PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

MANCHESTER.

VOL. IY.

SESSION 1804-06,

MANCHESTER :

PRINTED BY THOS. SOWXER AND SONS, ST. ANN’S SQUARE.
LONDON : H. BATT.LIERE, 219, REGENT STREET.

1865.

NOTE.

The object which the Society have in view in publishing their Proceedings,
is to give an immediate • and succinct account of the scientific and other
business transacted at their Meetings, to the members and the general
public. The various communications are supplied by the Authors them-
selves, who are alone responsible for the facts and reasonings contained
therein.

»

'• !

INDE X.

Airy G. B., M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal. — On Auroral Arches, p. 170.

Alcock Thomas, M.I). — On Specimens of Foraminifera from Roundstone,
Connemara, p. 52. Remains of an Ichtliyosaurus, p. 99. Notes on a
Visit to Walton Hall, p. 100. On Marine Entomostraca, p. 174.
Southport Natural History, p. 188. Notes on Natural History Speci-
mens from Connemara, p. 192.

Bates Rev. J. Chadwick, M.A., P.R.A.S., P.G.S. — Raingauge and Anemo-
meter Observations, 1864, p. 143.

Baxendell J., P.R.A.S., Hon. Sec. — Earthquake of September 25, 1864, p. 1.
New Star, p. 22. Period and Changes of the Greenwich Variable Star
in Vulpecula, p. 54. Observation of an Auroral Arch, p. 133. On a
Thermometer constructed by Dr. Dalton, p. 133. Note on Mr. Bates’s
Raingauge and Anemometer Observations, p. 145.

Binney E. W., F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P. — Strokes of Lightning, p. 25. Remarks
on Marine Shells found at Macclesfield, p. 43. Spores of Plants in
Splint Coal, p. 45. Remains of the Elephant found in Derbyshire
and Cheshire, p. 49. Internal Structure of Stigmaria, p. 87. Further
Observations on the Permian and Triassic Strata of Lancashire, p. 134.

Beeguet M. — Consti’uction of Dumas’s Lamp, p. 101.

Brierly Henry. — Spinning Machines, p. 2.

Brock bank W. — Discovery of the Mammoth (Elephas Primigenius) at
Waterhouses, near Leek, p. 46.

Brothers A., F.R.A.S. — Photograph of the Moon, p. 13. Portraits by the
Magnesium Light, p. 65. Picture of the Blue John Mine taken by the
Magnesium Light, p. 112. Was Daguerre a Discoverer ? p. 113.

Buxton E. C., Junr. — Photographic Experience in India, p. 120.

Calvert F. Crace, F.R.S., F.C.S. — Action of Sea Water upon certain
Metals and Alloys, p. 115.

Caro Heinrich. — Injurious Action of Alkalies on Cotton Fibre, p. 149.

Carrington Benjamin, M.D. — On an Annelidau Larva, and On the
Embryology of Annelids, p. 100. On the Chaetopod Annelides of the
Southport Sands, p. 176.

VI

Clifton Prof. R. B., M.A., F.R.A.S. — On mi Acoustical Electric Telegraph,
p. 53.

Cockle Chief Justice, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. — On Differential Equations,
p. 38.

Dancer J. B., F.R.A.S. — Contrivance for Regulating the Amount of Light
in Using the Microscope, p. 34. Exhibition, Stereoscopically, of
Photography on a Large Scale, p. 111. The Opaque Microscope not
Neiv, p. 120. Microscopical Appearances of Cotton Hair during
Dissolution in the Ammoniacal Solution of Copper, p. 152. On
Pseudoscopic Vision through Prisms, p. 157. On Viewing Photo-
graphic Pictures taken with Lenses of different Foci, p. 190.

Dancer William. — Injurious Action of Alkalies on Cotton Fibre, p. 149.

Darbishire R. D., F.G.S. — Notes on Marine Shells found in Stratified Drift
at Macclesfield, p. 41.

Dyer J. C., V.P. — Spinning Machines, p. 12.

Hear John.— Note on the Rainfall of the last Twenty-nine Years at Royton,
Oldham, p. 147.

Heelis .Thomas, F.R.A.S. — Account of a Fireball, p. 84.

Herschel Alexander S., B.A.— On the Auroral Arch of March 20, 1865,
p. 171.

Heyes W. H. — Markings on Leaves of the Vegetable Marrow, p. 36. Struc-
ture of Cotton Fibre, p. 63. Preparation of Canada Balsam for
Mounting Microscopic Objects, p. 173.

Hunt G-. E. — Discovery of Potamogeton Nitens in Loch Ascog, Rothsav,
p. 52. Notes on Mosses, p. 141.

Johnson J. R. — Pantascopic Camera, p. 111.

Johnson R., F.C.S. — Action of Sea Water upon certain Metals and Alloys
p. 115.

Joule J. P., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P. — Hardening Steel Wires for Maguetic
Needles, p. 28. New Magnetic Needle for showing Rapid and Minute
Changes of Declination, p. 37. Testing Boilers by Hydraulic Press-
ure, p. 89. New Camera, p. 113. Instrument for showing Rapid
Changes in Magnetic Declination, p. 131. Improvements in a Camera,
p. 192.

Kirkman Rev. T. P., M.A., F.R.S. — Relation of Force to Matter and Mind,
p. 14. Corrigenda, p. 28. Theory of Groups, Corrigenda and Ad-
denda, p. 171.

Knott George, F.R.A.S. — Observations of the Greenwich Variable in Vul-
pecula and its Companion Stars, p. 65.

vn

Latham Arthur G. — Examination of a Shell of Helix Nemoralis, p. 62.

Linton James. — Stigmas of Poterium Sanguisorba ; Calyx of Gum Cistus,
p. 36.

Lund Edward, F.R.C.S. Ex. — On the Points of Resemblance and Difference
between the Skeletons of the Gorilla and Man, p. 57.

Mitchell John, Captain. — Experiments on Cotton Fibre, p. 51.

Mudd James. — A Photographer’s Dream, p. 191.

Mylius A. — Action of Caustic Soda on Ethylic and Metliylic Alcohol, p. 106.

Nasmyth James, C.E. — Antiquity of the Features and Details of the Lunar
Surface, p. 29. On a Large Group of Solar Spots, p. 78.

Nevill T. H.— Foraminifera from Gorteen Bay, Connemara ; and a New
Method of Mounting Specimens, p. 63. New Sensitive Paper, p. 67.

Parry John. — Section of a Shell of Helix Aspersa, p. 62. On Mr. Side-
botham’s Camera, p. 67. Pressure Apparatus for Mounting Micro-
scopic Objects, p. 174.

Robinson John. — Alloy to resist the Action of Sea Water, p. 119.

Roscoe Prof. H. E., F.R.S., Hon. Sec. — Mr. Rutherford’s Photographs of
the Fixed Lines in the Solar Spectrum, and of the Moon, p. 69. Pre-
paration of Bulbs for exhibiting the Chemical Combination of Chlorine
and Hydrogen Gases, p. 101.

Schunck E., F.R.S., V.P. — On some Products delayed from Indigo Blue, p.
70.

Sidebotham J. — Trees damaged by Lightning, p. 25. Address to Micro-
scopical Section, p. 33. Seed of Sanieula Europea, p. 36. Printing
Transparencies for the Stereoscope and Magic Lantern, p. 65. On
the Wotklytype Process, p. 68. Notes on the Development of the
Wings of Lepidopterous Insects, p. 98. Proper Focus of Lens to be
used in taking Photographic Landscapes, and on some Modes of
Measuring the Size of Objects therein depicted, pp. 113 and 190.

Smith R. Angus, F.R.S., P. — Dancer’s Aspirator, p. 26. Composition of
the Atmosphere, p. 30. On some Physiological Effects of Carbonic
. Acid and Ventilation, p. 79. Ou the Meteorological Instruments
invented by Dr. Joule, p. 132. Minimetric Method of Analysis, p.
159.

Sonstadt Edward. — New Reagent for the Separation of Calcium from Mag-
nesium, p. 90.

Taylor James. — Rainfall at Oldham, Strinesdale, and Brushes Clough,
p. 19.

Thom John. — New Form of’ Roof for Dyehouses. p. 103.

vni

Vernon G. V., F.R.A.S. — Note on the Rainfall of 1864, p. 85.

Wardley G-eorge. — On Glass Transparencies, p. 192.

Watson John. — On the Plumules or Battledore Scales of the Lycsenidse,
p. 98.

Williamson Prof. W. C., F.R.S. — Address to the Photographical Section,
p. 64. Difficulties in Determining Specific Distinctions in the Lower
Forms of Animal Life, p. 140.

Worthington S. B., C.E. — Bridge with Girders made of Bessemer Steel
Plates, p. 77.

Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section. — Annual, p. 143.
Ordinary, pp. 19, 53, 84.

Meetings of the Microscopical Section. — Annual, p. 189. Ordinary, pp. 33,
51, 52, 62, 97, 99, 140, 141, 173, 174, 188.

Meetings of the Photographical Section. — Annual, p. 191. Ordinary, pp. 64,
67, 111, 112, 120, 190.

Report of the Council. — April 25, 1865, p.'_163.

\

PROCEEDINGS

0E

THE LITERACY AND PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 4th, 1864.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., E.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in

the Chair.

Amongst the donations announced was a bust of Dr.
Dalton, presented by Mrs. Samuel Fletcher.

On the motion of Dr. Roscoe, seconded by Dr. Joule,
the best thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to
Mrs. Fletcher, for her very valuable present.

The Chairman, in announcing the severe loss which the
Society had sustained by the death of their late lamented
Honorary Librarian, adverted to the very important services
he had rendered. By Mr. Ekman’s able management and
indefatigable industry the library had become one of the most
valuable in the country.

Thomas Windsor, Esq., M.R.C.S., was unanimously
elected Honorary Librarian of the Society.

Several members stated their experience of the earthquake
which occurred on the 26th ult. Mr. Baxendell described a
remarkable derangement of the sidereal clock belonging to
the corporation, which he had mounted at his house, which
has suggested a new method of registering the occurrence of
earthquake shocks.

Proceedings— Lit, & Phil. Society— Vol. IV.— No. 1— Session, 1864-5.

2

A Paper was read entitled “Remarks on Mr. Dyer’s Paper
entitled ‘ Notes on Spinning Machines/ by Mr. Henry
Brierly” ; communicated by E. W. Binnf.y, F.R.S.

Mr. Dyer, in the abstract of his paper {Proceedings, vol. iii.
p. 265), commences by saying that “ two distinct principles
were embraced in the inventions of James Hargreaves and
Richard Arkwright, which were afterwards combined by
Samuel Crompton, to form the beautiful power-driven machine
called the mule. Arkwright employed the throstle, or throated
spindle, with arms or £ flyers 5 to conduct the threads on bob-
bins arranged in stationary frames ; Hargreaves employed
naked spindles arranged on a traversing frame or carriage,
by which the threads were drawn out (about five feet) in
horizontal lines, whilst being twisted, and were then taken
up, or wound, on the spindles, to form ‘ cops,’ whilst the
carriage returned to the roller beam for another ‘ stretch.’ ”

As I understand Mr. Dyer, he attributes to Arkwright
the invention of the spindle and flyer, and seems to consider
that as the leading ce principle” of Arkwright’s invention, as
distinguished from Hargreaves’s invention, the main “prm-
ciple” of which he mentions as consisting in the employment
of nalied spindles mounted on a traversing frame or carriage.
Mr. Dyer is in error on both these points; and it is only
fair to a very ingenious inventor who preceded both Har-
greaves and Arkwright that these matters should be properly
understood.

As to Hargreaves’s “ Jenny,” there is no doubt of the
originality of the invention, and that Hargreaves is entitled
to the sole merit of whatever was valuable in that invention ;
hut I shall show that as regards the inventions commonly
attributed to Arkwright the case is far different. Before
doing so, however, I must point out the mistake committed
by Mr. Dyer as regards the nature of Hargreaves’s inven-

3

tion. . Hargreaves did not employ spindles mounted upon
a moving carriage , nor was there any (( roller beam ” in
his machine at all. Mr. Dyer seems to be here confounding
the invention of Hargreaves with the subsequent invention of
Crompton. An inspection of the specification of the patent
taken out by Hargreaves in 1770 (No. 962) will show that in
his “ Jenny ” the spindles revolve in stationary bearings ,
while instead of rollers for drawing out the material to the
requisite fineness a “clasp” was used, which was arranged
to move backwards and forwards in suitable framing. Thus,
before beginning to spin a “ stretch,” the spinner had the
“clasp” near to the spindles, with a certain length of roving
between the clasp and each spindle. He then with one hand
drew the clasp gently away from the spindles, thus elongating
the portions of roving between them, while with the other
hand he turned round certain apparatus by means of which
the spindles were caused to revolve and twist the threads, and
having thus drawn away the clasp for about five feet from
the spindles he then returned it back towards them, at the
same time guiding the threads by means of a “ presser,” or
faller, and turning the spindles round so as to wind the spun
threads upon bobbins placed upon them, and not upon the
spindles themselves. This is a very different operation from
that of the mule, in which rollers moving at different veloci-
ties draw the material to the required fineness, while the
spindles recede from them in a moving carriage , at the same
time revolving so as to twist the threads, which are afterwards
wound upon the spindles themselves so as to form “cops.”
It is necessary to bear these distinctions in mind in following
the progress of development which resulted in the production
of the highly effective spinning machinery in use at the pre-
sent day.

In coming to the consideration of the inventions usually
attributed to Arkwright, it is only proper that due notice

4

should be bestowed upon those of a very ingenious man who •
preceded him, viz., Lewis Paul. The invention of “ spinning
by rollers,” as it is familiarly termed, and for which Ark-
wright usually obtains the credit, most undoubtedly origin-
ated with Paul. It is only necessary to read the specification
of the patent granted to Paul on the 24th June, 1738, to be
satisfied on this point. It is true that there has been some
dispute as to whether Paul himself really originated the
invention described in that specification, a person of the name
of Wyatt being mentioned by some as having communicated
the invention to Paul, and another person of the name of
Highs having laid some sort of claim to the invention. The
claims of these parties, however, only rest upon some very
vague assertions made by themselves or persons connected
with them, such, for instance, as that contained in a letter
written by Wyatt to Sir Leicester Holt, and quoted at page
124 of Baines’s History of the Cotton Manufacture , in which
W yatt says, referring to the machine known as Paul’s — <c I am
the person that was the principal agent in compileing the
spinning engine,” &c. Such assertions as these, however,
cannot be taken as satisfactory proofs of the claims of these
parties, and when in opposition to them we have the specifica-
tion of a patent granted to Paul for this application, in which
specification the name of Wyatt actually appears as that of a
witness to the signature, &c., of the document by Paul, it is
difficult for an unprejudiced person to come to any other con-
clusion than that Paul was really the inventor of the contri-
vance for which the patent was granted. However that may
be, it is quite clear that this invention does not belong to
Arkwright, whose first patent relating to spinning machinery
was taken out in 1709, or above thirty years after the patent
granted to Paul. And that Arkwright was aware of the
existence of Paul’s patent is beyond all doubt, and is proved
by documents which arc quoted in the work to which 1 have

5

already referred, viz., Baines’s History of the Cotton Manu-
facture, as well as by other documents to which I need not
now particularly allude.

In speaking of the “ peculiar soft property ” possessed by
the yarn spun upon the mule, as distinguishing it from the
yarn spun by the machine called the “ throstle,” Mr. Dyer is
quite correct. I believe it is not so generally known as it
should be that the “ throstle,” as' the term is now generally
understood, consists mainly of a combination of the leading
features of Paul’s invention of 1738, which I have already
mentioned, with those of a later invention, for which he
obtained a patent in 1758. Mr. Dyer mentions the
spindle and flyer as Arkwright's invention, but they had
been in use upwards of one hundred and sixty years
before the date of Arkwright’s inventions. This is proved
by several of the works now in the library of the Patent
Office, especially an Italian work, entitled “Novo Teatro
di Machine et Edificii,” &c., and a pamphlet published
in 1681, entitled “Some Proposals for the Employment
of the Poor.” In Paul’s specification of 1738 we have
the application of rollers moving at different velocities for
drawing the material, and in that of 1758 the combination of
rollers (of which only one pair are shown in the specification
of the latter patent) with the spindle and flyer, by means of
which the thread was twisted and wound upon a bobbin. So
far as I have been able to ascertain, this is the first instance
in which we have the material passing through rollers in its
way to a spindle and flyer by which it is twisted and wound
upon a bobbin, and we have here, clearly, the origin of the
“ throstle.” Paul’s specification of 1758 describes these
operations very minutely, but spinners acquainted with this
class of machinery will at once perceive that the machine
described in Paul’s specification, though displaying great
ingenuity, was defective in one important particular, which

6

was, that there was no arrangement by which the “ traverse”
of the bobbin, as it is now termed, could be performed. The
manner in which the yarn was distributed over the bobbin
was peculiar. The flyer was tubular , and only reached
downwards to just within the head of the bobbin, and the
latter was of conical form, the lower end being the smallest.
The yarn was thus wound constantly at the top of the bobbin
by the flyer, but as it accumulated there, the conical form of
the bobbin caused the coils of yarn to slip downwards, and
thus a kind of distribution of yarn over the bobbin was
effected. This part of the arrangement was evidently very
defective, and it is highly probable that the want of some more
efficient method of distributing the yarn over the bobbin was
one if not the sole cause of the want of success which
undoubtedly attended the efforts of Paul to bring his machine
into general use. The addition to the machine of the
“ traverse motion,” as it is called, or the arrangement by
which the bobbin is made to ascend and descend on the
spindle, was unquestionably a vast improvement, and of this
Arkwright may fairly have the credit. But even here Ark-
wright had been partly anticipated,* for in the specification of
a patent granted to Comah Wood, in 1772, No. 1018, there is
the description of a mode of causing the bobbin to be moved
on the spindle for the purpose of winding the thread upon all
parts of it in succession, this being done by a movable rail,
capable of being shifted from time to time by hand. This,
however, was only a slight approximation to what was
required, and Arkwright, in applying the “ heart motion, ”f
as it is now termed, may be said to have brought the throstle
well nigh to the condition in which it is used at the present
day.

* Arkwright’s specification of 1769 does not describe any arrangement for
this purpose.

t The date of this application appears to be uncertain.

7

Crompton’s invention, in which he combined the drawing
rollers of Paul with the use of spindles mounted in a movable
carriage, and which was thence called the “ mule,” as par-
taking to some extent of the principles of both the jenny and
the throstle, formed an immense improvement on all previous
inventions. Of course the mule has been greatly improved
since Crompton’s time ; but in speaking of Mr. Kennedy and
Mr. Peter Ewart as being among the most eminent of those
who have improved that machine, Mr. Dyer gives no reason
for his opinion. I pass from this, however, to Mr. Dyer’s
observations on the self-acting mule.

Mr. Dyer says the “ real difficulty” connected with the
construction of a self-acting mule was chiefly confined to the
winding of the threads on the cops ; but, as I can testify
from some twenty years’ actual experience, this is by no
means the greatest difficulty, especially as regards the con-
struction of large mules. The backing off, or unwinding of
the loose coils of yarn from the spindles, which are above the
cops, so as to allow the depression of the “ faller,” or guiding
Avire, is connected with mechanical difficulties of a most
formidable nature, and the reaction produced by the sudden
stoppage and reversal of the motion of the spindles of a large
mule, with their attendant pulleys and geering, &c., has been
a source of trouble and annoyance which none but those who
have experienced it can understand. Mr. Dyer mentions a
Mr. Snodgrass as having made the first (i notable" attempt to
construct a self-acting mule ; but beyond the attempt being a
notable failure , I know of nothing to entitle it to that dis-
tinction. Mr. Eaton’s invention of 1819, which Mr. Dyer
mentions as next in succession to that of Mr. Snodgrass, was
undoubtedly a very ingenious invention, and was used by
himself {ox some little time. Mr. Eaton’s specification shows
that his knowledge of the subject was very accurate, but the
details of the invention, practically considered , were in many

8

respects very defective. I will not here go into all these
details, hut will point out two defects, either of which were
sufficient to prevent the successful application of the inven-
tion. One of these was the arrangement of the apparatus
for effecting the “backing-off,” (the difficulties attending
which movement I have already noticed,) and the manner in
which the “ sector used by Mr. Eaton for this purpose was
made to pass into seer with the wheel upon the ” run “ shaft,”
or shaft which turned the spindles, was most objectionable,
as creating a constant tendency to derangement and breakage
of both the sector and wheel ; and that this was the result of
the arrangement I have been informed by a most respectable
engineer now living in Manchester, and who saw Mr. Eaton’s
machines during the short time they were in existence.

Another defect lay in the arrangement for effecting, the
winding of the yarn' upon the spindles. For this purpose
Mr. Eaton employed two conical pulleys, one of which gave
motion to the other by means of a strap, the latter being
traversed along the pulleys at intervals so as to vary the
rapidity of motion of the spindles according to the varying
size of the cops. It is obvious that in this case the liability
of the strap to slip upon the pulleys must have led to great
irregularity in the working of the machine, and in fact I do
not believe that a large machine could be worked at all on
such a system. These defects, along with others which
might be mentioned, led to such trouble and annoyance in
connection with the attempt to work these machines, that
they were abandoned after a trial extending over a few
months. In fact. the attempts of Mr. Eaton to construct a
self-acting mule, as well as those of Mr. De Jongh and of
Mr. Ewart, to which Mr. Dyer also alludes, can only be
looked upon as so many experiments, none of which were
attended with any reasonable amount of practical success ;
all being abandoned after a fruitless struggle, exhausting the

9

patience both of the inventors and of those connected with
them.

In speaking of Roberts’s invention of 1825, Mr. Dyer
seems either not to understand of what that invention con-
sisted, or to greatly undervalue it. Although it is quite true
that this invention has been greatly improved upon since the
date of the patent granted for it, those who are practically
conversant with these matters know well that it contained
the germs of what was afterwards developed into one of the
most successful and extensively used machines ever produced.
In fact it may truly he said that although great improvements
in the construction of the self-acting mule have been made
since the date of Roberts’s invention, and especially during
the last few years, still, in all or nearly all the self-acting
mules now used there are embodied some of those excellent
mechanical arrangements of which he was undoubtedly the
originator, and which* must always be looked upon as
imperishable monuments of that splendid mechanical genius
with which Roberts was beyond all question endowed. For
example, the arrangement of the “ cam-shaft” for producing
the changes of motion of the machine ; the arrangement of
the double fallers ; the method of causing the killer to be
depressed by the reverse movement of the apparatus which
turns the spindles in backing-off ; and the system of regu-
lating the “ winding-on” by the gradual approximation or
otherwise of the fuller and counter fuller, are all contrivances
displaying the highest mechanical skill and ingenuity, and
have all been most extensively brought into use, and so con-
tinue to the present day, while on turning to the patent
obtained by Roberts in 1830, for the employment of the well
known radial arm and drum as a means of effecting the
“ winding-on,” we find that scarcely a self-acting mule is
now constructed which does not contain in some form or
other a modification of this famous invention.

10

In speaking thus of Roberts’s inventions, I consider that 1
am only doing justice to a highly meritorious engineer, whose
ingenious contrivances, although undoubtedly attended with
some defects, which have led to certain of his arrangements
being superseded by others of a more perfect character, must
yet be admitted as having furnished some of the brightest
examples of the mechanical genius of the present age. Mr.
Roberts was the inventor of the first practical self-acting mule.

Mr. Dyer is correct in attributing to the inventions of Mr.
Smith, of Deanstone, “ much novelty and some good proper-
ties,” and in stating that Mr. Smith’s and Mr. Roberts’s mules
w’ere the chief competing mules for many years. I really,
however, cannot understand Mr. Dyer when he comes to speak
of Mr. Potter’s inventions. The patent of 1836, to which
Mr. Dyer evidently refers, was not taken out by Messrs. J ohn
and James Potter, but by Mr. James Potter only ; that
gentleman being, as I know personally, an extremely in-
genious mechanic. Mr. Potter’s mules have had no incon-
siderable amount of success. Mules to the amount of many
thousands of spindles have been made and sold under Mr.
Potter’s patents, as I know personally. A large firm of
cotton spinners, with whom I was formerly connected, pur-
chased and used a number of them, and I have no hesitation
in saying that they possessed qualities which rendered them
for some purposes preferable, on the whole, to either Roberts’s
or Smith’s mules. Such, indeed, was the admitted merit of
Mr. Potter’s invention, that on the approach of the termina-
tion of the fourteen years for which his patent was originally
granted, the Lords of the Privy Council granted a prolonga-
tion of the patent for five years.

I am much surprised at what Mr. Dyer says in the
latter part of his paper, in which he states that it was
not until after the expiration of the second patent of Mr.
Roberts and that of Mr. Smith that a really good working

11

mule was constructed, “ and which,” says he, “ appears to
have been realised in the patent obtained, in 1847, by Mr.
Matthew Curtis and Mr. Robert Lakin. Thus thirty years
had elapsed from the time when Mr. Eaton gave the true
principles for constructing a self-acting mule to that of their
being carried into practical effect as above stated.” Now, I
am acquainted with the specification of the patent taken out
by Mr. Curtis and Mr. Lakin, in 1847. The invention
described therein consists almost wholly, so far as it relates to
the mule, of improvements, or alleged improvements, in some
of the details of Smith’s and Roberts’s machines, and there
is no reason to give it the character of the first really good
working mule ever constructed. I have the pleasure of
knowing Mr. Curtis and others connected with his firm,
and I should think if they were inclined to claim such a
character for any of their inventions, it would certainly not
he for the one Mr. Dyer mentions.

Nor is there any better foundation for the assertion that
Mr. Eaton “ gave the true principles for constructing a self-
acting mule,” &c. As I have already mentioned, Mr. Eaton’s
invention only survived a few months, and there is no single
particular of Mr. Eaton’s invention to he found in the self-
acting mules now used, while, on the other hand, Roberts’s
inventions form the basis of the great bulk of the self-acting
mules now made, not excepting even those made by Messrs.
Curtis and Co. themselves. It was Mr. Roberts, and not
Mr. Eaton, who “ gave the true principles for constructing a
self-acting mule.”

The highest test of the efficiency of a self-acting mule is its
capability of spinning the finer numbers of yarn, as, from the
delicacy and accuracy of manipulation required in producing
the very fine threads, it has been found very difficult to adapt
the self-acting mule to that class of spinning. Mr. Roberts
himself failed in this, as I have heard him admit in the wit-

12

ness box of a court of justice; but if this test were applied to
the invention of Messrs. Curtis and Lakin, of 1847, it would be
found lower down in the scale than even Roberts's. Many
persons have, indeed, until a comparatively recent period,
entertained the opinion that the spinning of fine yarns would
never be successfully accomplished by the self-acting mule ;
and had I not already extended these observations to a much
greater length than I at first intended, I could mention some
interesting circumstances connected with the progress of this
branch of invention. That would carry me, however, into a
discussion with reference to inventors and inventions not
mentioned in Mr. Dyer’s paper, and I will therefore reserve
what I have to say upon that part of the subject for some
future occasion.

Mr. Dyer, in reply, said that he had supported his state-
ments about the patented inventions noticed in his paper
(the abstract of which only was commented upon by Mr.
Brierly), by literal citations from the printed specifications.
Ilis Notes were entitled “ Part the First, on the Mule Jenny,”
and that therefore he had only to make the distinction of
this class of spinning machines from those of the throstle
class, and his description of the latter went no further than
to show how much of it Crompton took to make up his
composite mules.

13

Ordinary Meeting, October 18th, 1864.

J. P. Joule, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Mr. Brothers, F.R.A.S., exhibited a photograph of the
moon, which he had made from a negative by Warren De la
Rue, F.R.S. The original negative is one inch in diameter,
and from this a positive two inches in diameter was first
made. This was placed within the rays of a nine-inch con-
denser of the solar camera, and an enlarged negative on a
plate 36in. by24in. was produced. The print exhibited was
on a single sheet of paper, and thus the disadvantage of join-
ing several sheets together as in other large prints of the
moon was avoided. Various effects from the same negative
could be produced by providing either for the finer details of
the strongly illuminated side of the moon, or for the more
rugged parts at the side near and at the termination of parts
in shade. During the conversation which followed, Mr.
Brothers stated that the negatives were the property of
Messrs. Smith and Beck. It was suggested by Mr. Baxendell
that more accurate micrometrical measurements could be
made from such a photograph than direct from the moon’s
surface in the telescope — in the one case the object being
still, and in the other in constant motion ; and Dr. Roscoe
remarked that if a series of the several phazes of the moon
on the same scale as the one shown were published, he
Proceedings — Lit. & Phil. Society — Yoi. IY.— No. 2 — Session, 1864-5.

14

believed they would be of great value for educational and
scientific purposes.

A Paper was read, entitled “On the Relation of Force
to Matter and Mind.” Part I. By the Rev. Thomas P .
Ivirkman, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. Member.

There are at least three schools of thinkers among us,
about the relation of force to matter. The first and most
popular one conceives of matter as leally existing and occupy-
ing space, whether it be or be not the seat or subject of force,
so that if all force were withdrawn, matter would remain,
quiescent and unexciting. The second school, not, it is to
be hoped, a numerous one, affirms that matter exists of neces-
sity, and is of necessity endued with force ; that no power
can divorce matter and force; that every form of chaos or
order is but one of the combinations that eternal matter must
assume by the eternal play and collision of eternal force ;
and that the notion of an Author and Preserver of the
Universe is but the dream of ignorance. This is the school
of the Materialists. A third and I think a growing school
denies the existence of matter as distinct from force ; this
may be called the school of the Immaterialists. The Imma-
terialists are not the idealists of Berkeley’s type, for the
former affirm space, and an external world of force having
a real existence in space, which the latter are far from
affirming.

If any leading philosopher will boldly preach this Iinma-
terialist gospel, and proclaim a crusade against matter, I am
prepared to promise him one humble follower.

Of force no man is required to give either a demonstration
or a definition. We cannot converse without agreeing in
affirming ourselves in space, which is simply the affirmation

15

of existence or force in thi(? external world, which is not our-
selves. But I have a right to demand from a disputant both
a definition of matter and a proof of its existence. It appears
to me that this existence is either an unproved inference from
the experience of resistance, or is a delusion attached to a
word of our infancy. Why cannot I close my hand upon a
brick ? The answer of a child is, because the brick is there,
inactive and inert there, a piece of stuff which is doing
nothing but just lying there : this is the notion of sluggish
quiescent matter. The thinker perceives that he is prevented
from closing his hand by force perpetually in action there,
and that the brick is what it is by virtue of intense cohesion,
and other resistances that defeat his pressure and the force of
his will. Thus he gets the compound notion of matter
having its seat in space, and of force having its seat in the
matter.

But what need is there of the matter ? Why may not the
forces have their seats in space ? How can you construct a
demonstration of the presence of this matter ?

You appeal first to the evidence of our senses. But we
are all agreed that our sight and hearing can teach us nothing
about forces, resistances, and motions, except through the
interpreter touch ; that the telegrams which reach the mind
by sight and hearing are rapidly translated into nothing but
the memory of touch. Now touch teaches us absolutely
nothing but resistances , except lessons of pleasure and pain
that may be here left out of consideration. Thus the evi-
dence of our senses comes to nothing more than the con-
sciousness and the memory of forces which resist our own
force of volition.

You say that this table is a geometrical locus of material

16

points in space, and at the same time a locus of forces having
their seats in those material points. Let us suppose that
the Author of the Universe, or some lower power competent
to do it, were to remove all the matter from this locus,
and leave a system of force exactly filling the locus of the
removed matter, each force having its seat not in a point of
matter hut in a point of space : suppose that these pure force-
points in pure space should present the same resistance to
my hand or my tools, should receive the same vibrations from,
and communicate the same vibrations to, all that surrounds
the locus, as the force did before the matter was removed.
How could our senses detect the absence of the vanished
matter? The table would feel and look the same, sound,
smell, cut, burn the same, as before. Then it appears that
our senses help us to no evidence either of the presence or
the absence of this mysterious matter.

Do you appeal next to the mathematician ? You refer to
his moments, moving forces, living forces, &c., in all which
the mass is before us in his formulae. It is true that the
letter m is there ; but to the mathematician it is in all cases
simply a number, a constant obtained by experiment only,
experiment which is independent of all hypothesis about the
existence or non-existence of matter. Newton, in the opening
of his Principia, says, Virium causas vel sedes non expendo.
He neither troubled himself about the cause, nor about the
seat of force. It was sufficient for him to have the exact
positions in space of the centre and points of departure of
his forces with their directions and the numerical constant,
given by experiment, which determine their intensities.
No mathematician cares anything about material seats for his
forces : he throws the matter invariably away, he contents

17

himself with forces given in position in space, with the
requisite numerical multiples, and he investigates simply
the relations and mutual actions of pure force-points, such as
centres of gravity and the like : then he contracts and pre-
dicts the facts of the universe.

The Materialist gains nothing by the evidence of the
mathematician. But he returns to the charge, thus you have
been talking nonsense about that table, in pretending that
the matter can be removed while all the forces remain ; for
matter exists in ultimate atoms, each constituted by an
indefinite force of cohesion of its parts. Wherefore, if the
atoms are supposed to be removed, their internal forces are
removed from the locus along with them.

So here are the dear little atoms — their fairy troops are
brought into the field. There is some poetry in the super-
stitions of the credulous Materialist ; but poetry is not quite
science. I deny the existence of atoms, and demand proof
of it. Experimental proof will be difficult in the case of
such small commodities ; can we expect it from analysis ?
Will there ever be a proof of an indivisible absolute minimum
of matter? Do you expect a set of formulae to force up,
demonstrating the impossibility of the existence in the
universe of a bit of matter of less than a certain definite
weight and diameter ? That may do for the Materialists,
but not for the mathematicians.

If I must believe in matter, I must also believe, not that
it is infinitely divisible — for that is absurd ; but that it is,
like the space which it occupies at this moment infinitely
divided ; so that every mathematical point, or mere volume
of space, is occupied in a material locus by a mathematical
point, or zero mass, of matter. The difficulty of affirming an

18

actual infinite division is no greater in the case of matter
than in the case of space ; and we are compelled to affirm
this in space. Wherefore I did not talk nonsense about the
table. If there is matter, its ultimate atoms can be nothing
but zero masses, each occupying a zero vacuum of space,
which masses, having no parts, can be constituted by no
internal forces of cohesion.

In conclusion, I venture to defy the Materialist to deduce
any experimental or logical demonstration of the existence of
his matter the seat of force, or bring proof of it beyond his
own unsupported assertion. In these notions there is
nothing new ; nor am I aware that their adoption can make
any change in the habits or symbols of our scientific thought,
except only with reference to the greatest topic in philosophy,
the cause of the Universe. I think that I have cleared
abundant room for this observation : that, while it is con-
fessedly difficult for the Theist to prove, by a merely intellec-
tual process, the existence of his God, — it is not a whit less
difficult for the Materialist to prove, by any process whatever,
the existence of his matter.

19

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

October 13th, 1864.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Mr. Vernon, F.R.A.S., read a letter from Mr. James Tay-
lor, Secretary of the Oldham Corporation Gas and Water
Works, enclosing the following returns of Rainfall at Oldham,
Strines Dale, and Brushes Clough. Mr. Taylor states that
ccthe gauge at Oldham is fixed at the Gas Works, about four
hundred yards from the centre of the town. Strines Dale is
one of our reservoirs about two miles north-east of Oldham.
Brushes Clough is the site of another of our reservoirs about
three miles north of Oldham.”

RAINFALL AT OLDHAM.

Gauge — 6 feet above ground, and 600 feet above the sea.

1860.

1861.

Rain

No. of
Days’

Maximum
Daily Rain Fall

Rain

No. of
Days’

Maximum
Daily Rain Fall

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Fall.

Rain.

in eaoh Month.

January

Inches.

2"55

25

Inches.
21st— 0-38

Inches.

0-27

8

Inches.

24th— 0-06

February

0'89

16

8th— 0-21

1-99

17

Sth— 0-57

March

3-77

25

2Sth— 0-50

4-46

28

2nd— 0-70

April

1.37

11

8th— 032

0-87

6

1st— 0-36

May

3T8

18

26th— 0-50

1-02

8

25th— 0-28

June

630

25

2nd— 092

2-14

16

21st — 0-36

July

2'71

13

29th — 0'50

3-95

27

11th— 0-53

August

4-48

28

10th— 053

2-63

20

22nd— 0-55

September ...

252

20

16th— 0-66

4-33

17

8th— 0-72

October

4-47

24

10th— 0-72

1-16

15

24th— 0-23

November .

251

17

21st— 0-53

4-28

24

25th— 1-04

December ...

1-63

16

6th— 0-86

1-56

15

6th— 0-51

36-38

238

28-66

201

20

1862.

1863.

No. of

Maximum

No. of

Maximum

Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

Rail.

Rain.

in each Month.

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

January

2-52

20

31st— 0-49

5-81

21

1st— 1-81

February

073

10

1st— 038

1-46

16

4th— 0-31

March

3-95

18

24th— 1-13

1-01

16

7th— 0-32

April

3'53

15

2nd— 0-40

1-57

17

5th— 0-35

May

5-70

22

7th— 1-08

1-94

16

11th— 0-62

June

349

25

13th— 0-44

4-41

22

10th— 1-46

July

4-43

21

31st— 0-94

1-76

8

21st— 0-83

August

3-22

16

8th— 0-94

4-96

24

31st— 089

September ...

5-17

17

3rd— 1-22

6-41

26

21st— 1-03

October

5-78

20

12th— 0-82

605

26

30th— 1-17

November ...

1-68

15

9th— 0-31

343

21

3rd— 0-73

December ...

336

23

9th— 0-78

322

21

2nd— 0-72

43-56

222

42 03

234

RAINFALL AT STRINES DALE.

Gauge — 6 feet above ground, and 800 feet above the sea.

1859.

1860.

