 87, the reference to
Ichthyomyia de Meijere, Tijdschr. v. Hnt., lviii, 1913, 382, should read Ichthyomyia
de Meijere, Nova Guinea, ix, Zoolog., Livr., iii, 1913, 382.

PROBLEMS IN THE GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA.
By H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc.

(With a note on the petrology of a small collection of schists, by
Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D.)
(Communicated by Professor L. A. Cotton.)

(One Text-figure.)

[Read 28th October, 1936.]

Introduction.

New Caledonia was so named by Captain Cook because of the resemblance
of its east coast to the west coast of Scotland, rugged mountains and deep fiords
lining the coast. New Caledonia is a country whose mountainsides are deeply
indented with hollows, furrows, ravines and deep valleys.

Geological Constitution and Physiography.

The geological constitution of New Caledonia causes its physical features to
possess a unique character. Excepting the north-eastern portion of the island,
which is intensely metamorphosed, most of New Caledonia is composed of serpen-
tine and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, mingled with andesitic lavas and breccias
of an easily decomposable nature.

The serpentines which form high mountains and ranges are largely untimbered,
probably because of the high magnesia content of the soil, though the lower slopes
composed of serpentine rubble are often covered with a dense scrub of wattle (a
species of Acacia locally known as ‘guiac’), and of she-oak (a species of Casuarina
locally termed ‘bois de fer’).

The andesitic soils are lightly timbered with tea-tree (Melaleuca sp. locally
known as ‘niouli’) and this timber grows more thickly and is the dominant wood
on the sedimentary formations. However, in the alluviated valleys in the niouli
(tea-tree) country we often find dense scrubs similar to those of north Queensland
rivers, in which many of the trees seem to be close allies of those occurring in
Queensland scrubs. On the high plateaux in many parts there are scrubby valleys
in which the kauri pine flourishes. Yet, generally speaking, the natural vegetation
is extremely monotonous, especially as the settled parts of the island consist
mostly of the fertile sedimentary and volcanic areas in which the forest is almost
entirely one of paper-bark tea-tree (niouli). Of course today much of this country
is variegated with introduced plants, amongst which guava, lantana, and sida-retusa
figure largely.

It would seem that the whole island must have been inundated with lavas
and submerged beneath the ocean in late Mesozoic times, so that all vestiges of
early plant and animal life were destroyed, and later, upon re-emergence, it is
probable that the seeds of hardy plant species have been carried on driftwood from
Australia and from the Solomon Islands in the early Tertiary to initiate the present

BY H. I. JENSEN. 263

flora. The animal life supports the same supposition. There were no mammals,
nor marsupials, in New Caledonia before the voyage of Captain Cook, and only one
small reptile, a little lizard, the ancestors of which also might have arrived
on pieces of driftwood.

Geological History.

The island of New Caledonia is a remnant of a once continuous continent, the
Melanesian plateau, which extended westwards to Eastern Australia and New
Guinea, and south perhaps to New Zealand. Its separation from these lands was
not, like the destruction of Atlantis, an affair of the geological yesterday. It
dates back to the Mesozoic period. Since then the whole island has been under the
sea, has been inundated with lavas, partly submarine, partly terrestrial, has been
overturned, folded, plicated and faulted by great convulsions and earth movements,
and re-elevated by forces which had their origin in titanic pressures emanating
from the ocean depths to the east.

It seems most reasonable to suppose that the hinge line dividing the essentially
oceanic Pacific trough from the submerged, collapsed and foundered Australia—
Melanesian plateau passed, in early Mesozoic times, along the great volcanic line,
which runs through New Zealand, White Island, Tonga, the New Hebrides and
Solomons to New Guinea. New Caledonia was the scene of marine transgressions
in the Mesozoic, during which Triassic and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks were
laid down, with interludes of land conditions during which the coal beds were
formed. The siliceous sandstones and aluminous shales of these periods must
have been derived from continental rocks such as granite, or sedimentary rocks
derived from granite. They were laid down in shallow water under oscillating
conditions, as shown by coal-beds in them. The limestones of these periods are
also of such a nature as to suggest shallow-water conditions. The contemporary
lavas, tutfs, breccias and agglomerates are mostly andesitic, therefore neither truly
oceanic nor truly continental; occasionally thin sheets and dykes of trachyte occur
in them.

Fossils are not usually abundant, but do occur in abundance in a few places.
Even then they are usually very crushed as a result of earth-movements and are
not often identifiable as regards species. Yet the early French geologists, Garnier,
Heurteau and Pelatan, succeeded in identifying a fair number and definitely found
several species identical with those of the Triassic and Cretaceous of New Zealand.
Indeed, New Zealand, both in its sedimentary and volcanic sequence, is much akin
to New Caledonia, but New Caledonia has undergone the more intense subsequent
earth-movements.

The Mesozoic sediments of New Caledonia have all been strongly folded. In
the southern half of the island it is easily seen that the folding becomes rapidly
more intense as we proceed from west to east towards the edge of the serpentine,
near which overfolding and plication are common. The serpentine intrusions were
apparently the cause of the pressure and thrust movements producing the folding,
as well as of a considerable amount of faulting, crush and shearing.

The dip seldom remains constant in direction or angle for any great distance.
For example, Noumea is built on andesitic lavas, tuffs, breccias and sedimentary
rocks of Jurassic—Cretaceous age. The southern suburbs are partly on sandstone
and limestone moderately folded. Hast of the town there are high hills composed
of volcanic tuffs, breccias, agglomerates and conglomerate, the latter containing a
mixture of andesite, sandstone, limestone, chert and shales. The volcanic tuffs
and breccias near the north end of the town about the railway station dip to the

264 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA,

south-south-west at a regular angle of about 30°. The same series under the
Catholic Cathedral at the south end of the town dips north-east at steep angles—
from 45° to 70°—and the beds are frequently plicated and contorted by crush.
The breccias and tuffs east of the town change frequently in dip, the road-cuttings
showing numerous minor folds. The most regular bedding that I have noticed in
New Caledonia was in the Bourail district, where the Mesozoic rocks dip east-
wards near the west coast, then change to westerly dip which prevails to a few
kilometres east of Bourail, when the dip again becomes easterly and subject to
plications as the serpentine is approached.

Near Paita the Mesozoic sedimentaries are steeply inclined, vertical in places,
in others overfolded. Again, near Dumbéa, calcareous shales, limestones and coal-
beds of Cretaceous age have been intensely crushed and are standing almost
vertically in places. Yet, generally speaking, the sedimentary rocks occurring
west of the serpentines are not metamorphosed. On the other hand, the sedimen-
tary rocks occurring east of the serpentine belt in the north part of the island
are not only steeply folded and plicated, but are intensely metamorphosed as well,
sandstones being changed to quartzite and sandy schist, shales to aluminous schist
and limestone to crystalline limestone. Yet in this schist series east of Koumac
Cretaceous fossils have been obtained. Thus the highly schistose series developed
east of the serpentine belt is, at least in part, coeval with the less altered
sedimentaries.

The Metamorphics.

The metamorphic rocks east of Koumac just referred to are, as far as the
Diahot River, schistose but not highly crystalline, though in a few places on the
Divide they grade locally into mica-schist with glaucophane-schist. Judging by
the composition of the schistose rocks east of the Diahot, the composition of the
soils on them and by the vegetation, quite apart from the paucity of fossil
evidence, I consider this series altered Mesozoics. The Diahot River divided this
series from a block of high mountain country, with peaks more than 5,000 feet
high, consisting of intensely crystalline, and coarsely crystalline metamorphic
rocks which comprise ordinary mica-schist, micaceous phyllite, coarsely crystalline
quartzite, garnetiferous quartzite, amphibolite and glaucophane schist, and a vast
proportion of schists which contain variable proportions of muscovite, glaucophane,
other amphiboles and garnet. These glaucophane schists are probably all derived
from volcanic lavas and tuffs, and from semi-tuffy sedimentary rocks. Since the
schistose series west of the Diahot valley passes in places into crystalline schists
of the same type as those east of the Diahot, it is my opinion that the great
crystalline schist series of north-eastern New Caledonia is derived from the same
kind of Mesozoic sedimentaries with interstratified tuffs, breccias and melaphyres
as extend in the unmetamorphosed form through the western part of the island.

Several of the French geologists have regarded the crystalline schists of the
north-east as a very old formation comparable with the Ordovician of Victoria.
I am, however, inclined to regard them as the same Mesozoic agglomeration of
strata as in the west of the island, which has been completely fused up and
recrystallized by having been lowered or foundered into the zone of fusion. It
has been subsequently re-elevated by the thrusts accompanying and following
the extrusion of the serpentines. In many places in the crystalline schist area east
of the Diahot we get semi-serpentinized rocks and amphibolites, parts of which
are but little altered and which bear the closest resemblance to the vesicular
andesite and melaphyre in other parts of the island.

265

JENSEN.

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266 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA,

Earth Processes and the Serpentines.

To understand fully the processes which have taken place it is necessary to
comprehend the distribution of the serpentines in New Caledonia. The entire
southern end of the island is serpentine. On the west coast the Mesozoic sedimen-
taries commence to show half-way between the south end of the island and
Noumea, attaining its maximum width in the vicinity of Bourrail, and the main
serpentine axis hugs the east coast northwards as far as Houailou (Wailou). Here
the serpentines leave the east coast and the axis passes to the centre of the island
as far as Poya and then the serpentine belt swings over to the west coast. From
Mouéo north the serpentines largely squeeze out the sedimentary series, of which
pockets are left at Voh, Gomen and Koumac, but the serpentine has become the
dominant west-coast formation. The serpentine belt is very continuous to Koumac,
then is lost for a score of kilometres, apparently covered by Tertiary sedimentary
formations, but resumes in the dome of Tiebaghi north of Koumac. As mentioned
before, west of the serpentine belt the sedimentaries are folded and even contorted
near the serpentine, but not metamorphosed, while east of the serpentine belt they
are metamorphosed. West of the serpentine belt all the limestones are ordinary
limestone, east of it they are crystalline limestone.

The more highly metamorphosed nature of the rocks east of the serpentine is
easily explained on the supposition that the basic lavas now altered to serpentine
(originally peridotite and dunite), were thrust up from the oceanic depths east
of New Caledonia between that island and Tonga, and advanced as a sill under
the Mesozoic sedimentaries for a considerable distance before breaking through.
The roof rocks of the intrusion were therefore subjected to much more meta-
morphism and plication than the rocks underlying the intrusion, the heat of the
intrusion causing expansion of strata, shearing movements, and schistosity.

This, while explaining the greater schistosity of the rocks east of the serpen-
tine belt, does not explain the greater metamorphism of the titanic block east of
the Diahot which is further from the serpentine belt. But if we imagine a portion
of the roof rocks to have subsided into the zone of fusion, into a cauldron, so to
speak, of molten peridotite magma, it is easy to understand its complete meta-
morphism. A further movement of the still plastic peridotite magma has subse-
quently pushed this intensely altered block up again so that it now over-rides
the serpentines and the less altered metamorphics.

The crystalline schists form the highest country in New Caledonia. Mt.
Ignambi, Mt. Colnett and Mt. Panie exceed 5,000 feet in height. There are
dykes and masses of serpentine included in the crystalline complex.

In the country immediately near the Diahot several shear zones strike
NNW. and NW., consisting largely of quartz and chlorite, and dipping steeply to
the east. These quartz-chlorite zones have developed in the crush material of
the movement planes of the last big thrusts. The intensely metamorphosed
crystalline schist block rides on these great shear zones, and is portion of the
super-serpentine roof rock which has been engulfed in the zone of fusion, pushed
up again by further thrusts from the east. Great movement planes and master
joints in the crystalline series dipping east indicate a dragging differential move-
ment. Thrusts from the south also took place, developing another set of master
joints with movement on them dipping south-east. In some places there have
been pressure movements causing gliding planes in so many directions that we
get schists weathering out into masses like logs of wood each 5 to 6 feet long
and about 2 feet in diameter. That may be well seen on the Balade Road about
half a mile from the Cailloux.

BY H. I. JENSEN. 267

It is seldom possible to determine the original dip of the crystalline schist
masses. The dips within them are cleavages parallel to movement and thrust
planes and at right angles to cooling planes. They are in fact controlled by the
major joint directions.

A belt extending from Pondalai to Fern Hill shows a general south-westerly
dip at gentle to moderate angles west of the Cailloux—Pam road, but within the
belt there are several reversals and contortions. This belt lies west of the great
quartz-chlorite shear-zones. The rocks within it are not as highly crystalline
as those east of it. There are many quartz reefs in it running mostly north and
south. In the Tiari and Reussites range, east of the main quartz-chlorite shear,
the dip changes to easterly and the same east to south-east dip at steep angles is
maintained east of the road to Pam. But it is far from constant, for at the
Balade Mine the dip is again south-westerly. On and along the east coast the
dip is generally easterly, with numerous deviations, but in the whole of the mass
between the Diahot River and the east coast there are thrust-planes and strong
joints developed by crush and movement, the latter shown by alteration to chlorite
and deposition of quartz, dipping south-east in the south-eastern part of the
massif, easterly in the central part and north-east in the northern part. The
effect of these thrust-planes is to produce long regular slopes on the east coast,
where the thrust-planes and dip usually agree, and a rough serrated configuration
in the western part of the massif.

The rocks of the massif comprise mica-schist, sericite-schist, talc-schist,
quartzite, garnetiferous quartzite, garnet-rock, amphibolite, serpentine, glauco-
phanite, tremolite, and a variety of gneissic mixtures grading from une of these
to the others.

The country west of the Dianot right to Koumac is metamorphic, but not so
strongly. It is, however, folded to such an extent that for a distance of eight
kilometres across the central range, at right angles to the strike, the beds stand
vertical or nearly so. On the east side of the central point, the Crescent, there is a
tendency to an easterly dip and on the west side to a westerly dip. The country,
therefore, suggests a strongly compressed anticline, in each limb of which the same
big body of crystalline limestone is represented. The other rocks are clay-schist,
- slate, sericite-schist, arenaceous schist, interbedded andesite, andesitic tuff and
breccia, all traversed by quartz veins and reefs. There is minor folding between
this anticline and the Tiari-Panie massif which probably sits on the geosyncline
or partly on the geosyncline and partly on the eastern flank of a smaller anticline
which occupies the line of the Diahot and Mauprat Rock, in which rock and
adjacent hills the limestone belt is again repeated.

Age of the Serpentine.

The age of the serpentines is post-Mesozoic and earlier than Pliocene. The
upper Tertiary (probably Pliocene) rocks west of Koumac overlie the serpentines,
and conglomeratic beds in them contain pebbles of serpentine and jasper; the
Miocene in the south of the island also overlie serpentine. Hence we may regard
the serpentine (peridotite dunite) intrusions as Hocene and the grand upheaval
of the Tiari—Panie crystalline complex as later, perhaps Miocene.

Comparison of Northern New Caledonia with North Queensland.

The high coastal range of Bellenden Ker and Bartle Frere south of Cairns,
continued north of Cairns as the Dividing Range with Mt. Spurgeon and Mt.
Windsor, attaining a general height of from 3,000 to over 5,000 feet, and also the
high coastal and Dividing ranges north of Princess Charlotte Bay give a physio-

268 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA, :
graphic resemblance between these parts of the Queensland coast and the crystal-
line Panie mass of north-eastern New Caledonia. It has been suggested by Dr.
H. C. Richards that possibly the 2,000-fathom Carpenter Deep has controlled the
history of the Barrier Reef and possibly the thrusts which have caused movements
along the North Queensland Coast (Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. Q., Vol. 1, n.s.). I
have also suggested that the great movements of thrust in New Caledonia had
their origin in the enormous deeps to the east of that island.

Here, however, the comparison ends. The great metamorphic-cum-igneous
massifs of North Queensland consist of metamorphic rocks with granite intrusions,
a ‘continental’ intrusive magma, while those of northern New Caledonia consist
of metamorphics with ultrabasic, that is ‘oceanic’, intrusives.

The great shear zones and master-joint zones and the dip of the metamorphics
in North Queensland are all steeply to the west, while the shears and master-
joints and related dip-planes in the Panie massif are all to the east; in the
former case the shears dip away from the deep ocean, in the latter towards it.
In the North Queensland areas mentioned, the great igneous injections came up
from the west and south-west; in the New Caledonian area they came up from
the east and south-east.

Hence in the parts of North Queensland mentioned the shears, intrusions,
folds, joints and dips were controlled by the wide and deep sedimentation of a
subsiding continental mass to the west, whereupon granitic crustal magmas were
driven away laterally from the parts most heavily sedimented into the rim of the
sedimented area. A wide continental expanse existed east of the present coast
which has since foundered. The basic and ultrabasic magmas played only a
slight rdle in the process.

In the case of New Caledonia a continent lay to the west, most of which is now
foundered. To the east were enormous oceanic deeps at the time of the igneous
intrusions. An enormous line of weakness, the great volcanic zone of the Pacific,
lay only a short distance to the east. Subsidence and engulfment of sedimentary
strata in this zone and subsequent uplift connected with extrusions of magma from
the deeps played a large part in the building of New Caledonia.

Comparison with the American Cordillera.

In the American Cordillera we have a coastal range, a central range and the
Rocky Mountains. Both the Coastal Range on the west and the Rockies in the
east are ge-anticlinal in structure and the formations involved range from Pre-
Cambrian to Carboniferous and Mesozoic. The Central Range consists entirely of
crystalline schists and granite and is geosynclinal in structure. The eminent
French geologist Termier considered the crystalline schists produced by the
fusion of folded Carboniferous and Mesozoic rocks in the geosyncline.

The glaucophane-schist series in the Dinaric Alps in Europe are also considered
to be derivatives of Mesozoic rocks highly metamorphosed.

There is quite as much reason to consider the New Caledonian crystalline
schists to be derived from the Mesozoic sediments by analogous extreme
metamorphism.

Evidence of the Ore Deposits on Genetic Relationship between the Sedimentary
and Metamorphic Rocks.

In the more volcanic portions of the folded and unmetamorphosed sedi-
mentaries we have many shear zones developed in which the minerals of copper,
silver, lead and zinc, often with a little gold, have been precipitated, in my
opinion, by lateral secretion. The source of these minerals is metal contained in

BY H. I. JENSEN. 269

the hornblende of andesite and andesitic tuff, and hot springs have, at least in
some cases, played a part in dissolving it out of the mother rock and precipitating
it in shears, as shown by the frequent association of chalcedonic quartz with the
lodes.

In the great crystalline schist block east of the Diahot we have the same
metals contained in fissure lodes. A system of fissures in two directions at right
angles striking 40° and 130° occurs and in them we get copper and silver-lead ore
and more or less gold. Neither quartz nor any other mineral suggesting derivation
from granitic or dioritic magma is present. The gangue is crush-rock, fault-
breccia, kaolin and iron gossan. These lodes, too, owe, in my opinion, the ore
content to lateral secretion. The copper of the Balade and Pam Mines, the silver-
lead of the Meretrice, the gold of the Fernhill and Reussites, are probably all of
this origin and derived from the highly metamorphosed volcanics now represented
by glaucophane schist and amphibolite.

Acidic Rocks.

Granite occurs only in two places in New Caledonia, and there only over a
small area, namely, at the source of the creeks of Saint Louis and Coulée where
it is surrounded by serpentine, and a little more to the north-west in the cirque of
Grosses—Gouttes. In both cases it is probable that the granite represents upthrusts
of the broken edge of the old continental mass forced up by the serpentine along
the great fracture zones which it followed.

Felsitic and trachytic rocks, however, occur as thin sheets and dykes in the
mesozoic andesites, and it is interesting to record that similar rocks, but some-
what metamorphosed, are seen among the more basic members of the crystalline
schists.

Description of the Coast and Coastal Movements of Recent Times.

The whole of the south end of New Caledonia is composed of serpentine, and
the configuration of the coast in this part is indicative of rapid depression.
Where subsidence is more rapid than silting up of harbours the deeper inlets
are met. We get 30 to 40 metres of water in the strait of Woodin between the
mainland and the island of Ouen which is a detached mountain of the mainland
that has become separated by rapid subsidence. Further east in the Canal de
la Havannah depths of 40 to 60 metres prevail. Along the whole east coast between
the coral reef and the mainland as far north as Yenghéne the depth of the water
ranges from 40 to 70 metres. In the beautiful harbour of Canala, a sunken river
valley, depths are 25 to 40 metres. Between the inner fringing reef and the outer
barrier reef north of Houailou (or Wailou) and thence to Hienghen (Yenghéne)
we have depths of from 40 to 70 metres. The harbour of Koua, between Canala
and Houailou, opening into a beautiful coastal lake (another sunken river valley),
has depths of from 20 to 40 metres. Serpentine coastline with rugged mountains,
bare or clad only with a growth of heaths, prevails from the extreme south to
Moneo and Mu.

At Mu, about the middle of the east coast, schists commence to show, much
harder and more metamorphosed than those on the west coast. The serpentines
take a swing from the east coast to the middle of the island, opposite Poya, and
thence swing over to the west coast at Mouéo, and then they occupy the west side
of the island to Gomen forming high mountain ranges. A detached serpentine
mass lies between Gomen and Koumac, in which there are several nickel mines;
another, the Dome of Tiebaghi, lies north of Koumac, and in it occurs the famous
chrome mine of Pagumene, a huge pipe of wonderful chrome-ore.

270 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA,

Returning to the east coast we observe, north of Moneo, hills and ranges ~
clad with tea-tree (niouli) skirting the coastline, and in the higher ranges, about
5 miles back, escarpments of crystalline limestone can be seen. Common among
the metamorphic rocks along the coast are the epidiorites and garnetiferous
greywacke, weathering in huge black boulders, similar to those seen in the
metamorphies east of the Diahot River. Coastal plain is negligible. The lime-
stone belt approaches the coast closer and closer until it goes into the sea at
Hienghen (Yenghéene) and thence northwards it is under the sea.

The east coast north of Yenghéne becomes more and more elevated as the
Panie plateau of crystalline rocks develops, the mountains dropping sheer into
the sea. The waters inside the Barrier Reef become shallower, namely from 20
to 30 metres, the silting up process towards the north keeping pace with depres-
sion. Th large river Ouaieme, south of the Panie massif, is not navigable and
has only 6 to 8 metres of water at its mouth, as compared with 40 metres in the
Canala entrance. The alluvial ‘pointes’ or peninsulas at Puebo and Balade, clad
with mangroves, indicate, as does also the inter-reef channel, that as we go north
silting up is overtaking subsidence. The large Harcourt Gulf, into which the
Diahot enters, is only 10 to 12 metres deep in the channel, and the rest of it is
largely sand-banks at low tide. The islands north of New Caledonia, like those
to the south, are detached from the mainland by a great late Tertiary subsidence,
which at its conclusion had made all the now alluviated Diahot Valley an arm
or gulf of the sea, but, as subsidence slackened off, this arm was silted up again.
That fact is evidenced by a number of bores which I supervised in the Diahot
basin passing from river alluvial into coastal deposits, shell beds with Arca,
Potanides, and an enormous variety of other shallow-water mudbank species.

The northern portion of the west coast was also subjected to rapid subsidence
during the same part of the late Tertiary, but the movement has ended here, for
the harbours of the west coast, the bays of Banare, Néhoue, Gomen, Koné, Uo,
Voh, Bourail and St. Vincent, right to near Noumea, are all shallow, due to
sedimentation from the decomposable serpentinous and Mesozoic strata behind
exceeding any present depression. In places, I am informed, there are even
small raised beaches, indicative of local elevation. South of Noumea, however,
the west coast is rapidly subsiding.

Late Tertiary Elevation.

In spite of the general. late Tertiary subsidence following upon the great
post-serpentine uplifts, there are localities on the west coast where local Miocene
and Pliocene elevations have taken place. Miocene rocks have been recorded
from various places in southern New Caledonia, but these may have been contem-
porary with a local delayed spasm in the great early Tertiary uplift. However,
west of Koumac, we get a fair area of uplifted Pliocene sediments which rise
to form a group of small hills known as the Pointe de Koumac, or Pointe de
Pandop. They consist of interlaminated mudstones, marls, sandstones, pebbly
beds, peats and magnesian streaks, dipping west at an angle of 15° to 20°. They
overlie serpentine.

A large serpentine massif, Mt. Kaala, lies south-east of the Pointe de Koumac
and at its western base there is a remarkable oil seep coming out of a magnesian
vein in the serpentine. An old man has been prospecting for oil here for a
generation by sinking shafts and driving tunnels in the serpentine in a most
patient manner. On some of his wells a scum of oil forms, which, by skimming,
yields about a pint a day.

BY H. I. JENSEN. 271

This oil can hardly be derived from the igneous serpentine, nor can it be
derived from the metamorphic Cretaceous rocks which form the base and the
eastern margin of the serpentine mass of Mt. Kaala. The metamorphic Cretaceous
is schistose and the beds stand almost vertically. The most feasible explanation
is that the oil is derived from the late Tertiary (Pliocene) beds to the west under
the ocean and is being forced by water pressure into magnesian crevices in the
serpentine whence it again escapes to the surface. The oil has the consistency
of light machine oil and is of a brownish-green fluorescence. The oil-producing
series probably extends a long way under the ocean to Chesterfield Island.

Summary of Movements.

The processes that went towards the building up of the present New Caledonia
are therefore as follows:

(a). Oscillatory movements with heavy deposition of sandstone, shale, coal,
marl, mudstone, limestone, tuff, breccia, agglomerate and conglomerate, and inter-
bedded andesitic lavas on the eastern platform of the Melanesian continent during
the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.

(bv). Faulting with thrusts from the ocean deeps to the east, followed by
an uprising of peridotite magmas in the late Cretaceous or Hocene, accompanied
by, or followed by, further thrust movements from the east resulting in the
upheaval of the New Caledonian platform and the folding of the Mesozoics. These
movements may have extended in places into the Miocene.

(c). Deposition of Middle Tertiary beds on both sides of the platform. The
overthrust of the crystalline schists in the north-east may have been as late as
early Miocene. Local uplifts in the Koumac region, probably of earthquake
nature, at the end of the Pliocene.

(d). Pleistocene subsidence on a grand scale leading to the separation of the
Loyalty Islands and all the islands north and south of New Caledonia, this down-
ward movement continuing to the present time in the south, and along the east
coast from the south end to Hienghen, but arrested in Recent times in the north
of the island and the northern half of the west coast.

(e). Cessation of depression and sedimentation by river deposition in the
Diahot valley.

Literature on the Geology of New Caledonia.

The earliest geologists investigating this country, Jules Garnier and Heurteau,
investigated principally the mineral resources of the island. M. Pelatan, in 1892
and the ensuing years, continued that good work. In 1901, M. Maurice Piroutet
earried on stratigraphical and palaeontological investigations which added much
to our knowledge. The researches of M. N. EH. Glasser, in 1902 and 1903, carried
the work of all these investigators still further, and his report (Annales des
Mines, 2™° semestre, 1903; and 1°" semestre, 1904) contains an excellent summary
of his own, as well as all previous work.

In my own investigations I have neither had the time nor the opportunity to
investigate palaeontological problems, but I may remark that, in country which
has been subjected to such catastrophic vicissitudes as New Caledonia, one must
expect much inter-mixture of fossils of various ages and confusion. It is almost
certain that small remnants with Miocene and Eocene fossils will from time to
time, as work proceeds, be found among the Mesozoic beds, lodged in unexpected
positions by early Tertiary overthrusts and uplifts.

The Serpentine.—The French geologists have done a vast amount of excellent
work on the chemical composition of the serpentines, instigated by the importance

2 (2 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA,

of these rocks in regard to ore deposits of nickel, chrome, cobalt, and manganese. -
Those interested in ores of these metals should study the work of Garnier, Heurteau
and Glasser. It appears certain that the serpentine is derived from peridotite
which was intruded before the elevation of the New Caledonian platform above
sea-level. Ingress of sea-water in the course of the upheavals has probably
contributed largely to the alteration to serpentine.

Ocean Soundings and their Bearing on Past Continental Areas.

Ocean soundings show waters ranging principally between 1,500 and 2,000
fathoms between Australia, the New Hebrides and New Caledonia, the Loyalty
Islands and New Zealand. A marked shallow belt or range extends from Sandy
Cape north-east to Wreck Reef, then to Chesterfield Reef, then to the north of
New Caledonia, where soundings show less than 1,000 fathoms and mostly less
than 500 fathoms. This sunken range is probably genetically related to the nearly
east-west fundamental structural direction in the older Palaeozoic formations of
the Australasian continental mass. This was probably also the last chain joining
Australia to New Caledonia. The Admiralty chart shows no strong evidence of
folding within the large area embraced between the coasts of New Guinea,
Australia and New Caledonia over the Coral Sea. It looks like a subsided
peneplained continental mass with isolated hills and ranges, and plains of sedi-
mentation well submerged.

But from Sandy Cape south along the Australian coast commences a deep
zone, exceeding 2,000 fathoms, and for the most part approaching 3,000 fathoms,
which divided the platform of Lord Howe Island from the continent. The Lord
Howe platform with depths ranging from 400 fathoms to 1,000 fathoms extends
north-east to within 100 miles of New Caledonia, where the ocean deepens though
it does not exceed 2,000 fathoms. The ocean chart, therefore, shows a strong
synclinal or downfaulted block east of south-eastern Australia running in the
same direction as the Australian coast and a less depressed, extended, but older,
continental area, round Lord Howe Island, which extends right to Northern New
Zealand, but which is separated from New Caledonia by a depression to 2,000
fathoms, which is of recent and late Tertiary development. The Loyalty Islands
are separated from New Caledonia by water 1,000 fathoms deep, in places dropping
to 2,000 fathoms. The irregularity of the bottom in this basin is evidence of
continental depression, and the coral islands of the Loyalties are obviously built
on sunken portions of the New Caledonian platform which, as already shown,
is still sinking in the direction of the Loyalties.

But east of the Loyalty Islands we meet with a startling depression between
these islands and the New Hebrides, deeps of 3,000 and 4,000 fathoms indicating
a deep synclinal trough which has a NNW.-SSE. trend, less marked in both
directions, though traceable northerly past the south of the Solomons and along
that group on the western side and through the strait between the Solomons and
New Ireland. Towards the south-east it occurs between New Caledonia and Tonga
in ocean depths of between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms. East of the line joining
Kermadecs, Tonga, and Samoa, enormous depths exceeding 3,000 fathoms prevail.

Thus from the soundings it would appear that in times as remote as the
Trias there was a continent extending over the Coral Sea, and also over the vast
area between the Australian coast and New Zealand and New Caledonia (the
Lord Howe Island continent). The present volcanic chain through Samoa and
Tonga, the Kermadecs and New Zealand represented its eastern fringe. The
Triassic rocks of New Zealand, New Caledonia, and Eastern Australia were

BY H. I. JENSEN. 273

deposited over lacustrine areas and marine transgressions over the continental
shelf.

More transgressions followed in Jurassic and Cretaceous times, but in the
upper Mesozoic periods the foundering of the Lord Howe Island continent had
already commenced and had split it into groups of islands while waves of thrust
from the subsidence areas caused the Cretaceous and post-Cretaceous uplift of the
east Australian Mesozoics. The last portion to disappear was the Coral Sea
portion, and the thrusts in Northern Australia connected with the deeps and
affecting the earth movements of the present day in north Queensland are
Tertiary and Recent. The Coral Sea subsidence probably commenced in the late
Cretaceous and is continuing even at present with attendant elevatory movement
under the Gulf of Carpentaria. That subject I am dealing with in another paper.

The late Tertiary subsidence of New Caledonia separated from it the Loyalties
and other islands of the group and developed the beautiful east coast harbours
already referred to. The depression west of New Caledonia is the reaction caused
by the early Tertiary upheaval and overthrusts from the east.

APPENDIX.

A NOE ON THE PETROLOGY OF A SMALL COLLECTION OF SCHISTS FROM
New CALEDONIA.

By GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, B.Sc., Ph.D.

Thirty specimens have been sectioned and twenty-four of these contain
glaucophane. These may be divided into a number of groups which are briefly
deseribed hereunder. They were collected from the Diahot Valley and the north-
east coast.

1. Glaucophane Schists.

(i). Glaucophane-lawsonite-augite Rocks.—In the hand-specimen these rocks
show a very slight schistosity; they are dark greyish-blue in colour and contain
erystals of augite which show a bronzy lustre. Under the microscope two of the
specimens show a relict ophitic fabric and two contain large (5 mm.) crystals of
augite which suggests a coarse-grained intrusive rock. The augite is frequently
threaded with needles and long prisms of glaucophane and the original felspar
laths are pseudomorphed by small tabular crystals of lawsonite. One rock
contains a good deal of calcite, and albite may be present. Iron-ores and sphene
are accessory, and glaucophane shows alteration to chlorite.

(ii). Glaucophane-epidote Schists—These may be subdivided into muscovite-
bearing and muscovite-free types. Muscovite is usually accompanied by quartz.
In the hand-specimen these rocks are markedly schistose and vary from pale
bluish-grey to mottled-green and bluish-grey. The density is fairly high. Under
the microscope the dark dense bluish type is found to be very rich in glaucophane
and chlorite, and the greenish rocks richer in epidote. Epidote or clinozoisite
occurs as granular aggregates between glaucophane crystals or long prisms 1 mm.
in length. They are often parallel to the schistosity. Quartz is often abundant
and usually occurs in granular aggregates. One rock of this type consists almost
entirely of ink-blue glaucophane, and epidote is present only in minute interstitial

274 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA,

granules. Sphene is usually abundant in these rocks and may be more plentiful .
than epidote. In the muscovite-bearing type the mica may often be detected in
the hand-specimen.

These schists are often plicated. They show a good deal of variation with
respect to the relative amounts of the minerals present. In some cases epidote
or clinozoisite is abundant, with muscovite and quartz subordinate, and the rocks
appear to grade into the muscovite-free group. On the other hand, epidote and
sphene may be present only as a trace and the rocks grade into the glaucophane—
muscovite—quartz assemblages described below.

(iii). Glaucophane-garnet Schists—These may also be subdivided into
muscovite-bearing and muscovite-free types, and the former grade into the
glaucophane—quartz schists which contain very little glaucophane and garnet.
The muscovite-free type is represented by a single example which contains
clinozoisite as well as garnet and indicates a grade of metamorphism intermediate
between that characterized by epidote and that by garnet. This schist also
contains a good deal of calcite and chlorite and in the hand-specimen glaucophane-
rich and chlorite-rich bands may be discerned.

The muscovite-bearing glaucophane-garnet schists are well represented in the
collection examined. Some are extraordinarily rich in glaucophane and the hand-
specimen is a dense bluish-grey rock studded with reddish-brown garnets. The
types less rich in glaucophane are lighter in colour and more distinctly schistose.
Muscovite is sometimes developed in large plates more than 1 cm. across. Under
the microscope the garnets are idioblastic and are often in groups. Incipient
alteration to chlorite is frequent. When mica is not abundant it often forms
radiating masses between glaucophane crystals, but may occur also in large sheets.
Clinozoisite is present in some of these rocks.

(iv). Glaucophane—muscovite-sphene Schist—One example of this type is
recorded. Except for the absence of garnet and the presence of sphene, it is
identical with some of the glaucophane—garnet—muscovite schists. It would appear
that the abundant titania inhibited the formation of garnet and that lime entered
the sphene molecule, though it is difficult to say why the spessartite molecule
should not be formed. Possibly the rock had a deficiency of iron and magnesia
and neither of these oxides remained when soda had been satisfied after the
formation of glaucophane.

(v). Glaucophane—muscovite—quartz Schists—These rocks are characteristic-
ally rich in quartz and poor in glaucophane. Muscovite is fairly abundant and
as a rule the glaucophane crystals are larger than in the other schists. In the
hand-specimen they are light-coloured quartz-mica schists, often containing large
prisms of blue glaucophane which measure 1°5 em. Several of the rocks show
strong plication, and small quantities of garnet and sphene indicate affinities to
the above assemblages.

2. Chlorite—albite—epidote—garnet Schist.

This rock is somewhat banded with chlorite-epidote layers alternating with
albite-epidote-garnet layers. The epidote occurs in long prisms and a slight
schistosity is apparent. In the hand-specimen large crystals of pyrites and quartz
indicate mineralization.

3. Chlorite Schists.

These are soft green schistose rocks consisting almost entirely of chlorite. A

little sphene and epidote are sometimes present.

BY H. I. JENSEN. 275

4. Sheared Hornblende—gabbro.

The rock is coarse-grained (6 mm.) and consisted originally of brown horn-
blende and basic plagioclase. Shearing has caused shattering of both minerals
and partial saussuritization of the felspar. Chlorite is developed as a secondary
mineral.

5. Garnet Schist.
This rock has not been sectioned, but in the hand-specimen it is seen to be
thickly studded with red, idioblastic garnets which measure about 5 mm. These
are set in a groundmass of pale green mica and a little quartz is present.

6. Chloritoid Schist.

In the hand-specimen the rock shows a marked schistosity, and black crystals
of chloritoid measuring up to 1:25 cm. are embedded in muscovite which is
slightly stained by iron-oxides.

Under the microscope the chloritoid shows the characteristic bluish-green
colour and the rock is seen to consist almost entirely of chloritoid and muscovite
with accessory iron-ores and zircon.

7. Quartz Schist.
These consist mostly of quartz and muscovite. Pyrites indicates mineralization.

8. Actinolite Schist.
This rock consists of a felted mass of pale green actinolite needles which
measure up to 5 mm.

PETROGENESIS.

The writer has no knowledge of the field relations of these various types of
schist, and any suggestion made regarding their origin is entirely speculative.

Dr. Jensen considers that the glaucophane-schists are the metamorphosed
equivalents of the Mesozoic ‘“‘andesite series’. This series includes a number of
types ranging from basalts and dolerites to rhyolites. Some of the earlier writers
have designated some of the lavas by the rather indefinite terms melaphyre and
ophite, but the present writer has not been able to examine any specimens from
this series.

The ophitic fabric of the glaucophane—lawsonite rocks would suggest that at
least some of the schists were derived from dolerites, but most of the rocks are too
much altered to speculate upon their origin, and detailed field work is desirable.

According to Harker (1932) glaucophane schists are either formed by the
metamorphism of alkaline rocks or by the metasomatism of sediments.

It is possible that spilitic lavas may occur in Dr. Jensen’s “andesite series”,
but it is also conceivable that normal basic lavas may have been albitized as the
result of deuteric alteration. The old name melaphyre is usually applied to rocks
that have suffered late magmatic alteration, and the writer would suggest that
under suitable conditions of metamorphism these may give rise to glaucophane
schists.

Nevertheless, the lawsonite- and epidote-bearing types indicate that there was
an abundance of lime prior to metamorphism, and this suggests a normal calcic
rock rather than a deuterically altered or alkaline one. In the case of the
lawsonite-bearing rocks with relict ophitic fabric the lawsonite pseudomorphs laths
of plagioclase and it is evident that the felspar contained a large percentage of
the anorthite molecule. The glaucophane schists rich in lawsonite, clinozoisite or
garnet must surely have a composition similar to the albite—-epidote rocks, and it

276 GEOLOGY OF NEW CALEDONIA.

has been shown that these latter are not alkaline rocks but that the formation of.
basic plagioclase has been inhibited by the low temperature conditions.

Washington (1901) has compiled a list of analyses of glaucophane-bearing
rocks, and some of these do not indicate a soda percentage above that of normal
caleic rocks. It, therefore, seems possible that the formation of glaucophane
requires special conditions of metamorphism rather than of composition, though
its genesis is possibly facilitated by an abundance of soda. Reference to the
petrography will show that the glaucophane rocks occur in several metamorphie
grades and for this reason a correlation between the formation of glaucophane
and the conditions of metamorphism is very difficult.

It will also be seen that muscovite is a conspicuous mineral in some of the
glaucophane rocks. Harker suggests that the glaucophane-muscovite rocks
represent tuffs, and this is possible in the present instance, as Dr. Jensen finds
tuffs in the ‘andesite series”.

Finally, the quartz—muscovite rocks containing but little glaucophane must
surely represent a metasomatized sediment. This is difficult to account for, unless
it be assumed that there was adinolization by spilitic lavas or metasomatism of
accidental xenoliths by magmatic fluids in calcic lavas.

Those rock types which do not contain glaucophane might be associated with
any series of lavas, either alkaline or calcic, and need no further comment.

References.

HARKER, A., 1932.—Metamorphism. A Study of the Transformations of Rock Masses,
pp. 134, 291.

WASHINGTON, H. S., 1901.—Study of the Glaucophane Schists. Amer. J. Sci., 11, 35.

NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TRICHOPELTACEAE AND

ATICHIACEAE IN NEW SOUTH WALES, AND ON THEIR MODE OF

NUTRITION, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF
ATICHIA.

By Linian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany.
(Plates xiii-xiv; ten Text-figures. )
[Read 25th November, 1936.]

The Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae are two families of epiphyllous
ascomycetes considered by the writer to form part of the sooty-mould complex.
They are usually associated with other sooty-mould fungi, the most important of
which are the species of the Capnodiaceae (Fraser, 1935a, 19350). Both the
Trichopeltaceae and the Atichiaceae are specialized for their environment but
in very different ways. They do not appear to be closely related systematically.

The method of nutrition of the species of these families has not previously
been established, most of the work which has been done on them being purely
systematic.

The Trichopeltaceae.

a. Historical.

The species belonging to this family have a peculiar mycelium which is quite
distinct from that of any other fungus. The hyphae, instead of being separate
from each other, remain in contact to form a flat thallus, one cell thick and many
cells wide. It resembles in structure the thallus produced by the algae of the
family Trentipohliaceae, especially the epiphyllous genera Phycopeltis and
Cephaleuros. The thallus may be circular, in which case growth takes place round
the whole circumference, or strap-shaped and branching, the growth being prin-
cipally localized at one end.

Perithecia are produced beneath the thallus as local circular thickenings.
They dehisce by means of a pore torn in the thallus above the centre.

