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4

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

VOL. HI:

MDCCCXLViII—MDCCCLY.

PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
RICHARD GRIFFIN & COMPANY,
LONDON AND GLASGOW.'

MDCCOLY.

GLASGOW:

Se : o
PRINTED BY BELL AND BAIN, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME IIL.

Office-Bearers of the Society, . ° - :
List of Members, . - A = ; : - -
Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, : - 5 . : 5 .
Dr. Arnott on Piassava or Piacaba,
I.—On Two New Salts of Chromic Acid. By Archibald Duncan, J un., Esq., 5
Il.—Notice regarding the Measurements of Heights, by Means of the Boiling
Point of Water. By G. A. Walker Arnott, LL.D., Regius Professor of
Botany, .
III.—On the Stectaen of Staffa and the Giant's Causeway. By James Bryce,
Jun., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.,_ .
IV.—Note on the Altered Dolomites of the Island o of Bute, By James Bryce,
Jun., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.,_ . : : s .
Mr. Glassford on the Electric Light,
Professor Gordon on Locomotive Carria, e

Tables of the Fall of Rain in Glasgow, - :
Tables of the Fall of Rain at Greenock, . = é : - =
V.—Analysis of the Yam. By Mr. James Paterson, . : : :

Mr. Stenhouse on Chloropicrine, .

VI.—On the Geological Features of part of the District of Buchan, in Aberdeen-
shire, including Notices of the Occurrence of Chalk-Flints, and Green-
sand. By William Ferguson, Esq., _ . ° ° ° ° °

Report from the Botanical Section,
VII.—Account of a Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of "Galloway. By GA.
Walker Arnott, LL.D., Regius Professor of Botany, .
VIII.—On a Peculiar Fibre of Cotton which is Incapable of being Dyed. By
Walter Crum, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President, -
Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, A :
Report on State of Library, tea ks A opt eae :
Mr. Robb on a New Portable Smith’s Forge, - - 5 . = F
Office-Bearers of the Society,

TX.—On some Remarkable Effects of Lightning observed in a Farm-house near
Moniemail, Cupar-Fife. Communicated by Wm. Thomson, Esq., M-A.,
Professor of Natural Philoso hy in the University of Glasgow,

X.—On Sanitary Reform and the te of Sewage Water of Towns. By J: ames
Smith, Esq., late of Deanston, .
XI.—On Reinsch’s Process for the Detection of Arsenic. By Harry Rainy,
M.D., Professor of Forensic Medicine in the University of Glasgow, .
XII.—On the Occurrence of Sugar in ae Animal Economy. By Arthur Mit-
chell, A.M.,M.D.,
XIII.—On the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. "By James Bryce, Jun., M. ‘A., FG. S.,
XIV. ng osition of some Fermented Liquors. By Mr. John Wright Currie, .
Titchell on the Electric Telegraph, .
XV. On ‘the Geological Structure of the Peninsula of Roseneath and the adjoin-
ing parts of Renfrew and Argyll. By James Bryce, Jun., M.A., F.G.S ,
XVI.—Observations and Experiments on the Paper Manufacture, ‘with some Im-
aac on the usual process. Py we ohn ae ene on

hemist: ° . .
Botanical eport, : >
XVII.—Biographical Account of Dr. Wollaston. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., A
Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, . . : . : : . ¢
7 ort on State of Library,
-Bearers of the Society,

XVIII. _Motie of a Marine Deposit containing Shells, lately discovered i in Sauchie-
hall Street. By William Popgpenn, 2 Stas, + afer .
Report of Botanical Section, . :

XIX.—Notice of the Species of Salvadora, By G. A. Walker Arnott, LL: D.,
XX.—On Copper Sheathing, and the probable cause of its Deterioration. By

James Napier, Esq., F.C.S., : rhsefonys

iv CONTENTS.

XXI.—On the Ehysielcewa Actions of Spartine and Scoparine, with a Notice
of their Chemical Constitution. By Arthur Mitchell, M.A., M.D., &e.,
XXIL—On the Estimation of the Commercial Value of some Specimens of
Black Oxide of Manganese. By Mr. George William Brown, - .
XXIII.—The Effects on Health of Inhaling the Fumes of Cyanide of Potas-
sium Solutions. By James Napier, Esq., ° . . . .

Report of Botanical Section, . + + *) ho es
XXIV.—Sketch of the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. By Thomas
Thomson, M.D., Assistant Surgeon in the H.E.1.C. Service, Bengal
Establishment, : : : 5 ‘ = ‘ : Ac

XXV —Thermometric Observations for 1850, made at Windsor Terrace, Glas-
gow. By James King, Esq., = . : : : : :
XXVI.—Chemical Examination of Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. By Mr.

George William Brown, . :
Report of Librarian, . Fi : F : ‘ a
Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, A : 5 -
The late Mr. John Hart, . . : - .

Office-Bearers of the Society, . . : : Bias : :
XXVII.—Notes on the Introduction of the Potato into Scotland. By John
Scouler, M.D., LL.D., F.L S. Communicated by Wm. Gourlie, Esq.,
XXVIII.—Remarks upon Mineral Veins and Water-Worn Stones. By James
Napier, Esq., F.C.S.,_. ; ; x “ ;
XXIX.—Notice of the Vinegar Plant. By Dr. R.D. Thomson, . ake
XXX.—Examination of the Waters of the Dead Sea. By Robert M. Murray, Esq.,
XXXI.—The Force of Vapour from Saline Water, as applied to Marine Engines.
By Paul Cameron, : 2 = 5 4 . : .
XXXII —Sketch of the Life and Labours of Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S., Presi-
dent of the Philosophical Society. By Walter Crum, F.R.S.,
Report of Librarian, . = : . F 5
Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, fe = c : : r .
Office-Bearers of the Society, . : “ : : . > °
XXXIIL.—On the Economy of the Heating or Cooling of Buildings by means of
Currents of Air. By Professor William Thomson, = ;

. . .

On Ventilation. By Mr. John Ure, . - e 6 - . a
XXXIV.—On the General Law of the Transformation of Energy. By W. J.
Macquorn Rankine, : ; seebegie® ~ ue : 3 . .
XXXYV.—On the Mechanical Values of Distributions of Electricity, Magnetism,
and Galvanism. By Professor William Thomson, . >. au moamens
XXXVI.—On Transient Electric Currents. By Professor William Thomson,
XXXVIL.—Illustrations of the Utility of Water-tight Compartments in Iron
Vessels. By Mr. J. R. Napier, . : . . 5 . :
XXXVIIL—Experiments on the Evaporation of Water in Copper, Iron, and Lead
Vessels. By Mr. J.R. Napier, . cndisieeee ai semen oe
XXXIX.—On the Natro-Boro-Calcite, or ‘*Tiza” of Iquique. By Thomas An-
derson, M.D., - . ° 3 5 é . °
XL.—On the Acetates and other Compounds of Alumina. By Walter
Crum, F.R.S., A - A : . 5 5 , 3 3
XLIJ.—Remarks upon Sandstones used for Building, &e. By Mr. J. Napier,
Chemist, Partick, 2 : 4 A . 4 = .
_ Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, i Fi 6 -
Librarian’s Report, . 2 : : . . :
Office-Bearers of the Society, . ‘ ptt: Cae ee.
Memorial on Ordnance Survey, A : ° . . . °
Volumetrical Method for the Estimation of Yellow Prussiate of Potash.
By Mr. Wallace, . 3 . : 3 :
Damp Walls. By Mr. J. Napier, . : AL y Sew Te ;
Spurious Coins. By Mr. J. Napier, : . : . <
Description of an Instrument for Measuring the Velocity of Ships,
Currents, &c. By Mr. James R. Napier, ay es ° HP
Death of Andrew Liddell, Esq., SES sieke : ¢ -
Abstract of Treasurer’s Account, c ¢ : . . *
Office-Bearers of the Society, 6 A A A .
Remarks on Ships’ Compasses. By Mr. James R. Napier, Sahm
Note on the Determination of the Magnetic Meridian at a Distance
from Land. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.S.S. L. & E., &e.,
Note on the Approximate Determination of the Azimuth of a Star,
&e. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, F.R.S.S. L. & E., Cre he :
Outlines of the Science of Energetics. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.B.S.S. L. & E., &e., Wr us. se. pean. hr nS

.

. . . .

. .

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY-SEVENTH SESSION.

lst November, 1848.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Tue Librarian laid on the table a copy of the printed proceedings of
the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, No. 4, presented by
that Society.

The President read a paper on the Atmosphere, explaining its nature
and extent, and showing the maximum and minimum points of barometric
pressure, and the varieties of temperature in different parts of the world.
It was noticed that the place most remarkable for its climate is Yakutsk,
(N. Lat. 62°,) which is near the boundary between Russian Siberia and
Chinese Tartary, and where a considerable trade is carried on between
these great nations, The thermometer in winter sinks as low as —77”.
During three months of the year the temperature is never higher than
40°, and during three only is the temperature above the freezing point.
These three months constitute the summer at Yakutsk. Snow and ice
disappear all at once; the thermometer rises to 82°; crops of wheat are
raised ;—the sowing, the vegetation, the ripening, and the harvest are all
completed before the brief summer terminates. It is well known that for
the ripening of wheat, barley, rice, and other kinds of grain, a certain
temperature is necessary. Thus, barley will not grow unless the mean
temperature of the three summer months amounts to 493°; wheat, which
is a native of a hotter climate, requires a still higher temperature. But
when the temperature is 82° at Yakutsk, there being a sufficient supply
of water, the process of vegetation is remarkably shortened.

15th November, 1848.—The Vicr-Preswexnt in the Chair.

A COMMUNICATION was received from the secretary of the Liverpool
Literary and Philosophical Society, intimating the additional gift of Nos.
Vor. IIT.—No. 1, 1

2 Office-Bearers of the Society.

1, 2, and 8 of that Society’s proceedings. The thanks of the Society
were voted.