No. of

Maximum

No. of

Maximum

Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

1 Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches

January

1-53

14

17th— 0-52

2-81

26

19th— 0-28

February ......

2-06

19

26th— 0-34

0-55

10

8th— 0-16

March

3-45

22

14th— 1-12

2-80

23

28th— 0-49

April

2-79

18

25th — 0"42

0-75

14

1st— 0-21

May

048

3

7th— 0-27

3-09

18

12th— 0-47

June

2-44

16

5th— 0-52

7-73

27

2nd— T38

July

2-56

13

22nd— 0-65

2-63

16

29th— 0-48

August

691

17

7th— 2-26

510

28

5th— 0-72

September

5-62

26

30th— 0-94

3-10

21

29th— 0-48

October

3-48

19

25th— 0.91

4-47

24

15tli— 0-94

November

2-31

16

1st— 0-51

3-35

22

21st— 0-75

December

305

17

4th— 1-02

2-14

20

Gth— 1-07

36-68

200

38-52

249

21

1861.

1862.

No. of

Maximum

No. of

Maximum

Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

Rain

Days'

Daily Rain Fall

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

January

0-84

16

16th— 0-28

2-39

22

31st— 0-38

February

2-11

17

8th— 0-59

0-78

13

1st— 0-17

March

4-8-4

28

2nd — 0'96

3-80

16

24th— 1-13

April

1-08

9

1st— 0-39

j 2-81

18

6th— 0-47

May

1-14

11

21th— 0-29

1 5-41

23

7th— 1-24

J une

2-55

16

23rd— 0-47

3-29

24

13th— 0-47

July

3-93

27

21st— 0-59

4-53

20

15th— 0-44-

August

2-16

21

22nd — 0'45

1 2-81

18

7th— 0-88

September ...

413

20

8th— 0-75

4-74

16

3rd— 1-26

October

1-70

17

11th— 0-44

1 4-59

23

15th— 0-58

November .

4-32

23

25th— 0-85

1-27

18

14th— 0-23

December ...

1-81

17

6th— 0-67

I 2-65

25

9th— 0-76

30-61

222

! 39-07

236

1863.

Rain

Fall.

No. of
Days’
Rain.

Maximum
Daily Rain Fall
in each Month.

January

Inches.

5-02

25

Inches.
1st— 1-54

February

099

15

4th— 0-18

March

116

18

7th— 0-28

April

1-47

19

5th— 0-36

May

1-87

15

14th— 0-33

June

4-32

22

10th— 1-46

July

1-87

13

21st— 0-95

August

5-27

24

31st— 0-86-

September . . .

5-78

24

21st— 0-90

October

5-99

24

30th— 1-08

November ...

2-60

22

3rd— 0-40

December ...

2-53

22

8th— 0-46

38-87

243

$

22

RAINFALL AT BRUSHES CLOUGH.

Gauge — 6 feet above the ground, and 950 feet above the sea.

1862.

1863.

No, of

Maximum

No. of

Maximum

Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

Rain

Days’

Daily Rain Fall

Fal'.

Rain.

in each Month.

Fall.

Rain.

in each Month.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

January

319

19

31st— 053

6-41

25

1st— 1-56

February

1-01

16

1st— 019

2*12

19

1st— 0’34

March

429

21

24th— 1-12

1-43

19

7th— 0-29

April

4-04

18

5th— 0-75

1-93

19

5 th — 0-54

May

6-49

22

7th— 1-41

2-80

18

11th— 1-01

June

4-31

27

12th— 0-50

4-40

17

11th— 1-02

July

5-69

23

31st— 1-05

1-97

9

21st — 0'95

August

3-33

17

7th— 0-95

5-23

22

27th— 0-58

September ...

5 -45

19

3rd— 1-39

7-31

27

21st— 1-33

October

656

23

12th— 0'83

7.40

25

30th— 1-38

November . . .

1-85

17

9th— 0-42

339

22

3rd— 0-75

December ...

466

26

9th— 0-96

3-80

21

2nd — 0’85

50-87

248

48.19

243

Mr. Baxendell read the following “ Note on a New
Star near the Greenwich Variable, No. 1773 of the 12-year
Catalogue.”

On the 13th of June, 1861, I made a diagram of the
Variable Star No. 1773 of the Greenwich 12-year Catalogue,
and three small companion stars as seen with Mr. Worthing-
ton’s 13-inch Newtonian Reflector, and estimated the mag-
nitudes of the companions to be <z=13*2, i=13*2, and
c=13’7. No other stars were visible at that time within an
area round 1773 having a radius equal to the distance of
the companion a, the limit of visibility being the 14 5 mag-
nitude ; and the accuracy of the diagram was verified on
several subsequent nights.

23

On the night of the 2nd of October instant, while on a
visit with my friend Mr. B. D. Naylor, F.R.A.S., at Bowdon,
Cheshire, I turned his newly-mounted achromatic equatorial
of 6-2 inches aperture, by Cooke and Sons, of York, on 1773,
and observed three small stars near it which I took to be the
objects I had laid down in my diagram of June 13, 186 1 ; but
it afterwards occurred to me that the star c was not in the
position shown in the diagram, and therefore on the night of
the (ith instant, I directed Mr. Worthington’s 13-inch re-
Hector upon 1773, when I at once saw that the star I had
takAi to be c was in reality a new object, all the three stars
seen on the 13th June, 1861, being in the positions shown
in the diagram, though, strangely enough, c was about half
a mag. less bright than I had estimated it to be at the time
the diagram was made. The magnitude of the new star d
was estimated to be 13-3. Using the 13-inch reflector again
on the night of the 7th instant, careful estimations gave the
magnitude of the four small stars a=13'2, 5=13T, c=14‘l,
d- 13-3.

The sky, for a short time before midnight on the 9th
instant, was unusually clear to the west, and the three com-
panions a, b, and d, were seen with the 5-inch achromatic,
and their magnitudes, determined photometrically, were found
to be, <z= 13*1, 5=12 8, c7=13-2.

The relative positions of 1773 and its companion stars are
shown in the annexed diagram. The distance of the new
star d from 1773 is about 48/' and its angle of position
about 315°.

24

The place of 1773 for 1865 is

H. M. S.

R.A. 19 42 51-6

Dec. 26° 57' 8-6" N.

From some observations made with the 5-inch achromatic

in September, 1863, it appears that h was at that time at
least three-tenths of a magnitude less bright than a, which
was then estimated to be of the same magnitude as at pre-
sent. The variability of 1773 was discovered at the ¥ oyal
Observatory, Greenwich, in 1837, by Messrs. Rogerson and
Glaisher ; and as d was certainly invisible, or at least below
the 14*5 magnitude in June, 1861, and c is now about half a
magnitude less bright than it was at that time, while h on
the other hand is a full half magnitude brighter than it was
in September, 1863, we have here foitr variable stars within
aii area of little over one square minute, and it is to be
remarked that the place of Anthelme’s new star of 1670 pre-
cedes this singular and interesting group with a difference of
right ascension of only about 48 seconds.

25

Ordinary Meeting, November 1st, 1864

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary Members
of the Society: — Mr. William Cort Wright, F.C.S. ; Mr.
George Heppel, M.A. ; and Mr. William Mather.

Mr. Sidebotham said that he had noticed the common
statement that Beech Trees were never damaged by lightning.
He had been induced to collect facts on the subject, and
had found that out of 28 instances, the trees struck were —
Oak, 9 ; Poplar, 7 ; Ash, 4 ; Willow, 3 ; Horse Chestnut, 1 ;
Chestnut, 1 ; Walnut, 1 ; Thorn, 1 ; Elm, 1, respectively.

Mr. Binney remarked that strokes of lightning were
generally determined by the nature of the subsoil, and that
in certain localities thunderstorms were very destructive,
while in others they were comparatively harmless, and damage
by lightning hardly ever occurred. The Beech, it was well
known, was generally found growing upon dry, sandy soils,
which were bad conductors of electricity, and which therefore
acted as protectors against destructive lightning discharges.
Pbooeedings — Lit. & Phil. Society — Vol. IY.— No. 3 — Session, 1864-5.

26

The President gave an account of an aspirator which had
been contrived for him by Mr. J. B. Dancer, of Cross-
street, to be used in the analysis of mixed gases, &c. A
drawing accompanies this description. Two jars graduated
into parts of a cubic foot or according to pleasure, are mounted
in brass, and placed mouth to mouth on an axis g, k, or the
white portion enclosed by c , d, e,f. The upper jar is filled
with water and the taps opened ; then the water flows from
a to b, the air or gas entering by h, and passing previously
through any solution that may be used, as at i. The gas
enters a by the tube k, the air in b goes out by c. When a
is emptied, it is simply turned round by the hand, and b the
filled bottle stands uppermost. The shaded part of c, d , e,f,
revolves with the jars, and the openings are so made as to form
continuations of the openings in the axis g, h. The same
conditions exist, no matter Avhich jar is uppermost. This
apparatus is very convenient in a laboratory, and has an
advantage over other aspirators in measuring the gas. The
measurements on the jars are made at a definite pressure of
water, and this ought of course to be maintained when the
numbers are read off. The apparatus is certainly very elegant,
and is an ornamental as well as useful addition to a chemist’s
work table. It may be called Dancer’s Aspirator, or the
Swivel Aspirator.

Dr. Boswell Reid describes one somewhat resembling this,
but instead of having the swivel movement, it was necessary
to lift the whole apparatus and to invert it. It was in reality
two aspirators ; one emptied itself into the other.

27

28

Dr. Joule described the process he employed to harden
steel wires for magnetic needles. The wire was held stretched
between the ends of two iron rods bent into a semicircular
shape. The free ends of the iron rods could be placed in
connexion with a voltaic battery by means of mercury cups.
Underneath the steel wire a trough of mercury was placed.
When the ends of the iron rods dip into the cups the current
passes through the wire, heating it to any required extent.
When these ends are lifted the current is cut off, while at the
same instant the heated wire is immersed in the trough of
mercury.

CORRIGENDA.

Mr. Kirkman begs the reader to make the following corrections
in the last No. of these Proceedings : —

Page 14, line 11, for ‘ unexciting,’ read unresisting.

„ 15, line 1, for ‘ existence,’ read resistance.

„ „ line 22, for ‘ forces,’ rend forms.

„ 16, line 27, for ‘ centre,’ read centres.

„ 17, line 2, for ‘ multiples,’ read multipliers.

,, „ line 4, for ‘ then he contracts,’ read thus he constructs.

„ „ line 21, for ‘force,’ read item.

„ „ line 3 from bottom, for ‘ mere,’ road zero.

„ 18, line 5, for ‘ vacuum,’ read volume.

„ „ line 8, for 1 deduce,’ read adduce.

» „ line 10, for ‘ bring,’ read any.

29

Ordinary Meeting, November 15, 1864.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the

Chair.

The following letter from Mr. James Nasmyth, C.E.,
addressed to Mr. Joseph Sidebotham, and dated November
8 th, was read : —

I had intended to have sent the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society “ a Paper,” embodying some ideas I
entertain in regard to the vast antiquity of the features and
details of the lunar surface, hut in attempting to put my
views on this subject into the formal shape of “ a Paper,”
somehow or other my pen won’t say what I want it to
express, so I am fain to get out of the difficulty by sending
you an abstract of my views on this subject in the form of
a letter.

The views I entertain on the subject in question are these,
namely, that as a direct consequence of the small mass of
the moon, and its comparatively large surface, it must have
parted with its original cosmical heat with much greater
rapidity than in the case of the earth, and consequently the
moon must have assumed a final condition of surface struc-
ture ages before the earth had ceased from its original molten
condition. And as the moon had in all reasonable proba-
bility never possessed an atmosphere or water envelope (it
certainly has none such now), while the earth has both, the
action of the earth’s atmosphere, and especially that of its
ocean when it existed in the first instance as a vast vapour
envelope, ere the earth had cooled down so as to permit the
Proceedings— Lit. & Phil. Society— Voe. IY.— No. 4— Session, 1864-5.

30

ocean taking up its final position as an ocean, this mighty
vapour envelope must have retarded the escape into space of
the cosmical heat of the earth millions of ages after the moon
had assumed its final condition as to temperature.

Therefore it is from such considerations I am led to the
conclusion that the surface features and details of the moon
present to us a sight of objects the antiquity of which is so
vast as to be utterly beyond the power of language to express,
and scarcely less so for the mind to conceive.

But yet at the same time such considerations appear to me
to enhance so vastly the deep interest which ever attends
the examination and contemplation of the moon’s wonderful
surface, that I would earnestly urge those who agree with
the soundness of these views to bear them in mind next time
they have an opportunity to behold the marvellous details of
the lunar surface, as I am fain to think that in doing so the
interest of what is there revealed to them will be rendered
vastly more impressive.

The President read a paper “ On the Composition of the
Atmosphere.” He believed that his inquiry proved that the
oxygen test was a very valuable one, as indicating the con-
dition of the atmosphere. The oxygen was diminished in
many cases, and indeed in all cases where the air was known
to be inferior. He said the objection to such air may
perhaps be found not so much in the absence of oxygen as in
the gases which take its place. That place was not wholly
supplied by carbonic acid. He believed it needful to examine
the composition to the second decimal place in the case of
oxygen, and to the third or even fourth in the case of carbonic
acid, as extremely small amounts of some gases affect us.

31

Hitherto we have had the composition of the air given in
numbers varying a tenth per cent — specimens have generally
been taken from rooms on streets or open places indiscrimi-
nately. It is the author’s wish to show that variations are
dependent on the conditions of soil, situation, wind, &c., and
that the oxygen and carbonic acid together may with very
minute analysis guide us in our sanitary inquiries. The
paper cannot easily be given in abstract, further than by
adding a table of the analyses showing the average numbers
obtained in various places : —

Analyses of Atmospheres varying in Oxygen.

.Oxygen per

cent.

Avge. Nos.

N.E. sea shore and open heath (Scotland) 20 '9 9 9

Tops of hills (Scotland) 20-98

In a suburb of Manchester in wet weather 20-98

Ditto ditto ditto 20-96

Front of street fths of mile from Exchange, Manchester... 20-945

At the back part of the house 20 ’9 3 6

Low parts of Perth 20-935

Swampy places (favourable weather) 20-922 to 20-95

In fog and frost in Manchester 20-91

In sitting room which felt close, but not excessively so... 20'89

In a small room with petroleum lamp, well ventilated ... 20-84

Ditto after six hours 20-83

Pit of Theatre, 11 30 p.m 20-74

Gallery, 10 30 p.m 20-36

In large cavities in mines 20-77

In currents 20-65

Under shafts 20-424

In sumps 20T4

When candles go out about 18-5

The worst specimen yet examined in the mine 18*27

Very difficult to remain in for many minutes 17-2

32

Analyses of Atmospheres varying in Carbonic Acid.

Avge. of Car-
bonic Acid
per cent.

Manchester streets, usual 0-0403

During fogs 0‘0679

About middens 0-0774

Average 0-0442

Fogs excepted 0-0424

Fogs and middens excepted 0'0403

"Where the fields begin 0-0369

In close buildings 0-1604

Minimum of suburbs 0-0291

Over North Scotland (towns excepted) 0-0336

Candle goes out 1-8 to 2-5000

Lowest found in mines 2-5000

Lowest entered 4-0000

The greater part of this is given in Dr. Angus Smith’s

Report {f On the Air of Mines” — Appendix to Report of the
Royal Mines Commission, 1864.

33

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.

First Ordinary Meeting, Session 1864-5.

1 7 tli October, 1864.

Joseph Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

The President stated that he regretted to have to inform
the members of the total failure of the efforts made during
the last summer to provide them with fresh cotton pods for
the purpose of investigating into the structure of the cotton
fibre. This was partly owing to ravages of the common
greenhouse pest, the red spider, and partly unaccounted for
as the plants had flowered but not fruited. He called the
attention of the meeting to the compact form of microscope
made by Mr. Dancer to facilitate seaside and other investiga-
tions, where portability, combined with means of using the
higher powers, was the chief desideratum. A specimen was
on the table, and he and other members could bear testimony
to its advantages.

He also called the attention of the members to the many
beautiful forms of insects and vegetable life which were
frequently neglected as being too small to be examined by
the unaided eye, and yet too large for the ordinary powers of
the microscope. He assured the members the use of the
present three or two inch object glasses would reveal to them
many objects of surpassing beauty, which had hitherto only
been studied in detail.

With regard to the use of such powers as the -iVth or
aVth, he thought they seemed to have reached the limits of

the available power of microscopic object glasses, as it appears
impossible to separate or define lines more numerous than
ninety thousand in an inch, on account either of the decom-
position of light or some other cause. It therefore seems
beyond our power ever to discover more of the ultimate
composition of matter by aid of the microscope, even were we
not prevented by the material composition of our lenses and
organs of vision.

We have, however, penetrated to the very confines of
organic life, if not beyond, inasmuch as no organisms appear
to exist smaller than those we can already see.

It is, moreover, a curious fact that the smaller creatures
are composed of fewer elements than the larger ones, and
that the number of elementary bodies composing them de-
crease in number as the organisms themselves decrease in
size. It becomes therefore a matter for speculation whether
the reason of this may not be, that the ultimate atoms of
some elementary bodies are larger than others, and that
these, from their size, cannot be used in the composition of
the more minute forms of organic bodies, and that smaller
organisms than those about Tr&oo-th of an inch do not exist,
because the ultimate atoms of all solid bodies are too large
to be economically used in their formation. The telescope
appeared to have infinite fields of distance to explore, but it
would seem the microscope had nearly reached the limits of
its possible power.

Mr. J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S., then read a paper “On a
contrivance for regulating the amount of light transmitted
from the source of illumination to the mirror of the micro-
scope.”

35

When viewing certain objects by transmitted light, and
particularly with oblique illumination, a very slight altera-
tion in the quantity and direction of the light produces a
marked difference in the appearance of the object, especially
in Diatomacese, where a proper management of the light
shows lines or markings invisible under ordinary direct illu-
mination.

The apparatus now exhibited is one easily made at a
trifling cost, and consists of a circular disc of blackened tin
or cardboard ten or twelve inches in diameter, with a number
of perforations of various shapes and sizes — circular, cross-
shaped, wedge-shaped, &c. — the centres of which are about
3-^ inches from the centre on which the disc, placed perpen-
dicularly, rotates. The form of perforations found generally
most useful are parallel slits — slits at right angles to each
other — wedge-shaped and circular openings.

The object under view must be well illuminated in the
direction required, and then the disc, supported by a pillar,
is placed between the source of light and the concave mirror,
when a few trials will determine the best form of aperture.

The markings of Pleurosigma fasciola, angulatum, See., may
be seen by its aid under powers which would not show them
with any arrangement of achromatic condensers, and it also
has the good property of shading all but the amount of light
required from the lower portion of the microscopic stage and
stand.

The disc might be attached to the lamp, but it appears to
work better on a stand, and is susceptible of various modifi-
cations which will readily suggest themselves to the micro-
scopist.

36

Mr. W. H. Heys exhibited specimens of leaves of the
vegetable marrow, showing reticulated markings somewhat
similar to those of Symphytum, and presented a slide to the
cabinet.

Mr. Sidebotham stated that in sweeping over herbage for
Coleoptera and other insects, he had found some very curious
seeds, to one of which, that of Sanicula Europea, he thought
attention had not hitherto been drawn, though well deserving
of it. Those of Henbane and Daucus were also most
singular.

Mr. Linton exhibited the elegant tufted stigmas of Pote-
rium sanguisorba, and the very singular calyx of the gum
Cistus, which might almost be mistaken for the skin and
scales of a fish.

37

Ordinary Meeting, November 29th, 1864.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in

the Chair.

Mr. E. C. Buxton was elected an Ordinary Member of the
Society.

Dr. Joule exhibited a magnetic needle for showing rapid
and minute alterations of declination. It consisted of a piece
of hardened and polished watch spring, an inch long and
one-tenth of an inch broad, suspended vertically by a filament
of silk. The steel was magnetised in the direction of its
breadth. He remarked that Professor Thomson had long
insisted upon the advantages which would attend the use of
very small bars in most magnetical investigations, and had
employed excessively minute needles in his galvanometers
with great success. Dr. Joule stated his intention to fit up
his needle so as to be observed by light reflected from its
polished surface, or otherwise by viewing a glass pointer,
attached to the bottom of the steel, through a microscope.
He believed that by the latter plan he should be able to
observe deflections as small as 1" of arc.

Pboceedinos— Lit. & Phil, Society— Vol. IV— No, 5— Session 1864-5.

38

A paper was read “ On Differential Equations,” by His
Honour Chief Justice Cockle, M.A. F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., &c.,
President of the Philosophical Society of Queensland ; com-
municated by the Rev. Robert Harley, F.R.S., &c.

Importing an arbitrary constant C into a result which Mr.
Robert Rawson, an Honorary Member of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, in a letter dated Ports-
mouth, June 14 th, 1862, communicated to me, we may say *
that the differential resolvent of a (trinomial) cubic, whereof
the coefficient of the second term vanishes and that of the
third is constant, is of the form

Put

<Py f"(x)

dsr f'(x) dx

2

y = 0

/'W = ^ = X, C=K-,

then, (1) divided by X2 becomes

1_ <Fy_V_
X*’ dcd~ X3

dy

dx

— KV = 0

(1)

(2)

Now, if

then

L = ± K, M- :fK,

(14 + L)(r-^ + M>=° <3>

is the symbolical decomposition of (1) or (2). When L and
M are any constants whatever, (3), when developed, gives
rise to a linear differential equation of the second order
reducible to an equation with constant coefficients by changing
the independent variable from x to t, where

30

In deducing from (3) its development, the order of the
symbolical factors is indifferent, hut the two particular inte-
grals of the development are, I think, obtainable by reversing
in (3) the order of the symbolical factors. The differential
resolvent of every such trinomial cubic as that discussed by
Mr. Rawson is soluble by a change of the independent vari-
able, and belongs moreover to a comparatively simple form of
equation soluble by such change.

The theory of Transcendental Solution has led me to the
following proposition (theorem) : —

If an irreducible algebraical equation of the degree n have a
homogeneous linear differential coresolvent of the order m, then
any root whatever of the algebraical equation can be expressed
as a linear and homogeneous function of any other m of its
root.

The general demonstration would not be much more diffi-
cult than or very different from the particular demonstration
of the case m- 2. The converse of this theorem, I believe,
is true.

In such case let a and b be the particular integrals of the
differential resolvent which (since m~ 2) is by hypothesis of the
second order only. Let a, [3, and y be any three of the roots
of the algebraical equation. Then, since among the values
that can be assigned, by means of the arbitrary constants, to
the general integral, the roots of the algebraical equation are
included, we have three such relations as

Aa + D6 = a,

Ba + E6 - /3,

C a + F b = y,

40

wherein A, B, . . , F are constants. Multiplying the first,
second, and last of these equations into the arbitrary multi-
pliers X, g, and v , and adding the results, we have

(\A + /iB + vC)a + (XD + g E + FF)6 = Xa + yfi + vy (4)

Hence if the ratios of any two of the quantities X, g, v to the
third be so assigned as to satisfy the equations

\A + /tB + rC — 0,

XD + /iE + vF = 0,

then the sinister of (4) will vanish independently of a and l,
and the homogeneous linear relation

Xa + /i/3 + vy -• 0 (5)

will subsist among the roots a, /3, and y of the algebraical
equation. When n~ 3 Ave (since the differential resolvent is
homogeneous) have without reference to, but consistently
with, the theorem,

a + (1 + y — 0 (6)

Combining the above theorem with one given by Abel and
Galois, we conclude that: —

If an algebraical equation have a differential resolvent
of the second order, the algebraical equation is resoluble
algebraically .

Before closing I would add that, as it seems to me, it
would be more consonant with the notation and practice of
the rule of three, and, therefore, with convenience and the
analogies of arithmetic, if by the ratio p : q there were univer-
sally understood (not the fraction p + q, but) the fraction

1+P-

41

Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.G.S., read a paper entitled
“ Notes on Marine Shells found in Stratified Drift at Maccles-
field,” and exhibited a series of specimens.

The specimens were chiefly collected by Mr. W. J. Sainter
and Mr. Lowe, of Macclesfield, from sand and gravel exposed
in the formation of the new Cemetery on the north side of
the town, at an elevation of between 500 and 600 feet above
the level of the sea, Unfortunately the buying of specimens
had caused the intrusion of many spurious fragments, casting
suspicion on several that might after all prove to be
genuine.

The beds in question were exposed on a south-easterly
face, but are now defaced by ballast tips ; consist of fine
(running) sand, fine and coarse shingle, and very coarse gravel
with large pebbles unscratched ; and, while stratified, in
general horizontally, exhibit in their great irregularities of
extension, level and false bedding, characteristically marine
aspect, as of a sea bottom under the influence of tidal and
other varying currents.

Below appears the “lower boulder clay” of the Ordnance
geologists.

The shells are nowhere numerous. Mr. Lowe speaks of
finding some in layers. Unfortuuately the shells from parti-
cular beds have not been distinguished.

In the list specimens obviously spurious have not been
noticed. The following species had been identified : —

42

Pholas crispata.

Pholas Candida.

Mya truncata.

Mya arenaria.
Psammobia ferroensis.
Donax anatinus.
Tellina solidula.
Mactra solida.

Lutraria elliptica.
Cytherea chionc.
Venus striatula.
Artemis lincta.
Cyprina islandica.
Astarte elliptica.
Astaide arctica.
Cardium echinatum.
Cardium aculeatum (1)
Cardium rusticum.
Cardium edule.
Cardium Norvcgicum.
Mytilus edulis.
Modiola modiolus.
Nucula sp.

Area lactea.
Pectunculus sp.

Pecten opercularis.
Ostrea edulis.

Patella vulgata.
Dentalium cntale.
Dentalium Tarentinum.
Troclms cinerarius.
Littorina littorea.
Littorina rudis.
Littorina littoralis.
Turritella communis.
Aporrhais pes pelicani.
Natica nitida.

JN’atica monilifera.
Murcx erinaceus. <
Purpura lapillus.

Nassa reticulata.

N assa incrassata.
Buccinum undatum.
Fusus gracilis.

Fusus antiquus.
Trqphon clathratum.
Mangelia turricula.
Mangelia rufa.

Mangelia nebula.
Cypnea Europtea.

Total, 50 species.

Mr. Darbishire compared this list with those of the Moel
Tryfaen drift (Caernarvon), and the Kelsey Hill (Hull)
fossils, and with several lists of recent faunas of the British

43

Eastern and Western seas, and of seas North and South of
the British Isles.

The present list was specially remarkable for including
Cytherea chione, Cardium msticum, Cardium aculeatum (?),
and Area lactea ; all of them shells reaching their highest
northern range in the extreme south or west of England
and Ireland, a circumstance believed to be new to the history
of the so-called “ Drift.” t

The Macclesfield list rendered probable the deposit of those
beds from the westward, after the period had commenced
during which the physical conditions of the Western Sea have
differed as they now do from those of the Eastern.

A depression of 600 feet would leave only a few islands
where Ireland is, would allow of a great extension of the tidal
current now narrowed in St. George’s Channel, and would
probably carry the warmer influences which are now checked
on the West of Ireland to the shores of the Derbyshire hills.
Are there any traces of the sea bottom or shores on which
the shells of the drift seas lived ?

Mr. Darbishire further mentioned his identification in a
bed of gravel discovered by Mr. Prestwich, F.G.S., at about
1,200 feet above the sea, on the east side of Macclesfield, of
nine species of shells, including Cytherea chione.

Mr. Binney, F.G.S., remarked on the extent of the list,
the great distance eastward from the present shores of the
deposit, the elevation of Mr. Prestwich’s patch, and the
peculiarly temperate aspect of the group of shells. This drift
could not be called “ arctic.” He also referred to the diffi-
culty of recognising distinct “ upper” and “ lower” boulder

44

clays ; and illustrated the partial removal of the drift gravels
and the underlying till over a large tract of western country
during its elevation, and the re-distribution of portions of the
same beds as eroded by water courses after the land had
risen above the sea.

Dr. Alcock had examined the fossils produced, and
especially the southern forms, and confirmed the identification
of species.

Ordinary Meeting, December 13th, 1864.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.l)., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Mr. Edward Sonstadt was elected an Ordinary Member of
the Society.

Mr. Binney, F.R.S., exhibited some spores of plants
found in the splint coal of Methill, Fifeshire. He said that
many years ago he read a paper on some similar fossils before
the Geological Society of London, and it was printed in the
Journal of the Society for May, 1849. Those specimens were
from a nodule found in the King Coal scam at Wigan.
They also were met with in the Wigan Four Feet Coal in
greater abundance. Since that time Professor Balfour, F.R.S.
of Edinburgh, had described, in a paper printed in vol. xx of
the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, some
similar fossils from the Fordel splint coal. The specimens
exhibited were small lenticular bodies of a chestnut colour,
about a line in diameter. They occurred in countless num-
bers, indeed forming a very considerable portion of the seam
of coal itself. He stated that he had found them in equal
abundance in the Eight Feet, Main, Wood, and Pirnie Well
seams, but always in the splint or bone part pf the coal. Dr.
Hooker had proved that similar spores belonged to the
Lepidodendron. The thick coating of the spore has doubtless
afforded some protection to it as well as the peculiar process
of bituminisation to Avhich splint coal has been subjected,
and different from that which soft or cherry coal has under-
gone. He said that when we considered the great abundance
of these small fossils in all splint coals, and the immense
Peoceedings Lit. & Phil. Society.— Vol. IV.— No. 6.— Session 1864-5.

46

number of the roots of Sigillaria found in the floors of such
seams of coal, it was almost certain that they had some con-
nection with that plant. This tended to confirm M. Adolphe
Brongniart’s opinion, expressed many years ago, that Sigil-
laria and Lepidodendron were plants very nearly allied to each
other. Mr. Binney also exhibited some larger spores in a
nodule of clay ironstone given to him by Mr. Ward, of Long-
ton, and found in the Derbyshire coal field. These were in a
most beautiful state of preservation, and exhibited the tesse-
lated character of the outside of the spore.

A paper was read by Mr. William Brockbank, “On the
Discovery of the Bones of the Mammoth (Elephas primi-
genius) in a Fissure of the Carboniferous Limestone at
Waterhouses, near Leek.”

A considerable number of bones were found at Water-
houses some weeks since, but through ignorance of their real
character they became dispersed without attracting attention,
a good many having been used to manure the land by a
neighbouring farmer.

A few of these bones reached the author through Mr.
Smith, of Chcddleton Mills, and were at once identified as
belonging to the skeleton of an elephant. A further search
was determined upon, and the author, accompanied by Messrs.
Thomas Wardle of Leek, and J. Walsh and W. Smith of
Manchester, visited Waterhouses on the 9th instant, and
succeeded in finding a large number of bones.

Mr. Wardle, tand Mr. Green of the Geological Survey,
again visited the place on the 12th instant, and found very
decided fragments of teeth. A further search is being made
at the present time.

A large number of bones were submitted to the Society, all
of which were considered to be those of the Elephas primi-
genius, amongst which were one humerus nearly complete,
and part of the second ; parts of the pelvis and scapula ; one

47

ulna ; several carpal and metacarpal bones ; the bead of the
tibia ; several fragments of tusks and two fine fragments of
teeth, showing very clearly the peculiar narrow transverse
plates and ridges of the dentine and enamel, by which the
teeth of this elephant are distinguished.

The fissure in which these bones were found occurs in the
upper beds of the carboniferous limestone, and has been ex-
posed by the workings of a quarry. The limestone strata at
Waterhouses are much dislocated, and fissures frequent, the

OSSEOUS FISSURE AT WATERHOUSES.

river Hamps disappearing in dry weather through fissures
very near to the above quarry, and other streams in the
immediate neighbourhood were described as sinking in the
same manner. The face of the limestone in the quarry is
• nearly parallel to the general direction of the valley, or nearly
east and west, and the fissure follows the dip and direction of

48

the strata, being nearly vertical, or inclining about 10° to the
north. It is about six feet in width from face to face of the
solid rock, and is filled up with angular blocks of limestone,
cemented together at the sides of the fissure into a solid
breccia, the stones being coated with stalagmite, whilst the
centre is filled in with angular rubble and damp ochreous
clay. The whole had evidently been filled in from above.

The bones were recovered in good condition from the
breccia on the dryer side of the fissure, but those occurring
amongst the damp clay and rubble were so friable that it was
quite impossible to save them. Large numbers af ivory
flakes were found, which proved to be the remains of the
teeth, and one large fragment of too tlx was obtained which
was decomposing into these flakes.

At the furthest point reached, a very interesting group of
bones was discovered, viz., a humerus in the socket of the
scapula, with the head of another humerus resting upon it at
the other end, and two cervical vertebrae were found near the
scapula. These were the only bones found in their relative
positions.

It was conjectured that the mammoth had fallen into the
narrow fissure before it was filled in, its huge bulk preventing
its reaching the bottom, so that it remained jammed in until
by natural decay it fell to the bottom, bit by bit. By this
supposition the absence of the head was accounted for, as it
would probably fall off first, and would roll lower down the
chasm. This surmise is confirmed by the fact that Mr.
Wardle found several fragments of the teeth on his second
visit, fifteen or twenty feet below the point where the bones
occurred.

The author had not been able to find any record of the
occurrence of the remains of the mammoth in any work on
the geology of Derbyshire or Staffordshire; and Mr. Wardle,
who has recently published an interesting account of the geology
of the neighbourhood of Leek, believed it to be an entirely

49

new discovery. A considerable part of the fissure remains to
be explored, and a further search is being prosecuted by Mr.
Wardle and the author.

Dr. White considered it probable that among the bones
exhibited there were the remains of more than one animal.

Mr. Binney said that Mr. Brockbank was mistaken in
supposing that no remains of the elephant had hitherto been
found in Derbyshire. They had been met with in two locali-
ties in the county of Derby and one in the county of Chester.
The late Mr. White Watson, at page 58 of his “Delineation
of the Strata of Derbyshire,” says : — “ About the year 1663
a large cavern was discovered in sinking for lead ore upon a
hill at Balleye, within two miles of Wirks worth ; in which a
large skeleton was found, which in the original account of its
discovery is said to be £ that of a man, that his brain pan
would have held two bushels of corn, and that it was so big
they could not get it out of the mine without breaking it.’
Several of its teeth were distributed in the neighbourhood,
one of which, with the author’s account of the discovery, is in
the writer’s possession. The tooth is ivory, and when com-
pared with the dentes molares of an elephant, no difference
can be found ; from this circumstance it is evident that the
skeleton found could not have been that of a man or giant, so
called by the miners, who are ever prone to the marvellous,
but must be indisputably that of an elephant, and its capa-
cious brain pan a corresponding proof ; for after the miners
had conferred on it the appellation of the giant’s tooth, the
brain pan must naturally follow the proportions of its bulky
owner. The fangs, though perfect at the time of the disco-
very, are now broken, and no change appears to have taken
place from its original substance. Several of these teeth were
brought out, but the skeleton left behind, which, it is to be
lamented, cannot now be viewed, that part of the mine
having run in, rendering it impracticable without much
trouble and expense.” About twenty-five years since the late

50

Mr. James Meadows, of the Ashton Canal Company, pre-
sented to the Manchester Geological Society a portion of the
tusk of an elephant which he had found in a limestone fissure
at Doveholes, near Chapel-en-le-Frith. This specimen is
now in the museum of the Society in Peter-street. The late
Mr. F. Looney, F.G.S., in his List of Organic Remains, pub-
lished with Mr. Elias Hall’s Geological Map, in 1836, in
alluding to the fossils found in the “ superficial gravel,” says :
“ Part of a molar tooth of the Asiatic elephant was found at
Adlington, near Macclesfield, and is now in the possession of
William Clayton, Esq.” With these three exceptions he
had never heard of the remains of the elephant having been
met with in the counties of Derby and Chester, and he felt
much obliged to Mr. Brockbank for taking the trouble to col-
lect the fine series of remains on the table, and exhibit them
to the members of the Society.

51

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.

November 21st, 1864.

Joseph Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section, in

the Chair.

Mr. Watson exhibited and presented to the Section a
dozen slides showing the battledore scales of several species of
Polyommatus or Lycsena ; he also illustrated the subject by
drawings of the scales made by Mr. Sidebotham. He showed
that the scale of Bseticus has manifestly no relation to the
others, though this insect is placed at the head of the list
of the genus Polyommatus by Boisdudal, H. Schaeffer, Dr.
O. Standinger, and W. F. Kirby. Many lepidopterists have
thought that it is a Thecla, and he proposed to examine
various species of the genus Thecla and to report the result.

A letter from Captain Mitchell, of Madras, was read.
He stated that he had examined fresh but full grown cotton
treated with Mr. O’Neill’s strong and weak solutions of cop-
per, and had failed to detect any spiral fibres. He communi-
cated some observations on a Lepidopterous larva, probably
that described by Mr. Saunders in vol. iii. of the Transactions
of the Entomological Society, which attacks the cotton pod.
Wherever it was found, the cotton was entirely destroyed.

The Secretary read Mr. Edwards’s directions for collect-
ing Diatomacese.

52

November 28th, 1864.

Joseph Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Specimens Exhibited.

Physcomitrium sphoericum, by Mr. G. E. Hunt, found
sparingly in three places on the borders of Mere Mere, this
being only the second occasion on which it lias been gathered
in Britain. The first was thirty years ago, when it was
detected in the same place by Mr. Wilson in the autumn of
1834.

Four species of Curculionidae, new to Britain, by the
President, as exhibited and examined at the Entomological
Society, London ; Lixus filiformis and Sibynes canus,
Devizes ; Ceuthorhynchidius poweri, Silverdale ; and Peri-
telus griseus, Yentnor, Isle of Wight. Three of the species
were captured by himself. [See Zoologist, December, 1864.]

A martin, entirely white, from Urmstone, by Mr. Linton.

Communications.