The first species described was Asteroma Labecula Montagne (1840), from
material collected in South America. Later (Montagne, 1856) it was transferred
to the genus Asterina. In 1868 a fungus collected in Cuba was described by
Berkeley and Curtis as Asterina reptans. Spegazzini (1889), from an examination
of the material used by Berkeley and Curtis, recognized a fungus of distinctive
character, which he took to be that described by the earlier authors. Because of
its outstanding differences from the genus Asterina he placed it in a new genus
Trichopeltis, using the specific name reptans of Berkeley and Curtis. It seems
clear from the descriptions given, however, as Stevens (1925) has pointed out,
that the type of Asterina reptans B. & C. is not the same fungus as that described
as Trichopeltis reptans (B. & C.) Speg. by Spegazzini. Consequently it is doubtful
whether all the fungi recorded from various parts of the world as Asterina reptans
belong to the genus Trichopeltis.

F

278 TRICHOPELTACEAE AND ATICHIACEAE IN NEW SOUTH WALES,

Spegazzini also (1888) described the genus Brefeldiella which has a flat.
circular thallus, one cell thick. The genus Trichopeltella, very similar to
Trichopeltis, was described by von Hoehnel in 1910.

Theissen (1913) proposed the family Trichopeltaceae to include these genera
and described several new genera based on characters of spore septation and
colour. He placed Asterina Labecula in the genus Trichopeltis, and gave a very
detailed account of the structure and growth of the thallus in this family.

Stevens (1925) gave a review of the family and species described. He clarified
the position with regard to the nomenclature of Trichopeltis and Asterina reptans,
and gave conclusive reasons for the acceptance of 7. reptans Speg. as the type of
the family. He rejected Asterina reptans B. & C. as a fungus too imperfectly
described to be recognizable.

At present the family Trichopeltaceae is regarded as being closely allied to
the Microthyriaceae.

b. Species occurring in New South Wales.

Cooke (1892, p. 315) recorded the fungus Asterina reptans B. & C. as occurring
on leaves in Queensland. The description he gave is as follows: “Mycelium thin,
rather reticulated, perithecia minute, constructed from the radiating cells, asci
clavate, sporidia oblong, somewhat fusiform, uniseptate.” From this, which is a
direct translation of the type Latin description given by Berkeley and Curtis, it is
impossible to tell without an examination of the original material whether an
Asterina or a Trichopeltis is indicated.

Theissen (1913), in the course of his investigation of the family Trichopel-
taceae, examined specimens from the Kew collection labelled Asterina reptans. He
made no mention of any specimen from the mainland of Australia; therefore, it
seems probable that the fungus recorded by Cooke is a species of Asterina, not
Trichopeltis. Theissen recorded Trichopeltis reptans Speg. on the leaves of
Tasmania (probably a typographical error for Drimys) aromatica, Tasmania, from
collections at Kew.

No other record has been made of the occurrence of this fungus in Australia.

During the present investigation three species belonging to the Trichopeltaceae
have been collected.

1. Trichopeltis reptans Speg.—This species has been identified in 45
collections. It is most common on the leaves of rain-forest trees in shaded
localities, either alone or associated with sooty-mould fungi, chiefly members of
the Chaetothyrieae (Plate xiii, fig. 1). The thallus is strap-shaped, branching
at intervals, closely adherent to the host leaf (Plate xiii, fig. 2). The cells
in the centre of the thallus form a longitudinal strand. In old thalli the cells
along the margin may grow outwards at right angles to the long axis, thus
giving rise to a certain amount of lateral growth (A in fig. 2, Plate xiii).
Trichopeltis reptans appears to be a widespread species. It is common in South
America and the West Indies, and has also been recorded in the Hast Indies and
in Hawaii.

2. Brefeldiella brasiliensis Speg.—This species has been identified in 20
collections. Like Trichopeltis reptans, it is found chiefly on the leaves of rain-
forest trees associated with Atichia and the Chaetothyrieae (Plate xiii, fig. 3). The
thallus is roughly circular or slightly lobed (Plate xiii, fig. 4). The margin is
more or less even. The fungus grows smoothly round obstacles in its path, such
as a colony of Phycopeltis or a young Brefeldiella, joining up again on the other
side. Consequently an old thallus may have a patchy appearance. Brefeldiella
brasiliensis has been recorded in South America.

BY LILIAN FRASER. 279

3. Trichothallus hawatiensis Stevens.—This species has been identified in
three collections. It therefore appears to be much less common than the two
preceding species. It occurs on the leaves of rain-forest trees in especially humid
situations, associated with Tvrichopeltis and members of the Chaetothyrieae
(Plate xiii, fig. 5).

It was first described by Stevens (1925) from Hawaii, and has not been
recorded since. As originally described, the fungus showed neither pycnidia nor
perithecia, and none were observed in the material collected in New South Wales.
From the structure of the thallus it is obvious that the fungus belongs to the
Trichopeltaceae. The margin of the thallus is, as a rule, rather uneven. Not
uncommonly a single hypha, or several hyphae together, may grow out as a
narrow strand. The forward growing edge also sometimes shows this feature,
single hyphae, or narrow bands of hyphae growing out, often later coalescing,
thus giving the thallus a reticulate appearance (Plate xiii, fig. 6). The most
peculiar feature of the thallus is the presence of hairs. These are single hyphae
composed of cells growing upwards from the thallus at frequent intervals. They
measure 75-120 x 9-10u, often tapering towards the base and apex. They break off
fairly readily and undoubtedly function as organs of propagation.

Because of its more loosely aggregated thallus and the presence of hairs, this
species appears to be a more primitive type than either Trichopeltis or
Brefeldiella.

Trichothallus hawatiensis has been collected on the leaves of Backhousia
myrtifoia and Hugenia Smithii in the Upper Williams River District, N.S.W.,
May 1933, January 1934, and May 1936.

The Atichiaceae.

A review of the changes in nomenclature and classification of the members
of this family has been given in an earlier paper (Fraser, 1932).

Only two references have been made to the occurrence of Atichia in Australia.
McAlpine (1896), in describing the sooty-mould-forming fungus Capnodium
citricolum attributed to it structures which he called ‘glomerulae”’, and which
he considered to be a type of imperfect fructification. These were globular
gelatinous colonies of yeast-like cells, 0-5 mm. or more in diameter. Through the
kindness of the Government Biologist of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria,
the writer was able to make an examination of McAlpine’s type specimens. Small
colonies of Atichia glomerulosa were recognizable in one of his collections, and
there can be no doubt that these are the “glomerulae” to which he referred.
Fisher (1932) recorded a species of Phycopsis on Myoporum and Bursaria in
Victoria, but was unable to assign it to any species owing to the lack of perfect
material.

Four species of fungi belonging to the Atichiaceae have been found in
collections made during the present investigation.

1. Atichia glomerulosa (Ach.) Flot—This species has been identified in 17
collections. It is usually associated with sooty mould fungi, and occurs both in
sunny and shaded positions. The colonies are globular and gelatinous, composed
of yeast-like cells, usually 300-600u in diameter, mostly closely aggregated, or
solitary, sometimes obscurely lobed. Somewhat stellate colonies up to 2 mm. in
diameter consisting of a number of large lobes have been seen. The propagulae,
which are borne in a concavity at the apex of the thallus, are globular or obscurely
3-branched, and 12-20u in diameter (Text-fig. 1). The asci, which are borne just
below the surface at the apex of the thallus, are globular or pear-shaped, and

280 TRICHOPELTACEAE AND ATICHIACEAE IN NEW SOUTH WALES,

8-spored. The ascospores are 1-septate, hyaline, 12-16 x 8u. This agrees very
well with the descriptions given by Vuillemin (1905) and von Hoehnel (1910),
and with the figures of Arnaud (1910). This species appears to be very wide-
spread; it is common in Hurope and has been recorded in many countries,
including Java.

2. Atichia Millardeti Pat—This species has been identified in 58 collections,
and appears to be by far the most common Atichia in New South Wales. It
occurs exclusively in shaded positions, chiefly on the leaves of rain-forest trees,
either alone or associated with members of the Trichopeltaceae and Chaeto-
thyriaceae (A in fig. 7, Plate xiv). The colonies have always 3 or more prominent
lobes (Plate xiv, figs. 8, 9) and may attain a diameter of 5-6 mm. They are
composed of yeast-like cells (Text-figs. 2a, 2b). The propagulae are produced in
elongated or circular cavities in the upper surface of the lobes of the thallus
(A in Plate xiv, fig. 9). They are triquetrous branch systems, 40-504 in length

Text-figures 1-10.

1.—Propagulae of Atichia glomerulosa. x 285.

2.—Cells of the thallus of Atichia Millardeti, 2a showing cytoplasm and nuclei after
removal of oil, 2b showing oil drops. x 1,000. !

3.—Propagulae of Atichia Millardeti. x 285.

4-9.—Atichia botriosa.

4.—Hyphae from the centre of the lobes of the thallus showing filamentous nature.
x 285.

5.—Hyphae from nearer the margins of the lobes of the thallus than those shown
in Text-figure 4, showing slight inflation and irregular darkening of the walls. x 285.

6.—Hyphae from the margins of the lobes of the thallus showing thickening of the
walls, branching and bead-like appearance. x 285.

7.—Propagulae showing branching. x 285.

8.—Asci. x 285.

9a.—Ascospores; 9b.—Cells of the ascospore after separation. x 285.

10.—Part of two transverse sections of the epidermis of a leaf showing the thallus
of Trichopeltis reptans (A). B, cuticle; C, epidermal cells. x 285.

BY LILIAN FRASER. 281

(Text-fig. 3). The asci are produced in raised cushion-like swellings near the
base of the lobes of the thallus (A in Plate xiv, fig. 10). They are very numerous,
globose or pear-shaped and 8-spored. The ascospores are 11-14 x 6—-7y, 1-septate,
hyaline, slightly constricted at the septum.

The branches of the propagulae of the type specimens of A. Millardeti are
described as being terminated by narrow hair-like cells. Such hairs are not a
feature of the New South Wales form, but thin cells approximating to them have
been seen several times. However, the New South Wales form resembles A.
Millardeti so closely in all other respects that it is regarded as a climatic variation
only of the type. A. Willardeti has previously been recorded only from Tahiti.

3. ATICHIA BOTRIOSA, hn. sp.—Thallo gelatinoso, ramosissimo, ad 5 mm. lato et
ad 4 mm. crasso, nigro arido, fusco humido, ramis brevibus et latis. Thalli hyphis
in muco immersis, ramorum mediis partibus angustis et hyalinis, margine monili-
formibus, fuscis, stipitatis. Propagulis fuscis, in lacunis ramorum apicibus latis,
1-5-, plerumque 3-ramis, 55-75 x 10-14u. Ascis globosis aut piriformis, fere sub
superficiem ramorum apicibus latis, 30-42 x 18-25u, 8-sporis. Sporis hyalinis,
1-septatis, septo constrictis, 16-19 x 7-8, altera cellula paulam longiore et
angustiore et acutiore altera. Cellulis aliquando etiam in asco separantibus.

The colonies are epiphyllous, gelatinous, up to 5 mm. in diameter and 4 mm.
in thickness. They are black when dry, dark sooty-brown when moist, adhering
firmly by means of a large gelatinous disc. The thallus is closely branched in
three dimensions in a somewhat dichotomous fashion, forming a botryoidal colony
(Plate xiv, fig. 11). The branches or lobes are as broad as long, and are rounded
at the apex (Plate xiv, fig. 12). The thallus is composed of hyphal threads
embedded in mucilage. The hyphae at the centre of the lobes are filamentous,
narrow, thin walled and light coloured, the cells measuring 40-50 x 2-6u, not, or
searcely, inflated (Text-fig. 4). Towards the periphery the hyphae branch and
anastomose fairly frequently; the cells are shorter, broader and somewhat
constricted at the septa, 15-30 x 6—-10u, light coloured but with parts of the wall
thicker and darker (Text-fig. 5). The cells forming the outer layer of the thallus
are bead-like, globular or nearly so, constricted at the septa but not yeast-like,
4-64 in diameter, the walls moderately thick and dark, especially the outermost
wall of the apical cell of each filament (Text-fig. 6). The central hyphae are
arranged longitudinally in the thallus; towards the outside they branch in all
directions, and at the margin are arranged in close, dichotomously branching,
parallel rows at right angles to the surface of the thallus. The propagulae are
dark brown, produced in very great numbers in cavities at the apices of the lobes
(A in Plate xiv, fig. 18); when full grown they are 1—-5-, usually 3-branched, the
branches comparatively long and narrow, 55-75 x 10-14u (Text-fig. 7). Hach
cell of the branch bears on its inner side 1 or 2 rows of 2-3 small cells. Asci are
produced in considerable numbers at the ends of the lobes, just below the surface.
They are globular to pear-shaped, 8-spored, 30-42 x 18-25u (Text-fig. 8). Asci and
propagulae are not produced simultaneously. The ascospores are hyaline, 2-celled,
constricted at the septum, one cell relatively longer, narrower and more pointed
than the other, 16-19 « 7-8 (Text-fig. 9a). The cells often separate while still in
the ascus, becoming ovoid and vacuolate (Text-fig. 9b).

Atichia botriosa is distinguished from all other species of this genus by the
number, size and shape of the branches of the propagulae, and by the shape and
method of branching of the thallus, and by the filamentous nature of the cells
composing it.

282 TRICHOPELTACEAE AND ATICHIACEAE IN NEW SOUTH WALES,

Atichia botriosa has been collected at Barrington Tops, on Callistemon pallidus
D.C., January, 1934 (asexual stage), October, 1934 (asexual stage), and March,
1934 (sexual stage).

4. Phycopsis vanillae (Pat.) Mang. & Pat.—This species has been identified
in 9 collections. It is usually associated with sooty-mould fungi and occurs only in
shaded positions (A in Plate xiii, fig. 3). The colonies are globular, 200-400 in
diameter, never lobed, and composed of yeast-like cells. The propagulae, which
are large and globular, are produced singly all over the upper part of the thallus,
just below the surface. The asci are borne in the thallus just below the surface
as in Atichia glomerulosa. They are globular or pear-shaped, and 8-spored. The
ascospores are l-septate, hyaline, 15-18 x 7-9u. Phycopsis vanillae has been
recorded in Java, Tahiti and the Gambier Islands.

Mode of Nutrition.

It has been recognized from the first that the species of the Atichiaceae are
saprophytes, but their dependence on scale-insect excretions has not previously
been established. Any reference to the source of food has usually been omitted
in descriptions of species. Cotton (1914) noticed the occasional association of
Atichia dominicana with scale insects, but came to the conclusion that it was
without significance. However, as he dealt only with dried material, his
conclusions were not based on a first-hand knowledge of the conditions under
which the fungus lived. In the writer’s experience, Atichia mostly occurs where
scale insects are present, and is usually associated with members of the
Capnodiaceae. Colonies of Atichia have sometimes been found in positions where
they would receive a little “honey dew”, but are not directly associated with scale
insects. For instance, the scale insects might be on a neighbouring tree. The
most numerous and luxuriant colonies have always been found nearest to parts
affected by scale insects. They have never been found in any position where scale
insects are entirely absent.

In the case of the Trichopeltaceae the position is not so clear. Neither
Spegazzini (1889) nor Theissen (1913) has expressed any opinion on the mode
of nutrition of the members of this family. In discussing Trichopeltis reptans
Stevens (1925) used the word “host” when speaking of the tree on whose leaves
this fungus grew. This seems to indicate that he considered the species to be
parasitic. From observations in the field the writer came to the conclusion that
the members of the Trichopeltaceae formed part of the sooty-mould association.
A careful examination of the relation of the thallus of the various species of the
Trichopeltaceae to the leaves on which they occurred was therefore necessary.
The following points were observed: The thallus was found to lie in very close
contact with the epidermis of the leaf on which it grew, following its contours
exactly. Microtome sections 4u thick were cut of parts of leaves bearing
Trichopeltis and Brefeldiella. No trace of haustoria could be found (Text-fig. 10).
The thallus of the fungus appears to be strictly external to the cuticle. No case
has been observed of damage by the species of the Trichopeltaceae to the leaf on
which they were growing. This in itself does not mean that they are not parasitic,
since species of Meliola, though parasitic, sometimes appear to do no visible harm
to their host leaves. An additional proof of their saprophytic nature is afforded
by the fact that dry thalli of Trichopeltis, Brefeldiella and Trichothallus can be
flaked off the leaves on which they grow. This is well shown by Brefeldiella, in
which the central parts of large colonies often break off, leaving the margins to
continue their growth (C in Plate xiii, fig. 3). It was found that both Brefeldiella

BY LILIAN FRASER. 283

and Trichopeltis grow readily in culture on potato-dextrose-agar. These facts seem
to afford sufficient proof that the members of this family are not parasitic.

In the field, the three species of the Trichopeltaceae are frequently associated
with sooty moulds. The best development takes place near scale insects. Often,
however, their thalli appear to be unassociated with scale insects or other fungi
(Plate xiii, fig. 1). In these cases scale insects are always to be found on neigh-
bouring trees, so that a little “honey dew” is probably available to the fungi.
Moreover, small scale-insects of a brown or greenish colour, closely adhering to
stems or the under-surfaces of leaves, are easily overlooked.

On the above grounds it appears reasonable to assume that the members of
the Atichiaceae and Trichopeltaceae are true saprophytes living on ‘‘honey dew”
like the members of the Capnodiaceae, and that they therefore should be included
in the sooty-mould group.

Systematic Position of the Atichiaceae.

The family Atichiaceae has been considered by various writers to show
affinities with the Saccharomycetes, Capnodiaceae, Bulgariaceae, etc. The general
opinion seems to be that it is most closely related to the Saccharomycetes because
of the yeast-like appearance of the cells composing the thallus.

In this connection it may be of interest to consider the species Atichia botriosa.
This is a typical member of the Atichiaceae in all respects, except in the nature of
the mycelium. Instead of being composed of yeast-like cells easily separating from
each other, the hyphae, especially those at the centre of the thallus, are filamentous,
not inflated. Hach cell contains one small inconspicuous nucleus (Text-figs. 4, 5),
quite unlike the large characteristic nucleus of the yeasts. This feature is also
shown by A. Millardeti (Text-fig. 2a).

Asci in all members of the Atichiaceae occur embedded separately in specialized
areas in the thallus as in the Myriangiales and appear to be produced by a rami-
fying system of ascogenous hyphae (Text-fig. 8). |

It therefore seems probable that the relationships of the Atichiaceae with the
Saccharomycetes are apparent rather than real, and that its closest relationships
are with the Myriangiales.

Summary.

A brief review is given of the changes in nomenclature and classification of
the members of the Trichopeltaceae.

Trichopeltis reptans Speg., Brefeldiella brasiliensis Speg. and Trichothallus
hawaiiensis Stevens are recorded for the first time in New South Wales. Atichia
glomerulosa (Ach.) Flot., A. Millardeti Pat. and Phycopsis vanillae (Pat.) Mang.
and Pat. are recorded for the first time in New South Wales. A new species,
Atichia botriosa, is described.

It is shown that both the Atichiaceae and Trichopeltaceae are epiphytes
dependent on scale-insect excretions, and that they therefore form part of the sooty-
mould flora.

Because of the position of the asci and the nature of the mycelium, especially
in Atichia botriosa, the Atichiaceae are considered to show affinities with the
Myriangiales.

In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank Assistant Professor J. McLuckie,
of the Department of Botany, University of Sydney, for helpful criticism during
the course of this work.

284 TRICHOPELTACEAE AND ATICHIACEAE IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

Literature Cited.

ARNAUD, G., 1910.—Contribution 4 Jlétude des Fumagines. I. Limacinia, Sewratia,
Pleosphaeria, etc. Ann. Hcole nationale Agric. Montpellier, Sér. 2, Tome ix (4),
pp. 239-277.

Cooks, M. C., 1892.—Handbook of Australian Fungi. London.

Cotton, A. D., 1914.—The genus Atichia. Kew Bull. Misc. Information, pp. 54-63.

FISHER, EH. E., 1932.—The “Sooty Moulds” of Some Australian Plants. Proc. Roy. Soe.
Victoria, xlv (ii), pp. 171-202. ;

FRASER, L., 1932.—An Investigation of the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales. I. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lIviii (5-6), pp. 375-393.

, 1935a.—An Investigation of the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales. IV. Ibid.,
Ix (3-4), pp. 159-178.

, 1935b.—An Investigation of the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales. V. _ Ibid.,
Ix (3-4), pp. 280-290.

HOEHNEL, F.. von, 1910.—Atichia Trewbii v. H. (Saccharomycetes). Ann. Jardin Botan.
Buitenzorg, Supp. 3, pp. 19-28.

MCALPINE, D., 1896.—The Sooty Moulds of Citrus Trees, a Study in Polymorphism.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxi, pp. 469-497.

*MONTAGNE, C., 1840.—Seconde Centurie de Plantes Cellulaires Exotiques Nouvelles.
Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot., 1st Sér., xiv, p. 328.

*_________ 1856.—Sylloge Generum Specierumque Cryptogamarum, p. 255.

SPEGAZZINI, C. L., 1888.—Bol. Acad. Cordoba, xi, p. 558.

, 1889.—Bol. Acad. Cordoba, xi, p. 571.

STEVENS, F. L., 1925.—Hawaiian Fungi. Bernice P. Bishop Musewm Bull., 19, pp. 52-62.

THEISSEN, F., 1913.—Ueber einige Microthyriaceen. Ann. Mycol., xi, pp. 493-511.

VUILLEMIN, P., 1905.—Seuratia pinicola, sp. nov. Type d’une nouvelle’ famille
d’Ascomycétes. Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr., xxi, pp. 74-80.

* Abstracts only available to the writer.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XITI-XIV.
Plate xiii.

1.—Leaves of Hugenia Smithii showing thalli of Trichopeltis reptans Speg. x 3. |

2.—Part of the thallus of Tvrichopeltis reptans showing lobes, marginal growth along
edges of lobes (A), and position of the young perithecia (B). x 40.

3.—Leaves of Citrus sp. showing colonies of Phycopsis vanillae (A) and Brefel-
diella brasiliensis (B). C, colonies of Brefeldiella from which the central parts have
flaked off. x 3. aN

4.—Thallus of Brefeldiella brasiliensis showing position of perithecia (A). x 20.

5.—Leaves of Backhousia myrtifolia showing thalli of Trichothallus hawaiiensis
Stevens. x 4.

6.—Part of the thallus of Trichothallus hawaiiensis showing setae (S) and method
of branching. x 20.

Plate xiv.

7.—Leaf of Daphnandra micrantha showing epiphyllous colonies of Atichia
Millardeti. x 3.

8—A large colony of Atichia Millardeti showing lobing. x 20.

§9.—Colonies of Atichia Millardeti showing lobing, propagula cavities (A) and disc
of attachment (B). x 20.

10.—A colony of Atichia Millardeti showing ascal cushions at the base of the
lobes. x 20.

11.—Colonies of Atichia botriosa on a twig of Callistemon pallidus. Nat. size.

12.—Part of a large colony of Atichia botriosa showing lobing. x 20.

123.—Part of a colony of Atichia botriosa showing lobing and position of the
propagula cavities (A) at the apices of the lobes. x 20.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. . PLATE XIII.

Species of Trichopeltaceae from New South Wales.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936. PLATE XIy.

Species of Atichiaceae from New South Wales.

PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT.

PART I: STRATIGRAPHY, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE; GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
OF PLANT COMMUNITIES AND INTERPRETATION.

By Consett Davis, B.Sc.
(From the Botany Department, Sydney University.)

(Plate xv.)

[Read 25th November, 1936.]

Introduction.

The area studied extends from Darke’s Forest on the north to Towradgi
Creek on the south, and from the coast up to seven miles inland (Plate xv). In
this area, a wide range of rock types occurs, with consequent variation in soils;
moreover, the unusual physiography leads to important results ecologically.

In this paper a general survey is made of the stratigraphy, the physiography
and the climate of the area. The main plant communities are briefly mentioned,
and interpretation of these as seres, subclimax, climax and postclimax vegetation
is attempted. In subsequent papers each community will be dealt with in greater
detail; the chief features of the soil types listed; and the comparison of leaf-size,
and life-form spectra, undertaken.

The author acknowledges great indebtedness to Professor J. McLuckie, under
whose guidance ecological observations of this area were commenced; and to
Professor T. G. B. Osborn, for stimulating criticism.

Systematic names, except those to which the respective authors’ names are
appended, are those used in Moore and Betche (1893), or, for Pteridophytes, those
used in the recent Check-List (Melvaine, 1936).

Stratigraphy and Physiography. (Plate xv.)

Except for small and unimportant dykes and sills, there are no igneous rocks
in the district. Besides the recent soil (alluvial, or wind-blown sand), increasing
in importance as the coastal plain widens, and the talus slopes below the scarp,
which are considered as part of the rocks from which they are derived, the
following is the sequence of sedimentary rocks:
Wianamatta Shale.
Hawkesbury Sandstone.
Chocolate Shale.
Narrabeen Sandstone.
Permian: Upper Coal Measures.

Triassic:

286 PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT. I,

The bedding of these strata appears at first sight to be almost horizontal, but
actually there is a marked dip towards the north and west. It is to this dip that
the unusual physiography can be attributed, the main features being the coastal
plain, widening towards the south; the terraced slopes running back from the
plain to the Hawkesbury Sandstone scarp; and above the scarp the flat plateau
gently sloping north and west, dissected to some extent, especially towards the
southern extremity of the area studied.

The widening of the coastal plain is caused by the greater amount of soft
rock exposed below the Hawkesbury Sandstone as the strata rise to the south;
this softer rock weathers, and the sandstone, left projecting, breaks off from time
to time, the perpendicular face of the scarp being thus maintained. One such fall
of rock occurred recently above the town of Thirroul, and cleared a wide swathe
through the underlying brush vegetation of the slopes (Pl. xv, A).

The following figures are quoted from Griffith Taylor (1923):

Distance from Height of Upper Coal
Sydney. Locality. Measures. Width of Plain.
33 miles Otford near sea level nil
44 miles Bulli Pass 300 feet 2 miles
55 miles Mt. Kembla 800 feet 7 miles
66 miles Shellharbour 1,000 feet 12 miles

Although these figures are at variance with Harper (1912) as to the position
of junction of the Upper Coal Measures and the Narrabeen Series, they convey the
reason of the occurrence and conformation of the coastal plain.

With the widening of the coastal plain, the conditions for vegetation
immediately adjacent to the sea change. Whereas in the northern part of the
district studied there are short beaches lacking sand-dune formations, interspersed
with steep sea-cliffs carrying a typical vegetation, to the south the beaches are
longer and the ground lying behind flatter, so that sand-dunes are frequent. In
addition, the widening plain gives additional catchment for the easterly-flowing
creeks, and alluvial soils become more important. These creeks, in the southern
parts of the area, expand near the sea to subsaline lagoons, due apparently to the
difficulty of access to the sea, a possible result of uplift. The vegetation bordering
these lagoons is also typical.

Turning from the plain itself to the slopes running back to the vertical scarp,
we find a considerable amount of terracing, the result of alternate bedding of hard
and soft strata. This terracing is important from the aspect of brush develop-
ment. The slopes are also dissected with gullies by creeks running down to the
plain.

Coming to the plateau itself, we find the greater part of it consists of an
undulating surface, for the most part with a deep, mature soil, and little exposed
rock. The surface slopes north towards the Sydney geosyncline, and west towards
the Nepean River, so that the streams of the plateau do not reach the coast
directly. The whole of this sandstone plateau running north and west has been
termed the “Nepean Ramp”.

At Darke’s Forest, on the north of the area studied, a small isolated cap of
Wianamatta Shale occurs. To the south of the area, the westerly-flowing creeks
running into Cataract River have, following pronounced post-Tertiary uplift, eaten
through the Hawkesbury Sandstone, exposing the underlying Chocolate Shale and
Narrabeen Sandstone. The dissected areas of the Hawkesbury Sandstone carry
vegetation differing from that of the level parts of the plateau.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 287

Climate.

The following figures are given for Wollongong, on the coast immediately to
the south of the area studied:

| | Ria dieses

| | | | |
| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec.

Daily ——— | | | | | | |
Temperature— | | |
(CF.) Maximum* | 79-2 | 78-7 | 76-8 | 72-6 | 67-1 | 62-7 | 61-8 64°4 | 68:6 | 72:4 | 75:1 | 77-6
Minimum* 62-3 | 62-6 | 60-4 | 56-3 | 51-3 | AT SOe46 OF 4720) (504 Ib Sie val: | 60-4
Relative humidity 75 76 76 76 75 | 7 7 | 68 69 69 | 73

Rainfall (inches) 4:41 | 4°61 | 4°65 | 5:32 | 4:59 | 4:22 | 3-96

Average Maximum Daily Temperature, 71:4° F.—Average Minimum Daily
Temperature, 54:6° F.—Average Relative Humidity, 73%.—Total Yearly Rainfall
(average), 45:65 inches.

The Meyer Ratio (P./s.d.) calculated from the above figures is just under 300,
and mature soils throughout the district studied were typically podsolized.

The following figures for average total annual rainfall are given for other
stations in or adjacent to the area: Sherbrooke, 58-63; Madden’s Plains, 58-94;
Appin, 36-04 inches.

(The first two stations are within the area studied, on the plateau at an
elevation of about 1,200 feet, and within two miles of the scarp; the third is
immediately to the north-west of the area studied, some twelve miles from the
coast. )

It is apparent that the coastal climate is very similar to that of the Sydney
district, but that, behind the coastal plain, the upper slopes and the plateau have
a higher rainfall, due to the forcing upwards of moisture-laden air from the sea.
Proceeding inland from the eastern edge of the plateau, however, the rainfall
decreases rapidly.

The higher rainfall of the eastern edge of the plateau, coupled with the
frequent occurrence of mists, produces climatic conditions sufficiently differing
from those of the Sydney district to explain partly the greater prevalence of
swamp or moor communities on the plateau, as at Madden’s Plains.

The effect of winds on the vegetation of the area is important, especially from
the two following aspects: (1) the physiographic shelter available from the winds
from the general direction of the west (amongst which the south-westerly winds
are especially important) is the primary factor conditioning the development of
brush (or sub-tropical rain forest); (2) the sea-winds have an important effect
on the vegetation near the coast. The effect of winds on dune-formation on the
New South Wales coast has been dealt with by Andrews (1912), and need receive
no further attention here. The sea-winds also have important effects on the
sea-cliff vegetation from Austinmer northwards. Although not dry, they aid in
inhibiting tree development, and in stunting many of the shrubs of the cliffs,
while the spray carried by them tends to cause the development of halophytic types
on the lower parts of the cliffs.

Under the heading of climate, the local low saturation-deficit that has been
observed in certain situations may be briefly mentioned. In conditions of shelter,
a microclimate of higher relative humidity occurs, which may be regarded partly

* Average for month.

288 PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT. I,

as a result of physiographic shelter, and as such as a cause of the corresponding ~
vegetation; but, especially at lower levels in the brush, it must be regarded as
an effect of the vegetation in decreasing evaporation. In the extensive swamps
of the plateau, in conditions of extreme exposure, the low but dense vegetation,
by reducing wind effects, materially acts to retain a low saturation-deficit, near
ground-level, and to maintain the swamps in their present state by reducing
evaporation. This must be regarded as entirely a result of the vegetation, whereas’
in the microclimate of the brush, cause and effect are so intimately mingled as to
be indistinguishable.

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITIES.
VEGETATION OF THE PLATEAU.
(1). Hawkesbury Sandstone.

This is subdivided as follows: (a) The Hucalyptus Sieberiana association, and
variations; (b) Developments subject to physiographic shelter; (c) Lithoseres;
(ad) Extensive swamp or moor communities; (e) Vegetation of the Scarp.

(a). Hucalyptus Sieberiana Association.

This is the most extensive vegetation on mature soils of the Hawkesbury
Sandstone. The association forms a low forest with a very marked shrub stratum.
The association is similar to that found in the Sydney district, somewhat poorer
floristically, and with few additional species. The main floristic features are given
below.

Tree stratum.—Besides the dominant Hucalyptus Sieberiana, E. corymbosa
occurs occasionally, especially in the drier situations, whilst H. micrantha Benth.
is of occasional occurrence, especially approaching Swamp conditions. The low-tree
stratum is not pronounced, Banksia serrata being common but somewhat local.

Shrub stratum.—The great variety of sclerophyll shrubs is the most striking
feature of the association. The following are especially abundant: Banksia
ericifolia, Acacia juniperina, A. suaveolens, Bossiaea heterophylla, B. scolopendria,
Dampiera stricta, Dillwynia floribunda, Epacris microphylla, EH. obtusifolia,
Grevillea oleoides, Hakea pugioniformis, Isopogon anemonifolius, Lambertia
formosa, Leptospermum scoparium, Leptomeria acida, Leucopogon juniperinus,
Olax stricta, Persoonia lanceolata, P. salicina, Petrophila pulchella, Pimelea
linifolia, Ricinocarpus pinifolius, and Sprengelia incarnata.

Herbs.—Xanthorrhoea hastilis, Gahnia psittacorum and Xerotes longifolia are
the most abundant large herbs; of the smaller herbs the following are especially
important: Haemodorum planifolium, Leptocarpus tenax, Lepyrodia scariosa,
Patersonia glauca, Stackhousia viminea, and Xerotes flexifolia. The most important
climbing plant is Cassytha pubescens.

Variations —The following variants within the association deserve notice:

(i). On the short gradual slope running down towards the scarp (as at B,
Pl. xv), where excellent drainage renders the soil drier, but where protection from
the west is greater than on most of the plateau, certain more mesophytic shrubs
and herbs are mixed with the sclerophyll element. In particular, Pultenaea
daphnoides, Olearia elliptica, Gleichenia flabellata, Lycopodium densum and
Persoonia mollis may be noted. Due to the drier soil conditions, the relative
importance of Hucalyptus corymbosa increases slightly.

(ii). On the drier slopes running in a more or less westerly direction,
especially approaching the western limit of the area, where the rainfall is less,
the proportion of #. corymbosa to H. Sieberiana also rises, but with no marked
change in the composition of the lower strata.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 289

(0). Developments subject to Physiographic Shelter.

In regions of greater dissection, higher associations develop, the spatial
sequence being H. piperita association, H. pilularis association, and brush. The
effects are due primarily to the topography, and do not in any way represent an
autogenic succession. The immediate causes are paitly shelter from wind, but,
more important, the higher humus content and water-retaining capacity of the
soil, and a high moisture content not associated with poor drainage. The smaller
prevalence of fires in these associations is a major cause in determining the high
humus-content, as also is the higher water-content.

E. piperita is found on the upper slopes of the sides of gullies, especially near
Loddon Falls (Pl. xv, C), and in situations between the two arms of Cataract
Reservoir. EH. pilularis is found on the lower slopes of gullies in the latter area
(as at D, Pl. xv). Associated with both are the low trees Hxocarpus cupressi-
formis, Acacia longifolia and Persoonia linearis, and the shrubs Trachymene
Billardieri, Leucopogon lanceolatus, Cassinia denticulata and Hakea saligna,
together with shrubs and herbs of the drier areas.

Brush only develops in situations of extreme shelter, as below the Loddon
Falls. It is dealt with in a later section.

In other districts, Angophora lanceolata is found associated with EH. piperita
in situations such as the above. It has not been observed in this district, but
immediately to the north, at Helensburgh, it occurs at the heads of Hawkesbury
Sandstone gullies.

(c). Lithoseres.

Xeric lithoseres proceed on the few exposed rock surfaces of the plateau
where a high water-table does not occur, the initiating stages being chiefly lichens,
with a few mosses. Prominent among the first low shrubs are Darwinia taxifolia
and D. virgata, and the numerous sclerophyll shrubs of the H. Sieberiana associa-
tion follow. The fairly abundant areas interspersed amongst the H#. Sieberiana
association, where the soil is shallow and the highest development is a shrub
community, are regarded as a stage in this succession.

More often, the colonization of bare rock proceeds through the intermediate
local swamp sere, due to a high water-table, often caused by cupping of the under-
lying rock. Mosses constitute the first stage, followed by herbs, especially species
of Drosera, Utricularia lateriflora and Lepyrodia scariosa, and similar types. This
stage proceeds imperceptibly to a local swamp community, in which the following
species are most abundant: Banksia latifolia var. minor, Epacris microphylla,
Hakea pugioniformis, Olax stricta, and Symphyoneme paludosa; Bauera rubioides,
Chorizandra sphaerocephala, Gahnia psittacorum, Gleichenia dicarpa, Goodenia
bellidifolia, Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, Hypolaena lateriflora, Lepidosperma
laterale, Leptocarpus tenax, Lepyrodia scariosa, Mitrasacme polymorpha, Restio
complanatus, Selaginella uliginosa, Sprengelia incarnata, Xanthorrhoea hastilis,
and X. minor.

This community proceeds, by emphasis of the shrubs and decline of the sedges,
until the H. Sieberiana association is reached, #. micrantha Benth. being prominent
at the ecotone. This succession is characterized by a gradual lowering of the
water-table.

(ad). Extensive Swamp or Moor Communities.

Large areas of the sandstone are covered with a mixed sedge-swamp, in some
cases with the addition of shrubs tolerant of swamp conditions. The factor

290 PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT. I,

preventing development of a higher type of vegetation is the high average water- ~
table. The low pH and high humus-content of the soil are secondary.

The topography where these communities occur is moderately flat, but
with sufficient slope, at first sight, to cause wonder at the swamp conditions.
Briefly, the apparent causes of the high water-table are: (1) Slowness of evapora-
tion at ground-level, already mentioned. (2) An extremely clayey horizon at a
depth of about 4 feet. (3) The tussocky nature of the plants, retarding water
flow. (4) The presence of peculiar furrows, at intervals of one to two yards, at
right angles to the normal slope and drainage. These, although not universal,
are surprisingly frequent and regular; they may partly be due to the burrowing
activities of the crayfish which are present in large numbers throughout these
swamps.

In the large swamps near Sublime Point (as at Pl. xv, E) the following species
are most important (in order of decreasing abundance):

Larger Herbs: Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, Lepidosperma Forsythii
Hamilton, Lepyrodia scariosa, Chorizandra sphaerocephala, Restio complanatus
and Xanthorrhoea minor.

Smaller Herbs: Selaginella uliginosa, Hypolaena lateriflora, Lycopodium
laterale, Leptocarpus tenax, Goodenia bellidifolia, Xyris gracilis, Mitrasacme poly-
morpha and EHpacris obtusifolia (dwarfed).

Shrubs are very rare, being represented by scattered individuals of Persoonia
salicina, Hakea pugioniformis and Leptospermum juniperinum Sm. In the some-
what drier community at Madden’s Plains (as at Pl. xv, F), shrubs, especially
the above species, together with Banksia paludosa and Melaleuca squarrosa, become
more prominent, as also does Xanthorrhoea minor.

The ecotone between these communities and the H. Sieberiana association is
similar to that bordering the local swamps mentioned in the preceding section. In
several isolated instances, young specimens of EH. micrantha Benth. extend beyond
the tree limit, indicating a forward succession. In most cases, however, the limits
are static, and swamp conditions cannot be superseded by a uniform increase in
level due to plant remains. The soil is in most cases already very deep—in some
cases more than sixteen feet, with plant remains occurring at a considerable
depth. The water-table can only be lowered by allogenic causes, e.g., the working
back of the Loddon Falls gorge by erosion, leading to better drainage conditions.
The sequence of events which originally caused these swamps is obscure, but they
have apparently been in their present state for a very long period.

(e). Vegetation of the Scarp.

Conditions on the face of the scarp and on the ledges and local small ravines
which occur on it vary from very dry and exposed to moist and sheltered. Corres-
ponding plants occur in these varying situations, and succession proceeds up to a
certain stage, but trees are never formed on account of the transient nature of
the surface and the frequent falls of rock.

Next to lichens, the mats of Cyclophorus serpens, Polypodium Billardieri and
Dendrobium linguiforme are most important in colonizing dry rock faces. When
sufficient soil is formed, the following types occur: Actinotus Helianthi, Draco-
phyllum secundum, Epacris coriacea, EH. longiflora, Xanthorrhoea arborea and
Xanthosia pilosa.

In moister situations, mosses and liverworts initiate the sere, which develops
up to a stage where Blechnum Patersoni, B. capense, Gleichenia circinata and
Hypolaena lateriflora and bushes of Callicoma serratifolia, Cassinia denticulata,
Doryphora sassafras, Pultenaea daphnoides and Tristania laurina are prominent.

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 291

(2). Wianamatta Shale.

As one passes from Hawkesbury Sandstone to Wianamatta Shale at Darke’s
Forest, there is a pronounced change from Hucalyptus Sieberiana low forest to a
high forest dominated by H. piperita and Angophora lanceolata. The low-tree
stratum is much more pronounced than on the sandstone, Acacia binervata,
A. longifolia, A. rubida and Exocarpus cupressiformis being the important species.
In the shrub layer, the more mesophytic element is represented by Hakea saligna,
Leucopogon lanceolatus, Olearia ramulosa, and Persoonia ferruginea, and, more
rarely, Cassinia aurea, Lomatia ilicifolia, and Olearia viscidula. In addition there
is an admixture of typical sandstone forms, Acacia myrtifolia, Banksia ericifolia,
B. spinulosa, and Persoonia salicina being most important.

The most important herbs are Blechnum cartilagineum, Haloragis teucrioides,
Pteridium aquilinum and Viola hederacea, with such typical sandstone species as
Doryanthes excelsa and Xerotes longifolia.

The change of vegetation as one passes from sandstone to shale must be
attributed to the greater water-retaining capacity of the soil derived from the
latter. The absence of certain trees (notably Syncarpia laurifolia) characteristic
on Wianamatta Shale elsewhere is surprising, and appears to be due to isolation
rather than unsuitability of habitat.

(3). Narrabeen Series.

The vegetation of the Chocolate Shale and Narrabeen Sandstone exposed by
the dissection of the plateau is discussed in this section; that on these rocks on the
coastal slopes is discussed later.