Mr. Burgess exhibited and described his newly invented Vacuum Pump,
for which he_has received the Coulter premium; the successful competitor
for the prize being required to exhibit his invention to the Philosophical
Society, in terms of the following report and minute of Coulter’s Trustees:—

“We most respectfully suggest to the Trustees that, as the premium
mortified by Mr. Coulter was for the public benefit, the successful can-
didate should, on this and all future occasions, be required to exhibit and
describe the invention at the earliest practicable meeting of the Glasgow
Philosophical Society.—Signed, Andrew Liddell, Patrick M‘Naught.
Glasgow, 25th June, 1847.”

“Which report, having been considered, the Trustees unanimously
approve thereof, and direct the chamberlain to pay the premium of nine
pounds sterling to Mr. Angus M‘Kinnon, with a request that he would
exhibit and describe the invention at the earliest possible meeting of the
Glasgow Philosophical Society. And further, the Trustees recommend
to their successors in office, that the suggestions made by Bailies Liddell
and M‘Naught, in the latter part of this report, should be followed by
them in awarding future premiums for inventions.—Signed, Alexander
Hastie.”

Mr. Harvey exhibited specimens of leather belts and thongs cut by
Mr. Foster’s patent machine, also combination of thongs into ropes suited
for the tillers of vessels. Cords of this construction are now also
employed for shuttle cords in power-loom manufactories. Mr. Foster's
machine is capable of cutting 1000 yards per hour. Mr. W. M. Buchanan
described the machine, and mentioned that tiller ropes could be produced
by this process at half the cost of those commonly in use.

The Society proceeded to the annual election of office-bearers, when
the following were elected:—

resident.
Dr. Tuomas Tomson.

Vice-Presment,,..W atter Crum. Lrrariy,...R. D. Taomson, M.D.
TREASURER,....... ANDREW LIDDELL.

Secretaries,

AvexanpER Hastie, M.P. | Witr1am Keppis.

Council,

A. Anperson, M.D. Proressor Gorpon. | Joun STENHOUSE.
G.A.Warker Arvort, LL.D.| Wm. Gourtiz. Pror. |W. THomson.
A. Bucuanan, M.D. Atrx. Harvey. Gxrorge WATSON.

J. Frypuay, M.D. Wi11am Murray. | A. K. Youne, M.D.

—_

=

: = re

1815, Feb.

List of Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

ORIGINAL MEMBERS.
27, James Lumsden.

1819, May 24, Andrew Liddell.
1820, Feb. 21, John Hart.
0 0 " Robert Hart.
» June 12, Nicol Handyside.
» Aug. 21, John Herbertson.

1821, Jan.

22, Peter Aitken.

n July 16, John Ure.
1822, Oct. 14, John Stewart.
1827, Jan. 7, James Eadie.

1831, Jan.
1834, Feb.

March 5, Alex. Hastie, M.P.
17, George Smith.

ORDINARY MEMBERS. ,

1834, March 10, Richard S. Cunliffe.

" ” n Daniel MacKain.

" April 7, John Joseph Griffin.

" 0 n Alexander Harvey.

n May 19, Walter Crum.

» Noy. 12, Thos. Thomson, M.D.
1835, Jan. 21, James Davidson.

"

March 4, Robt. M‘Gregor, M.D.

» April 1, John White.
" 0 5, John Houldsworth.
" May 13, John Baird.

1836, Feb. 10, James B. Neilson.

s Noy. 16, Graham Hutchison.
" " nC. Randolph.
" n 30, James Lumsden, jun.
" " " John Tennent, Bon-
nington.
1837, Noy. 15, John Stenhouse.
» Dee. 27, William Murray.
1838, Feb. 7, Jas. Smith, Deanston.

March 9, Thomas Dawson.

" « James Murray.

1 21, John Smith,
March 21, John Black.

Alexander Graham.
5, George Lancaster.

Dee.

1839, March 27, William Wilson.

" Noy. 6, John M‘Bride.

m " » William M‘Bride.

" " 20, Fred. Penny, Ph. D.

» Dec. 18, Alex. G. Edington.
1840, Jan. 8, Alex. Wingate.

m iu » George Robb.

" 0 22, William Gourlie.

" Feb, 19, John Findlay, M.D.

n 29, Fred. Adamson.
April 15, Matthew P. Bell.

10, And. Buchanan, M.D.

co

1840, April, 29, Wm. M. Buchanan.

W

Dee.

N

1841, Jan.

Nov.

au”

1842, Jan.
March 8, Charles T. Dunlop.

"

April
Nov.

uv
W

Dec.

1843, Jan.

2, William Cockey.
” L.D.B.Gordon, Profes-
sor.
27, J.Wilson,Auchineaden
17, And. Anderson, M.D.
W. G. Blackie, Ph.D.
» Charles Glassford.
» William King.
n Archibald Walker.
u And.Kerr Young, M.D.
1, William More.
n William Ramsay.
n KR, D. Thomson, M.D.
» James Thomson.
15, J. G. Fleming, M.D.
u William Low.
7 John Clugston.
26, George Thorburn, jun.

6, Wm. Hutcheson, M.D.
16, Hugh Colquhoun, M.D.
30, William Spens.

n James Couper, Cale-

donian Pottery.
14, Andrew Stein. .

4, Peter M‘Intosh.

n George Sutherland.

” Thomas Hill.

18, And. Quinlan, M.D.

n Alex. Mitchell.

0 Andrew Mitchell, jun.
n Robert Graham,

0 Henry Wardrop.

1 Thomas Kyle.

” John Tennant
n Charles James Tennant

1, William Craig.

" William Gale.

" William Strang.

15, John Heugh.

" George Wilson.

15, William Keddie,

» John M‘Andrew.

29, F. H. Thomson, M.D.
15, John Turnbull.

» Thomas Edington.

» John Fisher.

29, Adam Patterson,

" George Jasper Lyon.

" Robert Balloch.

" James Johnston.

" James Bell.

4 List of Members.

1843, Nov. 29, Andrew Bain. | 1846, Feb. 18, J ohn Crawford, M.D.
» Dec. 13, Charles Griffin. | » March 4, G. A. Walker Arnott,
" " 31, Walter Neilson. LL.D.

" " n James Bogle.

0 » 20, Robert Stewart.

" Nn 1 Alexander Grant.
1844, Jan. 17, John Morgan.

" " 31, William Smith.

0 " » William Wilson.

» Feb. 28, Alexander M‘Nab.

» March 13, William Crichton.

n u 23, George Mitchell.

t" 0 1 William Somerville.

» Noy. 18, John Finlay.

0 " v Alexander Miller.

" " n Francis Liesching.

" W » John Carrick.

" 5 v Hugh Carswell.

» Dec. 2, Wm. Thomson, Pro-

0 " 1 Rev. John Graham. fessor.

" " » William Bankier. " " » James Bryce.

n n » John Miller. Nn 1 » Thomas Callender.
» Dec. 4, Alex. Warren Buttery. n " « Robert Wylie.

" n vu James Allan, sen.
" " » George Thomson.

" w » George Buchanan.
" M 16, Arch. B. Harley.

" " 1 Matthew Fairlie. " 1" » Robt. Johnston.

" " » §. P. Cohen. " " » Hugh Bartholomew.
" " 1 William Gilmour, jun. u M" » John Erskine.

" » 18, Laurence Hill, jun. " " 1 John M‘Haftie.

" " » Thomas Watson, M.D.
” " » Alexander Wilson.
" " » Oliver G. Adamson.

" " » John Houston.
0 0 » James Clark.
" " 30, Alexander Laing.

1845, Jan. 8, John A. Easton, M.D. " 0 » Robert Laird.
rT n » William Brown. " " 1 W. Brown.
" " » Thos. G. Buchanan. 0 " 1 William Geddes.
oe oon » Geo. S. Buchanan. " 1 n J. Young.
" " n James Reid Stewart. " " « Charles Robb.

" 0 22, Robert Barclay.

» Feb. 5, John 8, Miller.

" " n James Caldwell.
" " n William Gardner.

0 q 1 James M‘Connell.
1847, Jan. 18, Thomas Macmicking.
" " » James Harvey.

" " 27, Robert Blackie.

" » 19, James Stevenson. " " v Henry M‘Manus.

u M » dames P. Hamilton. i " » J. M‘Gregor M‘Intosh.

» March 5, Jas. Murray, Garnkirk. M W " David Laidlaw.

" » 19, James Couper, Insur- u w » Patrick Robertson.
ance Broker. " 1 1 John M‘Dowall.

" " » Robert Freeland, Gryffe ” " n Alexander Ferguson.
Castle. » Feb. 10, Donald Campbell.

» April 2, Robert Salmond. " " » Hugh M‘Pherson.

" " v W. G. Mitchell. " 0 1 John Fyfe.

" " 16, John Thomson, Ann-
field.

" " » David Chambers.

» Noy. 19, Alfred Hall, M.D.

» Dec. 3, George Harvey.

» March 10, Charles Watson.

" " 31, Peter Stewart, M.D.
1848, Jan. 5, James King.

" u » George Robins Booth.

" T » Andrew Fergus.

" ” » Andrew Risk. " " 0 John Moffat.
" ” » Moses Hunter. " " 19, John Knox.
" 0 1 J, A. Hutchison. " " » Jobn Smith,
” " n James Shanks, » Feb, 2, John Macadam.
N 0 » David Cunningham. " " » John Barclay.
" " 17, William Ambrose. " u " William Watt.
1846, Jan. 7, James Thomson. ” 7 16, James Howe M‘Clure.

0 M v George Brown. ” » » John Craig.

Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

3,

13, James A. Campbell.

John Elder.
William Ferguson.
Robert M ‘Laren.
George Paterson.
Neil Robson.
David Y. Stewart.
William Johnson.
James Stevens.

17, John Buchanan.

31, James Jeffray, M.D.

John Napier.

John Jeffray.
Andrew Stein.
Andrew Laughlen.
Robert Anderson.

14, James Patterson.

March: 28, Robert Sinclair.