Mr. G. E. Hunt announced bis discovery of Potamogeton
nitens in Loch Ascog, Rothsay. This plant was first ob-
served as British by Mr. David Moore, Dublin, in a lake near
the sea, at Castle Gregory, county of Kerry, in July last,
[See Secman’s Journal of Botany, November, 1864.]

Thomas Alcock, M.D., read a paper on specimens from
Roundstone, Connemara. He exhibited many specimens,
including forty-three species of Foraminifcra, two of which
were forms of Entosolenia, hitherto undescribed ; also, young
shells of Patella vulgata and P. pellucida, Avitli the larval
shells still attached and distinctly spiral, evidence not before
recorded.

53

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

November I Oth, 1864.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Professor Clifton exhibited an acoustical electric telegraph,
by which a note, sounded at one end of the line, is reproduced
at the other end.

He also pointed out the principles involved in the con-
struction of this telegraph, viz. : —

1st, The production of a sound whenever a current of suffi-
cient strength commences to circulate round an electro magnet,
or ceases so to circulate.

2nd, The vibration of a stretched membrane in accordance
with a note sounded near it.

With respect to the second principle. Professor Clifton drew
attention to the fact, that the researches of MM. Bourget and
Bernard, in agreement with the mathematical investigations
of Poisson and M. Lam6, show that a given square membrane
will not vibrate in accord with any note, as stated by Savart.
As the same is probably true of circular membranes, such as
that used in this telegraph, it follows that only certain notes
are capable of being transmitted by one instrument.

54

December 8 th.

Robert Worthingto.v, F.R.A.S., y ice-President of the
Section, in the Chair.

Mr. Baxendell read a “ Note on the Period and Changes
of the Greenwich Variable in Vulpecula, No. 1773 of the
Twelve-Year Catalogue.”

In No. 1500 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, Dr. Schdn-
feld. Director of the Observatory at Mannheim, expresses a
doubt as to the variability of several of the stars in Mr. Cham-
bers’s Catalogue of Variable Stars. One of the objects which
he thus points out as doubtful is No. 1773 of the Greenwich
Twelve-Year Catalogue, which was entered in Mr. Chambers’s
list on my authority, as I had satisfied myself from occasional
observations made since 18G1, that its light was subject to
periodical changes, though not to the extent indicated by the
observations of Messrs. Rogerson andGlaisher, made in 1837.
I have since reduced my observations, and have obtained
from them the following times of maximum and minimum
brightness : —

Maxima.

1862, Oct. 20.

1863, Sep. 12.
„ Nov 19.

1864, June 15.
„ Aug. 21.
„ Nov. 8.

Minima.

1862, Nov. 24.

1863, Oct. 25.
„ Dec. 25.

1864, May 13.
„ July 21.
„ Oct. 7.

Treating the equations formed from these data by the
method of least squares, we have, from the observed maxima,
Period=67’97 days.

Epoch =1864, Feb. 137.

And from the observed minima, —

Period =67*88 days.

Epoch=l864, January P59.

55

The mean of the two values of the period is 67*02 days. The
interval, from minimum to maximum brightness, is 30*8 days,
and from maximum to minimum 37*1 days. This variable,
therefore, like many others, increases in brightness more
rapidly than it diminishes. Its magnitude at maximum is
8*8 and at minimum 9*8, the range of variation being, there-
fore, one magnitude. It is one of the highly-coloured stars,
both Mr. Hind and myself having always noted it as being
very red.

Mr. Baxkndell also communicated the following “ Obser-
vations of the Greenwich Variable in Vulpecula and its
Companion Stars. By George Knott, Esq., F.R.A.S.. of
Woodcroft Observatory, Cuckfield, Sussex.”

1864, Nov. 5. — I have this evening examined the Green-
wich Variable in Vulpecula and its neighbours. The state of
the atmosphere was not by any means favourable, and I could
not make out c; but a, b, and d were well in view, and b
decidedly the greatest of the three. I inclined to estimate b
about 12J magnitude ; and by the method of reduced aper-
tures I found

d~ 12*8 mag. <£=13*0 mag.

£=12*6 „ 1773= 9*1 „

The star 1773 is the Greenwich variable ; and d is the new
star announced by Mr. Baxendell in his communication in
the Society’s Proceedings, No. 2, Session 1864-5.

Nov. 22. — I secured a hasty, and therefore comparatively
valueless observation. After a hasty glance clouds came up,
and I could not gauge the magnitudes as I was preparing to
do. My rough results wrere —

a=13*0 mag. c, invisible.

5=12*9 mag. d— 13*2 mag.

Nov. 26 On this evening I entered in my journal —

<( b, 12*9 ; a, 13*0 ; d, 13*2. Is there a minute speck at e?”

56

Dec. 1 . — This evening it is very clear, and I not only see
most clearly a small star in the place indi-
cated, but also that the star b has a small
and pretty close comes ! In the annexed
diagram e and f are the new stars. I am
not sure of their exact position, but have
no doubt of their existence. The follow-
ing are my rough estimations of magni-
tude: — «, 12-9; b, 12-8; c, 14±; d, 13*1; <?, 13*7 (?) ;
f, about = <?.

The above observations were made with an equatorially
mounted achromatic of 7 3 inches aperture, constructed by
Mr. Alvan Clarke, of Boston, U.S.

57

Ordinary Meeting, December 27tb, 1864.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Mr. John Itobinson and Mr. Joseph Spencer were elected
Ordinary Members of the Society.

The bones of an adult gorilla from the Museum of the
Natural History Society were exhibited, and some remarks
on them were made by Edward Lund, Esq., F.R.C.S. Ex.,
his object being to point out the characteristics of the gorilla
skeleton by a direct comparison with the bones in man.

He said that when the bones of this gorilla were shown to
him at the Museum, the first he took up happened to be the
highest bone of the neck, the atlas, and he was much struck
by its close resemblance to the same bone in man ; it was
however larger, while the hole in the transverse process for
the passage of the vertebral artery was very much smaller,
indicating a less supply of blood to the brain. With regard
to the age of the specimen, he had no doubt that the skeleton
was that of an adult, for all the bones were thoroughly ossi-
fied and the teeth were much worn down and filled by a
secondary deposit of cementum. As to sex, he could not
speak positively, for he did not know how far the differences
in the pelvis observable in the human subject would hold
good in the gorilla, but he pointed out the angular shape of
the pelvic arch, which would lead to the supposition that the
animal was a male.

He said he would now take the bones in detail, grouping
them as the head, the trunk, and the limbs, and would indi-
cate their peculiarities by showing how they differ from the
Pboceedings Lit. & Phil. Society. — Vol. IV. — No. 7. — Session 1864-5.

58

same human bones whether by deficiency or excess of parts.
The skull would attract attention at once by its very peculiar
shape, which all seemed to agree in calling helmet-shaped ;
if however the prominent ridges which give it this appear-
ance wrere left out of consideration, it would he found to be
well formed and fitted to receive a well-developed brain.
The front was indeed singular; for the orbits, instead of
being excavated as it were out of the regular dome of the
skull as in man, were outstanding, and that to such a degree
that a perpendicular section which would remove them
entire would scarcely lay open the cavity of the skull. It
would be seen however that they formed perfect chambers,
well Availed in on all sides, showing that great care had
been taken to protect the organs of sight. lie pointed out
the great depth and extent of the temporal fossae, and
remarked that they had something of the character observable
in the Feliiue, the temporal muscles Avere very large and
were so much expanded over the sides of the skull that they
Avent completely up to the middle line. These large tem-
poral muscles, Avhich close the jaAvs Avith a powerful snapping
action, had to do, he said, Avith the Arery strong and large
canine teeth, Avhich Avould be capable of exerting great force
in tearing anything on Avhich the animal might feed. The
number of teeth Avas the same as in man, and they Avere of
the same kinds, namely, in each jaAV four incisors, tAvo
canines, four premolars, and six molars. The characters of
the nasal fossae indicated a moderate, not an acute sense of
smell. In the foramen magnum he observed this difference,
that Avhile in man it is oval, in the gorilla it Avas almost
circular or squarish. The base of the skull was convex as
in man, corresponding Avith a concave internal surface upon
which the brain Avould rest. The mastoid processes, Avhich
phrenologists considered to indicate destructiveness, but
which are really a part of the organ of hearing, Avere not
quite so avcII developed as in man. In the present case one

59

of them happened to he broken so as to expose the interior,
and, if we might form the same conclusions from it as we
should in the human subject, its condition would strengthen
the opinion that the animal was of mature age, for in early-
life these processes consist of solid bone, but as age advances
are gradually excavated into larger and larger cells, and in
the specimen exhibited these cells were very large. The
lower jaw was remarkably large and strong, and the ramus
formed a right angle with the body of the bone as it does in
middle life in man. There was one peculiarity which he
had observed in the condyle, namely, that the smooth articu-
lating surface extended very far round the back of it, indi-
cating that the mouth could be opened to a great extent,
and this, together with the formidable teeth, would no doubt
give the animal, to say the least of it, an alarming appearance
if suddenly encountered in its native wilds.

The bones of the neck were, as usual in the mammalia, seven
in number ; they were very well joined together, the upper
surface of their bodies being concave from side to side to
receive the convex lower surface of each one above. They
had well marked additional processes or rudimentary ribs,
but the most remarkable feature was the great length and
strength of the spinous processes, which would give advanta-
geous attachment to very powerful muscles capable of exert-
ing immense force in twisting the head from side to side as in
the action of tearing anything with the teeth. The general
appearance of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae agreed with
the human bones ; the ribs were twenty-six in number
instead of twenty-four, and as several of them remained in
their natural position, connecting the sternum with the
spine, it could be seen that the sternum, instead of having a
nearly vertical position as in man, was very oblique, the
lower part projecting forward and showing a great capacity
of chest. The sacrum was unlike the human sacrum, being
much longer and narrower. The haunch bones were also

60

long in the direction of the length of the body, and were
but slightly roughened for muscular attachment, a proof that
the gluteal muscles were not much developed. The tuberosi-
ties of the ischia, however, were very strongly marked, indi-
cating that the animal is well qualified for the sitting
posture.

The upper extremities were very largely developed in pro-
portion to the lower ; in this specimen the length between
the tips of the fingers of the outstretched arms is said to have
measured eight feet. The shoulder blade had a peculiarity
which anatomists formerly thought characteristic of man,
namely, that the vertebral border was the longest. The
arm bone looked immensely large when placed beside that of
man ; the roughnesses near the upper part, for the attach-
ment of muscles going to the chest and back, indicated that
these muscles were of extraordinary power, and when acting
together would enable the creature to hug an enemy with
terrible effect. The articulating surface at the lower end of
this bone was oblique as in man, so that the bending of the
elbow carried the hand not to the shoulder, as it would if the
hinge-joint was directly transverse, but inwards to the mouth,
furnishing a curious little illustration of the prehensile
character of the upper extremity, and its essential use as an
organ for obtaining food. The deep hollows at the front
and back of the bone for the reception of projections of the
ulna when the elbow is completely flexed or extended, were
in the gorilla joined so as to become a hole, and thus gave
even a greater extent of motion to this joint than in man.
The bones of the forearm were very large, and a peculiarity
in them worth noticing was that they were curved, giving
them great power of resisting fracture by allowing a slight
spring of the bones when subjected to a direct shock, and
also adding immensely to the strength of the wrist in prona-
tion and supinatiou, by increasing the distance between the
bones and therefore allowing of a greater length of muscle

61

and better leverage. (The bones of the hands and feet were
not shown, being at present with tire skin.) The femur was
shorter than the humerus, the reverse of what we find in
man. The leg bones were also short, and the lower ex-
tremities had altogether the appearance of being less fully-
developed than the upper. The fibula was considerably
shorter than the tibia, while in man the two bones are
as nearly as possible the same length. The lower end of
these bones formed a very imperfect socket for the ankle joint
compared with the same parts in man, where it is most per-
fectly adapted for sustaining the erect position.

As to the habitual attitude of the gorilla deduced from an
examination of the bones, the characters of the ankle joint
just alluded to show that though the creature might stand
erect it could have but little stability in that position, and
progression on the hind legs alone would be difficult and
could not be long sustained. Important evidence on the
same point was also furnished by the character of the lower
part of the vertebral column and the position of the pelvic
bones with regard to it, for, as might be seen, there was no
deep hollow behind, as in man, for the attachment of the
erector spinse muscles, the sacrum in this case being even
placed further back than the iliac bones; the form of the pelvis
too, and its direction with regard to that of the backbone,
showed that it was fitted for the support of the contained
viscera in the horizontal rather than in the erect position ; and
all these points led to the same conclusion, namely, that the
gorilla habitually uses the front as well as the hind legs in
progression.

62

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.

December 19 th, 1864.

J. Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

Exhibitions.

The skeleton of an adult gorilla, by Thomas Alcock, M.D.
The more striking peculiarities of the gorilla skeleton were
explained by comparison with the human bones, by Edward
Lund, Esq., F.R.C.S. Ex.

Specimens of comatula rosacea, from the Cove of Cork. —
Thomas Alcock.

A jay, with the beaks crossed and very much overgrown. —
A. G. Latham, Esq.

Mounted foraminifera, from Dogs Bay, coast of Galway. —
Thomas Alcock.

Communications.

Mr. Latham gave the result of his examination of a shell
of Helix nemoralis brought by Mr. Glover, from the shore
of Gorteen Bay, Connemara. The weight of the shell was
56 grains, while that of an ordinary specimen was found to
be only 16 grains. By drying it lost a grain of weight, and
by calcination, two grains. It was then powdered and
washed with a loss of one grain of soluble salts, the whole
loss of weight being 4 grains. The residue was perfectly
soluble in muriatic acid. Mr. Parry showed a section of a
shell of Helix aspersa, brought by Mr. Glover from the same
locality ; before cutting, it weighed 126 grains, and the
section exhibited very clearly its unusual thickness and
solidity.

63

Mr. W. H. IIbys read a communication on the structure
of cotton. He said the twisted appearance so often alluded
to is caused simply by the collapse of the cell-walls in
drying, and is not an actual twisting. Captain Mitchell’s
experiment with the ammoniacal oxide of copper was not
conducted in the manner necessary for showing the spiral
threads which have been observed within the outer cell- walls,
for in his letter read at the last meeting, he speaks of having
put cotton into the solution four months ago, examining it
at intervals, frequently at first, and then daily for some time,
whereas the action of this solvent is so rapid that the
microscope requires to he prepared beforehand, as in obser-
vations on crystallization, and it is sometimes difficult even
then to follow the changes which take place. Mr. Heys
exhibited the action of the solvent under the microscope,
and also showed many drawings of cotton which had been
similarly treated. He said that if a single fibre of the cotton
be selected and watched it will be seen first to become
inflated, not uniformly, but with many constrictions, giving
it the appearance of an irregular string of beads. After a
time the external envelope will entirely disappear, leaving
only fragments of the spiral thread, of which the portions
corresponding with the constrictions will be seen to have the
form of rings. Having exhibited these appearauces, he said
he would leave the members to form their own opinion upon
the structure of cotton, but repeated the conclusion he had
arrived at, that it is composed of an external envelope or
tube, within this a spiral thread, preventing its collapse,
and a pith-like substance in the centre.

Mr. Nevill showed mounted specimens, and handed in a
list of 43 forms of Foraminifera, found in sand from the shore
of Gorteen Bay, Connemara. Some of the kinds, he said, wrere
not figured in Professor Williamson’s Recent Foraminifera,
and among these he particularly mentioned a form of Miliolina,

64

with an appendage like a tail at the end opposite the septal
orifice. lie specially called attention to his mode of mounting
the specimens in many small cells upon a single glass slip,
bv which much room is saved, and other advantages are
gained ; in those shown, ten small cells were punched out of
an oblong piece of card, in two rows of five each, and the
whole covered with a single glass He remarked on the
extraordinary assemblage of species found in this Connemara
sand, which, Mr. Dancer suggested, might be due to the
influence of the Gulf Stream.

PHOTOGRAPHICAL SECTION.

Ordinary Meeting, Nov. 3, 1864.

Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., &c. &c., Vice-
President of the Section, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected associates, viz. —
Messrs. William Pegg, T. D. Thorpe, George Wardley, E. G.
Hughes, William Lockett, Thos. Hey wood, G. W. Mosley,
F. C. Tobler, A. Lees, and W. G. Coote.

In the absence of the President, the Lord Bishop of Man-
chester, the Chairman delivered an inaugural address, in
the course of which lie referred to the three aspects in which
photography naturally presents itself to our notice — as an
amusement, as a science, and as an art.

65

Mr. A. Brothers exhibited some portraits which he had
taken by means of the magnesium light. He had discarded
the use of all reflectors ; the experiments made were generally
with three strands of wire, two flat ones bound together with
a round one. Mr. Brothers also submitted a panoramic
picture taken in the new revolving camera, and which was
perfectly sharp and distinct in every part.

Mr. Wardley presented to the Album twelve very beautiful
photographs of scenery in Cumberland, Westmorland, &c.,
taken by the Taupenot process.

Some photographs printed by the W othlytype process were
exhibited and much admired.

Mr. Joseph Sidebotham then read his Paper “ On
Printing Transparencies for the Stereoscope and Magic
Lantern,” in the course of which he called attention to the
fact that we were indebted to Mr. Dancer for inventing the
binocular camera, without which the stereoscope and its
attendant pictures would not have been, as at present, found
in almost every home. Mr. Dancer’s idea, that the pictures
should be taken only at a distance of three inches apart, was
at first ridiculed ; now, however, that distance is almost
universally adopted.

Early in the history of the stereoscope the French transparent
views, on albumen, were eagerly purchased, although the
price was very high, and was still so.

Mr. Sidebotham hoped to prove that glass transparencies
might be produced at a cost little over that of paper prints.
He then described the various processes at present in use for
producing them, pointing out the several disadvantages under
which each process laboured. Copying in the camera has
been used, and is still used by many with various combinations
of lenses — some with one, some with a pair of lenses ; but.

66

as far as Mr. Sidebotham has noticed, none of the cameras
for the purpose are satisfactory or suited for the wants of
amateurs.

Mr. Sidebotham then described the little camera which he
had made for the purpose, and which seemed to answer in
every way. The principal is to have the negative in front,
in an adapting frame to slide right and left ; the distance is
adjustable by two screws; the frame which holds the plate
also slides right and left, and stops in two places with a drop
catch, the lens (a short focussed double steresocopic one)
being in the middle. The camera is adjustable with screws
for focussing or for enlarging or reducing the image. The
camera is then tilted towards the sky, the image is focussed,
and the picture taken on wet collodion, moving the negative
plate for each half of the picture, developing with iron, and, if
requisite, deepening or toning with proto-iodide of mercury.
One focussing and adjustment of the screws will be sufficient,
and any number of negatives can be copied, if taken with the
same camera, without any alteration. The negatives require
no varnishing, so that all their original beauty is there to be
copied, and it is copied faithfully. Prints by this plan may
be produced as fast as the plates can be prepared — much
faster than on paper if a single negative be used, as the
exposure varies trom five to thirty seconds for each side.

Mr. Sidebotham stated that much of the beauty of the
pictures he exhibited were doubtless due to the quality of the
negatives, and which had been taken by Mr. Buxton, when
in India last year. Mr. Sidebotham trusted that the plan
here described would induce amateurs to print their stereo-
scopic pictures on glass instead of paper, and professionals to
lower the price of those they place in the market for sale.

67

PHOTOGBAPHICAL SECTION.

Ordinary Meeting, December 1st, 1864.
Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Samuel Cottam was elected an Ordinary Member.

Mr. Mudd presented four large and very beautiful photo-
graphs to the society’s portfolio, — two taken in Dunham
Park, and two in North Wales, by the colodio-albumen
process. These landscapes were remarkable for their peculiar
softness and delicacy.

Mr. Parry called attention to a letter in “ The British
Journal of Photography,” by Mr. Hislop, claiming the in-
vention of the camera exhibited and explained by Mr.
Sidebotham at the last meeting. He also produced the
Journal in which was the drawing and description on which
Mr. Hislop founded his claim. After an examination of
these it was unanimously decided by the members present
that there was no similarity whatever between the two
cameras, and that a drawing ought to be published of Mr.
Sidebotham’s camera.

Mr. Nevill exhibited some good prints produced by
making paper sensitive with a solution of salts of nitrate of
uranium and nitrate of silver, and when the image began to
appear, developing with sulphate of iron ; the prints were
only exposed fifteen seconds.

68

Mr. Sidebotham exhibited several specimens taken by
himself, by the Wothlytype process, on different kinds of
paper. He had experienced considerable difficulty in finding
paper to which the collodion would adhere in the washing
process. Silver prints from the same negatives were ex-
hibited, and considered superior to those by the Wothlytype
process.

Mr. Danceu exhibited on the screen, by the aid of the
oxy-hydrogen light, a series of photographic pictures by
members and others. The series consisted of transparencies,
taken by various processes, and was a trial of their relative
merits for exhibition in this manner.

Many beautiful pictures were exhibited printed on
albumen, collodio-albumen, Fothergill, tannin, oxymel, and
syrup processes, and also taken on collodion in the camera.
The two latter processes were decided to be the most suit-
able ; the photographs taken in India by Mr. Buxton were
much admired. Several photographs of the moon were
exhibited by Mr. Brothers, one of which was taken by
himself.

Ordinary Meeting, January 10th, 1865.

E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., Vice-President, in the

Chair.

Dr. Roscoe exhibited some very interesting photographs
of the fixed lines in the solar spectrum made by Mr. Ruther-
ford of New York. These photographs exhibit groups of
thousands of lines extending from near the line b in the
green to beyond FI in the violet, and serve as a most valuable
confirmation of the accuracy of Kirchhoff’s maps. Each line
in these maps can be easily and distinctly traced in the
photograph, whilst many bands drawn as single ones by
Kirchhoff are seen in the magnified photograph to consist of
bundles of fine lines. These photographs were prepared
with three 60° bisulphide of carbon prisms.

Dr. Roscoe also exhibited two fine photographic prints of
the moon, enlarged by Mr. Rutherford from negatives taken
by him in New York with an 11 jin. object glass of 14ft.
focal length, which he had ground with special reference to
the highly refrangible rays, and which is therefore unfit for
ordinary telescopic purposes.

Mr. Baxendell, and Mr. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., expressed
their opinion that Mr. Rutherford’s prints were decidedly
sharper than any photographs of the moon they had seen.
Proceedings Lit. & Phil, Society.— Vol, IY.— No. 8.— Session 1864-5.

70

A Paper was read “ On Some Products Derived from
Indigo Blue,” by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., Vice-President.

By liis experiments on the formation of indigo blue, an
account of which was laid before the Society several years
ago,* the author was led to make some inquiries regarding the
processes employed in tropical countries for the production of
indigo from plants. All authorities, it appears, agree that
the process of fermentation, which is the one usually adopted
for the purpose of extracting the colour, requires to be
conducted with the greatest care in order to lead to a successful
result. Unless certain precautions are adopted the colouring
matter may be entirely lost. This phenomenon may be easily
accounted for. Though indigo blue, when once formed is a
very stable body, the substance existing in the cells of the
plant from which it originates and which the author terms
Indican , is decomposed with the greatest facility, indigo
blue being only one of its products of decomposition, which
may be formed or not, according to the nature of the process
employed.

There are, however, other facts connected with this subject
which cannot so easily be explained. It is well known to
those dyers who employ the so-called icoad vat , in which the
reduction of the indigo blue is effected by means of various
organic matters, such as woad, madder, and bran, together
with lime, that if the process be not carefully managed it
may change its character entirely — a change which results in
the total destruction or disappearance of the colouring matter.
This phenomenon cannot be explained in accordance with
what is at present known regarding indigo blue, which is
considered by chemists to be a body of such a stable character

* See Memoirs, Vol. XIV., p. 181.

71

as not to be decomposed by any except very potent agents,
such as chlorine, bromine, or nitric acid. It has not hitherto
been supposed possible to effect its decomposition by means
of fermentation or putrefaction.

Then, again, the author found that when very small
quantities of indigo blue are reduced according to Fritzsche’s
method, which consists in acting ou it with alcohol, grape
sugar, and caustic soda, the colouring matter does not make
its appearance again when the solution is exposed to the
atmosphere. The liquid yields no deposit and remains
yellow and transparent. This fact is also difficult to account
for, since it is usually supposed that by the combined action
of reducing agents and alkalies indigo blue merely takes up
an atom of hydrogen and then dissolves, and by the action of
oxygen is again precipitated unchanged and undiminished in
quantity. By the continued action of a large excess of
alcohol and grape sugar, together with caustic soda, the author
succeeded in causing several grammes of indigo blue to dis-
appear entirely. That the effect was due to the combined
action of alcohol and grape sugar, not to that of one or
the other only, was proved by subjecting a small quantity
of indigo blue to the action of grape sugar and caustic
alkali in watery solution, and another portion to the action
of alcohol, protoxide of tin, and alkali. Reduction of course
took place in both cases ; but, though the solutions were
boiled for some time, the colouring matter was in each case
precipitated again on exposure to the air, apparently
undiminished in quantity. Since, by the action of caustic
alkalies on grape sugar, acetic and formic acids are formed,
it occurred to the author that the effect produced by the sugar

in this process might in reality be due to the presence of one
or both of these acids rather than to the sugar itself. This
supposition was completely verified by experiment. The
colouring matter disappeared quite as rapidly when acetate
or formiate of soda was employed in the place of grape sugar.
The use of the latter was therefore abandoned in the subse-
quent experiments. In the present communication the
author confines himself to an account of the combined action
of alcohol, acetate of soda, and caustic soda on indigo blue.

The process adopted was quite simple. Pure indigo blue
was introduced into a large quantity of ordinary spirits of
wine, and, after being well agitated, the mixture was raised
to the boiling point. A quantity of pure acetate of soda,
previously deprived of its water of crystallization, and a
little caustic soda were then added, and the boiling was
continued for several hours, A reduction of the indigo blue
took place in the first instance, as was evident from the deep
red colour of the liquid. On agitating ^with air this red
colour disappeared for a moment, the indigo blue being pre-
cipitated in powder, but after some time the liquid acquired
a dark brown colour and deposited nothing on exposure or
agitation. The process was then completed. In order to
obtain the products formed, the brown liquid was evaporated,
and, when the evaporation was nearly completed, water and
an excess of sulphuric acid were added, which threw down a
brown insoluble mass, consisting partly of resinous, partly of
pulverulent substances. From the liquid, which was of a
light brown colour, a crystallized acid was obtained, which
after being purified was found to consist of anthranilic

73

acid. From the mass, insoluble in water, the author
obtained five distinct substances, which were separated from
one another by means of various solvents, such as alcohol,
ether, ammonia, and carbonate of ammonia. These sub-
stances were all brown and amorphous. Some of them
resembled resins, others were powders. In general they
were found to possess very few characteristic properties, and
as they presented very little that could be of interest to
the chemist, if their origin and their mode of formation be
excepted, the author refrained from bestowing names on
them and thus adding to the already unwieldy mass of terms
with which chemical science has to deal, but preferred to
distinguish them by the letters of the alphabet, as A, B, C,
D, and E. The body A is easily soluble in cold alcohol and
ether, but quite insoluble in alkalies. B is easily soluble in
alcohol and ether, as well as in alkalies, both caustic and
carbonated. These two have the appearance of resins of a
rich brownish-yellow colour. C is very little soluble in
alcohol and ether, and insoluble in alkalies. D closely
resembles C, but is distinguishd by its solubility in alkalies.
E is remarkable for being soluble in a boiling solution of
acetate of soda. These three are brown powders. That
portion of the mass soluble in alcohol and alkalies, but
insoluble in ether, was not examined, as it was sure to contain
some of the peculiar resinous product of decomposition,
which is always formed by the action of caustic alkalies on
alcohol, and which is supposed to be identical with the
so-called “ aldehyde resin.”

74

The author’s analyses of these five bodies led to the
following formulae : —

A C62H39N08

B C52HkN08

C c23huno,

D C56H21N2O10

E C^HjjNOe

The author attaches no importance to these formulae except
in so far as they furnish a means of explaining the mode in
which these bodies are formed. It will be seen that they all
contain the elements of indigo blue, alcohol and acetic acid
in various proportions. Taking as an instance the body C,
which is the simplest in constitution, it is apparent that it
has been formed by the union of I atom of indigo blue,
1 atom of alcohol, and 2 atoms of acetic acid, 8 atoms of
water being at the same time eliminated, since

CjgHjjNCh + 8HO = C16H5N02 + C,H802 + 20*11,0,.

In like manner E originates from the combination of 2 atoms
of indigo blue, 1 atom of alcohol, and 5 atoms of alcohol, for

2(C28H11N06) + 14H0 = 2(C16H5N02) + C,HA + 5C,H,0,.

The formation of B will be easily understood by a glance at
the following equation :

C52H35N08 + 18H0 = CisH5N02 + 6(C,HA) + 3(C,H,0,).

In the case of A, which is the most complex of all, it is
necessary to assume that carbonic acid comes into play, since

C82H39N08 + 26HO = C10H3N02 + 8(C,Hfi02) + 3(C,Ht0,) + 2C0S.

It is difficult to say whence this carbonic acid is derived,

75

but the author supposes it may originate in the decomposition
.of that portion of the indigo blue which yields anthranilic
acid.

Hence it appears that all these products, except anthranilic
acid, are formed by a very simple process which consists
merely in indigo blue taking up alcohol and acetic acid in
various proportions and forming compound bodies in which
none of the constituents, as such, can be detected. It is,
therefore, not a process of decomposition, but a synthetical
process, a building up of complex bodies from others of a
simpler constitution. This is proved by the fact of water
being given up during the process, whereas in all cases in
which complex organic substances are decomposed into
simpler ones, water is absorbed. Regarding the real con-
stitution of these bodies, the author hazards no speculations.
It might be supposed that they belonged to the class of
conjugated compounds, of which organic chemistry furnishes
us with so many examples, and that by decomposition we
should be able to obtain from them some of the simpler
bodies which are known to have entered into their composition,
but the author’s experiments, as far as they have gone, do
not countenance this view. He was unable to obtain from
any one of them, either indigo blue, alcohol, or acetic acid.

The occasional disappearance of the indigo blue in the
woad vat in consequence of mismanagement now admits, the
author thinks, of any easy explanation. By the fermentation
of the sugar contained in the madder employed, alcohol is
formed, which in its turn may yield some acetic acid and

76

alcohol, acetic acid and a base (lime) being present, nothing
further is required for the development of the process
described by the author.

Professor Roscoe suggested that some of the bodies
described by the author might possibly be represented as
substitution products, one or more of the atoms of hydrogen
of the indigo blue being replaced by one or more organic
radicles.

A Paper was also read “ On Some Physiological Effects of
Carbonic Acid and Ventilation,” Part I., by Dr. R. Angus
Smith, F.R.S., President.

4

I

Ordinary Meeting, January 24th, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.. President, in

the Chair.

Mr. William B. Johnson was elected an Ordinary Member
of the Society.

Mr. S. B. Worthington, C.E., stated that it might be of
some interest to the engineering members of the society to
know, that he had lately constructed a swing bridge for
carrying a railway over the Sankey canal, in which the girders
are made of Bessemer steel plates. The object of using steel
instead of wrought iron, was to reduce the weight of the
girders. The girders are four in number, about fifty-six feet
long, with bearings varying from thirty to forty feet, and two
feet deep. They were manufactured by Messrs. Benjamin
Hick and Sons, of Bolton, from steel plates made by the
Bolton Steel and Iron Company ; and were tested with loads
of a ton to the foot, or more than double tbe weight which
they could possibly be called upon to bear. The deflection
varied from ^-inch to an inch, according to the length of the
girder, and there was no permanent set on removal of the
testing load.

The plates used varied from 5-inch to iV-inch in thickness;
and the average tensile strength of a considerable number of
plates tested, was upwards of thirty-six tons to a square inch.

The weight of the girders was about fths of the weight
which they would have been if wrought iron had been used.

Pboceedinos Lit. & Phib. Society.— Voi. IY No. 9.— Session 1864-5.

1

78

The contract for this bridge was made in November, 1863,
and the bridge was erected during the past Summer.

Mr. Worthington also exhibited a piece of cast iron lately
taken out of the Sankey canal. Its exterior, from one-eighth
to a quarter of an inch in depth, was so soft as to be easily
cut with a dull knife From the form of the casting he
thought it very probable that it had not been in the canal
more than five or six years. He stated that the water of
the canal was strongly impregnated with liquids discharged
from the alkali Wbrks in the neighbourhood of St. Helens.

Mr. Sidebotham read the following communication from
Mr. James Nasmyth, C.E., Corresponding Member of the
Society, and exhibited the large and beautiful drawing to
which it refers : —

On the 5th of June, 1864, between the hours of 11 a.m.
and 2 p.m., I had the good fortune to observe under unusually
favourable circumstances, a large and remarkable group of
solar spots.

The willow-leaf shaped objects forming the structural
element of the entire photosphere, as also forming the details
of the penumbral portions and bright margins of the photo-
sphere overhanging the spots, were occasionally revealed with
perfect distinctness; but the favorable moments for pure
definition had to be watched for, by keeping the eye steady
at the eye piece and the hand on the focal adjustment, so as
to be ready to make those minute focal adjustments that I
find are requisite to meet the constantly varying condition of
the atmosphere, which, especially during bright sunshine, is
so fertile a source of defective definition, as is well known to
practical observers.

Some of the willow-leaf shaped objects were very favourably
situated in an insulated position over the dark centres of the
spots, and in that situation yielded me excellent opportunity
for carefully noting their exact form and proportions. In

79

this respect I can with the utmost confidence pledge myself
to the correctness of what I have represented in the drawing
which accompanies this communication.

I continue to employ the term “ willow-leaf” shaped ob-
jects, as sufficiently exact to convey to any one a general idea
of their form, and so to identify them. I might perhaps have
hit upon some other term that would have been more exact
and descriptive, and in that respect I was much pleased with
that which was employed by Mr. Stone, of the Royal Obser-
vatory, Greenwich, when he first beheld these remarkable
objects by the aid of the great equatorial refracting telescope
of the Royal Observatory, on which occasion Mr. Stone
described them as “ bright rice-like particles.” Perhaps the
more general term “ lenticular shaped objects” would be
better than either, as admitting of a certain latitude in respect
to proportions, that may admit of a classification of any
variety in these respects that future observations may supply.

Any observer, who with due means at his command is
fortunate to obtain a satisfactory view of these truly- remarkable
structural details of the solar photosphere, can, of course,
please himself as to the term that appears to him best to
convey a correct idea of them. But the grand fact of their
existence is now proved beyond all doubt ; and they, as <f a
great fact,” will ever remain so long as the sun exists.

Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., read a paper “ On some
Physiological Effects of Carbonic Acid and Ventilation,” of
which the following is the substance.

That bad ventilation produces effects which are unplea-
sant, unwholesome, dangerous, or deadly, according to cir-
cumstances, has been long known ; it has also been wrell
known that the effects of breathing carbonic acid are of a
similar kind. We have not, however, been able to say
distinctly that the evil effects of bad ventilation are due
entirely to carbonic acid. We have had, and not without

80

good reason, a strong belief that the organic matter was a
grave offender.

The author had endeavoured to show elsewhere that the
organic matter is in early stages of ventilation the most
observable ; but that in later stages the effect of the carbonic
acid is unmistakeable.

When enquiring into the state of the air in mines he found it
needful to make experiments in close places, and had a leaden
airtight room built, containing about 170 cubic feet of air.
On examining the effect of carbonic acid on the burning of
candles, he remained in the chamber until that gas was
poured in to the extent of 3’9 per cent. He then found that
the pulse fell so low that it was difficult to count the beats,
whilst they diminished in number. This effect was rapid, as
he was not long in the room. Since there was no time for the
accumulation of organic matter, nearly the whole effect must
have been due to carbonic acid. Similar results were observed
frequently : a few may be given. The first here adduced will
show the fall of the pulse and the increase of the respiration
more clearly than the others as the details are appended.
The carbonic acid increased by means of respiration only.
The number of beats diminishes with a regularity equal to
the increase of the carbonic acid, whilst the breathing
quickens with equal steadiness.

81

One Peeson in the Lead Chambee.
Respiration and beatB of the pulse taken every ten minutes.

Time.

Pulse.

Respira-

tion.

Tempera-

ture,

Celsius.

Carbonic acid
in the same
periods.

h. m.
10 55

73

15-5

o

00

t-H

0-04

min.

After 10

73

16

18-2

0-114

„ 20

72

16

18-2

0-187

„ 30

71

17

18'4

0-261

„ 40

71

16

18-4

0-335

„ 50

70

16

18-5

0-408

„ 60

68

16

186

0-482

„ vo

67

165

18-7

0-556

„ 80

67

17

18-8

0-629

„ 90

66

17

18-9

0-703

,, 100

65

18-

19-0

0-777

„ 110

65

18-5

19-0

0-S50

„ 120

64

19

190

0-924

„ 130

63

19

19-2

0-997

„ 140

62

19'5

19-1

1-071

„ 150

62

20

191

1-145

„ 160

62

20

19-1

1-218

„ 170

61

20

19-1

1-292

„ 180

60

21

19-1

1-366

,, 190

60

22

19-2

1-439

„ 200

59

23

19-2

1-513

,, 210

58

24

19-4

1-587

220

57

24

19'4

1-661

„ 230

57

24

19-4

1-734

Five persons sat for 80 minutes in the room. In all cases
there was great irregularity of breathing. They were all
conversing with each other, which occupation, as was found,
somewhat modified the effect. In two cases the rise of the
pulse was considerable, viz., from 60 to 79, and from 84 to 91 ;
but the numbers soon fell down to the natural amount, and
would apparently have fallen much lower if one of the two
persons had not felt too unwell to remain. The pulses in all
cases were difficult to count, being excessively feeble, and the
most delicate of the fingers was sought for the operation.
No deficiency of strength was found in any of the trials, and
the amount of carbonic acid rose equally from first to last.

As the pulse fell and rose according to the individuality, the

82

author fixed on one young man on whom the effect was most
regular for further experiment. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that on no person was the effect small or uncertain.