Except in shelter, the vegetation on soils derived from both the above rock
types is high Eucalyptus forest, dominated in the former case by H. saligna, and
in the latter by H. piperita. Important constituents of the low-tree stratum in both
communities are Acacia longifolia, A. mollissima, and Hxocarpus cupressiformis,
and of the shrub stratum Indigofera australis, Persoonia ferruginea, P. lanceolata,
P. salicina, Pimelea ligustrina, Pomaderris elliptica and Prostanthera Sieberi Benth.
The most abundant herbs are Blechnum cartilagineum, Imperata arundinacea,
Pteridium aquilinum and Viola hederacea.

In conditions of partial shelter on the Chocolate Shale and efficient shelter on
the Narrabeen Sandstone, brush develops. The constitution of the brush is
discussed later. On Narrabeen Sandstone, in partial shelter, the H. saligna associa-
tion forms. Brush elements, especially Livistona australis and Alsophila australis,
are frequently scattered amongst the H. piperita and EH. saligna associations in
conditions where there is insufficient shelter for true brush to occur.

Surrounding the Cataract Reservoir, an interesting zonation occurs due to
constant raising of the water-level (as at Pl. xv, G). Following the aquatic
stages, there is an area of mud, frequently exposed, and inhabited only by intro-
duced annuals; above this, a narrow zone of several species of Juncus, leading
back through grasses (chiefly Poa annua (introd.) and Imperata arundinacea) to
a shrub zone dominated by Leptospermum flavescens and Melaleuca squamea, and
thence to the Eucalyptus forest.

VEGETATION OF THE SLOPES AND COASTAL PLAIN.

This section is subdivided as follows: (1) H. pilwlaris association and variant;
(2) Brush; (3) Sand-dune succession; (4) Subsaline lagoon succession; (5)
Sea-cliff vegetation. The vegetation altered by clearing and grazing has been
omitted in the present study.

292 PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT. I,

(1). E. pilularis Association and Variant.

Except where there is sufficient shelter and soil moisture for the development
of brush, the coastal slopes and plain support a high forest dominated by
Eucalyptus pilularis, with E. paniculata and Syncarpia laurifolia fairly commonly
represented. The soil is derived chiefly from Narrabeen Sandstone and from the
varied strata of the Upper Coal Measures (ranging from shale to coarse sand-
stone), but is also influenced by the rock lying above. Other smaller trees
prominent in this association are Casuarina torulosa, Notolea longifolia and
Persoonia linearis, and, especially in the moister situations, Acacia binervata.
Other important elements are Acacia myrtifolia, A. suaveolens, Helichrysum
bracteatum, H. diosmifolium, Hibbertia dentata, Indigofera australis, Leucopogon
lanceolatus, Oxylobium trilobatum, Persoonia salicina, Pimelea ligustrina, Prostan-
thera Sieberi Benth., Senecio dryadens and Zieria Smithii, and the herbs
Hypochaeris glabra (introd.), Pteridium aquilinum, and more rarely Imperata
arundinacea, Doodia aspera and Xerotes longifolia. The introduced Rubus
fruticosus is also abundant.

In soils derived from a tuffaceous mudstone in the Towradgi area, a mixed
Eucalyptus forest occurs, of which the most important species are H. botryoides,
E. eugenioides, E. longifolia, E. paniculata and EH. punctata. The lower strata are
similar to those of the climax of the subsaline lagoon succession discussed later.

(2). Brush.

East of the scarp, brush occurs on the uppermost slopes (except at the most
prominent ridges) (e.g., Pl. xv, H), and on the inner side of terraces and in gullies
at a lower level. These situations are sheltered from dry winds, and provided
with copious water-supply, and conditions are favourable for the development of
soil humus. The scarp, besides offering shelter from dry winds, decreases insola-
tion by cutting off direct sunlight shortly after noon.

Brush also develops in partial shelter from the west on soils derived from the
Chocolate Shale (e.g., Pl. xv, J), and under more extreme conditions of shelter
on soils derived from Narrabeen and Hawkesbury Sandstone. In all cases, the
ecotone between the brush and the adjacent Eucalyptus forest is indistinct,
numerous brush types extending beyond the limit of the true highly-integrated
brush formation.

Except for occasional high trees of Hucalyptus saligna and Ficus rubiginosa,
the coastal brush is composed of a great number of species of trees of moderate
height, mostly of the laurel-leaved type. The following are of particular
importance:

Cargillia australis R.Br., Ceratopetalum apetalum, Doryphora sassafras, Ficus
stephanocarpa Warb., Eugenia Smithii, Hedycarya Cunningham, Laportea gigas,
Livistona australis, Omolanthus populifolius, Panax sambucifolius, Pittosporum
undulatum and Sloanea australis. Of these, Livistona australis is singled out as
the most abundant and characteristic species.

In the brush, low trees are rare, the tree-fern Alsophila australis being the
sole exception; but on the ecotone between brush and Eucalypt forest, Breynia
oblongifolia, Eupomatia laurina, Lantana camara (introd.), Rhodamnia trinervia
and Synoum glandulosum are abundant.

Of the ground layer, the ferns Adiantum aethiopicum, A. fornosum, Asplenium
flabellifolium, Histiopteris incisa, Pellaea falcata and Pteris umbrosa, and the
herbs Gymnostachys anceps and Pollia cyanococca, are the most important
members.

co

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 29

In addition, climbers and epiphytes form a distinctive portion of the brush,
the most abundant being Hustrephus Brownii, Lyonsia straminea, Palmeria
scandens, Sarcopetalum Harveyanum, Senecio mikanioides Otto (introd.), Smilax
australis and Stephania hernandifolia; Pleopeltis diversifolia, Davallia pyxidata
and Asplenium nidus.

It is certain that the brush was far more extensive in this region in former
times, but the effect of settlement, and the ravages of fire, have had disastrous
effects on an association only able to regenerate itself slowly after fire or partial
clearing.

Inland, brush developed on soils derived from the Narrabeen Series is
comparable to the coastal brush, but poorer floristically and less highly integrated.
The brush occurring in extreme shelter on Hawkesbury Sandstone is very poor
floristically, the only common trees being Callicoma serratifolia, Ceratopetalum
apetalum, Doryphora sassafras, and Tristania laurina.

(3). Sand-dune Succession.

Succession from wind-blown dunes is proved to be acting in a forward
direction in parts of the area, as at Towradgi, by examination of the soil under-
lying the seral communities behind the dunes. It does not, however, reach the
climax, for in all cases the highest development on what has been sand-dune—
Eucalyptus botryoides—Banksia integrifolia associes—meets the opposing succes-
sion from the subsaline lagoon (the HE. robusta associes) (as at Pl. xv, K). Areas
where a climax may have been reached in the past have been cleared completely.

The sere is normal, being represented thus: (1) Festuca litoralis—Spinifex
hirsutus—Carex pumila associes. (2) Shrub-dune dominated by Leptospermum
laevigatum, Leucopogon Richei and Acacia Sophorae. (3) Hucalyptus botryoides—
Banksia integrifolia associes, with a shrub layer mainly composed of relics of the
earlier stage.

(4). Subsaline Lagoon Succession.

The sere leading from the subsaline lagoons can be listed as follows: (1)
Phragmites communis associes (a narrow belt in shallow water). (2) Juncus
maritimus associes (a broad belt at the edge of the lagoon, subject to constant
flooding). (3) Where the lagoon border is very flat, a small zone, the Cladium
junceum associes. (4) Casuarina glauca associes, forming a low forest, the ground
layers mainly composed of Juncus maritimus. (5) Hucalyptus robusta associes,
with ground layers composed of members of the preceding seres, and Gahnia
psittacorum. (6) Climax mixed forest in which Hucalyptus botryoides,
E. eugenioides and E. paniculata are predominant. The lower strata contain
elements of the former stages of this succession and of the hind-dune vegetation
(e.g., Cladium junceum, Gahnia psittacorum, Leucopogon Richei, Leptospermum
laevigatum), with a definite brush element (e.g., Breynia oblongifolia, Clerodendron
tomentosum and Stephania hernandifolia).

(5). Sea-cliff Vegetation.

Vegetation on the steep sea-cliffs, as at Austinmer (PI. xv, L), is subjected
to great exposure to sea-winds, and, on the lower portions, a high concentration
of salt. These factors, coupled with frequent landslips, prevent the development
of anything higher than a shrub community. An interesting zonation occurs, but
does not constitute a true case of succession:

(1) A zone of halophytic herbs, the most prominent being Lobelia anceps and
Samolus repens, and less commonly Apium prostratum, Plantago varia and
Scaevola hispida. This merges into:

294 PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT. I,

(2) A shrub zone, dominated by Banksia integrifolia, Leptospermum -
laevigatum, Westringia rosmariniformis, and small shrubs of Casuarina glauca.

Behind this zone the vegetation passes with an indefinite ecotone to the
Hucalyptus pilularis association, with trees of Banksia integrifolia, decreasing in
number with distance from the sea.

Interpretation.

Omitting communities which are either seres or are held in a condition
obviously below the climax and are unable to proceed by a forward autogenic
succession to the climax, we may summarize the distribution of the main
communities as in the following table:

Parent Rock of Soil (coarsest soil to the left).

Conditions of

Shelter. Hawkesbury Narrabeen Wianamatta Upper Coal Chocolate
Sandstone. Sandstone. Shale. Measures. Shale.
Flat or undulat- | Z. Sieberiana | BE. piperita | HE. piperita— | E. piularis | ZH. saligna
ing conditions association. association. Angophora association; association.
lanceolata mixed lEHuca-
association. lyptus forest
(t uffaceous
mudstone.)

Moderateshelter | #. piperita| FE. saligna | Conditions do! Brush (low | Brush.
association. association not occur. grade).
| (inland); 4#.
pilularis
association

| (coastal slopes). |
| |
—
Good shelter .. | £. pilularis | Brush (low | Conditions do! Brush. Brush.
association. | grade). not occur.
Extreme shelter | Brush (low | Brush. Conditions do | Brush. Brush.
grade). | not occur.

|

From this table it will at once be seen that a prominent part is played, in
the distribution of communities in this area, by the influence of parent rock on
vegetation by the medium of the derived soil. The influence of topographic
shelter can likewise be gauged.

Although no definite objective test can be made as to what constitutes the
climax association, and such interpretations must necessarily be guided by personal
opinions, the following classification is submitted:

The climax formation for the district is Eucalyptus forest (sclerophyll forest).
Brush in all cases constitutes a physiographic postclimax. Weaver and Clements
(1929) give the following details concerning the postclimax (p. 78): “Local
communities may develop or persist where especially favourable conditions of

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 295

soil, humidity, ete., exist, which represent a more highly developed stage than
the present climatic climax of the region.” Subsequent statements by Clements
(1936, p. 269) do not appear to alter this interpretation, although the relict nature
of the postclimax is emphasized.

It seems logical to extend the concept of the postclimax, within the major
limits of the formation, to the smaller units of associations. Thus the climax
is taken as the highest association that develops in homologous positions, on
mature soils with undulating to flat topographical conditions, on the soils derived
from the varying rock types; the climax association thus varying with the parent
rock, and an association which is the climax on one soil corresponding to a post-
climax development on a soil of coarser texture. Thus the following climaxes are
recognized:

Hawkesbury Sandstone: Hucalyptus Sieberiana association.

Narrabeen Sandstone: H. piperita association.

Wianamatta Shale: H. piperita—Angophora lanceolata association.*
Upper Coal Measures (mostly): H. pilularis association.

Upper Coal Measures (tuffaceous mudstone): Mixed Hucalyptus forest,
Climax of sere from Subsaline lagoon: Mixed Hucalyptus forest.
Chocolate Shale: #H. saligna association.

Comparing the communities listed in the table for Hawkesbury Sandstone,
Narrabeen Sandstone, and Upper Coal Measures, we see that if similar associations
in the respective columns be joined, the lines represent diagonals. On mature
soils on the coastal plain derived from shales of the Upper Coal Measures, the
EH. pilularis association forms the climax; on soils from this parent rock, brush
forms as a postclimax, in varying degrees of integration depending on varying
degrees of shelter. If we take a homologous situation on soil derived from
Narrabeen Sandstone to that on which the #H. pilularis association develops on the
coastal plain, the vegetation is found to be the #H. piperita association. In
conditions of greater shelter, the H. pilularis association (or, inland, the corres-
ponding H. saligna association) develops; in any greater shelter, brush develops.
These are regarded as primary and secondary postclimaxes. On mature soil
derived from Hawkesbury Sandstone, with undulating topography, the highest
community found in this district is the H. Sieberiana association; primary,
secondary and tertiary postclimaxes on soil from this rock are represented by the
EH. piperita association, the H. pilularis association and low-grade brush; the first
in partial, the second in good, the last only in extreme shelter.

Turning now to communities below the climax, we can dismiss the following
as being legitimate cases of autogenic succession leading to the climax of the
region:

(1) Xeric lithoseres as on Hawkesbury Sandstone leading eventually to the
HA. Sieberiana association or corresponding climax.

(2) Lithoseres subject to moister conditions, as detailed under the Hawkes-
bury Sandstone vegetation, where local swamps form an intermediate stage.

(3) The sand-dune sere (not observed to reach a climax in this district, but
this negative observation is probably due to clearing).

(4) The seres bordering the subsaline lagoons (Phragmites communis associes—
Juncus maritimus associes—Casuarina glauca associes—Hucalyptus robusta associes),
leading to climax mixed Hucalyptus forest.

* As stated earlier, it is probable that a climax richer floristically would develop if
it were not for isolation.

296 PLANT ECOLOGY OF THE BULLI DISTRICT. I,

Both (3) and (4) are subject to retrogression also in certain places, as by ©
“blow-outs” caused by southerly winds in (3), and scouring in (4). Moreover,
where a narrow belt of land occurs between dune and lagoon, (3) proceeds to
Eucalyptus botryoides—Banksia integrifolia associes, (4) proceeds to H. robusta
associes, and the seres meet at this point, the climax not forming (Pl. xv, K).

The remaining communities below the climax are regarded as subclimax
vegetation in the restricted sense of Godwin (1929). The extensive swamps or
moors of the sandstone plateau appear unable to proceed (except in the very few
instances noted, insignificant from the point of view of total area), beyond the
present state, except by allogenic causes, for reasons of high water-table. The
varying vegetation of the sandstone scarp, proceeding by autogenic succession from
the bare rock faces left by rock falls up to a certain stage, can never attain
climax status under the present system of erosion, but can proceed to varying
stages in the lithosere succession before the next fall brings the conditions back
to the bare rock face stage again. The vegetation surrounding Cataract Dam
represents a true subclimax due to periodic artificial raising of the water-table.

The sea-cliff vegetation, although it shows a clear zonation from the base of
the cliff to climax forest on the cliff-top, does not represent a forward succession
in time. Erosion causes inhibition of development, as on the sandstone scarp, and
the actual result to the vegetation, due to this allogenic cause, is retrograde.
Under the present conditions, corresponding portions of the cliff will always
regenerate, following landslips, to their former vegetation, but no higher; and as
a result of the erosion the cliff-face as a whole works backwards, to cause the
destruction of the adjacent parts of the higher communities.

It will be gathered from the above that subclimax vegetation is a very
important feature of the area. Indeed, cases of forward autogenic plant succes-
sion to the climax are believed to be far rarer in this country than is sometimes
supposed, and a mere spatial zonation must always be examined very critically
before it can be pronounced to represent a true succession.

The above interpretations may be regarded as unconventional, but it is
submitted that, since the explanation of the basic causes of the distribution of
communities has been suggested, the nomenclature of these communities is a
secondary consideration. The terminology used in interpreting plant communities
has become so involved that there appears to be a tendency to consider it an end
in itself, and not a utilitarian method of classifying facts due to direct natural
causes, the understanding of which is, in the end, the main object. The following
remarks of Benjamin Moore epitomize well the necessary attitude in controversies
of nomenclature: “Care is needed that in entering into disputations
terminology is not becoming confused so that the dispute is only over terms,
instead of over things.”

List of References.

ANDREWS, E. C., 1912.—Beach Formations at Botany Bay. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xvi.

CLEMENTS, F. E., 1936.—Nature and Structure of the Climax. Journ. Hcology, xxiv, 1.

GODWIN, H., 1929.—The Sub-climax and Deflected Succession. Journ. Ecology, xvii, 1.

GRIFFITH TAYLOR, 1923.—Guide-book to the Excursion to the Illawarra District. Pan-
Pacific Science Congress, 1923. N.S.W. Govt. Printer.

Harper, L. F., 1912.—Geological and Mineral Resources of the Southern Coalfield. Part 1.
Mem. Geol. Survey N.S.W., Geology, No. 7.

MELVAINE, ALMA T., 1936.—A Check-List of the New South Wales Pteridophytes. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ixi, 111-121.

Moore, C., and Betrcue, E., 1893.—Flora of New South Wales. N.S.W. Govt. Printer.

WeAVER, J. E., and CLEMENTS, F. E., 1929.—Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill.

Tle hy.
ony i "

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aie

-

BY CONSETT DAVIS. 297

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
Geological and Contour Map of the Bulli District (1 inch = 1 mile).

Explanation.

Geological Formations (outlines and numbering in colour): 1, Wianamatta Shale;
2, Hawkesbury Sandstone; 3, Narrabeen Series (top 50 feet (approximately), Chocolate
Shale; remainder, Narrabeen Sandstone); 4, Upper Coal Measures; 4’, Upper Coal
Measures (Tuffaceous Mudstone); 5, Recent (Alluvial, and Wind-blown Sand).

Roe, Subsaline lagoon.

scarp; B. Short easterly slope of plateau; C. Position of partial shelter on Hawkesbury
Sandstone, Loddon Falls, with FHucalyptus piperita association; D. Position of efficient
shelter on Hawkesbury Sandstone, with #H. pilularis association; E. Large swamp near
Sublime Point; F. Large swamp or moor at Madden’s Plains; G. Edge of Cataract
Reservoir, with zonation of plant communities; H. Ridge on slopes immediately below
scarp, with no brush development; J. Brush in conditions of slight shelter on Chocolate
Shale soil; K. Junction of sand-dune and subsaline lagoon seres on neck of land between
lagoon and sea; L. Sea-cliff at Austinmer.

(Except A, H, and K, and to a less extent C, D, and J, letters represent merely
one point in an extensive community.)

REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V.
By A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.R.E.S.

[Read 28th October, 1936.]

We have now to deal with a difficult group consisting of the genus Hulechria
and its closest allies. Since the publication of my key in Part iii (May, 1935) I
have modified my views. I find that the length of the palpi in Hulechria varies
much in allied species, and occasionally to some extent in the same species (for
instance in EH. tropica). I have, therefore, abandoned the proposed genus
Phanerozancla, which remains a nomen nudum. The name Brachyzancla is
retained, but in a different sense from that formerly given. Sphyrelata is omitted,
and will be dealt with later. (Hpithymema, which concludes Part iv, should have
been numbered 54, not 53.) The last part of my Key is amended as follows:

Key to Genera.

31. Palpi with second joint extremely long, more than 5 times length Of faces acne ee
Ob BIO, DIO RIEOLA O AROLERG SG ick GOAL ETIOR AO Toad RG DOr evOTars 6.0 Ol ar GeO GANONG Or OerS atare a 54. Hpithymema

Palpignotssoueeeeeecie re PER Meera ean ate ee ea Ree ot er aur aN aEe ms Cer ee ti UN Se CHR me AMET, 5. 6 32

S2A EIN WINES, Aan COOLEST sey cies tr eustetarinces ete cere tantra ena ato ASL eed nei UL Ou cea | ent 33
Eindwines Veloneate= Ovals, iat cicyecs «cates, coe aas Alene pete ects nail ice tone ckaae raise aaa aicsta Saemeeenee 37

33. Palpi with second joint thickened and usually roughened anteriorly, terminal joint
SOUL; Gat TEASE ast Dae cis Sess och sainciee Sos seute doctor iis lue) ieitelalieea ts hatoy ioweeta Usenet os het ern no aeoane 34

Palpi with second joint smooth and slender, terminal joint slender ........... 35

B¥il, Jebhooh aba Ayana 2b eyavel Gy) gyelkkeyol Gucdoanccocodonodvocdadsoagcu0edd 55. Phloeocetis
lehbahyaboeds Viale: 2b eyacl by GENCY nooouscboooobddD db nUSooDbODONDO 56. Ischnophanes

35. Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked or rarely connate .............. 57. Hlaphromorpha
ind wings swith 4 tarde 5 SOWA Tate cove caseracenatat oso aires ae fouianiate ea taifeaabieviatier etianalteyel renee nee Reaeeae te 36

BOS PEUING Wines with 5yapproximateds tomo» atOGIEiNe ci ileslieiecie ciciaicioencienne 58. Asthenica
LSbbavohyiabakess} yun 4) Eyorepxorcboateyysyol Iho) 2) So aacbooomgodoucoboooatdoo ges 59. Macronemata

37. Palpi usually not reaching vertex, terminal joint less than half second .......... 38
Palpi exceeding vertex, terminal joint more than half second .................. 39
Do-eLAlpiNwilth Second yOInteshortandmuslend ermal 60. Brachyzancla
Palpi with second joint thickened and moderately long or elongate ... 61. Idiozancla

AMY. Jethost Wyplda Wdoohwoeyl Kole SoOwls Boo onoonosoonooboo aos oou boon uoo ooo 62. Trachyntis
Palpi swith, terminal Joint (slender! ayyevercccrs ecteerye wae c eke el oecie ici one oneal haere ne con one 40

ZY labbashpberess) Syiaidel 6) Sigeopedhy Ehayorcop-queaehucrol qo) ) poooonconnoounnudoba0d 63. Hecrita
Hindwines swith se notvapproximatedmtomGs caacieiicicre uence neleicieiciensicuckcneisieicnenneieiens 41

41. Palpi with long rough hairs on posterior surface of second joint ... 64. Anomozancla
DEF W Hoy pad g VOLO I= (0h) IRS CE SU ECReN CICIO ORES E EE MC IG EOL OME IC Hecho acer coc MARNE orc arena ete alana aca rete 65. Hulechria

55. Gen. PHLOEOCETIS, n.g.
protoxorrts, lurking in bark.

Tongue present. Palpi recurved, ascending; second joint just reaching base
of antennae, thickened with appressed scales, slightly rough anteriorly; terminal
joint shorter than second, stout, acute. Antennae with basal pecten; ciliations
in male long. Forewings narrow; 7 to apex. Hindwings lanceolate; 4 and 5
stalked, their common stalk connate or stalked with 3.

A derivative of Ischnophanes with specialized neuration of hindwings.

BY A. J. TURNER. 299

435. PHLOEOCETIS VIRGEA, 0. SP.
virgeus, streaked.

3, @. 14-15 mm. Head white, some irroration and a pair of spots on crown
blackish. Palpi with terminal joint three-fifths; blackish, second joint with post-
median and apical, terminal joint with antemedian and apical white rings.
Antennae grey; ciliations in male 24. Thorax white; a pair of longitudinal bars,
spots on tegulae, and one on posterior end, blackish. Abdomen grey. Legs white
with blackish rings. Forewings lanceolate, costa straight, apex obtusely pointed,
termen extremely oblique; white finely sprinkled with fuscous so as to appear
grey; markings blackish; a fine costal streak from base to two-fifths, leaving
costal edge white; a median streak from base to one-fifth; a discal streak from
beneath two-fifths costa to apex, containing a discal dot at one-fourth from base;
a short streak below middle; another less defined on apical part of dorsum, tornus,
and lower half of termen; cilia white with some dark fuscous points. Hindwings
broadly lanceolate; whitish; thinly scaled and translucent towards base; suffused
with grey towards apex; cilia 1; grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba in October and November; four specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

56. Gen. ISCHNOPHANES, N.g.
toxvodarns, Narrow.

Tongue present. Palpi with second joint not or just reaching base of antennae,
thickened and usually roughened anteriorly; terminal joint rather stout, at least
towards base. Antennae with basal pecten; ciliations in male short, moderate,
or long. Forewings narrow, 7 to apex. Hindwings lanceolate; 3 and 4 connate,
5 approximated to 4.

Type, I. thrypticopa Meyr. Differs from Macronemata in the palpi, and from
Eulechria in the palpi and hindwings. It appears to be a natural genus.

Sixteen species: 436. macromita, n. sp. (Adavale, Q.).—437. semidalota, n. sp.
(Toowoomba, Macpherson Range).—438. leucospila Meyr., Hxot. Micro., ii, p. 370
(Brisbane, Toowoomba, Stanthorpe) .—439. symmicta, n. sp. (Sydney, Mittagong) .—
440. idiotropa, n. sp. (Brisbane).—441. jtcimmeriella Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882,
p. 543 (Bowenfels, Cooma).—442. elaphropa, n. sp. (Stradbroke I.).—443. capno-
pleura, n. sp. (Talwood, Q.).—444. thrypticopa Meyr., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1902, p. 153
(Melbourne, Gisborne) .—445. euthemon, n. sp. (Gosford).—446. plagiospila Low.,
Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1920, p. 59 (Sydney).—447. nefanda Meyr., Exot. Micro., i, p. 171
(Brisbane to Gisborne) = mesochra Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, p. 364.—448. suffusa,
n. sp. (Mt. Tambourine).—449. atelesta, n. sp. (Brisbane).—450. hermaea Meyr.,
Exot. Micro., i, p. 172 (Hmerald, Q., Macpherson Range, Bathurst, Beaconsfield ).—
451. potheta, n. sp. (Tweed Hds.).

436. ISCHNOPHANES MACROMITA, 0. SDP.
pakpoutros, With long threads.

6, @. 15-20 mm. Head and thorax dark grey. Palpi with terminal joint
one-half; fuscous, terminal joint white with two fuscous rings. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male 1. Abdomen and legs grey. Forewings lanceolate; grey; a grey-
whitish streak on costa from base to one-third; a fine blackish streak from base of
costa through disc above middle to near below apex, some grey-whitish suffusion on
its upper edge; a similar streak on fold from base nearly to tornus; cilia grey.
Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Adavale in April and May; three specimens.

300 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

437. ISCHNOPHANES SEMIDALOTA, DN. SD.
oeutoadorTos, floury.

6d. 15 mm. Head whitish with some fuscous scales. Palpi with second joint
not reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, second joint
with postmedian and apical, terminal joint with antemedian and apical white
rings. Antennae grey, becoming whitish towards base; ciliations in male 23.
Thorax dark fuscous; anterior and posterior spots and tegulae white. Abdomen
ochreous, apices of segments and tuft grey-whitish. Legs whitish; anterior and
middle tarsi with fuscous rings. Forewings narrow-oblong, costa straight, apex
rounded, termen extremely oblique; white with dark fuscous irroration and
markings; a much interrupted subcostal line from base to beyond middle; a very
short streak on midcosta; first discal at one-third, plical beneath it, second discal
at two-thirds; a short median streak before termen, another parallel before and
beneath it; three costal bars before apex, and a terminal series of dots; cilia
white with a few fuscous points. Hindwings broadly lanceolate; grey-whitish;
cilia 1; grey-whitish.

Allied to the preceding; forewings somewhat broader, whiter, and less streaked.

Queensland: Toowoomba in October; Macpherson Range (Springbrook) in
October; two specimens.

439. ISCHNOPHANES SYMMICTA, N. Sp.
ouu“mtKTos, COMmingled.

6, Y. 18 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous, pinkish-tinged. Palpi with
second joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths; dark fuscous,
second joint with postmedian and apical, terminal joint with sub-basal and sub-
apical white rings. Antennae dark fuscous with white annulations; ciliations in
male 1%. Abdomen fuscous; tuft grey. Legs dark fuscous with white rings;
posterior pair mostly white. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex
rounded, termen very oblique; whitish-ochreous, pinkish-tinged, densely sprinkled
with dark fuscous scales, the absence of which gives rise to pale spots; a basal
spot; a dot on costa near base, and costal spots on middle and three-fourths; a
subdorsal spot at one-third; several more or less confluent spots in posterior half,
and a suffused terminal band; stigmata blackish, first at one-fourth, plical beyond
it, second discal about middle; cilia whitish-ochreous, bases sprinkled with dark
fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Mittagong in November; Sydney (National Park) in
February; two specimens received from Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, who has the type.

440. ISCHNOPHANES IDIOTROPA, N. Sp.
idtoTporos, peculiar.

3. 14 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint not reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; white, base of second joint and a
median ring on terminal joint dark fuscous. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in
male one-half. Abdomen whitish. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior
pair whitish. Forewings very narrow, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen
very oblique; white; markings blackish; a dot on base of dorsum; a dot on one-
fourth costa; a suffused mark on midcosta; first discal at one-fourth, plical well
before it, second discal enlarged into an irregular angular spot; a fine curved
interrupted line from three-fourths costa to tornus, preceded by some suffusion;
cilia white. Hindwings lanceolate; whitish; cilia 1, whitish.

Queensland: Burpengary, near Brisbane, in August; one specimen,

BY A. J. TURNER. 301

442. ISCHNOPHANES ELAPHROPA, 0. SDP.
éXadpwros, light.

6. 11-12 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi with terminal joint one-half;
pale grey, apex of terminal joint fuscous. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male 1.
Abdomen grey. Legs pale grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow,
lanceolate; pale grey with blackish dots; first discal at one-third, plical beyond it,
second discal just before two-thirds; a dot on midcosta; a series of dots close to
margin of termen and apical third of costa; cilia pale grey. Hindwings lanceolate;
pale grey; cilia 1, pale grey.

Queensland: Stradbroke I. in September; two specimens.

443. ISCHNOPHANES CAPNOPLEURA, Nl. SD.

KamvorAeuvpos, With dark costa.

6d. 13 mm. Head white. Palpi with terminal joint one-half; blackish, sub-
apical and apical rings on second joint, median ring on terminal joint, white.
Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax white; anterior edge blackish.
Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly
whitish. Forewings very narrow, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded; white; whole of costal area except near apex blackish; a broad
transverse median fascia and a subapical blotch blackish; some blackish irroration
in terminal area; cilia white with some blackish points. Hindwings and cilia
grey.

Queensland: Talwood in December; one specimen received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard.

445. ISCHNOPHANES EUTHEMON, DN. SD.

evonuwy, neat.

6d, 2. 138-14 mm. Head grey. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, second joint with postmedian and
apical, terminal joint with median and subapical, whitish rings. Antennae grey
with blackish annulations; ciliations in male 1. Thorax grey-whitish. Abdomen
grey. Legs dark fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly whitish.
Forewings narrow, lanceolate; grey-whitish with markings and scanty irroration
dark fuscous; a sub-basal costal dot, and a short basal dorsal streak; costal spots
at one-fourth and middle; first discal at one-third forming apex of first costal spot,
plical beyond it, connected by irroration with dorsum, second discal at two-
thirds, an additional spot between last and tornus more or less developed; a sub-
apical costal spot, usually part of an apical suffusion; cilia grey-whitish sprinkled
with dark fuscous, on tornus grey. Hindwings lanceolate; grey; cilia 1, grey.

Probably J. plagiospila Low. is nearly allied, but the only example of this I

have seen had no palpi.
New South Wales: Gosford in November; three specimens.

448. ISCHNOPHANES SUFFUSA, DI. SDP.

suffusus, suffused.

3d. 15 mm. Head pale brown. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint one-half; fuscous-brown, second joint with median, post-
median, and apical fuscous bars on outer surface, inner surface mostly whitish.
Antennae grey; ciliations in male 14. Thorax fuscous-brown. Abdomen grey.
Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa
straight except towards extremities, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded;
brownish-fuscous; a rather broad transverse whitish fascia at one fourth, not

H

302 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

quite reaching costa, its edges not sharply defined; stigmata obscurely darker, .
first discal at one-third near edge of fascia, plical slightly beyond it, second dorsal
before two-thirds; some whitish suffusion beyond second discal; cilia grey-whitish.
Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: Mt. Tambourine in November; one specimen.

449. ISCHNOPHANES ATELESTA, Nl. SD.
ateAeotos, unfinished.

6. 17 mm. Head whitish. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; whitish sprinkled with dark fuscous.
Antennae whitish; cilia in male 6. Thorax whitish sprinkled with dark fuscous.
Abdomen grey, partly brownish-tinged; apices of segments and tuft whitish. Legs
whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow, oblong, costa slightly bisinuate,
apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; white with sparse patchy fuscous
irroration; a moderate ill-defined darker basal patch; an elongate dorsal patch
from middle to tornus; a large oval subapical patch from four-fifths costa to
tornus; stigmata two, blackish, first discal at one-third, second at two-thirds;
cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in October; one specimen.

451. ISCHNOPHANES POTHETA, DN. Sp.
mo@nros, desired.

6. 14-16 mm. Head whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint one-half; fuscous, second joint with subapical and apical,
terminal joint with broad median white rings. Antennae grey; ciliations in
male 5. Thorax whitish (damaged). Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous; posterior
pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed,
termen strongly oblique; white with some fuscous scales; markings blackish; basal
dots on costa and dorsum; a conspicuous spot on costa at three-fifths; a smaller
spot between this and base, and another subapical; a terminal series of dots;
cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Caloundra in August; New South Wales: Tweed Heads in
November; two specimens.

57. Gen. HLAPHROMORPHA, N.g.
éehadpouopdos, lightly built.

Tongue present. Palpi smooth, slender, recurved; second joint not reaching
base of antennae; terminal joint shorter than second, slender, acute. Antennae
with basal pecten present but not strongly developed; ciliations in male moderately
long. Forewings with 7 to apex. Hindwings lanceolate; 4 and 5 stalked (in one
example of H. glycymilicha these veins are coincident).

Type, E£. glycymilicha. Differs from Phloeocetis by the slender smooth palpi,
and from Macronemata by the origin of 5 of hindwings.

Two species: 452. glycymilicha, n. sp. (Mt. Tambourine, Macpherson Range) .—
453. dryoterma Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, p. 372 (Brisbane, Toowoomba, Warwick,
Gosford).

452. HLAPHROMORPHA GLYCYMILICHA, N. SD.
7yAukupetdkixos, Charming.

10-13 mm. Head fuscous; face white. Palpi with terminal joint three-fifths;
white, apex of terminal joint fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 13.
Thorax fuscous; apices of tegulae white. Abdomen grey. Legs white; anterior
tibiae fuscous; anterior and middle tarsi with fuscous rings. Forewings narrow,

9

BY A. J. TURNER. 303

oval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen extremely oblique; white;
markings brownish-fuscous; a large spot on base of dorsum, rounded, extending
two-thirds across disc; a moderate oblique fascia from two-fifths costa to mid-
dorsum; a similar direct fascia from two-thirds costa to tornus; a large apical
spot; cilia whitish with some basal fuscous scales. Hindwings pale grey, towards
base whitish; cilia 1, pale grey.

Queensland: Mt. Tambourine in November; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet) in
December; three specimens.

58. Gen. ASTHENICA, N.g.
aoGevixos, feeble.

Tongue present. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of antennae,
slender, smooth; terminal joint one-half, slender, acute. Antennae with basal
pecten; ciliations in male moderately long. Forewings lanceolate; 7 to apex.
Hindwings lanceolate; 3 and 4 widely separate, 5 strongly approximated to 6 at
origin, 6 and 7 parallel.

Characterized by the peculiar neuration of the hindwings.

454. ASTHENICA STENOPOLIA, Nl. Sp.

orTevoroALlos, Narrow, grey.

dg. 15 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi grey. Antennae grey; ciliations in
male 2. (Abdomen missing.) Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings
narrow, costa slightly arched; apex pointed, termen extremely oblique; grey;
discal dots and some scanty irroration fuscous; a large but ill-defined darker basal
patch; first discal at one-third, sometimes lost in basal patch, plical beneath it,
second discal at three-fourths, a dot in disc above and before middle; some fuscous
scales on termen; cilia grey. Hindwings broadly lanceolate; pale grey; cilia 1,
pale grey.

Queensland: Macpherson Range in March; one specimen.

59. Gen. MAcRONEMATA Meyr.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1883, p. 345.

Tongue present. Palpi with second joint not or just reaching, or rarely
slightly exceeding, base of antennae; terminal joint shorter, or rarely as long as
second, slender, acute. Antennae with basal pecten; ciliations in male ranging
from very short to long. Forewings narrow; 7 to apex. Hindwings lanceolate;
3 and 4 connate or rarely stalked.

Type, M. elaphia Meyr. Differs from Eulechria in the narrower forewings,
lanceolate hindwings, and usually shorter palpi. Their separation is not always
easy, but appears necessary.

Fifty-three species: 455. cycnoptera Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, p. 966 (Brisbane
to Kiama, Adavale) .—456. consimilis, n. sp. (Townsville, Yeppoon ).—457. argochroa,
n. sp. (Brisbane).—458. elaphia Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, p. 346 (Glen Innes,
Ebor, Mt. Kosciusko, Tasmania) = exigua Turn., ibid., 1916, p. 259—459. pauro-
morpha, n. sp. (Caloundra, Q.).—460. aphaurophanes, n. sp. (Mt. Wellington).—
461. optalea Meyr., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1902, p. 151 (Brisbane, Gisborne) .—462.
semidalis, n. sp. (Cairns).—463. leptogramma, 0. sp. (Brisbane) .—464. stoechodes,
n. sp. (Cardwell, N.Q.).—465. tpaurogramma Meyr.* (Mt. Wellington, Deloraine) .—
466. fragilis Meyr., Exot. Micro., i, p. 271 (Adaminaby, Gisborne).—467. nepheloma
Low., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1899, p. 105 (Broken Hill).—468. proscedes, n. sp. (Talwood,

*P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, p. 542.

304 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

Q.).—469. zalias Low., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1899, p. 107 (Broken Hill, Birchip, Beacons-
field, V.).—470. suppletella W1k., xxix, p. 645; Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1888, p. 1585
(Gisborne, Beaconsfield, Deloraine, Mt. Gambier).—471. anarcha Meyr.,
P.L.S.N.S.W., 1888, p. 1584 (Bulli).—472. stenodes, n. sp. (Albany, W.A.).—473.
rhadinodes, n. sp. (Toowoomba) .—474. araeoptera, n. sp. (Stanthorpe, Sydney) .—
475. pleurocapna, n. sp. (Mt. Tambourine).—476. plewrosticha, n. sp. (Broken
Hill) —477. amaloptera, n. sp. (Perth, W.A.).—478. pusilla, n. sp. (Macpherson
Range) .—479. filifera, n. sp. (Brisbane).—480. omospila, n. sp. (Mt. Wellington,
Lake St. Clair, Gordon R.).—481. basisticha, n. sp. (Brisbane) .—482. textilis Meyr.,
Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1906, p. 36 (Glen Innes to Sydney, Campbelltown, Tas.).—483.
jperdita Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, p. 547 (Sydney).—484. perangusta, un. sp.
(Broken Hill).—485. eriopa Low., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1900, p. 41 (Broken Hill).—486.
quaerenda Meyr., Hxot. Micro., ii, p. 309 (Nambour, Brisbane).—487. abrithes,
n. sp. (Macpherson Range).—488. delotypa, n. sp. (Cairns).—489. asthencspila,
n. sp. (Yeppoon).—490. didymospila, n. sp. (Gosford).—491. glaberrima, n. sp.
(Brunswick Heads).—492. zemiodes Meyr., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1902, p. 149 (Bendigo) .—
493. cyrtoloma, n. sp. (Talwood).—494. stramenticia, n. sp. (Bunya Mts.).—495.
pentasticta, n. sp. (Atherton).—496. mesoscia, n. sp. (Brisbane).—497. lopelictes
Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, p. 346 (Toowoomba, Macpherson Range).—498. tacita
Turn., P.R.S.Tas., 1926, p. 146 (Zeehan, Strahan).—499. epiconia, n. sp. (Jervis
Bay ).—500. dyspines, n. sp. (Macpherson Range).—501. litopis, n. sp. (Atherton,
Eungella, Brisbane, Bunya Mts.).—502. commoda, n. sp. (Cape York).—503.
phaeogramma, Nn. sp. (Cape York).—504. phaeostephes Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887,
p. 956 (Cape York, Duaringa, Emerald, Chinchilla, Charleville).—505. megalospora,
n. sp. (Bowen, Talwood, Adavale).—506. modica Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, p. 352
(Brisbane, Warwick, Killarney).—507. achlyopa, n. sp. (Mareeba, Atherton).

455. MACRONEMATA CYCNOPTERA Meyr.

Palpi with second joint just reaching base of antennae; terminal joint one-
half. Antennal ciliations in male one-half.

456. MACRONEMATA CONSIMILIS, N. Sp.
consimilis, extremely similar.

35, 9. 12-14 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint slightly
exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; white, external surface
of second joint except apex pale fuscous. Antennae whitish; ciliations in male
one-half. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs pale fuscous; posterior pair whitish.
Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; white,
costal edge near hbase often dark fuscous; cilia white. Hindwings and cilia
whitish-grey.

Distinguishable from the preceding by its longer palpi.

North Queensland: Townsville in September and October. Queensland:
Yeppoon in October; six specimens.

457. MACRONEMATA ARGOCHROA, 0. Sp.

apyoxpoos, Shining white.

gS. 13mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint slightly exceeding
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; whitish, external surface of second
joint pale fuscous. Antennae whitish; ciliations in male one-third. Abdomen
whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair pale fuscous. Forewings with costa gently
arched, apex rounded, termen very oblique; clear white; stigmata and a few
scattered scales pale fuscous; dots minute, first discal at one-third, plical beyond

2

BY A. J. TURNER. 305

it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot midway between and above discals, a dot
beneath and slightly beyond second discal; cilia white. Hindwings lanceolate;
grey-whitish; cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane in December; one specimen.

459. MACRONEMATA PAUROMORPHA, DN. SD.

mauponoppos, little.

9°. 12 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint just reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; whitish, apex of terminal joint fuscous.
Antennae whitish. Abdomen pale brownish-grey. Legs whitish; anterior tibiae
and tarsi fuscous with whitish rings. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched,
apex acute, termen slightly rounded, strongly oblique; white; stigmata minute,
fuscous, first discal at one-third, plical slightly beyond it, second discal at two-
thirds; slight subdorsal fuscous irroration; some minute submarginal fuscous dots
on apical part of costa and upper part of termen; cilia white. Hindwings
lanceolate; pale grey; cilia 1, pale grey.