1848, March 1, Charles R. Collins. 1848, Dec.
” ” » Thomas L. Patterson. " ” n
yu ” v William Ker. 4 " u”
u " » David Burgess. u ” ”
» April 12, William Clark. n ” ”
” » 26, William Connell. ” ” ”
uv Novy 1, James Wylson. 1849, Jan
" ” » Alex. King, M.D. i Ps P
u " » Henry Kerr. Fe it A
” » 29, James Anderson, Lord z a

Provost. Pp ‘ if

uy ” » John M. Rowan. ” "
” ” v Gavin Rae, jun. ss - i
” ” » Robert Readman. it 7 ”
" 4 » dobn F. Sloane. 7 ” in
” ” » George M‘Leod, M.D. A) i ”
” ” » James Beith. n Feb.
» Dee. 18, Dugald Bannatyne. ”
w " » Michael Connal.

Vv

April 11, Howard Bowser.

The Treasurer presented an abstract of his account for Session 1847-48.

1847. Dr.
Noy. 11.—To Cash in Bank at beginning of
PUG RIN sich. sty erng te adtuckaae an £119. 15-2
1848.
Noy. 11. — Interest on do.,..........cseeeeee Be Fore
— £122 2
To 18 Entries of New Members, at 21s. each,...... 18 18
— 15 Annual Payments from Original Members,
i Bee So uuiaaaeg case osu aiesaene& eaieltiitt 3 15
— 205 Annual Payments, at 158.,.............ce0eees 153 15
— Arrears from four Members, at 15s. each,....... 3 0
£301 10
1848. Cr.
Noy. 11.—By Balance due Treasurer,............00+: Pa ae cet £2 0
— New Books and Binding,...........0..+.4 Cee 143 4
— Printing Transactions, Circulars, &c.,............ 25 0
— Printing and Parchment for New Diplomas,.... 18 0
— Two New Book Caseg,........... qdecde Be tataacty 24 0
— Rent of Hall,...............06. ROS athe chee 1B 0
— Coffee and Gas for Evening Meetings,.....@... 11 10
erate VETIRTPAN OSs olen x cnnig cepa veeeani paanacaeet o> 2 16
— Society’s Officer and Poundage Collecting Dues, 9 8
— Postages, Delivering Letters, &c.,.......0.000008 12 12
— Grant to Botanical Section, ...............066 fan, (O10
— Balance in Union Bank,.................csceeceees 32 4
— -- Provident Bank:;..15,.:+sesecccsseecees 0 15

£301 10,

oo

alio°oo

ier GTauonoacqc$croorcoqodocrec&

8

6 Dr. Annort on Piassava, or Piagaba.

Gascow, lst November, 1848.—We have examined the Treasurer’s Account, and com-
pared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there is in the Union Bank of Scotland
Thirty-two Pounds Four Shillings and Sixpence, and in the Provident Bank, Fifteen
Shillings and Fivepence, together, Thirty-two Pounds Nineteen Shillings and Elevenpence
at the Socity’s credit.

THOS. DAWSON.
WILLIAM COCKEY.

Note by Treasurer—llth November, 1848.—The Balance at credit of the Society is
£86 15s. 3d. lessat commencement of this Session than it was at the same period of last year.
This arises chiefly from an excess of expenditure to about that amount this year in the
Library department, for Books, Binding, and Book Presses. There are six Members in
arrears of payment for one year only each. At the commencement of last Session there
were 213 Members on the roll, and during the sitting of the Session 18 Members were
admitted, and 3 Non-Residents restored, making 234; but from this fall to be deducted two
remoyed and non-resident, six resigned, and four dead, which reduces the number on the
list, and from which dues are leviable, to 222.

The Exhibition Fund, deposited with the Corporation of the City, and Interest thereon
to this date, amounts to £493 14s. 11d.

29th November, 1848.— The Preswent in the Chair.

Mr. Keppre reported that the Botanical Section had re-elected its
office-bearers, as follows :—Dr. G. A. Walker Arnott, President; Mr.
William Gourlie, Vice-President; Mr. Francis Leeshing, Curator of
Herbarium; Mr. William Keddie, Secretary.

The following gentlemen were admitted members’ of the Society :—
Mr. James Wylson, Alexander King, M.D., Mr. Henry Kerr,

Dr. R. D. Thomson read an account of the Thibet expedition under
Dr. Thomas Thomson, Jun., which has been published in Sir William
Hooker's Journal of Botany.

Dr. Walker Arnott brought under the notice of the Soeiety a substance
which has been lately imported into Glasgow, under the name of Piassava,
or Piagaba, but which, from its being unknown in the market, had to be
again shipped for London, where, as well as in Manchester, it is well
known as a substitute for bristles or whalebone for brushes and street
besoms, besides being applied to many other purposes for which it is fitted,
by the great length, elasticity, and strength of its fibre, as well as its
capability of resisting the action of damp. In Brazil, it is made into
strong ropes for ships and draw-wells, and is exported chiefly from Bahia.
Dr. Arnott mentioned that it was obtained from the palm called now
Attalea funifera by authors; and the portion used is understood to be
the spatha, and the dilated base of the leaf-stalks, which latter splits
into shreds, and hangs like a veil from the tree, The nut of this palm
is figured by Gaertner, and was formerly known under the name of
Cocos lapidea, and is imported under various names from Bahia and
Brazil, for the purpose of being turned into umbrella handles, ink
bottles, and other ornamental articles; but the importers of the nut

Mr. Duncan on Two New Salts of Chromic Acid. a

seem to have no idea of its relation to the Piacaba palm. [A reduced
coloured figure of this Palm has been published in Hooker’s Journal of
Botany and Kew Miscellany, for April, 1849.]

13th December, 1848.—The Preswent in the Chair.

On the motion of Mr. Cockey, it was agreed to print a supplementary
catalogue of the Library.

The following gentlemen were admitted members of the Society :—Hon.
James Anderson, Lord Provost, Messrs. John M. Rowan, John Fullerton
Sloane, Gavin Rae, Jun., Robert Readman, and George M‘Leod, M.D.

The following paper was communicated by Dr. R. D. Thomson :—

I1.—On Two New Salts of Chromic Acid. By Arcuteaty Duncan,
Jun., Esa.

Iy 1827, Dr. Thomson described in his paper on the compounds of
chromium, (Phil. Trans. 1827, p. 223,) the double salt—Potash chromate
of magnesia—(KO CrO; MgO CrO, 2 HO) obtained by digesting a
solution of bi-chromate of potash over carbonate of magnesia. I obtained
a corresponding lime salt about two years ago by the following process,—
A boiling solution of bi-chromate of potash was poured over newly slaked
lime in a tall vessel. The undissolved lime having subsided, the super-
natant fluid, which was of a lemon yellow colour, was drawn off by a syphon,
and slowly evaporated in a hot air stove at 80°. During the first two
days of the evaporation, crystalline crusts of an orange salt were formed
on the surface of the liquor, and required to be frequently removed.
After this time, however, these crusts ceased to be produced, and crystals
of a yellow salt began to make their appearance at the bottom of the
evaporating bason, and in two or three days more a mass of beautiful
erystals was obtained. The proportion of the orange to the yellow salt
depends a good deal on the temperature employed in the evaporation.
In one experiment the heat was raised to boiling, and no yellow crystals
were obtained at all,—orange crusts continuing to separate as fast as they
could be removed.

Yellow Potash Chromate of Lime.—This salt crystallises in lemon yellow
four-sided oblique prisms. It is soluble in water, but insoluble in cold
alcohol, and is formed in the latter part of the process described.

The salt, when ignited, fuses, and on cooling, the mass has a crystalline
aspect, and i is quite soluble in water.

The mean of several analyses gave the following result :—

8 Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights.

Experiment. Calculation.
Ghramic and, 9302 .:isi cise Bl3840,..000 <doecnyeeoieea 52°52
Potdah cee, soos PONS 23:900.2..0cathsnaseeceeen 24°24.
MRA hich sige ede sah Os Shi 14-950. : .csads. Geeneee eee 14:14
IWinthen ati s, cep oe tehcc ee se se 9°600...cvsteceeteee meee 9-10
100°290..:. besteeeeneeeeee 100:

This corresponds nearly with the formula KO CrO, CaO CrO, +2 HO.
The water being slightly in excess. It, therefore, is a parallel compound
to the magnesian salt described by Dr. Thomson.

Orange Potash Chromate of Lime.—The mode of formation of this salt
has been already described. It is soluble in water. The mean of three
analyses yielded the following result :—

Chromic Acid). ..-.... 52. ..s<encnecer mae eeeerarctar 52:070
STING, U5 os cise so as nooe an sae conan ce eeRRt ee eee eae 23°990
PGCASD aac ces tne a na'vin vnainaptcen each eee emameeeaee 17:550
IWistier. wseestec castes asnsnsls conte te Meeeeeecenaaes 6:230

99-840

This approaches nearly to the formula 3 KO 7 CaO 7 CrO; 5 HO.
When this salt is ignited it does not fuse, and when cool its colour is
yellow. It does not again altogether dissolve in water, and thence it
appears to have undergone decomposition.

II.—WNotice regarding the Measurements of Heights, by Means of the Boiling
Point of Water. By G. A. Warxer Arnott, LL.D., Regius Professor
of Botany.

Ar the last meeting of this Society, a paragraph was read from one of
Dr. Thomas Thomson’s (jun.) letters from the mountains of Northern India,
to the following effect :—

“Time, 63 p.m., temperature of air 80°, water boiled at 203°6. By the
way, 545 feet for a degree is too little, at least for considerable heights ;
nor will a constant multiplier answer at all. Professor Forbes has some
number near 560 [i is only 5493,] for a constant multiplier, but that was
found gave quite erroneous results at great heights, There remains still
something to be done in the matter. What the thermometer really gives,
as fact, is the pressure of the atmosphere, and its indications vary with
that.”