The objects of the farther experiments were these, 1st, to
inquire if the influence could he observed when the amount
of carbonic acid was small ; and 2nd, to separate the effects
of the carbonic acid entirely from those of organic matter.

With 3 per cent of carbonic acid evolved in the chamber
itself, the pulse fell in 27 minutes from 67 to 62, the breath-
ing rose from 17 to 23 ; the pulse so low that it was barely
perceptible. The exposure was not full 27 minutes, as the
gas took some time to evolve.

With 2 per cent the pulse fell in 70 minutes 4, the
breathing rose from 18 to 23^-. On coming out the pulse
rose 8 in five minutes.

With 1 per cent the pulse fell 4 in the hour.

The following results were obtained by breathing air with
carbonic acid entirely free from organic matter, the inspirations
being taken from a prepared reservoir, and the expirations
not being allowed to mix with them: —

With 1 per cent C02 a rise of 2, then a fall of 5 beats of the
pulse in 26 minutes.

„ 0'5 pulse fell 5 in 40 minutes, respiration

rose 7.

„ 0*25 carbonic acid pulse rose 3, and fell 4 in
30 minutes, respiration rose 4.

„ 0*1 carbonic acid rose 1 and fell 1, in 45

minutes, breathing rose 1.

Ordinary air was breathed in the same way, so as to
eliminate the effect of the apparatus. Pulse rose 1 and
fell 1, but no greater change occurred during a whole hour.
Breathing continued unchanged except at one interval, when
it fell 1 and then resumed its usual number. In no experi-
ment during the whole period did the breathing of the same
experimenter ever fall 1 when there was as much as one tenth
per cent of carbonic acid present.

83

In one person, a youth, the pulse rose on every trial. On
entering into air with 3 per cent of carbonic acid and no
organic matter, his pulse rose 6 in two minutes and his
breathing fell 4. The pulse was so feeble that he could not
count it; some one helped in the process. He found the air
very unpleasant. Another young man in two minutes in the
same air, found that his pulse rose 6 and his respirations 4.

The action of carbonic acid seems, therefore, in all cases to
enfeeble the pulse; at first sometimes to cause a rise, but
finally to lower the number of the beats.

This effect is instantaneous or nearly so with air having
3 per cent of carbonic acid, but diminishes with the amount
of impurity. It is, however, perceptible with an amount of
carbonic acid as low as OT per cent, and probably by taking
long periods the effect would he found even with smaller
quantities. This amount is often exceeded in private houses
and public meetings, where it rises to 0‘2 or even 0’3.

The second effect of carbonic acid is in the breathing,
which it hastens rapidly, although in some cases it causes a
diminution of the inspirations. The effect approaches either
a gasping or a panting.

The author added that he must leave to physiologists to
speak of the ultimate effect of such a condition of things, and
wrould only observe, that in Dr. Peacock’s inquiries into the
state of health of the Cornish miners, he found that a feeble
pulse was one of the peculiarities, a proof that the temporary
results found in these experiments may he rendered per-
manent.

On coming into fresh air the pulse and breathing recovered
in a few minutes, showing the value of ventilation.

84

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

January 12th, 1865.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., President of the Section,

in the Chair.

Mr. Heelis, F.R.A.S., communicated the following account
of a fire ball which he had observed: —

Tuesday, 13th December, 1864, 0 hour 7' a.m. Fire ball
with sensible disc, and brilliant train from middle of seat of
Cassiopeia’s chair, to a point half-way between a Andromedse
and a Cygni. Disappeared at an altitude a little greater than
that of the latter star (in other words about 10° above
horizon); duration about 2". Train extended from point of
appearance to that of disappearance, but disappeared almost
immediately after the meteor itself. Color, bluish white,
with sparks from head, especially when near the point of
disappearance. Did not see it burst. Light intense, and
well defined disc. It was nearly calm on the earth at the
time, but heavy scud was going rapidly over the moon from
the S.E.; and to the best of my judgment the meteor fell
directly before the scud. Laying off the course, &c., on a
celestial globe, the results are — altitude of point of first
observation or origin about 50°; altitude of disappearance 10°;
length of track 40°; direction N.W.

There was so much scud that the meteor must have passed
behind several clouds, and so much moonlight that the time
by watch could be read. Hence the disc could hardly have
been the effect of irradiation.

9 a.m. Wind S.E. ; light, clear weather.

85

The only point upon which I have any doubt is the time,
which might have been a little later. I took the time by my
watch, but it hacl been wrong for a day or two, and I could
not get to any good clock to test it for some days after.

Mr. Vernon, F.R A.S., communicated the following
“Note on the Rainfall of 1864,”

The fall of rain for the past year has been 4’758 inches
below the average of the last 71 years. The fall was also
7'700 inches below that of 1863, and fell upon 44 less days
than in that year.

The principal deficiency occurred during the last six
months of the year, especially in July and October. The
only month having a Tall in excess out of the last six months
of the year was September, and rain fell upon more days that
month than any month during the year.

The falling off in July and October was no doubt owing to
the excessive amount of easterly winds. In July easterly
winds occurred upon 11 days, whereas the average of 13 years
gives only 5'9. In October easterly winds prevailed on no
less than 18 days, the average being only 9-5.

On examining the monthly means for the 71 years, there
appears to be evidence of periodicity in the distribution of the
rainfall : a minimum occurring in April just after the vernal
equinox, and a maximum in October just after the autumnal
equinox. In September, however, there appears to be -an
exception to the gradually increasing values from April to
October.

If this law really exists as it appears to do, the rainfall will
evidently bear a close relation to the sun’s course in the
ecliptic, the minimum rainfall occurring at a time when the
gradually increasing temperature of the air enables it to
absorb a larger amount of moisture, and consequently tending
to prevent precipitation. The maximum rainfall also occur-
ing at the time, the temperature begins to fall rapidly, and

86

consequently tending to precipitate the large amount of
moisture absorbed during the beat of summer.

RAINFALL, 1864.

Old Trafford, Manchester.

By G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S.

Rain gauge 3 feet above the level of the ground, and 106 feet above the sea.

Quarterly

Periods.

1864.

Fall

in

Inches.

Average

of

71 Years.
Inches.

Difference.

Number
of days
Rain fell
in 1864.

QuarterlyPeriods.

1863.

Days.

1864.

Days.

1864.

Inches.

1863.

Inches.

c

January

1-684

2-460

— 0-776

) 12

45

38}

February ...

4-027

2-379

+ 1-648

c 13

7-722

6-170

L

March

2-011

2-310

— 0-299

) 13

(

April

1-602

2-038

— 0-436

) 9

53

39}

May

3175

2-351

+ 0-824

f 10

7-722

7-746

C

June

2-945

2-913

+ 0-032

) 20

r

J uly

1-687

3-569

— 1-882

) 9

56

45 <

August

2-367

3-592

— 1-225

[ 15

8-063

12-216

(

September..

4-009

3-235

+ 0-774

5 21

f

October

1-908

3-818

— 1-910

) 13

61

19 }

November ..

3’255

3-473

— 0-218

C 19

7-133

12-208

December...

1-970

3-260

— 1-290

5 17

215

171

30-640

35-398

— 4-758

171

30-640

38-340

87

Ordinary Meeting, February 7th, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Pli.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in

the Chair.

Among the donations announced was a framed photo-
graphic portrait of the late Thomas Hopkins, Esq.,
formerly a Vice-President of the Society, presented by James
Mooney, Esq.

On the motion of Dr. Joule, seconded by Mr. Robert
Worthington, the thanks of the Society were unanimously
voted to Mr. Mooney for his valuable donation.

Mr. Binney, F.R.S. : After the researches of Lindley,
Geoppert, Brongniart, Prestwich, Hooker, and others, it
really seemed that we had obtained almost a complete
knowledge of the internal structure of Stigmaria. It is true
that only Geoppert had seen the isolated bundles in the
pith, all the specimens of the other observers having been
imperfect in that portion of the plant, and giving no indica-
tion of structure there. In my own researches I have rarely
met with a Stigmaria shewing any structure in the central
axis, even where the small stems of Sigillaria vascularis
displaying all the structure in that part are found in great
abundance.

Many years since, after the examination of a great number
of specimens of Stigmaria in my collection, it occurred to me
that an outer as well as an inner racffating cylinder would be
discovered. In my remarks on Sigillaria, published in
Proceedings Lit. & Phil. Society. — Vol. IY. — No. 10. — Session 1864-5.

&

Vol. IV., part 1, p. 20, of the Quarterly Journal of Geology,
is the following passage : “ That part of Stigmaria which
intervened between the vascular axis and the hark, appears
to have consisted of two kinds of tissue. These have, in most
cases, been unfortunately destroyed, so that we cannot posi-
tively know their true nature ; but they appear to have been
of different characters, for there generally appears to be a
well marked division. This is often shown in specimens
composed of clay ironstone which have not been flattened, and
the boundary line is about quarter an inch from the outside
of the specimen. Most probably the outer zone has been
composed of stronger tissue than the inner one, as is the case
with well preserved specimens of Lepidodendron .” It is
singular that such acute observers as those above named had
not noticed this line of division, hut it was no doubt owing to
the imperfect specimens which they had examined. After
the discovery of the outer radiating cylinder in Lepidodendron
by Witham, and the same arrangement in Sigillari elegans
by Brongniart, it was to be expected that such outer radiating
cylinder would be found to exist in Stigmaria, if it were the
root of Sigillaria. After an examination of a great number
of specimens, the cabinet of Mr. James Russell, of Chapel
Hall, Airdrie, has afforded me four or five different Stigmaria,
which give clear evidence of the existence of this outer
radiating cylinder. They are all in clay ironstone, and have
not been much compressed. He has kindly allowed me to
slice two of the specimens, which afford decisive evidence of
the existence of both an inner and an outer radiating cylinder.
The space on the outside of the inner cylinder does not shew
distinctly the bundles of vessels communicating with the
rootlets, although there is some evidence of their former
occurrence. The bell shaped orifices from which the rootlets
sprang are well displayed, and the space between them is
occupied by wedge shaped masses of elongated tubes or
utricles arranged in radiating series, not to be distinguished

%

89

in any way from those which I have shewn occur in Sigil-
laria vascularis ( Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
for May, 1862, Plate 1, fig. 6). Indeed, the transverse
section of the specimen there figured would almost do for a
representation of Stigmaria, if the latter had the central axis
preserved, which it unfortunately has not. There is the
same internal radiating cylinder and the same space formerly
occupied by lax cellular tissue, which gradually passes into
the elongated tubes or utricles arranged in radiating series,
and parted by large bundles of vessels next to the bark; thus
clearly proving from structure alone that Stigmaria is the
root of Sigillaria, each of them having an inner radiating
cylinder composed of barred vessels, a space occupied by lax
cellular tissue, and an outer radiating cylinder composed of
elongated tubes or utricles.

Mr. Binney also exhibited some of the specimens to the
meeting, and said that he was in possession of clear evidence
both from structure and branching to prove that Sigillaria,
which was the chief plant from which our beds of coal had
been formed, was a tree which branched like the Lepiclodcn-
clron, and was not the strange stunted-topped plant which
some authors had represented it to be.

The President drew attention to the late fatal explosion
at Peterborough, and asked whether the easy method of
testing steam boilers, described some years ago by Dr. Joule,
was forgotten or found to be impracticable?

Dr. Joui.e said that he had taken pains to give his method,
by which the testing by hydraulic pressure could be applied
with the utmost facility by simply filling the boiler with
water and then raising its temperature a few degrees, a very
extended publication. lie believed that the objection raised
by some to its use, was the absurd one that hydraulic pressure
injured the boiler. The very object of a test was to detect
weak boilers for the purpose of strengthening or rejecting

90

them. He was at a loss for terms strong enough to express
his opinion of the reckless disregard of life, or the ignorance
which resulted in the deplorable catastrophes which were
constantly occurring ; and he believed that the only method
of cure would be that proposed by Mr. Binney in the case of
the explosion of firedamp in mines, namely, that the parties
to blame should be compelled to support the widows and
orphans of their victims.

Mr. Alderman Pochin stated that he had made use of
Dr. Joule’s plan, and found it quite practicable and easy of
application.

A paper was read “On a New Re-agent for the Separation
of Calcium from Magnesium,” by Edward Sonstadt, Esq.

When, in the ordinary course of qualitative analysis,
carbonate of ammonium is used to separate calcium from
magnesium, unless the former is present in notable proportion
to the latter, a very insoluble double carbonate of magnesium
and ammonium always accompanies the carbonate of calcium, if
this is allowed sufficient time to form. If much magnesium
and no calcium is present, the magnesium precipitate still falls
after a while. Both metals are precipitated by this re-agent,
the only difference being that the calcium precipitate forms
somewhat earlier than the magnesium precipitate. This
fact is cursorily mentioned by Fresenius, more fully by
Gmelin, and has recently been made the subject of special
notice by Dr. Dyer. Calcium, therefore, can only be separated
from magnesium by this re-agent, by fractional precipitation,
which necessarily involves loss of substance ; and, in quali-
tative examination, the method is sure to mislead when the
proportion of calcium present is small, unless it is controlled
by other methods. The same remarks apply in substance to
the two other methods of precipitation by sulphuric acid and
alcohol, and by oxalate of ammonium. When a moderately
strong solution of Epsom salts is treated with sulphuric acid

91

and alcohol, the solution is mostly converted into a crystalline
magma; and if it is desired to separate a small proportion of
calcium, which we will suppose to be present, the magma
must he filtered, dissolved, and subjected to the treatment
again and again to separate the sulphate of calcium, when, if
the quantity of that salt present be very minute, it must be
wholly lost. Of course these remarks do not apply to solu-
tions of calcium and magnesium salts containing much of the
former, except in a modified degree. What is true of the
sulphuric acid and alcohol process, is true in a more extended
sense of the oxalate of ammonium process. I have precipitated
within a trace the whole of the magnesium present in a
considerable quantity of solution of chloride of magnesium,
simply by successive additions of oxalate of ammonium, — the
solution being concentrated to its original bulk after the last
addition of the re-agent. Yet, in working with this re-agent
the rule is, that enough of it must always be added to trans-
form all the magnesium salt into oxalate, since oxalate of
calcium is soluble in solution of chloride of magnesium. That
some magnesium salt must precipitate with the lime salt
under such conditions is obvious ; and that it does so is well
known, and is, though incompletely, provided for by the
process being directed to be repeated upon the precipitate first
obtained. This process, therefore, is also one of fractional
precipitation, and for it to approach success, the operator
must know pretty nearly beforehand how much calcium, in
proportion to the magnesium present, he has to deal with.
Nevertheless, it is unquestionable that in skilled hands,
either of the two last processes is capable of giving close
approximations to the truth, when the quantity of calcium
present amounts to a few per cent of the mixed salts. When
the quantity of calcium is less than 1 per cent, I do not think
it is possible to estimate it accurately by any of these pro-
cesses ; and when the proportion is larger, the processes are
at least more troublesome, have a wider limit of experimental

92

error, and are more apt to fail in less experienced hands,
than the analytical processes in use for estimating most of
the other commonly occurring elements.

In common tungstate of sodium we possess a test for calcium
which is probably equal in delicacy and in certainty to that
of chlorine for silver, or of sulphuric acid for barium.

The action of this test, in a preliminary examination, re-
quires to be ascertained —

(1.) With calcium solutions alone.

(2.) The presence of magnesium.

{o.) The presence of magnesium and ammonium salts, and
of these with free ammonia.

(1.) The behaviour of tungstate of sodium with solutions of
calcium salts. A saturated solution of sulphate of calcium,
taken at 13° C, remains perfectly clear on addition of an
equal volume of a saturated solution of tungstate of soda for
a short time. On warming, when the solution attains the
temperature of 42° C, it becomes turbid, deposits a him upon
the containing glass vessel, and soon after a dense precipitate
falls. To ascertain the limit of the action of the test, the solu-
tion of sulphate of calcium was successively diluted to various
degrees, and precipitates obtained, until the solution was so
dilute that it contained but one part of sulphate of calcium in
114,000 parts water. A few drops of solution of tungstate of
sodium were added, the solution warmed, and at 56° C, the
solution became distinctly opalescent. An experiment was then
made on the distilled water used for the dilution, but it gave
no reaction. It was evident that it was possible to push the
attenuation much further, and yet get indications of calcium.
But this proportion (rrsWir) is near the limit at which sulphate
of calcium may be rendered distinctly visible. A solution of
chloride of calcium behaves similarly. Sulphate of magnesium
is not precipitated by tungstate of sodium, unless the solutions
of the two salts are strong. The experiments were made with
a solution of pure sulphate of magnesium, of specific gravity

93

1-114, and containing 11-283 per cent of the anhydrous
salt. The solution of tungstate of sodium was saturated
(at common temperature), and contained about one-third
its weight of dry salt. A mixture of equal parts of these
solutions gave no precipitate in the cold, but quickly crystal-
lized when warmed, the crystals being difficultly soluble, and
leaving a very slight residue of an insoluble variety of tungstic
acid, or of some compound of that acid. But when the
mixed solutions above described were very little diluted, the
solution remained perfectly clear at any temperature, until
the fluid was concentrated by evaporation, when no precipi-
tate, but clear crystals appeared. It is only, therefore, in
very concentrated solutions that tungstate of sodium gives —
not then a precipitate — but crystals, with sulphate of
magnesium. The chloride of magnesium solution behaves
similarly, though it was not so closely examined.

(2.) The behaviour of tungstate of sodium with solutions
containing calcium and magnesium. The earlier experiments
seemed to indicate that the presence of magnesium did not
at all interfere with the precipitation of the calcium. But on
continually diminishing the quantity of the calcium salt
while that of the magnesium salt was kept constant, it was
found that the latter exercised a very appreciable solvent
power. The limiting experiment was as follows : — To 5 cc. of
a solution containing 7 parts in 100,000 of sulphate of calcium,
were added 3 cc. solution of sulphate of magnesium, contain-
ing 1T283 per cent anhydrous salt, 12 cc. water, and a few
drops of tungstate of sodium. There were thus, in 2,000,000
parts of fluid, 35 parts sulphate of calcium, and 33,849 parts
sulphate of magnesium — the remainder being water, except the
small quantity of tungstate of sodium. The reaction was not
visible till the fluid reached the temperature of 70° C, when
it became apparent, and, on putting it aside to cool, a per-
fectly distinct film formed on the glass. A similarly attenu-
ated solution of the lime salt, but containing no magnesium,

94

was exposed to the same conditions with the re-agent, and the
reaction in the latter case occurred earlier, at a lower tem-
perature, and was more distinct. Nevertheless, the fact
remains that, in a mixed solution of the sulphates of calcium
and magnesium, the presence of the former may be clearly
detected up to the proportion of about 1 part in 56,000 of
fluid containing about 1,000 parts of magnesium salt.
Rougher experiments made with the corresponding chlorides
led to similar results.

(3.) The influence of ammonium salts in obstructing the
precipitation of calcium in presence of magnesium is very
marked. A calcium salt, in presence of a very large proportion
of both magnesium and ammonium salts, cannot be certainly
recognised except somewhere near ToVcth of the calcium
salt be present in solution. The influence of free ammonia
with sulphate of ammonium and sulphate of magnesium, in
like large proportions, is so great as to only just admit of the
recognition of the calcium when from Tnhrth to raVrrth is
present. Nevertheless, enough, and rather more than enough,
ammoniacal salt may be present to prevent any precipitation
of magnesium by excess of ammonia, and a moderate excess
of ammonia may also he present, without sensibly affecting
the estimation of the lime in a quantitative experiment.
Chloride of ammonium does not dissolve the precipitate
when it is once formed.

The analytical experiments on weighed mixtures of calcium
and magnesium salts, imperatively necessary in introducing
a new re-agent, are not yet completed, most of the experi-
ments of this kind made till now, having been vitiated
through ignorance of the conditions necessary to ensure
success. I give, however, the results of one experiment, the
conditions of which approached more nearly to those I now
know of as being necessary than the others, reserving the
series, together with the methods adopted for obtaining pure
materials to work with, for a second Paper.

Taken

Found.

Magnesia 03097 grms. 0-3120

Carbonate of calcium... 0-0043 0-0042

The weighed quantities of carbonate of calcium and of mag-
nesium were dissolved in a slight excess of hydrochloric acid;
neutralised carefully by ammonia, precipitated by tungstate
of sodium, and then the filtrate, with the usual precautions,
by common phosphate of sodium. The excess in the weight of
pyro-phosphate of magnesium, led to the suspicion that some
tungstic acid had been carried down ; a suspicion amply
confirmed by the colouration obtained from the solution of
the ignited precipitate in dilute hydrochloric acid when
treated with tin.

A little in anticipation of my intended future paper upon
the subject, I now add such details respecting the manipula-
tion required in separating lime from magnesia by tungstate
of sodium as my experience has shown to be necessary. It is
convenient to have the solution of the magnesium and
calcium salts made somewhat alkaline by ammonia, but a
very large quantity of this, as well as of ammoniacal salt, is,
as we have seen, to be avoided. The beaker in which the
precipitation is to be effected should, while perfectly dry and
warm, be rubbed within by chamois leather on which a drop
or two of fine oil (such, as is used for oiling balances) has
been put. If this precaution be not taken, it will be found im-
possible to detach the precipitate of tungstate of calcium from
the sides and bottom of the vessel. A considerable excess of
the re-agent is not necessary ; but, if it occur, is not material.
If, on addition of the re-agent, a white, floculent precipitate
forms immediately, it is well to add a few drops of ammonia,
when the floculent precipitate will re-dissolve, but if it does
not re-dissolve, after warming, there is some other element
present, which, if ordinary Epsom salts are used will probably
be manganese. The tungstate of calcium precipitate is very
dense ; it forms slowly in very dilute solutions, and, in all

Id cl.

96

cases, several hours should be allowed for it to form. The
solution should be warmed meanwhile, but must not be
allowed to boil. The precipitate must be washed till the
filtrate shows no cloudiness on standing, with nitrate of silver
when the salts are chlorides ; or, if they are sulphates, till
chloride of barium gives no cloudiness. The precipitate must
then be further washed with dilute solution of ammonia, but
these washings need not be saved. The filter should be
burnt separately, after the precipitate is cleared from it as
nearly as possible. After the ignited precipitate is weighed,
a little strong solution of ammonia should be poured upon it,
and allowed to stand for awhile, when the ammonia is
decanted, and supersaturated with acid. If a precipitate
falls after a time, the tungstate of calcium precipitate should
(without being removed from the crucible) be allowed to
stand for some hours with more ammonia — it is then washed
by decantation, again ignited, and weighed. The ignited
precipitate should be perfectly white.

The filtrate, containing the magnesium salt and tungstate
of sodium, may be at once precipitated by phosphate of sodium
in the usual way, but if this is done, much washing is required
to get rid of the little tungstic acid that adheres obstinately
to the precipitate. It is better, especially when a great excess
of the re-agent has been used, to first precipitate the tungstic
acid, by a considerable excess of hydrochloric acid, and boil
until the precipitate becomes dense and intensely yellow.
The solution is then filtered, supersaturated with ammonia,
and the magnesia precipitated in the usual way ; but, even
in this case, it is better to wash lastly with stronger ammonia
solution than ordinary.

97

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.
January 16th, 1865.

J. Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Exhibitions and Presentations.

A box of two dozen slides of botanical specimens, beauti-
fully mounted, presented to the Section by Mr. J. E. Whalley.

Specimens of carbonate of magnesia from Greece ; the
surfaces showing very delicate dendritic markings of oxide
of manganese, well seen under the microscope. — Mr. A.
Brothers.

A fine specimen of Polyporus versicolor. — Mr. Grindon.

A set of mounted specimens of leaves from the south of
Europe and the Rocky Mountains, showing curious and
novel markings. — Mr. W. H. Heys.

Communications.

The following note from Mr. Dancer, addressed to the
President of the Section, was read : —

“ Sjr, — I beg to state that, since our last meeting, I have
carefully examined, with various powers of the microscope,
the cotton hairs whilst \indergoing dissolution in Schweizer’s

98

Ammoniacal Solution of Copper. I am inclined to the belief
that cotton hairs do not contain spiral vessels properly so-
called. I think that the spiral apparatus, which has been
described by Mr. C. O’Neill and Mr. Heys as spiral vessels,
can be clearly traced to a mechanical action which the
solvent exerts on the vegetable cell. At some future time I
hope to illustrate this to the Section. — Yours truly,

“ J. B. Dancer.”

Mr. Heys explained that he had not intended to describe
the cotton hairs as containing spiral vessels, in the botanical
sense of that term, but had spoken of the appearance within
them as that of a spiral thread.

Mr. Watson read a communication “On the Plumules or
Battledore Scales of the Lycsenidse,” in which he showed that
they will serve the purposes of identification by exhibiting
generic and specific alliances, and differences similar to those
found in the plumules of the Pieridse, described by him in a
previous paper. Fifty-three figures of the plumules, drawn
by Mr. Sidebotham, were shown as illustrations of the sub-
ject. He said the points he desired to insist upon as likely
to be useful in this investigation were — That the plumules
are always identical in individuals of the same species, and
mere varieties can therefore be detected by this test ; and
that, in very closely-allied species which are difficult of
distinction by the more ordinary characters, these scales will
often be found to be different.

Mr. Sidebotham read “Notes on the Development of the
Wings of Lepidopterous Insects.” He said that their great
and rapid increase of size soon after the insect emerges from
the chrysalis is caused by air, taken in through the spiracles,
being sent into the vessels of the wings ; the membrane is
expanded in consequence, and the scales, which were before

99

packed under each other as closely as possible, are made to
slide out until they remain in the fully developed wing like
the tiles of a roof. He exhibited preserved specimens of the
Currant moth and the Tiger moth, with the wings both in
their small and in their expanded state, also a coloured
sketch of one of them, and it was seen that in the unexpanded
state the wings lie flat without any folding, and all their
markings are a correct representation in miniature of what
they ultimately become.

January 30th, 1865.

J. Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section,
in the Chair.

Exhibitions and Presentations.

Two powers for the Microscope (|in. and jin.), made by
Mr. Dancer, presented to the Section by the Right Rev. the
Lord Bishop of Manchester.

Remains of an Ichthyosaurus. — T. Alcock. The points
noticed were the bones situated in the triangular space
enclosed by the lower jaw, which were -well shown as the
creature lay on its back ; a broken rib reunited during life ;
the numerous small bands of bone, three or four correspond-
ing with each rib, encircling the body in front ; remains of
skin in various parts ; and, in the situation of the stomach, a
layer of minute teeth and fragments of scales, the remains of
food taken during life.

100

Mountain Limestone fossils from Clitheroe. A new
Rhynchonella not yet specifically named ; many beautiful
specimens of Crania ; and a set of extreme varieties of Orthis
resupinata. — Mr. Parker.

Double feathers from pheasant. — Mr. Latham.

A set of the photographs of Dinornis in the York Museum.
Dried specimens of the male flowers of Aucuba. — Mr. Grindon.

Communications.

Dr. Alcock read “Notes on a Visit to Walton Hall/’
with remarks on Mr. Waterton’s method of preserving
animals.

Dr. Carrington read communications “ On an Annelidan
Larva/’ and “ On the Embryology of Annelids.”

101

Ordinary Meeting, February 21st, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in

the Chair.

Mr. Thomas Worthington was elected an Ordinary Member
of the Society.

M. Breguet, of Paris, exhibited and explained the con-
struction of Dumas’ lamp for use in coal mines, the principle
of which consists in the employment of the light from a
Geissler’s vacuum tube, excited by a small RuhmkorfFs
induction coil.

Professor Roscoe stated that he had very frequently been
asked for information respecting the mode of preparing the
sealed bulbs, containing exactly equal volumes of chlorine
and hydrogen gases, which he employed for exhibiting the
chemical combination of these gases effected by the action of
light, and as the successful preparation of these bulbs depends
upon exactly observing certain minute conditions, he ventured
to submit the following particulars to the Society. The
apparatus needed, consists of a stout tube or narrow bottle of
about 120 cubic centimetres capacity, fitted with a caoutchouc
stopper Avith three holes bored through it. Into one of
these holes a vent gas delivery tube passes, on to which three
small Avash bulbs are bloAvn ; into the other tAvo holes are
inserted the rounded ends of two lengths of the gas carbon,
Pboceedings Lit. & Phib. Society— Yob. IV— No. 11.— Session 1864-5*

102

commonly used as terminals for the electric lamp ; these
poles are of such a length that they pass to the bottom of the
glass bottle. This is then filled with strong aqueous hydro-
chloric acid containing about 80 per cent of the anhydrous
acid ; the stopper in the poles and wash bulbs containing
a few drops of water is then fixed into its position, and the
evolution vessel placed in a beaker of cold water whilst con-
tact is made with the terminals of four ordinary sized Bunsen’s
cells, the whole apparatus being placed in a dark room. The
mixed gases at once begin to be given off, and ought to pass
through the wash bulbs at the rate of about two bubbles per
second. It is absolutely necessary that the gas be allowed to
come off at this rate for three hours* before it is collected, as
up to this time it does not attain a sufficient degree of purity
and sensitiveness, whilst after the lapse of this time it is
generally found to be fit for use. In order to absorb the
excess of chlorine, the waste gas may be led into a condenser
containing slacked lime and charcoal in alternate layers.
When the evolution has gone on for the above mentioned
time a bulb tube, connected by caoutchouc joinings, is placed
between the evolution vessel and the condenser, and the gas
allowed to pass through. The bulbs, which are made of
fusible glass tubing, are blown about the size of a hen’s egg,
and so thin that they easily break when pressed with the
finger. At each side of the bulb the tube is drawn out so as
to be very thin in the glass, and to leave the internal diameter
not less than 1mm., whilst at the extremities the tube is
wider so as to fit ordinary joinings. When the gas has
passed through the tube for about ten minutes, the joinings
are loosened and each end stopped with a piece of glass rod.
The bulb tube thus closed is then removed from the evoluting
vessel, and the thinnest part of the tube brought some little
distance above a very small Bunsen’s flame ; the glass then
softens below a red-heat, and the ends may be drawn out and

* See Bunsen and Roscoe, Photochemical Researches, 1857, p. 855.

103

sealed with safety. It is advisable to number the bulbs, and
to test the first and last by exposing them to a strong light.
Frequently, in spite of every precaution, the gas explodes
during the act of sealing, so that in this operation it is advi-
sable to hold the bulb with a cloth rather than in the open
hand. As soon as one bulb tube is removed another is
placed in connection with the evolution flask, and after ten
minutes sealed as described. The above quantity of acid
will serve for the production of sixty bulbs. Thus prepared
the sealed bulbs may be bept in the dark for any length of
time without injury; some, which were known to have been
made more than a year, were found to be perfectly good. To
explode these bulbs it is only necessary to expose them to
diffuse daylight or sunlight, when the combination occurs
instantly. Of artificial lights the bright flash produced by
the combustion of the vapour of bisulphide of carbon in nitric
oxide is most effective ; but the light of burning magnesium
wire, of phosphorous in oxygen, or the electric light, answers
perfectly well Professor Roscoe stated that Mr. Dancer, of
Cross Street, had undertaken to supply the bulbs to persons
unable to prepare them.

A paper “ On a new form of roof for Dyehouses,” by Mr.
John Thom, was read, communicated by the President.

The object of the present communication is to describe the
construction of a roof for buildings in which there is a good
deal of vapour, so as to produce the minimum amount of con-
densation of such vapour inside the buildings, and thus avoid
the production of drops, as well as the minor evil of an
obscure atmosphere. Any one practically acquainted with
dyeing processes knows well the loss which arises from these
two evils. In all cases that I have seen, except where the
dyehouse was the lower fiat of a series, and where, of course,
the covering of the dyehouse was the floor of the room above,
the roof of a dyehouse is made about the usual angle or

104

pitch of an ordinary building supplemented with openings,
and these openings on different plans, for allowing the steam
or vapour to escape. The usual one being made thus : —

This form seems to send out a large amount of steam or
vapour from the quantity of cold air which is mixed with the
vapour inside and escapes with it. If one watches the action
of the cold air and vapour in this form of roof, it wrill be
observed, that the cold air comes in by all the windward
openings, strikes the hot moist air or vapour, drives part out
and forces a great part down into the building. I found by
taking off the side lifts, and leaving only the top ones, that
an improvement was effected. Still, however, the same evils
were produced by the top louvre boards, although in a less
degree, owing to a less quantity of cold air being admitted.

I also tried removing the top cover, hood, or louvre boards,
and contracting the opening, leaving three feet all along the
top of the roof without any cover whatever; and this, in
spite of the admission of rain, I found to be the best of the
old form. Even with this, however, we had always drops
and an obscure atmosphere, except in bright dry days. But
with this form the number of drops were less and the building
clearer than with so many openings.

With the old form of roof the most successful plan of keep-
ing the building free from vapour or drops, is to cover over
every vessel from which vapour arises, and to have a tube
passing from each cover quite through the roof. But this
plan has several objections to it ; the chief being, that owing
to the boxing in of the winces, &c., one does not see how the
goods are going on, and whether the processes are being con-
ducted successfully or not. The workmen also aggravate

105

this evil, by avoiding as much as possible the opening of the
covers or boxes to see the goods, on account of the blast of
steam which issues out when an opening is made. I have
twice fitted up such covers and tubes to all our dyebecks, and
both times have been obliged to remove them. The last
time I fitted them up I made for the front a light frame with
canvass, and this could be raised by a cord and pulley, so as
to allow the man to avoid the steam when he opened the
box.

Being dissatisfied with all the plans I had tried of getting
rid of the vapour, I determined to try a new roof.

Now, if all idea of the old form af roof is laid aside, and
it is asked what it is that is really wanted, the conclusion
will be that condensation of the vapour must be avoided; that
the less air admitted the better, and that the air be admitted
under the vapour and pass with it in the same direction, out
of the building, mixing as little as possible with it. The
admission of air must be at the command of the foreman of
the building, and the roof should be at such a pitch that if
drops be condensed on it they should not fall ; but trickle
along the spar or glass into the gutter made to receive them.

Adjoined is a sketch of the plan which I have ultimately
adopted to effect these objects.

A A becks along the sides. B louvre boards which can be
opened or shut to admit air. C C openings for escape of hot
vapour, having the same number of feet of opening as surface

106

of hot water. I) D hoards which catch rain drops from un-
protected part of roof. F part for assorting goods, &c. All
the roof is timber and glass ; there are no slates.

By this plan the opening for emission of steam is as small
as can be allowed, and all the air necessary is admitted at
the proper place, and in such quantity as may be desired.
This roof has now been at work in summer and winter, and
a drop has never been seen to fall from it except sometimes
from gutter E E, and this being invariably in one place it is
of no consequence. Except in unusually close weather, the
whole place is quite free from condensed vapour. The men
are all dry and comfortable, instead of being stifled with the
hot vapour and drenched with drops as they formerly were
before this new form of roof was tried. There are many
details which I cannot describe here, but which I show on
the model and drawings. Modifications would be required
for different arrangement of becks ; but the same principle
could always be carried out.

A paper was also read “ On the Action of Caustic Soda on
Ethylic and Methylic Alcohol,” by Mr. A. Mylius, commu-
nicated by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

Schunck’s experiments concerning the action on indigo
blue of acetate of soda, caustic soda, and alcohol, first led me
to examine in his laboratory the influence of caustic soda on
alcohol and methylic alcohol in sealed tubes.

I obtained in each case a resin, differing considerably from
the resinous body which is obtained by boiling an alcoholic
solution of caustic soda for some time at the ordinary pressure
and then precipitating by an acid. This so-called aldehyde-
resin has a different composition according to the proportion
of acid employed in its preparation, so that I think it not
improbable that it may be composed of two resins. Its colour
is dark brown, and it is soluble in alkali.

On heating the same solution for some time in sealed tubes,

107

so as to obtain increased pressure, there is formed by the
influence of the alkali a resin which is insoluble in alkali. In
a short time the liquid becomes red, and on the addition of
water the resin is precipitated, the liquid becoming colourless.
This takes place also when methylic alcohol is employed.

The resins thus formed are of a red colour.

After filtration and washing with water the resin was dis-
solved in alcohol, and the residue, after evaporation, dried at
100° C. When cold these resins are hard and brittle, but
they have no crystalline structure. They are soluble in
alcohol and ether. The resin formed from methylic alcohol
melts at 59° C., the other at 65° C. The odour of the
former is like that of cedar wood, while that of the latter
more resembles the smell of oranges. In general there is a
great resemblance between these resins and the natural
resins, such as copal, &c. In employing methylic alcohol
the formation of the resin takes place much more easily,
and a greater quantity of product is obtained. I tried in
various ways to decolorise the resins, but did not succeed.

Through the alkaline liquid filtered from the resin a cur-
rent of carbonic acid was passed, then it was evaporated, and
the saline residue having been treated with sulphuric acid in
excess, the liquid was distilled. The distillate was acid ;
silver solution was reduced by it in an instant, so that there
was little doubt of the presence of formic acid (but the pecu-
liar smell of propionic acid could not be perceived).

From the analysis it must be inferred that the tw’O resins
have the same composition ; but still, as their properties are
not identical, I think they are only isomeric.

The analysis afforded the following results :

I. 0T860 grm. (methylic ale.) gave 0‘5080 grm. carbonic
acid and 0T550 grm. water.

II. 02465 grm. (methylic ale.) gave 06795 grm. carbonic
acid and 0T965 grm. water.

III. 02090 grm. (ethylic ale.) gave 0-5745 grm. carbonic
acid and 0T590 grm. water.

108

IV. O' 1805 grin, (ethylic ale.) gave 0’4960 grin, carbonic
acid and 0-1330 grm. water.

These numbers lead to the following composition :

I.

II.

III.

IV.

c...

... 74-50 ..

.... 75-10 ...

.... 74-97 ...

.... 74-95

H...

... 8-90 ..

.... 8-85 ..

.... 8-95 ...

.... 8-26

O...