Queensland: Caloundra in October; one specimen.

460. MACRONEMATA APHAUROPHANES, Nl. SD.

agpavpopayys, weak-looking.

dg. 13 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi with second joint not reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-whitish, terminal joint except
apex fuscous. Antennae grey-whitish with blackish annulations; cilia in male 3.
Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings very
narrow, costa scarcely arched, apex acute, termen extremely oblique; ochreous-
whitish; markings and some scattered scales fuscous; first discal at one-fourth,
palpi well beyond it, second discal at two-thirds; irroration more pronounced
towards apex and termen; cilia ochreous-whitish, some fuscous points on bases.
Hindwings whitish; cilia 14, whitish.

Tasmania: Mt. Wellington (2,500 feet) in January; one specimen.

462. MACRONEMATA SEMIDALIS, N. SD.

cemidadis, floury.

do. 13 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi with second joint not reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint two-thirds; grey-whitish. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male 1. Abdomen grey. Legs pale ochreous-grey; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings suboval, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; ochreous-grey-whitish; stigmata fuscous, minute or obsolete, first discal
at one-third, plical beyond it, second discal before two-thirds; some fuscous
irroration towards termen; some obscure fuscous terminal dots; cilia greyish-
ochreous with faintly darker postmedian and terminal lines. Hindwings lanceolate,
pale grey; in male a strong tuft of grey hairs on costa; cilia 1, pale grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda in June; one specimen.

463. MAcCRONEMATA LEPTOGRAMMA, Nl. SD.
AewToypaumos, lightly marked.

6. 15 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with terminal joint three-fourths;
white, outer surface of second joint except apex fuscous. Antennae white; ciliations
in male one-third. Abdomen whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Fore-
wings suboval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded;
white, lightly sprinkled, especially in terminal area, with pale ochreous; a
suffused pale ochreous tornal spot; and another less developed on costa before

306 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

apex; cilia whitish sprinkled with fuscous, on tornus grey. Hindwings ovate-
lanceolate; pale grey; cilia pale grey.
Queensland: Brisbane in February; one specimen.

464. MaAcRONEMATA STOECHODES, 0. Sp.

oro.xwdns, arranged in rows.

3g, 2. 14-16 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint in male three-fifths, in female four-fifths; whitish,
lower two-thirds of external surface of second joint pale fuscous, apex of terminal
joint fuscous. Antennae whitish; ciliations in male 14. Abdomen grey. Legs
whitish; anterior pair pale fuscous. Forewings elongate-oval, costa moderately
arched, apex round-pointed, termen very oblique; white with fuscous dots; first
discal at one-third, plical beneath it, second discal before two-thirds; a series of
submarginal dots from three-fourths costa around termen to tornus; cilia white.
Hindwings ovate-lanceolate; grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cardwell in August; two specimens.

468. MACRONEMATA PROSCEDES, 0. Sp.
tmpocknons, allied.

6, @. 16-18 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-whitish. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-whitish, outer
surface of terminal joint fuscous towards apex. Antennae grey-whitish; ciliations
in male 1%. Abdomen ochreous-grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen extremely
oblique; ochreous-whitish, sometimes with a few fuscous scales; stigmata obsolete
except a minute second discal at two-thirds; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings
and cilia grey.

Queensland: Talwood in April; five specimens received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard, who has the type.

472. MACRONEMATA STENODES, N. Sp.
oTevwons, NAYrow.

6d. 12 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint not reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint 1; white, basal half of second joint fuscous.
Antennae dark fuscous; ciliations in male two-thirds. Abdomen pale grey. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa strongly arched, apex
pointed, termen oblique; white; markings dark fuscous; an oblique fascia from
beneath one-third costa to above base of dorsum; another from two-thirds costa
to mid-dorsum; a third from two-thirds costa to tornus; an apical blotch; cilia
fuscous. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Western Australia: Albany in February; one specimen received from Mr.
W. B. Barnard.

473. MACRONEMATA RHADINODES, 0D. SD.

badwwdys, Slender.

3S, 2. 12-14 mm. Head and thorax brownish. Palpi with second joint not
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint two-thirds; whitish sprinkled with
fuscous, base of second joint fuscous. Antennae fuscous; in male minutely
ciliated (one-fourth). Abdomen grey; tuft whitish. Legs fuscous with whitish
rings. Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen very
oblique; brownish; markings and some irroration fuscous; a narrow interrupted
sub-basal fascia; two or three dots placed transversely at one-third; a short mark
on costa at two-thirds; a longitudinal median streak from two-thirds joining a

BY A. J. TURNER. 307

subapical spot and connected with a dorsal mark before tornus; cilia pale grey.
Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba in October; two specimens received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard, who has the type.

474. MACRONEMATA ARAEOPTERA, TL. SD.
dpatomTepos, Narrow-winged.
®. 18 mm. Head and thorax brownish-fuscous. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint 1; ochreous-whitish sprinkled with
fuscous, terminal joint except extreme apex fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen
pale brown; apices of segments and tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous with
ochreous-whitish rings; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings very narrow,
costa almost straight, apex pointed, termen very oblique; ochreous-whitish with
general fuscous irroration more pronounced posteriorly; stigmata dark fuscous,
first discal at one-third, plical slightly beyond it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot
between and in a line with discals, separated from them by pale spots; cilia
ochreous-whitish sprinkled with fuscous. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Stanthorpe in October. New South Wales: Heathcote, near
Sydney, in August. Two specimens.

475. MACRONEMATA PLEUROCAPNA, 0. SD.

m\eupoxarvos, With dark costa.

®. 18 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-whitish. Palpi with second joint just
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint two-thirds; ochreous-whitish. Antennae
ochreous-whitish annulated with fuscous. (Abdomen missing.) Legs grey with
whitish rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa moderately arched,
apex pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish; markings and a
slight irroration fuscous; a dot on one-fourth costa; a rather large triangular
spot on costa beyond middle; a suffused inwardly oblique streak from costa near
apex; stigmata dark fuscous, first discal at two-fifths, plical before it, suffusedly
connected with dorsum, second discal at two-thirds, a dot in line with discals
shortly before second; cilia whitish with a median fuscous line. Hindwings and
cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Mt. Tambourine in October; one specimen.

476. MACRONEMATA PLEUROSTICHA, N. SD.
mAevpoottxos, With costal streak.

6. 14-15 mm. Head white. Palpi with terminal joint 1; fuscous. Antennae
grey; ciliations in male 14. Abdomen grey. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish.
Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; whitish
with fine sparse fuscous irroration and markings; a suffused costal streak from
base to apex; stigmata minute, first discal at one-third, plical beneath it, second
discal at two-thirds, a dot above first discal, another above and before second
discal; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

New South Wales: Broken Hill; two specimens.

477. MACRONEMATA AMALOPTERA, D1. SD.
duadrortepos, weak-winged.
3d. 15 mm. Head whitish-brown. (Palpi missing.) Antennae fuscous;
ciliations in male 1. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous. Forewings
narrow, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen oblique; pale brownish-grey;
markings and some irroration fuscous; stigmata small, first discal at about one-
third, plical before it, second discal before two-thirds, larger; a fuscous suffusion

308 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

connects second discal with tornus, and another occupies apical area; cilia grey
with fuscous points. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Western Australia: Mundaring, near Perth, in June; one specimen received
from Mr. J. Clark.

478. MACRONEMATA PUSILLA, Nn. SP.
pusillus, tiny.

9. 12-14 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi with second joint not reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; whitish-ochreous, basal half and a
subterminal ring on second joint and basal and terminal rings on terminal joint
fuscous. Thorax whitish-ochreous sprinkled with fuscous. Abdomen fuscous.
Legs fuscous with whitish-ochreous rings. Forewings very narrow, costa gently
arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; whitish-ochreous sprinkled
with fuscous; markings fuscous, rather obscure; first discal at one-third, plical
well before it, second discal before two-thirds, suffusedly connected with dorsum;
elongate costal spots at one-fourth, middle, and three-fourths; from the last
proceeds a line with a strong acute inward tooth in middle, and an equally
developed outward tooth beneath this, thence to tornus; cilia whitish-ochreous
sprinkled with fuscous, on tornus grey. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Macpherson Range (3,500 feet) in January and March; two
specimens.

479. MACRONEMATA FILIFERA, N. Sp.
filiferus, thread-marked.

6, 2. 12-15 mm. Head and thorax grey sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi
with second joint not reaching base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths;
fuscous, second joint with postmedian and apical and terminal joint with ante-
median white rings. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen grey. Legs
fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings very
narrow, costa straight, apex pointed, termen extremely oblique; grey with dark
fuscous irroration and markings; sometimes a fine subcostal streak from base
to middle; stigmata elongate, forming short streaks, first discal at one-third,
plical beyond it, second discal at two-thirds; a short streak between discals, and
another above and parallel; an interrupted streak from beneath two-thirds costa
to tornus evenly curved close to costa and termen; cilia whitish with median
and terminal fuscous points. Hindwings pale grey; cilia 1, pale grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in September, October, November, December and April;
seven specimens.

480. MACRONEMATA OMOSPILA, Nl. SDP.

@poomthos, Shoulder-spotted.

dg. 12-13 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen grey. Palpi with second joint
just reaching base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; fuscous, inner surface
and terminal joint whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 4. Legs
fuscous; posterior tibiae fuscous-whitish. Forewings narrow, costa gently arched,
apex pointed, termen extremely oblique; pale grey, sometimes ochreous-tinged;
markings and some scattered scales fuscous; first discal and plical obsolete,
second discal at two-thirds; irroration more pronounced towards termen; cilia pale
grey. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Tasmania: Mt. Wellington (2,500 feet) in January and February; Lake St.
Clair and Gordon R. in January; five specimens.

BY A. J. TURNER. 309

481. MAcRONEMATA BASISTICHA, Nl. Sp.
Bacworcxos, With basal streak.

®. 14mm. Head whitish. Palpi with second joint exceeding base of antennae,
terminal joint 1; whitish sprinkled with fuscous, second joint with base and a
subapical ring fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax fuscous; tegulae white.
Abdomen dark grey. Legs whitish sprinkled with fuscous. Forewings narrow,
costa almost straight, apex pointed, termen extremely oblique; fuscous sprinkled
with white; a white streak from base of costa along fold to one-fourth; a suffused
interrupted white fascia from midcosta to tornus; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with
3 and 4 stalked, grey; cilia grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in September; one specimen.

484. MACRONEMATA PERANGUSTA, D. SD.
perangustus, very narrow.

6. 17-18 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint one-half; fuscous, terminal joint white. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male one-fourth. Thorax grey. Abdomen pale grey. Legs grey;
posterior tibiae whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa slightly arched, apex
pointed, termen very oblique; white sprinkled with grey, more densely at base
and beneath costa to four-fifths; stigmata fuscous, sometimes not fully developed,
first discal at one-fourth, plical beyond and sometimes connected with it, second
discal at two-thirds, a dot above and between discals, another between and below
them, and a dot beneath second discal; cilia white with grey points. Hindwings
and cilia grey-whitish.

Readily distinguished from the following by the much shorter antennal
ciliations of the male.

New South Wales: Broken Hill in September; two specimens.

485. MACRONEMATA ERIOPA Low.

do. 11-15 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint not reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; fuscous, terminal joint white. Antennae
grey; ciliations in male 14. Abdomen whitish, towards base grey. Legs fuscous;
posterior tibiae whitish. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed,
termen very oblique; white sprinkled with grey, more densely beneath costa from
base to apex; stigmata fuscous, minute or obsolete, first discal at one-third or
obsolete, plical beyond it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot beneath it; a suffused
grey line on termen; cilia white with a few grey points. Hindwings grey-whitish,
sometimes grey at apex: cilia grey-whitish.

Probably Lower confused this with the preceding species, but his description,
particularly the white thorax, applies better to this one.

487. MACRONEMATA ABRITHES, N. Sp.
aBp.ns, light.

9. 18 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous. Antennae fuscous obscurely
annulated with grey-whitish. Thorax grey-whitish sprinkled with whitish.
Abdomen pale grey with brownish bars on dorsum of basal segments. Legs
fuscous with ochreous-whitish rings; posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish.
Forewings narrow, suboval, costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen
extremely oblique; grey-whitish with markings and some irroration dark fuscous;

310 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VY,

first discal at one-third, plical beyond it, second discal at two-thirds; a short
suffused inwardly oblique streak from costa beyond middle, apical area densely
irrorated; cilia pale grey with some dark fuscous points. Hindwings grey; cilia
pale grey.

Queensland: Macpherson Range (3,000 feet) in October; one specimen received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard.

488. MAcRONEMATA DELOTYPA, N. Sp.

SnXoruTos, Clearly marked.

go. 12 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint not reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; grey, terminal and apex of second
joint white. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1. (Abdomen missing.) Legs
grey; tarsi whitish; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa strongly
arched, apex pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white; a narrow basal fascia,
a broad costal streak from one-fourth to middle, and a short inwardly oblique
streak from costa before apex fuscous; stigmata blackish, first discal at one-fourth
touching costal streak, plical beyond it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot above
and between discals, another beneath second; some streak-like dots on termen;
cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Kuranda in October; one specimen.

489. MACRONEMATA ASTHENOSPILA, Nl. SD.

acO@nvogmtdos, Weakly spotted.

do. 14 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi with second joint just
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, terminal and apex
of second joint white. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male one-third. Abdomen
pale grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings very narrowly oval,
costa strongly arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; whitish-grey; stigmata
grey, small and inconspicuous, first discal at one-third, plical beyond it, second
discal at two-thirds, a dot above and between discals; cilia grey-whitish. Hind-
wings grey; cilia pale grey. ;

Queensland: Yeppoon in October; one specimen.

490. MAcRONEMATA DIDYMOSPILA, 0. SD.

d:duuoom-Aos, twin-spotted.

gd. 16 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi with second joint not
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; grey, terminal and apex of
second joint white. Antennae pale grey annulated with dark fuscous; ciliations
in male two-thirds. Abdomen grey; tuft grey-whitish. Legs whitish; anterior
tibiae fuscous; tarsi fuscous with whitish rings. Forewings elongate-oval, costa
moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; whitish-grey; markings
and a few scattered scales dark fuscous; first discal at one-fourth, plical beyond
it, both conspicuous, second discal before two-thirds, minute; a much curved
line of dots from four-fifths costa to tornus; a terminal series of dots; cilia pale
grey. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

New South Wales: Gosford in November; one specimen.

491. MacrRoONEMATA GLABERRIMA, Nl. SD.
glaberrimus, very smooth.
3, 2. 14-16 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi with second joint just
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous. Antennae fuscous;
ciliations in male two-thirds. Abdomen fuscous; tuft grey. Legs fuscous;

BY A. J. TURNER. Sila

posterior pair grey. Forewings suboval, costa moderately arched, apex round-
pointed, termen obliquely rounded; glossy fuscous; stigmata dark fuscous, minute,
first discal at one-third, plical beneath it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot above
and between discals; cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in January; two specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard.

493. MACRONEMATA CYRTOLOMA, 0. Sp.

KupToA\wmos, With curved edge.

dg. 15 mm. Head and thorax whitish finely sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi
with second joint just reaching base of antennae; terminal joint three-fifths;
fuscous, base, apex and inner surface of terminal joint whitish. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male one-fourth. Abdomen pale grey; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa strongly arched, apex
rounded, termen extremely oblique; whitish finely sprinkled with fuscous; stigmata
fuscous, minute, first discal at one-fourth, plical beyond it, second discal before
two-thirds, a dot between and above discals; cilia whitish with many fuscous
points. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Talwood in November; one specimen received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard.

494. MAcCRONEMATA STRAMENTICIA, N. Sp.
stramenticius, straw-coloured.

dg. 17 mm. Head pale brownish-ochreous. Palpi with second joint not
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths; pale brownish-ochreous,
outer surface of second joint sprinkled with fuscous and with a fuscous subapical
ring, terminal joint except extreme apex fuscous. Antennae whitish-ochreous
annulated with fuscous; ciliations in male one-half. Thorax pale brownish-
ochreous anteriorly suffused with fuscous. Abdomen pale brown; apices of
segments and tuft brown-whitish. Forewings rather narrow, elongate-oval, costa
gently arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; pale brownish-
ochreous with general sparse fuscous irroration; stigmata fuscous, first discal at
one-third, plical elongate and beneath it, second discal at three-fifths; cilia whitish-
ochreous with some fuscous points. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: Bunya Mts. in December; one specimen.

495. MACRONEMATA PENTASTICTA, N. Sp.
jevTaoTikTos, five-spotted.

®. 1416 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, apex of second
and base of terminal joint whitish. Antennae fuscous annulated with ochreous-
whitish. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish.
Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely
rounded; pale brownish densely sprinkled with fuscous; markings fuscous; first
discal at one-third, plical slightly before it, second discal before two-thirds, a dot
close to and slightly above and beyond first discal, another close beneath second;
a marginal series of dots from midcosta around apex and termen; cilia with pale
basal median and apical lines, a fuscous sub-basal, and a grey subapical line.
Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Millaa Millaa, Atherton Tableland, in September; three
specimens.

312 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

496. MACRONEMATA MESOSCIA, Nn. SDP.
bhecooxtos, With median shade.

g. 15 mm. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of antennae, terminal
joint three-fourths; grey, inner surface whitish. Antennae grey; ciliations in
male 1. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow,
costa rather strongly arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; grey with fuscous
markings; a moderate ill-defined basal fascia; a median fascia, anterior edge
sharply defined from one-third costa outwardly curved to one-third dorsum,
posterior edge much suffused, second discal at two-thirds; cilia grey. Hindwings
grey-whitish; apex grey; cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane in February; one specimen.

499. MACRONEMATA EPICONIA, Nn. Sp.
émtkovios, Sprinkled with ashes.

3d, 9. 12 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Palpi with second joint
just reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous. Antennae
fuscous; ciliations in male 14. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey-whitish. Fore-
wings with costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen oblique; grey, apices
of scales whitish, causing a very fine mottling; costal edge whitish; cilia pale grey.
Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked: fuscous; cilia grey.

New South Wales: Jervis Bay in October: four specimens beaten from
Leptospermum.

500. MACRONEMATA DYSPINES, N. Sp.

dvorivys, Squalid.

cd. 15 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint slightly exceeding
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-whitish sprinkled with
fuscous, basal half of second joint fuscous. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in
male one-fourth. Thorax grey with two fuscous dots. (Abdomen missing.) Legs
fuscous with whitish-ochreous rings; posterior pair mostly whitish-ochreous. Fore-
wings elongate, suboval, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely
rounded; whitish-grey with slight dark fuscous irroration; stigmata blackish,
first discal at one-third, plical slightly before it, second discal well before two-
thirds; some blackish irroration towards base and apex; cilia pale grey with
some fuscous points. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Macpherson Range (3,000 feet) in November; one specimen
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard.

501. MACRONEMATA LITOPIS, N. Sp.

Aitwrts, Smooth.

3d, . 12-14 mm. Head and thorax pale brown. Palpi with second joint
just reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; brown-whitish, second
joint partly fuscous towards base. Antennae pale brown; ciliations in male 6.
Abdomen brown. Legs fuscous; posterior pair brown-whitish. Forewings oval,
costa strongly arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; pale brown; markings
fuscous; usually a spot on base of costa; first discal at one-third, plical beneath
or slightly beyond, secoiud discal before two-thirds; some fuscous irroration in
apical area, sometimes forming an ill-defined subterminal line; cilia brown-
whitish. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Atherton in August; Hungella in October. Queensland:
Brisbane in September; Bunya Mts. in January. Eleven specimens.

ww

BY A. J. TURNER. 31

502. MAcRONEMATA COMMODA, 0D. SDP.

commodus, pleasing.

dS. 12 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish. Antennae grey, towards base
whitish; ciliations in male two-thirds. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs fuscous;
posterior pair whitish. Forewings with costa rather strongly arched, apex round-
pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white markings pale ochreous-fuscous, well
defined; a broad sub-basal fascia and another similar at one-third, neither reaching
costa, both united on dorsum; a small round subcostal spot in middle; a posterior
fascia from costa shortly before apex obliquely inwards, connected by a short
process with subcostal spot and with a suffused costal spot just beyond it, then
broadening so as to extend on dorsum from second fascia to tornus; cilia grey.
Hindwings and cilia grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in April; one specimen received from Mr.
W. B. Barnard.

503. MaAcRONEMATA PHAEKOGRAMMA, Nn. SD.
patoypaumos, With dusky markings.

@. 138-14 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint just reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, second joint except apex fuscous.
Antennae whitish-grey with fuscous annulations. Thorax fuscous; tegulae and
posterior margin white. Abdomen grey; apices of segments and tuft white. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings suboval, costa moderately arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; white sparsely sprinkled with fuscous,
more so in terminal area; markings fuscous; first discal at one-third, plical
slightly beyond it, second discal at two-thirds, a fourth dot between and above
discals, a fifth below second discal; a suffused spot on two-fifths costa; another
at four-fifths connected by a sinuate line with a spot on tornus; a terminal series
of dots; cilia white sprinkled with fuscous. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in April; three specimens received from Mr.
W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

505. MACRONEMATA MEGALOSPORA, N. SD.

fueyaNootropos, large-spotted.

do. 12-15 mm.; °. 15-16 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint just
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint two-thirds; whitish, second joint except
apex fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male one-fourth. Thorax whitish;
bases of tegulae fuscous. Abdomen grey; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish;
anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded,
termen very oblique; white sparsely sprinkled with fuscous; markings fuscous; a
large transversely oval spot in dise at one-third; a similar spot on tornus, inwardly
oblique; a small suffused inwardly oblique streak from costa before apex ending
in second spot; cilia whitish with fuscous points. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Bowen in June. Queensland: Talwood in November and
December; Adavale in May. Six specimens; type in Coll. Barnard.

507. MAcRONEMATA ACHLYOPA, 0. SDP.
axuwros, gloomy.
3d, @. 16-18 mm. Head and thorax grey sprinkled with whitish. Palpi with
second joint just reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous,
terminal joint and apex of second whitish. Antennae grey; ciliations in male
one-third. Abdomen grey; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs grey; posterior pair

314 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. YV,

ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa slightly arched, apex round-
pointed, termen obliquely rounded; whitish densely sprinkled with fuscous
appearing grey; markings fuscous, obscure; first discal at one-fourth, plical well
beyond, second discal before two-thirds, suffusedly connected with tornus, a median
dot between and above discals; cilia whitish with fuscous points. Hindwings and
cilia grey.

North Queensland: Mareeba and Herberton in July; two specimens.

60. Gen. BRACHYZANCLA, Ng.
Bpaxugaykdos, with short sickles.

Tongue absent or weakly developed. Palpi short, not reaching vertex; second
joint short, slender; terminal joint one-fourth to two-fifths, acute. Antennae with
basal pecten; ciliations in male short or rather long. Forewings with 7 to apex.
Hindwings elongate-ovate; neuration normal.

Type, B. lissodes. Resembles Limothnes in the obsolescence of the tongue, but
differs from it in the palpi.

Five species: 508. pallidula, n. sp. (Inglewood, Q.).—509. cretosa, n. sp. (Cape
York).—510. lissodes, n. sp. (Atherton).—511. strongyla, n. sp. (Darwin) .—512.
celaenopa, n. sp. (Scone).

508. BRACHYZANCLA PALLIDULA, N. SD.

pallidulus, somewhat pale.

6d. 15 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Tongue present but very weakly
developed. Palpi with second joint reaching middle of face, terminal joint two-
fifths; fuscous, terminal joint whitish. Antennae whitish-grey; ciliations in male
one-half. Abdomen pale grey. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings
narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded;
pale grey suffused with white except beneath costa and with a few fuscous scales
towards termen and dorsum; stigmata fuscous, minute, first discal at two-fifths,
plical beneath it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot above and between discals
and another beneath second; cilia whitish with grey points. Hindwings and
cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Inglewood in October; one specimen.

509. BRACHYZANCLA CRETOSA, Nn. Sp.

cretosus, chalky.

dg. 14-16 mm.; 2. 19 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint
not reaching middle of face, terminal joint one-third; grey, inner surface of
terminal joint white. Antennae whitish; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen grey;
terminal segments and tuft whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Fore-
wings narrow, costa moderately arched, apex pointed, more obtuse in female,
termen very obliquely rounded, white sprinkled with grey, but less in female;
stigmata fuscous, minute, first discal at one-third, absent in female, plical beyond
it or absent, second discal at two-thirds; cilia white, in male with a faint grey
median line. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in October; four specimens received from Mr.
W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

510. BRACHYZANCLA LISSODES, Nl. SD.
Atcowbdns, Smooth.
dg. 20 mm. Head and thorax grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching
middle of face, terminal joint one-fifth; pale grey. Antennae white; ciliations

in male 2. Abdomen whitish. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings

ol

BY A. J. TURNER. 31

elongate-oval, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen oblique; white with
very pale grey irroration, which in terminal half is mostly between veins; cilia
white. Hindwings pale grey; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Herberton in September; one specimen.

511. BRACHYZANCLA STRONGYLA, D. Sp.
oTpoyyvAos, rounded.

%. 34mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi with second joint reaching middle
of face, terminal joint one-sixth; fuscous. Antennae grey. Abdomen grey. Fore-
wings elongate, strongly dilated, costa slightly arched to two-thirds, thence
strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey finely sprinkled
with fuscous throughout; markings fuscous, indistinct; first discal at one-third,
plical beneath it, second discal before two-thirds, two dots above and between
discals, another beneath second; a suffused line from second discal outwards,
then strongly curved, ending on fold near tornus; cilia grey. Hindwings and
cilia pale grey.

North Australia: Darwin; one specimen received from Mr. G. F. Hill.

512. BrRACHYZANCLA CELAENOPA, 0. SD.
KeNatvwr7os, dark.

6. 19-22 mm.; 9. 26-30 mm. Head and thorax fuscous, in male with fine
whitish irroration. Palpi just reaching vertex, terminal joint one-fourth; fuscous
sprinkled with whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 14. Abdomen in
male reddish-brown; tuft whitish-grey; in female brownish-fuscous. Legs fuscous
sprinkled with whitish; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings narrow, elongate-
oval, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded;
fuscous with more or less whitish irroration; markings blackish, sometimes partly
obsolete, always so in female; first discal at one-third, plical slightly beyond it,
more so in female, second discal at two-thirds; in male sometimes a dot above
and between discals and another beneath second discal, or confluent with it to
form a crescentic mark; in male sometimes a line from five-sixths costa, angled
outwards and thence subterminal to tornus; cilia grey. Hindwings and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Scone in March; eight specimens, of which all but one
were received from Mr. H. Nicholas.

61. Gen. IDIOZANCLA, n.g.
wvofayKdos, With peculiar sickles.

Tongue developed. Palpi not reaching or slightly exceeding vertex; second
joint moderate or long, thickened with appressed scales; terminal joint very short,
smooth, acute. Antennae with basal pecten; ciliations in male short or rather
long. Forewings with 7 to apex. Hindwings elongate-ovate; neuration normal.

Type, J. pycnosticha. Differs from the preceding genus in the second joint of
palpi being much stouter and moderately long or elongate, but the terminal joint
very short (one-sixth to one-third). The tongue is better developed.

Three species: 513. pycnosticha, n. sp. (Duaringa).—514. spumifera, n. sp.
(Cape York).—515. colacma, n. sp. (Cape York).

513. IpDIOZANCLA PYCNOSTICHA, DN. SD.
mukvoottxos, thick-lined.

6. 18 mm. Head white; posterior half of crown blackish. Palpi with second
joint reaching middle of face, somewhat thickened anteriorly towards apex,
terminal joint one-fourth; blackish, terminal and apex of second joint whitish.
Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 24. Thorax white; base and apex of tegulae

316 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. V,

and two posterior spots blackish. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey; apices of segments
and tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Fore-
wings rather narrow, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; white with blackish markings; a narrow transverse basal fascia; a
moderate straight fascia from one-third costa to two-fifths dorsum; a similar
fascia from two-thirds costa to tornus, but slightly sinuate and giving off a strong
process from posterior edge, whose rounded extremity nearly reaches apex; a
slender terminal line; cilia whitish with a very fine fuscous median line. MHind-
wings with 5 from middle of cell; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Duaringa in February; one specimen received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard.

514. IpIoOzZANCLA SPUMIFERA, Nn. Sp.
spumiferus, frothy.

6. 20 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint long, terminal
joint one-sixth; whitish. Antennae white; ciliations in male one-fourth. Abdomen
and legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings narrow, suboval, dilated anteriorly, costa
moderately arched, base of dorsum strongly curved, apex pointed, termen
extremely oblique; white; markings pale ochreous, suffused; an interrupted fascia
from two-fifths costa to two-fifths dorsum; a tornal spot; a small apical blotch;
cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in October; one specimen received from Mr.
W. B. Barnard.

515. IpDIOZANCLA COLACMA, N. sp.

ko\akuos, Shortened at the: apex.

°. 19 mm. Head ochreous-grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching
base of antennae, thickened and rough anteriorly, terminal joint one-third, rather
stout; grey. Antennae pale grey. Thorax grey. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs
grey; posterior tibiae mostly whitish. Forewings oval, costa moderately arched,
apex pointed, termen very oblique; grey; stigmata dark fuscous with pale halos,
first discal at one-third, plical beyond it, second discal at two-thirds; a fuscous
line from costa shortly before apex to tornus, indented opposite apex; cilia grey.
Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in May; one specimen received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard.

62. Gen. TRACHYNTIS Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1888, p. 1586.

Tongue present. Palpi long, ascending, recurved; second joint reaching or
exceeding base of antennae, more or less thickened with appressed scales, some-
times rough beneath; terminal joint shorter than second, stout, sometimes slightly
rough anteriorly, acute. Antennae with basal pecten; ciliations in male moderate.
Forewings with 7 to apex. Hindwings elongate-ovate; neuration normal. Type,
T. delophanes Meyr.

Unfortunately I have not seen the type or any of the Western Australian
species described by Meyrick, and am consequently not quite certain as to the
definition of this genus.

Nine species: 516. jrenopis Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1888, p. 1679 (W.A.: Albany) .—
517. +delophanes Meyr., ibid., 1888, p. 1587 (W.A.: Geraldton).—518. +metrospila
Meyr., ibid., 1888, p. 1587 (W.A.: Albany).—519. +coenodes Meyr., ibid., 1888, p. 1588
(W.A.: Carnarvon).—520. tepiphaula Meyr., ibid., 1888, p. 1588 (W.A.: York).—

BY A. J. TURNER. 317

521. tepipona Meyr., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1902, p. 154 (Sydney).—522. holarga, n. sp.
(Stradbroke I.).—5238. diaphanes Turn., ibid.. 1898, p. 208 (Nambour, Mt.
Tambourine, Macpherson Range, Killarney).—524. inferna Low., P.L.S.N.S.W.,
1899, p. 106 (Cunnamulla, Broken Hill).

522. TRACHYNTIS HOLARGA, N. SP.

odAapyos, Wholly white.

6d. 15 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint just reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths; white. Antennae white; ciliations
in male 24. Abdomen and legs white. Forewings moderately broad, not dilated,
costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white;
cilia white. Hindwings with 5 from below middle; white; cilia white.

The palpi are not typical, being smooth-scaled, the second joint rather slender,
but the terminal joint as stout as second.

Queensland: Stradbroke I. in October; one specimen.

63. Gen. HccrITA, n.g.
exkptros, picked out.

Tongue present. Palpi long, ascending, recurved; second joint exceeding
base of antennae, moderately thickened with appressed scales; terminal joint
shorter than second, slender, acute. Antennae with basal pecten. Forewings
with 7 to apex. Hindwings elongate-ovate; 3 and 4 connate, 5 nearly approximated
to 6 at origin.

525. HWccRITA PHAEOXYSTA, N. Sp.

gavotvotos, darkly polished.

9°. 17 mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi with second joint much
exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous. Antennae
fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior tibiae grey-whitish. Forewings rather narrow,
costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; glossy
fuscous; stigmata blackish, discals approximated, first at one-third, second beyond
middle, plical absent; cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia dark grey.

Tasmania: Strahan in February; one specimen.

64. Gen. ANOMOZANCLA, N.g.
avouofayKkAos, With unusual sickles.

Tongue present. Palpi very long, ascending, recurved; second joint three
times length of face, expanded with long rough hairs towards apex, especially
posteriorly; terminal joint very slender, acute. Antennae with basal pecten;
ciliations in male short. Forewings with 7 to apex. Hindwings elongate-ovate;
neuration normal.

Characterized by the peculiar palpi.

526. scopariella Wlk., Cat. Brit. Mus., xxix, p. 765; Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882,
p. 546 (Brisbane, Stanthorpe, Sydney, Gisborne).

THE COLOUR-CHANGES OF BATOID FISHES.

By MERVYN GRIFFITHS.
(From the Department of Zoology, University of Sydney.)

(Plate xvi.)
[Read 25th November, 1936.]

Introduction.

Apart from the work of Schaefer (1921), Lundstrom and Bard (1932), Parker
(1933, 1936), and that of Parker and Porter (1934), no research has been done on
the colour-changes of Hlasmobranch fishes. Schaefer recorded absence of colour-
change for the Batoids, Raja clavata and R. batis, whilst the other authors studied
the colour-change process in the Selachian, Mustelus canis. It has been established
that if this fish be placed in a dark-walled tank, the pigment of the dermal
melanophores is dispersed, and the animal becomes dark in colour so as to
resemble the background. The process of darkening takes about one hour. If
the eyes of M. canis be removed, the fish becomes much darker than under any
other circumstances, and does so much more quickly (Parker and Porter, 1934).
In addition, Lundstrom and Bard have shown that the dispersion of pigment in
the dermal melanophores is due to the action of a hormone secreted by the pars
intermedia of the pituitary gland. When placed in a white-walled tank, Mustelus
becomes light in colour, the condition of maximum lightness being attained in
about two days. The light phase is caused by contraction of the melanophores, and
Parker and Porter have shown that this contraction can be caused by nervous
action.

Schaefer (1921) records that, when either Raja batis or Raja clavata is placed
in dark-walled or light-walled tanks for a long period (“langerem Aufenthalt’’)
no colour-change occurs. Unfortunately he did not mention the exact duration
of the experiment. However, Parker (1933) has carried out the above procedure
with Raja erinacea and has gained definite colour-changes after periods of nine
to twelve hours.

The Batoids, Urolophus testaceus and Trygonorrhina fasciata, were the types
used by the writer. The work on 7. fasciata was carried out at the Sydney
University Marine Biological Station at South Head, Port Jackson. The writer
wishes to express his gratitude to Miss Burns, of the Zoology Department, for the
photographic work which illustrates the results of these experiments.

Observations on Urolophus testaceus.

The rays were caught by spearing through the pectoral fin. The mutilation
involved would not affect the specific problem in hand, since even extensive
injury to the brain in Mustelus canis did not affect the colour-change process
(Lundstrom and Bard, 1932). All the specimens of Urolophus testaceus seen by the
writer have been of a uniform sandy colour on the dorsal surface when taken from
the water. In this condition the dermal melanophores are in a moderately
contracted state (Plate xvi, fig. 1). Two rays of the colour described were placed
in a black-walled tank, illuminated from above, whilst a third ray was blinded by

BY M. GRIFFITHS. 319

removal of the eyes, and placed in another tank. After four hours, no change in
colour could be seen in any of the rays, not even in the blinded ray which would
be receiving the maximum possible stimulus to turn black. Unfortunately it was
impossible to keep the rays alive beyond this period. However, with a second
batch of rays it was found that on injection of 0:4 c.c. of Burroughs Wellcome’s
infundin (pituitary posterior lobe extract, containing a melanophore-expanding
hormone), a not particularly marked darkening of the skin on the dorsal surface
was obtained one and a half to two hours after injection. That this darkening
was due to expansion of the dermal melanophores is seen in Plate xvi, fig. 2.
Comparison with Plate xvi, fig. 1 shows that the expansion is not great.

As the melanophores were expansible it seemed desirable to test the possibility
of the pituitary gland elaborating an expanding hormone.

To check up on this point, the following procedure was carried out:

(1) Extracts were made from the pituitaries of rays by crushing up two
pituitaries in 1:0 c.c. of Ringer’s solution.

(2) Three dry, well illuminated jars were taken and into each was placed a
pair of frogs (Hyla aurea). After four hours in these jars all six frogs were
bright green and golden in colour.

(3) In two jars one frog of each pair was injected with 0:5 c.c. of the ray
pituitary extract, whilst one frog from the third jar was injected with 0:4 c.c. of
infundin. At the end of an hour and a half each of the injected frogs was black
in colour, whilst the uninjected controls were still green and golden.

The darkening of the frogs’ skin was found to be due to expansion of the
dermal melanophores. In Plate xvi, figure 3, is shown the unexpanded melanophores
of a control, whilst figure 4 shows the expanded melanophores of one of the frogs
injected with ray pituitary extract two hours after injection.

This shows conclusively that a melanophore-expanding hormone is elaborated
by the pituitary of Urolophus testaceus.

Observations on Trygonorrhina fasciata.

Two specimens, both of a browny-buff colour with grey markings, were placed
one in a white-walled tank and the other in a black-walled tank. Both tanks were
illuminated from above. At the beginning of the experiment a small piece of
skin was removed from the dorsal surface of each ray, and fixed. On examination
it was found that the dermal melanophores in this fixed material from each
animal were expanded. In Plate xvi, figure 5, is seen the condition of the
melanophores of the ray which was immediately afterwards placed in the white
tank. After seventeen hours the ray in the white tank was very slightly paler
than that in the black tank. Again homologous pieces of skin were taken from
each ray, fixed, and examined. The state of expansion of the melanophores of the
ray from the dark tank was found to be the same as at the beginning of the
experiment, but the melanophores of the ray from the white tank were found to
have contracted a little (Plate xvi, fig. 6). Thus 7. fasciata can respond to change
in tint of the background, only by a very slight change in colour. The darker ray
was then killed, its pituitary was removed and an extract made from it by
crushing up in 1:5 c.c. of Ringer’s solution. One cubic centimetre of this extract
was then injected into the light ray which had been replaced in the white tank.
After two hours the ray had become slightly darker in tint. A preparation of a
homologous piece of skin fixed at this stage showed that the melanophores were
fully expanded (Plate xvi, fig. 7). Clearly the dark phase of the fish is caused
by the expansion of the melanophores, whose expanded condition in turn is due

320 COLOUR-CHANGES OF BATOID FISHES,

to the action of a pituitary hormone, whilst the light phase is caused by the
contraction of the melanophores.

Discussion.

The experiments on Urolophus testaceus show:

(1) That its melanophores are expansible.

(2) That a melanophore-expanding principle is elaborated in the pituitary
gland. Probably U. testaceus, therefore, is capable of a slow colour-change in
response to change in environmental colour, as is Raja erinacea and Trygonor-
rhina fasciata. It is clear that in Urolophus and Trygonorrhina the dark phase
is due to the action of a pituitary hormone. Parker and Porter, and Lundstrom
and Bard are also agreed that this is so in Mustelus. But Parker and Porter
consider that the light phase is caused by “the action of contracting nerve fibres
on the melanophores, an action which when excessive may overcome that of the
expanding mechanism”. However, when Mustelus is hypophysectomized, the animal
rapidly becomes pale, and remains so, unless pituitary extract is injected. This
suggests that the action of the melanophore nerves is tonic, tending always to
contract the melanophores, whilst the presence of a sufficient quantity of expanding
principle in the tissue fluid bathing the melanophores overcomes this contracting
influence, and expansion results. Thus the true picture of the colour-changes in
Elasmobranchs appears to be a reflex stimulation of the pituitary, due to the
visual stimulus of a dark background, causing a heightened production of expanding
hormone, and so melanophore expansion. The visual stimulus occasioned by a
white background results in a decrease in production of expanding principle, the
concentration in the blood falls, unmasking the contracting action of the melano-
phore nerves, and so the light phase is attained.

Summary.

(1) Probably Urolophus testaceus can alter its colour, as its dermal melano-
phores are expansible, and a melanophore-expanding hormone is produced by its
pituitary gland.

(2) Trygonorrhina fasciata is capable of changing its colour to a very slight
degree in response to change in tint of the environment.

(3) The dark phase of T. fasciata is due to expansion of the dermal melano-
phores, which expansion is caused by a pituitary hormone. The light phase is
due to the contraction of the melanophores.

(4) It is considered that probably the light phase in Hlasmobranch fishes is
caused by tonic nervous action tending continually to contract the melanophores,
which contracting action is revealed when the concentration of expanding hormone
in the blood falls, due to diminution of the rate of secretion by the pituitary
gland.

References.

Hoceen, L. T., 1924.—The Pigmentary Effector System. Oliver and Boyd.

LuNpstrom, H. M., and P. Barb, 1932.._Hypophysial Control of Cutaneous Pigmentation
in an Elasmobranch Fish. Biol. Bull., 62, 1.

Parker, G. H., 1933.—The Colour Changes of Elasmobranch Fishes. Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci., Vol. 19, No. 12.

—, 1936.—Integumentary Colour Changes in the Newly-born Dogfish, Mustelus

canis. Biol. Bull, 70, 1.

, and H. Porter, 1934.—The Control of the Dermal Melanophores in Elasmo-
branch Fishes. Biol. Bull., 66, 1.

SCHAEFER, J. G., 1921.—Beitrage zur Physiologie des Farbenwechsels der Fische. I.
Untersuchungen an Pleuronectiden. Arch. ges. Physiol., 188, 25.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936.

PLATE

Melanophores in skins of Urolophus testaceus (figs. 1, 2), H
and Trygonorrhina fasciata (figs. 5, 6, 7

yla
).

ai7ed

(figs. 3, 4)

es

ee ee

“

metre

ee ai
°

BY M. GRIFFITHS. 321

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

Fig. 1.—Skin of Urolophus testaceus, before injection. Dermal melanophores partially
contracted.

Fig. 2.—Skin of Urolophus testaceus, after injection of 0:4 c.c. infundin. Melanophores
expanded.