While making some unpremeditated remarks to the meeting on Dr.
Thomson’s interesting letters, I mentioned that no one doubted that the
thermometer merely indicated the pressure of the air; but that its varia-
tions were not proportional to the difference of pressure, but to the

Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights. 9

difference of the logarithms of the pressure,—that is, they were propor-
tional to the differences of the approximate heights obtained by means of
a barometer; that a constant multiplier must, therefore, give the approwi-
mate height; but that it would appear that Dr. Thomson had not applied
the very important corrections for the temperature of the air to that
approximate height, and which are as necessary for the thermometer, as
when the barometer is used. At the same time I pointed out, that
although the discovery of the above law, and the application of a constant
multiplier, was now usually ascribed to Professor Forbes of Edinburgh,
both were, at least twenty-five years previously, adopted by the late Sir
John Leslie, in the {supplement to the 5th edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, article Barometrical Measurements, which article was after-
wards inserted in the 7th edition of that work; the former was published
in the year 1817 or 1818, the latter about 1830. Sir John Leslie also
taught the same method in the Natural Philosophy class,—at least he did
so during the winter 1816-17, when he undertook the management of
that class during the absence of Professor Playfair in Italy, and illustrated
it by many curious examples which have not been printed, but which are
referred to in my notes, taken while attending his lectures that winter.
Professor Forbes says, (Trans. of Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xv. p. 413,)
“Tt is singular that so elegant and so simple a result should have escaped
every writer on the subject, (so far as I know,) even Deluc himself, who
proposed the logarithmic law, and Wollaston who, unawares, adopted the
true law as a first approximation, and then took a wrong one:” from
which it would appear that he had never read his predecessor’s article on
the subject, or that at the time it had escaped his recollection. Professor
Forbes arrives at his conclusion by means of some very valuable observa-
tions made by himself in Switzerland,—Leslie considered it as already
established by Saussure’s observations and Deluc’s logarithmic law.

As Sir John Leslie’s views seem to be little known, or forgotten, I shall
here insert them :—

“The heat at which water boils or passes into the form of steam,
depends on the weight of the superincumbent atmosphere. By diminish-
ing this pressure, the point of ebullition is always lowered. It appears
that while the boiling point sinks by equal differences, the corresponding
atmospheric pressure decreases exactly, or at least extremely nearly in a
geometrical progression: it being found that every time such pressure is
reduced to one-half, the temperature of boiling water suffers a regular
diminution of about eighteen centesimal degrees. This beautiful relation
assimilates with the law which connects the density and elevation of the
successive strata of the atmosphere. The interval noticed between the
boiling points at two distinct stations must be proportional to their difference
of altitude above the level of the sea. We have therefore only to deter-
mine the co-efficient or constant multiplier, which may be discovered,
either from an experiment under the rarified receiver of an air pump, or
from an actual observation performed at the bottom and at the top of

10 ‘Dr. Arnott on the Measwrements of Heights.

some lofty mountain. We shall prefer at present the observation made
by Saussure on the summit of Mont Blanc. This diligent philosopher
found, by means of a very delicate thermometer constructed on purpose,
that water which boiled at 101°-62 in the plain below when the barometer
stood at 30°534 English inches, boiled at 86°24 on the top of that moun-
tain, while the barometer had sunk to 17-136. Wherefore, the distance
between the points of ebullition, or 15°°38 centesimal degrees, must cor-
respond to an approximate elevation of 15,050 feet; which gives 9783 feet
of ascent for each degree, supposing the mean temperature of the atmos-
pheric column to be that of congellation. But it will be more convenient
to assume 1000 feet for the constant multiplier, which corresponds to the
temperature of 53°.”

Tn order to understand this last clause, we must bear in mind that Leslie
directs us in barometrical measurements to multiply the approximate
height by twice the sum of the centesimal degrees shown by the ther-
mometer indicating the temperature of the external air; the product, with
the decimal point shifted three places to the left, gives the correction to
be added to the approximate height. So, after establishing that 978°5
feet corresponds to a difference of 1° Cent. in the boiling point, the atmos-
phere being supposed to be at freezing or 0° at both stations, he changes
the multiplier to 1000, and finds the new medium temperature correspond-
1000—978°'5

9785
one-fourth of this, or 53, is the result, as stated by Leslie.

It is remarkable that Professor Forbes alse refers to one of the same
observations made by Saussure, in order to prove his constant multiplier
obtained empirically. This is 549} for Fahrenheit’s thermometer at
the temperature of freezing, which gives 989-1 as the multiplier for each
centesimal degree at the mean temperature of 0° Cent., or 1000 at a
medium temperature of 22° Cent. There is thus a difference on the
approximate heights of eleven feet in a thousand from this source alone—
Mr. Forbes’ multiplier making it so much more than Leslie’s: and although
this is of no great consequence, it becomes important to have the means
of reducing it, or ascertaining the cause of the difference.

Mr. Forbes states, that Saussure’s thermometer boiled at 212° Fahr., or
100° Cent., when the barometer stood at 28:777 English inches. There
must be either some slight error in this, or in the other observations made
by Saussure, and depended on by Leslie. And here let us take Deluc’s
formula, where m Log. p + 1 = b the temperature of the boiling point,
p being the barometric pressure: now if we make two observations by the
same instruments, and call the pressures P, p, and the boiling points B, 6,

B— b
Log. P — Log. p’

x Log. P. Thus, we readily find the

ing; this, from what I have said, will be = 22 nearly; and

the difference is m (Log. P — p) = B— Dd: hence m =

B—b
eae Log. P — Log. p.

co-efficient m, and the constant m, by means of two observations made by

Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights. 11

the same barometer and thermometer. If we assume as correct, the
observations quoted by Leslie, then m = 61-30563, n = 10°5944, whence
61306 Log. p + 100594 — temperature of the boiling point on the
Centigrade thermometer. But by this formula the barometric pressure
28-777 gives the boiling point equal to 100°-03 Cent., or 212°-056 Fahr.,
in place of 100° and 212° Fahr. On the other hand, if we assume that
the thermometer showed 100° under the pressure of 28:777, and 86°241
under the pressure 17:133, as stated by Mr. Torbes, the formula becomes
61-0935 Log. p + 10°862 = b, which gives, at the pressure of 30°534,
b = 101-57, instead of 101-62, mentioned by Leslie, as having been
observed. ‘The difference is 0°05 Cent., or 0°°09 Fahr. Hence there is
some error of observation, which, although trivial, must affect considerably
any co-efficients obtained.

When a thermometer does not exhibit the boiling point of 100°, under
the pressure of thirty inches, it is customary to reduce it to that standard
by adding or subtracting the same difference from all the observations
made by it. This is obviously incorrect; for the difference at the boiling
point of 100° can only be got by multiplying the difference at some other
point by 100, and dividing by what the thermometer does indicate at that
pressure. It appears to me, therefore, preferable to derive all the co-effi-
cients by means of the same instruments, and afterwards reduce them
in the way just mentioned. Not only does every thermometer require
a co-efficient and constant multiplier for itself, so as to make the actual
boiling points correspond with those calculated from the barometer, but
the co-efficient or constant multiplier of the difference of the boiling points
by the same instrument requires to be adapted to the mode of calculation
followed for ascertaining the approximate heights by a barometer. Thus,
let the barometer stand at 30, and 17-133 inches respectively, according
to Professor Forbes; “by Galbraith’s tables,

OD eh) WIODOR cia dye cig caves nace aes Hive doaiteaateh 29228
Fe LAD Die, Sob Aaldse evar aee eave Ralosavardugrs 14593
WHMOTORER) iach oan nee sess vee 14635,”

whereas, by the more usual method, and that adopted by Leslie, 60,000
x (Log. 30 — Log. 17:133,) = 14597, exhibiting a difference of 38 feet,
or about 2? feet in every thousand.

It thus appears that every one must discover that co-efficient for him-
self which is most suited to his barometer and thermometer, as well as to
the method of calculation he adopts for measurements by the barometer,
otherwise the heights ascertained by the barometer and the boiling points,
cannot be expected to correspond. The following is the simple practical
rule :—

“Observe the boiling points under two as widely different barometric
pressures as possible, and calculate the approximate difference of height by
the method usually adopted; the difference between the boiling points

12 Dr. Arnott on the Measurement of Heights.

divided by the difference of the approximate height, gives the co-efficient for
after use adapted to that thermometer and barometer.”

It is of no consequence whether the Centigrade or Fahrenheit’s ther-
mometer be used, provided the same scale be adhered to.

If in tropical countries the barometer usually stands at thirty inches at
the level of the sea, it becomes important to ascertain what is the boiling
point of the thermometer used, at that pressure; and from what I have
already said, we obtain this simple rule :—

“Observe the boiling points wnder two as widely different barometric
pressures as possible: divide the difference of these boiling points by the
difference of the logarithms of the barometer in inches, and call this m;
this multiplied by the logarithm of one of the indications of the barometer,
and the product subtracted from the elevation of the corresponding boiling
points above freezing, will give a number n: then m Log. 30 + n=
1:4771213 X m + n gives the elevation of the boiling point above freezing
at the pressure of thirty inches; m and n being multiplied by 100, and
divided by this elevation, will adapt the formula to a thermometer graduated
at 100° Cent. under the pressure of thirty inches, and tenperature 0°.”

It is very desirable that thermometers, but particularly the boiling
point instruments, be all graduated to indicate 212 Fahr. or 100° Cent. at
thirty inches precisely, and when the external atmosphere is at freezing ;*
and each instrument maker can easily accomplish this by keeping a
standard one whereby to graduate those he sells. It is probable that in
this country most are now so graduated, and in that case it is necessary
to ascertain with some accuracy the boiling point for any particular
pressure, p.

Mr. Forbes, in his Memoir, pp. 412, 414, gives eight observations on

* In order to compare any other thermometer with this standard one, let a be
the boiling point on the latter, (whether adapted to Fahrenheit or the Centigrade
seale,) and A the boiling point of the other thermometer at the same barometric
pressure and temperature of the atmosphere: and let c° be the point where the two
thermometers exactly coincide, whether that point be freezing, or above or below
it: then let b be any observed state of the thermometer, this will accord with

e+ — (b — c), or ee on the standard one; on the Centi-

100 Z
grade scale, if c = 0, a= 100; b becomes i Sometimes thermometers are

made to coincide at 32° Fahr., sometimes at Zero Fahr.: but in order to make the
degrees shown by the one correspond to those on the other, it is necessary to dis-
cover this point of coincidence, before we compare the boiling points. Usually, 32° is

preferred for Fahrenheit’s, in which case, the above becomes 32 -++ edie
gin? Pe = 6784 The common way is to call this 6 -+- 212 — A, which

is too small by the quantity a and if A — 212 amounts to 1}

_ or 2°, and if A — b, be 20° or 25°, as in Saussure’s observations, the error may
amount to 2 or 3_ tenths of a degree.