... 16-60 ..,

.... 16-05 ...

.... 16-08 ...

... 16-79

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

The formula C12 H8 02 with which they correspond requires
in 100 parts

C 75-00

H 8-40

0 16-60

100-00

The formation of the resins from the alcohols might per-
haps be explained by assuming that aldehyde is formed by
the oxidation of alcohol, and then by simple loss of water the
aldehyde would be converted into resin, since

3(C4 H4 02) - 4HO = C12 H8 02.

But the formic acid in this case would not stand in any
relation to the resin, and even the formation of the resin from
methylic alcohol could not easily be explained.

If we adopt the formula C24 H18 04, which requires 74‘28
per cent carbon and 9'10 per cent hydrogen, we must assume
that carbonic and formic acid are taken up by the alcohol,
though it is very doubtful whether these acids could separate
from a strong base like soda in order to form a neutral resin.
The following equations will show what may be imagined to
take place in this case :

5(C4 Hg 02) + C2 04 + C2 H2 O., = C21 H18 04 + 14 HO.

10(C2 H4 02) + Ca 04 + C2 Ha 04 =■ CJ4 H19 04 + 24 HO.

109

Taking two atoms of water from C12 H8 03, the formula of
benzole, C12 Hc, remains. I tried to form this carbo-hydrogen
by distilling the resin ; the distillate had a strong smell of
carbolic acid ; I acted on it with nitric acid ; oxidation took
place immediately after the addition of the acid. I now added
water, which gave a yellow deposit. I dissolved the latter
in alcohol, but on evaporating the alcohol I obtained a resin
of the same appearance as the original one. Nitrobenzole
had not been formed.

The two resins are of a constant composition, which is
proved by the accordance between the third and the fourth
analyses, which were made Avith specimens prepared at
different times.

In order to ascertain Avhether formic or acetic acid takes
part in the formation of the resins, I made two other experi-
ments. In one case I added acetate of soda to the caustic
soda and alcohol, and in the second case formiate of soda. I
analysed the products, and arrived at the folloAving results :

I. O’SOSO grm. (acetate of soda) gave 0-6190 grm. carbonic
acid and 0*1 625 grm. Avater.

II. 0-2255 grm. (acetate of soda) gave 0 6800 gi-m. car-
bonic acid and O’ 1745 grm. water.

These numbers lead to the folloAving composition :

I.

II.

c

82-37

82-24

H 8-80 8-58

100-00

100-00

The formula C28 H18 02 requires

C

82-90

H

8-91

O

8-19

100-00

110

Assuming that acetic acid is necessary for the formation of
this resin, which differs from the products obtained without
the addition of the acetate, the following equation will show
the way in which the resin has been formed :

4(C< H6 02) + 3(C4 H4 04) = C2S Hlg 02 + 18 HO. -

In employing formiate of soda I obtained a resin of the
same composition as that produced when no formiate was
present.

0*2100 grm. gave 05795 grm. carbonic acid and 0*1610
grm. water = 75*25 per cent carbon and 8*57 per cent
hydrogen.

The investigation has therefore led to the discovery of the
following facts :

(1) The resins which are obtained by the action of caustic
soda on ethylic and methylic alcohol in sealed tubes differ
from the resin that is formed by the same substances at the
ordinary pressure in open vessels.

(2) Methylic and ethylic alcohol produce resins of the
same composition.

(3) Formic acid is formed.

(4) When acetate of soda is added the resulting resin
differs in its composition.

Ill

PHOTOGRAPHIC SECTION.

January 5th, 1865.

Joseph Sidebotham, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. E. C. Buxton was elected an Ordinary Member.

Some enlarged photographs by Dr. Van Monkhoven were
exhibited. The original negatives were four inches square,
and some of the enlargements upwards of forty-four inches.

Some specimens of panoramic pictures taken by Mr. J. R.
Johnson with his pantascopic camera were exhibited. In
this camera the lens turns on its optical centre, depicting
the objects composing the view on the screen or collodionised
film, which moves tangentially in a contrary direction to the
motion of the lens, and thus successive portions of the view
are received by successive portions of the moving plate.

Mr. Dancer, F.R.A.S., read a paper “ On the exhibition,
stereoscopically, of Photography on a large scale.” Diagrams
were exhibited of the single image prism stereoscope, the
double reflecting stereoscope, and the opera glass stereoscope
instruments devised by Sir David Brewster for uniting bin-

112

ocular pictures for the use of lectures, &c. Some beautiful
stereoscopic transparencies were cut in two, and each half
placed in its position in oxhydrogen lanterns mounted with
achromatic object glasses. The half stereographs were then
projected in juxtaposition on a long screen, and to realize
the proper stereoscopic effect, the members were supplied
with achromatised prismatic stereoscopes which had been
prepared expressly for the purpose. Mr. Dancer made some
remarks on the perfection which the lenticular stereoscope
had attained by the employment of achromatic lenses, and
urged the necessity of photographers and opticians agreeing
to uniform foci for the lenses of stereoscopic cameras and
stereoscopes, as it was only by viewing the pictures with
lenses of equivalent foci to those with which they were taken
that they got a truthful representation. If that rule were
observed, the objects would have the same apparent magni-
tude as they would have to the eyes of a person standing on
the spot from whence the view was photographed ; that well
known rule was too frequently forgotten.

February 2nd, 1865.

J. P. Joule, LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President of the
Section, in the Chair.

Mr. A. Brothers, F.R.A.S., exhibited a stereoscopic picture
of the Blue John Mine in Derbyshire, which he had taken by
aid of the magnesium light, giving an exposure of five minutes.
The negative was slightly fogged, owing to the lenses not
having been wiped when descending from the cold atmos-
phere of the surface into the mine, which is some 3 to 400
feet below it. The dense fumes of magnesia caused by so
long an exposure prevented another trial.

113

Dr. Joule exhibited a camera, which was an improvement
on the one described in the Photographic Notes, September,
1 856. The body of the camera consists of a mahogany box
holding a wide glass bottle, which is made use of to hold the
silver solution. The plate is sensitised by turning the
camera on its back, which causes the nitrate of silver to flow
over it.

Mr. Montefiore described some experiments which he
had made for enlarging negatives by aid of the magic lantern,
using magnesium, wire for the illuminating power. The
wire had been found to bum very steadily in a jet of ordinary
gas.

Mr. A. Brothers, F.R.A.S., read a paper entitled “Was
Daguerre a Discoverer?”

Mr. Sidebotham read a paper “ On the proper focus of
lens to be used in taking photographic landscapes, also on
some modes of measuring the size of objects therein depicted.”
The object of the paper was to shoAv that neither lenses of
very long or very short focus give correct perspective, the
former making distant objects appear too near, and the latter
just the contrary. Lenses of less focus than 7 inches, and
greater than 14, make this defect painfully visible.

The latter portion of the paper advocated the placing a
rod or mark of such a length, and in such a position in the
picture, that it could be used as a scale of measurement for
the principal objects. Also that a correct scale be made for
each focus of lens, by placing poles of measurement at the
distance of 100 yards apart, and marking each 10 yards
distance from the camera, so that Avhen once the scale Avas
formed, all photographs taken by that focus of lens (the

114

distance of objects being known) their size could be measured ;
or their size being known their distance.

The author, also explained the mode of obtaining the
exact measurement of objects, by laying divided scales
lengthways and across, so that any person could verify the
measurement from the photograph without risk of error.
This had been suggested to the Astronomer Royal for Scot-
land, Professor Smyth, who was at present in Egypt, taking
measurements of certain portions of the interior of the great
Pyramid, and extracts from some of his letters were read,
approving the same; the illumination of the objects being
accomplished by the use of Magnesium.

115

Ordinary Meeting, March 7th, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in

the Chair.

The following paper “ On the Action of Sea water upon
certain Metals and Alloys,” was read by F. Crace Calvert,
Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., &c., and R. Johnson, F.C.S.

We were induced to examine the action exerted by sea
water, in consequence of the rapid changes which have
taken place of late years in naval architecture, and especially
in the substitution of metals and alloys for wood.

To carry out the above views, we took 20 square centimetres
of each metal, which we cleaned with great care and attention,
in order that the action of the sea water might have its full
effect ; then two plates of each metal w-ere placed in
separate glass vessels, and immersed in equal volumes
of sea water. After one month the plates were taken
out, and any compounds that had adhered to the surface
carefully removed ; the plates were then dried and re-
weiglied, and the loss estimated. To render our results of
more practical value, we have calculated the action of 100
litres of sea water upon one square metre of each metal,
and the following are the amounts of metals dissolved : —

G-rammes.

Steel 29 '16

Iron 2 7*37

Copper (best selected) 12-96

PEOOEEDING3 LlT. & PHIL. SOCIETY— VOL. IV.— No. 12.— SESSION 1864-5.

116

Grammes.

Copper (rough cake) 1 3*85

Zinc 5-66

Galvanised Iron -1*12

Block Tin 1'45

Stream Tin 1 *45

Lead (virgin) Trace.

„ (common) Trace.

These results appear to us to lead to the following con-
clusions : —

1. That the metal now most in vogue for shipbuilding,
namely, iron, is that which is most readily attacked.

2. That this metal is most materially preserved from the
action of sea water when coated with zinc, and therefore, in
our opinion, it would amply repay shipbuilders to use gal-
vanised iron as a substitute for that metal itself.

The above facts perfectly confirm those which we have
already published in our paper “ On Galvanised Iron for
Armour Plated Ships,” in which it was shown, that when
iron was in contact with oak they mutually acted upon each
other, producing a rapid destruction of the two materials,
whilst little or no action took place between galvanised iron
and the wood.

3. The extraordinary resistance which lead offers to the
action of sea water, naturally suggests its use as a preservative
to iron vessels against the destructive action of that element ;
and although we are aware that pure lead is too soft to
withstand the wear and tear which ship bottoms are subjected
to, still we feel that an alloy of lead could be devised which
would meet the requirements of shipbuilders.

Feeling that experiments made with a limited amount of
sea water might not be a fair criterion of the action of the
ocean upon metals, we repeated our experiments upon plates
of 40 centimetres square, which were immersed for one month
in the sea on the western coast (Fleetwood), taking the
precaution that they should be constantly beneath the surface

117

of the water, and suspended by flax rope attached to a
wooden structure, to prevent any galvanic action taking
place between the plates and the structure to which they
were attached.

The following are the amounts of metals dissolved : — •

Grammes.

Steel 105-31

Iron 99-30

Copper (best selected) 29-72

Zinc 34-34:

Galvanised Iron 14-42

Lead (virgin) 25-69

„ (common) 25-85

The above figures suggest the following remarks : — •

That the action has been much more intense, in this
instance, than when the metals were placed in a limited
amount of water at the laboratory. These results are due
probably to several causes acting at the same time, viz. : —
that the metal was exposed to the constantly renewing sur-
face of an active agent ; and that there was also a considerable
friction exerted on the surface of the plate by the constant
motion of the water, there being at Fleetwood a powerful
tide and rough seas. What substantiates this opinion is,
that the lead plates undoubtedly lost the greater part of the
weight, not by the solvent action of the sea water, but from
particles of lead detached from them, in consequence of their
coming in contact with sand and the wooden supports to
which they were attached ; but this cause of destruction
"having been observed with lead plates, it was afterwards
carefully guarded against in the case of all the other metal
plates.

We also deemed it desirable to examine the action of sea
water on various brasses. We therefore immersed for one
inonth, plates of various alloys in that fluid, and proceeded to
record our results : —

118

Action op 200 Litres of Sea Water upon 1 Square Metre
Surface of the following Brasses :

Composition of the Brasses.

Pure Copper ... 50
Pure Zinc 50

100

Quantity of Metals Dissolved.
iron. copper. zinc. total.

1 110 10-537 11-647

Commercial Brass :

Copper 66-

Zinc 32A

Iron and Lead 1 -5

0-579 3-667 3-324 7-570

100

^ Muntz Metal (Sheet) :

Copper 70-

Zinc 29-2

Iron and Lead 0-8

0-438 4-226 2-721 7-385

100-0

Muntz Metal (Bars) :

Copper 62

Zinc 37

Lead and Iron 1

0-501 2-697 3-493 6-691

100-0

Prepared Brass :

Copper 50

Zinc 48

Tin 2 tin.

0-365 7-04 3-477 10-882

100

119

The above table shows bow very differently sea water acts
upon divers brasses and the influence exercised upon the
copper and the zinc composing them, by the existence in
them of a very small proportion of another metal; thus,
in pure brass the zinc is most rapidly dissolved (which,
m passant , is the contrary to what takes place in galvanised
iron), whilst it acts as a preservative to the copper.

Tin, on the other hand, appears to preserve the zinc, but
to assist the action of sea water upon the copper.

The great difference between the action of sea water upon
pure copper and upon Muntz metal seems to us to be due
not only to the fact that copper is alloyed to zinc, hut to
the small proportion of lead and iron which that alloy
contains ; and there can he no doubt that shipbuilders derive
great benefit by using it for the keel of their vessels.

We were so surprised at the inaction of sea water upon
lead that we were induced to compare its action with that of
several distinct varieties of water, viz., Manchester Corpora-
tion water — Avell water — distilled water in contact with air —
the same deprived of air — and the following are the amounts
of metals dissolved by 200 litres of these waters upon 1 square
metre of surface during eight weeks.

Grammes.

Manchester Corporation Water 2094

Well Water 1-477

Distilled Water (with air) 110003

,, ,, (without air) 1-829

SeaWater 0038

These figures require no comment, as they confirm our
previous result that sea water has no action on lead.

Mr. John Robinson exhibited specimens of iron and brass
which had been acted upon by the water of the river Medlock,
and stated he had found that an alloy of lead, tin, and
antimony, resisted the action of sea water better than any
other metal or alloy he had tried.

120

PHOTOGRAPHIC SECTION.

March 2nd, 1865.

Mr. John Parry in the Chair.

Mr. Dancer read a paper entitled, “ The Opaque Micro-
scope not New,” in which he proved that the so-called new
instrument was of very old date, and was described and used
previous to the year 1780 ; and that an improved form of it
was exhibited nightly at the Manchester Mechanics’ Institu-
tion in the winter of 1840-1841.

Mr. Sidebotham exhibited some prints taken by the
Wothlytype process, and described the mode of their produc-
tion. Others printed by the ordinary silver process from the
same negatives were also exhibited, and pronounced to be
superior in every way.

Mr. Brothers exhibited two photographic prints taken
by Mr. Pouncy, of Dorchester, one of them obtained direct from
the negative in printers’ ink, the other printed from stone.
Mr. Brothers also exhibited, with a copying camera, the
mode of obtaining photographs of microscopic objects by
burning magnesium ; also a negative and a print from it of
an insect dissection so enlarged.

Mr. E. C. Buxton, jun., read a paper entitled “ Photo-
graphic Experience in India,” and illustrated it by a number
of large and beautiful views he had taken in 1863 and 1864.

The difficulties of photography in hot climates such as
India are usually believed to be very great, and until quite
recently Indian photographs — or, at least, such as / had the
chance of seeing — were little more than patches of black and
white. No doubt there were many exceptions, but I think
that was the general character of Indian photography. The
hardness and want of half-tone was attributed to the intense
light of the sun, the heat, and the difficulty of preserving
chemicals in good working order.

121

I remember reading a letter in one of the journals from a
photographer in India, in which he said that the plates could
not be kept moist more than a few seconds after leaving the
bath, and that to prevent the surface of the film from drying
so rapidly he was obliged to fasten a pad of wet blotting-paper
inside the shutter of the dark slide. How he contrived to
draw out the shutter I cannot understand. My own opinion
is, that a photographer who can take good negatives in this
country will succeed equally well, if not better, in India, or
other hot climates.

A few days before leaving Calcutta, at the beginning of
last April, I gave a friend some lessons in the art of coating
and developing a plate. In July I received prints from his
negatives superior to the ordinary productions of amateurs in
this country of two year’s practice.

The Exhibition of the Bengal Photographic Society closed
just after my arrival in Calcutta. I could only pay one short
visit ; but my impression was that the number of good pictures
was larger than in the annual Exhibition of the London
Photographic Society. Probably this improvement in the
art is owing to the general use of bromo-iodised collodion, and
the greater purity of the nitrate of silver and other chemicals.

About four years since I spent the winter in Algeria and
Egypt, taking photographs both with the wet and dry process.
Neither country is very warm at that time of year; but the
excessive dryness of Egypt gave me some little insight into
what was wanted in the photographic line when I started for
Singapore inSeptember, 1863. I had previously asked advice
from photographers who had worked in India, mentioning
the little difficulty I experienced in Egypt. They shook
their heads, evidently pitying my ignorance. “ Only wait,” ,
said one, “ till you find your nitrate bath as black as ink
some fine morning !” I humbly ventured to hope that such
a sad fate was not in store for my bath. Another positively
declared that no man except Ottewill could make a camera
warranted not to warp or crack. I was also advised to make

122

my own collodion on arriving out, or at least to mix the
iodisers myself. My knowledge of chemistry being very
limited, the prospect of turning collodion manufacturer was
anything but agreeable. Nevertheless, I laid in a stock of
ether and alcohol, and all sorts of iodides and bromides. Gun
cotton I did not trouble my head about, though where I ex-
pected to find any in Singapore is more than I can now
remember. Fortunately my skill was never put to the test.

In this country Thomas’s collodion with magnesium iodiser
had always been my favourite, but after a few weeks of hot
weather the loss of sensitiveness is very great ; therefore, in
addition to several pounds of Thomas's collodion packed in
tin cases with sawdust, I took a quantity of Mawson’s. This
was ordered specially for India. Nothing could possibly
work better than it did : it was perfection. All the other
chemicals required — such as nitrate of silver, pyrogallic and
acetic acids. &c. — should be taken from this country* They
are to be had in Singapore, Hong Kong, and the principal
towns in India ; but the prices usually charged are ruinous,
and no purchaser can tell how long the article he requires
may have been in stock.

The most important matter, after all, is the choice of
cameras, lenses, and a good dark tent. The tent I used was
Smartt’s, made by Murray and Heath. The time required
for setting it up and arranging the bath and developing
bottles in their proper places is about five minutes. Murray
and Heath also supplied me with a square bellows camera
for 11x9 plates, fitted with Dallmeyer’s No. 3 triplet and
Grubb’s C lens, together with a field box for chemicals and
glass plates. Mr. Rogerson made all the rest of my apparatus,
viz., a rigid stereoscopic camera, with rack-and-pinion, fitted
with Dallmeyer’s single and combination lenses, plate boxes,
and draining boxes for holding negatives in the field. These
draining boxes are also most useful for carrying negatives on
a long journey, such as the overland route, and will stand
almost any amount of knocking about without injury to the

123

contents. I need only say that a box similar to the one you
now see, when full of negatives, fell to the ground from an
elephant’s back : the box was a little worse, and that was
all. A nest of three ebonite funnels will be found very
useful: glass funnels are certain to be broken. The developing
cups may also be of ebonite, but I must say I prefer glass.

On arriving at Singapore the keys of my boxes could
nowhere be found. A couple of Chinamen kindly undertook
to pick the locks and make new keys. Their “ little bill”
amounted to three dollars — about thirteen shillings ! During
my stay in the island there was scarcely a morning when the
foliage was absolutely still. At sunrise a breeze nearly
always sprung up, and continued more or less till sunset ;
then it became perfectly calm, and during the night there
was frequently heavy rain, with thunder and lightning.

My first attempt at photography was rather disagreeable.
I had placed the camera under the shade of a large bamboo,
and was focussing carefully. I ought to mention that the
morning dress in Singapore is made as light and cool as
possible. Loose trousers of silk or calico, grass slippers, and
a flannel shirt. In this costume I was suddenly attacked by
a swarm of great red ants. They had dropped down from
the branches overhead, and were all over me before I noticed
them, biting ferociously. At first I thought a snake had
bitten me. As soon as I got clear of the focussing cloth and
saw the ants, I had nothing for it but to run indoors and
plunge into a bath of cold water. After this I carefully
avoided bamboo trees. These red ants make nests by gum-
ming the leaves together, in the same way as caterpillars in
this country.

The scenery in Singapore is more suitable for the stereo-
scope than for large pictures. Knowing nothing of the
language, and having to do everything myself, small plates
were quite as much as I could manage. At first the tre-
mendous heat inside the tent made me feel very sick and
giddy, but it soon ceased to be an inconvenience.

124

Though I used a glass bath with glass top, and silver wire
dipper, a kind of scum always formed after a day’s work.
This had to be cleaned off, and the solution filtered before
use. Once, after taking three successful instantaneous
negatives, the bath solution became suddenly turbid, and the
surface covered with a thick black scum. After filtration it
worked as well as ever. With this exception, which I can in
no way account for, the bath was never out of order.

The tent was always 'pitched in a shady spot, if possible,
the ground well watered, and the inside of the tent rubbed
with a wet sponge to prevent dust. For a few minutes the
atmosphere was bearable enough, but after a couple of nega-
tives had been developed it was quite another matter. The
stopper of the collodion bottle used to blow out, and the
smell of ether, mixed with cyanide, in such a temperature,
was anything but agreeable.

After a little experience, however, I found less difficulty
in taking good negatives than in this country. Mawson’s
collodion worked splendidly. The developer I first tried
was eight grains of iron and twenty drops of acetic acid to
the ounce of water. This did not answer, so I tried fifteen
grains of iron and fifteen drops of acetic acid ; and, finally,
thirty grains of iron, thirty drops of acid, thirty drops of
alcohol, and two drops of ammonia to one ounce of water.
Nothing could be better than the last formula. I used it
afterwards in India both for large and small plates.

Going up from Hong Kong to Shanghae, most unfortunately
my bath was left behind. There were plenty of interesting
objects near Shanghae, and some very fine bridges over the
canal at a town called Wong-dow, which had been burnt by
the Taepings. Here I saw a man catching fish with cormo-
rants, and would have given anything for my camera. There
was no help for it, so I shot pheasants instead.

The <f Alabama” was coaling in the Ncav Harbour, Singa-
pore, when I arrived there on my way to Calcutta. Of course
my only thought was how to take a picture of her. All my ap-

125

paratus had been laid up for a month, and it was raining hard.
At night when I was going to bed a report got about that she
was to sail early next morning. I had to come on board,
and, spite of heat and swarms of the most bloodthirsty mos-
quitoes, to clean plates and filter bath solution. At four
o’clock in the morning everything was ready ; but, mean-
while, one of Captain Sherrard Osborne’s fleet had come in,
and totally spoilt the point of view I had chosen. At day-
light I crossed the straits in a boat, and set up the tent under
a bank, hoping to avoid the direct rays of the sun. I was
slightly mistaken. Before long the sun shone directly on the
tent, and the woodwork inside soon became unpleasantly hot
to the touch. I got two pretty good views of the “ Alabama”
at anchor, and another in which she appeared steaming out
of the harbour.

The steamer left Singapore on December 24th, and the
same evening a ship was reported on fire. At nine o’clock
we Avere close to the burning vessel, which proved to be the
“Martaban,” set on fire by the “Alabama.” The water
being perfectly smooth, the effect was magnificent.

On the 26th I arrived at Penang early in the morning.
Nothing can exceed the beauty of this island. The heat on
the low grounds near the sea is very great ; but on the hills,
which are often hidden by great fleecy clouds, the atmosphere
is deliciously cool and healthy. The steamer only stopped a
few hours, but I secured some beautiful negatives. A crowd
of Chinese and Malays favoured me with their company.
The water running out of the waste pipe caused great asto-
nishment. I was told they called my tent “ruma Setan”
(the “ Devil’s house”), which name is also applied to the
Freemason’s lodge at Singapore.

On New Year’s Eve we anchored at Diamond harbour, on
the Hooghly, and landed at Calcutta next morning. As soon
as possible I got my baggage on shore and prepared a silver
bath of thirty grains of silver to the ounce of water. Finding
the light far quicker than at Singapore, I thought it well to

126

make the solution tolerably acid, and added one drachm of
acetic acid to ninety ounces of bath solution. With this acid
hath I took a great many instantaneous stereoscopic views, and
several negatives 11x9 Avith the triplet, in less than a second.

Within a mile or two of Calcutta there Avas at that time a
most beautiful jungle of palms, cocoa-nuts, bamboos, &c. — a
perfect paradise for photography. All this, or the greater
part of it, together Avith the splendid trees in the Botanical
Gardens, have since been destroyed by the great cyclone.

Here I used Thomas’s collodion, newly iodised with mag-
nesium, with great success. After being iodised a few days,
hoAvever, the film invariably split at the loAver edge of the
plate when immersed in the nitrate bath. The crack Avas
about tAvo inches long and one-eighth broad, extending up-
Avards. I should be glad if any one could explain Iioav this Avas
caused. After this I used MaAvson’s collodion almost entirely.
Once I mixed the tAvo together, and found them Avork Avell.

The chief draAvback to Avet photography in India is the
enormous weight of apparatus required. It Avas bad enough
by railway, but Avhen I had to transport three heavy boxes
by horse dak, as the miserable public carriages are called, it
became simply ruinous.

My visit to the ruins of Gauv, in the Maldah district,
some 200 miles above Calcutta, gave me more pleasure than
anything I saw in India. From Calcutta to Rajmahal there
is a raihvay. There I put my baggage into bullock carts to
cross the Ganges, and proceed to Gaur, a distance of thirty
or forty miles. I myself rode to the ferry, and Avas delighted
to see a couple of elephants Avaiting on the opposite bank to
convey me to Mootrapore, the residence of an indigo planter —
the most hospitable man in the Avorld, and the slayer of at
least 200 tigers. Next day I Avent on with the elephants,
and the day folloAving arrived at Gaur, found a tent pitched,
and the carts unloaded.

Gaur was the ancient capital of Bengal, and the ruins of
the city, surrounded by dense jungle, are magnificent. My

127

first act was to drink a bottle of beer, the second to light a
cheroot, and the third to filter the everlasting bath, and clean
half-a-dozen plates. Having performed all these interesting
operations satisfactorily I went to sleep, and started early
next morning for the ruins — my servant on one elephant,
with tent, camera, and field box, while the bath accompanied
me on the other elephant. I may as well tell you that I
never trusted the bath out of sight longer than I could help,
knowing that if any accident occurred there was no chance
of getting another between Calcutta and Agra.

The first subject I tried was a fine old minaret, standing
by itself, near a large tank swarming with alligators. The
attempt was a total failure — nothing but fog, I could not
account for it then, nor can I now. Out of fifty-six large
plates, however, exposed in India, this was the only failure.

I made matters worse directly afterwards, by stamping on
the focussing-screen : luckily half the glass escaped being
broken. I would advise any photographer going to out-of-
the-way places always to carry a spare focussing-screen. A
collodionised plate will answer the purpose at a pinch, but
with a badly-lighted subject it is difficult to focus accurately
without ground glass.

The next plate was all right, so I moved on to a grove of
date palms, every tree of which was full of monkeys, and it
was plain that unless they were driven away I might as well
attempt to photograph the palm trees in a gale of wind. At
last they all took their departure — or at least I thought so.
A dark gateway at the end of the grove became beautifully
lighted, and not a leaf stirred. I lit a cheroot, placed the
dark slide in position, and uncovered the lens, intending to
give an exposure of one minute and a-half. Twenty seconds
were wanting to complete the time, and already I saw a
perfect negative developed, when suddenly an old grey
monkey dropped from the top of a tree, and swung on a
bough which, with infinite pains, I had brought into focus
by an unlimited use of the swing-back. Of course I covered

128

the lens immediately ; but the mischief was done. The
father of monkeys grinned and made horrible faces, then
dropped to the ground and disappeared. Presently after-
wards, while looking about for another view, a whole tribe of
monkeys came and sat close to the camera, huddled together
like a swarm of bees. The light coming through the
branches of trees was very feeble, and having only a long-
focus lens, it was useless to attempt taking their portraits.

The last day I spent in Gaur was one of downright hard
work. The ruins were a long distance apart, and the tent
had to be pitched and taken down five times. As it was
getting dusk we passed through a magnificent gateway in the
old wall. I was quite tired out and half asleep ; but the
mahout, or elephant driver, called my attention to it, where-
upon I woke up and told my servant to pitch the tent for the
fifth time. While he was doing so I looked out for the best
point of view. There was no difficulty in finding it. The
difficulty consisted in the clouds of dust raised by a long line
of pilgrims incessantly passing. A troop of monkeys chattered
in the branches overhead. For the monkeys there was no
remedy; for the pilgrims there was. Coming out of the
tent I was surprised to find a perfectly clear atmosphere. At
a little distance the elephants were standing right across the
narrow road, and behind them at least 200 pilgrims, partly
held in awe by the elephants and partly by a bcrkc7iclcirs ,
which, I think, means a “fighting man,” who had accom-
panied me.

After leaving Gaur I went by train to Benares. Stayed
three days, and took a few negatives. There are some very
very fine mosques in Benares, but so built round as to
prevent photographing with ordinary lenses. A globe lens
would be of immense service in such places, and it is sur-
prising that they are not in more general use.

The railway is now open from Calcutta to Delhi ; but at
the beginning of last year there were two breaks in the
journey from Benares to Allahabad, and from Agra to Delhi.

129

I was obliged to travel by dak from Benares to Allahabad,
thence by rail to Cawnpore, and again by dak to Lucknow.
At the latter place the weather was miserably cold, and the
wind too high for photography. The Kaiser Bagh reminded
me of the Palais Royal at Paris. It would make an excellent
picture in a pantoscopic camera.

I was much disappointed at not being able to do more at
Lucknow : once I did set up my camera near the Presidency,
but a sudden squall of wind upset it, diminishing the size of
my unfortunate small focussing screen.

Leaving Lucknow at midnight, I had time to photograph
the memorial over the well at Cawnpore : it stands at the
end of a large garden. No natives are allowed to enter
unless by special permission ; and Europeans driving through
the garden do so at foot’s pace.

No words can describe the magnificence of the Taj Mehal,
at Agra — a mausoleum of white marble, built by the Sultan
Akbar over the tomb of his wife. The marble is inlaid in the
most exquisite manner with precious stones, in the form of
leaves and flowers. In front of the building is an avenue of
dark cypress trees, and a long line of fountains, at the end of
which stands the Taj flashing like the sun itself. It ■would
be hard to conceive a more difficult subject for a photograph ;
yet by using a weak developer, the black cypress trees, the
shining white marble, and the fleecy clouds were all perfectly
rendered.

From Agra to Delhi is one hundred and thirty miles by
dak — a most wearisome journey through sandy plains, dotted
here and there with low jungle. The Delhi water is full of
salt ; at least I found it so, though a professional photo-
grapher living on the spot told me “it w'as good enough in
his hands, and answered perfectly.” I acquiesced humbly, but
took a pint of distilled water he was kind enough to give me.

The splendid monument called the Kutub, on the site of
ancient Delhi, is about eleven miles from the present city.
The height of the pillar is even now, I believe, 340 feet, and

130

is supposed formerly to have reached 400 feet. The water
was quite fit to use, so I brought back several bottles full,
intending to take views of the Cashmere gate, &c. ; but a
letter from the great tiger-slayer, before mentioned, warned
me to return at once if I intended to join his tiger party on
the 9th of March.

Photography is great, but tiger hunting is greater ; so I
left Delhi one Monday morning, and, travelling incessantly,
reached Calcutta on the Saturday. Here I left all my
apparatus, except a plate or two for the benefit of a dead
tiger. This I accomplished, but after seven or eight hours’
shooting on the top of an elephant even photography becomes
a burden.

Having been in at the death of seven tigers, I left Calcutta
the first week in April, and I, with all my negatives — namely,
fifty-five 11x9 inches, and six dozen stereoscopic — arrived
in England towards the end of May.

I cannot conceive anything more delightful than a photo-
graphic tour in India — arriving out at the end of October,
and returning in April. If a man’s health be good there is
no difficulty in obtaining good pictures. In fact, one great
source of failure in this country — dirty plates — scarcely exist
in India. If a plate be washed with clean water, and rubbed
dry, it is as clean as man can make it. According to my
experience collodion cannot be too much shaken before use.
I think it a great mistake to use a bottle which has been
standing quiet for any length of time ; but I know plenty of
learned photographers who hold the very opposite opinion.

In conclusion, I venture to hope that photographers in-
tending to pursue the art in India or other hot countries may
find the foregoing remarks of service in the selection of appa-
ratus and chemicals.

131

Ordinary Meeting, March 21st, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

Ur. Joule described an instrument he had constructed for
showing rapidly minute changes of magnetic declination.

Pbooeedings Lit. & Phil. Society — Vol. IV. — No. 13.— Session 1861-5.

132

suspended by a single filament of silk ; its shorter arm being
connected with the first lever by means of a small hook
attached to the fibre d. The whole is enclosed in a stout
copper box, into which light is admitted through a lens e,
cemented into an orifice immediately under the object glass
of the microscope f.

The microscope magnifies about 300 linear, and has a
micrometer in its eyepiece, with divisions corresponding to
toW of an inch. One division corresponds to a deflection of
the needle of and as a tenth of a division can be very
readily observed, the instrument measures deflections to
within half a second. So rapid is the action, that on apply-
ing a small magnetic force the index takes up its new position
steadily in two seconds of time. Besides being a damper to
the motion of the needle, the copper box, by its conducting
power, equalizes the temperature rapidly, so that the indica-
tions are not to any considerable extent disturbed by currents
of air. The success of the present instrument encourages
the hope that very much greater delicacy may be obtained
by a further multiplication of the motion and the use of a
more powerful microscope. Dr. Joule stated that he had
observed an extensive magnetic disturbance the preceding
evening, the index being driven entirely out of the field of
view.

The President said that three meteorological instruments
of true originality and of unprecedented delicacy had been
described to this Society by the inventor Dr. Joule. For
common observation the instruments were too refined, but in
some fields of enquiry they seemed the only hopeful guides.
Manchester has not yet a Meteorological Observatory,
although the proposal has often been made to establish one.
Private spirit, as in the instance of Mr. Vernon and others,
has made the necessity less felt than before. But there is now
an opportunity of beginning one with entirely new apparatus
of Manchester origin, which would probably very much alter

133

the quality of the enquiries made in meteorological establish-
ments.

Mr. Baxendell stated in reference to Dr. Joule’s observa-
tion, that on the same evening he had observed a very fine
auroral arch, which at 8h. 20m., G. M. T., passed over e
Bootis, a Ursse majoris, Capella, and a point midway
between the Pleiades and e Tauri. There was at the same
time a considerable segment of bright auroral light in the
northern part of the heavens. No streamers were visible.
About twenty minutes later it was noticed that the position
of the arch had changed, the western portion having moved
very sensibly in a southerly and the eastern portion in a
northerly direction. This change of position was probably
connected with the remarkable disturbance of the magnetic
needle noticed by. Dr. Joule. The western portion of the
arch was brighter than the eastern, and was estimated to be
from ten to twelve times brighter than the milky way in
Cepheus and Cassiopeia.

Mr. Baxendell also stated that the Society had in its
possession a thermometer constructed by the late Dr. Dalton,
and which, it is believed, was used by him in many of his
meteorological observations. The scale has the initials J.D.
and the year 1823 engraved upon it ; and the freezing and
boiling points of water are indicated on the stem by fine file
marks. As it is known that the zero points of thermometers
sometimes change to the extent of one or even two degrees in
the course of several years, it occurred to Mr. Baxendell
that it would be interesting to ascertain whether any change
had taken place in this thermometer, and he had therefore
lately tested very carefully the position of the freezing point,
but found that no sensible alteration had taken place ; and
he believed therefore that great confidence might be placed
in the observations which Dalton had made with this instru-

ment.

134

Mr. Dyer communicated a letter from Mr. Joseph Barratt,
of Southport, in which the writer endeavoured to account for
storms on principles which appear to be almost identical with
those advanced many years ago by the late Professor Espy
and Mr. Thomas Hopkins.

A Paper was read entitled “Further Observations on the
Permian andTriassic Strata of Lancashire,” by E.W.Binney,
F.R.S., &c.

In previous memoirs published in the Transactions of the
Society, the author had given what information he possessed
in a fragmentary state, just as he obtained it, of the permian
strata of Lancashire and the north-western counties of West-
moreland, Cumberland, and Dumfries, as well as the north-
western corner of Yorkshire, and he took sections where he
was fortunate enough to obtain them, but he made no
attempt to lay the strata down continuously on a map, his
materials being far from sufficient for such a purpose.

By looking at a map of the county of Lancaster, the
observer will find a great gap between the permian beds of
Grimshaw Delph, Bradley Brook, and Skillaw Clough, to the
north-west of Wigan, and the sections described by the
author at Rougham Point near Cartmel, and Stank near
Ulverston. The lower coal measures from Harrock Hill can
be traced pretty well towards Chorley, and thence to near
Withnell, and then the millstone grit runs to Hoghton, and
across the country not very well seen to Griesdale, Scorton,
Cleveley, Ellel, Ashton, near Abbey Lighthouse on the Lung,
over the mouth of that river to Robshaw Point, and on to
Heysham. The country forming the western boundary of
the above line is a low district, a good deal covered up with
drift, and affording few natural sections to show clearly the
relation of the carboniferous to the permian strata. The
district probably may afford some sections if carefully inves-
tigated, but up to this time it has been quietly dismissed by
colouring it red for trias.

135

In this communication the author gave a little more infor-
mation which he had lately obtained in a line from Hoghton
Tower to Fleetwood ; also at Cockersand Abbey, south of
the mouth of the Lune, and Robshaw Point and Heysham
to the north of the same river ; and made a few remarks on
some singular red sandstones hitherto classed as trias in the
neighbourhood of Whiston, Huy ton, Knowsley, Croxteth
Park, and Rainford, and laid down as such on the maps of
the Geological Survey.