Fig. 3.—Hyla aurea, skin of control. Melanophores partially contracted.

Fig. 4.—Hyla aurea, skin of specimen 2 hours after injection of extract of pituitary
of Urolophus testaceuws. Melanophores expanded to form a network.

Fig. 5.—Control piece of skin of Trygonorrhina fasciata. Melanophores expanded.

Fig. 6.—Portion of skin from same specimen, after seventeen hours in a white-
walled tank. Melanophores slightly contracted.

Fig. 7.—Portion of skin from same animal, 2 hours after injection of 1:0 cc. of
pituitary extract. Melanophores fully expanded.

THE DIPTHRA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V.
FAMILY TIPULIDAE. PART III.*

By CHARLES P. ALEXANDER.
(Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.)

(Twenty-seven Text-figures. )

[Read 25th November, 1936. ]

HEXATOMINI.
AUSTROLIMNOPHILA FLUXA, nN. sp. Fig. 22.

Mesonotal praescutum dark brown on cephalic half, the posterior portion and
remainder of mesonotum grey pruinose; fore and middle femora darkened, the
tips narrowly yellow; posterior femora and all tibiae yellow; wings tinged with
yellow; a restricted brown pattern, including seams to the cord and outer end of
cell ist M., as well as marginal spots at ends of all longitudinal veins excepting
R, and M,; Rs square at origin; r-m connecting with Rs at the fork or nearly so;
inner end of cell Ist M. arcuated; m-cu beyond midlength of cell 1st M,; abdominal
tergites dark brown; sternites yellow, the incisures narrowly infuscated.

9.—Length about 10 mm.; wing, 9 mm.

Rostrum obscure yellow, darker basally; palpi dark. Antennae with scape
dark above, paler beneath; pedicel yellow; flagellum broken. Head dark grey;
anterior vertex reduced to a narrow strip.

Pronotum obscure yellow. Mesonotal praescutum dark brown on cephalic
half, the colour continued obliquely backward to the suture, leaving the posterior
portion of the praescutum grey; posterior sclerites of notum grey pruinose. Pleura
dark brown, sparsely pruinose. MHalteres elongate, yellow, the knobs infuscated.
Legs with the coxae yellow, darker basally; trochanters yellow; fore and middle
femora infuscated, the tips narrowly yellow; posterior femora more uniformly
yellow; tibiae golden-yellow; tarsi passing into yellowish-brown. Wings (Fig. 22)
tinged with yellow, the costal region scarcely more saturated; a restricted brown
pattern, distributed as follows: Small brown spots at arculus; origin of Rs; cord,
the latter extended to the costa at fork of Sc; outer end of cell 1st M,; fork of
M,,.; marginal areas at ends of all longitudinal veins excepting R, and M,; veins
yellow, darker in the clouded areas. Venation: Sc, at tip of Sc,; Rs square at
origin but not angulated; r-m connecting with Rs at the exact fork or immediately
beyond on R,, the basal deflection of the Jatter thus obliterated; inner end of cell
ist M. arcuated, r-m being at near midlength of the cell; m-cu beyond midlength
of cell 1st M..

Abdominal tergites dark brown, the sternites yellow, the incisures narrowly
infuscated; ovipositor with the valves horn-coloured.

Holotype, 9, Wau, New Guinea, altitude 3,400 feet, 21 December, 1933 (F. H.
Taylor).

* Continued from these PROCEEDINGS, 1xi, 1936, p. 183.

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 323

The most closely allied species is Austrolimnophila interventa (Skuse) of
eastern Australia, which, while having a somewhat similar wing-pattern, has the
venation entirely different, especially in the central radial and medial fields.

AUSTROLIMNOPHILA INTERJECTA, ND. Sp. Fig. 238.

General coloration of mesonotal praescutum dark brown on anterior third,
this colour continued laterad and caudad across the posterior thoracic pleura;
posterior portion of praescutum and scutum light ashy-grey; antennae yellow,
elongate; fore femora darkened; wings cream-yellow, with a heavy, pale brown
pattern, including a broad crossband at cord, and conspicuous marginal spots at
ends of all longitudinal veins; Rs very strongly angulated at origin.

9.—Length about 11 mm.; wing, 11 mm.

Rostrum brownish-yellow; palpi yellow. Antennae elongate, yellow; flagellar
segments long-cylindrical, with verticils that are much shorter than the segments;
outer segments gradually decreasing in length. Head light grey.

Pronotum and propleura light yellow. Mesonotal praescutum with anterior
third dark brown, this colour continued laterad and caudad across the humeral
and lateral portions of the sclerite, thence passing on to the pleura and including
the dorsal pteropleurite and postnotum; posterior portion of praescutum and
scutum light ashy-grey, contrasting abruptly with the brown anterior portions of
the former; scutellum and mediotergite darker grey, the pleurotergite more
brownish-grey. Pleura light yellow. Halteres elongate, darkened basally, the
outer ends of stem and the knob more yellow. Legs with the coxae yellow, the
surface very sparsely pruinose; trochanters yellow; fore femora brown, the
middle pair more brownish-yellow, somewhat brighter on distal half; posterior
femora yellow; tibiae and tarsi yellow, the terminal segments of the latter
darkened. Wings (Fig. 23) light cream-yellow, with a heavy and conspicuous
pale-brown pattern, including a broad, complete crossband at the cord, entirely
darkening cell lst M, and involving the ends of all cells on both sides of the cord;
a large area at origin of Rs; smaller spots at arculus, fork of M,,, and as marginal
spots, including all longitudinal veins excepting R; and M,; veins yellow, darker
in the clouded areas. Venation: Rs bent at more than a right angle at origin;
elements of anterior cord in oblique alignment, the inner end of cell ist M, more
basad; m arcuated, longer than basal section of M,; m-cu at midlength of cell
1st M,; anterior arculus lacking.

Abdomen brown, the lateral portions and bases of sternites restrictedly more
blackish. Ovipositor with cerci long and slender, very gently upcurved.

Holotype, 9, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

The closest allies of the present species are Austrolimnophila antiqua (Skuse)
and A. interventa (Skuse), of eastern Australia, both of which are readily
distinguished by the wing-pattern and venation.

HEXPIPHRAGMA (HPIPHRAGMA) FUSCODISCALIS, n. sp. Fig. 24.

General coloration of mesonotum dark brown; praescutum obscure yellow,
with brown stripes; antennae short; legs yellow, the femora with three narrow
brown rings, the last subterminal in position; tibiae yellow, with three very
narrow, scarcely indicated darker annuli; wings light yellow, with a heavy
dark-brown pattern, including a large discal area over anterior cord and cell
1st M, and a series of marginal spots at ends of all longitudinal veins; male
terminalia with a slender erect spine before apex of interbase.

324 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW QUINEA. V,

d.—Length about 8-5 mm.; wing, 8-5 mm.

Rostrum brown; palpi black. Antennae short, if bent backward not extending
beyond pronotum; scape and pedicel dark brown; basal segment of flagellum
yellow; succeeding segments dark brown; basal flagellar segments oval, soon
passing into elongate, the verticils long and conspicuous, exceeding the segments.
Head dark brown.

Pronotum obscure yellow, variegated by dark brown medially and on sides.
Mesonotal praescutum obscure yellow, with a complete median brown stripe and
indications of incomplete lateral areas on cephalic portion; scutal lobes dark
brown, the median area narrowly pollinose; scutellum and postnotum dark brown.
Pleura dark brown, vaguely and restrictedly marked with obscure yellow. Halteres
yellow, the knobs weakly darkened. Legs with the fore coxae yellow, the middle
and posterior coxae dark brown; trochanters yellow; femora yellow, each with
three narrow dark-brown rings that are a little narrower than the yellow inter-
spaces, the last dark ring subterminal and a trifle more extensive than the
pale apex; tibiae yellow, with three very narrow and scarcely evident dark rings,
the most distinct a very narrow subbasal annulus, the outermost a nearly terminal
darkening; tarsi yellow, the outer segments weakly infuscated. Wings with the
ground-colour light yellow, with a heavy solid, brown pattern, including a large
discal area that completely covers cell Ist M. and adjoining cells, reaching the
costal border as a seam on the anterior cord; large and conspicuous brown spots
at ends of all longitudinal veins, larger in the anal field, where additional marginal
clouds occur at mid-distance between the veins in both cells Ist A and 2nd A;
additional dark brown areas at arculus, origin of Rs, cells M and Cu, and as a
large circular area at fork of M,,.; interpolated pale-brown clouds of lunate form
encircle the supernumerary crossvein in cell C and the marginal area at R,,»;
veins yellow, darker in the clouded areas. OCostal fringe moderately long.
Venation: m longer than basal section of M,, arcuated; m-cu about its length
beyond fork of M.

Abdominal tergites chiefly infuscated, scarcely variegated by brighter areas;
terminalia yellow. Male terminalia (Fig. 24) with the lobes of the tergite, 9f,
narrow. Interbase, i, bearing a pale erect spine on mesal face a little more than
its own length back from tip of rod.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
GEE Lavilorm):

The only Australasian species with a somewhat similar, solidly darkened
wing-pattern are EHpiphragma (Epiphragma) hebridensis Alexander (New
Hebrides) and H#. (H.) meridionalis Alexander (south-eastern Australia), both of
which differ conspieuously in the details of pattern of the wings and legs.

EPIPHRAGMA (HPIPHRAGMA) GLORIOLA, N. SD.

General coloration reddish-brown, the praescutum with darker brown stripes;
antennae bicoloured; femora and tibiae yellow, each with two black rings; wings
pale yellow, with a heavy dark-brown pattern, the areas solid and chiefly costal
in distribution; a series of yellow spots near distal ends of outer medial, cubital
and anal cells; m-cu at near two-thirds the length of cell 1st M,.

?.—Length about 12 mm.; wing, 11 mm.

Rostrum brown; palpi black. Antennae relatively elongate; scape and pedicel
light brown; basal segment of flagellum yellow, weakly darkened at base;
succeeding flagellar segments bicoloured, the basal portion black, the outer end
yellow, the latter colour involving about one-half the sclerite on the basal segments

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 325

but becoming more restricted on outer segments; terminal segments uniformly
darkened; verticils shorter than the segments. Head brown.

Pronotum brown. Mesonotal praescutum reddish-brown, variegated with darker
brown, including three stripes that are confluent behind to involve most of disk;
humeral region with a brownish area; lateral border of sclerite before the suture
brownish-black; scutal lobes brownish-black, the median area abruptly yellow;
scutellum yellow, parascutella dark; mediotergite almost uniformly brownish-
black. Pleura brownish-black, variegated by somewhat paler areas that include
the dorsopleural region and a broad diffuse ventral stripe extending from behind
the fore coxae to the pleurotergite. Halteres elongate, pale, the apex of knob
obscure yellow. Legs with the coxae and trochanters brownish-black; femora
yellow, with two black annuli, placed at near midlength and before apex, these
dark rings subequal in area to the alternate yellow bands; indications of a third,
more basal darkening appear on the upper surface of sclerite only; tibiae yellow,

Text-figs. 18-26.

18.—Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) scimitar, n. sp., venation.

19.—Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) attrita, n. sp., venation.

20.—Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) luteoannulata, n. sp., venation.

21.—Trentepohlia (Mongoma) nigrescens, n. sp., venation.

22.—Austrolimnophila fluxa, n. sp., venation.

23.—Austrolimnophila interjecta, n. sp., venation.

24.—Epiphragma (Epiphragma) fuscodiscalis, n. sp., male terminalia.

25.—Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) scimitar, n. sp., male terminalia.

26.—Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) luteoannulata, n. sp., male terminalia details.

a, aedeagus; b, basistyle; d, dististyle; i, interbase; id, inner dististyle; od, outer
dististyle; p, phallosome; ft, tergite.

J

326 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V,

with two dark rings, a narrower subbasal one and a broad ring at and beyond >
midlength of the segment; tarsi brown, passing into brownish-black. Wings pale
yellow, more saturated in prearcular and costal regions; a very heavy dark-brown
pattern, the areas solid and chiefly costal in distribution, placed at arculus; origin
of Rs; at supernumerary crossvein in cell C; a major band from costa along
anterior cord to fork of M; tips of radial veins; other dark areas at outer end of
cell ist M., fork of M,,. and m-cu; distal ends of all outer medial, cubital and
anal cells paler brown, before their margins enclosing a small, pale-yellow spot,
these larger and more extensive in the anal field; in cell 2nd A this latter appears
as a streak for almost the length of the cell; paler brown washes in costal field,
one before and one beyond the area at origin of Rs; cell R, darkened except at
outer end; veins brown, luteous in the yellow areas. Venation: Supernumerary
cross-vein in cell C opposite the fork of Rs; m-cu at near two-thirds the length
of the narrow cell 1st M.; m and basal section of M, subequal; cell M, exceeding
twice its petiole.

Abdomen dark brown, scarcely variegated by brighter; cerci blackened at
bases, the slender valves horn-coloured.

Holotype, 9, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Epiphragma (Epiphragma) gloriola is so different from all other regional
species that it is unprofitable to compare it with any species described to this
date.

GYNOPLISTIA (GYNOPLISTIA) SCIMITAR, Nn. Sp. Figs. 18, 25.

Thorax dull brownish-black, the propleura pale, the pteropleurite heavily light-
grey pruinose; antennae 17-segmented, with 13 long-branched segments; knobs of
halteres blackened; femora obscure yellow, the fore pair undarkened, the remaining
femora with tips blackened; wings with basal fourth clear light-yellow, the outer
portions more suffused, the cells beyond cord uniformly blackened; still darker
seams at origin of Rs and on anterior cord; cell M, present; cell Ist M, small;
abdomen with basal four segments orange-yellow, unmarked, the remaining
segments velvety-black; male terminalia with a single, elongate, blade-like
dististyle.

dg—Length about 9 mm.; wing, 8:2 mm.

Rostrum brown; palpi infuscated. Antennae 17-segmented; formula 2+2+11+2;
scape, pedicel and axis of basal three or four flagellar segments yellow, the outer
segments and all branches black; longest branches (at midlength of flagellum)
nearly one-third the length of the entire organ; basal two branches long and
slender; branch of twelfth flagellar segment about one-half longer than the
segment; branch of thirteenth flagellar segment a mere lobe. Head liver-brown,
a little brightened behind.

Prothorax and mesothorax almost uniform dull brownish-black, the praescutum
a little brightened on humeral portion; propleura, surrounding the anterior
spiracle, extensively obscure yellow; pteropleurite heavily pruinose with light
grey, the mesepisternum thus appearing as a darkened girdle between the pale
propleura and the pteropleurite. Halteres with the base of stem yellow, becoming
more obscure outwardly, the knob blackened. Legs with the coxae brownish-black,
the surface light-grey pruinose, more conspicuously so on fore and hind coxae;
fore trochanters brown, the middle and hind pair black; femora obscure yellow, the
fore pair undarkened, the middle and hind femora with conspicuously blackened
tips; tibiae and tarsi black. Wings (Fig. 18) with basal fourth clear light-yellow,

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 327

beyond this point suffused with blackish, more brightened before stigma; cells
beyond cord uniformly darkened; cell Sc, an area at origin of Rs and a broad
seam at anterior cord darker brown; veins black, clear yellow in the flavous
basal areas. A series of macrotrichia on vein R;, but vein R, without such setae;
medial field and all veins posterior to it, glabrous. Venation: Cell 1st M, rela-
tively small, with m-cu just beyond one-third its length; cell M, subequal in length
to its petiole; vein 2nd A rather strongly sinuous.

Abdomen with basal four segments orange-yellow, immaculate; succeeding
segments and terminalia velvety-black. Male terminalia (Fig. 25) with the caudal
margin of tergite, 9t, bearing two low rounded tubercles. Basistyle, b, slender,
terminating in a fleshy, finger-like lobe that is delicately setuliferous. A single
long, blade-like dististyle, d, that is only a little shorter than the basistyle, gradually
narrowed to the decurved point. Gonapophyses, g, simple, each appearing as a
narrow blade, the apex acute and spinous.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) birdana Alexander, likewise from north-eastern New
Guinea, appears to be the closest ally of the present fly, which differs especially
in the pattern of the body, legs and wings, and in the structure of the male
terminalia.

GYNOPLISTIA (GYNOPLISTIA) ATTRITA, nh. Sp. Fig. 19.

Thorax dark liver-brown to brownish-black; antennae (2) 16-segmented, with
seven branched segments; head brownish-black; knobs of halteres orange-yellow;
femora yellow, the tips rather broadly and conspicuously blackened; middle and
posterior femora with a more diffuse brown ring at near midlength; wings pale
yellow, the prearcular and costal regions deeper yellow; a conspicuous brown
pattern, chiefly costal in distribution, the apical band relatively narrow; abdomen
with basal segment black, the succeeding four tergites yellow, darkened laterally;
a black subterminal ring.

9.—Length about 10 mm.; wing, 9 mm.

Rostrum brownish-black; palpi black. Antennae (9) 16-segmented; formula
2+2+5+7; scape, pedicel and bases and apices of the axes of proximal two or three
flagellar segments brownish-yellow; remainder of organ, including branches, black;
longest branch (about flagellar segments four or five) approximately three times
the length of the segment itself. Head brownish-black, polished.

Prothorax and mesothorax uniformly dark liver-brown to brownish-black,
unvariegated except for a weak pruinosity on the pleurotergite. Halteres with
the stem dusky, the knob light orange-yellow. Legs with the coxae brownish-
black; trochanters obscure yellow; fore femora yellow, the tips rather broadly
and conspicuously black; middle and hind femora with tips similarly and sub-
equally blackened, and at near midlength with indications of a broader but more
diffuse infuscated ring, more evident on the posterior legs; fore and middle tibiae
black, the posterior pair somewhat more brownish-black on basal portion; tarsi
black. Wings (Fig. 19) pale yellow, the prearcular and costal fields deeper and
more saturated yellow; a conspicuous brown pattern, as follows: Arculus and
humeral cross-vein; origin of Rs; a band from stigma across cord, narrowed
posteriorly and becoming a mere seam on m-cu; wing-tip abruptly darkened,
its proximal edge about on a level with the fork of M,,.; a brown wash along
vein Cu and in proximal half of cell Cu, culminating in a darkened spot at near
two-thirds the length of vein 1st A; a darkened cloud at bend of vein 2nd A;

328 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. YV,

most of longitudinal veins in the interspaces very narrowly and insensibly seamed
with brown; veins dark, yellow in the luteous areas. Numerous macrotrichia on
veins R, and R,; in medial field restricted to outer portion of vein M,. Venation:
Vein R, long, cell R, at margin very extensive; cell 1st M, relatively large, with
m-cu about its own length beyond the fork of M; cell M, longer than its petiole;
m-cu moderately sinuous.

Abdomen with basal segment black; tergites two to five, inclusive, yellow,
darkened laterally; sternites two to five more obscure yellowish-brown; subterminal
segments black; genital shield of ovipositor obscure orange. Ovipositor with cerci
yellow, slender, gently upcurved.

Holotype, 9, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Somewhat similar in general appearance to Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) fulviceps
Walker, of north-western New Guinea, but differing widely in all details of
coloration of body, legs and wings. The brightened knobs of the halteres separate
the species from almost all other regional members of the genus.

GYNOPLISTIA (GYNOPLISTIA) LUTEOANNULATA, nN. Sp. Figs. 20, 26.

General coloration coal-black; head deep blue; antennae 16-segmented, with
ten branched segments; legs black, the femora with a broad conspicuous yellow
ring before tips; wings with the ground-colour of the basal cells greyish-white,
the cells beyond cord uniformly darkened; a restricted darker pattern at arculus;
a narrow cross-band at origin of Rs and on anterior cord; cell M, lacking; vein
2nd A very strongly sinuous; male terminalia with the basistyle bispinous at apex;
dististyle single, terminating in three long spines.

6.—Length about 6 mm.; wing, 6 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae 16-segmented, black throughout; formula
24+248+4: longest branches (at near midlength of organ) about one-third the
length of the entire antenna; branch of tenth flagellar segment short, about as
long as the segment; terminal segment a trifle longer than the penultimate. Head
deep blue. i

Mesonotum black, the surface subnitidous; postnotum weakly pruinose. Pleura
pruinose. Halteres with stem black, the knobs broken. Legs with coxae black,
pruinose; trochanters black; femora black, with a broad conspicuous yellow ring
before tips; on the posterior legs this annulus includes more than one-fourth the
total length of the segment; tibiae and tarsi black. Wings (Fig. 20) with the
ground-colour of cells basad of cord greyish-white, beyond the cord and in costal
field uniformly suffused with blackish; darker areas at arculus and as cross-bands
at origin of Rs and along anterior cord, the former nearly complete but narrow,
the latter much wider; veins brownish-black. Anterior branch of Rs with a single
trichium close to R.; veins R, and R, with almost complete series of trichia; medial
veins glabrous. Venation: R...,, very short; cell M, lacking; vein 2nd A very
strongly sinuous.

Abdomen short, black, including the terminalia. Male terminalia (Fig. 26)
with the caudal margin of tergite convex, produced medially into a small subacute
point. Basistyle, b, at apex produced into a lateral and a mesial spinous point, both
slender and blackened. Dististyle, d, terminating in three blackened spines.
Gonapophyses, g, appearing as straight spatulate blades, the tips broadly obtuse.
Aedeagus slender, shorter than the apophyses.

Holotype, g, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 329

The closest ally of the present fly is Gynoplistia (Gynoplistia) perjucunda
Riedel (New Guinea), which differs conspicuously in the coloration of the body,
legs and wings, and in the number of antennal segments.

ERIOPTERINI.
CONOSIA IRRORATA (Wiedemann).

Limnobia irrorata Wiedemann, Aussereur. 2weifl. Ins., 1, 1828, 574.
1 9, Wau, New Guinea, altitude 3,400 feet, 21 December, 1933 (F. H. Taylor).

TRENTEPOHLIA (MONGOMA) NIGRESCENS, D. Sp. Fig. 21.

General coloration almost uniformly dark brown; antennae black throughout;
halteres blackened; legs long and slender, posterior tarsi about equal in length to
the femora; legs brownish-black, only the terminal tarsal segments paler; wings
with a faint blackish tinge; Rs shorter than R,,.,,.

‘§.—Length about 7 mm.; wing, 8 mm.

Rostrum brown; palpi obscure yellow. Antennae black throughout; flagellar
segments long-oval, with numerous verticils, the longest subequal in length to the
segments. Head brownish-black.

Mesonotum almost uniformly dark brown, the scutellum a trifle paler. Pleura
dark brown, the sternopleural region a little paler. Halteres blackened. Legs
brownish-black, only the terminal tarsal segments paling to brownish-white or
dirty-white; legs long and slender, the posterior tibiae a trifle longer than the
femora, the latter subequal in length to the tarsi; legs without specially modified
armature. Wings (Fig. 21) with a nearly uniform, faintly blackish tinge; stigma
ill-delimited, a trifle darker; veins dark brown. Costal fringe (¢) short. Venation:
Rs shorter than R,,,,,; R, just before fork of R,,,; vein R,; moderately oblique, cell
R, at margin about one-fourth cell R,; cell ist M, moderately long; inner ends of
cells R, and M, about in transverse alignment; m-cu close to fork of M; apical
fusion of veins Cu, and 1st A slight.

Abdominal tergites and terminalia brownish-black; basal sternite obscure
yellow, the succeeding sternites passing through brown to brownish-black.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

By means of keys to the regional species of Trentepohlia, the present fly runs
to Trentepohlia (Mongoma) brevipes Alexander, a very different fly having short
tarsi and with the venational details quite distinct.

GoNOMYIA (LIPOPHLEPS) NIGRIDORSATA, nN. Sp. Figs. 27, 33.

Belongs to the sulphurella group; mesonotal praescutum and scutum polished
black; pleura black, with a longitudinal grey stripe; halteres dusky; legs black;
wings almost uniformly tinged with dusky; vein R, present, erect; male
hypopygium with the armature of the tergite spinous; dististyle bearing a long
slender spine.

6.—Length about 4 mm.; wing, 45 mm. 9%—Length about 4:5 mm.; wing,
5 mm.

Rostrum reddish; palpi black. Antennae black throughout; flagellar segments
long-oval, in male with the usual very elongate verticils. Head black, dark-grey
pruinose.

Pronotum and lateral pretergites yellowish-white. Mesonotal praescutum,
together with the scutal lobes, entirely polished black, median region of the
scutum grey pruinose; scutellum yellow, the parascutella black; mediotergite

330 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V,

black, the cephalic portion grey pruinose. Pleura black, with a longitudinal grey
stripe extending from behind the fore coxae to the base of abdomen; dorso-
pleural membrane dull black. Halteres dusky. Legs with the fore coxae black,
the remaining coxae brownish testaceous; trochanters dark brown; remainder of
legs black. Wings (Fig. 27) almost uniformly tinged with dusky, the stigma not
or scarcely differentiated; veins brownish-black. Venation: Sc, ending about
opposite one-fourth the length of the long Rs, the latter subequal to R,,3,,; vein R,
present, erect, without trichia.

Abdominal tergites brownish-black; sternites yellow. Male terminalia
(Fig. 33) with the tergal armature consisting of strong spines or spinous setae.
Lobe of basistyle, b, flattened, with abundant setae on mesial face, including a
longer brush at apex. Dististyle, d, single, symmetrical on the two sides, bearing
a long curved spine; rostral portion of style slender, terminating in a powerful
fasciculate seta, with other strong setae on disk of style. Phallosome, p, consisting
of two pale flattened rods, the distal third of each narrowed, the tips gently
divergent.

Holotype, g, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 9.

Gonomyia (Lipophleps) nigridorsata is very different from the other regional
members of the sulphurella group, as G. (L.) nubeculosa (de Meijere), G. (L.)
pallidosignata Alexander and G. (L.) perreducta Alexander, in the conspicuous
coloration of the body, and in the structure of the male terminalia.

GONOMYIA (LIPOPHLEPS) NIGRIDORSATA PLEUROSTRIATA, N. SUDSD.

Characters entirely as in the typical form, differing only in the very different
coloration of the thoracic pleura. Pleura, including dorso-pleural region and
pleurotergite, yellow, with a relatively narrow, dark-brown, longitudinal line
extending from the fore coxae to above the posterior coxae.

Holotype, 9, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

GONOMYIA (LIPOPHLEPS) ACUS, nh. Sp. Figs. 28, 34.

General coloration of mesonotum dark brown; scutellum and postnotum
brightened; thoracic pleura striped longitudinally with brownish-black and
yellow; legs black; wings almost uniformly suffused with greyish, the stigmal
area very faintly darker; Sc, ending opposite origin of Rs; basal deflection of R;
long; abdominal tergites brownish-black, the caudal borders very narrowly yellow;
male terminalia with the outer dististyle a long aciculate spine from an expanded
base; phallosome a densely hairy column, terminating in two slender black spines
that are microscopically spinulose at base.

g—Length about 3-6 mm.; wing, 4:2 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae black, the scape a little brightened above;
flagellar verticils very long and conspicuous. Head chiefly infuscated.

Pronotum and anterior lateral pretergites white. Mesonotal praescutum and
scutum uniform brown; scutellum obscure yellow; mediotergite black, obscurely
brightened beyond the base, the apical portion broadly dark. Pleura striped
longitudinally with yellow and brownish-black; dorsal pleurites, including the
pleurotergite, obscure yellow; a broad pale-yellow stripe from behind the fore
coxae to beneath the halteres, bordered both above and beneath by blackish.
Halteres yellow, the knobs weakly darkened. Legs with the coxae blackened, the
posterior pair restrictedly paler at apices; trochanters yellow; remainder of legs

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 331

black. Wings (Fig. 28) almost uniformly suffused with greyish, the stigmal area
very faintly and diffusely darker; veins pale brown, the anterior cord darker;
prearcular veins and Cu more yellow. Venation: Sc, ending opposite origin of Rs,
Sc, near its tip; basal deflection of R; long, subequal to m; cell 1st M. closed; m-cu
shortly before fork of M.

Text-figs. 27-32.

27.—Gonomyia (Lipophleps) nigridorsata, n. sp., venation.
28.—Gonomyia (Lipophleps) acus, n. sp., venation.
29.—Hrioptera (Empeda) albidibasis, n. sp., venation.
30.—Hrioptera (Meterioptera) sziladyi Alexander, venation.
31.—Toxorhina (Ceratocheilus) fumipennis, n. sp., venation.
32.—Toxorhina (Toxorhina) suttoni, n. sp., venation.

Abdomen brownish-black, the surface sparsely pruinose; caudal borders of
the tergites very narrowly obscure yellow; on sternites, the borders are much less
distinctly brightened; terminalia light brown. Male terminalia (Fig. 34) with
the dististyles apical in position, the outer one, od, expanded beyond the narrow
base, thence produced into a long, very slender, needle-like point; inner style short
and broad, with numerous setae, including two fasciculate bristles at outer apical
angle. Phallosome, p, consisting of a pale, densely hairy column that terminates
in a pair of slender black spines, each of the latter with microscopic spinulae on
upper margin near bases, the tips acute, long and slender.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Gonomyia (Lipophleps) acus is allied to G. (L.) kertésziana Alexander (north-
eastern New Guinea), differing most evidently in the venation and in the structure
of the male terminalia. °

ERIOPTERA (HMPEDA) ALBIDIBASIS, D. Sp. Figs. 29, 35.

General coloration grey, the mesonotum unmarked; antennae black, the first
flagellar segment yellow; halteres white throughout; femora obscure yellow to
yellowish-brown, provided with setae and flattened scales; wings tinged with
greyish, the prearcular field abruptly whitened; Se short, R, long; abdominal
tergites brownish-black, the terminalia of male small; dististyles entirely pale,
the outer one unequally bifid, its inner arm shorter and more slender than the
outer.

6.—Length about 2-5-2:-6 mm.; wing, 3:2-3:-4 mm. 9?.—Length about 3-8-4 mm.;
wing, 4-4-2 mm.

332 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V,

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae short in both sexes; scape and pedicel
black; basal flagellar segment somewhat enlarged, yellow to obscure yellow;
remainder of flagellum black; longest verticils much exceeding the segments and
unilaterally distributed. Head dark grey.

Pronotum and pretergites white. Mesonotum almost uniformly dark-grey,
the margin of praescutum before the pseudosuture restrictedly yellow; tuberculate
pits and pseudosutural foveae black. Pleura dark brownish-grey; dorso-pleural
membrane paler. Halteres white throughout. Legs with the fore coxae and
trochanters darkened, the remaining coxae and trochanters yellow; femora
uniformly obscure yellow to yellowish-brown, the darker colour produced by setae
and flattened scales; tibiae and tarsi brownish-black to black. Wings (Fig. 29)
tinged with greyish, the prearcular field abruptly and conspicuously whitened;
stigmal region scarcely darkened; veins pale brown, whitish in the basal area,
the arcular elements a trifle infuscated. Venation: Sc relatively short, Sc, ending
just beyond origin of Rs, Sc, but faintly indicated, near tip of Sc,; R. about equal
to R..s.,; R, unusually long and not as oblique as in most species of the subgenus;
m-cu shortly before fork of M. :

Abdominal tergites brownish-black, sternites brownish-yellow; terminalia
small, obscure yellow. Male terminalia (Fig. 35) with both dististyles pale, the
outer one, od, entirely glabrous, simply but deeply bifid, the outer arm relatively
wide, the inner arm shorter and unusually slender, its tip obliquely truncated.
Inner dististyle, of about the same conformation and size as the outer arm of
the outer style, provided with a few microscopic setulae at apex.

Holotype, ¢, Aramaiti, Papua, altitude about 6,000 feet, July, 1935 (K. J.
Clinton). Allotype, 9, Hdie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February,
1935 (F. H. Taylor). Paratopotype, 1 ¢, with holotype; paratype, 1 9°, Maini,
New Guinea, altitude 6,300 feet, July, 1935 (K. J. Clinton).

Erioptera (Empeda) albidibasis belongs to the group of the subgenus that
includes species having a short Sec and an unusually long vein R,; femora
uniformly coloured, without suddenly blackened tips, and provided not only with
setae but also with flattened scales; male terminalia small, the dististyles entirely
pale, the outer style bifid. In this group, the closest described ally is EH. (E.)
lunensis Alexander (Mindanao), which differs most evidently in the distinct male
terminalia.

ERIOPTERA (ERIOPTERA) LUNICOLA Alexander.

Philippine Journ. Sci., xlviii, 1932, 630-631.

Known from Luzon and Mindanao. A small series of what certainly appears
to be the same species from Maini, Papua, altitude about 6,300 feet, July, 1935
(K. J. Clinton), and Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

The male terminalia are very similar to the condition found in the Philippine
types, except that the spine on the inner dististyle is a little shorter and slightly
less curved. The basal segments of the flagellum are paler than in the types.

ERIOPTERA (METERIOPTERA) SzILADYI Alexander. Fig. 30.
Philippine Journ. Sci., liv, 1934, 468-469.
The type, a male, was from Sattelberg, Huon Peninsula, north-eastern New
Guinea, collected in late September, 1898, by the late Ludwig Bir6.

A second specimen is from Wau, New Guinea, altitude 3,400 feet, 18 December,
1933 (F. H. Taylor). This individual is somewhat larger than the type (length

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 333

about 5 mm.; wing, 5-5 mm.), but otherwise very similar. The wing-venation is
shown (Fig. 30).
MOLOPHILUS UNISTYLUS, 1. sp. Fig. 36.
Belongs to the gracilis group, ruficollis subgroup; general coloration dark
grey, the pronotum and pretergites china-white; antennae short, the first flagellar

a3

Text-figs. 33-44.
33.—Gonomyia (Lipophleps) nigridorsata, n. sp., male terminalia.
34.—Gonomyia (Lipophleps) acus, n. sp., male terminalia.
35.—Erioptera (Empeda) albidibasis, n. sp., male terminalia.
36.—Molophilus unistylus, n. sp., male terminalia.
37.—Molophilus taylorinus, n. sp., male terminalia.
38.—Molophilus concussus, n. sp., male terminalia.
39.—Molophilus aterrimus, n. sp., male terminalia.
40.—Tasiocera papuana, n. sp., male terminalia.
41.—Tasiocera tarsalba, n. sp., male terminalia.
42.—Toxorhina (Ceratocheilus) fwmipennis, n. sp., male terminalia.
43.—Toxorhina (Toxorhina) suttoni, n. sp., male terminalia.
44.—_Styringomyia spinicaudata, n. sp., male terminalia.
a, aedeagus; b, basistyle; d, dististyle; i, interbase; id, inner dististyle; od, outer

dististyle; p, phallosome; s, sternite; ¢, tergite.

334 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V,

segment yellow; halteres and legs brownish-black; wings with a strong blackish
tinge; male terminalia with a single dististyle, lying in the notch of the low apical
lobes of basistyle; phallosomic plate with abundant setae.

6-—Length about 3-8-4-2 mm.; wing, 45-5 mm. 9.—Length about 4:2-4:5 mm.;
wing, 4-5-5 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae short, if bent backward not or scarcely
attaining the wing-root; scape and pedicel brown; basal segment of flagellum
yellow, the remaining segments dark brown to black; flagellar segments oval, with
long conspicuous verticils. Head grey.

Pronotum and lateral pretergites conspicuously china-white. Mesonotum dark
grey, the scutellum unbrightened. Pleura blackened, sparsely pruinose. Halteres
brownish-black throughout. Legs with the coxae and trochanters brown; femora
brownish-black, the bases brown; tibiae and tarsi black. Wings with a strong
blackish tinge; veins and macrotrichia brownish-black; costal fringe relatively
conspicuous, black. Venation: R, lying proximad of r-m; m-cu about one-third
the petiole of cell M,;; vein 2nd A ending about opposite the proximal end of m-cu.

Abdomen, including terminalia, black. Male terminalia (Fig. 36) with the
apical lobes of basistyle, b, short and blunt, the mesial lobe with more numerous
setae and further produced into a low blackened lobule. A single dististyle, d,
lying in the shallow notch at apex of basistyle, appearing as a simple spine that
is produced into an acute glabrous point, the surface basad of this point with
abundant setae and setulae. Aedeagus, a, long and conspicuous, pale, at apex
suddenly narrowed into a slender point. Phallosome, p, a broad suboval plate,
its outer end slightly pointed, the surface with abundant setae.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 2, carded with type. Paratopotypes, 5 ¢ 9, with
the type.

The structure of the male terminalia will at once separate this fly from the
numerous Australian species of the genus so far described. I am referring the
insect to the ruficollis subgroup with considerable doubt, since all other species
hitherto placed therein have two dististyles. The presence of a single dististyle
in the species discussed above and in Molophilus taylorinus, n. sp., is much as in
the genus Tasiocera and in the otherwise very different Molophilus monostylus
Alexander, of Chile.

MoLoPpHILUS TAYLORINUS, n. sp. Fig. 37.

Belongs to the gracilis group, ruficollis subgroup; general coloration black,
including the antennae and halteres; wings strongly tinged with blackish; male
terminalia with the caudal margin of the tergite trilobed; a single dististyle,
appearing as an elongate simple rod, the base dilated and provided with abundant
long erect setae.

g.—Length about 2-8-3 mm.; wing, 3-5-4 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae black throughout, short, if bent back-
ward not attaining the wing-root; flagellar segments oval, with conspicuous
verticils. Head black, sparsely grey pruinose.

Thorax entirely black, very sparsely pruinose. Halteres black throughout.
Legs with the coxae black; trochanters dark brown; remainder of legs brownish-
black. Wings with a strong blackish tinge, the veins even darker coloured;
macrotrichia black. Venation: R. in transverse alignment with r-m, or even
slightly proximad of this point; petiole of cell M, relatively short, only about

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 335

one-half longer than m-cu; vein 2nd A ending about opposite the posterior end
of m-cu.

Abdomen, including terminalia, black. Male terminalia (Fig. 37) with the
caudal margin of tergite, 9f, conspicuously trilobed, the median lobule smaller and
with shorter, more dense setae than the laterals. Basistyle, b, with the only
developed lobe (ventral) terminating in a small obtuse darkened lobule, the
remainder of lobe with long coarse setae. A single well-developed dististyle, d,
appearing as a simple elongate rod from a dilated base, the distal two-thirds
gradually narrowed to a subacute point; basal enlargement provided with very
abundant, long, erect setae that are longer than the diameter of style at point
of insertion; apex of rod with a group of elongate setae. Phallosomic plate, p, with
numerous setulae.

Holotype, ¢, Wau, New Guinea, altitude 3,400 feet, 18 December, 1933 (F. H.
Taylor). Paratopotypes, 2 ¢, one of which is carded with the type.

This very distinct species of Molophilus is named in honour of the collector,
Mr. Frank H. Taylor, who has done so much to make known the Dipterous fauna
of eastern New Guinea. The species is readily distinguished from other generally
similar black species by the peculiar structure of the male terminalia, notably of
the dististyle.

MOoLOPHILUS CONCUSSUS, n. sp. Fig. 38.

Belongs to the gracilis group, ruficollis subgroup; general coloration dark
brown; antennae short, the basal segment of flagellum pale; halteres and legs
black; wings strongly tinged with blackish; male terminalia with the tergite
trilobed; two dististyles, the outer one very small; inner dististyle elongate, its
distal fourth with scabrous points, at near two-thirds the length bearing a powerful
glabrous spine.

d6.—Length, 3-5 mm.; wing, 4mm. 9%.—Length, 4 mm.; wing, 4:5 mm.

In its general appearance, very similar to Molophilus unistylus, differing
especially in the structure of the male hypopygium.

Antennae black, the basal segment of flagellum paler; verticils long and
conspicuous. Coloration of mesonotum and pleura more brownish, without distinct
grey pruinosity. Halteres dark throughout. Wings with a strong blackish tinge;
veins darker; trichia black. Venation: R, lying shortly beyond the level of r-m;
petiole of cell M., long, approximately three times m-cu; vein 2nd A ending just
before level of posterior end of m-cu.

Abdomen, including terminalia, black. Male terminalia (Fig. 38) with the
tergite, 9t, trilobed medially, the central lobe a little lower. Two terminal
dististyles, the outer, od, very small, scarcely one-fourth the length of the inner
style, id; the latter elongate, its distal fourth with scabrous points; at near two-
thirds the length bearing a powerful glabrous spine, at near one-third the length
with a small conical point that bears several spinulae in its axil. Aedeagus,
a, long and conspicuous. Phallosomic plate, p, more or less heart-shaped or suboval,
the surface with microscopic setulae.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 9, carded with type.

Molophilus concussus, while very similar in its general appearance to
M. unistylus, n. sp., is entirely different in the structure of the male terminalia.
The possibility exists that the female carded with the type of M. concussus and
referred to above as allotype of this species in reality pertains to M. wnistylus.

336 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V,

MOLOPHILUS ATERRIMUS, nN. sp. Fig. 39.

Belongs to the gracilis group, ruficollis subgroup; general coloration deep
velvety-black, the pronotum and lateral pretergites china-white; knobs of halteres
white; wings blackish, the prearcular field abruptly white; male terminalia with
two simple dististyles of approximately equal shape and size.

6-—Length about 3-2-3-5 mm.; wing, 4-45 mm. 9%—Length about 4 mm.;
wing, 5 mm.

Rostrum and palpi black. Antennae black throughout, of moderate length, if
bent backward extending to a short distance beyond the wing-root; flagellar
segments oval. Head black.

Pronotum and lateral pretergites pure china-white. Mesonotum entirely and
uniformly deep velvety-black, the humeral region of praescutum more polished.
Pleura, including propleura and pleurotergite, deep velvety-black. Halteres with
basal half of stem blackened, the outer half pale, the knobs white. Legs entirely
black. Wings with a strong blackish tinge, the prearcular field abruptly white;
veins brown, very pale in the prearcular field; macrotrichia black. Costal fringe
relatively long and conspicuous. Venation: R, lying opposite or just before level
of r-m; petiole of cell M, about two and one-half times m-cu; vein 2nd A relatively
short, ending distinctly before level of m-cu.