Dr. ARNOTT on the Measurements of Heights. 13

the boiling points by Fahrenheit’s thermometer, along with the simultaneous
heights of the barometer: these, arranged according to their values, are:—

pees bars; Pres. BO.” iraedeets Boil. point, 212° ........6 = 100°344
2... — 28°489....0006 — 210° 12.........— 99°38
3... = DO LAD om nes gs — 204°20........ — 96°011
4... — 332898. cen sine — 201°°58........ — 94556
i 23°353.i... 605 a BODLG 65 cesarean — 94°
6,... — a ae _ ADDI 10 200: — 93°733
(a 22°674........ — 1999-08 02: doxe — 93°167
8... — SET dh iatalomncig —- LOD Fava aass x — 90°-983

Mr. Forbes also mentions that his thermometer actually indicated
212°62 under the pressure of 30 inches, and on deriving a formula from
the 2d and 7th of the above observations, it would appear that each had
been reduced to 212° at that pressure, by subtracting 0°62 from the
observed boiling points: the last column then indicates the boiling points
after 0°62 has been added to each of the recorded ones, and converted
into centesimal degrees. In order to obtain the co-efficient m and con-
stant n, by an average of these, we may divide the difference of the sum
of the first four boiling points and that of the last four, by the difference
of the sum of the logarithms of the first four pressures, and that of the
last four: this gives the formula 60-189 Log. p + 11:452 =, the ther-
mometer showing 100°344 at a pressure of 30 inches, or (when multiplied
by aa) 59-978 Log. p 4+ 11-41 = 6 for a thermometer showing
100° under the same pressure. This may be said, in round numbers, to
be equivalent to 60 Log. p + 11:373 = b.*

I have already deduced from Saussure’s observations two formulas: the
oue from Leslie’s data, is 61:°3056 Log. p + 10°594 : the other, from Mr.
Forbes’ account of them, is 61:0935 Log. p + 10:862. The co-efficient
and constant of these being reduced so as to be adapted to a thermometer
graduated to 100° at a pressure of 30 inches, are respectively 60°61 Log. p
+-10”47, and 60:43 Log. p + 10°76. On the whole, I prefer 60°6
Log. p + 10:486 = 0 for the Centigrade scale, or 109 Log. p + 18-994
for Fahrenheit’s, reckoned from the freezing point, or 109 Log. p + 50:994
for the precise boiling point. Dr. Horsley’s formula gives 61:18 Log. p
+ 9°63, or in round numbers, 61:2 Log. p + 9%6, for the Centigrade
scale, and 110-1223 Log. » + 17°32 for Fahrenheit’s above 32°, or

* It may be remarked that, as by the formula just obtained from Professor
Forbes’ observations, 60 times the difference of the logarithms of the barometer
gives the difference of the boiling points, and since 60,000 times the same gives the
approximate height, therefore, 1000 times the difference of the boiling point gives
the approximate height ; the same rule as given by Leslie—with this distinction,
that the atmosphere is supposed to be at the temperature of freezing, by Forbes ;
by Leslie, at 54° Cent, above it, and that is of great importance.

14 Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights.

110-1223 Log. p 4+ 49°32 for the actual temperature: but it appears he
obtained this from Saussure’s thermometer by equal corrections to all the
boiling points observed, which I do not consider strictly correct.

For such a thermometer, and by means of the formula I have suggested,
we may discover the boiling point corresponding to any other pressure, say
20 inches, and thence derive the co-efficient by which the difference of the
boiling points require to be multiplied, so as to give the approximate
height. At the mean temperature of freezing, this is 990 for the Centigrade
thermometer, by using the logarithmic tables, or 9923 nearly, if it be
thought necessary to employ Galbraith’s: the one gives 1000 for the
constant multiplier, when the mean temperature of the air is 23° Cent. ;
the other, when the mean temperature is 1°8; and adapting these to
Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the multiplier becomes 550, at the mean tem-
perature of 32°, using the logarithmic tables, or at the temperature of
about 32°6, by using Galbraith’s tables. Such give the approximate
heights almost the same as by Professor Forbes’ method, who takes the
co-efficient 5494 also at a mean temperature of 32°, which corresponds to
550, at a mean temperature of 32”5, and to a multiplier of 1000, when
the centesimal scale is adopted, the mean temperature then being 2°8, or
23° nearly, as formerly noticed by me.

The difference between these may, if thought necessary, be corrected
whilst correcting the approximate height, by considering the same constant
multiplier as having been fixed to correspond to different mean tempera-
tures: twice the mean temperature adopted having to be deducted from
the sum of the detached thermometers.

In the elevated mountains of India and South nie it is difficult
to have a simultaneous series of observations carried on at the level of the
sea, and hence, I believe, the barometer is generally assumed to stand
there steadily at 30 inches: and if the thermometer be adjusted to boil
at 212° Fahr., or 100° Cent. under that pressure, the difficulty of finding
the approximate height by the boiling point is removed: but we have no
precise method of correcting the approximate height for the variable
temperature of the external air, without actual observation. At the same
time, it appears to me that we may approximate to this also.

It has been long ago observed by Playfair, Leslie, and other elementary
writers, (I know not who discovered that the decrease was uniform, it
was confirmed by Lagrange in 1772,) that for heights in this country the
mean temperature decreases 1° Fahr. for about every 90 yards, or 270
feet of ascent: and although the difference of temperature of the atmos-
phere between two places is by no means constant, still, in favourable
circumstances, I have found that 1° Cent. for every 500 feet of ascent, is
not very far from the truth. This law seems also to be applicable to
Switzerland; but if I may draw conclusions from some isolated observa-
tions made by Humboldt in South America, it would appear that in the
tropies it requires about 700 and sometimes 1000 feet to correspond to
1° of the same scale. More observations require to be made on this

Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights. 15

subject, as it may assist materially in making the correction on the heights
derived from the boiling point, particularly in such situations as Dr, T.
Thomson is now exploring.

Let us assume that the boiling point, under a pressure of 30 inches, is 100°
Cent., then if 0° Cent. be the temperature of boiling water on a mountain,
and B that below, 1000 (B — 6) will represent the approximate height
at the temperature of 24° by my formula; or according to Leslie, at 5° or
54°. If in the tropics it require 700 feet of ascent to show a decrease of

; 1 ,
one centesimal degree in the temperature of the air, then = (B — D) will

will represent the difference between the observed temperatures of the air
(é) at the upper and lower stations, (whether oe latter be or be not at

the level of the sea,) which last will be ¢ +7 “eC — b), and twice
28% + 20 (B
7

the sum of the temperatures is me ) But if we assume
the constant multiplier to be 1000 for the temperature of 5°, we must
deduct 4 X 5 — 20 from the above, leaving a ea
the correction to the approximate height is then (B — b) x

oe ee which, added to that height, gives the

true height =H — 1000 (B —b) + (B—b) (8 2+% as b) — =

ey (100) ag + Oe ele oe ee R

But if it be found that 500 feet accords as well with the results for
each Centigrade degree, in the tropics as in Hurope, the above formula
becomes—

2(B—b) (490 + 24+ 2(B—b), or 4 B— Db) (245 +¢4+ (B—D))...8

I have mentioned already my reasons for thinking that 5° is too high,
and that a mean temperature of 23 is better suited to the constant 1000;
according to this view, the above two formulas become—

gaa Ta ae gs een Niel ot pa T
SulreenD) (496 ct. 2:0 te 2, CB. x b))ruanedinenks-asweedesnieweens was U
In reducing these last to Fahrenheit’s scale, I shall take the constant

590

Bib. og
shall assume that the temperature of the air decreases 1° Fahr. for every

275 feet of ascent. The corrected height then becomes

= (B — db) (510-889 + 1:222 @ + (B— B))....... .cecssssenneeees vi
or in round numbers H = (B — b) (511 + 1:2 ¢ + (B —D)).....W
But if in the tropics it requires an ascent of 700 feet to give a decrease
of 1° Cent., or 390 feet for 1° Fahr., and we haye to employ formula , it,
when adapted to Fahrenheit’s thermometer, becomes

550, which answers to a mean temperature of 32°, and as ——

16 “Dr. Arnott on the Measwrements of Heights.

Petey) (ol0 eas

(B —b) (610-4933 + a sae =D

and in order to compare this with whos V, it may be exhibited thus:
H — (B — 2) (610-4938 4 non 764.840. ane y,

which is obtained directly from as formula U. In both cases we may
take 5103 in place of 510-4933. By examining these two last formulas,
it is obvious that if in place of 500 or 700 feet of ascent for each centes-
imal degree, it were 100 X d, then the portion to be added to ¢ will be

10 = as qn): so that any one may alter the formula to suit his own

26

as For although I have, for convenience, used 275 feet of
ascent for each degree of Fahrenheit, or 500 for each centesimal degree,
(which corresponds to about 290 for 1° Fahr.) being two degrees for each
degree of difference in the boiling points, or 700 feet for each centesimal
degree in the tropics, I have already said that the average number of
feet, or the relation of the difference of temperature to that of the boiling
points, must be ascertained by observations on the spot. Besides, the
temperature of the atmosphere at different places is influenced by so many
accidental circumstances, that this mode of making the correction must be
regarded merely as an approximation, when actual observation at the
lower station cannot be obtained, and as preferable to making no correc-
tions at all on the approximate height.