No doubt it is a very difficult matter to determine with
absolute certainty where the trias strata end and the pcrmian
begin, when there are no organic remains to guide us and
we have to trust to a bed of red marl or a deposit of red sand-
stone. In the author’s several memoirs published on this
subject, so far as South Lancashire was concerned, the red
marls and limestones of Newtown and Bedford are assumed
to be the uppermost permian deposits found. It is quite true,
as stated in his third memoir — “ Some of the sections near
Manchester, especially that seen in the valley of the Irk in
Cheetham and Newtown, would apparently show that the red
marls containing limestones and fossils of the genera Bakevellia,
Schizodus , &c., passed into the overlying trias ; ” but as a whole
it was assumed from other facts that the red sandstone of the
trias was unconformable to the underlying permian beds. In
a paper published by Sir R. I. Murchison and Professor
Harkness, printed in the Quarterly Journal of ilie Geolo-
gical Society for May, 1804, as well as in the author’s last
memoir, the thick red sandstones of St. Bees are described as
permian and not as trias, and were traced down, as Professor
Sedgwick had previously followed them, into Furness near
Ilowcote and Barrow. Anyone who sees the red sandstones
much used for building purposes at Shawk, Maryport, and
St. Bees, and compares them with that at Howcote, will not
be able to distinguish the one from the others. It is only from
their physical characters that we can compare these sand-

136

stones ; for up to this time, so far as his knowledge extends,
no organic remains have been met with in them. Now this
is bringing a permian red sandstone above the Newtown and
Bedford red marls and limestones, and introduces for the first
time an upper permian sandstone into Lancashire ; and this
rock runs into the trias so regularly that it will be very diffi-
cult to separate it by any well marked boundary from the
lower soft sandstone or pebble beds of the trias as laid down
and described in the maps and memoirs of the Geological
Survey.

It is pretty clear if some of these permian and triassic
sandstones are to be classed by their physical characters
alone, that certain of the latter rocks, as laid down by the
Geological Survey in the Huyton, Croxteth, and Knowsley
districts, will probably have to be put into the permian, for
no one can tell the red flaggy sandstone of Knowsley quarry
from the Howcote and St. Bees sandstones, and it must be
taken as permian just as the Howcote rock is identified with
that at St. Bees.

As it is desirable to attempt to connect the permian deposits
of the South and West of Lancashire with those in the north
of the county, as seen at Rougham Point near Flookborough,
and Stank near Furness Abbey, he gave what information he
was possessed of. The only section hitherto seen near Preston,
is one in the Kibble below that town, and appears to be a
portion of the pebble beds of the trias. How far it extends
up the valley of the Ribble and to Roach Bridge in Samles-
bury, where the soft red and variegated sandstones and
conglomerate (permian beds) rest unconformably on what
appears to be limestone shale, has not been yet determined.
Near Cockersand Abbey on the south side of the mouth of
the Lune, west of the town of Lancaster, below high water
mark, is a small patch of what appears to be permian sand-
stone.

To the north of the last named place across the Lune at

137

Robshaw Point, the same soft red sandstone is seen on the
beach covered by the tide, and appears to be a continuation
of that rock seen to the south, but much better exposed.
With these exceptions no further evidence has yet been
obtained of any permian beds until we reach Rougham
Point.

The triassic beds in South Lancashire, as seen near Liver-
pool, according to Mr. Hull, are as follows* : —

Formation.

New Red
Sandstone.

Division.

Keupe

J

Bunter.

Subdivision.

1. Red marl, with beds of upper keuper

sandstone.

2. Lower keuper sandstone or waterstone,
with a base of breccia or conglomerate.

1. Upper red and mottled sandstone.

2. Pebble beds.

3. Lower red and mottled sandstone.

Next, as seen near Manchester, where the same author
classes the bunter as composed of

1. Upper red and mottled sandstone.

2. Pebble beds.

It will be seen from the above divisions that the lower
soft red and mottled sandstone of Liverpool is left out at
Manchester altogether, the lowest member of the trias there
being the pebble bed. There certainly is the Vauxhall sand-
stone, which would pass very well for the lower soft red ;
but the Newtown fossils found above it, clearly cut off that
rock from the trias, and establish it with the permian beyond
all question.

The author had not made many divisions of the bunter
portions of the trias. No doubt they are useful in different
places, and have sometimes to be varied with the districts to
which they are applied. In the north, about Carlisle, up to
this time, only one bed of soft red sandstone without pebbles
has come under his notice. But at Sutton, as previously
alluded to, there is a soft red sandstone without pebbles

* Manchester Geological Society’s Transactions, Yol. II. p. 23.

138

resting on permian red marls. Similar sandstones, in the
same position, are seen near the canal at Bedford ; below
Messrs. Hampson and Co.’s Printworks, at Clayton Bridge,
Manchester ; and near Messrs. Brocklehurst’s Lime Works,
at Ardwick, near Manchester. There is also a soft red sand-
stone, apparently dipping, under the pebble beds of Heaton
Mersey, near Stockport, well seen on the banks of the Mersey
from Stockport to Fogg Brook, which would pass for the
lower soft sandstone of the trias ; but for some reason with
which the author is unacquainted, the gentlemen connected
with the survey prefer (he is informed) to class this sandstone
underlying the pebble beds with the permian rather than the
trias.

It appears that through the western part of Cheshire and
the adjoining county of Flint, as well as in West Lancashire,
where there are few, if any, permian strata exposed, the
Geological Survey has always had a lower soft red and mottled
sandstone ; but when the east part of Lancashire is reached
and undoubted permian beds are found, this supposed lowest
member of the trias disappears.

The soft yellow and variegated sandstones of Whiston,
Croxteth Park, and Bain ford, all resting unconform ably on
coal measures, described by Mr. Hull, are evidently of the
same age as the Rainford and Grimshaw delpli beds. Un-
fortunately in no instance have any red marls been yet found
lying either above or below them. He had described the
latter as permian, whilst Mr. Hull thinks they are the lower
red and mottled sandstone of the trias. But with respect to
the Ivnowsley quarry, it so much resembles the St. Bees and
Llowcote upper permian sandstones, that if they were found
in Furness, Sir B. J. Murchison and Professor Harkness
would, without doubt, claim them as permian.

It is many years since the author first saw the Knowsley
quarry, and he then in his note book remarked that those
sandstones, especially that belonging to Mr. Lit tier, could

139

not be distinguished from the upper permian sandstones of
the neighbourhood of Dumfries, which he had just returned
from examining. Now, if they can be proved to overlie
immediately the coarse grained, false bedded, soft red and
mottled sandstones of Whiston and Croxteth Park, both the
latter as well as the former, will have to be classed as permian
rocks according to the present Geological nomenclature of the
North West of England ; and he thinks that the new sections
he now describes at Roach Bridge, Cockersand Abbey, and
Robshaw Point, tend to confirm this view.

In all the quarries of Lancashire where the trias sandstones
have been wrought, the author has never seen so hard and
thin bedded a stone as that found at Knowsley. It was
formerly used for paving sets in Liverpool, and large quanti-
ties of it were broken for road metal purposes, for which he
never knew a trias rock used. Some of its beds also afforded
fined grained flags, with faces as smooth as any permian
sandstone he had even seen in the neighbourhood of Dum-
fries. A good example of pebble beds is seen at Kirkby
Rough ; but this rock bears no resemblance to the stone at
Knowsley quarry, and the two stones cannot well be classed
as the same from their characters.

140

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.

February 20th, 1865.

Dr. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Dr. Alcock showed mounted specimens of the Carapaces
of Entomostraca, picked from shore sand from the coast of
Galway. They included Cythere albo-maculata, angustata,
variabilis, flavida, convexa, impressa, pellucida, and quadri-
dentata ; besides about thirty other species of Cythere and
Cythereis which are not described in Dr. Baird’s Monograph.

Professor Williamson said that the further we extend
our observations of the lower forms of animal life, the greater
become our difficulties in determining specific distinctions ;
and in the present case it must be remembered that we have
only the shell or carapace for examination, and this outer
skin is of less value for distinctive characters than the internal
parts. Then again it is known that some of the entomostraca
undergo several metamorphoses similar to those passed
through by the higher Crustacea before they become adult,
so that he should not be at all surprised if some ten or
twenty of these different forms turned out to belong to one
and the same species. There still remained a third difficulty,
the greatest of all, namely, the doubtfulness of what a species
is ; and in the lower forms of life the variability is so great that
he doubted if specific distinctions could be made with any
certainty. The same remark is applicable to the lowest
forms of the higher divisions of animals, and the entomostraca
standing low in the articulate class are probably subject to
similar variability.

141

Specimens of Hydra with Paramoecium aurelia and Tricho-
dina pediculus parasitic upon them were shown by Mr. A.
Brothers.

February 27tli, 1865.

J. Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

j Exhibitions.

The shell of an oyster with a thick layer of soft chalk-like
deposit lining its inner surface. — Mr. Nevill.

A hall composed apparently of fragments of some vegetable
fibre felted, from the shore of the Mediterranean at Cannes. —
Mr. Sidebotham.

Flowers of a species of Euphorbia, and a leaf of Cycas. —
Mr. Grindon.

Mounted specimens of the larval shells of Saxicava rugosa.
Area tetragona, and Ostrea cdulis ; also of Lima, Pecten,
Cardium, and others not yet specifically distinguished, from
Connemara shore sand. — Thomas Alcock, M.D.

A series of shells of Helix nemoralis. Helix hortensis, and
Helix hybrida were shown by Mr. Sidebotham, who stated
his belief that the two former are good species, and the third
a true hybrid.

Communication .

Mr. G. E. Hunt read the following “ Notes on Mosses.”
Campylopus setifolius, Wils. — This species was described
by Wilson in his Bryologia Britannica, from specimens
collected by the late Dr. Taylor on Carrig Mountain, Ireland.
Since then it has been observed by Dr. Moore, of Dublin, in
County Wicklow and on Cromaglaun ; by myself, in great
abundance at Cromaglaun and Gap of Dunloe, Killarney.
In these stations it is the female plant that we find. In

142

August, 1863, however, I met the male plant on the moors
of the Isle of Skye, this being the only recorded occurrence
of the male plant, and the only occasion of the species being
found out of Ireland. It is at once distinguished from every
other Campy lopus by the large auricles of the base of the leaf,
which are composed of perfectly colourless, diaphanous cells,
and by the large red quadrate cells above this base.

In Dicranodontium longirostre, which presents some
characters similar to this species, the large quadrate cells
above the base are green. Specimens were exhibited of both
the above species ; also Scotch ones of Dicranodontium
aristatum.

At Southport, in November last, I observed a new species
of Brachythecium, intermediate between campestre and ruta-
bulum, differing from the former in its less plicate leaves
and very rough setae, and from the latter in its slightly
plicate leaves, lanceolate, gradually tapering from a wide
base to a very acute point, not at all accuminate, shining ;
inflorescence, as in these species, monoicous. If a variety, it
must be united with Brachythecium campestre, which has
not yet been certainly identified in Britain. Specimens were
exhibited.

143

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION.

Annual Meeting, March 16th, 1865.

Robert Worthington, F.R.A.S., Vice-President of the
Section, in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Officers of the
Section for the ensuing year : —

4f)rcstocnt.

E. W. BINNEY, E.E.S., F.G.S.

■Ftcc^rcsttfcnts.

ROBERT WORTHINGTON, F.R.A.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

©rta9urtr.

THOMAS CARRICK.

Sccrctarg.

PROFESSOR R. B. CLIFTON, M.A., F.R.A.S.

Mr. Baxendell communicated a series of Raingauge and
Anemometer Observations made at St. Martin’s Parsonage,
Castleton Moor, during the year 1864, by the Rev. J. Chad-
wick Bates, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S.

The geographical position of St. Martin’s Parsonage is
lat. 53° 35' 20" N. ; long. 2° 10' 31" W. ; and the site of the
raingauges is 475 feet above mean sea level. The gauges
employed comprise three of five inches diameter, constructed
on Howard’s principle, and made by Casella, of 23, Hatton
Garden ; and three of eight inches diameter, on Mr. Glaisher’s
plan, made by Negretti and Zambra. One gauge of each set
is placed at an elevation of one foot, another at five feet, and
the third at twenty feet above the ground ; and they have all
been leveled and tested by Mr. Symons.

144

The anemometer is by Casella, and is a Robinson’s, as
improved by Col. Sir Henry James.

To ensure correctness as far as possible, every instrument
has been carefully tested both before being placed and also
afterwards; and they are all read by Mr. Bates every morning
at nine o’clock, and in his absence by his schoolmaster ; and
that their readings may be as much as possible alike, they
often read them together for the purpose of comparison.

The monthly amounts of rain received by the different
o-auoes and the movement of the wind are shown in the

D ©

following table : —

5-incu Gauges.

8-inch G-auges.

Move-

20 feet

5 feet

lfoot

20 feet

5 feet

1 foot

ment of

eleva-

eleva-

eleva-

eleva-

eleva-

eleva-

Wind.

tion.

tion.

tion.

tion.

tion.

tion.

January

2-087

2-219

2-350

2-060

2-214

2-320

6122

February

4-135

4-248

4-312

4-385

4-607

4-564

6663

March

1-999

2-108

2-268

1-915

2-210

2-273

9016

April

1-205

1-285

1-396

1-119

1-309

1-406

5927

May

3185

3-250

3-349

3-245

3-293

3348

5997

June

3-414

3-566

3-719

3-529

3-643

3-725

6799

July

2-042

2141

2-269

2-124

2-196

2-304

6170

August

2-205

2-326

2-504

2-277

2-378

2-452

5142

September

3-624

3-803

4-104

3-776

3-923

4-091

6230

October

2-615

2-738

2-849

2-690

2-704

2-785

7556

November

3-548

3-776

4-077

3-699

3-947

4-068

6302

December

2-287

2-456

2-672

2-344

2-543

2-718

60S9

32-346

33-916

35-869

33-163

34-997

36-054

78313

From these results it appears that in every month of the
year, and with both sets of gauges, the highest gauge received
the least amount of rain ; and that the 8 inch Glaisher
gauges received slightly greater amounts than the corre-
sponding 5 inch Howard’s. The movement of the wind was
greatest in March and least in August. No relation appears
to exist between the monthly amounts of rainfall and the
monthly movement of the wind.

NOTE BY MR. BAXENDELL.

The differences between the amounts of rain received by
gauges placed at different elevations at the same station, are

145

attributed by some meteorologists to the influence of the
wind. In order to test the soundness of this view, Mr. Bates's
observations were arranged in three groups ; the first group,
comprising all the rainy days on which the movement of the
wind did not exceed 200 miles ; the second, those on which
it was greater than 200 miles, but did not exceed 300; and
the third, those on which it exceeded 300 miles^per day. The
number of days in each group, the mean daily movement of
the wind, and the amounts of rain received by the different
gauges were as follows : —

Group.

Number

of

Days

in

Group.

Mean j
Daily
More- |
ment
of

Wind.

5 Inch Gauges,

i

8 Inch Gauges.

Elevation.

Elevation.

20ft.

Eft.

ift. ;

20ft.

5ft.

lft.

In.

In.

In.

In. .

In.

In.

1

61

133

8-329

8-635

9-071 ’

8-517

8-786

9-007

2

59

249

12-713

13-388

14-171

13-117

13-875

14-390

3

55

385

11-304

11-893

12-629

11-526

12-342

12-660

Representing by unity the quantity of rain received by
the lowest gauge in each set, we have the ratios given in the
following table : —

Mean

Daily

Movement

of

Wind.

5 Inch Gauges.

8 Inch Gauges.

Group.

Ratios of quantities of Bain
at Elevations of

Ratios of quantities of Rain
at Elevations of

20ft.

5ft.

lft.

20ft.

Eft.

lft.

1

133

In.

0-918

In.

0-951

In.

1-000

In.

0-945

In.

0-975

In.

1-000

2

249

0-897

9-944

1-000

0-911

0-964

1-000

3

385

0-895

0-941

1-000

0-910

0-974

1-000

Comparing the results for group 1 with those for group 2,
it would appear that an increase in the velocity of the wind
from 133 to 249 miles per day, has a very sensible effect in
diminishing the ratios for the higher gauges ; but on com-
paring groups 2 and 3, it appears that the effect of a still
further increase in the velocity of the wind from 249 to 385
miles per day, is hardly appreciable. The differences between

146

the ratios in groups 1 and 2 must therefore be due, to a great
extent, to some other cause than the influence of the wind.
Determining for each group the mean daily rainfall, we have

5 in. Gauge at
1 foot elevation.

Group. In.

1 Mean daily Kainfall = 0-148

2 - 0-240

3 = 0-229

8 in. Gauge at
1 foot elevation.

In.

0-147

0-243

0-230

The mean daily rainfall is therefore much less in group 1
than in either of the other groups, thus indicating a less
abundance of rain-forming moisture in the atmosphere, owing
to which the rain drops in falling could not increase in size
so rapidly as under the more favourable conditions which
existed on the days included in groups 2 and 3.

Separating the rainy days from those on which no rain fell,
we have for each month the following results : —

No.

Total

Mean Daily
Movement

Total

Mean Daily

’of Days

Movement

of Wind

No. of

Movement

Movement

of

of the

on Days

Fair

of the

of Wind

Rain.

Wind.

of

Rain.

Days.

Wind.

on Fair
Days.

January

13

3234

249

18

3188

177

February

12

3583

298

17

3080

181

March

17

6039

355

14

2977

213

April

11

1900

172

19

4027

212

May

12

2153

179

19

3844

202

Juno

19

4669

245

11

2130

193

July

10

2451

245

21

3719

177

August

16

3153

197

15

1989

132

September

22

5184

235

8

1046

131

October

12

3911

326

19

3645

192

November

17

4532

266

13

1770

136

December

14

3224

230

17

2865

168

175

44033

251-6

191

34280

179-4

From this table we see that in every month, except April
and May, the mean daily movement of the wind was greater
on rainy than on fair days ; and that the mean daily move-
ment on rainy days for the entire year was 25T6 miles, and
on days on which no rain fell only 179-4 miles.

147

The mean results for the meteorological quarters, and their
ratios, are —

Winter .
Spring .
Summer.
Autumn.

Mean Daily Movement Mean Daily Movement

of the Wind,
on Rainy Days.

257

252

228

267

of the Wind
on Fair Days.

175

208

166

161

Ratios.

0-68

0-82

0-72

0-60

From the numbers in the last column it appears that the
mean velocity of the wind on days when no rain fell, as com-
pared with that on rainy days, was greatest in spring and
least in autumn; and that the relative velocities in winter
and summer were very nearly equal. It will be interesting
to ascertain whether this remarkable relation holds good
through a series of years.

Arranging the rainy days in four groups, the first contain-
•ing the days on which the rainfall did not exceed 0*2 inch ;
the second those on which it was above 0-2 inch, but did not
exceed 0'4 inch ; the third those on which it was above 0‘4
inch, but did not exceed 0'6 inch ; and the fourth those on
which it exceeded 0 6 inch; and determining for each group
the mean daily movement of the wind, we have the following

results : —

Group.

No. of Days
in the

Daily Rainfall.

Mean Daily
Movement

1

Group.

108

in. in.

0‘0 to 0‘2

of the Wind.

236

2

40

0-2 — 0-4

270

3

17

0-4 — 0-6

300

4

10

,. above 0-6

263

It appears, therefore, that the maximum mean daily move-
ment of the wind occurs when the daily rainfall is about
half an inch, and that during excessive falls of rain the
velocity of the wind is very sensibly diminished.

Mr. G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., communicated the following
“Note on the Rainfall of the last Twenty-nine Years at
Royton, Oldham,” by John Heap, Esq.

Seeing in the proceedings of the Manchester Literary and

148

Philosophical Society a few days since, a statement of rainfall
in the past year and comparisons with the average fall for 71
years, I was led to examine the mean monthly values from
my observations during the last 29 years, in order to ascertain
how far they would bear out the theory of a maximum value
in October and minimum in April, and find they agree with
the theory in every particular, even with the exception in
September. And moreover I find that the sum of the monthly
mean values of any two months, six months apart, as January
and July, February and August, &c., is very nearly the same
value, being about one-sixth of the yearly average.

Below are

the results, and also

Mr. Vernon’s mean

values : —

Fall in

Average of

Difference from

1864.

Days.

Inches.

29 -Years.

29 Years Average.

January

.... 11

... 1-479 ...

2-369 ...

-0-890

February ..

.... 12

... 3-585 ...

2-201 ...

+ 1-384 ‘

March

.... 17

... 2-275 ...

2-133 ...

+ 0-142

April

.... 10

... 1-260 ...

2-093 ...

-0-833

May

.... 11

... 2-833 ...

2-388 ...

+ 0-445

June

.... 18

... 3-450 ...

3-117 ...

+ 0-333

July

.... 9

... 2-035 ...

3-294 ...

-1-259

August

.... 13

... 2-832 ...

3-595 ...

-0-763

September . .

.... 21

... 4-130 ...

3 071 ...

+ 1-059

October

.... 13

... 2-800 ...

3-680 ...

-0-880

November ..

.... 18

... 3-885 ...

3-026 ...

+ 0-859

December ..

.... 17

... 2-860 ...

2-656 ...

+ 0-204

170

33-424

33-623

-0-199

Monthly means of 1864.

Ins. Monthly means of, for 71 years. Ins.

January and July . . .

5-663 January and July

... 6-029

February ,,

August

5'796 February „ August 5 -971

March „

Sep. ...

5-204 March „ Sep.

.. 5-545

April „

Oct. ...

5-773 April

,, Oct.

... 5-856

May

Nov....

5-414 May

» Nov.

... 5-824

J une „

Dec

5-773 June

„ Dec.

... 6-173

33-623

35-398

149

Ordinary Meeting, April 4th, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Messrs. H. M. Ormerod and W. Brockbank were appointed
Auditors of the Society’s Accounts for the present Session.

A communication was read entitled “ An Instance of the
Injurious Action of Alkalies on Cotton Fibre,” by Messrs.
Heinrich Caro and William Dancer.

A remarkable instance of the deleterious action of alkali
on cotton fibre lias lately come under our notice, when
examining some indigo prints, which had been stiffened or
finished with silicate of soda, and kept in bales during about
two years. The strength of the fibre of the greater part of
these goods had decreased to about one-third of the strength
of some pieces Avhich had been packed in the same bales, and
which differed in no other respect from the others except
in their having been finished with starch. We therefore
surmised that silicate of soda had been the primary cause of
the deterioration of the goods. Further observations con-
vinced us, however, that the injury was due to the long con-
tinued action of free or carbonated alkali upon the cotton
fibre.

Some of the sound pieces (which, as before mentioned, had
been finished with starch) had been packed between the
silicated goods, and had abstracted soda from them which
had penetrated from the places of contact into the interior of
the pieces to a considerable depth. In the same ratio in
Proceedings Lit. & Phtl. Society — Yol. IV. — No. 14.— Session 1864-5.

150

which the pieces had taken up soda it was found that they
had diminished in strength. On the other hand it was found
that in such places of contact the silicate of soda of the sili-
cated goods had suffered a partial decomposition, extending
to the depth of four or five layers of the pieces. The silicate
of soda in the middle of the pieces contained from 70 to 74
per cent of silicic acid, combined with from 30 to 26 per cent
of soda ; whilst the analysis of the silicate of soda contained
in the contact layers showed that from one-third to two-
thirds of its soda had been abstracted This loss of soda
was accompanied by a change of strength of the cloth which
appeared to bear some proportion to it ; the layers or folds
of the cloth decreasing in strength as they were removed
from contact with the starched goods until the silicate of soda
attained the same composition as that found in the most
rotten parts of the piece, this generally taking place about
the fourth or fifth layer or fold of the piece, as before
stated.

The following table shows the changes in strength produced
by this decomposition of the silicate of soda.

Finished with Staech.

Finished with Silicate of Soda.

Middle,

Contact Layer.

I Contact Layer.

2nd.

3rd.

4th.-

5th.

Middle.

Strength ...

100

81

89

68

62

64

48

35

The silicate of soda had evidently been decomposed with
the formation of free alkali and an acid silicate which appears
to have very little action on the cotton fibre.

In some places the decomposition had gone further, and
free silicic acid had separated out in the form of a white
powder upon the surface of the cloth. The same decomposi-
tion, accompanied by the same changes in the strength of the
cloth, was observed upon all pieces which had been in con-
tact with the paper used for wrapping the bales. In this

151

instance the paper had absorbed the liberated soda, and the
cloth in contact with it had almost entirely retained its
original strength.

The white portions of the patterns were in a further
advanced state of decay than the blue ones, in most instances
retaining only 10 per cent of their original strength. In the
goods finished with starch only, the whites were equally as
strong as the blues. In the goods finished Avith silicate of
soda the whites Avere almost .as strong as the blues in all
places where the before-mentioned decomposition of the
silicate of soda had been accompanied by an abstraction
of soda ; but in the interior of the goods, Avhere the silicate of
soda had retained its original composition, the strength of the
whites had decreased to about one-third of that of the blues.
It Avas therefore evident that this excessive decay of the
Avhites Avas due to some cause Avhicli had assisted the action
of the alkali upon them, and we believe to have found an
explanation of this in the action of the silicate of soda upon
the sulphate of lead contained in them to the amount of
about 10 per cent of the mineral ash.

Sulphate of lead has been an ingredient of the resist paste
printed upon the places intended to remain Avhite, and by
the subsequent action of lime and sulphuric acid it has
become fixed in the fibre. We have noticed that sulphate of
lead decomposes solutions of silicate of soda very rapidly, Avith
formation of sulphate of soda, free silicic acid, and silicate
of lead.

These changes give rise to the production of a crystallisable
and strongly efflorescent salt, and to an increase in bulk ;
and Ave think that the mechanical effect produced by the
crystallisation of the sulphate of soda formed may have caused
a further and final disintegration of the fibre already Aveakened
by the action of the alkali. Under the microscope the
fibre of the white portions of the pattern presented the
appearance of cylindrical tubes, partially covered with

152

minute crystals (soluble in water) ; in some places these
tubes appeared to be split longitudinally.

A paper on the same subject was lately read before tlie
Chemical Society of London by Dr. 1. Crack Calvert,

F.R.S.

A paper, entitled “ Remarks on the Microscopical
Appearances of Cotton Hair during Dissolution in the
Aminoniacal Solution of Copper,” was read by J. B. Dancer,
F.R.A.S.

The structure of cotton hairs has occasionally furnished an
interesting topic for conversation at the meetings of our
Microscopical Section.

Two of our members, Mr. Chas. O’Neill and Mr. Hcys,
have given considerable time and attention to this subject.
Mr. Walter Crum, F.R.S., communicated to the Chemical
Society a memoir “ On the Cotton Fibre,” and the manner
in which it unites with colouring matter. His paper is
illustrated with some beautifully executed drawings of the
microscopical appearances of cotton in the natural state, and
when mordanted, mercerised, and treated with various dyes ;
this paper is well worthy the attention of those interested in
this branch of inquiry. Mr. Crum has presented a copy of
his memoir to this society. His description of the ordinary
appearance of the cotton fibre agrees so nearly with what I
believe it to be, that I will take the liberty of referring to his
printed paper at page 5. To Mr. Crum’s description I may-
add, that many specimens of cotton, especially on the cylin-
drical portion of the hairs, shew transverse markings. At
times these appear at tolerably regular intervals, they have
been claimed as evidences of spiral structure; when, however,
they are examined with magnifying powers of 1,000 to 1,200
diameters they proved to be cracks in the external membrane.
Other portions of cotton exhibit longitudinal furrows, irregular

153

in length and direction — having a shrivelled appearance some-
thing like the hark of an aged tree. In gun cotton, the
transverse cracks are very numerous. From an examination
of transverse sections of cotton, I incline to the opinion that
there is an external membrane distinct from the true cell
wall or cellulose matter ;* inside the cellulose there is an
irregular cavity, this, in some specimens (when viewed
longitudinally), appears to contain granules, probably the
remains of the organising fluid contents of the cell, the
mucous matter which is seen in growing cotton as mentioned
by Captain Mitchell, in his letter to Mr. Hurst, read at this
society, March 22nd, 1864.

On the 21st of April, 1863, Mr. Chas. O'Neill made a
communication to this section, “ On the Appearance of
Cotton Fibre during Solution and Disintegration these
experiments referred to the application of Schweizer’s solu-
tion of copper and ammonia.

Under the action of this solvent, Mr. O’Neill considers
that cotton exhibits spiral vessels situated either inside or
outside the external membrane. In a paper, read by the
same gentleman, on the 18th of May, 1863, it is stated that
spiral vessels are seen during the solution of gun cotton in
ether and alcohol. On the 21st of December, 1863, Mr. Heys
read a paper before this section, in which he refers to spiral
vessels in cotton hairs which seem to prevent the collapse of
the tubes. The announcement of the discovery of spiral
vessels excited my curiosity. Having often examined
varieties of cotton under the microscope, without suspecting
any such structure, I was naturally desirous of witnessing its
appearance during dissolution.

A careful examination of cotton in the copper solvent,
with powers varying from 50 to 1,200 diameters, showed me
the appearances described by Mr. O’JNeill. I could not, how-
ever, endorse his interpretations of them. On the 16th
* See Mr. O’Neill’s Paper, April 25th, 1863.

154

of January, 1865, I sent a letter to the chairman of the
microscopical section, stating my belief that the spiral
appearances could be clearly traced to a mechanical action
which the solvent exerted on the vegetable cell, and that at
some future time I hoped to illustrate this to the members of
the section.

Since December last, I have subjected cotton during
microscopical examination to a variety of influences in acids,
alkalies, metallic solutions, iodine, and also gun cotton in
varied proportions of ether aud alcohol. Repeated experi-
ments tend to confirm my disbelief in the existence of spiral
vessels, properly so-called, either inside or outside cotton
hairs.

It would be difficult to explain, by means of drawings,
how these pseudo spirals are created, and have, therefore,
supplied a number of microscopes for the purpose of showing
at the close of the meeting the actual appearances.

Some of the gentlemen present have witnessed these
experiments, but, for the benefit of those who have not, I
shall attempt a brief explanation to enable them to compre-
hend more readily what they will see under the microscopes.

In order to observe the action of the copper solvent on
cotton, place a few hairs about a quarter of an inch in length
on a glass plate, and cover them with thin glass ; it is useful
to rub a little beeswax on the glass plate, in such a manner,
as will just support the covering glass to prevent too great a
pressure on the cotton ; then arrange the cotton under the
microscope with a power of not less than 200 diameters.
The solvent should be applied by a glass pipette to the
edge of the covering glass whilst the . observer is looking
through the microscope (this is important). If the solvent
is very strong, the action is too rapid for the eye to follow,
if of moderate strength it will be seen that as soon as
the solvent comes into contact with the cotton in the field
of view, a rapid rotation or twisting of the hairs takes place.

155

In my opinion, it is this rotating action which brings about
the appearances which have been mistaken for spiral vessels.

The explanation which I have to offer for the phenomenon
is this : first, we have the external membrane of the cotton,
then the cellulose and primordial utricle, and finally, the
dried contents in the cell, which I take to be the remains of
the organising fluid.

Observation shows that the external membrane is not
elastic and only partially soluble.

The cellulose is exceedingly elastic and soluble, and ex-
pands to a remarkable degree in the act of dissolution. The
contents of the cell behave in a similar manner to that of the
external membrane ; it is neither elastic nor very soluble.
The most successful experiment is made by allowing the
copper solvent to come at once into contact with some length
of the cotton hair. The solvent permeates some parts of the
external membrane more easily than others, and causes a
rapid expansion of the cellulose, which bursts the external
membrane, and as this action is taking place at various por-
tions of the same hair, a tangential force is exerted which
twists and contorts the cotton in the direction of its length,
and thus a spiral appearance is given to the whole structure
of the cell.

The non-elastic external covering is twisted round the
expanded cellulose, sometimes as a single band, at others
like a bundle of fibres.

In those parts where the external covering has given way
all round the hair, the cellulose expands into a bulb, pushing
back the external membrane into a series of folds which form
a ligature, and resists the expansive force of the cellulose. A
number of these ligatures cause the expanded cellulose to
assume the appearance of a string of beads. The lateral
expansion of the cellulose contracts the length of the hair,
and this causes the contents in the cavity of the cell to
assume a corrugated appearance ; this corrugation has also

156

been subjected to the twisting power along with the other
parts of the cell, and thus its spiral appearance is pro-
duced.

What becomes of the primordial utricle, I cannot state
with certainty. After the disappearance of the cellulose
there is an envelope left, which surrounds the contents of
the cavity, this may be the primordial utricle, or the film
left by the drying up of the protoplasmic or organising
fluid.

If the solvent is made to come into contact with the ends
of recently-cut cotton a beautiful trumpet mouth is pro-
duced— the exposed surface of cellulose has expanded and
pushed back the external covering into folds — the contents of
the cell may, in this case, be seen projecting from the mouth
of the trumpet form.

Long after the complete dissolution of the cellulose has
taken place, the external membrane remains just as the
rotation or twistings had left it, some portions in the form of
rings, which had been the ligatures between the bulbous
expansions, other portions as irregular spirals.

The cell contents also remain as twisted corrugations.
From the observed difference in solubility between the cellu-
lose and the external and internal matter, I should imagine
a difference in constitution.

A few experiments have led me to suspect that some of the
spiral appearances observed in hemp and flax fibres during
dissolution may possibly be caused by the mechanical action
of the solvent employed.

P.S. — In making the cupric oxide with ammonia, the
oxide of copper requires a thorough washing before dissolving
in the ammonia. The presence of any salt of ammonia, even
in very small quantities, interferes with its power in dissolving
cotton.

157

Mr. Dancer also read a paper “ On Pseudoscopic Vision
through Prisms.”

If we look with both eyes at an object, such as the flat
top of a table for example, and then interpose a prism
between one eye and the object, we discover, after a short
time, that the portion of the surface to which the sight is
particularly directed has apparently changed its distance.
If, in trying the experiment, the thin edge of the prism is
turned inwards to the nose, the flat surface will appear concave,
if, on the contrary, the base or thick edge is turned towards
the nose, the surface will appear convex. The full effect of
this alteration in the appearance of the object is not realized
immediately, some persons see it perfectly in a few seconds,
others require some moments of steady gazing before it
becomes evident to them.

The character of the surface to which the vision is
directed exercises some influence in producing the effect.
A circular table covered with a cloth of a bright pattern,
having a few articles disposed towards the edges, exhibits
this fallacious vision in a marked degree.

The angle of the prisms for shewing these experiments
should be about 15 degrees, if less than this, the elevation or
depression of surface is not sufficient to produce a good
effect ; if the angle is much greater than 15 degrees, many
persons are unable to unite the refracted image of the prism
with the real image seen by the other eye.

Achromatic prisms are much to be preferred in these
experiments to those which are uncorrected for colour.
Experiments with these prisms have shewn that the power
of converging the optic axes, differ very considerably in
individuals.

IU Cu

158

Oculists occasionally recommend prismatic lenses mounted
in spectacles to assist persons who suffer from insufficiency
of the recti interni muscles ; it would be interesting to know
if those so assisted, have noticed the fallacious appearances
which the healthy eye can appreciate. The pseudoscopic
effects are exaggerated by using a prism to each eye, but in
most persons this produces a painful sensation.

The explanation of these phenomena, which I offer with
some hesitation, is based upon the supposition that in
binocular vision we estimate the distance of an object by
the degree of convergence of the optic axes. In these
experiments, when a flat surface appears concave by the
interposition of the prism : the optic axes are made to
converge on a point situated behind the real surface, and the
imagination gradually removes the object to this apparent
distance.

When the base of the prism is towards the nose, then the
flat surface becomes convex, in this case the optic axes cross
in front of the real surface, and the imagination raises the
object to that point. A diagram of the convergence of the
optic axes on an object, before and after the interposition of
the prism, will show that when the thin edge of the prism is
turned towards the nose, the effort made to unite the real
and the refracted image is the same as if the vision was
directed to a point more distant than the real object. The
opposite to this takes place when the base of the prism is
turned towards the nose. It is very possible that the pseudo-
scopic vision through prisms may have been noticed by others,
but I have not been able to discover any description of such
in the wrorks to which I have access.

159

Dr. Angus Smith explained a mode of analysis which he
has called minimetric. The idea, he said, may perhaps not be
quite new, but it is well to give the method a name. It is based
mainly on the fact that we can retain in the memory with
great exactness the character of a precipitate of a given
degree of translucency. For carbonic acid the author finds
a precipitate of carbonate of baryta caused in baryta by
‘2515 cub. c. of carbonic acid, or nearly three times that
amount in lime water. If the carbonic acid in air is sought,
the air is made to act on the baryta until the precipitate is
obtained. In other words we use the smallest measure of
air which will produce the precipitate. For this reason
the name minimetric is adopted. The plan may be used for
hydrochloric acid, sulphuric and sulphurous acid, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, &c., and probably has been used
frequently without bringing it forward as a method for
accurate use.

Two modes of using this mode of analysis were described.
The first was by the use of a finger pump, an elastic ball
with two valves. When pressed the air was driven out, and
when expanding the air was drawn through the liquid. The
air and liquid were then shaken together. This was repeated
until the precipitate was attained.

One easy method of finding the precipitate for comparison
was by shaking half an ounce avoirdupois (14T7 cub. c.)
with 23 ounces of air in Manchester, or nearly 30 in London,
or elsewhere, according to residence.

Experiments made with this apparatus shew it to be
extremely delicate. The carbonic acid in the air of a room
can be estimated in a few minutes.

A table is made of the following kind, but it must be

160

adapted to the size of the bulb. A cut showing the bottle
and finger pump is given.

For very bad air smaller bulbs were shewn, such as were
recommended for workshops, mines, &c. ; a convenient size
for common life is here given : —

No. of Strokes of
the Finger Pump,
or No. of Ballfulls
of Air.

Per cent, of Carbonic
Acid indicated in
the Air.

Actual Amount of
Carbonic Acid in the
Air of the Ball.

1

60

Grammes.

0'2515

2

30

01257

3

20

0 0838

4

1-5

0-0629

5

1-2

0.0503

6

10

0-0419

7

0.8

00359

8

075

00316

9

066

0 0279

10

0056

00251

11

0054

00229

12

0 0499

00209

13

0-0460

00193

14

00428

00180

15

00399

00167

161

In all cases only half an ounce of baryta solution was
used.