Abdomen, including terminalia, black. Male terminalia (Fig. 39) with apical
lobe of basistyle, b, unarmed. Two dististyles of approximately similar length and
shape, both slender and simple, the tips acute; outer style, od, before tip with two
or three small tubercles or spines and several long erect setae; inner style, id.
more curved on distal fourth, with long setae on outer margin before apex.
Aedeagus, a, elongate. Phallosomic plate, p, oval, the surface with abundant
setulae.

In the female, the amount of white on the pronotum and pretergites is more
restricted, the knobs of halteres more yellowish-white, and the prearcular cells
only insensibly brightened. Valves of ovipositor yellowish horn-colour.

Holotype, g, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, ?. Paratopotype, 3g, carded with type; 1 separate d.

The deep black colour, white knobs of halteres, china-white pronotum and
pretergites, pale wing-bases, and structure of the male terminalia, readily separate
the present fly from the very numerous species of the genus now known from
the Australasian region.

TASIOCERA PAPUANA, Dn. Sp. Fig. 40.

General coloration pale brown; antennae pale, especially the apical pedicels;
legs black; male terminalia with the dististyle apical in position, relatively stout
and straight; phallosome complex, appearing as a depressed pale plate that
terminates in a small median point; a pair of strong black spines near base of
phallosome.

dg.—Length about 3 mm.; wing, 4 mm.

Rostrum and palpi brown. Antennae (9) elongate, as normal for the sex in
this genus, fully one-half longer than body; flagellar segments chiefly pale,
especially the apical pedicels. Head pale brown.

Thorax, including pleura, almost uniformly pale-brown. MHalteres dusky, the
knobs blackened. Legs with the coxae and trochanters brownish testaceous;
remainder of legs black, including all tarsi. Wings subhyaline, the veins only a
trifle darker than the ground-colour; trichia brown; costal fringe long and
conspicuous; anal fringe very long.

1

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 33

Abdomen pale brown. Male terminalia (Fig. 40) with the dististyle, d,
terminal in position, relatively stout and straight, the extreme tip broken in
type; before the apical point a small obtuse knob. Phallosome, p, very complex,
as usual in the genus, appearing about as figured, consisting of a depressed pale
plate, the apex of which is further produced into a small obtuse median point,
around and cephalad of which are some powerful setae. A pair of powerful
black spines, as illustrated, are distinctive of this species in comparison with
the numerous Australian and New Zealand species now described.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Among the rather numerous species of TJasiocera in eastern Australia,
including Tasmania, that have the dististyle of the male terminalia apical in
position (including axillaris Alexander, bipennata Alexander, bucephala Alexander,
caudifera Alexander, dicksoniae Alexander, dorrigensis Alexander, gracillicornis
Skuse, nodulifera Alexander, otwayensis Alexander and taylori Alexander), the
present fly differs conspicuously in the structure of the terminalia, especially of
the dististyle and phallosome.

TASIOCERA TARSALBA, n. Sp. Fig. 41.

General coloration dark brown; wings with vein 2nd A apparently lacking,
at most represented by a thickening of the axillary border far basad of the level
of the arculus; male terminalia with a slender, finger-like lobe on caudal border
of the apparent tergite; dististyle apical in position, relatively slender.

d6.—Length about 2-6 mm.; wing, 3:3 mm.

Rostrum and palpi brown. Antennae brownish-black throughout; in male,
longer than body, as in the genus. Head brown.

Mesonotum dark brown, the pleura a little paler. Halteres black throughout.
Legs with the coxae and trochanters testaceous-brown; femora and tibiae brownish-
black, the tarsi snowy-white, only the bases a trifle infumed; ground-colour of
tibiae chiefly pale but with dark vestiture. Wings with a uniform dusky tinge;
veins dark brown; trichia black. Venation: R.,,,, present as a short element;
inner end of cell R; lying more basad than cell R,; inner end of cell ist M,
strongly arcuated, with m-cu at the fork of M; vein 2nd A apparently lacking,
evident only as a thickening of the axillary border that ends far before the level
of the arculus.

Abdomen, including terminalia, black. Male terminalia (Fig. 41) with the
caudal margin of the apparent tergite, 9t, produced into a slender, finger-like
median lobe that is covered with delicate setulae. Dististyle, d, apical, relatively
slender, at apex more narrowed and gently decurved to the subacute tip.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Tasiocera tarsalba is readily distinguished from all other described members
of the genus by the snowy-white tarsi. The tail-like extension of the caudal border
of the apparent tergite of the male terminalia is somewhat as in TJ. caudifera
Alexander (New South Wales) yet quite different in its conformation and
vestiture.

TOXORHINA (CERATOCHEILUS) FUMIPENNIS, h. sp. Figs. 31, 42.
Mesonotal praescutum brownish-yellow, darker medially; head light grey,
with a conspicuous rectangular blackened area on vertex; legs black; wings with
a strong brownish tinge; anterior branch of Rs moderately oblique, gently sinuous;

338 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. V,

cell M, open; abdominal tergites brownish-black, the terminal sternites paler
brown; male terminalia with a single dististyle that is produced into an acute
spinous point on its outer margin before midlength.

o6.—Length, excluding rostrum, 35-4 mm.; wing, 5-56 mm.; rostrum,
SreSer 1W0eD,

Rostrum black. Antennae black throughout. Head light grey, with a very
conspicuous, rectangular black mark extending from the occiput to the anterior
vertex, touching the inner margins of eyes at the latter point.

Cervical region brownish-black. Mesonotal praescutum rich brownish-yellow
to fulvous, more infuscated medially and behind but without distinct or evident
stripes; scutal lobes dark brown, the median area paler; posterior sclerites of
mesonotum brown. Dorsal pleurites and membrane infuscated, the ventral sclerites
brownish-yellow. Halteres obscure yellow, the knobs darkened. Legs with the
tore coxae darkened, remaining coxae and all trochanters yellow; remainder of
legs black. Wings (Fig. 31) with a strong and almost uniform brown tinge;
veins brownish-black. Costal fringe moderately long and dense; numerous macro-
trichia on veins Rs, R;, M,,. and M,; no trichia on anterior branch of Rs. Venation:
Anterior branch of Rs moderately oblique, gently sinuous; cell M, open; m-cu
at fork of M.

Abdominal tergites brownish-black, the sternites and terminalia somewhat
paler brown. Male terminalia (Fig. 42) with a single dististyle, d, that is apical
in position, the rostral portion produced into a spatulate blade, the heel portion
produced into an acute blackened spine. Branches of the aedeagus, a, about equal
in length to the interbasal plates, i.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Paratopotype, gd.

The only close regional ally of the present fly is Toxorhina (Ceratocheilus)
birdi Alexander (north-eastern New Guinea), which differs conspicuously in the
coloration of the body and wings; the venation, especially the erect anterior
branch of Rs; and the entirely distinct male terminalia.

TOXORHINA (TOXORHINA) TRILINEATA, Nl. Sp.

General coloration grey, the praescutum with three conspicuous, dark brown
stripes; scutellum dark brown, its posterior border more reddish-brown; legs
brownish-black; wings greyish, the prearcular field light yellow; Sc short, Se,
ending some distance before origin of Rs; cell M. open; abdominal tergites
uniformly dark brown, sternites obscure brownish-yellow.

©.—Length, excluding rostrum, about 6 mm.; wing, 6 mm.; rostrum about
4-7 mm.

Rostrum unusually long, black. Antennae black throughout. Head dark grey,
clearer grey on anterior vertex and posterior orbits.

Cervical sclerites and pronotum dark brown. Mesonotal praescutum grey,
with three conspicuous dark-brown stripes that are entirely separate from one
another; posterior interspaces slightly more infumed; scutal lobes dark brown, the
median area paler; scutellum dark brown, its posterior border more reddish-
brown; mediotergite clear grey. Pleura grey, the posterior sclerites somewhat
more infumed. MHalteres pale, the knobs weakly darkened. Legs with the fore
coxae dark grey, the remaining coxae obscure yellow; trochanters brownish-
yellow, darkened at tips; remainder of legs brownish-black. Wings almost
uniformly tinged with greyish, the prearcular field light yellow; veins dark brown.

BY C. P. ALEXANDER. 339

Venation: Sc short, Sc, ending some distance before origin of Rs, the distance on
costa nearly equal to r-m; cell M, open; m-cu just beyond fork of M.

Abdominal tergites uniformly dark brown, the sternites obscure brownish-
yellow, the subterminal segments more darkened. Ovipositor with genital shield
darkened, the long slender cerci horn-coloured.

Holotype, 9, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor).

Toxorhina (Toxorhina) trilineata is entirely different from the only other
regional species, 7. (7.) suttoni, n. sp.

TOXORHINA (TOXORHINA) SUTTONI, N. Sp. Figs. 32, 43.

Mesonotum black, the humeral region of praescutum yellow, the lateral
borders more velvety-black; pleura yellow; knobs of halteres infuscated; legs
black; wings with a dusky tinge; Sc, ending a short distance beyond origin of Rs;
abdominal tergites dark brown, sternites yellow, in the male with the subterminal
two segments dark brown; male terminalia yellow, with two dististyles, the outer
a slender, strongly sigmoid blade.

d.—Length, excluding rostrum, about 4-2-4-5 mm.; wing, 5-5-6 mm.; rostrum,
3:3-3:5 mm. 9—Length, excluding rostrum, about 6 mm.; wing, 6 mm.; rostrum
about 3-8 mm.

Rostrum black. Antennae black throughout. Head grey, more blackish or
blackish-grey on the posterior vertex, the front and orbits light grey.

Cervical region and pronotum yellow. Mesonotum black, the humeral region
of the praescutum yellow; lateral borders of praescutum and scutum more velvety-
black; median region of scutum and the scutellum more brownish. Pleura entirely
yellow. Halteres pale, the knobs infuscated. Legs with the coxae yellow, the fore
coxae weakly infuscated on outer faces; trochanters yellow; remainder of legs
black. Wings (Fig. 32) with a rather strong dusky tinge; veins black. Venation:
Se, ending a short distance beyond origin of Rs; cell M, open; m-cu at or shortly
before fork of M.

Abdominal tergites dark brown; sternites yellow, the subterminal two
segments in male dark brown; terminalia yellow. Male terminalia (Fig. 43)
with two dististyles, the outer, od, a slender, strongly sigmoid, flattened blade, the
tip acute. Inner dististyle, id, broader, at near midlength on outer margin with a
small curved spine. Interbases appearing as pale blades, the apices obliquely
truncated. Arms of aedeagus, a, relatively short.

Holotype, ¢, Edie Creek, New Guinea, altitude 6,550 feet, February, 1935
(F. H. Taylor). Allotopotype, 9, carded with type. Paratopotype, 2.

I take very great pleasure in naming this distinct species of Toxorhina in
honour of Professor Harvey Sutton, to whom I express my indebtedness for many
favours in the past. The species is very different from 7. (T.) trilineata, n. sp.,
in all diagnostic features listed above.

STYRINGOMYIA SPINICAUDATA, Nn. sp. Fig. 44.

General coloration pale testaceous-brown, the mesonotum without distinct
markings; flagellum pale yellow throughout; femora yellow, the fore and middle
pair with two scarcely indicated dark rings, the posterior pair quite immaculate;
wings with a strong uniformly yellow tinge, immaculate; male terminalia with
the outer dististyle expanded, the surface with numerous long black spines.

6.—Length about 5-5 mm.; wing, 4 mm.

340 DIPTERA OF THE TERRITORY OF NEW GUINEA. Y.

Rostrum pale brown, palpi a little darker. Antennae with scape and pedicel .
dark brown; flagellum pale yellow throughout. Head pale testaceous-brown, setae
unmodified.

Pronotum whitish. Mesonotum almost uniform pale testaceous-brown to
yellowish-brown, without evident markings and with normal setae. Pleura
testaceous yellow. Halteres pale, the knobs weakly dusky. Legs with the coxae
and trochanters yellow; femora yellow, the fore and middle pair with very faint
indications of darker rings, the posterior femora entirely immaculate; tibiae
yellow, the tips and a narrow ring before midlength pale brown; tibiae yellow,
the tips of the individual segments very insensibly darkened. Wings with a
strong, uniformly yellow tinge, immaculate; veins slightly deeper yellow than
the ground but pale and ill-delimited. Costal fringe very long and conspicuous.
Venation: Anterior branch of Rs oblique; cell 2nd M, short-petiolate; m-cu more
than its own length beyond fork of M; vein 2nd A simple.

Abdomen yellow; caudal borders of segments narrowly darkened; terminalia
yellow. Male terminalia (Fig. 44) with apex of tenth tergite broadly obtuse, with
abundant golden setae. Ninth sternite, 9s, broad at apex, rather deeply emarginate,
the outer lateral setae not especially modified. Basistyle, b, terminating in a
single, relatively short spine from a swollen base. Dististyle complex, the outer
arm expanded, its surface with more than thirty long black spines that extend
distad almost to outer end of arm; more of these long slender spines grouped at
extreme base of arm; inner arm, id, a broadly flattened plate, having an irregular
outline, the surface, and especially the margin, with unusually long black spines,
the outer peripheral ones very long, several of them strongly curved and bent.

Holotype, g, Wau, New Guinea, altitude 3,400 feet, 18 December, 1934 (F. H.
Taylor).

Styringomyia spinicaudata belongs to the group of species with entirely
immaculate wings, such species centring about S. flava Brunetti. From all these
species, none of which had been reported previously from the Australasian Region,
the present fly is distinguished by the immaculate posterior femora, and, especially,
the structure of the male terminalia, notably of the dististyle.

' ; 1
r
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i
i
af Pe i; is
Be
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Mir relly, (eyidakis mea et Ren ces ell nie)

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= XVII.

PLATI

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1936.

TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.
1858-1934.

(Memorial Series, No. 6.)
(With Portrait.)

An accomplished scholar, inspiring teacher, intrepid explorer, enthusiastic
geologist, devoted patriot, generous in purse and person for a good cause, few
men have displayed such versatile gifts in many-sided achievements as Tannatt
William Edgeworth David; known to his own people as Edgeworth, to his wife
as Twed, and to an applauding public as ‘Professor’. Race, parentage, birth-place,
teachers, all contributed to that notable combination of mental, moral and
physical attributes that went to the making of him who was so widely known
and acclaimed as the Knight Hrrant of Science.

His father was the Rey. William David, M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford,
and Rector of St. Fagan’s, near Cardiff, Glamorganshire. Sprung from a long
line of David-ap-Davids, whose genealogies and traditions were subjects of his
literary researches, he, with unusual parental devotion, used his scholarship in
the early teaching of his three sons, of whom Edgeworth was the first-born. The
influence of this fine start was shown in the lad’s love of good poetry, as also in
his success in the classics that accompanied his school and college career.

His mother was Margaret Harriet Thomson, daughter of a distinguished
military officer in Quebec, whose ancestry included two notable branches—Ussher
and Edgeworth. The former was famous for that Archbishop of Armagh, whose
quaint ‘Chronologia Sacra’, published in 1686, was the accepted authority on
Cosmic history in orthodox circles until recent times. The latter branch, of
which David was, very naturally, proud, contained the distinguished names of
Maria Edgeworth and the saintly Abbé Edgeworth, memorable for that last
service and salute to his unfortunate King, Louis XVI.

The combination of Scotch, Irish and Welsh in his ancestry deserves notice.*
Tannatt Houston Thomson (Scotch) m. Margaret Ussher (Irish)

Margaret Harriet Thomson m. William David (Welsh)

Tannatt William Rtsersantin David

St. Fagan’s itself was interesting scenically and historically: scenically, for
nowhere in Wales are the mountains far distant; historically, as the scene of a
battle in Cromwellian days, amongst many other local traditions, in which the
Celtic imagination of the youthful Edgeworth revelled. The neighbouring Brecon
Hills were also the scene of his earliest field work in geology.

From his father’s tuition he passed on to Magdalen College School, Oxford,
of which he rose to be head boy, as well as captain of a successful football team

*This is amongst the records that Lady David has generously allowed me to
borrow from her own ‘Life of Sir Edgeworth David’, now in the press.

K

342 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

and of the boats. From earliest days David was a natural student, with a mind ~
avid of knowledge, ever open to the best and singularly closed to the grosser
things of life, then, as throughout his career. The teaching here, as in most
English schools of that day, was chiefly founded on Latin and Greek. Mathematics
was tolerated, modern languages and science were trivial playgrounds to the
majority, in which schoolboy ingenuity of evasion was given free scope. That
Science came later as a coping stone to this literary structure was, in fact, no
handicap to David, as also in the case of Darwin. For both men, the literary
training resulted in the more effective interpretation of Science to the lay world,
since the influence of such men lay greatly in the popular interest aroused, as
well as in the matters technically discussed by scientific colleagues. To the
teacher David, this special culture was of immeasurable advantage. The boy
seems to have completely won the respect and affection of his school, as also,
later, of his college, teachers. Here, for example, is a sentence from a letter
from the Headmaster of Magdalen College School to his father: ‘There could
scarcely have been a better specimen of English boyhood; this in character,
manners and scholarship.” He opened his Oxford career by winning the Senior
Scholarship in Classics at New College, and was described to me by a fellow
undergraduate as ‘‘an exceptionally fresh-complexioned, good-looking chap, known
in the College as ‘David the Psalmist’”. Whatever he did, he did with his whole
soul. Thus, while working hard—too hard as it proved—he had taken con amore
to the boats, showing his physical stamina, so often displayed in later days, by
rowing ‘bow’ of his college eight, and also of a successful four, in which the
well-known Sydney citizen Mr. Consett Stephen was ‘cox’. The oar, then wielded
so effectively, still adorns his Waitara home. He obtained a first class in Honour
Mods., the essential test of classical scholarship at Oxford. But he had overrun
his strength, and a rude interruption came to his University work when his
doctor ordered complete rest. A short trip to America gave little respite and, with
his father’s help and advice, he took the long voyage, by sailing ship, to Melbourne.
After his return he was only allowed to read for the ordinary degree, which he
took in 1880. This later phase of University life, however, contained the
significant factor—a course in Geology under Professor Sir Joseph Prestwich.
Probably this course was suggested by what appears to have been the first spark
lit in his geological enthusiasm by a relative, William Ussher, a geologist whose
field work in the neighbourhood of St. Fagan’s found an ardent coadjutor in his
young cousin. Returning home from Oxford, and quick to take advantage of
this new light, he set about the study of glacial action in South Wales. The
result of this was the publication of his first scientific paper, “Evidences of Glacial
Action in the Neighbourhood of Cardiff’, by the Cardiff Naturalists’ Society in
1881. For this and other scientific contributions, the Freedom of the City of
Cardiff was conferred on him—a memorable honour to so young a man.

By this time David appears to have definitely decided on his profession,
resisting considerable parental pressure to enter the church, not without incurring
grave suspicions of spiritual or doctrinal deficiencies. A further temporary flirting
with the idea of Medicine ended with the continuation of the study of Geology
at the Royal School of Mines under Professor Judd and Professor Boyd-Dawkins
of Owens College, Manchester. In 1882 he was selected by Sir Henry Parkes, then
in England, for an appointment on the staff of the late C. S. Wilkinson, of the
Geological Survey of New South Wales, and booked his passage by the Orient
S.S. ‘Potosv’. By one of those freaks of destiny this voyage was momentous, since

9

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 343

the lady who was to share, and greatly influence, a long life with him was a
fellow passenger. Sir Henry Parkes had also selected Miss Caroline Mallett as
head of the Hurlstone Training College for State teachers. Each of these unusual
migrants had been advised of the other, but for some time failed to recognize
the proverbial man of science and the stern preceptress in the guise of attractive
youth. The romance, thus begun, developed into a very real and lasting happiness.
Not only did Mrs. David—they were married in July, 1885—greatly help her
husband by her firm, unvarying belief in his ability, but, as he became more and
more absorbed in his work, regardless of his own material interests and comfort,
it was she who protected hearth and home. One remembers her, too, as the
social centre of science congresses, as at Hobart in 1892 and Dunedin in 1904,
and then, as today, a leader of important movements. She also accompanied
him on his early survey camps, encouraging his prentice hand and voice in
lectures on his work—overcoming an extreme shyness and diffidence characteristic
of his early days. Indeed, her influence was largely responsible for his finding
the courage to accept the new Chair of Geology at the University of Sydney to
which he was appointed in 1891. During the nine years of his Government work,
David investigated the fossiliferous Silurian beds of Yass, and surveyed the rich
tin-bearing leads of New England, on which he wrote an exhaustive memoir in
1887. But most important of all were his researches in the Hunter River coal-
fields and his tracing of the famous Maitland—Cessnock coal-seams, which have
added almost incalculable wealth to the State. He himself probably found far
greater interest in the fauna and flora of the Permo-Carboniferous strata, while
his first love of glacial phenomena found ample scope for investigation. Later, as
Professor, he took a party of students during vacation to Maitland to test his
theory of the approach of the Greta coal-seam to the surface. Arriving at the
selected spot they were met by an obstinate farmer who objected to holes being
made in his land. Only by diplomacy and a promise to restore the status quo
was the experiment permitted. At 30 feet the Professor had foretold the evidence—-
and there it was. So various and voluminous were his activities in these coal-
fields that long after he had ceased his connection with the Department his
services were requisitioned. Here is an example that came directly under the
present writer’s notice. In 1904 David was President of the Dunedin meeting
of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. After a frantic
rush of condensed work during the active week of this congress, his wife and
friends had hoped that he could enjoy some rest in the social and scenic side of
things that went with the second week of the meeting. Alas, a wire from
EK. F. Pittman came to remind him of certain unfinished reports on the coal-fields,
and, with Spartan self-denial, he promptly left these premeditated joys to take
the first boat back to Sydney to pass his vacation in monotonous work. His
presidential address for this meeting—begun on the boat from Sydney—was only
completed by an all-night sitting, preceding its delivery in our joint lodgings.

At the University David soon showed himself to be a galvanic force of
inspiration to an important and growing school of geologists. Amongst his many
gifts was great talent as a draughtsman and artist. This, combined with his
glowing enthusiasm, first-hand knowledge and natural sympathy with youth, made
him an extraordinarily forceful teacher, and the lucid and copious lessons of the
lecture room were supplemented by courses of field work, conducted by himself
and Mrs. David. Many an active student was worn with fatigue while the
indefatigable professor set the pace, apparently little hampered by a weighty

344 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

bag of specimens and geological hammer. This enthusiasm was passed on—it is —
the hall-mark of a great teacher—to a long procession of able geologists, who have
filled important posts in Australia. Andrews, Benson, Browne, Cotton, Jensen,
Mawson, Simpson, Sussmilch, Walkom, Ward, Woolnough provide an index of the
standard of the school initiated by David.

In 1897 he led the second expedition to Funafuti, in the Ellice Islands, to
test the Darwinian hypothesis of the structure of coral reefs. Raising private
subscriptions—himself largely contributing—and obtaining from the Government
the loan of a complete drilling plant, together with a staff of competent workmen,
David, accompanied by his wife, a few volunteer students—including W. G.
Woolnough—sailed for Funafuti, where the reef was bored to a depth of 643 feet.
A further extension to 1,114 feet was carried out by A. E. Finckh. The core from
this bore was investigated by a special committee in England and a vast tome
records its report. This achievement was warmly acclaimed in the world of
science and the F.R.S. was awarded to the leader of the expedition, besides the
Bigsby Medal of the Geological Society of London. A delightful description of
the island and its people is contained in another volume, ‘Funafuti’, by Mrs. David.

From 1897 to 1907 David was attracted to the evidence of glacial action on
the Kosciusko plateau, largely through the observations of Richard Helms in
1889 and 1893, who exhibited an ice-scratched block to this Society. Two papers
were published on this subject. The first, in March, 1901, in conjunction with
R. Helms and EH. F. Pittman, is entitled “Geological Notes on Kosciusko”, the
second, by himself, ‘Geological Notes on Kosciusko, with special reference to
Evidences of Glacial Action”. The latter was the outcome of a summer holiday
camp, in which Judge Docker—a first-rate photographer—took part. Roused by
the yarns of the guides of that period, as to the bottomless depth of the Blue
Lake, David showed his ingenuity and revived some traditions of boyhood by
devising a coracle for the taking of soundings. This coracle was made with
wreaths of gum twigs, wire netting, and an outer skin of American cloth. The
sounding line was a ball of string, measured off with coloured wool in foot lengths
and weighted with a pound of shot. The actual depths across the lake were thus
accurately taken. Many excellent stereoscopic photographs of this expedition
were taken by Judge Docker.

In 1906 he was asked by the Chief Secretary of the State of New South Wales
to represent the University of Sydney at the International Geological Congress
to be held in Mexico. Leaving Sydney in May, David took the opportunity of
visiting India to collect evidence of glacial action there, for a proposed paper
to be read at the Congress. As usual, he was laden with geological specimens,
which were given, or exchanged for others with various museums. Always the
claims of Science were uppermost in his mind. One touch of humour from
Mexico delighted us. President Diaz, wishing to do special honour to his
distinguished visitors, sent a force of Rurales (mounted troopers) with mettled
steeds, for a 12-mile excursion from Carrizal. Alas, few of the savants were
capable horsemen. David himself, though laden with umbrella, camera, geological
hammer and other impedimenta, survived this ordeal, but the landscape was
strewn with unhorsed geologists. Some 500 miles of Mexico were traversed before
this picturesque meeting was opened in state by the President himself, surrounded
by ambassadors and consuls.

In 1908 the Shackleton Expedition to Antarctica sounded the trumpet of
service. Chiefly through David’s personal advocacy, the Commonwealth Govern-

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 345

ment granted £5,000 to the Expedition, while he himself offered to make a long
vacation voyage on the ‘Nimrod’ for a brief glance at the South Land. Shackleton,
however, recognizing the great value of his presence, induced him to stay on as a
whole-time member. Here, at the mature age of 51, he accomplished two amazing
feats: (1) planning, and himself leading, the first climb of the 13,000 feet of
Mt. Erebus; standing, where never man had stood, on the edge of that vast crater,
after five days of strenuous and dangerous effort by six men, all of whom were
without special alpine experience; (2) with two younger companions, Mawson
and Mackay, achieving the discovery of the South Magnetic Pole—a journey of
1,260 miles—man-hauling two sledges of, at first, half a ton weight each. Seven
hundred and forty miles of this colossal tramp was relay work, since the three
men could only drag one sledge. Much of this arduous feat was over the heavily
crevassed Drygalski Glacier and hummocky ice, and included the climb from the
coast line to a plateau of 7,350 feet altitude. All three men were variously
recovered from crevasses, saved by their sledge harness from fatal injuries. Only
by amazing good fortune, and the thoughtful devotion of Captain Evans of the
‘Nimrod’, were the exhausted three found on their return to the coast in February,
1909. A party of his friends, assembled to welcome him on his return, at the
house of J. H. Maiden in the Botanic Gardens, noted an astonishing sea change
in his appearance. The hardship and starvation, followed immediately by plenty
and rest, had converted our ascetic looking professor into a full-faced man with
some rotundity of person—a passing phase of brief existence.

Much of his time.during the next few years was devoted to the study of the
Antarctic geological material, and in lecturing throughout the Commonwealth to
raise funds for the publication of the scientific work of the expedition. Later came
stalwart support of further Antarctic exploration, especially of Scott’s last
expedition, 1910-11, and of that Australasian expedition under Mawson—now Sir
Douglas—1911-12, and of the second Shackleton expedition of 1914-15.

The visit of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to
Australia in 1914 again called for strenuous exertions—a visit so tragically
curtailed and shadowed by the clouds of war. The geological members of this
were naturally his special interest. One of them, Councillor Penck, famous
amongst German geographers, was his particular guest, and David actually incurred
some unpleasant suspicions through his protective advocacy of this colleague.
Later, one learned that a phrase from a speech by David at this time, ‘All men
of Science are brothers”, was used as the motto of the Deutsche Entomologische
Institut, Berlin. But the war found no more ardent patriot than David. He
took an active part in a volunteer rifle club. He was unanimously chosen as
President of the Universal Service League of N.S.W., formed early in 1915, an
office only resigned for active service at the age of 58. For in 1916 he became
Major of the Australian Tunnellers, a battalion raised largely through his efforts
from miners and mining engineers. The eminent work of these men culminated
in the colossal upheaval of the Messines Ridge. But David had now been appointed
Geologist of the Line, to advise on suitable sites for underground work. In order
to procure accurate geological maps for his work he applied to his O.C. for a
permit to visit a Paris colleague, to receive the official reproach, “No joy-rides
allowed”, a reply which greatly touched his sense of humour. Later he won the
same high esteem in the Army that his services won everywhere. Besides the
military honour of D.S.O. with the rank of Lieut.-Colonel conferred on him,
here is an extract from a farewell letter to him from an officer at the Australian

346 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

Headquarters, France, on returning to Australia: “You have been a pattern to
us in courage, courtesy and tact, and, may I add, in unremitting hard work.” In
search of geologic truth, David used to descend the numerous wells of the war
area; and this nearly ended his life. A faulty windlass, or careless handling, led
to a fall of 80 feet into shallow water, a fall broken, to some extent, by the metal
bucket on which he was seated. To the astonishment of the young officer who
descended to the rescue, he was found alive, though badly injured—except in
his undaunted spirit; for he is said to have bidden the winders to “wind slowly,
since his passage down had been too rapid for accurate observation”. Returning
in 1919, he set himself the stupendous task of writing a work on the Geology
of a Continent. In order to concentrate on this, in 1924 he resigned his Chair
and was made Professor Emeritus by the Senate of the University. Henceforth,
when not actually working on the MSS., he spent himself and his resources in
exhausting journeys; now a trans-continental car journey to Marble Bar, ‘or
repeated trips to South Australia, refusing to travel by air, as unfavourable for
geological inspection. The latter were induced by the discovery of Pre-Cambrian
fossils, that set the dawn of life far back beyond the realms of recorded knowledge.
This discovery David himself declared to friends to be the most important geologic
event of his life, though their organic origin has been received with doubt in some
quarters.

In 1926 he again visited England, to consult authorities, interview publishers
and, incidentally, to attend the meeting of the British Association at Oxford in
August.

In 1933 he published his monumental Geologic Map of Australia, accompanied
by a volume of 178 pages of explanatory matter, as a preliminary section of his
greater uncompleted work. But the fires were burning low. Friends vainly
expostulated with this energetic cripple who, with painfully injured hip, the
sequel of the French well, hobbled or limped on his daily visit to the University.
A fall from a tram on the last of these journeys brought on an attack of pneumonia
and heart weakness to which his much-tried physique succumbed. He died in the
Prince Alfred Hospital, 28th August, 1934. The enormous assemblage that attended
the State funeral service at the Cathedral and the long procession to the Northern
Suburbs Crematorium afford some indication of the place that David held in the
hearts of our people.

Known to the world as a great geologist, he was even better known as a
leader of scientific thought and movement and as a popular interpreter of Science
to the layman. His versatile gifts made his requisition as a lecturer or speaker
so valuable that he was in constant request, and it was always difficult for him
to refuse. In 1902 he was selected by the State Government as one of the two
Commissioners to travel in Europe and America to report on all branches of
education; but when some discussion arose as to a third Commissioner, David
withdrew in favour of G. H. (later Sir George) Knibbs, whom, with his usual
modesty, he considered better fitted for the work. His achievements were
recognized by the honours showered upon him. He was made C.M.G. in 1910
and K.B.E. in 1920. In 1908 he was awarded the Mueller Medal of the A.A.A.S.;
in 1915 the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London, the Conrad
Malte-Brun Prize of the Geographical Society of France, and in 1919 the Clarke
Memorial Medal of the Royal Society of N.S.W. The honorary degree of Doctor
of Science was conferred on him by the Universities of Oxford, Wales, Manchester,

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 347

Cambridge and Sydney. The University of St. Andrews made him Honorary
Doctor of Laws.

Twice President of the Geological Section of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science (Hobart 1892, and Brisbane 1895), he was also
twice President of this Association (Dunedin 1904, and Melbourne 1913). He was
President of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1896 and 1909, and a
member of its Council for many years; President of our own Society 1893-1895,
and a member of its Council until his death; and President of the Australian
National Research Council 1921-22.

To his many friends, his achievements were but the flashes that illumined
the background of a rare personality, in which courage, courtesy, unselfishness,
modesty and humour were dominant. Of his courtesy there is the oft-told story
of his delayed request to Mawson for help, when fallen into a crevasse—delayed
since he was unwilling to disturb Mawson who was busy at photography.

His selflessness was phenomenal. Simple in his habits, he was the despair
of his family in matters of food and dress: often going without food all day when
any special work was on, and declining to waste time in visits to a tailor. His
habit of seeing the other fellow’s point of view came out in a story related only a
few days ago by his old fellow colleger, Mr. Consett Stephen. Before accepting
the Chair of Geology in 1891 he had some twinges of conscience as to the possible
breach of faith with the Government, and asked his legal friend to examine the
contract made between the Department and himself. After providing ample legal
sanction and freedom of tie in his report, David came to him with an anxious
face: “I think’, he said, “you haven’t been quite fair to the other side’, and
went on to argue their case, much to the amusement of the lawyer at this novel
form of client.

He was always ready to give full credit to others, as, for example, in the
Kosciusko observations of Richard Helms and in many speeches on work in
which another had the smallest share.

Here are extracts from the letters of two of his University students: (1) “He
was always so full of cheer and so full of charity, I always describe him as the
most Christian man I have ever come in contact with. Often I look at his picture
when I need courage to go forward, and then I think of his indomitable courage
and find I can go on willingly.”—(2) “Every right thought, every incentive for
good has come to me from my loved professor. . . . Everything good or decent
and honourable in myself has been brought out by his perfect example.” These—
and one could quote many of the like—are the records of a great teacher, whose
principles became ingrained in his moral fibres in those early days when he
learned from his prototype, ‘I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills whence cometh
my help”.

Amongst his mental endowments was a fine talent for drawing. Not only
was this a great instrument for demonstration in blackboard work in lectures,
but he could produce artistic sketches of scenes in real life, as he did in his home
letters from the war. Curiously, this was not accompanied as usual—especially
in the Welsh—by any musical sense, for he declared that he could only recognize
two tunes, “God Save the King” and “March of the Men of Harlech”. He loved
poetry and good literature with all the love of a Celtic bard, and his memory
was marvellous. Often would he quote not only phrases, but long passages from
his old favourites, Tennyson and Browning. One evening he recited, from memory,
the whole of ‘Oenone’, and I think the passage—

348 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

“Self reverence, self knowledge, self control,
These three alone lead life to sovereign power.

Acting the law we live by without fear;

And, because right is right, to follow right

Were wisdom in the scorn of consequence”
was the very warp and woof of his life.

In late years his greatest relaxation was to lie on the floor and read Dickens
to his grandchildren. A re-reading of Nicholas Nickleby was unfinished at his
death.

: We mourn his loss, but his life was joyous because so largely devoted to
things in which he was intensely interested. In this Society we knew him as a
genuine disciple of the great Linnaeus, in that Nature was to him the devised
plan of the Great Architect, in whose cosmic cathedrals he loved to worship in the
sense that those monks used the phrase “laborare est orare”’, and who did actually
see “sermons in stones; books in the running brooks’. After his Antarctic
experiences he would quote Newman’s “Lead, Kindly Light” as the refrain that
had helped to bring him through. He was a practical idealist, carrying out the
great things he planned, whether it was as a skilled craftsman repairing the boring
plant at Funafuti or in thinking out workable schemes for the conquest of Hrebus.

He was often wearied, dropping asleep when toiling on in the small hours, but
he was never bored; and he died as he had lived, in harness, carrying on in the
spirit of Ulysses—

“How dull it is to pause, to make an end,

To rust unburnish’d, not to shine in use!

As tho’ to breathe were life. Life piled on life

Were all too little, and of one to me

Little remains: but every hour is saved

From that Eternal Silence, something more,

A bringer of new things; and vile it were

For some three suns to store and hoard myself,

And this gray spirit yearning in desire

To follow knowledge, like a sinking star,

Beyond the utmost bound of human thought.”’
H.J.C.

As a teacher David had few equals. In the early days of his occupancy of
the Chair of Geology it fell to his lot to lecture on many branches of the science,
and even till his retirement he insisted on giving the lectures to the first year
class. No doubt there was much wisdom in this practice, since it is often in his
first year that a student’s orientation to his studies is definitely determined. And
David’s method of presentation of his subject was calculated to arrest the attention
and arouse the interest of the least enthusiastic. He was a firm believer in the
appeal to the eye as well as to the ear, and the spoken word was reinforced by
specimens, by lantern slides and, above all, by those inimitable and artistic
geological sections which used to grow as if by magic beneath his hand on the
capacious blackboards, to the accompaniment of a running comment of explanation.
A carefully-prepared synopsis of the lecture was invariably given out, but not
infrequently it was in large measure ignored.

Apart from the actual gain in knowledge, students at these lectures inevitably
got the impression of geology as a living and a growing science of absorbing
interest, in which great things were doing and to be done, and in whose advance-
ment each one of them might hope one day to play a part.

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 349

Further, no trouble was too great to be taken for a student who diffidently
sought help in difficulty. From the least to the greatest all were sure of the
same patient hearing, the same gracious courtesy, and the same careful elucidation
of the knotty point.

Privileged indeed were those who accompanied him on a field-excursion, for
on such occasions he was at his best. Many an old student cherishes pleasant
memories of the exploits and adventures incidental to a geology camp at
Gerringong, or Pokolbin, or Kosciusko, or some other place, where good geology
was seasoned with the good fellowship that emanated from the leader of the party.

Little wonder that under the spell of David’s personality many of his students
took up geology as a life-work and have made their mark in Australia or abroad.

In the field of geological research David’s interests were manifold, and he
belonged to a scientific type which in these days of specialization is almost extinct.
Indeed, it has been suggested that the spreading of his activities set limits to
the greatness of his scientific achievements, but there can be little doubt that the
wide range of his knowledge contributed materially to the breadth of his vision
and to his grasp of the essentials of geological problems.

As an economic geologist his chief claim to distinction rests upon his tracing
of the Greta coal-measures and the consequent economic development of the very
important South Maitland coalfield; but his record also includes the investigation
of the Vegetable Creek tinfield and—chiefly in conjunction with the late Mr. E. F.
Pittman—a study of the problems of the Great Australian Artesian Basin.

He was early attracted to problems of structural and tectonic geology, and in
many of his publications, with the aid of maps and sections, he has demonstrated
graphically and in striking fashion the outstanding structural features of the State
and the continent. An able summary of the chief tectonic lines of Australia is
contained in his Presidential Address to the Royal Society of New South Wales,
delivered in 1911.

In stratigraphical geology his greatest—as it was almost his earliest—interest
was in the Permo-Carboniferous System, which had been the subject of his chief
investigation when he was a member of the Geological Survey. Later, after the
discovery of glacial beds at Seaham, he became a keen and active student of the
problems of Carboniferous stratigraphy. Nor were his stratigraphical interests
confined to this State. It was at his suggestion that the great sequence of strata
overlying the pre-Cambrian schists in South Australia was detached from the
Cambrian System and established as a separate Proterozoic Series. Indeed, there
are few of the geological systems as developed in Australia to the knowledge of
which he did not make important contributions.

The interest in glaciation which he first displayed in his native Wales remained
with him throughout his life. The list of his papers on subjects connected with
Australian glaciology is a long one; many of his contributions appear in the
Reports of the Glacial Committee of Section C of the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science. Of this committee he was Secretary from its
inception in 1892 till the time of his death, and no inconsiderable portion of its
reports really represents the results of work carried out by himself alone or in
conjunction with his friend and colleague, Professor W. Howchin. His investiga-
tions included the South Australian Proterozoic tillites as well as the Permian
tillites, etc., of South and Western Australia and New South Wales, and the
Pleistocene deposits of Tasmania and Kosciusko.

350 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

A very fruitful line of research was opened up as a result of his discovery
in 1914, while leading a British Association excursion, of glacial tillite at Seaham,
near Maitland. Researches originating from this discovery have proved the
existence of a great ice-age in Carboniferous time in Australia, the traces of
which in New South Wales are now known to extend from the Hunter Valley
for at least 120 miles northwards.

Outside Australia he made important contributions to our knowledge of the
glacial geology of Antarctica, as well as of its physiography and general geology.

His services on the Western Front in the Great War are too well known to
need recapitulation. A great variety of problems had to be solved, such as the
finding of material for roads and concrete-making, the provision of water supplies,
and, above all, the selecting of sites for trenches, dugouts and mine-tunnels. These
last called for very close and detailed study of the dry and water-bearing strata,
and of the seasonal fluctuations of the water-table, as well as of structural features
such as folds and faults. The success of his labours, in the face of many difficulties,
is a tribute no less to his tireless energy and indomitable will-power than to his
geological ability.

In his geological research, as in all the other activities of his busy life,
David combined with a passion for meticulous detail a broad and philosophic
outlook. These characteristics, which would have gone far to bring him to
eminence in any walk of life, were no doubt inherent in the man, but they had
been nourished and strengthened by his early training, and it is no exaggeration
to say that he was all the greater geologist because he was a classical scholar
and had steeped himself in the literature and imbibed the thought-habits of the
best thinkers and the best writers of ancient and modern times.

In spite of the immense amount of actual geological investigation he accom-
plished it is probable that his best contribution to Australian geology came through
the exercise of his faculty for taking the long view, and for correlating and linking
up geological formations far apart geographically. This faculty is particularly
necessary in Australia, where most of the geological work has been carried on,
more or less inevitably, within the water-tight compartments of State boundaries.
Not once nor twice has the remark been made that comparison of State geological
maps shows the curious feature of geological strata abruptly truncated by inter-
State border-lines. It was David’s happy privilege to do much to break down
these unnatural barriers to geological progress, and his New Geological Map of
the Commonwealth, published in 1932, embodies the first attempt on a large scale
to represent the geological formations of the whole of Australia by a uniform set
of symbols.

Here is the testimony of Sir Thomas Holland, given before the Geological
Society of London in February, 1934: “Australia, alone among the Dominions, has
no Commonwealth Geological Survey. Providence has, however, lent it temporarily
the services of Sir Edgeworth David, who is possibly the only man living who
could have correlated the scattered State Records to produce a Geological Map of
the whole Commonwealth like that which he published two years ago.”