If our object is to calculate the height above ne level of the sea in the
tropics, upon the understanding that water boils there at 212° Fahr., or
100° Cent., where the weather is steady, and the barometer stands at 30
inches; then it will give a result not far from the truth, if we ascertain
what is the actual boiling point of the instrument at that pressure, either
by observation or calculation in the way already indicated, and substitute
this for B in the formula employed. Such cannot be strictly correct,
because the constants have been adapted to a thermometer which really
indicated 212° under the above pressure; but it must be obvious to any
one, that until the thermometer has been compared with the barometer,
and its boiling point at 30 inches of pressure ascertained, it is im vain
to look for even an approximation in this way, to the height of the station.

In such a case, the preferable mode, perhaps, is to discover the co-effi-
cients suited to the instrument. From what has been said, it is obvious
that if the decrement of atmospheric temperature be uniform, while the
difference of elevation is so, we may represent the corrected height by
d(a+ yt + zd) =h, when d is the difference between 212° (if on
Fahrenheit’s scale,) and the observed boiling point, and ¢ the observed
temperature of the air ;—at some other elevation, as little above the level
of the sea as convenient, let this be D (x + y T + 2D) =H; and at
some intermediate height, 3 (@ + y7 + 23) = Nowifd, ¢, and, in

OO an oe

Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights. 17

the first, D, T, H, in the second, and 4, 7, , in the third, be accurately
examined, we may (by simple equations) find z —

1 mdD(T—t)—' (dH (r—1t) + DA(T—7))

( (d —D) (+ — t) — (d — 3) (T — 4)
1 uk SE kl a ae Ml
ap <a @=)) ¢—j—@—) 17
_ z2adD—hD— Had) eee yet 2 d)
hain ae (Oo Dee F oa ore
which values being substituted in the equation d (x + yt+ 2d) gives
us a formula for that thermometer, and the decrement of atmospheric
temperature for the climate, whatever it be, so that we may calculate by
it other elevations.

I shall now illustrate some of the formulas given ee by five
examples.

Ex. 1. Dr. T. Thomson writes that at one place, which he considered
to be at an elevation of about 18,500 feet, he observed the boiling point
to be 180"3 Fahr., which corresponds to 82°39 Cent. Now I am ignorant
under what pressure his instrument is graduated, and also of the temper-
ature of the external air. The former probably showed 100° when the
barometer stood at 30 inches, and the latter, from the season of the year
and collateral remarks made by Dr. T. Thomson, may be assumed to be
freezing, or 0°. In formula 8, then, ¢ = 0, B— 6 = 17-61, whence the
height = 35°22 (490 + 35:22) — 18,498 feet, differing only 2 feet from
the height suggested by Dr. Thomson. But if we take the formula U,
which I prefer, the height is 18,674, or 172 feet more than supposed by
Dr. Thomson,

Ex. 2. In the extract from Dr. T. Thomson’s letter, at the commence-
ment of these remarks, he states that his thermometer showed the boiling
point to be 203°6, while the temperature of the atmosphere was 80°.
These on the Centigrade scale (which I prefer for its simplicity in calcu-
lation) are 95°-333, and 26°667 respectively: hence ¢ = 26°°677, and
B — b = (supposing B = 100°, as in the first example) — 4°-667.
The height, by formula 8, is thus 5156, or by formula U, 5203 feet. By

- using Fabrenheit’s thermometer, the formula X gives the height — 5147,

and W, 5198. Unfortunately, Dr. Thomson does not state what he
considers the height of this station to be.

Ex. 3. Humboldt observed the barometer on Chimborazo to be at
0°377275 metres, or 14°853 English inches; and the detached thermo-
meter to indicate — 16 Cent. The boiling point of a thermometer
adjusted to 100° Cent. at a pressure of 30 iaches, would thus, by my
formula (60°6 Log. p + 10°486 = 0b) be on the mountain 81°5. In
formula U, then, ¢-—— 16, B —b — 185, whence the height —
37 (495 —3:'2 + 37) = 19,566. The true height, after making every
correction for the hygrometer, latitude, &. &c., is 19,441: the error, 125
feet, arising principally from it requiring 700 feet of ascent for each
degree, whereas I have only allowed 500.

Vou, III.—No. 1. 2

18 Dr. Arnott on the Measurements of Heights.

Ex. 4. Humboldt cbserved the barometer on Quindiu to stand at
0.509818 metres, or 20°072 English inches, and the detached thermometer
tobe at 18°75 Cent. The boiling point of a thermometer, by my formula,
would thus be 89°43. In formula U,é= 18°75, B — 6 — 10°57;
whence the height is 11,703 feet ; the height obtained, by the most refined
barometrical methods, is about 11,500, so that there is here an error ‘of
about 200 feet. But this example is an unfair one, for there was only a
difference of 6°°55 Cent. observed between the temperature of the atmos-
phere on the mountain, and that at the level of the sea, whereas by my
general formula, it is supposed to be 21°. In other words, while Fahren-
heit’s thermometer stood at 77°54 at the level of the sea, it was as high
as 65°75 at the great elevation of upwards of 11,000 feet: such must
have arisen from accidental or local causes, and it has always appeared
to me that in such cases, some new correction must be applied before we
ean make use of that element in the calculation of heights by the
barometer.

Ex. 5. The last example I shall give, is taken from Professor Forbes’
Observations, (p. 415 of his paper on this subject:) he states, that the
thermometer haying been corrected to show the boiling point at 212°
Fahr., or 100° Cent., at a pressure of 30 inches, indicated the boiling
point to be 191°93 or 88°85 Cent. on the Col d’Erin in the Vallais, the
temperature of the external air being 34° Fahr., or 1°11 Cent. At
Geneva, the boiling point was not observed, but the barometer stood at
28:73 inches. Now 28:73 corresponds, by my formula, to the boiling
point of 98:86; whence in formula U, ¢ = 1:11, B— 6 = 10°01, and
the height above Geneva is 20:02 (495 + 2:22 + 20-02) — 10,355.
According to Professor Forbes, the height was 10,377, partly by the
ordinary barometric calculation, and partly by his own constant multi-
plier: this makes the height of the Col d’Erin, above the level of the sea,
according to him, 11,720 feet ; by the formula U, 11,698, or almost 11,700
feet. If we suppose that the boiling point was 100° at the level of the
sea, then ¢ = 1°11 Cent., B — 6 = 11°15, and the altitude is 11,585;
on the same supposition, Mr. Forbes makes it 11,586. But water by
that thermometer must actually have boiled at the level of the sea at
that time, at 212°-225, or 100°4 Cent.

In giving these formulas, I do not intend them for the man of science,
for I suppose there are few such who haye not had recourse to similar
methods of correcting the approximate heights given by their barometer,
in default of actual simultaneous observations on the temperature of the
atmosphere at both stations; but because they may prove useful to those
who work only by the formulas of others. Whenever a barometer is at
hand, it is a much more trustworthy instrument than the best thermometer
adapted to take the boiling points, for as justly observed upon the latter,
by Professor Forbes, “in no circumstances, even the most favourable, is
the observation true to less than j4, of a degree.’’ But there are few
who have travelled in mountainous districts who cannot tell of barometers

Mr. Bryce on the Structure of Staffa and the Giant's Causeway. 19

broken, or mereury escaping, and air getting into the tube: so that it is
desirable to render the thermometer as useful an auxiliary as possible.
Fortunately, in a botanical point of view, which most concerns me, and
which must be my excuse for bringing forward this notice of a subject
apparently so unconnected with my own profession, great nicety is not
required in ascertaining the elevations.

Dr. R. D. Thomson gave a notice of the sequel of Dr. Thomas
Thomson’s expedition into Thibet, which detailed his successful attempt
to reach the Karokoram pass into Central Asia, his discovery of a range
of mountains 24,000 feet high, and his approximation to the source
of the Shayok or northern branch of the Indus. It is believed, that he
has been the first European who has succeeded in attaining such a high
latitude in this part of India. The details have been published in
Hooker’s Journal of Botany, and in the Geographical Society’s Journal.

On the motion of Mr. Crum, it was agreed that £70 shall be appro-
priated to the purchase of Books and Periodicals.

3d January, 1849.—The Presment in the Chair.

Tue following gentlemen were admitted members:—Messrs. James
Beith, Dugald Bannatyne, Michael Connal, James A. Campbell, John
Elder, William Ferguson, Robert M‘Laren, George Paterson, Neil
Robson.

Mr. Gourlie mentioned that a number of bones, belonging to the extinct
bird of the Island of Rodriguez, called the solitaire, and the property of
_ the Andersonian Museum, had been laid on the table. Figures of all
these bones, which are of great rarity, have been given in the work—“The
Dodo and its Kindred,” by Mr. Strickland and Dr. Melville, to whom
the Trustees kindly lent them, for the purpose of illustrating their work,
a copy of which had been presented to the Museum by the authors.

LUL—On the Structure of Staffa and the Giant's Causeway.—By Jas.
Bryce, Jun., Esq., M.A., F.G.S.

Tue author stated and illustrated some new views regarding the struc-
ture of Staffa and the Giant’s Causeway. He first explained the general
structure of the basaltic district of north-eastern Ireland. It occupies an
area of more than 1000 square miles, and consists of a great substratum
of new red sandstone, supporting three distinct fossiliferous beds, lias,
greensand, and chalk, which are overlaid by a thick covering of trap rock
of igneous origin, similar to that which forms the Giant’s Causeway.
These three fossiliferous rocks are absent in the great natural section

20 Mr. Bryce on the altered Dolomites of the Island of Bute.

formed by the mural precipices of the Causeway coast. It was shown that
this has been occasioned by a great fault, whereby the whole promontory .
of Bengore, including the Causeway itself, and a tract of country five miles
long by one to one-and-a-half wide, has been thrown down about 400 feet,
and thus the upper beds of the superincumbent trap are brought to the same
level as the chalk. The same fault was shown to embrace also a portion
of the island of Rathlin.

The various beds of the Causeway cliffs were then aiaecibea as rising
in succession from the sea level in Port-Moon, and attaining their highest
level in Pleaskin, whence they again descend in a long curve towards the
north of the Causeway, which is formed by the intersection of one of the
beds with the sea line. The beds rise again towards the west and run
out in succession, owing to the gradual lowering of the cliffs.

The beds forming the facades of Staffa were next described, and were
shown to have a remarkable resemblance, both in mineral character, in
succession, and in thickness, to those of the Causeway.