Minimetric House and Workshop Method.

A.

This method is partly described in the report on the air
of mines, and long tables given. There were shown two
modes of using it, first, with baryta water; second, with
lime water.

Suppose we desire to know if the air contains more
than 0*04 per cent of carbonic acid, we fill a bottle con-
taining 5 *422 ounces with air by pumping as elsewhere
described, with a little finger pump, and shake in it
half an ounce of baryta water. If there is any precipitate
at all, the amount of carbonic acid in the air is above 0*04
per cent. This would indicate that the air is less pure than
outside.

If we allow 0*06 p.c. of carbonic acid in a room, we take
a bottle of the size of 3*6+^ ounce=4*l ounces, or 116*23
c.c., and if, after a trial as before, we find a precipitate,
however small, or a decided, although slight milkiness, the
air is deteriorated beyond 0*06. This relates to dwelling-
houses. If for workshops £ p.c. (0*25) is allowed, a
bottle of 0*867+0*5 ounce=T367 ounces or 38*744 c.c. is
sufficient. This could go into the waistcoat pocket.

If 0*5 or i per cent, is permitted, a bottle of 0*433+0*5
ounce is enough=0*933 ounces or 26*475 c.c. This amounts
to nothing more than shaking an ounce bottle. The addition
of half an ounce is for the baryta water.

162

B.

The lime water method will probably be adopted more
usually, as lime is so common. The experiment is exactly
the same as with baryta water, but larger bottles are required.

0'06 carbonic acid in the air gives no precipitate or
milkiness when \ ounce of lime water is added to a bottle

of the air, containing 10'9 ounce.

(=309 cub. cent.)

0£5 ditto ditto 2*997 ounces.

(=84-958 cub. c.)

0-5 ditto ditto T748 ounces.

(=49*564 cub. c.)

The author said that by this simple method the greatest
refinement could be attained.

163

Annual Meeting, April 25th, 1865.

R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

On the motion of Mr. Brockbank, seconded by Mr.
Oarrick, it was resolved unanimously — “ That the election
of Sectional Associates be continued during the next
session.”

The following report of the Council was read by one of the
Seci’etaries : —

In presenting their annual report the Council have again
to congratulate the Society on the satisfactory position of its
finances. Although several payments of a somewhat excep-
tional character have been made during the past year, the
balance in the Treasurer’s hands has only been reduced from
£371. 8s. Id. on the 31st of March, 1864, to £360. 4s. 3d.
on the 31st of March, 1865.

The number of ordinary members on the 1st of April, 1861,
was 193, and ten new members have since been elected.
The loss by resignations has been three, by defaulters four,
and by deaths the unusually large number of nine. The
number of ordinary members on the roll of the Society on
the 1st of April instant was 187.

The deceased members are, — Messrs. John Atkinson, C. F.
Ekman, John Gould, John Hetherington, Thomas Hopkins
John Jesse, F.R.S., William Nield, John Shuttleworth, and
Robert Walker, M.D.

In the death of their late Honorary Librarian, Mr. C. F.
Ekman, the Society have lost an officer whose intelligence,
zeal, and devotion to his duties and to the interests of the

Proceedings Lit. & Phil. Society — Yol. IY. — No. 15. — Session 1864-5,

a

164

Society, have rarely been equalled. In his hands the Society’s
library has become one of the most valuable libraries of
reference in the kingdom ; and before his death he had suc-
ceeded in establishing a system of exchange of publications
with nearly all the leading home and foreign literary and
scientific societies. He took a very prominent part in the
framing of the new code of rules passed by the Society on
the 22nd of January. 1861 ; and his unwearied exertions and
influence, and the valuable assistance he was ever ready to
render to members or others engaged in original researches,
contributed materially to raise the Society to its present high
position.

Mr. John Atkinson, F.G.S., had been a member of the
Society for many years, and was a constant attendant at its
meetings, to which he made frequent communications.
During late years he supplied the Society with his meteoro-
logical observations made at Thelwall, and which were
printed in our proceedings. He was for several years the
active Secretary of the Manchester Geological Society, to
which he contributed several papers published in its memoirs.

Mr. Thomas Hopkins was one of the oldest members of the
Society, having been elected on the 18th of April, 1823. He
was for many years a very active and efficient member of the
Council, and was for some time one of the Society’s Vice-
Presidents. He contributed several valuable papers on
meteorological subjects to the Society’s memoirs, and was
the author of a work on “ Atmospherical Changes.”

In accordance with the resolution passed at a meeting of
the Society held on 12th January, 1864, the Council procured
dies for a medal, and six copies of the medal in bronze ; and
appointed a committee to consider and report upou a scheme
for regulating the selection of subjects and services for which
a medal should be awarded. Owing, however, to the import-
ance of the questions which have been brought under their
notice, and the necessity of giving them careful and mature

165

consideration, the Committee have not yet been able to pre-
sent their report, hut hope to he able to do so at an early
meeting in the ensuing session.

Since the last annual meeting the proceedings of the Sec-
tions have been marked by the same activity and interest
which have characterised them from their establishment. In
connexion with the Sections the Council refer Avith satisfac-
tion to the success Avhich has attended the scheme for
admitting Sectional Associates. Twenty gentlemen have
availed themselves of the advantages Avhich it offers ; and
by the communications some of them have made, and the
part they have taken in the discussions of the various sub-
jects that have been brought under notice, they have added
much to the interest and usefulness of the meetings.

The folloAving is a list of the communications made to the
Society at its ordinary and sectional meetings during the
past session :

October 4 th, 1864. — “Remarks on Mr. Dyer’s Paper, entitled
‘Notes on Spinning Machines,’” by H. Brierly, Esq., communi-
cated by E. W. Binney, Esq., F.R.S., &c.

October 18£/j, 1864. — “On the Relation of Force to Matter and
Mind. Part I.,” by the Rev. Thomas P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S.,
Hon. Mem.

October \3th, 1864, — “Note on a New Star near the Greenwich
Variable, No. 1773, of the Twelve-Year Catalogue,” by Joseph
Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

October 17 th, 1864. — “On a Contrhrance for regulating the
amount of light transmitted from the Source of Illumination to
the Mirror of the Microscope,” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

November 15th, 1864. — “On the Composition of the Atmos-
phere,” by R. Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Society.

November 29th, 1864. — “On Differential Equations,” by His
Honour Chief Justice Cockle, M.A., F.R.A.S., &c., communicated
by the Rev. Robert Harley, F.R.S., &c.

November 29 th, 1864. — “Notes on Marine Shells found in
Stratified Drift at Macclesfield,” by R. D. Darbishire, B.A, F.G.S.

166

November 28 th, 1864. — “On Specimens of Foraminifera from
Roundstone, Connemara,” by Thomas Alcock, M.D.

December 8th, 1864. — “Note on the Period and Changes of the
Greenwich Variable in Vulpecula, No. 1773 of the Twelve-year
Catalogue,” by Josh. Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

December 8th, 1864. — “Observations of the Greenwich Variable
in Vulpecula and its Companion Stars,” by George Knott,' F.R.A.S.,
communicated by Josh. Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

December 13 th, 1864. — “On the Discovery of the Bones of the
Mammoth (Elephas Primigenius) in a Fissure of the Carboniferous
Limestone at Waterhouses, near Leek,” by William Bi’ockbank,
Esq.

November 3rd, 1864. — “On Printing Transparencies for the
Stereoscope and Magic Lantern,” by Joseph Sidebotham, Esq.

December \2th, 1864. — “On the Structure of Cotton,” by W. H.
Heys, Esq.

January 10 th, 1865. — “ On some Products derived from Indigo
Blue,” by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., &c.

January \(tth and 24 th, 1865. — “On some Physiological Effects
of Carbonic Acid,” by Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., President.

January 24 th, 1865. — “Observations of a large group of Solar
Spots,” by Jas. Nasmyth, Esq., C.E., Corresponding Member of
the Society.

January 12 th, 1865. — “Account of a Fire-ball seen December
13th. 1864,” by Thomas ITeelis, F.R.A.S.

January \2th, 1865. — “Note on the Rainfall of 1864,” by
G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S.

February 7th, 1865. — “On a New Re-agent for the Separation
of Calcium from Magnesium,” by Edward Sonstadt, Esq.

January 16 th, 1865. — “On the Plumules or Battledore Scales
of the Lycsenidse,” by John Watson, Esq.

January 1 6th, 1865. — “Notes on the Development of the
Wings of Lepidopterous Insects,” by Josh. Sidebotham, Esq.

February 21 st, 1865. — “On a new form of Roof for Dyehouses,”
by John Thom, Esq.

February 21s£, 1865. — “On the Action of Caustic Soda on
Ethylic and Methylic Alcohol,” by Mr. A. Mylius, communicated
by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

167

January 5th, 1865. — “On the Exhibition Stereoscopically of
Photographs on a large scale.” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

February 2nd, 1865. — “On the proper focus of Lens to be used
in taking Photographic Landscapes ; also on some modes of
measuring the size of objects therein depicted,” by Joseph
Sidcbotham, Esq.

March 1th, 1865. — “On the Action of Sea Water upon certain
Metals and Alloys,” by F. Crace Calvert, Ph.D., F.R.S., Ac., and
R. Johnson, F.C.S.

March 2nd, 1865. — “The Opaque Microscope not New,” by
J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

March 2nd, 1865. — “ Photographic Experience in India,” by

E. C. Buxton, Jun., Esq.

March 2 1 st, 1865. — “On an Instrument for showing rapidly
Minute Changes of Magnetic Declination,” by J. P. Joule, LL.D.,

F. R.S., Ac.

March 21$£, 1865. — “Further Observations on the Permian
and Triassic Strata of Lancashire,” by E. W. Binney, F.R.S., Ac.

February 21th, 1865. — “Notes on Mosses,” by G. E. Hunt, Esq.

March 1 6th, 1865. — “Results of Raingauge and Anemometer
Observations made at St. Martin’s Parsonage, Castleton Moor,
during the year 1864,” by the Rev. J. C. Bates, M.A., F.R.A.S.,
and Note on the same, by Josh. Baxendell, F.R.A.S.

April 4 th, 1865. — “An Instance of the Injurious Action of
Alkalies on Cotton Fibre,” by Messrs. Heinrich Caro and William
Dancer.

April 4 th, 1865. — “ Remarks on the Microscopical Appearances
of Cotton Hair during Dissolution in the Ammoniacal Solution of
Copper,” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

April ith, 1865. — “On Pseudoscopic Vision through Prisms,”
by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

April 4 th, 1865. — “On the Minimetric Method of Analysis,” by
Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.R.S., Ac., President of the Society.

The printing of volume second of series third of the
Society’s Memoirs, comprising the papers read before the
Society during the Sessions 1861-2, 1862-3, 1863-4, has been

168

completed, and bound copies are now ready for distribution
at 5s. to members of the Society and 10s. to the public.

A new volume has already been commenced, containing
papers read during the past session ; and arrangements have
been made by which papers intended for the Memoirs will he
printed immediately after they have been passed by the
Council.

The Librarian reports that when he took office he did it
with the idea of preparing a Catalogue which had for some
years been much required. On further examination he found
it necessary both to rearrange the books, and to prepare a
Stock -book ; some delay was thus entailed. He is now,
however, glad to inform the members that an alphabetical
catalogue is in process of printing.

On the motion of Professor Clifton, seconded by Mr.
Darrishihe, the Annual Report was unanimously adopted.

The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society for the ensuing year : —

^prcsiticnt.

R. ANGUS SMITH, Pn.D., F.R.S., &c.
lTtcc=}Ptcsibcnt9.

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, LL.D., E.R.S., &c.

EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.

JOSEPH CHESBOROUGH DYER.

EDWARD SCHUNCK, Pn.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Secretaries.

HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Pii.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

treasurer.

ROBERT WORTHINGTON, F.R.A.S.
librarian.

THOMAS WINDSOR, M.R.C.S.

CDtfycr Jltcmbers of tfje Committee.

REV. WILLIAM GASKELL, M.A.

PETER SPENCE, F.S.A., F.C.S.

GEORGE VENABLES VERNON, F.R.A.S., M.B.M.S.
ROBERT BELLAMY CLIFTON, M.A., F.R.A.S.
JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM.

HENRY MERE ORMEROD.

ROBERT WORTHINGTON, TREASURER, IN ACCOUNT WITH THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER,
©r. FROM 31st MARCH, 1864, TO 31st MARCH, 1855. <£*•

* 35

t-coo

Hb-lO
rH ,H

<4>

g

©

a g

3

S I

o « y h,
»n «? pH H -£

ag“Vp|
.^3.5 2

SQOfcfri

§"

rtCOOHO)
rH rH

CT>cot^fr~H«

6 !

C —

'O <u © • P
h £ S W.B

s-Sa

.. ® >,StiS

"■3S o S-e

is P © jd ■♦» e3

|oS§^J

I »f 3M'2f§

P5|9®

|°PO&P3Eh

000^

ifltOON
rH rH

CO <D 00 CO
CO iH iH

OOOO

oomo

|

|||ll

o||!l

g § -I

jp cc ag

■2 S’S ® S

sgliSl
•1 i 1 1 1
|®000
4 os.-s.-e.t3

^£qpq

>»

w

:o
33 <3 "55
Sg.S

®S|

0^3
o a o
fl C3 fr
,2 CD *
3 tig

■Sl'-g

<(Ss

ooo
co in o

ssss

a -t3

w.si

g’l.e

!£3 © O

■sii

Ph

too

tlTl-H ..IT-3

il

•13

h»|

•p h aO

d-l||

*cg||

.8

,Q c3 £ c3

.9 o
"a

H? O

SI 92

1 1^1

M

o a

gl'S

J3.S «

~ J- ,Q

2 ® B

^PoQ

M

coo

Hi CO

©
.. Q,
« ©
i- ©

5W

&|s

ft) k o

-'-fife

f!|

n1

*• M

e—

»n h

rH

O

rH

m o

fr-. CD

8

^ CO

• coo

8&

m m

S3"

o

J8
2
c-a

S5m

|o,g

ill

Q&-*

3W“

OV 2

Eh ° 3

•a ”

B ©

MEH

a

«

'rtf;

=rt

3

HOOH

O

•OO

• • • • • ooooo

CO

• CM rH

I I • • I NNNOlO

co

■ (M -H

I till NNN’iHiO

-H

. .... CO

a :

Ig

. » ©S

c3 C3.SW3 ©
O O ©

+3 ’a P« <c ^

2 O ? O O

a S & S3
.§ 23 8 &
Soo«S
2 3,

SSp .§ O

rH Ob-
rH

m in co

{J|j|

SbIs”

£s£s£

o

I OOCO I
NOs !

COCMrH

STS

ill

a o a

fisn

fro g

2 a*
j3 3 a
ra o v
POO

a

M

170

Dr. Joule communicated the following extracts of letters
referring to the auroral arch of the 20th of March last : —

The Astronomer Royal to Alexander S. Herschel, Esq.,
Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

1865, March 31.

“ I have referred to our Magnetic Photograms on the 20th
inst. The magnets were considerably disturbed for many
hours before and after the appearance of the arch ; but the
great disturbances of declination and hor. force were from 7h.
to 8h. 45m., and those of vert, force nearly 45m. later. Of
these you shall have copies when the time-scales are properly
attached. There is scarcely a more important inquiry at the
present time than that of the connexion between the indi-
vidual phases of auroras, and the corresponding indiv.dual
phases of magnetic disturbance. The first requisite is accu-
rate clock time. By all means establish a reference to my
Time Signals.

I have seen many auroras, probably more than 20, fewer
than 50. I am quite familiar with the ordinary appearances :
low arch, grey or red streamers rising to or beyond the
magnetic zenith, great red clouds, light flashing over limited
spaces (the successive portions of space taking the light in
successive portions of time) and others ; but I think I have
seen the lofty well defined pale arch only twice. In some
accounts of arches which I have read, two or three arches
have followed in succession, all based in the magnetic E and
W, and rising like a skipping-rope. As they approach
very near the magnetic zenith, they exhibit a radiated
structure And, finally, it appears that an arch really

is a very long slender parallelepiped, its length in magnetic
E and W consisting of beams in the direction of magnetic dip
If you have not been possessed of this idea before, the
possession of it may sharpen you in future observations or
future inquiries.”

171

Alexander S. Herschel, Esq., to li. P. Greg , Esq.

Collingwood, Hawkhurst, Kent,

1865, April 11.

£< I was much obliged by the receipt of an observation of
the auroral arch of March 20 (from the Liverpool Mercury),
as seen at Windermere. Compared with another letter from
the same writer (Mr. Hall) in the Standard, it gave a good
place by the stars. In the ‘ Proceedings of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society’ is another description by
Mr. Baxendell. The arch was well observed here, almost
stationary, varying its altitude from 18° to 20°, and at last to
22° or 23° in the course of half an hour. The first observa-
tions correspond with those of Windermere, at the time when
the arch was nearly vertical over Windermere; and the last
with those at Manchester when the arch, as seen by Mr.
Baxendell, was nearly overhead at Manchester. Both give
the height of the arch 102 miles above the earth, and I
doubt if a better double observation of an arch of the aurora
of the ‘ skipping-rope ’ form has ever been obtained. The
result can hardly be more than five miles, certainly not so
much as ten miles in error either way. Mr. Airy says that
among twenty to fifty auroras that he has witnessed he has
only twice seen the auroral arch, ‘ rising like a skipping-rope.’
Perhaps you would have the goodness to communicate Mr.
Airy’s letter to Dr. Joule, as it will interest him in his
observations of the magnetic variations ; and at the same time
to Mr. Baxendell.”

The Rev. T. P. Kirkman, F.R.S., made the following
communication : —

As the printing of my completion of the Theory of Groups is
delayed longer than I expected, I desire to insert the following
table of corrections to be made in the list of titles at page 142 of
the Proceedings of this Society, July, 1863.
b

172

Corrigenda, p. 142, Ac.

In the group of order G'4‘2, for ^23 rea<^ ^23+ ^41 ’
in that of the order 5-2, erase 10^ ;

in the second title, page 144, for 493p read 4^92;

in the eighth title of that page , for 12^92 + 8g read 4^9a + lGg;

in the ninth title, p. 142, for 4g read ^23l2>

in the title S'G^^, for 5223p + 24^92 read 2823p + ^^422 + ^414'

Addenda.

4= 1 + 322, Q = l-

6'2 = 1 + 39„p + 8g2, Q = 15.

6'4 = 1 + 6 ^ j2 + 39oj2 + Sg2 + ®23’ Q = 15.

8-4 = 1 + 622^4 + 132< + 124„ Q = 210.

8*4 = 1 + 62’p + 4^2 + + 16^22, Q ~ 315.

8'4 = 1 + 6 92j^4 + 4^2 + ^24 + 13g, Q = 315.

8'4 = 1 + 842 + 5 24 + ^2°-V ®2312 ^8’ Q = 330.

8'8 = 1 + 1 ©22^4 + ®4212 "** 4^2 + ^24 + lGg + 13422> Q = 315.

8’8 = 1 + 4^4 + + ^22^4 + 5g4 + 20^ + ^O^a, Q = 315.

8-6'4 = 1 + ^ 221 4 ^42 13£‘ 32g2^2 + 32^2 + 3423^2 +

1^4pi+ ^®8 + ^^423 * Q = 105.

The omission of the above-given groups of 6'2 and 6'4 in my first
processes was the main cause of the above errors and defects.

173

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.

March 20th, 1865.

J. Sidebotham, Esq., President of the Section, in the

Chair.

Mr. Dancer read a Paper, “ On the Microscopical
Appearances of Cotton Hair during dissolution in the
Ammoniacal Solution of Copper.”

Mr. Heys, in proposing a vote of thanks, said that he
was gratified to fiud that the important subject of the
structure of cotton, in which he had himself for some time
felt an interest, was now being taken up in a manner likely
to clear away all doubts.

Mr. Heys said he had been asked by Mr. Dale to
introduce to the notice of members a preparation of Canada
Balsam for mounting, which has the property of hardening
in a very short time. It consisted of Balsam first made
perfectly solid by evaporation, and then dissolved in Bisul-
phide of Carbon. He found the smell a strong objection to
its use, but the results were very satisfactory, the balsam on
a slide becoming perfectly hard in a few hours. He thought
however the dry balsam might prove to be the more important
element in the preparation, and that its solution in Chlo-
roform would probably be found to answer all practical pur-
poses.

Mr. Dancer exhibited many beautiful photographs of
microscopic objects by l)r. Maddox.

174

March 27th, 1865.

John Parry, Esq., in the Chair.

Exhibitions.

Sections of various Shells. — Mr. Parry.

An apparatus for applying pressure to the cover-glasses of
objects freshly mounted in Canada Balsam. It consisted of
a dozen small upright pistons placed in a frame, and each
furnished with a spiral spring coiled around the rod and
pressing against the upper horizontal bar of the frame.

Communications.

Dr. Alcock exhibited a second time his specimens of
shells of Marine Entomostraca, from the coast of Galway.
He said that renewed examination of them and the collection
of many more specimens had strengthened his belief that,
however numerous their forms, they are entitled to be con-
sidered as so many distinct species, and he did not think that
the general arguments used by Prof. Williamson in support
of an opposite opinion at the meeting of February 20th, had
any application to their particular case. In the first place it
was stated that the outer skin or shells of these creatures is
of less value for distinction than the internal parts ; but Dr.
Baird had described nine out of his fifteen species from living
specimens, and yet in these his specific distinctions are
mainly derived from the shells. Again, we were reminded
that some of the Entomostraca are known to undergo meta-
morphoses, and that this might probably be the case with the
genera Cythere and Cythereis ; but Cypris, which approaches
very nearly in character to Cythere, does not undergo these
changes, and might furnish some ground for the supposition
that these Marine Entomostraca also do not ; but it would
be sufficient for the present purpose to state that there is no

175

support for the supposition that they do, on the general
ground that some kinds of Entomostraca are known to
undergo these changes, because it is also well known that
other kinds do not.

But a further objection was that low forms of animal life
are liable to extreme variability, and that the same remark
is applicable to the lower groups in the higher divisions of
animals, the argument being that in these cases the
variability may be so great as to render specific distinctions
of little or no value. He felt compelled to state that he
did not admit this excessive variability as a certain fact, even
in the lowest forms of animal life, until it could be actually
proved to be true by most careful observation, and even then
he would apply it no further than to the particular cases in
which it had been proved ; but as to making it a general rule
with the lowest groups of the higher divisions of animals, he
saw not the slightest reason for doing so, and here, more than
in the former case, the diversity of character in the different
groups would render it extremely unlikely that what might
apply to one would also be found to apply to another. Even
among low forms of animal life such as the Foraminifera, he
had searched in vain for examples of that extreme variability
which must necessarily confound specific distinctions, and he
was sure that every young working naturalist, at all events,
would agree with him that a conclusion so discouraging to
exact observations as that suggested by Prof. Williamson,
ought to be accepted by no one unless he became convinced
of its truth by his own painful experience. With regard to
the Foraminifera he had no hesitation in saying that, with
only a few exceptions, the extraordinary uniformity of
character in individuals of the same type was a fact that
must strike every observer. In the cases of Miliolina and
Polymorphina he would admit there is difficulty, but an
examination of many of their numerous forms did not suggest
to his mind that a great tendency to variation, in the ordinary

176

sense of the term, would explain their diversity. Knowing,
however, from his own observations what is meant by the
statement that the Foraminifera are liable to great variation,
he was prepared to say that the shells of the Marine Entomo-
straca do not at all show this liability ; the forms are clearly
defined, and distinct from one another, and intermediate
forms blending the characters of two others rarely if ever
occur.

Then as to the last objection which was brought forward,
namely the difficulty of defining what a species is, he believed
that practically it might be put aside altogether ; for the
fact was that any creature whatever which could be shown to
be clearly distinct from all others that had been described
must be admitted as a species, and must remain a species
until it could be proved to be unworthy of this distinction.
In conclusion he would say that he had no strong opinion as
to whether this question of what a species is could or could
not be answered, but he felt sure that to take Prof. William-
son’s suggestion, and merge some ten or twenty of these
forms of Marine Entomostraca into one species would be to
make it impossible to form even a conjecture of what is
meant by that term.

A Paper was read “On the Choetopod Annelides of the
Southport Sands,’’ by Benj. Carrington, M.D.

Amphinomadas.

Aphrodite aculeata, L. Found sparingly near low-water
mark ; more frequent after storms.

Pholoe inornata , Johns. Very rare.

Polynoa squamata, Sav. Found occasionally within old
shells ; frequent among oysters, and the refuse from the
fishing boats.

There are two well-marked varieties :

a. with a dark-brown crescentic mark on each of the
elytra.

177

j3. ochracea, uniform pale orange or stone colour.

Polynoa cirrata, Johns. Very rare.

P. asterince, sp. nov. Linear-oblong, scales twenty pairs
or more, smooth, with a black entire border, seated on each
third ring ; intermediate feet cirriferous, bearing at the base
a ciliated crest. Upper antennae three, the central one
longest.*

Not uncommon, occupying the groove between the suckers,
of Asterias aurantiaca. I was first led to suspect the presence
of some foreign species, by observing a blue phosphorescent
light, given off from defined points of the rays, when the star-
fish was placed in fresh water. It seems a very sluggish
worm, and how it contrives to escape the surrounding suckers,
and whether it shares the food captured by the star-fisli, are
points yet to be determined.

Body one to two inches long, by a line in breadth,
posterior segments narrowed, ending in two filiform styles.
Peach-blossom, or flesh coloured ; very fragile, so that it is
almost impossible to obtain an entire specimen. Scales white,
chartaceous, with a narrow black border ; first six pairs
placed on alternate feet, the remainder on each third foot,
not broader than the body, so that the feet are exposed,
easily detached. In a line with the pedicels of the scales, on
the intermediate rings, we find on each side a crest-shaped
process, ending towards the mesian line in a short papilla.
These are ciliated, as are the upper margins of the feet, so

* In describing a species, I hare thought it best to follow the nomencla-
ture now in use, although I agree with Professor Huxley that a change is
desirable. He proposes, after Milne Edwards, that the rings shall be called
somites, the head prestomium , central antenna prestomial tentacle, upper and
lower lateral antennce superior and inferior prestomial cirri, foot tubercle
parapodium, its upper and lower rami notopodium and neuropodium, &c.

I think it right also to state, that as my acquaintance with Marine
Zoology is rery recent, and I have been unable to consult several foreign
works on the subject, I introduce the following species with great diffidence.
To the best of my belief they are new to the British fauna, nor havo I been
able to identify them with species described by And. and Edwards, Oersted,
Gtrube, Ehlers, &c.

178

that horizontal currents are produced, as well as a central
one from before backward. The dorsal papillae seem to
perform the functions of branchiae. They also contain ova,
which the ciliary currents serve to distribute.

Feet simple, with seven to ten strong spear-shaped golden
setae, apex toothed on one side. Near the dorsum of the foot is
a small fascicle, containing four to six short curved toothed
bristles.

Head concealed, roundish, emarginate. Upper antennae
three, the lateral ones very short, two jointed, central one
much longer, equal to the two lower antennae. Eyes four,
distant. Tentacular cirri twro pairs.

Readily distinguished by the long, flesh-coloured body,
and marginate, smooth scales. In some young specimens,
the black border is absent or ill-defined.

P. maculosa, sp. nov. Scales kidney-shaped, smooth,
entire, membranous, having a dark curved spot round the
centre, seated on alternate feet, intermediate feet bearing
cirri ; superior antennae three equal ; ventral surface of pos-
terior rings, marked with four black dots.

Very rare; only one specimen found in company with
P. asterince.

The specimen before me, which unfortunately has lost the
anal -segment, is oblong-obtuse, slightly narrowed from the
middle, breadth two lines, by § inch long. Scales twelve
pairs, covering the head and feet, firmly attached, hyaline,

especially near the border, which is slightly undulated,

*

crossed from the inner margin by a retort-shaped black mark.
Feet obtuse, obscurely biramous ; upper branch much
shorter, the setae short, falcate, and serrate ; lower branch
bearing a tuft of twenty to thirty slender, half spear-shaped,
oblique, pale setae, toothed on one side, and ending in one or
two larger teeth ; shaft long, smooth, terete.

Head concealed, round, notched in front ; eyes four, placed
on the occipital portion ; upper antennae three equal, two

179

jointed, the central one stout apiculate ; two lower antennae
much longer, and exceeding the tentacular cirri. When
viewed from the ventral surface, the basal portion of the
antennae is nearly black, the three central ones converging
like the rays of a tripod, of which the dark-coloured oblong
oral opening forms the handle. Posterior segments after the
fifteenth marked with four rows of stellate spots.

Distinguished from P. asterince by the larger thin trans-
lucent scales, which are firmly attached and not bordered,
by the more numerous and slender setae, the equal upper
antennae, and the absence of the ciliated processes on the
dorsal surface.

There is no other British species with smooth scales with
which it is likely to be confounded. From P. spinifera,
Ehlers, (which seems to me identical with Johnston’s P.
scabra ,) and from P. peilucicla, Ehlers (Annelid. Chaetop.,
t. iii. f. 1 — 13), it inay be known by the scabrous cirri and
antennae of those species. P. maculata, Grube, seems to be
a form of P. cirrata, having the scales garnished with a few
large papillae.

SigaUon Carringtonii, nov. sp. Body vermiform, obtuse
at both ends. Scales very numerous, attached to each ring,
pellucid, outer border fringed with pectinate glands ; feet
exposed, bifid, densely setiguous. Attached to the pedicel
at the base of each foot is a curved ciliated cirrus.

Met with occasionally, near low water mark, on the Birk-
dale shore, buried in the moist sand, where it lies coiled in a
spiral manner. First discovered in July, 1864, when ex-
ploring the sands with my friend Mr. C. H. Brown, who
named it as above.

Body linear, obtuse in front, tapering very gradually to-
wards the anal segment, which terminates abruptly in two long
styles. Length two to three inches by two lines in breadth.
Colour greyish-white, opalescent, reflecting prismatic tints.
Feet very numerous, slender at the base, biram ous, upper

c

180

branch gibbous at the apex, from which depends a short
cirrus, furnished with a dense tuft of long silky setae, fine as
spun glass, which arch backward towards the scales, and a
lower tuft of jointed ones ; inferior ramus, bearing two kinds
of setae, the lower very long and flexible, and the intermediate
ones jointed, the blade filiform, rough, articulate like the
hair of a mole.

Scales smooth, hyaline, persistent, convex, closely imbri-
cated, not covering the feet, fringed at the outer margin with
a few pectinate-pinnate processes. Some of the anterior
scales are seated on alternate feet, but the majority arise from
a large ovate tubercle, which is found at the base of each foot.
These tubercles are filled with ova, and appear like a white
opaque spot through the scales, and from their outer border a
stout curved cirrus originates, clothed with vibratile cilia on
the lower side, and extending a little beyond the scales.

Head small, concealed, hemispherical ; eyes four, minute,
the pairs approximate. Upper antennae minute, two on
each side, placed at the angles of a broad basal portion, which,
like the feet, bears a tuft of silky setae ; lower antennae much
longer. The anterior feet exceed the head in length, and
project beneath it almost to the median line, so that it is
difficult to make out the exact details.

Proboscis as broad as long, compressed ; the lips clothed
with a row of simple fimbriae ; jaws four, alternate, pointed.

The worm is sluggish in confinement, generally remaining
coiled spirally like a serpent. Under the lens it is a beautiful
object, the long silky setae spreading like the feathers of a
bird of paradise — the daintily fringed, translucent scales,
through which the ciliated tentacles are seen in constant
motion — and the play of prismatic colours on the surface —
are sure to excite wonder and admiration.

Nereid m.

Phyllodoce lamellicjcra , Johns. Rare ; at low water mark

181

buried beneath the sand. It is a beautiful species, swimming
freely in sea-water.

P. Vittata, Ehlers, Annelid. Chcetopod., 1864, t. vi.f. 7—14.
New to Britain. Two specimens appeared in water contain-
ing a mass of Sabellaria alveolate from New Brighton, May,
1864 f C. H. Brown J, and I have since met with one or two
others at Southport.

Distinguished from P. lamelligera hy its smaller size,
never more than a line in breadth by two to three inches
long, filiform, very active, generally assuming serpentine or
spiral curves ; pale olive, convex above, each ring crossed by
a narrow, stippled , steel-grey band , about a third of its breadth.
Head short, broadly ovate, obtuse ; antennae four apical,
spindle-shaped; tentacular cirri four pairs, the two lowest
very long (equal to five or six rings). Eyes large, black,
crossed behind by the narrow first segment. Branchial leaf-
lets ovate, reticulate, parallel with the body ; lower branchiae
short obtuse, attached to the base of the feet. Anal segment
bearing two leaf-like processes, resembling the branchiae.

This active little worm resembles one figured by Sir G.
Dalyell, but wants the central antenna.

v P. attenuata, sp. nov.? Body very slender, from half a line
toa line Troad,~four to six inches long ; anterior rings as
broad as long ; branchial leaflet broadly ovate, seated on a
pedicle as long as the feet, olive-brown veined ; lower leaflet
ovate acute ; middle and posterior rings attenuated, twice as
long as broad ; branchiae as wide as the segments over which
they arch; feet small simple; bristles cultrate, curved, jointed,
finely toothed at the base of the blade.

In the shape and relative size of the feet and branchial
leaflets it agrees with P. lamelligera , but the disproportionally
slender body, and oblong segments, distinguish it at a glance
from any form of that species with which I am acquainted.

A solitary specimen and a portion of another are all that
remain of this curious worm. Unfortunately, both head and

182

anal segment have been rendered indistinguishable by the
action of the spirit.

y P. Clam , sp. nov. Worm minute, one to two inches long
by iVin. to iVin. broad ; rings narrow, depressed, pale
drab or greenish ; feet simple, bearing on the upper side
ovate tumid branchiae, lying parallel to the body; near
the base on the ventral side of the feet short obtuse lower
branchial papillse are attached. Rings gradually tapering,
and ending in an obtuse anal segment, which bears two
clavate solid styles, larger than the branchiae. Head broad
at the base, terminating in a thin ornithorhynchus-like snout,
apex obtuse ; antennae four, short, divergent. First and
second rings half as broad as the rest, giving attachment to
four pairs of short tentacular cirri. I am doubtful about the
the identity of this Annelid, as I have seen no figure of
P. clavigera, Aud. and Ed.

Rare, occupying vertical burrows in the sand, about half
tide mark.

\J Goniada Alcocltiana, sp. nov. Body tapering at both ends,
anterior third terete terminating in a conical horn-like snout,
posterior segments depressed, broader, channelled above,
ending in two long jointed styles. Eyes, and tentacular
cirri 0. Proboscis very long, clavate curved, on each side of
the base are eight A-shaped dentacles, mouth armed with
seven jaws.

Body filiform, 1 \ inch long by a line wide, colour reddish
brown ; heteromorphous, anterior rings to the 45th, very
convex, narrow ; feet minute papillaeform. Lower two-thirds
of the worm depressed, rather broader ; feet longer, oblique,
from a dilated base, composed of four acute segments, the two
outer shorter and divergent (branchial) ; each foot bears two
fasciculi of bristles, the upper short curved, arising from the
basal portion ; lower composed of long, white, falcate jointed
bristles. Apex of the conical snout bearing four minute
antennaj, when the proboscis is exerted it stands up like a

183

small horn. Proboscis nearly as long as the terete portion of
the body, curved, fluted above, armed with seven minute
black jaws, five in the upper and two in the lower half ;
middle jaws larger tridentate. At each side of the basal
portion there is also a row of minute inversely Y-shaped
black dentacles, eight in number.

Very rare, only one specimen collected. I have great
pleasure in associating the name of Dr. Alcock, who has done
so much for the spread of natural science in Manchester,
with this curious species.

G. maculata, Johns ; the only other British species is
distinguished by its greater length, 4 to 6 inches, or, accord-
ing to Oersted, 18 to 20 inches; whilst its extreme breadth
is only a line and a half! This species, according to
Johnson, is destitute of jaws, and Dr. Baird informs me from
Oersted’s figure there appear to be no anal cirri. It is
distinguished also by having three brown maculae on each
segment. In G. Norvegica, Oers., there are eighteen den-
tacles on each side of the proboscis.

Glycera alba, Lam.

A single specimen only obtained among tufts of Anten-
naria antennina.

Pollicita peripatus, Johns.

Several specimens found at the base of Aleyonium digitatum
brought from deep water after storms.

Scyllis prolifer a. Mull.

Probably abundant in wet places, covered with a stratum
of mud, but from its minute size easily overlooked.

Nereis pelagica, L.

N. viridis, L. (2V. cerulia, Penn.) Both these species
are abundant in wet hollows, about half-tide mark, occupying
a deep burrow in the sand. They vary much in colour, from
a deep velvetty green to orange. There is another form,
with longer feet, bright orange or flesh-coloured, shaded with
olive, which is frequent near high-water mark, where the
tide is absent for months together, which may be distinct.

184

N. brevimana, Johns.

N. margaritacea, Leach.

N. Dumarillii, Aucl. and Edw.

These species are found occasionally among oysters
dredged from deep water, or the refuse from fishing boats.

Nereis bilineata, Johns.

Not uncommon. Always found occupying the terminal
coils of old whelk shells, and generally those which have
been taken possession of by Pagurus Barnhardus.

It is one of the handsomest of the Nereids.

Nepthys margaritacea , Sars.

N. Hombergii, Sav. Common in wet places, buried
among the sand. Some specimens are six to eight inches
long, and as thick as the little finger. Besides the above
species there are several small ones, which I have not
yet examined minutely, but which are probably new to
Britain.

Nerine vulgaris , Johns.

I am doubtful whether my specimens belong to this species.
N. coniocephala , Johns.

Common in damp hollows about mid-tide, along with
• Arenicola. It occupies a friable tube, descending a foot or
more below the surface.