The bringing of the details of Australian geological history into correlation
with those of other parts of the world also engaged much of his attention, and it
was largely this outstanding characteristic of his work that commended it to the
attention of overseas geologists. It is true that on occasion his enthusiasm—
one might almost say his passion—for correlation led him into mistakes, an

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 351

almost inevitable happening, but no one was ever more ready than he to
acknowledge and forsake error.

A word must be said about an investigation which in later years called forth
all his characteristic unwearying and persistent enthusiasm. For many years he
had envisaged the possibility that the rocks of the pre-Cambrian Adelaide Series
of South Australia might yield fossil evidences of contemporary life, but it was
not till 1928 that his quest was rewarded by the discovery of what he regarded
with confidence as casts of animal fossils. A preliminary paper on some of these
appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia for 1928;
with the aid of grants from the Royal Society of London, much excavation was
done and many more specimens were obtained. A monograph on some of these
forms was written by David in conjunction with Dr. R. J. Tillyard, and has
recently appeared in print.

The task that absorbed most of the energy of his later years, however, was
that of writing a book on the Geology of the Commonwealth. Originally projected
as far back as 1914, and even earlier, the work was interrupted by the Great War
and was resumed as circumstances permitted after David’s return to Australia.
Eventually the plan for a one-volume book, which was well on towards completion,
was abandoned in favour of a more detailed work of three volumes. Many years
were devoted to the patient accumulation and examination of material for what
would unquestionably have been a monumental work, but unfortunately it was
never finished. It is pleasing to know, however, that, through the action of the
New South Wales Government in acquiring the manuscript and making arrange-
ments for its completion and publication, the fruits of a long life’s labours are
not to be lost.

Of David it might be said, as it was of Goldsmith, Nihil tetigit quod non
ornavit. For certainly there is no branch of geological science to which he turned
his attention that is not the richer for his researches. In no small degree will
our knowledge of Australian geology be built on the foundations he has so well
and faithfully laid, and his work and his example will long remain to kindle the
enthusiasm and inspire the efforts of future workers.

W.R.B.

LIST OF PAPERS BY T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID.

1881.
Evidences of Glacial Action in the Neighbourhood of Cardiff. Trans. Cardiff Naturalists’
Soc., pp. 1-19.
1883.
Evidences of Glacial Action in South Brecknockshire and East Glamorganshire. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., Xxxix, pp. 39-54.
Report on the Fossiliferous Beds at Yass. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W. for 1882,
p. 148, with map.

1884-1892.
Progress Reports for 1883-1891. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W. (1883), pp. 155-157;
(1884), pp. 153-155; (1885), pp. 136-140; (1886), pp. 144-166; (1887), pp. 145-154;
(1888), pp. 164-176; (1889), pp. 209-233; (1890), pp. 219-260; (1891), pp. 217-248.

1886.
Notes on some Points of Basalt Eruption in New South Wales. Trans. Geol. Soc.
Australia, i, pt. 1, pp. 24-30.
1887.
Geology of the Vegetable Creek Tin-mining Field, New England District. Mem. Geol.
Surv. N.S.W., No. 1.
On the Evidence of Glacial Action in the Carboniferous and Hawkesbury Series, New
South Wales. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xliii, pp. 190-196.

352 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

1888.

Notes on (a) The Occurrence of Basalt-glass (Tachylyte) in the Vegetable Creek District,
New England; (bv) The Occurrence of Dacite at Moss Vale; (c) A Pitchstone from
Port Stephens; (d) Chiastolite in a Stone Hatchet found at Strathbogie, near
Vegetable Creek. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, ii, 1887, pp. 1078-1085.

1889.

Origin of Laterite in the New England District of New South Wales. Rept. Aust. Assoc.
Adv. Sei., i, pp. 233-241.

Cupriferous Tuffs of the Passage Beds between the Triassic Hawkesbury Series and the
Permo-Carboniferous Coal Measures of New South Wales. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv.
Sci., i, pp. 275-290.

Micropetrographical Notes on some of the Hydro-thermal Rocks of New South Wales.
Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., i,. pp. 290-291.

Report on the Discovery of Human Remains in the Sand and Pumice Beds at Long Bay.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., i, pp. 9-15. (With R. Etheridge, Junr.)

On the Physical Characters of Telluric-Bismuth Ores from Norongo, near Captain’s Flat.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., i, pp. 29-30.

On the Examination of an Aboriginal Rock Shelter and Kitchen Midden at North Harbour,
Port Jackson. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., i, pp. 140-145. (With R. Htheridge, Juur.)

The Leucite-basalts of New South Wales. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., i, pp. 153-172. (With
W. Anderson.)

Notes on a Collection of Igneous Rocks from Lord Howe Island. Mem. Aust. Mus.,
No. 2, pp. 3-6.

Note on the Origin of Kerosene Shale. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, iv, pp. 483-500.

1890.

Proposed Petrographical Classification of the Rocks of New South Wales. Rec. Geol.
Surv. N.S.W., ii, pp. 1-15.

The Raised Beaches of the Hunter River Delta. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., ii, pp. 37-52.
(With R. Etheridge, Jumr.)

A Correlation of the Coalfields of New South Wales. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
ii, pp. 459-466.

The Coal Measures of New South Wales and their Associated Eruptive Rocks. Journ.
Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxiv, pp. 257-270.

Geological Notes—(a) On the Laccolites of the Junction Mine near Mandurama; (b) On
the Occurrence of Glossopteris in a remarkable State of Preservation in the Greta
Coal Measures at Richmond Vale, near Maitland; (c) On the Occurrence of
Andesitic Lavas at the Canoblas, near Orange. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, v,
pp. 421-428.

1891.

Notes on a Collection of Rocks and Minerals from Mount Morgan, near Rockhampton,
Queensland. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., ii, pp. 85-93.

The Associated Minerals and Volatility of Gold. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., ii, pp. 100-108.

Notes on Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye’s Analyses of New South Wales Coals and Cokes.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., ii, pp. 117-118.

Artesian Water in New South Wales, Preliminary Note. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
XXV, pp. 286-296.

1892.
Geology and Mineralogy Course, Australasian Home Reader I, No. 2 (June), pp. 36-41;
No. 4 (August), 106-109; No. 5 (September), 141-145; No. 6 (October), 166-171;
No. 8 (December), 228-234.

1893.

Report on Kerosene Shale Deposits, Doughboy Hollow, near Murrurundi. Ann. Rept.
Dept. Mines N.S.W., 1892, pp. 159-168.

On the Occurrence of Lepidodendron australe in the Devonian Rocks of New South Wales.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., iii, pp. 194-201. (With H. F. Pittman.)

Presidential Address, Section C: Volcanic Action in Eastern Australia and Tasmania.
Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Hobart, 1892, iv, pp. 64-81.

Note on the Occurrence of the Mineral Sphene in Granite from Bathurst, New South
Wales. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, viii, pt. 1, pp. 44-45.

Note on the Occurrence of Lepidodendron in Upper Devonian Rocks at Mount Lambie,
near Rydal, N.S.W. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, viii, pt. 1, pp. 121-125. (With
E. F. Pittman.)

i)

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 35

1894.

Contribution to the Study of Volcanic Action in HMastern Australia. Rept. Aust. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., v, pp. 397-404.

Report of Research Committee to collect Evidence as to Glacial Action in Australia in
Tertiary or Post-Tertiary Times. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., v, pp. 229-232.
Preliminary Note on the Occurrence of a Chromite-bearing Rock in Basalt at the
Pennant Hills Quarry, near Parramatta. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xvii,

pp. 401-406. (With W. F. Smeeth and J. A. Watt.)

Note on the Occurrence of a Calecareous Sandstone, allied to Fontainebleau Sandstone,
at Rock Lily, near Narrabeen. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxvii, pp. 406-407.

Note on the Occurrence of Barytes at Five Dock and also at the Pennant Hills Quarry,
near Parramatta, with a Suggestion as to the Possible Origin of Barytes in the
Hawkesbury Sandstone. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxvii, 407-408.

Notes on Artesian Water in New South Wales and Queensland, Part ii. Jowrn. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., xxvii, pp. 408-443.

Notes on the Cremorne Bore. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxvii, pp. 443-465. (With
H. F. Pittman.)

Presidential Address: A Sketch of our Present knowledge of the Geological History of
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand from Cretaceous Time down to the Permo-
Carboniferous Period. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, viii, 1893, pp. 540-607.

Note on Stratigraphical Distribution of Glossopteris in Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., Ser. 2, ix, pt. 2, pp. 249-257.

1895.
Presidential Address. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, x, pt. 1, pp. 134-161.
Hunting an Ice Age. The Australasian Home Reader, iv (July), pp. 65-68.

1896.

Evidences of Glacial Action in Australia and Tasmania. /Presidential Address to
Section C. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vi, pp. 58-98. ;

Evidence of Glaciation at Hallett’s Cove. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vi, pp. 315-330.
(With R. Tate and W. Howchin.)

Notes on Antarctic Rocks collected by Mr. C. R. Borchgrevinck. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W., xxix, pp. 461-492. (With W. F. Smeeth and J. A. Schofield.)

Evidences of Glacial Action in Australia in Permo-Carboniferous Time. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., lii, pp. 289-301.

1897.

On the Occurrence of a Submerged Forest, with Remains of the Dugong, at Shea’s Creek,
near Sydney. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxx, pp. 158-185. (With R. Etheridge,
Junr., and J. W. Grimshaw.)

Note on the Occurrence of Diatomaceous Harth at the Warrumbungle Mountains, New
South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxi, pt. 2, pp. 261-268.

Anniversary Address. Summary of the Present State of our Knowledge as to the
Structure and Origin of the Blue Mountains of N.S.W. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
Xxx, pp. 1-69.

Sill Structure and Fossils in Hruptive Rocks in New South Wales. Journ. Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., xxx, pp. 285-290.

The Occurrence of Radiolaria in Palaeozoic Rocks in New South Wales. Proc. LInn.
Soc. N.S'W., xxi, pt. 4, pp. 553-570.

Note on the Occurrence of Casts of Radiolaria in Pre-Cambrian (?) Rocks, South
Australia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxi, pt. 4, pp. 571-582. (With W. Howchin.)
Notes on the Glacial Features of the Inman Valley, Yankalilla and Cape Jervis District.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., pp. 61-67. (With W. Howchin.)

1898.

Further Evidence as to Glacial Action in the Bacchus Marsh District, Victoria. Rept.
Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vii, pp. 361-365. (With C. C. Brittlebank and G@. Sweet.)
Report on the Occurrence of Glacial Boulders at Yellow Cliff, Crown Point Station,
Finke Valley, Central Australia. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vii, pp. 109-113; also
Evidence of Glacial Action in the Port Victor and Inman Valley Districts. IJbid.,
pp. 114-127. (With other members of Glacial Research Committee.)

Descriptions of the Palaeozoic Fossils of New South Wales. Translation from the French
of L. G. de Koninck. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Pal. No. 6. (With Mrs. David and
W. S. Dun.) Stratigraphical Note by T. W. EH. David, pp. 290-293.

354 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

1899.

Records of Rock Temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery, Birthday Shaft, Balmain,
Sydney. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiii, pp. 207-224. (With J. L. C. Rae
and EH. F. Pittman.)

Discovery of Glaciated Boulders at Base of Permo-Carboniferous System, Lochinvar,
N.S.W. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiii, pp. 154-159.

On the Palaeozoic Radiolarian Rocks of New South Wales. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., lv,
pp. 16-37. (With H. F. Pittman.)

1900.
Note on the Edible Earth from Fiji. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiii, pp. 224-227.
(With B. G. Corney and F. B. Guthrie.)
Notes on the Limestones and General Geology of the Fiji Islands, with Special Reference
to the Lau Group; based upon Surveys made by Alexander Agassiz, with a Preface
by Professor David. Bulli. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll., Geol. Series, xxxviii.
(With HE. C. Andrews.)

1901.
Geological Notes on Kosciusko, with Special Reference to Evidences of Glacial Action.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxvi, pt. 1, pp. 26-74. (With R. Helms and EH. F. Pittman.)
Note on the Occurrence of Diatoms, Radiolaria and Infusoria in the Rolling Downs
Formation, Lower Cretaceous, Queensland. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxvi, pt. 2,
pp. 299-309. (With W. S. Dun and W. H. Rands.)

1902.
On the Occurrence of a Variety of Tinguaite at Kosciusko, N.S.W. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W., XxxXv, pp. 347-382. (With F. B. Guthrie and W. G. Woolnouwgh.)
The Science Departments (in the University of Sydney). Hermes, Jubilee Number, 1902,
pp. 101-104.
Occurrence of Gadolinite in West Australia. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvi, pp.
286-289. (With B. F. Davis and W. G. Wooilnough.)

1903.
An Important Geological Fault at Kurrajong Heights, New South Wales. Journ. Proce.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvi, pp. 359-370.
Report of the Glacial Committee. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., ix, pp. 190-204.
University Science Teaching. Record of the Jubilee Celebrations of the University of
Sydney, Sydney, 1903 (8vo), pp. 93-121.

1904.

Irrigation geologically considered, with special Reference to the Artesian Area of New
South Wales. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvii, pp. cili-cliii. (With H. F.
Pittman.)

Narrative of the Second and Third Expedition, Funafuti. The Atoll of Funafuti. Rept.
of the Coral Reef Committee of the Royal Society, London, 1904, pp. 40-60.

The Geology of Funafuti. The Atoll of Funafuti. Rept. of the Coral Reef Committee
of the Royal Society, London, 1904, pp. 61-124. (With G. Sweet.)

Report on Dredging at Funafuti. The Atoll of Funafuti. Rept. of the Coral Reef
Committee of the Royal Society, London, 1904, pp. 151-159. (With G. H. Halligan
and A. EH. Finckh.)

1905.
The Flood Silt of the Hunter and Hawkesbury Rivers, New South Wales. Journ. Proc.
voy. Soc. N.S.W., xxxviii, pp. 191-202. (With F. B. Guthrie.)
Occurrence of the Pseudomorph Glendonite in New South Wales. Part 1. Rec. Geol.
Surv. N.S.W., viii, pt. 2, p. 161. (With T. G. Taylor.)
Inaugural Address. The Aims and Ideals of Australasian Science. Rept. Awst. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., x, pp. 1-43.

1906.

Glaciation in Lower Cambrian, possibly in Pre-Cambrian Time. Congrés Géologique
International, Mexico, 1906, pt. i, pp. 271-274.

Les Conditions du Climat aux Epoques géologiques. Congrés Géologique International,
Mexico, 1906, pt. i, pp. 275-298.

Conditions of Climate at different Geological Epochs, with Special Reference to Glacial
Epochs. Congrés Géologique International, Mexico, 1906, pt. i, pp. 4387-482.

Occurrence of Diamonds in Matrix at Pike and O’Donnell’s Claim, Oakey Creek, near
Inverell. Congrés Géologique International, Mexico, 1906, pt. ii, pp. 1201-1210.

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 355

1907.

The Occurrence of Diamonds in the Matrix at Oakey Creek, near Inverell, New South
Wales. Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., York, 1906 (1907), pp. 562-563.

Notes on the Permo-Carboniferous Coalfields of Australasia. Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
Works sl 906" G9 0%) p: DiO

Further Note on the Occurrence of Diamonds in the Matrix in New South Wales. Rept.
Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., York, 1906) (1907); p. 562. (Abstract. )

The Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures, New South Wales. General Geology
and the Development of the Greta Coal Measures. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geol.
No. 4.

1908.

Introductory Note on the Report of the Glacial Committee. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
xi, pp. 263-264.

Permo-Carboniferous Beds at Wynyard, near Table Cape, Tasmania. Rept. Aust. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., xi, pp. 274-279.

Some Problems of Australian Glaciation. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xi, pp. 457-465.

Geological Notes on Kosciusko, with Special Evidences of Glacial Action. Proc. LInn.
Soc. N.S.W., xxxiii, pt. 3, pp. 657-668.

1909.

Evidence of Recent Submergence of Coast at Narrabeen. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
xlii, pp. 229-237. (With G. H. Halligan.)

Narrative of a Journey to the South Magnetic Pole. “‘The Heart of the Antarctic’, by
E. H. Shackleton, London, 1909, Vol. ii, pp. 73-222.

Geological Observations in Antarctica by the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-1909.
Id., pp. 268-310. (With R. EH. Priestley.)

Meteorology: A Summary of Results. Id., pp. 376-383. (With Lieut. Adams.)

1911.
Presidential Address. Jowrn. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlv, pt. 1, pp. 1-60.

1912.
Geological Notes of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-09. Hatrait de Compte Rendu
du XI* Congrés Géologique International, 1912, pp. 767-811. (With R. E. Priestley.)

MOMI3e
Discovery by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of Important Submarine Banks.
Geog. Journ., xli, No. 5, pp. 461-463.
Mawson’s Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Nature, xci, p. 65.
Presidential Address. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xiv, pp. xliii-xcii.

1914.

Antarctic Problems. Nature, xcii, pp. 700-702.

Note on an Expedition to Dutch New Guinea. Geog. Journ., xliii, No. 3, pp. 272-273.

Antarctica and some of its Problems. Geog. Journ., xliii, No. 6, pp. 605-630.

Remarks on Physiography and Glacial Geology of East Antarctica. Geog. Journ., xliv,
No. 6, pp. 566-568.

British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-09. Reports on the Scientific Investigations, Geology,
Vol. i. (With R. HE. Priestley.)

The Tectonic Geology of New South Wales. B.A.A.S. Handbook for New South Wales,
pp. 567-577.

Permo-Carboniferous System. B.A.A.S. Handbook for New South Wales, pp. 590-600.

Tertiary Stratigraphy of New South Wales. B.A.A.S. Handbook for New South Wales,
pp. 608a-608h.

The Geology of the Commonwealth. Federal Handbook, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., pp. 241-290.

Igneous Rocks. Id., pp. 802-314. (With E. W. Skeats.)

Metamorphic Rocks. Id., pp. 314-316. (With EH. W. Skeats.)

Papua. Id., pp. 316-325.

The Talgai Skull. Scientific Australian, xx, No. 1, pp. 4-5. (With J. T. Wilson.)

Sir Normand Maclaurin—An Appreciation. The Review, xv, No. 9, p. 440.

A Preliminary Communication on an Australian Cranium of Probable Pleistocene Age.
Med. Journ. Aust., 1914, i, No. 13, p. 308. (With J. T. Wilson.)

1915.
On the Term Permo-Carboniferous and on the Correlation of that System. Rept. Brit.
Assoc. Adv. Sci., Australia, 1914, pp. 379-380. (With W. S. Dun.)

356 TANNATT WILLIAM EDGEWORTH DAVID.

Preliminary Communication on an Australian Cranium of a Probable Pleistocene Age.
Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Australia, 1914, pp. 531. (With J. T. Wilson.)

1916.

Sections of Australian Fossil Plants. Reports of the Committee appointed to cut Sections
of Australian Fossil Plants. Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Manchester, 1915, p. 231.
(With others.)

Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous and Permian Rocks of the
Southern Hemisphere. Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Manchester, 1915, pp. 263-266.
(With others.)

Discussion of the above Notes and Table. Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Manchester, 1915,
pp. 266-274.

Preface, British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-09. Rept. of Scientific Investigations, Geology
ii, pp. v, vi. (With R. E. Priestley.)

1919.

Reports cited by Captain W. B. R. King; Geological Work on the Western Front. Geog.
Journ., October, 1919, pp. 201-221.

1920.

Sequence, Glaciation and Correlation of the Carboniferous Rocks of the Hunter River
District, New South Wales. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., liii, pp. 246-338. (With
C. A. Sussmilch, W. R. Browne, and A. B. Walkom.)

LG jal

Report of Macquarie Island Committee. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xv, p. 292.
Alteration of Sea-Level caused by Melting of Antarctic Ice, with Particular Reference

to Bass Strait. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xv, p. 358. (Title of paper only.)
Oil Prospects in Queensland. Q’land Govt. Min. Journ., xxii, p. 473.

1922.

Notes on the Occurrence of Gastrioceras at the Irwin River Coalfield, W.A., and a
Comparison with the so-called Paralegoceras from Letti, Dutch Hast Indies. Journ.
Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lvi, pp. 249-252. (With W. S. Dun.)

The ‘‘Varve Shales’ of Australia. Amer. Journ. Sci., Ser. 5, iii, pp. 115-116.

The Occurrence of Remains of Small Crustacea in the Proterozoic (?) or Lower Cambrian
(?) Rocks of Reynella, near Adelaide. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., xlvi, pp. 6-8.

1923.

R. M. Johnston Memorial Lecture. Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man in the
Commonwealth, with Special Reference to the Tasmanian Aborigines. Pap. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1923, pp. 109-150.

Glacial Research Committee. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xvi, pp. 74-94. (With W.
Howchin.)

1924.

Notes on the Stratigraphy of the Permo-Carboniferous Beds of Kimberley. Rept. Aust.
A'ssoc. Adv. NSci., Xvii, p. 62:

Summary of Report of Glacial Phenomena Committee. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
Xvil, pp. 64-66.

Pleistocene Glaciation near Strahan, Tasmania. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xvii, pp.
91-103. :

Discovery of Glacial Erratics and Tillite by T. Blatchford, B.A., and H. W. B. Talbot,
in Kimberley Area of Western Australia. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xvii, pp. 77-80.

1926.

Cretaceous Glaciation in Central Australia. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1xxxii, pp. 333-350.
(With W. G. Woolnough.)

Salient Features in the Stratigraphy, Tectonic Structure and Physiography of the Com-
monwealth of Australia. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., \xxxii, pp. ecv-evii.

The Determination of the Age of the so-called Permo-Carboniferous Tillite of Australia.
Rept. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Oxford, 1926, p. 346.

On the Occurrence of the Genus Helicoprion, possibly Toxoprion, in the so-called Permo-
Carboniferous Rocks of Western Australia. Proc. Third Pac. Sci. Cong., Tokyo,
1926, ii, p. 1845.

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 357

1927.

Note on the Geological Horizon of the Archaeocyathinae. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
li, pp. 410-413.

The Tasmanian Tektite—Darwin Glass. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxxix, pp. 167-190. (With
H. S. Summers and G. A. Ampt.)

1928.

Nullagine-Adelaide Series. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xix, pp. 231-234.

Drifting Continents: The Wegener Hypothesis. Australian Geographer.

Notes on the Newly-discovered Fossils in the Adelaide Series (Lipalian ?), South
Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., lii, pp. 191-209.

1929.

Further Notes on the newly-discovered Fossils in the Adelaide Series (Lipalian or
Proterozoic), South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., liii, pp. 1-4.

1930.
Report on Evidence of Glacial Action in the Strata Associated with the Ashford Coal
Seam, New South Wales. Rept. Aust. N.Z. Assoc. Adv. Sci., xx, pp. 84-85.
Permo-Carboniferous Correlation. Rept. Aust. N.Z. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1930, xx, pp. 62-67.

1931.

Upper Palaeozoic Glaciations of Australia. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., xlii, pp. 481-522.
(With C. A. Sussmilch.)

1932.
Geological Map of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Explanatory Notes to Accompany a New Geological Map of the Commonwealth of
Australia.

1936.

The Carboniferous and Permian Periods in Australia. Report xvith Internat. Geol. Congr.,
Washington, 1933, pp. 629-644. (With C. A. Sussmilch.)

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LIST OF NEW GENERA AND SUBGENERA.

GENERA AND SUBGENERA DESCRIBED AS NEW IN THIS VOLUME (1936).

Anomozancla (Oecophoridae)
Asthenica (Oecophoridae)
Brachyzancla (Oecophoridae)

Eccrita (Oecophoridae) Py, AB

Elaphromorpha (Oecophoridae)
Idiozancla (Oecophoridae)
Ischnophanes (Oecophoridae)

Page.
5 Onley
. 303

. 314

. 317

. 302

oll5

299

Metoligotoma (Oligotomidae)
Neorutilia (Rutilia)
Nothoasteia (Asteiidae)
Notoligotoma (Oligotomidae)
Phloeocetis (Oecophoridae)
Waternouseia (Anthomyzidae)

Page.
. 248
17

560 CEM)
.. 244
50 CMS

. 260

360 LIST OF PLATES.

LIST OF PLATES.

PROCEEDINGS, 1936.

imAreas where larvae of Scaptia were found.

ii-v.— Acacia longifolia and A. suaveolens. Sections and models of part of young
flowers.

vi.—Sections of rocks from Yass district.

vii.—Geological Sketch-map of Yass district.

viiiiSketch Geological Map of the Boorook-Drake district.

ea eeniocical Map of the Mount Fairy district.

x.—Charles Hedley.

xiiAdrenal of new-born Equus zebra.

xiii—Islands off coast of New South Wales.—Habitat of species of Metoligotoma.
xiii.—Trichopeltaceae from New South Wales.

xiv.—Atichiaceae from New South Wales.

xv.—Geological and Contour Map of the Bulli District.

xvi.—Melanophores in skin of Urolophus testaceus, Hyla aurea and Trygonorrhina
fasciata.

xvii.—Tannatt William Edgeworth David.

INDEX.

(1936.)

(a) GENERAL INDEX.

Acacias, Studies in the Australian, vi, 56.

Address, Presidential, i.

Adrenal Gland in New-born Mammals, 221.

Alexander, (Cf 12%, Contribution to a
Knowledge of Papuan Tipulidae (Diptera),
122—-The Diptera of the Territory of New

Guinea. iv. Family Tipulidae, pt. i,
169—v. Family Tipulidae, pt. iii, 322.
Anderson, C., elected a Vice-President, xlii.
Anderson, R. H., elected a member of

Council, xlviii—see Exhibits.
Atichia, description of new species, 277.
Atichiaceae, Notes on the Occurrence of the

Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in New
South Wales, and on their Mode of
Nutrition, with a Description of a New

Species of Atichia, 277.

Australian, Acacias, Studies in the, vi, 56—
Coleoptera, Notes and New Species, No. x,
98—Diptera, Notes on, 10, 259—Embiop-
tera, Studies in, pt. 1. Systematics, 229—
pt. 2. Further Notes on Systematics, 254—
Fleas, Two new, 184—Lepidoptera, Re-
vision of, Oecophoridae, 298—Soils, Contri-
butions to the Microbiology of, 27.

Balance Sheets for Year ending 29th Feb-
ruary, 1936, xxxix-xli.

Batoid Fishes, Colour-changes of, 318.

Boorook and Drake, N.S.W., The Upper
Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbourhood of,
155.

Bourne, G., The Adrenal Gland in New-born
Mammals, 221. :

Plant Ecology of the, pt. 1,

Bulli District,
285.

Burkitt, Prof. A. N., elected a Vice-President,
xii.

Carter, H. J., Australian Coleoptera. Notes
and New Species, No. x, 98—see Exhibits.

Chadwick, C. E., elected a member, xliv.

Check List of the New South Wales
Pteridophytes, 111.

Cheel, E., see Exhibits.

Churchward, J. G., congratulations to, xlvi.

Colefax, A. N., see Exhibits.

Coleman, Mrs. E., Nest Hygiene in Australia
of the British Song Thrush, Turdus
philomelus clarkei, lii—Note on Nest
Hygiene of the White-plumed Honey-eater,
Meliphaga (Ptilotula) penicillata, li.

(0)

e

Coleoptera, Australian, Notes
Species, No. x, 98.

Colour-changes of Batoid Fishes, 318.

Comparison of the Rydal and Hartley
Exogenous Contact-zones, 151.

Contact-zones, Rydal and Hartley Exogenous,
il syle

Contribution to a Knowledge
Tipulidae (Diptera), 122.

Contributions to the Microbiology of Aus-
tralian Soils, iv. The Activity of Micro-
organisms in the Decomposition of
Organic Matter, 27.

and New

of Papuan

Dakin, Prof. W. J., elected a Vice-President,
Sxl

Darwin, Charles, Celebration of Centenary of
Visit to Australia, iii.

David, T. W. E., Memorial Series, No. 6,
341.

David Portrait Fund, Subscriptions received
and Objects of Fund, xlviii.

Davis, H. F. C., appointed Linnean Macleay
Fellow in Zoology, 1937-38, liv—Plant
Ecology of the Bulli District, pt. 1, 285—
Studies in Australian Embioptera. Pt. 1.
Systematics, 229—-Pt. 2. Further Notes on
Systematics, 254.

Day, M. F., elected a member, xlii.

Diptera, Australian, Notes on, xxxv, 10—
XxXxvi, 259—of the Territory of New
Guinea. Family Tipulidae, pt. ii, 169—
pt. iii, 322.

Donations and Exchanges, xlii, xliv, xlvi,
xlviii-], liii, liv.

Drake and SBoorook, N.S.W., The Upper

Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbourhood of,

1556),

Elections, xxxviii, xlii, xliv, xlvi, xlviii, xlix.
Embioptera, Studies in Australian, pt. 1,
Systematics, 229—pt. 2, Further Notes on

Systematics, 254.

Exchange Relations, i.
Exhibits:

Anderson, R. H., (i) Specimen of Codono-
carpus cotinifolius, “Horse Radish Tree’,
or ‘““Mustard Tree’’, xlvii—(ii) Specimen
of Oncinocalyx Betchei, ‘““Oncino Burr’’;
(iii) Specimen and plate of Hakea
Bakeriana, xviii.

Atherton, D. O., see under Taylor, F. H.

1xxX1Vv

Carter, H. J., drew attention to a copy
of a rare pamphlet on Buprestidae by
F. W. Hope, xlvi.

Cheel, E., Specimens,
and photographic
species of Nicotiana,
monly known as “Paraguay Burr”
(Acanthospermum brasilum Schrank ;
syn. A. xanthoides DC.), xlv—Fruiting
specimens of Crataegus pubescens forma
stipulacea Stapf from Guyra, xlv—Her-
barium specimens in flower, and live
plants in cultivation, of Rupicola spren-
gelioides, collected near the Lookout,
Burragorang, xlvii—Cryptocarya Meiss-
neri E.v.M., cultivated in the Botanic
Gardens, Sydney ; also Common Barberry
(Berberis vulgaris L.), together with a
coloured illustration, for comparison,
xlvii—Weed not previously recorded for
Australia, collected at Garah and at
Scone, identified as Gomphrena dispersa,
xlix—Grass collected at Bulolo, New
Guinea, probably Themeda_ triandra
Forsk.; also Themeda quadrivalvis, from
Astrolabe Range, New Guinea, together
with specimens of the Australian Kan-
garoo Grass, Themeda australis, together
with four other distinctive forms for
comparison, I—Species of Prostanthera
usually regarded as P. incisa_ var.
pubescens F.v.M., liii—Fresh specimens
of species of Leptospermum, taken from
plants cultivated at Ashfield, liv.

Colefax, A. N., Two samples of Antarctic
Plankton, xlvii—An apparatus for
making drawings direct from a dissec-
tion, or other object, xlix.

Hely, F. W., see under Waterhouse, W. L.

Jensen, H. L., Agar cultures of aerobic
nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azotobacter)
from soils of different character, xlix.

Lloyd, Prof. F. E., Specimens showing the
behaviour of the living trap of Utricu-
laria lateriflora, xliii.

Newman, I. V., extracts from letters re
carpel morphology, xliv—Photomicro-
graphs of living material of Acacia
discolor showing a method of protection
of stigmas after pollination, xlix—Sixty-
six seedlings of Acacia Baileyana F.v.M.,
from seed taken from trees at two
localities near Cootamundra, N.S.W., liv.

Pope, Miss E. C., Head of a specimen of
the Cockney Bream, Pagrosomus arwatius,
which showed peculiar malformation of
the mouth and jaws, xlvii.

Roberts, N. L., Foliage of
suberosa, infested with Loranthus
folius, xlv.

Robertson, R. N., Specimens of Utricularia
dichotoma var. wiiflora, xlv—Reference
to Wallerawang House, xlvi—Short
résumé of present knowledge of stomatal

coloured drawings
illustrations of 15
xliii—mWeed com-

Casuarina
lini-

INDEX.

movement in its relationships to the
physiological processes of the leaf, xlviii
—Apparatus for investigating the rela-
tion of the composition of the gases of
intercellular spaces to the stomatal
movement, xlix.

Sherrard, Mrs. K. M., Graptolites from two
localities to the east of Yass, 1.

Taylor, F. H., Photographs of (i) a new
subspecies of flea, belonging to the genus
Xenopsylla; (ii) a new species belonging
to the genus Stivalius, xliv—On behalf
of Mr. D. O. Atherton, larvae of a
species of the family Blepharoceridae
(Diptera), 1.

Tillyard, R. J., Reference to the recent
discovery of a new Upper Triassic fossil,
insect bed at Mount Crosby, near
Ipswich, Queensland, xlviii—Six speci-
mens of fossil insects from this bed,
xl viii.

Vickery, Miss J., Specimens of Rulingia
salvifolia and Boehmeria platyphylla,
collected at Mt. Warning, Murwillumbah
district, llii.

Waterhouse, W. L., on behalf of Mr. F. W.
Hely, a hitherto undescribed rust attack-
ing Kangaroo Grass, Themeda For-
Skalii, xliv.

Whitley, G. P., Larval eel regarded as the
Leptocephalus stage of the Little Conger,
Congromuraena longicauda, xlvi—Speci-
mens of flies commonly found running
over sand-dunes behind Maroubra Beach,
identified as Ephydroscinis (Neobor-
borus) raymenti, xlvi.

Faculties of Veterinary Science and Agricul-
ture of Sydney University, Celebration of
Jubilee, i.

Fishes, Batoid, The Colour-changes of, 318.

Fleas, Two New Australian, 184.

Fletcher Memorial Fund, i.

Flora and Fauna, Native, Preservation of, ii.

Fraser, Lilian R., Notes on the Occurrence
of the Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in
New South Wales, and on their Mode of
Nutrition, with a Description of a New
Species of Atichia, 277—Reappointed,
1936-37, v—Summary of Year’s Work, iii.

Fuller, Mary E., Notes on the Biology of
Scaptia auriflua Don. (Diptera, Tabanidae),
u/.

Garretty, M. D., Introductory Account of the

Geology and Petrology of the lake
George District. Pt. 1. General Geology,
186.

Gilmour, D., elected a member, xlix.

Goerling, A., elected a member, xlvi.

Griffiths, M., The Colour-changes of Batoid
Fishes, 318.

Crriffiths, M. E., elected a member, xlix,

INDEX.

Hardy, G. H., Notes on Sarcophaginae in
India and Australia, 89.

Hartley and Rydal Exogenous Contact-zones,
a Comparison of the, 151.

Hedley, Charles, Memorial Series, No. 5, 209.

Holmes, Prof. J. M., lecturette by, entitled
“Colour in the Australian Landscape’’, liii.

Hull, A. F. B., congratulations to, i.

Introductory Account of the Geology and
Petrology of the Lake George District,
Pt. 1. General Geology, 186.

Jensen, H. I., Problems in the Geology of
New Caledonia (with a Note on the
Petrology of a Small Collection of Schists,
by Germaine A. Joplin), 262.

Jensen, H. L., Contributions to the Micro-
biology of Australian Soils. iv, 27—Sum-
mary of Year’s Work, iii—see HMxhibits.

Joplin, Miss Germaine A., A Comparison of
the Rydal and Hartley Exogenous Contact-
zones, 151—Note on the Petrology of a
Small Collection of Schists from New
Caledonia, 273.

Jordan, K., Two New Australian Fleas, 184.

King George V, Letter of Appreciation for
message of Sympathy from King Edward
VIII and Royal Family in the death of His
late Majesty, xlvi—Reference to death
Otek

Lake George District, Introductory Account
of the Geology and Petrology of the, Pt. 1.
General Geology, 186.

Lee, D. J., elected a member, xlvi.

Lepidoptera, Revision of Australian, Oececo-
phoridae, 298.

Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1936-37, reap-
pointments and appointment, v—1937-38,
applications invited, 1, liili—reappointments
and appointments, liv.

Lloyd, Prof. F. E., see Exhibits.

Lucas, A. H. S., reference to death of, xlvi.

Macleay Collections, improvement of con-
ditions under which they are housed, ii.
Malloch, J. R., Notes on Australian Diptera,
10; 259.

Mammals, The Adrenal Gland in New-born,
221.

Meliphaga penicillata, Note on Nest Hygiene
Offs li=

Melvaine, Miss Alma T., A Check List of the
New South Wales Pteridophytes, 111.

Memorial Series, No. 5 (Charles Hedley),
209—No. 6 (T. W. HE. David), 341.

Morisset, C. V., elected a member, xliv.

Native Flora protected for further period cof
one year from ist July, 1936, xlviii.

Nest Hygiene in Australia of the British
Song Thrush, Turdus philomelus clarkei,
lii.

(ore)

1xxv

Nest Hygiene of the White-plumed Honey-
eater, Meliphaga (Ptilotula) penicillata,
Note on, li.

New Caledonia, Note on the Petrology of a
Small Collection of Schists from, 273—
Problems in the Geology of, 262.

New Guinea, The Diptera of the Territory
of, Family Tipulidae. Pt. ii, 169—Pt. ili,
322.

Newman, I. V., Studies in the Australian
Acacias. vi, 56—reappointed 1936-37, v—
reappointed, 1937-38, liv—Summary of
Year’s Work, iv—see Exhibits.

Nomina specifica conservanda, proposals for,
ii.

Note on Nest Hygiene of the White-plumed
Honey-eater, Meliphaga (Ptilotula) peni-
cillata, li.

Notes on Australian Diptera, 10, 259.

Notes on Sarcophaginae in India and Aus-
tralia, 89.

Notes on the Biology of Scaptia awriflua Don.
(Diptera, Tabanidae), 1.

Notes on the Occurrence of the Trichopel-
taceae and Atichiaceae in New _ South
Wales, and on their Mode of Nutrition,
with a Description of a New Species of
Atichia, 277.

Petrology of collection of Schists from New
Caledonia, 273.

Pidgeon, Miss Ilma M.,
xliv.

Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Pt. 1,
285.

Pope, Miss E. C., appointed Linnean Macleay
Fellow in Zoology, 1936-37, v—reappointed,
1937-38, liv—see Exhibits.

Presidential Address, i.

Problems in the Geology of New Caledonia,
262.

Pteridophytes, A Check List of the New
South Wales, 111.

elected a member,

Redescription of Solomys (‘Mus’) salamonis
Ramsay, 128.

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera.
phoridae. 298.

Roberts, N. L., elected a member, xliv—see
Exhibits.

Robertson, R. N., Congratulations to, xlviii—
reappointed, 1936-37, v—Summary § of
Year’s Work, iv—see Exhibits.

Rust Problems in Australia, Some Observa-
tions on Cereal, v.

Rydal and Hartley Exogenous Contact-zones,
a Comparison of the, 151.

Oeco-

Sarcophaginae in India and Australia, Notes
on, 89.

Scaptia auriflua Don. (Diptera, Tabanidae),
Notes on the Biology of, 1.

Sherrard, Mrs. K. M., The Structural
Geology and Petrology of an Area near
Yass, N.S.W., 131—see Exhibits.

Ixxvi

Soils, Australian, Contributions to the Micro-
biology of, 27.

Solomys (“Mus”) salamonis
Redescription of, 128.

Some Observations in Cereal Rust Problems

Ramsay, a

in Australia, v.
Structural Geology and Petrology of an Area
near Yass, N.S.W., 131.

Studies

in Australian Embioptera,

Wits Ik,

Systematics, 229—pt. 2. Further Notes on
Systematics, 254.

Studies in the Australian Acacias. vi.

The

Meristematie Activity of the Floral Apex
of Acacia longifolia and Acacia suaveolens
as a Histogenetic Study of the Ontogeny
of the Carpel, 56.

Taylor, F. H., see Exhibits.

Tillyard, R. J., see Exhibits.

Tipulidae (Diptera), Contribution to a
Knowledge of Papuan, 122.
Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in New

South Wales, Notes on the Occurrence of
the, and on their Mode of Nutrition, with
a Description of a New Species of Atichia,

277.

Troughton, HE. Le G., A Redescription of
Solomys (“Mus’’) salamonis Ramsay, 128

—lecturette by,

entitled “Rarer Mammals

—their Past and Future”, li.

Acacia Baileyana liv, 56 Adiantum Cunninghami .. . 116 Arthropteris Beckleri
binervata. . 291-2 diaphanum . 116 obliterata
discolor 50 2dbb formosum 116, 292 tenella
juniperina 50 .. 288 hispidulum - 116 Aspidium aculeatum
longifolia -96, 289,291 Agropyron scabrum __ xix, xxiii, xxvii aristatum
me tesine - 291 alsophila australis 114, 291-2 capense
myrtifolia 291-2 Conner 115 cordifolium

bida 291 ig ie: Pi i
ee 5 excelsa var. Cooperi 115 OEE vin
sophurseey 2 5 eles 208 Leichhardtiana .. 115 decompositum
suaveolens be 56-7, 288, 292 moddicesii 115 hispidium

Acantholophus SUTTONI ael09 : molle

Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris .. i Alternanthera echinata .» xiix AOATORUETA

Acanthospermum brasilum xly Angiopteris evecta - 112 Ay, QRH...
hispidum xly Angophora lanceolata 289, 291, 294-5 tenericaule
xanthoides xlv Anilara subcostatus . 104 tenerum ..

Acrostichum aureum 115 SUBIMPRESSA - 104 truncatum
spicatum . 120 Anisembia texana .. . 231 uliginosa . .

Actia QUADRISETA .. 20 Anogramma leptophylla . 116 unitum

Actinotus Helianthi 290 ANOMOZANOLA 298, 317 Asplenium adiantioides

Adelium barbatum 107 scopariella 5 Bill7/ ani eandahinn
HIRSUTUM 106 Anthistiria vulgaris Bi 1 i
pilosum .. Ne .. 107. Apium prostratum. . . 293 attenuatum

Adiantum aethiopicum 116,292 Aprometopis punctipennis 23 var, multilobum
affine ae 116 Arabis alpina 38 wee aio bulbiferum

var. intermedium 116 Arctocephalus doriferus 221, 225, 227 faleatum ..

INDEX.

Turdus philomelus clarkei, Nest Hygiene in
Australia of, lii.