Some theoretical views were then stated respecting the origin of these
remarkable formations, and the former existence of separate volcanic
foci at the Giant’s Causeway and Staffa, and on the probable connection
of these with movements of the surface still taking place along the great
Caledonian valley, and other lines parallel to the axis of the Grampian
chain.

IV.—WNote on the altered Dolomites of the Island of Bute. By Jamus
Brycs, Jun., M.A., F.G:S.

In the closing paragraphs of a paper on the geology of Bute, read
before the Society last session, and since published in their Journal, I
described certain changes which have been produced upon the Kilchattan
limestone by contact with igneous rocks. These changes, however, were
then but approximately determined,—the limestone having been subjected
by Mr. John Macadam, at my request, merely to a qualitative analysis,—
sufficient to indicate the character of the change, but of too general a
nature to ascertain the exact amount of change, as to afford definite terms
of comparison with the analyses of other limestones. Careful quantitative
analyses of a series of specimens have now been obtained through the
kindness of Dr. Robert D, Thomson ;—they have been made under his
care in the laboratory of the University; and his name is a sufficient
guarantee for their accuracy. It is hoped that the publication of these
may lead to the formation of clearer views on an obscure question in
theoretic geology.

The analyses kindly furnished to me by Dr. Robert D. Thomson, are
as follows :—

Specimen No. 1, is the saccharine marble from the contact with the
dike at Kilchattan, in the highest state of alteration. It is the same as
No. 1 in Mr. Macadam’s statement in my former paper.

Mr. Brycs on the altered Dolomites of the Island of Bute. 21

No. 2, is the hard crystalline marble, having the crystals in distinct
flakes—more remote from the dike and less altered than No. 1.

No. 3, is the unaltered limestone from the middle of the quarry, remote
from the dike—an average specimen. It corresponds to No. 2, in Mr.
Macadam’s report.

No. 4, is the altered limestone from contact with the overlying trap at
Ascog mill; it is an impure, dark coloured rock, of earthy aspect, and
very like the trap which rests upon it.

The matter termed silica and alumina, is what was insoluble in muri-
atic acid.

No. 1. I. i,
Analyses by Mr, J. H. Turnbull. Analyses by Mr. Henry 8. Thomson.
Specific gravity, 2°710
Silica,...... ;

Bernie) pee OMe. 22, Dee GIR 0
PRIA oases ine von « i att eae one ae
Protoxide of iron,...... SG, Cccnehh nats anacite Ld) eee 1:28
ROTTS OF IH nos DU; 0 vis curedrenarenceee thy [ewereacees 91:08
atbonate of magnesia, 100%, (2.45 \vedes.feress cage tcereenss < 1:17

DINU gaseous ssi eo tias oes see 99°23
No, 2. I II
Specific Eat 2°570
pica, - TE eet BR 0°28..scsees 0:28
Mitinina eabereece scan
Protoxide of iron,...... OAR ae Ren cutee inca tans ee yr iilh pete aane 0°56
Carbonate of lime,......96°48 ..........0eceeeee 98°76.........96°58
Carbonate of magnesia, 1:23 ...............06 Spwcneceh ae
HOOT) cx ak Coy. 42% 99°66
No. 3. is 1a
Specific gravity, 2°679
Silica, ... ae ere y ‘
nc. rR a a, and cal Marable te 9:08
Protoxide of it MOMs icnsss ; ip) PB Pee er ee ae era 1:12
Carbonate of ioe gaat sd Bis cd. aaxivatkitntes « Goa a: as 67:00
Carbonate of magnesia,17°31..............2.008 eee ween 18:06
Water, coaly matter, ; :
co tdci iy Bey 8 IT Eo te AP, 4°74
PT 8 at a 100-00
No. 4
ae PRN: Stes deycr os haps hex 64-46
umina, . pot

Protoxide of i mals He ROH ed cdiia se rady ux tas encene diners 6°60

22 Mr. GLassForD on the Electric Light.

Carbonate of lime,...... 24-005... ie I 21:20
Carbonate of magnesia, 4°62............csseseceseeeseeeceeeees 2°85
Wator’'& carbonic acid; 1°75..52.05 WR 4:89

100°00...;-.. ue 100°00

These analyses are confirmatory of the views stated in my former paper,
and bear out the principal points in Mr. Macadam’s report; they seem
clearly to establish the new and remarkable fact, that by the igneous
action in these localities in Bute, magnesia has been driven off from the
limestone. The unaltered rock is a dolomite, containing nearly 70 per
cent. of carbonate of lime, and nearly 20 per cent. of carbonate of mag-
nesia; while the altered rock contains no more than 1 or 13 per cent. of
the latter ingredient. To what cause are we to assign the changes that
haye taken place? Has the magnesia been sublimated by the action of
the trap dike when fluid under the influence of heat? or has it been with-
drawn by the solvent power of free carbonic acid, after the consolidation
of this matter from a state of igneous fusion? On the nature of these
and the other chemical changes that have been induced, and on the precise
character of the metamorphic action, it is unnecessary that I should make
any additional remarks, the subject having been, perhaps, as fully treated
of in my former paper, as my own knowledge of theoretical chemistry, and
our present limited acquaintance with facts, will permit. The subject is
one of great interest, both to the geologist and chemist, as the facts are
directly opposed to the received views, (Daubeny on Volcanoes, 2d Edit.
1849,) and as no instance of similar changes on dolomitie rocks has, so
far as I am aware, ever been put on record. It is hoped that the publi-
cation of these analyses may lead to a similar examination of dolomitic
rocks placed under like conditions, and that thus, by an extended inquiry,
materials may be collected for establishing the true theory of the chemical
changes which these rocks have undergone.

17th Janwary.—The Present in the Chair.

Tue following gentlemen were admitted, viz. :—Messrs. James Stevens,
William Johnson, and David Y. Stewart.

On the motion of Mr. Cockey, seconded by Mr. Bell, it was agreed that
the entire Catalogue of the Library, now nearly exhausted, should be
printed, instead of a supplement only, as was formerly proposed. For
this purpose £7 was voted for the first time.

Mr. Glassford explained and exhibited the new method of applying
electricity to the purpose of illumination. Mr. Glassford, in conjunction
with Mr. R. Finlay, philosophical instrument maker, had constructed a
very extensive and powerful galvanic battery, upon the Maynooth principle,

Mr. GuassrorD on the Electric Light. 23

for the express purpose of showing the electric light, and for testing its
applicability to the purposes of ordinary life. Mr, Glassford described
the different schemes which had been tried by Mr. Staite, the patentee of
the electric light, to render this brilliant source of light available for the
ordinary purposes of illumination. It is well known that a most intense and
beautiful light is emitted when pieces of wood charcoal, connected to the
poles of a large battery, are brought in contact and then slightly with-
drawn from each other. This, until within the last few years, was the only
method known and practised for showing the electric light. From the
great combustibility of the charcoal points, they were quickly consumed,
and of course the light was extinguished. The luminous power of the
galvanic fluid was known as early as 1810, and many experiments were
made with the large battery of the Royal Institution, London, and the
illuminating phenomena produced were of the most brilliant and dazzling
description.

That such a splendid light might be made available in ordinary life,
doubtless suggested itself to many, and numerous trials were probably
made with this view. But it appears that M. Achereau of Paris was the
first who really succeeded in keeping up a constant light, and in actually
applying it to ordinary illuminating purposes. This was done in 1843, at
the Place de la Concorde in Paris, but the trial, although eminently
successful in demonstrating its practicability, had no further result, and
for a long time it seems to have been lost sight of. Mr. Staite has again
brought the subject before the world, and has patented an ingenious
apparatus, whereby the light can be regulated by the same means that the
light is produced. He has also introduced more suitable materials than
wood-charcoal as electrodes, or light-conducting points; and has appar-
ently almost overcome the mechanical difficulties in practically applying
electricity to the purpose of illumination. The machinery employed for
producing the various upward, downward, and horizontal motions, is an
adaptation of clock machinery, and the motive power is obtained by
magnetising a bar of soft iron with a current of the electricity while on its
way to the points of illumination. Instantly the current of electricity is
established, the bar of iron—round which, in a circle of small wire, the
current flows—becomes magnetic, and attracts a small piece of iron in its
immediate vicinity, which is attached to one of the small clock wheels.
The instant the smaller bar of iron moves, the whole machinery is set in
motion, and the electrodes, or tubes holding the illuminating points, are
drawn asunder. ‘The electric fluid now traverses a stratum of air, and
sheds its intense and dazzling light, and in proportion to the power of the
battery, so is the distance of these electrodes from each other, and so is
the volume of light great or small. If the points are drawn too far apart,
the current will suddenly cease, and the light disappear. On this the
small bar of iron, before under the influence of magnetism, loses its power
and falls into its former position; in consequence of which the motion of
the machinery is reversed, and now the illuminating points are rapidly

24 ProFessor GorvDoN on Locomotive Carriages.

brought together. When again brought in contact, the current is estab-
lished, the motion reversed, the points are withdrawn from each other, and
again the light shines out. The light so produced is of the most intense
brillianey, and is overpoweringly dazzling. It is beautifully pure and
white, and exactly resembles in power and properties the solar light. Mr.
Glassford employed a variety of electrodes, such as of common coke,
plumbago, and mixtures of these, and explained the methods of preparation,
and their comparative properties for conducting the fluid. The battery
employed on this occasion, consisted of sixty-three large-sized Maynooth
cells. Mr. G. displayed its extraordinary heating power by the fusion of
pieces of steel, iron, and copper. The chemical and magnetising powers
of this battery he described as being also very astonishing. There are
several disadvantages in the use of the Maynooth battery, which Mr. G.
thinks will be overcome, and which will render this the most effective,
cheap, and useful electrical instrument known. Much of the success in
the application to ordinary illuminating purposes of the electrie light,
depends on the economy with which the electric power can be got up and
maintained ; all the other obstacles are trifling compared with this.