Spio seticornis , Bast. )

S. crenaticornis , Mont.) (Leucodore ciliatus, Johns.) These
seem to me to be forms of one species, sometimes excavating
a burrow between the laminae of old shells, at others con-
structing a sandy tube.

S. quadricornis , Lam. Very common below high-water
mark, forming a slender cylindrical sand tube ; it has four
tentacles, the two lower shorter, and the anal segment
terminates in four ovate styles. Branchiarius quadrangu-
laris, Mont., seems identical with this worm, but, as

Aricije.

185

frequently happens, the specimen had lost the anterior
segments.

Ophelia coarctata, M. Edwards.

One specimen only met with. New to Britain.

Mcea mirabilis, Johns.

Frequent near low-water mark, in wet places where the
sand is intermingled with mud. It bears a close superficial
resemblance to the smaller Nemertoid worms, Astemma, &c.,
and has the same white colour and elastic texture. Dr. Baird
informs me there is one specimen in the British Museum,
from the coast of Fife. Like myself, he failed to identify it
with any known form, and I had named it provisionally
y JRhynophylla bitentaculatcr, hut, since this paper was in type,
he advises me that it is probably identical with the worm
described in Dr. Johnston’s Catalogue, at p. 278, as Mcea
mirabilis.

As I have not been able to compare it with the description,
and it may prove distinct, I append the notes I had drawn
up from the examination of living specimens.

Prestomial segment leaf-like, ovate, broader than the body,
strengthened in the centre by five ribs, ciliated below, margin
mobile undulated reticulate. Proboscis cordate, retractile,
tumid, shorter than the upper lip, from the lower margin of
which spring two long flexible trigonous tentaculae, clothed
throughout the inner surface by four to six rows of conical
papillEe, resembling the suckers of Asterinse. Eyes and an-
tennae 0.

Its hold on the sand is so firm that specimens are seldom
obtained entire. When creeping through the sand the thin
mobile upper lip acts as a wedge, and the turbinate soft pro-
bosis is rapidly protruded like a bladder, enlarging the
opening. When the surface is reached the head is partially
withdrawn, and the two papillose tentacular cirri are
directed upwards.

Body three to six inches in length, white, opalescent, as

186

thick as a crow quill; segments very numerous, quadrangular,
slightly winged, as broad as long, the upper eight a little nar-
rower, especially at the base, where it joins the lower portion.
In addition to the small transparent branchial laminae on the
ventral surface of each of the upper segments, there is an oval
appressed scale. Intestine simple, containing sand and mud.
Numerous ova are found at the lateral margins of each ring
after the eighth. The setae of the eighth segment are very
numerous and delicate, resembling in form the pendulum of
a clock, while those of the lower rings are stronger, shaped
like golf sticks.

This worm shows no disposition to swim in water, but
remains in one place, with the leaf-like snout curved upwards.
The blood is colourless or nearly so, and 1 could make out
no circulation as in many worms, but the margin of the
snout is covered with a delicate net- work of vessels, and
the tentacular papillae are each supplied with a vascular loop.
These papillae are depressed at the apex, and supplied with
muscular fibres like true suckers, but I have never seen
them used to seize any object, or aid in progression.

Arenicola piscatorum, Lam. Very abundant.

Lumbricina;.

Lumbricus lineatus, Mull.

Very rare, among surface mud.

L. capitatus , Johns.

Only one specimen, constricted below the snout.

L. pettucidus, Temp. (Clitelis minutus, Temp.)

Found within putrid specimens of the heart urchin, and
among other rejectamenta of the tide.

CaPITIBR ANCHIATA.

Pectinaria belgica. Lam.

Empty tubes common, living worms occasionally found near
loAv-water mark.

187

Sabellaria Anglica , Grube, ( S. alveolata , iSav.^
Very common within shells, especially the whelk.

S. Crassissima, Lam. Rare.

Terebella conchilega, Pall.

Frequent near low water.

T. chrysodon Mont.

I have found two specimens of a minute species with only
eight tentacles, among tubes of sabellaria, perhaps the young
of some larger form, they resemble T. ostreata, Dalyell.

Ops, gen. nov. f One of the names of Cybele.J

Tube slender, strong but flexible when moist, coated with
minute, closely imbricated fragments of shell, attached
edgewise.

Worm terete, of equal breadth throughout (Vo inch).
Branchial fans two, terminal, very short, composed of soft,
thick, pectinated processes, the apices bifid, obtuse, incurved,
surrounding the mouth like a star, not ciliated. Between
the fans is a small scoop-like lip.

Rings distant, the upper one contracted at the apex, with
lateral tufts of setse, much shorter than the succeeding seg-
ments, which are six to eight times longer than broad.

Ventral surface channelled, on each side of it are pencils
of slender setae: and surrounding all but the ventral aspect
of each ring, a narrow rough band like a rasp, the surface
studded with conical papillae. No lateral hooks.

Anal rings narrower, ending in an obtuse point.

0. digitala, sp. nov. Frequent opposite the Whitworth
guns, near low tide mark, accompanying species of Terebella.

Tube three to four inches long, tapering a little at each
end, which is open, as thick as a crow-quill. It has a very
neat appearance from the uniform size of the shell fragments.
Intestine simple, undulating, filled with mud and sand.
Peristome not longer than broad, when closed conical, the

T. nebulosa, Mont.

T. constrictor, Mont.

d

188

fiat, obtuse, fleshy segments curling inwards over the mouth.
Colour pinkish. There is a blood vessel on each side of the
intestine, but I could trace no circulation in the pectinated
fans, which seemed to be used by the worm to collect the
grains of sand, &c„ The rasp-like collars, surrounding each
ring, are very curious.

There is an animal figured by Dalyell, Powers of the
Creator, &c., Vol. II., PI. xxxv. f. 4, 5, under the name of
clymene borealis, which may be identical with our species, but
the peristome is said to consist of 16 to 24 teeth, which are
figured as simple and recurved, “ forming a shallow funnel.”

This Annelid is /simple in structure and very sluggish, and
it bears more resemblance to the Sipunculidce than to the
higher worms. In the peristome it reminds us of Chirodota
digitata, Esch. From Orthonia it differs in the rasp-like
band which surrounds each segment.

Sabella ventilabrum. Rare, cast up from deep water after
storms

Scrpzda triguetra, L.

S. contortuplicata, L.

Spinor bis communis, Flem.

S. lucidus, Mont.

S. minuta , Mont.

Not uncommon on shells.

Attached to sea-weed, some-
times abundant.

Eccles, April 2, 1865.

April 24th, 1865.

Thomas Alcock, M.D., in the Chair.

Donations.

Captain Mitchell of Madras, three slides of Indian Diatom-
acese, and contents of seers fishes’ stomachs almost entirely
consisting of Diatomacese.

Dr. Alcock read a communication on “ Southport Natural

189

History.” He showed specimens of Tellina donacina, Modiola
tulipa and Fissurella reticulata found on the shore, also of
the large variety of the Solen ensis, some distorted shells of
Mactra stultorum and Syndosmya alba. Fissurella reticulata
had not hitherto been recorded as a Southport shell. He
made some observations on the Natterjack Toads, which were
spawning in marshy places among the sand hills, (April 1 8th
to 22nd,) exhibiting males and females living, and spawn
preserved in glycerine.

Mr. R. U. Dakbisiiire mentioned the occurrence of the Old
English or black rat in Messrs. Whitbread and Go’s brewery
in Chigwell street, London, and exhibited stuffed specimens
of male, female, and young.

Mr. G. E. Hunt exhibited specimens of a Campylopus
allied to C. setifolius, or possibly' a new species.

Annual Meeting. May 15th, 1865.

Mr. J. Sidebotham, President, in the Chair.

The following officers for the ensuing session were duly
elected : —

IPrcstocnt

ARTHUR Gr. LATHAM.

Uttc='iprc9it(cnt3.

JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM.

R. D. BARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.,

JOHN D. DANCER, F.R.A.S.

treasurer.

THOMAS H. NEVILL.

Secretaries.

H. A. HURST.

THOMAS ALCOC’K, M.D.

190

@f tf)E ffiOUlUtl.

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.
JOHN PARRY.

W. H. HEYS.

W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S., &c.
J. G. LYNDE.

J. WATSON.

G. H. GRINDON.

THOMAS COWARD.

Donation.

Dr. Alcock presented to the Section 24 slides of mounted
Foraminifera from shore sand, coast of Galway.

A fine stuffed specimen of Osprey, shot at Rostherne Mere,
was exhibited by Mr. Harrison.

PHOTOGRAPHIC SECTION.

April 6th, 1865.

H. E. Roscoe, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Vice-Presi-
dent of the Section, in the Chair.

Mr. J. Sidebotham said that two of the chief points in his
paper, read on the 2nd February, were, that lenses either
very short or very long in focus did not give true transcripts
of nature ; in the long focus the objects in the distance look-
ing too near, and in the short focus too distant ; and that
lenses of from seven to ten inches focus gave correct per-
spective If large pictures were wanted they should be
enlarged from negatives taken with a short focus lens. The •
second point was, that in all photographs there should be
introduced some standard of measure, so that the focus of the
lens being known, objects could be approximately measured.

Mr. J. B. Dancer remarked that in comparing pictures
taken by short and long focal lenses for the purpose of show-

191

ing the errors of perspective, it would be desirable to take
into account the angle included in the field of view, the
diameter of the stop, and the errors arising from the aberration
in the lenses employed. In order to obtain a view of photo-
graphic pictures which should approach as nearly as possible
to the view seen by the eye, they should be looked at through
lenses of corresponding foci to the lenses with which they
were taken.

Mr. James Mudd read a paper entitled “A Photo-
grapher’s Dream,” in which he pointed out that a good
picture is not due solely to the process or the apparatus used,
but that more was dependent on the careful study of the
laws of art, without which it was impossible, except by
accident, to produce an artistic picture.

Annual Meeting, May 18th, 1865.

Joseph Baxendell, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

The Secretary read the annual report, congratulating
the members on the success of their first session. The various
Papers read at the different meetings were referred to ; the
funds were also stated to be in a satisfactory condition.

The report was unanimously adopted.

The following gentlemen were elected to hold office during
the ensuing year : —

^resilient.

THE RIGHT REV. THE LORD BISHOP OF MANCHESTER.

Utcc=iprcsitjcnts.

J. P. JOULE, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.

H. E. ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.O.S

JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S.

treasurer.

THOMAS H. NEVILL.

192

Sccrctarp.

LESLIE J. MONTEFIORE.

®OUJUtI.

J. B. DANCER, F.R.A.S.

E. C. BUXTON.

JOHN PARRY.

JOHN ROGERSON.

JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM.

W.. C. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S., &c.

Mr. George Wardley read a paper on “ Glass Trans-
parencies/’ in the course of which he detailed the various
processes generally in use for printing glass transparencies,
dwelling especially on the modification of the taupenot, in
which, after coating the plate with collodion, instead of
immersing it in the sensitive bath, it is thoroughly washed
with water to get rid of the ether and alcohol, and is then
coated with iodised albumen ; the remainder of the process is
then exactly as the taupenot. The tannin process answered
well, but many prints were spoiled in consequence of halation.
The best preservatives for printing transparencies were a mix-
ture of tannin and honey, or tannin and raspberry syrup,
the former giving brown and the latter black tones. The
addition of the raspberry syrup to the tannin yielded pictures
entirely free from halation.

Dr. J. P. Joule, F.H.S., described some further im-
provements in his camera, by means of which glass only
came in contact with the silver solution.

The following paper was read at a meeting of the Micro-
scopical Section, held November 28th, 1864 — see page 52 : —

“ Notes on Natural History Specimens lately received from
Connemara,” by Thomas Alcock, M.D.

The series of specimens which I have now to lay before
you is so extensive, and I believe so interesting, that parts of
it might properly form the material for several distinct com-
munications ; but at present 1 propose to show them as a

193

Avhole, and, with the specimens, to hand in as complete lists
as I can of the species in each class.

The richness of the coast of Galway is well known to every
student of British Marine Zoology ; for to whatever branch
of the subject he devotes himself he finds alike that here
some of his rarest treasures are to be obtained. It is not
with the hope of making known to you much that is new
that I am led to introduce this subject to your notice, but
chiefly because I am convinced that natural history work
amongst ourselves is best promoted by the formation of exact
lists of the species which we actually know to have been
found at some particular localities ; and such lists of Conne-
mara specimens, imperfect as they must necessarily be at
first, I have now to lay before you. It is however no more
than might be expected that in the course of careful examina-
tions of so many objects some points have occurred to me
which I think worthy of notice, and these I shall mention as
I come to them in their natural order.

In the first place I have to show specimens of three species
of Nullipore — namely, N. polymorpha, N. calcarea, and N.
fasciculata; also N. calcarea var. depressa.

The list of Foraminifera is an extensive oiie, especially
considering that all my specimens are from shore sand and
from one locality. This sand is fiorn Dogs Bay, Roundstoue,
and consists of many kinds of small shells of Mollusca,
among which Rissote and Lacunae are most noticeable at
first sight, fragments of Lepralise and other Zoophytes,
spines of Amphidotus, and sponge spicula, while the finer
parts are made up entirely of Foraminifera. Of these I
have found 58 species and named varieties, and also six
very distinct forms which are not mentioned in Professor
Williamson’s Monograph on Recent British Foraminifera.
Specimens of these, and of all the other forms contained in
the list are mounted for inspection.

In the course of my frequent examinations of these objects

194

I have made a few observations on several of them, which
' may perhaps be interesting.

I find Orbulina universa common in the Dogs Bay sand ;
that is, I have picked out some hundreds of specimens.
They vary greatly in size, the largest being four or five
times the diameter of the smallest. They have the surface
frosted with larger and smaller tubercles, arranged with a
certain kind of regularity, but, though thus rough externally,
the texture of the shell does not appear to be arenaceous as
stated by Professor Williamson,— at least, if by that term is
meant that it is formed of agglutinated grains of sand as is
the case with some other species. When examined with a
high power and transmitted light, the larger and smaller
tubercles show black from their density and the spaces
between them are partly occupied by objects like very trans-
parent thin plates, of a uniform size and an imperfectly
squared figure, the impression these convey being that they
have been produced by a kind of crystallization of the
material of the shell at the time of its original formation.

I conclude that the colourless condition of my specimens
depends on the perfect manner in which all animal matter
has disappeared, and I think for an examination of the mere
structure of the outer case this must be an advantage. It
may be interesting to note that among the specimens are a
few with one or more protuberances of parts of their surface,
destroying the regular spherical figure, and indicating an in-
cipient budding before the shell hardened ; there is also one
large and very handsome double specimen.

Besides the Orbulinas I have an example of another kind
of spherical object, which for convenience I will mention here, *
Ihough I do not suppose it to belong to the Foraminifera at
all. It looks like a sphere of the most transparent glass, and
is without colour or markings of any kind.

I have found all the forms of Lagena, excepting L. vulgaris
typica and L. gracilis. Lagena striata and interrupta are

195

abundant, ; and these, with very few exceptions, have the
costse passing- forward to the extremity of the neck, in which
case it is only one half of the whole number which do so, each
alternate one stopping short at the base. Specimens where
the costae wind spirally around the neck are equally common
with those in which they take a straight course. These
Lagenae have the appearance of old coarse shells, but they do
not seem to have suffered from attrition ; they are scarcely
ever found with the neck broken short, though it may perhaps
be almost equally rare to meet with one absolutely perfect.
The varieties — clavata, perlucida, semistriata, and substriata,
are comparatively rare, and all of them have forms and charac-
ters very distinct from striata and interrupta, while the two
latter -agree perfectly excepting in the matter of the costse,
which are found in different specimens to be interrupted in a
great variety of ways, those with the costse perfectly con-
tinuous being the least common ; so that the conclusion I am
inclined to come to is, that they need not be separated even
as varieties, and that, whatever doubts may remain as to some
of the other named varieties, the great abundance of these two
and the constancy of their general characters make it certain
that together they will form a good species under the name
of Lagena striata. A few specimens of this species have a
macro at the base, and deformed ones are not uncommon ;
these, besides having the body variously mis-shapen, often
have the neck bent, sometimes even so much as to give the
specimen the form of a retort.

The Dogs Bay sand contains many forms of hntosolenia,
some of them agreeing with those described by Professor
Williamson, but others distinct ; and of these latter I have
ventured to name two, which may be described as follows: —
1. Entosolenia Williamsoni, a very abundant form, might
pass at first sight for Lagena striata with the neck broken
away, but a close examination shows it is a perfect shell, the
body like L. striata but rather less full in proportion to its

e

196

length than is usual in Connemara specimens, and the tex-
ture a little more glassy ; its chief peculiarity however is in
the neck, which is short and formed of two distinct portions,
the first directly continuous with the body and having an
outline similar to that of the lower part of the neck of Lagena
abruptly cut short, and the second a cylindrical tube of com-
paratively small diameter continued from the middle of it.
The first portion is ornamented with three circles of hexa-
gonal reticulations, which are continuous below by their
inferior angles with the longitudinal costse of the body, and
present an interesting combination of the superficial charac-
ters of E. costata and E. squamosa. — 2. Entosolenia Montagui
is a squamous form, but differs from the named varieties of
E. squamosa in having its surface really covered with a pat-
tern like scales instead of with raised reticulations. Well
developed specimens are not at all flattened, though many
are found as if crushed, and they then present an appearance
resembling a dried fig. ; the true shape however is a perfect
oval, full and well rounded at the smaller end, and from the
middle of this projects a short smooth cylindrical tube. With
a low power of the microscope, the whole surface of the body
appears to be made up of small almost square facets arranged
in distinct longitudinal rows, but when these are more highly
magnified each flattened surface is seen to rise a little ante-
riorly, and to have the front border rounded so as to give
exactly the appearance of a covering of scales.

So far as I have yet seen the forms of Dentalina and
Cristellaria are very rare in this sand, Nonionina Jeffreysii
and elegans are also scarce, but Patellina corrugata, which
is described as a rare species, is not very uncommon, and
some remarkably fine specimens have been met with. All
the forms of Rotalina occur excepting two, and there are
several undescribed ones in addition ; at present I have seen
only one specimen of the rare species, R. inflata. There
are two distinct varieties of Globigerina, one with tin'

197

chambers globular, the other having them considerably flat-
tened, which gives quite a different character to the shell.
Truncatulina lobata is by far the most abundant species, and
with Miliolina seminulum, constitutes the chief bulk of the
the sand. The two forms of Gassidulina are equally common,
and specimens have not been met with presenting inter-
mediate links. Polymorphina lactea occurs in profusion, and,
though the forms which are distinguished as typica, oblonga,
and communis are well marked, a considerable proportion of
the whole number of specimens collected seem to indicate an
absence of any definite plan in the arrangement of the seg-
ments, the chambers being evidently thrown together without
order, and in some cases producing an irregular nodulated
mass, with two, three, or more distinct and perfectly formed
open mouths on different parts of the surface. I find also
specimens consisting of nothing more than the primordial
segment, and these might be mistaken for a form of
Entosolenia globosa but for the peculiar texture of the shell
and the radiating grooves around the mouth ; they are
worthy, I think, of particular notice, as possibly capable of
furnishing some more reliable marks of distinction than are
found in adult shells, though at present all I have seen are of
one character.

The forms of Textularia are numerous, and among them
are four which can readily be separated, but may still pass
for varieties of T. cuneiformis; one of them however differs
considerably in having the texture of the shell much finer,
and the chambers full and rounded. Textularia conica is
abundant,, and its character, in these Connemara specimens,
is so distinct from T. cuneiformis that it seems impossible to
admit it as only a variety of that species. In many of the
specimens the apex of the cone is broken, exposing always
three chambers, which are arranged like a trefoil and are
placed almost on the same plane.

An examination of the specimens before you of the two

198

forms of Biloculina, named respectively in Professor William-
son’s Work, — B. ringens, typica and B. ringens, var. carinata,
will suggest, I think, a doubt as to whether it is correct to
throw them together as one species, the texture of the shells as
well as the form of their mouths being very different.

All the named varieties of Miliolina occur in abundance,
and among them are great numbers of evidently distorted
and misshapen specimens which appear to me to give no
help whatever in the way of supplying inosculating forms,
but may prove useful by indicating facts bearing on the
general development of the animals. Specimens with the
last chamber, not broken but clearly left incomplete, are by
no means uncommon.

Lepralice. — The specimens of many species of Lepraliae
which I have to show are from dead shells picked up from
the shore of Dogs Bay, and from others dredged at the mouth
of Birterbuy Bay. These promise a very rich harvest, and
indications of a great number of species are further given by
the specimens of detached cells and fragments picked out
from the shell-sand, though the latter are generally too
broken to serve for exact examination or description. At
present I have done very little with the specimens, but can-
not altogether omit mentioning them. Lepralia figularis is
common, and the specimens are very beautiful ones. There
are also many examples of a species nearly agreeing, but not
quite identical, with Johnston’s Lepralia ovalis; and Lepralia
ciliata var. /3 of Johnston, Mr. Hassall’s Lepralia insignis, is
plentiful. There are many other striking forms which I
have not yet had the means to identify, besides common ones
about which there is no doubt ; but at present 1 must pass
over the subject without attempting to give a list.

EchinoUerrnata. — The present list includes ten species,
and on the table are very handsome specimens of four of
these, namely, TTraster glacialis and U. violacea, Luidia
fragillissima and Echinus lividus. The acquisition of the two

199

species ef U raster just mentioned, which were not before in
the Museum collection, led me to compare them with Uraster
rubens, and see if some more reliable distinctions might not
be found than the slight differences of proportion and form
on which Forbes lays the most stress. The result of this
examination is that the strong spines with which the bodies
of all three are beset offer at once a clear and simple means
of distinction, their character in each species being decidedly
different.

The spine of Uraster rubens is club-shaped, the base
spreading, and irregularly nodulated, the short shaft cylin-
drical and smooth, and the head barrel-shaped and beset
with longitudinal rows of thin triangular projecting points.
That of U. violacea has the basal part rising in the form of a
short wide cylinder, crowned with an irregular circle of short
spinules, from the midst of which the spine is continued in a
conical shape, and near its summit is armed with rows of
triangular projecting points like those of U. rubens. While
that of U. glacialis has the form of a large strong cone with
a very wide base rising from a dense circular bed of small
blunt spinules. The apex of the cone appears truncated,
and its sides near the top are marked with a few slight serra-
tions.

Entomostraca. — In the shell-sand from which the Fora-
minifera were obtained great numbers of the cases of ento-
mostraca occur. Specimens have been picked out of Cy there
albo-maculata, angustata, variabilis, flavida, convexa, im-
pressa, pellucida, and quadrideutata, the last mentioned species
being rather common ; and besides these I have to show
mounted specimens of about thirty forms perfectly distinct
from one another and from those above mentioned. At pre-
sent, however, from want of knowledge of what has been
recently done in this subject, I am obliged to pass them
over.

Crustacea. The collection of Crustacea before you forms

200

in itself a very handsome result of Mr. R. D. Darbishire’s one
day’s dredging in Birterbuy Bay, and among the specimens
are some choice species, as Eurynome aspera, Ebalia Bryeri
and Cranchii and Atelecyclus heterodon. These and indeed all
the other specimens, form valuable additions to the Museum
collection, which promises soon to become really useful for
study and reference. The plan adopted of showing the speci-
mens dried, mounted on glass and enclosed in glass-lidded
boxes, has been found quite satisfactory, preserving them
both from dust and damage by handling, while by properly
displaying several specimens of a species in different positions
every part may be clearly seen.

Mollusca. — The list of Mollusca which I have next to
present contains 138 species, including those dredged in
Birterbuy Bay ; the others are all beach specimens, collected
by Mr. Glover and Mr. Darbishire, or picked out since from
the shell sand.

The fact that 16 species of small land shells have been
found in considerable numbers in the sand, along with the sea
shells and foraminifera, may be worth notice; more or less
of such an admixture is, I believe, not uncommon, but in the
present case the proportions appear to be unusual, and the very
great abundance of Helix pulchella is certainly remarkable.
It should be mentioned, too, that Mr. Glover has collected
from the sandy strip of ground separating Dogs Bay from
Gorteen Bay many dead bleached specimens of Helix
nemoralis and a few of H. aspersa remarkable for the great
thickness and weight of the shells, in consequence of a very
excessive deposition of calcareous matter in their substance ;
no similar shells in the living state have been found in the
neighbourhood, though carefully looked for.

As to the sea shells, I shall mention only a few that have
particularly attracted my notice. Otina otis was found on a
mass of small living mussels brought by Mr. Glover. Ctecum
glabrum is very abundant in the sand, and I have picked out

201

some scores of specimens of this shell in the young state with
the spiral nucleus attached, besides great numbers of separate
spirals ; the intermediate length of tube between the young
and the adult state increases rapidly in size, and has a decidedly
conical shape, so that the whole length of the shell, if it were
to remain entire, would not be so great as might be supposed
from seeing only the young and the mature portions. Skenea
rota occurs sparingly ; I have seen about half-a-dozen speci-
mens. The minute shells which have proved perhaps the most
interesting are those of the fry of different species of limpet,
four forms of which have been met with ; they are exceedingly
abundant in the shell sand, and three of the species have a
distinct spiral cap surmounting the apex of the conical part.
The series of mounted specimens shows very clearly the
several stages of growth to the adult form, and it will be seen
that an internal partition is formed by degrees until at last it
completely divides the interior of the cone from that the larval
cap, which then drops off, leaving a depressed oval scar near
the apex. Patella pellucida is at once distinguished by its
brilliant greenish-blue marks; it is smooth and has a semi-
transparent horn colour, much like that of the adult, though
it gives little promise of the elegant shape it afterwards grows
to ; the larval cap is large and its spiral character distinct.
A second form has so much the appearance of Patella vulgata
that I shall venture to call it so. The cap is smaller than in
P. pellucida, and the conical shell is opaque and strong, and
has radiating ribs and markings of colour resembling the adult
P. vulgata ; in this shell the scar left when the cap has fallen
is much deeper and coarser than in P. pellucida. A third
form, which is much the most abundant in the sand, has a
smooth, delicate, colourless shell, sometimes quite transparent,
but often partly or wholly opaque ; the cap is always white
and has the appearance of a drop of wax on the apex of the
cone. In this species the conical shell from its first com-

202

mencement appears to grow uniformly and regularly around
the margin of the larval shell, and thus at once becomes a
complete cone, while in P. pellucida the growth is at first
entirely on one side, forming as it were a very large and
expanded outer lip. 1 refer the present shell, though without
positive proof, to Acmcea virginea. The fourth limpet-like
shell is quite different from those already mentioned, it forms
a more depressed cone, and is strong, with a translucent flinty
texture, and the surface is marked with numerous fine, equal,
radiating ribs. There is no deciduous cap, but the apex of
the cone is a little flattened and presents a circular area,
which is smooth and glassy, and appears as though a small
transparent button were sunk into the substance of the
shell.

The occurrence of the shells of fry of great numbers of
species both of univalve and bivalve mollusca in the sample of
sand from Dogs Bay which I am examining, has led me to
attempt their identification with the view of obtaining inform-
ation as to the characters of some of the larval, or more
properly speaking foetal, forms, which have not hitherto been
observed. In this inquiry it is necessary to give a more
definite meaning to the term “ Fry” than has generally been
done, for it appears to have been used indifferently for the
foetal shell as it comes from the egg, and for the young which
has grown considerably beyond that condition. Shells of the
latter kind still show the foetal shell perfectly, and at the same
time display characters in the aftergrowth by which at all
events the genus, and in some cases the species may be
determined, and it is specimens with these double characters
that l shall distinguish as fry. At present I will leave
the microscopic univalve shells without further notice, except-
ing to remark that, while as a rule all foetal shells are smooth
and glassy, there are among the univalves some striking
exceptions, where the shell is beautifully sculptured, as in

203

some exquisite little specimens apparently the fry of Murex

erinaceus. The whole shell (fig.
1) is of a transparent horn brown
colour, and is Covered with raised
reticulations most gracefully dis-
posed ; those on the nucleus are
longitudinal and transverse, en-
closing minute square depressions ;
while on the succeeding whorls they
are diagonal in opposite directions,
and form diamond-shaped areolae.

The bivalves have at present en-
gaged most of my attention, and
several of them will deserve a short
Fig. l. notice. One of the most remarkable

shell (fig. 2) which I refer to Anomia. It is trans-
parent, and talclike in texture,
and is very thin and delicate, so
! as to be almost always found
mU j more or less broken at the edges.
Its substance is excavated by
numerous tubes similar to those

is a

rj/ii

described by Dr. W. Carpenter

7 \ in Anomia, and these tubes ra-
-^\}y ,( diate from the edge of the nucleus
in all directions to the margin of
the shell. The nucleus itself is
very glassy and transparent, and
is full and rounded in shape,
Fig. 2. though still indistinctly triangular.

But the singular feature in these specimens is that the growing-
shell, which completely surrounds the nucleus in the same
way that it does in Ostrea, here leaves a small round hole on
each side of the beak — The fry of Ostrea cdulis is common ;
the foetal shell also occurs separate, and is readily distin-

f

204

guished by having a notch about the middle of the ventral
margin and by one of the valves being flatter than the other. —
Shells having the form of Pecten are founu in abundance,
and about half a dozen kinds have been made out, though at
present these cannot be referred to their species, the characters
which distinguish them being of a different nature from those
found in the adult shells ; for, contrary to what is usually the
case, the Pectens grow to a considerable microscopic size before
the proper sculpture begins to be formed, and this intermediate
growth resembles neither the foetal shell nor the adult in
structure. All the young Pectens which have been observed
have a rounded shape like P. opercularis, and in all of them
the nucleus is smooth, glassy, and transparent, with the valves
ventricose and obscurely triangular, like those of Anomia.
One form differs from all the others in having the intermediate
growth entirely composed of cellular structure, which might
lead to a suspicion that it is Avicula, but the general character
is strictly that of Pecten. As might be expected from the
conditions under which the specimens are found, none are
double, and it may be worth mentioning that those with a
cellular structure are flat, and, as far as has yet been observed,
are all the same valve. The other forms are convex, and
have the external surface pitted over with more or less numer-
ous deeply excavated depressions of various forms, differently
arranged so as to make so many distinct patterns. — Lima sub-
auriculata is not uncommonly found of microscopic size, and
it agrees with the characters given of the adult, excepting
that the strong middle line is externally a furrow and inter-
nally a ridge, instead of the reverse. In this shell no dis-
tinct line of demarcation is seen between the foetal shell and
the aftergrowth. — Crenella presents an unusual case, as
shown by the series of mounted specimens, in which the
growth is seen to be continued to a considerable size on the
plan of the original foetal shell, and then suddenly changes
to a totally different character, as has been already observed

205

by Mr. Jeffreys (Brit. Conch , vol. ii. p. 132.) — Area tetra-
gona shows a remarkable nucleus, which differs from almost
all others I have seen in being amber-coloured or light brown,
and it has, scattered over its surface, a few marks which
appear like short deeply-implanted hairs. Two species of
Cardium have been distinguished, namely C. edule and
C. echinatum ; both have the foetal shell smooth, transparent,
and globular, but that of C. echinatum is considerably the
larger. Several species of Venus have been observed, and in
all of them the foetal shell is small, globular, and glassy. The
fry of Tapes is characteristic, and the form of it which I have
found appears to agree with T. virginea. 1 must pass over
many other shells about which there is more or less doubt,
and will at present mention only one more, namely Saxicava
7’ugosa, which is the most abundant of all the species in the
Dogs Bay sand. The nucleus is very large, glassy, and
transparent, and resembles a Cyclas in shape. The fry of
this species shows very well how completely the characters of
the adult shell are dormant in the foetal state, and how im-
mediately they are sometimes assumed with the first growth
beyond that condition.

In conclusion I have only to say that I trust the results of
further examinations of this very rich shore deposit will justify
me in having introduced it to your notice, although at present
my observations are so slight and imperfect ; and I will further
venture to express the hope that the large collection of speci-
mens before you may tempt other members of the Section to
visit the coast of Galway and make additions to the subjoined
lists.

LIST OF SPECIES FROM ROUNDSTONE.

1864.

Foraminifera.

Orbulina universa. Globigerina bulloides,

Lagena vulgaris var. clavata. Planorbulina vulgaris.

„ var. perlucida. Truncatulina lobata.

206

var. marginata.

Lagena \ uJgaris var. semistriata. Bulimiua pupoides, tvpica.

» var. striata.

„ *var. interrupta

» var. substriata.

Entosolenia globosa var. lineata.

„ costata.

„ marginata.

» ,, var. lucida.

» Williamsoni (N.S.)

„ squamosa, typica.

» » var. scalarifonnis.

» „ var. catenuiata.

>> „ hexagona.

» Montagui (N.S.)

Nodosaria radicula.

» Pyrula.

Nonionina Barleeana.

,, Jeffreysii.

„ elegans.

Polystomella crispa.

,, umbilicatula.

Patellina corrugata.

Rotalina Beccarii.

,, mflata.

,, oblonga.

„ eoncamerata.

„ mamilla.

„ nitida.

Ophiura texturata.

Ophiocoma rosuia.

U raster glacialis.

,, violacea.

„ rubens

Asterina gibbosa.

Uvigerina angulosa.

Cassidulina laevigata
„ obtusa.

Polymorphina lactea, typica.

„ „ oblonga.

» „ communis.

>) myristiformis.

Textularia cuneiformis, t}rpica.

>) „ var. conica'

,, vanabilis.

>i „ var. spathulata.

,, var. difformis.
Biloculina ringens, typica.

» ,, var. carinata-

Spiroloculina depressa, typica.

» „ var. rotundata-

>, ,, var. cymbium.

Miliolina trigonula.

seminulum.

„ var. oblonga.

,, var. disciformis.
bicornis,- typica.

>> ,, var. angulata

Spirilina foliacea.

„ perforata.

>>

91

11

If

Stenorhynchus phalangium.
Inachus Dorsettensis.

Hyas coarc tal us.

Eurynome aspera.

Zantho florida.

Echinodermata.

Luidia fragillissima.

Echinus lividus.

Echinocyamus pusillus (in shell
sand)

Amphidotus (spines in shell sand)

Crustacea.

Ebalia Penuantii.

,, Bryeri.

„ Cranchii.

A telecy c 1 u s he terodou .

Pagurus Bernhardus.

207

Zantho rivulosa.
Cancer pagurus.
Carcinus msenas.
Portunus puber.

„ corrugatus.
„ depurator.

,, pusillus.

Gonoplax angulata.

Vitrina pellucida.

Zonites cellarius.

„ crystallinus.

Helix ericetorum.

„ lamellata.

,, fulva.

’ „ pulchella.

,, rotundata.

Pupa umbilicata.

„ muscorum.

,, Yenetzii.

Clausilia nigricans.

Zua lubrica.

Limnseus truncatulus.

Conovulus bidentatus.

Carychium minimum.

Murex erinaceus.

Nassa reticulata.

„ incrassata.

„ pygmsea.

Purpura lapillus.
Mangelia nebula.

costata.
rufa.
linearis,
attenuata.
turricula.

Cypreea Europsaa.

Lamellaria perspicua.

Otina otis.

Cerithiopsis tubercularis.

V

yi

>>

Pagurus Prideauxii.

„ Cuanensis.

,, laavis.

Porcellana platycheles.

,, longicornis.
Galathea squamifera.
Crangon vulgaris.
Pakemon serratus.

Ligia oceanica.

Mollusoa.

Trochus ciuerarius.

„ magus.

„ Montagui.

,, umbilicatus.

„ zizyphinus.

Phasianella pullus.
Ianthina exigua.

,, communis.

Puncturella Noachina.
Fissurella reticulata.
Acmeea virginea.

Patella vulgata.

,, athletica.

„ pellucida.

Dentalium entale.
Cylichna cylindracea.

„ truncata. .
Pleurobranchus plumula.
Spirialis Flemingii.
Anomia aculeata.

,, ephippium.
Pecten maximus.

„ opercularis.

„ varius.

Lima Loscombii.

„ subauriculata.
Mytilus edulis
Area tetragona.
Pectunculus glycimeris.
Nucula nucleus.

Cardium echinatum.

208

Chemnitzia elegantissima.

Eulima distorta.

Cerithium reticulatum.

„ adversum.

Turritella communis.

Ccecum glabrum.

Scalaria communis.

Skenea planorbis.

,, rota.

Rissoa cingillus.

„ labiosa.

„ inconspicua.

„ parva.

„ punctura.

„ rubra.

,, striata.

„ ulvte.

Lacuna vincta.

„ puteolus.

„ pallidula.

Litorina litoralis.

„ litorea.

„ neritoides.

,, rudis.

„ saxatilis.

ADDITIONAL LIST

Gastrochoena modiolina.

Thracia convexa (valve.)

„ distorta (living.)

Solen siliqua.

Solecurtus candidus.

Psammobia vespertina.

„ -ferroensis.

Tellina crassa.

„ tenuis.

„ solidula.

Mactra solida.

Tapes decussata.

Circe minima (living.)

Lucina flexuosa.

Cardium fasciatum.

„ Norvegicum.

„ pygmseum.

Lucina borealis.

Kellia suborbicularis.
Turtonia minuta.

Montacuta ferruginosa.
Venus casina.

„ fasciata.

„ ovata.

„ striatula.

„ verrucosa.

Artemis exoleta.

„ lincta.

Tapes aurea.

„ virginea.

Lutraria elliptica.

Tellina donacina.

Syndosmya alba.

Saxicava rugosa.

,, „ var. arctica.

Lyonsia Norvegica.

F DREDGED SHELLS.
Modiola modiolus.
Crenella marmorata.
Area tetragona (living.)
Anomia patelliformis.
Chiton discrepans.

,, asellus.

„ cinerarius.

„ cancellatus.
Emarginula reticulata.
Trochus lineatus.

Rissoa Be^nii.

Buccinum undatum.
Philine aperta.

,, catena.