Turner, A. J., Revision of Australian Lepidop-
tera. Oecophoridae, 298.

Two New Australian Fleas, 184.

Upper Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbour-
hood of Boorook and Drake, N.S.W., 155.

Vickery, Miss J., see Exhibits.

Voisey, A. H., appointed Linnean Macleay
Fellow in Geology, 1937-38, liv—The
Upper Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbour-
hood of Boorook and Drake, N.S.W., 155.

Waterhouse, D. F., elected a member, xlii.

Waterhouse, G. A., elected Hon. Treasurer,
xlii.

Waterhouse, W. L., elected a Vice-President,

xlii—Some Observations on Cereal Rust
Problems in Australia, v—see Exhibits.

Whitley, G. P., see Exhibits.

Yass, N.S.W., the Structural Geology and
Petrology of an Area near, 131.

Zeck, E. H., elected a member, xliv.

(b) BIOLOGICAL INDEX.

New names are printed in SMALL CAPITALS.

-. 115
-. 115
.. 115

-. 117
-. 118
-. 118
-. 115
. 118

117

oo Alibi)
oo Like
.. 115
-. 115
oo dlile
oo slike
oo late
og Abily

5 abily/

doy Tals)
so ils)
ee uLS
go Mile)
oy tile)
Ls

Asplenium flabellifolium ..
flaccidum. .
furcatum
Hookerianum
marinum ..
maximum
nidus
obtusatum

var. difforme ..
praemorsum
trichomanes
umbrosum

Astartila sp. ;

Asterina Labecula ..
reptans

Asteroma Labecula
ASTHENICA ..
STENOPOLIA

Athyrium humile
umbrosum
var. semidivisum
Atichia
BOTRIOSA
dominicana
glomerulosa
Millardeti

Atrypa fimbriata
pulchra
reticularis

Austrolimnophila antiqua
FLUXA
INTERJECTA
interventa

Aviculopecten an
ef. flexicostatus ..
ef. mitchelli
ef. pincombei
elongatus
englehardti
ptychotis
sp.
sprenti
squamuliferus

Azolla filiculoides var.
pinnata

Backhousia myrtifolia
Balantium dubium
Banksia ericifolia ..

integrifolia

latifolia var. minor

paludosa ..

serrata

spinulosa
Barbarea vulgaris
Barrandella

linguifera var. Wilkinsoni
Bauera rubioides
Berberis vulgaris
Blaesoxipha

aspinata ..

pachytyli

sp.

rubra

293-4,

118, 292
ts
ls
Se mn
eas
eats

118, 293
2. THE
So lS
.. 118

. ie

118

164

278

277-8

277

298, 303

. 303

so 1
wants

So 1H

oo Oa
281-3

.. 282
279, 282-3
280-1, 283
. 142
ea
141-2

. 823

.. 322
323

. 323

.. 158

160, 164
-. 168
aeGS

161, 164

160-1, 164

.. 163

160, 163

160, 164

161, 164

. ll4
. 114

161,

.. 279
oy Tale
288, 291
296
. 289

. 290

288

291

Xix

133, 140-1
. 143

INDEX.

Blechnum capense
subspecies laevigatum
var. Gregsoni ..
var. laevigatum

cartilagineum

var. appendiculatum

var. normale
var. tropicum

var. woodwardioides ..

discolor :
var. pinot fidion
var. normale
var. nudum
fluviatile ..
lanceolatum
Patersoni
var. elongata
var. normale ..
penna-marina
serrulatum
Boehmeria platyphylla
Bossiaea heterophylla
scolopendria
Botrychium australe
lunaria

ternatum var. Aneimel ae

BRACHYZANCLA
CELAENOPA
CRETOSA .
LISSODES ..
PALLIDULA
STRONGYLA

Brefeldiella brasiliensis

Breynia oblongifolia

Brycopia BAROSSAE
BROWNI
cheesmani
coelioides
crenaticollis
DENTICULATA
diemenensis
HARRISONI
minuta
MUSGRAVEI

Bursera australasica

Calamagrostis aemula
Callicoma serratifolia
Callistemon pallidus
Capnodium citricolum
Carex pumila
Cargillia australis ..
Carya Buckleyi
var. arkansana

Cassinia aurea

denticulata
Cassytha pubescens
Castiarina TRUNCATA
Casuarina glauca

suberosa

torulosa
Ceratioceras
Ceratocheilus birdi

FUMIPENNIS

TRILINEATA

119, 290
30. Alas)
So walt’)
.. 119

119, 291
oo ALI)
ao) alle)
oi) alalt)
-. 119
ao lif)
oo iLrite)
oo) alalts)
Bo Lilt)
.. 119
aeeelil'D

119, 290
ao) alii)
.. 119
oo, daly)

. 119
liii

.. 288
ao wets}
oo lily
oo ali
ao Li

298, 314
op Gulf)
.. 3d14
we) Od:

. dl4
315
278, 283
292-3
ehO“
. 107
107-8
- 109
. 108
. 108
- 109
. 108
107-8
. 109
xlv

XXxviii
290, 293
.. 282
ga rie)
. 293
292

69

Ceratopetalum apetalum ..
Ceratopteris thalictroides
Chaetogaster ARGENTIFERA

violacea

VIRIDIS ,
Cheilanthes ationn.

tenuifolia

var. Sieberi

vellea
Chonetes Dinarhital

melbournensis
Chorizandra sphaeroc Pepa
Chrysosarcophaga superba
Cisseis GOERLINGI ..
Cladium junceum .. ;
Cladochonus cf. Fontiealiie

tenuicollis :
Clerodendron fomentocni
Climacograptus missilus
Codonocarpus cotinifolius. .
Conchidium knightii
Congromuraena longicauda
Conosia irrorata
Coptocercus crucigerus

trimaculatus
Cracticus torquatus

Crataegus pubescens
stipulacea

Cryptocarya Meissneri

Culcita dubia

Cuscus orientalis

Cyathea Lindsayana

Cyathocrinus (?)

Cycloceras F

Cyclophorus Eontitens
serpens

Cystopteris AEGIS.

Dactylis glomerata
Dalmanites
Dampiera stricta
Darwinia taxifolia
virgata
Davallia dicksonioides
dubia
pyxidata ..
Delphinus delphus

Deltopecten subquinquelineatus . .

Dendrobium linguiforme . .
Dendrolagus bennettianus
Dennstaedtia davallioides
Diaphania testacea
Dicksonia antarctica

Billardieri

davallioides

dubia

Youngiae 5
Dicranomyia omaneminih

sordida

Dillwynia floribunda

Diplazium japonicum
maximum

Diplograptus oleate

lxxvil

292-3

. 116

19

19

19

515, sLaly/

Wile( PBI

ree alile/

5 ilile/

5 ie

co Ie

289, 290

Hiei OT)

- 104

293

161, 164

. 168

. 298

]

xvii

. 190

. xivi

329

. 110

. 110

lii
forma

xlv

xvii

-. 114

ll28

115

161, 164

: 133

20

120, 290

6 lite

XXvViii
140, 142
. 288
289

289

eo Ahle
.. 114
115, 293
221, 227

160, 164
250, 290
21, 227
. 114
<0,
=o) LALA:
So) iat!
oo, tlle!
-. 114
vfs LA
.. 179
ao ilz()
.. 288
-. 118
yeuls
]

Ixxvili

Dolichopeza annulipes
dorrigensis
kurandensis
PERCUNEATA
TAYLORIANA

Doliema spinicollis. .

Doodia aspe1a
blechnoides
caudata !

var. Atkinsoniae
var. media
maxima
media :

Doryanthes pacelea

Doryopteris concolor

Doryphora sassafras

Dracophyllum secundum ..

Drimys aromatica ..

Drosera ae

Drynaria rigidula ..

Dryopteris acuminata
var. cristata
Baileyii
decomposita
gongylodes :
lanciloba var. glabella ..
parasitica
prolifera ..
punctata . .
subsp. rugulosa
queenslandica
setigera
tenera
truncata

ECCcRITA
PHAEOXYSTA

ELAPHROMORPHA
dryoterma
GLYCYMILICHA

Embia latreillei

Empeda ALBIDIBASIS
lunensis

Enchylaena tomentosa
Entolium Pe
Epacris breviflora ..
brevifolia
coriacea
heteronema
longiflora
microphylla
obtusifolia
Ephydroscinis raymenti
Epilichas (?) NIGRINUS
Epiphragma FUSCODISCALIS
GLORIOLA
hebridensis
meridionalis
Epithymema
Equus zebra :
Erioptera ALBIDIBASIS
Innensis
lunicola
sziladyi

. 174
waza
via!
. 173

171, 174
2AINGS

119, 292
; ie)
. 119
. 119
. 119
Na19
eit9

291
. 116

290, 292-3

290

278
. 289
- 120
9 iily
g lily
og alates
- 117
o ality
. 117
a alil/
5 lle
. lit
. ilt
o Nile

298, 302
5 BLY
.. 802
. 243
oo

332

50 AAG
158, 164
xlvii
xvii

. 290
xvii
2290
288-9
288, 290
xlvi

.- 99
5 BRB

24, 326
. 324
55 BPE!
. 298
= PPA
. 881
54882
«+ Gon
. 882

INDEX.

Eucalyptus botryoides 292-3, 296

cinerea var, multiflora .. Mon all
corymbosa ses Ae .. 288
eugenioides - 292-3
longifolia ae Me re292
micrantha 288-90
paniculata oy 292-3
pilularis .. Sif 292, 294-5
piperita 239, 291, 294-5
punctata .. be he ae 292
robusta 293, 295
saligna 291-2, 294-5
Sieberiana 288, 291, 294-5
Eugenia Smithii 279, 292
Eulechria .. te 8 .. 298
Eunesopeza es oe .. 173
Eupomatia laurina ; 292
Eurhamphidia AURANTICOLOR “182- 33
MELANOSOMA an at no its}
Eurydesma cordata 162, 164
Eustrephus Brownii a a293

Exocarpus cupressiformis 289, 291

Favosites .. my ar .. 141
gothlandicus ahs an .. 190
sp. a Bee Se .. 194

Fenestella fossula .. 161, 164
internata ; 161, 164
sp. hs be 158, 160- 1, 163-4

Festucus litoralis .. ve .. 293

Ficus rubiginosa .. 3 .. 292

' stephanocarpa .. 4 .. 292

Gahnia psittacorum 288-9, 293

Gleichenia circinata 113, 290
var. rupestris . . ae po) UNS
dicarpa =A ee 1138, 289
dichotoma a Soke ee
flabellata oo 113, 288
flagellaris on a po Lil}
Hermanni He A a5 i133
laevigata ae ae ao 11183
linearis .. ar ie so 1B
microphylla Si ie 6 dale}
rupestris ae Sis jo 183
speluncae. . ae fe ho i183
Glossopteris Ae ae so day)
Gomphrena decumbens .. be ]
dispersa .. af ae ]
Goniops Snereocoma a e: 1
Gonomyia ACUS .. ae bo bid)
fijiensis .. ee Ae oy a lear/
JURATA .. ar be xo dlPAts
kertesziana as 127, 331
NIGRIDORSATA .. A ap BAY)
PLEUROSTRIATA ie oe Oo
nubeculosa its Ae so BBO)
pallidosignata .. ote .. 330
perreducta ae 69 330
Goodenia bellidifolia PP 289- 90
Grammitis leptophylla .. ao Mal)
rutifolia .. Ae a LS
Grevillea oleoides .. rit .. 288
Gristhorpia Ae af eee

Gymnogramma rutaefolia aay dye)
Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus
289-90
Gymnostachys anceps Py s. 292
Gynoplistia ATTRITA is 50 avr
birdana .. aye ae a0 CA
fulviceps . . 5d a5 -. 028
LUTEOANNULATA a .. 328
perjucunda Be An ~. 329
SCIMITAR .. a5 ENB 26
Haematopota pluvialis .. Bd 0
Haemodorum planifolinm sa ys)
Hakea Bakeriana .. xIvili
pugioniformis 288-90
saligna 289, 291
Haloragis teucrioides 5 >. 291
Hedycarya Cunninghamii. . eo YAS
Helianthus annus .. ie .. 69
Helicobia .. i me .. 90
Helichrysum bracteatum . . e292
diosmifolium a a .. 292
Helius anaemicus .. fe ao ley
AURANTICOLOR 182-3
MELANOSOMA .. aie oo eB}
Hesthesis plorator . . o% .. 110
Hibbertia dentata .. oe wa, 292
Hippuris vulgaris . . A auae7 (74
Histiopteris incisa .. 115, 292
Hordeum maritimum xxiii

murinum xxiii, xxviii
Hyalostelia 158, 161, 164
Hyla aurea .. nes 30 ae OLY
Hymaea laticollis .. Ae ee NO9

PARALLELA 98-9

succinifera ee Bi ath B99
Hymenolepis spicata Ala Ae 20
Hymenophyllum australe sa Jie

bivalve .. 66 aie so dlilél

Cattlettii ae Bs oo i183

flabellatum nee a do ilile!

javanicum a ys -. 114

lucens Bs ee ots oe La

marginatum at Be .. 114

nitens io wd ae cee i 2

peltatum As Me Nigga tale!

pumilum .. Ai as so Mild!

rarum Sire a nee .. 114

tunbridgense a a 114
Hypericum uralum 70, 72
Hypochaeris glabra she .. 292
Hypolaena lateriflora 289-90
Hypolepis punctata BG ~. Ld

rugulosa .. ae Ne ao lie!

tenuifolia Be ms .. 114
IDIOZANCLA 298, 315

COLACMA .. ia nt Sait GSLs}

PYCNOSTICHA “f a OUD

SPUMIFERA os ne AOLO
Imperata arundinacea 291-2
Indigofera australis di 291-2

Ipsaphes nitidulus. . Be ng) eetths}

ISCHNOPHANES
ATELESTA. .
CAPNOPLEURA
cimmeriella
ELAPHROPA
EUTHEMON
hermaea ..
IDIOTROPA
leucospila
MACROMITA
mesochra
nefanda
plagiospila
POTHETA
SEMIDALOTA
SUFFUSA ..
SYMMICTA
thrypticopa

Tsoetes Drummondii

Isopogon anemonifolius

Juncus
maritimus

Koehleria cristata . .

Lambertia formosa
Lantana camara
Laportea gigas
Lepidosperma Forsythii
laterale
Lasiopleura conopsea
GRISEOVITTA
nigripila ..
rufescens .. ae
Lathyrus latifolius
Leperditia shearsbii
Leptocarpus tenax. .
Leptograptus ascendens
flaccidus
Leptomeria acida ..
Leptopteris Fraseri

Leptospermum citratum ..

var. latifolium
emarginatum
flavescens
flavescens var.
var. microphylla

floribundum
juniperinum
laevigatum
odoratum
persiciflorum
scoparium

Lepyrodia scariosa. .

Leucopogon juniperinus
lanceolatus
Richei

Libnotes CLINTONI
CONSONA ..
HOLLANDI
montivagans
obliqua
ONOBANA
perkinsi

299, 301

lv

lv

.. 288
288-90
. 288
289, 291-2
. 293
124
177-8
50 We}
aio dies)
oo llZfe/
oo 11283
5 leer?

INDEX.

Libnotes solomonis 177
trifasciata 124
Limnobia irrorata . . 329
Limonia apicalis 179
arachnophila 179
CLINTONI eel:
CONSONA .. 177-8
EVANESCENS 181
EXPEDITA 5 75
fumidapicalis 179-80
HOLLANDI 175
illingworthi 179
kobusi 50 181
LONGEANTENNATA M22:
montivagans 179
obliqua 177
ONOBANA 123
pacata 175
pacatella .. 175
perkinsi 177
PROCELLA 180
pulchripes 181
solomonis 177
sordida 179
SPATHULIFERA 179
trifasciata 124
Lindsaya cuneata 115
dimorpha. . 115
incisa 115
linearis 115
microphylla 115
var. gracilescens 115
Lipophleps AcUSs 330
fijiensis 127
JURATA 610 lA?
kertésziana 127, 331
NIGRIDORSATA 329
PLEUROSTRIATA 330
nubeculosa 330
pallidosignata 330
perreducta 330
Livistona australis 291-2
Lobelia anceps 293
Locustivora. . 95
pachytyli 96
Lomaria alpina 119
capensis 119
discolor ie Pe go) Ile)
elongata var. Cunninghamiana 119
fluviatilis 119
lanceolata 119
Patersoni 119
procera 119
Lomatia ilicifolia 291
Loranthus linifolius xlv
Lycopodium carolinianum 111
cernuum 111
elavatum 4, alla
densum 111, 288
fastigiatum aio Jalal
laterale 111, 290
nudum 112
selago 111
varium 111

Lygodium scandens
Lyonsia straminea

Macrochloria calliphorosoma
RUFIPES
Macronemata
ABRITHES
ACHLYOPA
AMALOPTERA
anarcha

APHAUROPHANES
ARAEOPTERA
ARGOCHROA
ASTHENOSPILA
BASISTICHA
COMMODA
CONSIMILIS
cycnoptera
CYRTOLOMA
DELOTYPA
DIDYMOSPILA
DYSPINES
elaphia
EPICONIA ..
ERIOPA
exigua
FILIFERA ..
fragilis
QLABERRIMA
LEPTOGRAMMA
LITOPIS
lopelictes
MEGALOSPORA
MESOSCIA
modica
nepheloma
OMOSPILA
optalea
paurogramma
PAUROMORPHA

PENTASTICTA
PERANGUSTA
perdita
PHAEOGRAMMA
phaeostephes
PLEUROCAPNA
PLEUROSTICHA
PROSCEDES
PUSILLA
quaerenda

RHADINODES
SEMIDALIS
STENODES
STOECHODES
STRAMENTICIA
suppletella
tacita
textilis
zalias
zemiodes ..
Macropus agilis
giganteus
ruficollis ..

var.

298, 303

304, 309

. 304

.. 806
-. 805
.. 306
-. 306
ou oli!
.. 304
-. 3804
.. 304
. 304
-. 804
221, 227
221, 227
221, 227

1xxx

INDEX.

Marsilea angustifolia So 1hals}
Brownii go i163
Drummondii a6 dlls}

var. Nardu so i133
exarata oo II183
hirsuta o IS}
quadrifolia 113
Martiniopsis subradiata 160-1
var. deltoidea 158, 164

Masicera pachytyli . 95-6

Megistocera fuscana so ee

Melaleuca squamea so PBI
squarrosa. . . 290

Melinda minuta on 22

Meliornis novae-hollandae li

Meliphaga penicillata li

Melobasis abnormis 103
derbyensis 103
IMPRESSA 102
WANNERUA 103

Meristella sp. 1438

Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale 256
pseudotruncatellum 73

Meterioptera sziladyi 332

METOLIGOTOMA 248, 251, 257
EXTORRIS 256-7
PENTANESIANA 254, 257
reducta ‘ 251, 257

INGENS 250-1, 254

REDUCTA 248, 251, 254
Microrutilia ruficornis var.

CUPREIVENTRIS 18

Mitopeza . 173

Mitrasacme poly OEDHA 289-90

Modiola 158, 164

Modiomorpha 50 GR

Molophilus ATERRIMUS . 336
CONCUSSUS 335
TAYLORINUS 334
UNISTYLUS 333

Mongoma. brevipes. . 126, 329
LONGISETOSA 5 1129
NIGRESCENS 35 BPAY)

Monilopora .. 5 Upys)
cf. nicholsoni 160-1, 164

Monograptus cf. nilssoni -. . 142
colonus var. compactus . 142
dubius 142-3
flemingii 142-3
vomerinus 142-3
vulgaris 142-3

Mucophyllum crateroides ae ALL

Mus salamonis 128-9

Mustelus canis 318

Myonia carinata 160, 164
(?) corrugata 160, 164

Nasselaria - 187

Nematocera fuscana 174

Neoborborus raymenti . xivi

NEORUTILIA 17
SIMPLEX .. : 17

Nephrolepis c ordifolia 115

Nephrotoma dimidiata 170-1
FLAVOPOSTICATA 169-70
fumiscutellata . 170
KAVIENGENSIS > eo)
melanura elect:
speculata 5 lel

Nesopeza . 173

Nicotiana Benthanitana . xiii
Debneyi .. . xiiii
excelsior . xiii
exigua . xliv
fastigiata 3 dhihy
fragrans . xiii
Goodspeedii . xliv
Gossei . xiii
ingulba . xliv
Macgillivrayi . xiii
macrocalyx . xiii
maritima . xiii
megalosiphon . xiili
occidentalis . xiii
rosulata . xliv
rotundifolia . xliv
stenocarpa . xliv
suaveolens . xiii

var. cordifolia . xiii
var. excelsior . . . xiii
var. longiflora . xiii
var. parviflora . xiii
var. rosulata . xliv
undulata .. .. Xiiii
velutina . xiii

Niphobolus . 120

Nocar convexus . 109
funereus .. - 109
SUTTONI .. . 109

NOTHOASTEIA . 259
PLATYCEPHALA . 259

Notholaena Brownii > lil?
distans 5 Jlite/
vellea ot 117

Notolea longifolia .. 292

NOTOLIGOTOMA 244, 248
hardyi 244-5, 248
NITENS 246, 248

Nucleospira australis . 143

Nyctozoilus ruficornis . 106
SUBSCULPTUS . 105

Olax stricta. . 288-9

Olearia elliptica 288
ramulosa, 291
viscidula .. a ac, PA

Oligotoma .. Sie 231, 244, 251
agilis =D ap 56 78H)
glauerti .. oie 242, 244, 252
gurneyi 241, 244

agilis 235, 241
CENTRALIS ; 237, 241
gumeyi 231 , 241, 251-2
HILLI 237, 241
SPINULOSA 239, 241, 252
SUBCLAVATA 240-1, 252
hardyi 244-5

Oligotoma. latreillei
saundersi
TILLYARDI
vosseleri ..

Omolanthus populifolius ..

Oncinocalyx Betchei

Ophioglossum coriaceum ..
costatum
gramineum
lanceolatum
lusitanicum
pendulum
Prantlii F
vulgatum var. gramineum

var. lanceolatum

Orimarga PAPUICOLA
Orthoceras ..
Osmunda barbara ..
Oxylobium trilobatum

Pachydomus
Pagrosomus auratus
Palmeria scandens
Panax sambucifolius
Panelus arthuri

bidentatus

HOPSONI

pisoniae

POLITUS

pygmaeus
Papuatipula leuc ostic ta

Paramongoma banahaoensis
chionopoda
LUCRIFERA
pusilla

Parasarcophaga
albiceps
annandalei
aurifrons ..
ballardi
bambridgei
caudagalli
doleschalli
dux
eta
flavipalpis
fuscicauda
futuris
gamma ls
haemorrhoidalis
harpax
hirticeps ..
kempi
khasiensis
knabi
kohla
misera
omega
orchidea ..
ostindicae
peregrina
scopariformis
tsushimae
walayari..

133, 158,

231, 243-4

» 201

. 241, 244, 252, 257
233, 240, 252

. 292
x] viii
5. il)
oo lLil2)
alls,
aa? 11)
po 11%)
serail?
so Li?
. 112

112

181
164
-. 112
. 292

aeeelGZ
xvii
. 293
55
. 101
. 101
99, 101
. 101
100-1
. 101
. 169

. 126
. 126
125-6
. 126

89-90, 92

.. 89
89, 93
89, 90
89, 93
89, 93
89, 93
89, 93
s&h
89, 90

89
» 0
89, 93
89, 90
89, 93

89
fy 289
89, 93
89, 93
. 89
89, 90
89, 90
89, 90
rt)
89, 93
89, 90

89
. 89
89, 93

Paronychia brasiliana xlv
chilensis .. ; xlv
Patersonia glauca .. .. 288
Pedaria alternata .. . 102
geminata 102
INTERRUPTA “101- 2
METALLICA eel Oz,
Pellaea falcata 116, 292
var, nana . 116
paradoxa po HIG)
var. normalis .. gq Tal
Penniretepora grandis 161, 164
Pentamerus knightii 190
Persoonia ferruginea A 56 PAM
lanceolata or oo ASKS, Raoul
linearis 289, 292
mollis 288
salicina 288, 290-2 2
Petrophila mileneliat x ao PASS
Phalanger orientalis breviceps 5 IPs
Phalaris minor XXxvili
Phegopteris punctata Been i!
var. Tugulosa . . 5 dite
tugosula .. . 114
rugulosa .. 5 dbs
Phialocrinus (?) 161, 164
Phillipsia collinsi . 163
PHLOEOCETIS . 298
VIRGEA 299
Phragmites communis 293, 295
Phycopsis vanillae 282-3
Phylloglossum Drummondii . 111
Pilularia globulifera . 113
Novae-Hollandiae 3 i183
Pimelea ligustrina . . 291-2
linifolia F ‘ . 288
Pittosporum mabneGman fe 50 PE
Plantago varia Be 293
Platisus a ae Als oo {hs
angusticollis ae oh .. 98
bicolor .. fs i6 ws 98
coloniarius ah ne .. 98
integricollis As je P98)
moerosus at ae oe. tthe}
obscurus .. : oe -. 98
Platycerium AIciconne ee 20
bifurcatum yaeL20
grande e aes eeel20)
Platycotylus inasitacus ee Kel, 98
Platyphanes ee ee . 106
PLANATUS : .. 106
Platyzoma aioe, . 113
Plectranthus parviflorus .. 50 PAG
Pleopeltis Billardieri .- 120
Brownii .. 120
diversifolia 120, 293
pustulata . 120
Plesiomongoma novae-brittaniae 127
-Pleurosorus rutifolius ag Alle}
Poa annua .. aes a‘ so PAI
Pollenia hirticeps .. a seu erAll
NIGRITA : . 21-2
STOLIDA .. a0 a 50 | AL
Pollia eyanococca .. . 292

INDEX.

Polypodium aspidioides a5 lity
attenuatum :. 120
australe co iP
Billardieri 121, 290
Brownii so | LIPAO)
confluens . . 120, 250
diversifolium ee 20)
grammitidis so. UPL
proliferum aco lite
punctatum -. Ll4
pustulatum 36 JUAD)
rigidulum go IPO)
rugosulum oo alk
scandens .. elt 20)
serpens ~. 250
tenellum eo. ality

Polystichum peulentirn oo hile
adiantiforme pe als}
aristatum se UIs}

var. carvifolium eels)
carvifolium pelts
hispidium oo Allis}
proliferum ao lll}
vestitum . 50) shits}

Pomaderris elliptica. : go PL

Prionoscelus magnus a pig PAR
obscuripilus ao! ae -. 26
pleuromaculatus. . a 55) PB

Prodiaphania as a so 110)

Productus (?) brachythaerus . 160
brachythaerus . 164
subquadratus 161, 163
undatus ?.. 158, 164

Prosenostoma Es ig Bie Peles}

Prostanthera incisa var. pubescens liii

Sieberi 291-2
Protium oneneiestioniin xlv
Protoretepora . 161

ampla 160, 164
Pseudoglochina evanescens .. 181

kobusi eee Sit

PROCELLA .. 180

pulchripes po kel
Psilotum nudum 5 dal

triquetrum qo. ily
Pteridium aquilinum 115, 291-2
var. aequipinnulum 50 dale
var. pseudocaudatum ovo ILLS
Pterinea nor 1188
Pteris aquilina sg» 115

arguta sig ILI

comans so stil)

concolor . ao Lal{s}

Endlicheriana oo alll)

ensiformis 5a isi)

falcata sa ING
geraniifolia so 1K
incisa ao Its)

longifolia oo | III)

marginata aeelaltey

paradoxa aio ALG
tremula eaL'5

tripartita 115

umbrosa 115, 292

Prilotula penicillata
Puccinia anomala ..
coronata Avenae

. XVill, XXxii
. Xvili, Xxxi

Ixxxi

li

dispersa . XVili, Xxxii
glumarum Xviil
graminis xix, Xxii
Avenae Xviil, Xxviii
Secalis .. F Xvili
Tritici .. . XViii, xxiii, xxviii
triticina . Xvili, xxix
Pultenaea daphnoides 288, 290
Pustula . 163
Raja batis ols
clavata -. 018
erinacea 318, 320
Ranunculus parviflorus we air)
Rattus culmorum . . xliv, 185
Receptaculites ? australis e194:
Restio complanatus 289, 290
Reticularis cf. lineata po» 1B}
lineata j 22 163
Retiograptus pulcherrimus oa |
Retzia eel Gs:
Rhagadochir 242, 257
Rhodamnia trinervia 50) PA
Ricinocarpus pinifolius . 288
Rubus fruticosus 292
Rulingia salvifolia . . liii
Rupicola sprengelioides xvii
Rutilia lepida 16
micropalpis 5 16
tuficornis var. CUPREIVENTRIS. 18
SIMPLEX .. iy
TRANSVERSA 15
Samolus repens . 293
Sarcopetalum HARreraTinn . 293
Sarcophaga 90-1
alcicornis 90-2
alpha 90-2
antilope 90, 94
aspinata .. 90
aurifrons .. 92
bancrofti 90-2 2, 94
banksi 90, 94
beesoni 5 li)
beta 90-2
calcifera .. 90
ceylonensis sa 9S
crinita 90, 93
depressa .. 90-2
epsilon 90-2
eta 92
falculata Srheet' 0)
fergusoni 90-2, 95
flavinervis 90, 94
froggatti .. 90-2
furcata 90-2, 94
gamma 92
gravelyi 90
haematodes . 90
hardyi 90-2
henryi 90, 94

Ixxxli

Sarcophaga howensis
illingsworchi
impatiens
kankauensis
kappa
kohla
littoralis ..
melaneura
misera
omega
omikron ..
orientaloides
pachytyli
pattoni
peregrina
persicae
pusana
ruficornis
securifera. .
spinifera .
syma
talonata ..
tryoni
tsushimae
zeta

Scaevola hispida

Scamboneura

Scaptia auriflua

Schizaea bifida
dichotoma

var. Forsteri
fistulosa ..
rupestris ..

Schizophoria

Selaginella Belangeri
Preissiana
uliginosa ..

Senecio dryadens
mikanioides
Senostoma BIARMATA
CYGNUS
FURCATA
georgei
REGINA
sp. (?)
testacea
var. Preisernink
variegata
VICTORIAE

Silvius notatus
Sitolobium dubium
Sloanea australis
Smilax australis

Solomys salamonis. .
salebrosus
sapientis ..

Spinifex hirsuta

Spirifer
ct. lata
cf. strzeleckii
pinguis (7)
sp.
stokesi

91-2

oo} =68h0)
90, 93
91-2
90-2
90-2

- 90
90-2

5 883
90-2

=. 293
. 174
a0 1
co lily
se) IY
-. 112
35 11183
-. 113
. 163
5 ital
111
“111, 289- 90

va 292
. 298
11, 14
iLils alG5
11, 14
ELS,
11, 14
+ ie
i ab

11
son KY)

TS

56 1

. 114

_ 992

293

128-30

129-30

oe UBS)

5 4h

133

163

> L163
163
161, 163 -4
158, 164

INDEX,

Spirifer striata

vespertilio
Spiriferina
Sprengelia internat
Spumellaria. .
Stackhousia viminea
Stenopora

tasmaniensis
Stephania hernandifolia
Stigmodera TRUNCATA
Stivalius

MOLESTUS

mordax

rectus
Strophalosia

cf. gerardi

ef. jukesii

gerardi

jukesii
Stropheodonta conica
Stutchburia cf. compressa

compressa
Styringomyia flava

SPINICAUDATA
Symphyoneme paludosa
Synecarpia laurifolia
Synoum glandulosum
Syringa vulgaris
Syringopora

.Tabanus rubidus

Taeniothaeris subquadr ate
Taeniothyris subquadrata
Tasiocera axillaris . .
bipennata
bucephala
caudifera
dicksoniae 0
dorrigensis
gracillicornis
nodulifera
otwayensis
PAPUANA .. ave
TARSALBA
taylori
Tasmania SrOTintiCal
Themeda australis
Forskalii ..
quadrivalvis
triandra

Thrypticomyia Senn aris
fumidapicalis
SPATHULIFERA

Tipula leucosticta ..

Tmesipteris elongata
lanceolata
tannensis

Todea barbara
Fraseri

Toxorhina birdéi
FUMIPENNIS
SUTTONI
TRILINEATA

Trachymene Billardieri

157, 163
161, 163-4
. 163
288-9

. 187
5.0 PASS
158, 161
160, 164
ae293
. 104
.. xliv
Bo. dtsts)
. 185
185
161, 163
. 160
160, 164
161, 163-4
. 158

. 141
GS
161, 164
. 340

. 339

. 289
291-2
7292
72

Trachyntis .. .. 298
coenodes .. 6 ain, Cl
delophanes .. 316
diaphanes Be) cits
epiphaula 56 Gul)
epipona ga cule
HOLARGA .. se GILe/
inferna ao oily
metrospila Pol
xenopis é 316

Trachypora wilkinsoni 158-61, 164

Trentepohlia banahaoensis . 126
brevipes .. 126, 329
chionopoda . 126
LONGISETOSA . 126
LUCRIFERA 125-6
NIGRESCENS so ByA!)
novae-brittaniae. . bo UAL
pictipennis go ley
pusilla . 126

Trichomanes apiifolium ve LB
Bauerianum ao Lis}
calvescens oa JU183
digitatum var. caesar . 113
humile a= 14
javanicum .. 114
meifolium oo ils}
omphalodes ao 116}
parvulum ao al4e
peltatum . . ao 111133
rigidum .. 114
venosum .. . L4
vitiense ‘ 114

Trichopeltis reptans 277-8, 282-3

Trichothallus hawaiiensis 279, 283

Tristania laurina 290, 2938

Trygonorrhina fasciata 318-20

Turdus philomelus clarkei lii

Urolophus testaceus 318-20

Uromys caudimaculata . 1380
sapientis .. 7) 128

Ursus maritimus 221, 225

Utricularia capensis . xiii
dichotoma var. uniflora xlv
lateriflora xliii, 289
monanthos xlv
Welwitschii . xiii

Viola hederacea .. 291

Vulpia bromoides .. XXViii

WATERHOUSEIA .. 260
CYCLOPS .. .. 261

Westringia rosmariniformis .. 294

Woodsia lactivirens se ALLY,

Woodwardia aspera aa dlalts)

var, blechnoides .. 119
caudata . 119

Xanthium chinense xlv
occidentale xlv
spinosum xlv

INDEX. 1xxxiil

Xanthorrhoea arborea... .. 290 Xenopsylla vexabilis oD -. 182 Xyris gracilis Ne be .. 290
hastilis .. ws bi 288-9 hawaiiensis .. a 9 ISB)
minor a a a 289-90 MESERIS RS ae .. 184 Zanthomiza phrygia oe a3 li
Xanthosia pilosa .. 6 .. 290 vexabilis O60 rif 184-5 Zaphrentis gregoriana pie 161, 164
Xenopsylla .. oye ie oo adiiy Xerotes flexifolia .. 56 co PAatS sp. : 158, 160

hawaiiensis sys bs . 184 longifolia Fo .. 288, 291-2 Zieria Smithii ee we .. 292

i
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(Issued 15th May, 1936.)

~~ Vol. LXL Nos. 263-264.

Parts 1-2.

THE

PROCEEDINGS

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LINNEAN SOCIETY

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\ { ‘
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Cc. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S._ Phi SSR aa
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: z Prof SAGauss » D.Sc ‘ “s
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E. Cheel. Cc. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. ; Wecalcaainue 48h ‘
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PROCEEDINGS, 1936, PARTS 1-2.

_ CONTENTS.

Presidential Address, delivered at the Sixty-first Annual General Meeting,
25th March, 1936, by Dr. W. L. Waterhouse

Elections BUNTY cei a Ae Oe aR Ge

Balance-sheets for the year ending 29th February, 1936

Notes on the Biology of Scaptia aurifiua Don. (Diptera, Tabanidae). By

Mary E. Fuller, B. Se. (Plate i and eleven Text-figures.)

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\

Studies in the Australian Acacias. vi. The Meristematic Activity of

the Floral Apex of Acacia longifolia and Acacia suaveolens as a

Histogenetic Study of the Ontogeny of the Carpel. By I. V. Newman,

M.Sce., Ph.D., F.L.S., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany.
(Plates ii-v and fifteen Text-figures.) .. SAME en ees

Pages.
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Z

. i-xxxviii
XXXVIii

. XXXix—xli -

56-88

(Issued 15th September, 1936.)

b
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PROCEEDINGS, 1936, PARTS 3-4.

CONTENTS. __ es

Notes on Sarcophaginae in India and Australia. By G. H. Hardy ..

Australian Coleoptera. Notes and New Species. No. x. / By H. J. Carter,

B.A., F.R.ELS.

A Check List of the New South Wales Pteridophytes. By Alma T.
Melvaine Ge earns Cia Re) AUMES EU Sit Ria gr 7 la ENE ay Ae eae Mn

oe
e

Contribution to a Knowledge of Papuan Tipulidae (Diptera). By
Charles P. Alexander. (Communicated by Frank H. Taylor, F.R.ES.,+

BUGS) (Seven ‘Text-figures.) CCAM MN ahe See Serene ic

A Redescription of Solomys (“Mus”) salamonis ee By Ellis Le G. -

Troughton, C.M.Z.S. .. .4

The Spenetural: Geology and Petrology Of 2 an aren near Yass, New South
Wales. By Kathleen Sherrard, M.Sc. (Plates vi—-vii and nine Text-
figures. ) DEAE OTR eS Ut USSR Sn GEOR Pa be

A Comparison of the Rydal and Hartley Exogenous Contact-zones. By
Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D. (One Text-figure.)

The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Boorook and Drake,
N.S.W. By A. H. Voisey, M.Sc. (Plate viii and one Text-figure.) ..

The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. iv. Family Tipulidae.
Part ii. By Charles P. Alexander. (Communicated by Een A.
Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S8.)- (Seventeen Text-figures. )

Two New Australian Fleas. By Karl Jordan, Ph.D., E.R.S. (Communi-
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Introductory Account of the Geology and Petrology of the Lake George
District. Part i. General Geology. By M. D. Garretty, B.Sc. (Plate
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Charles Hedley (Memorial Series, No. 5.) (With Portrait.)

- Pages.”

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98-110

111-121

a2 197) ye ee

128-130 |

131-150 wD

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155-168

169-183

184-185

186-207
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(Issued 15th December, 1986.)

oc=>

WY von. ext. a Nos. 267-268. |
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: | THE

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CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER,
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C.\A. Sussmileh, F.G.8.. °° |) 2 : Wait

Q S WVice-Presidents: / vey Ae ey
Cc. ‘Anderson, M.A., D.Se. ~~ ; Prof. Ww. J. Dakin, IDHSTOS) SA Sota
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Professor “A. Ni Burkitt, Be BSc. \ ' T. C. Roughley, BSc. Dien ye td
H. J. Carter, B.A.,; F.R.ES. oR aN C.._A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. | RE ag hoe dc ge 7 Ie
E. Cheel. ae | A. B. Walkom, D.Sc. :

Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc. ; H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Sc.’
W. W. Froggatt, aes phe | G A. Waterhouse, D.Se., B.E., FRE, =
A. G. Hamilton. — WD W. L. Waterhouse, D:Se.Agr. Ki

Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.A. (Aust.).
i \\ rs - ~ Y
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"PROCEEDINGS, 1936, PARTS: 5 6

Bat CONTENTS. se eer ak

. Mee yieeis se
The Adrenal Gland in New-born Mammals. By Geoffrey oe Th ae ect
(Plate xi. aad: twenty Text-figures 00°50.) ie ase eg (221-228 — xa
Studies in Australian Embioptera.. Part i. Systematics. By Consett _ yeu. ie
Davis, B.Se. (Forty-three Pe eS) OV Marta en AT GeRh Gin Sn 229-253. fe ;

Studies in Australian Embioptera. ‘Part ii. Further Notes on Systematics. rie Ste eg
By Consett Davis, B. Se. (Plate xii and seven Text-figures. ier ae eee we aaa

-Notes on ‘Auatrauan Diptera. xxxvi. By John R. Malloch. (Communi- as oe
- cated by Frank H. Taylor, PR. E:S., ‘F Gh. & ) (Four Text-figures, yo Fh abo Gis

Problems in the, Geology of New Caledonia By H. I. Jensen, D.Sc. (With sais yak
a Note on the Petrology of a Small Collection. of Schists, by ~ ee ie
Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D. y - (Communicated by ee ue BARS aaa ae
Cotton.) (One “‘Text-figure.), Ne a a SO Eee

x

Notes on the Occurrence of the Trichopeltaceae. and Atichiaceae in New *
South Wales, and on their Mode of Nutrition, with a Description of a ®
5 New Species of Atichia. By Lilian Fraser, M. Sc., Linnean. Macleay Re AY

Fellow of the Society in a (Plates xiii-xiv and: ten Text- means ee
figures. ) RE ue OREN SH RIG eigtaaeeen anh © Lena Be. 277-284

Plant Ecology of the ec Part 15 Stratigraphy, Physiography i
and Climate; General Distribution of Plant Communities and Inter- ‘i meet
pretation. By Consett Davis, B.Sc. (Plate xv.) .. .. .. .. .. 285-297

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. vo By A. Jefferis — eae
Murner, MDG YE Bats) ee eh var Gas ier an aaraaer cee ena 298-317 1s

The Colour-Changes of Batoid Bene By Mervyn ae (Plate xvi.) :

(
f

Tannatt William Edgeworth David. (Memorial Series, No. 6).
Portrait.) 7 a ee i

The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. -- Family Tipulidae. cf
- Part iii. By Charles P. Alexander. | EOE sed by. np EH, Taylor, Sl a
F.R.E.S., F.Z.8.) Clery seles Texte UGE.) 4c pane ae . eS aeeomOn

(With

List of New Genera Bik Subgenera
List of Plates

Abstract of Proceedings 4g

Donations and Hxchanges MN Ar > To Oey,
List of Members ..

Index RE SOM PR Tat WR SIMS Saat ree RAE ANE yi yer, LAP ct ie

ae

FSR,

©

rims . Se ee rte cat

+
tn

ene
Sot Perm rareatarser