31st January, 1849.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Tue following members were elected, viz.:—Dr. James Jeffray, Mr. John
Jeffray, Mr. Andrew Stein, Mr. Andrew Laughlen, Mr. Robert Anderson.

The Librarian announced the presentation of Transactions of the Royal
Scottish Society of Arts, Parts II. and IIT. of the third volume; and the
Third Report of the Dublin University Museum.

The second vote was taken on the proposal to grant £7 for the reprint-
ing of the Library Catalogue, which was finally agreed to.

Professor Gordon made some remarks on the proposal to substitute
Locomotive Carriages for Locomotive Engines and Passengers’ Trains on
Railways. He commenced by describing Mr. Samuel’s Express Engine,
on which he (the Professor) last year travelled from London to Cambridge
at the rate of 32 to 44 miles an hour, and which, with an engine weighing
18 ewt., together with boiler, wheels, framing, seats for 7 or 8 passengers,
&e., weighed altogether between 22 and 23 ewt. It was this engine that
suggested to Mr. Adams of Fairfield, the practicability of the plan for
which he took out a patent last year; for observing that the express
engine could do so much more work with a 3 inch cylinder, a 6 inch
stroke, and 3 feet wheel, he supposed that an engine not very different in
its proportions might be attached to a carriage ; and hence he projected
the combination of locomotive and carriage. The locomotive carriage
constructed by him, and which Mr. Gordon next described, weighed, the
locomotive 6 tons, and the carriage 7 or 8 tons, and carrying 50 passen-
gers—the total weight was about 18 tons. This he contrasted with the

PROFESSOR GORDON on Locomotive Carriages. 25

locomotive on the Great Western, named the “Iron Duke,” weighing 36
tons, and the tender 14 tons, making 50 tons, with water for a run of
about 50 miles. Professor Gordon then briefly sketched the history of
the present railway system, which may be considered as having originated
with the Stockton and Darlington Company in 1825, when the locomotive
engine was yet in its infancy. The system was further developed in
1829 by the formation of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. The
Professor called especial attention to the circumstance, that up till 1830,
the success of the system was held to depend chiefly on goods traffic. But
it soon became apparent that the traffic in goods, for which the Liverpool
railway was principally constructed, was subordinate to the passenger
traffic, the development of which Mr. Stephenson, Mr. Locke, and other
eminent engineers, soon discovered to be—what is now universally admitted
—the real source of the prosperity of the railway system. Mr. Gordon
proceeded to discuss the questions of the present average weight of
locomotive engines and tender—the amount of adhesion—the power and
efficiency of the engine. Mr. Stephenson’s engine, the “Rocket,’’ con-
structed in 1829, according to the condition on which the Directors of
the Liverpool and Manchester railway offered a premium, weighed 4 tons 5
ewt.; its tender, with water and coke, 3 tons 4 cwt.; and its power was
equal to drawing two carriages, weighing, with load, 93 tons, at the rate
of 15 miles per hour. The locomotive was afterwards gradually increased
in weight to 6, 8, 10, and, in 1834, to 12 tons; and it has subsequently
been increased to a weight varying from 18 to 25 tons on narrow gauge
lines, and 24 to 35 on broad gauge lines, including water and coke ; while
the tender has been increased, on narrow gauge lines to 29 tons, and on
broad gauge lines to 42 tons. This increase of weight, it was shown,
was rendered necessary by the demand for an increase of power, which
could not be obtained without a corresponding increase of adhesion. The
adhesion, being the friction between the surface of the rail and the peri-
phery of the driving-wheel, bears a certain proportion to the insistent
weight on the driving-wheels, varying with the state of smoothness of the
rail and wheels, according to Mr. Stephenson, and from one-sixth to one-
thirteenth of the insistent weight, the amount of adhesion to be relied on
depending on the weight of the train and the gradients on the line. As
to the efficiency of the engine, it was shown, that all engines, as engines,
might be made equally efficient. The question was not here as to their
absolute efficiency, but as to the part of the effective power of the loco-
motive engine absorbed by the work done, 7.¢. the transport of a certain
weight of passengers. It appeared from the data examined by the Pro-
fessor, that for the ordinary passenger traffic on first class railways, from
55 to 60 per cent. of all the effective power expended is required to move
the locomotive itself; and in railways of small traffic, the modern locomo-
tive absorbs from 60 to 75 per cent. of the power developed in the
eylinders, or at the periphery of the driving-wheels.

26 Tables of the Fall of Rain in Glasgow, Sc.

14th February, 1849.—Mr. Crum in the Chair.

Mr. James Paterson, Assay Master, was elected a Member.

A copy of Report on Davies’s Rotary Engine was presented to the
library by Mr. William Johnson.

Professor William Thomson gave “An Account of Mr. Faraday’s
recent Discoveries relative to the Magnetic Condition of all Matter.”

Mr. John Bryce exhibited and explained a working model of a Hydros-
tatic Pressure Regulator.

28th February, 1849.—The Preswent in the Chair.

On the motion of Mr. Crum, seconded by Dr. A. K. Young, the
Society agreed to record its regret at the loss it has sustained by the
death of George Watson, Esq. Surgeon, one of the original members, and
a member of the Council.

Professor Gordon continued his remarks on the proposal to substitute
Locomotive Carriages for Locomotive Engines and Passengers’ Trains on
Railways.

Mr. Andrew Shanks exhibited a Model of Dunn’s Patent Improved
Mode of Removing Railway Carriages from one Line to another.

14th March, 1849.—The Present in the Chair.

Dr. R, D. Toomson made a statement of the Comparative Fall of Rain
at Glasgow and various parts of Scotland and England, and communi-
eated the following tables :—

TABLE I.
BOTANIC |)
GARDEN, |, IBROXHOLM. GREEN-
GLASGOW. Mowan ROOk:
| ee
| holm.

1847, | 1848. || 1846. | 1847. | 1848. 1848.
JANUALY, 2.20.0... ccevensececcesescsceeree] = | 2°01 |] 3°36. | 2:29] 1°40 | 2:35 |] 3:2
IRI PMIBEY 3 000-25 sere geicetevasndesc hoes — | 673 || 2:90 | 1:79 | 7:64 | 4-11 }}11°8
PNBROM cescncauswiguacssiaccr se edcccesees — | 245 |} 289] 0:56} 2°30 | 1:91 |] 4:4

PINS ic Bedeaacdarceadacalandtiaas nee 2:44 | 1:27 || 1-43 | 2°56} 1:29 | 1°76 || 1:35
IY cco ge -S cektuas suze Wigsaese-dozasow es 3°38 | 0:90 |) 1°62 | 3°66 | 0°66 | 1:98 |} 22
RANATID. fonewavdvacts sspuecmpchecrncccrernscnee 2:25 | 3:97 || 4°18 | 2°52 | 3:38 | 3°36 || 38
BTU 9st ge ct scasenee «devs ecesaozs~ahacccune 1:63 | 2°75 |) 4°28 | 1:40} 2°73 | 2°80 |] 5:3
LCR pe 3S a Sn ey 1-41 | 3:45 |} 456 | 1:39 | 3:10) 3:01 || 38
ROOPEAITIDOLS conc ts sesbatacsisscccese s0cbex 2°51 | 1°59 |} 240 | 2°33 | 1:28 | 2-00 || 2:2
MRORNGRS fase fegenaassciosieeys a-cnesse: 4:09 | 3:00 || 4°11 | 5°42 | 2°63 | 4°05 |] 47
November, ......s0sccccccsersssereerese.| O08 | “hod || 3°32 | Sl | 5°57) 466 |} 6:9
DRESSINGS ee bes ct iesixecccncsiee cto, 4:00 | 3°33 || 0°86 | 4°30 | 3°88 | 3-01 || 63

. Seo so be eee F.C

Mean Annual Rain,...................! 35°98 | 35°91 | 33°33 | 35°86 | 35°00 |) 55°95

|

Ca ae
/ |

|
)
/
| The Register at Botanic Garden kept by S. Murray, Esq.; at Ibroxholm by T. R.
Gardiner, Esq.; and at Greenock, on the Gourock Road, by W. Davidson, Esq. M.D.

Mean at Greenwich for seven years, 25°8 inches, (1841—47, inclusive.)

Tables of the Fall of Rain at Greenock.

TABLE IL.

Everton Corrace, GREEnock, 29th January, 1849.

The following is a statement of the rain here since 1835, with the exception of
1840; the water wasted in 1839, was also neglected, consequently the available
quantity of rain cannot be ascertained. The following is taken from the books,
showing the quantity in each guage. Everton Garden is 472 feet; No. 1, 600 feet;

No. 2, 560 feet; No. 3, 800; and No. 4, 540 feet above the level of the sea. Mean
height of the five guages = 594 feet.
Everton i Everton
1835. Garden.| No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4 | 1836. Garden.| No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No, 4.
January,...| 3°40| 4°10) 3°80] 3:10} 3:20) January,...| 9:00} 8°20] 8°30} 7:80} 8:20
February, .| 6°60) 7710) 7°80} 5°30) 5°60}) February, .) 3:40] 4°60} 4°80} 4:30] 4:60
March,.....| 4°85) 4°70) 4°70) 3°60| 3:70|| March,.....| 8°60] 880| 8°70] 8-60| 8-70
7 a 2°30] 2°60} 2°55} 2°20} 2°10} April, ...... 3°70| 4°10} 4:00| 4-00| 4:10
May, ........| 6°55] 7°40| 7:30] 650} 6°30]| May, ....... 0:40} 0:70} 0°60) 0°50} 0°50
June, ...... 2°50] 2°60| 2:65} 2°30] 2°20} June, ....... 3°90} 460} 4°70] 4°50} 4°60
July, ...+... 5°00| 5°25} 5°20) 5°10) 5°30)| July, ........! 9°00} 9°20} 9°10] 9:00} 9-10
August, 4-40} 6°60} 6°70} 5°50} 5°20)) August, ... 5°00| 5°26] 5:10] 5:00| 5:10
September,| 8°30] 8°80} 9:00} 8-00| 8-50|| September.) 8-40} 8:30} 8-20} 8-30] 8-20
October, ...| 4°25] 5°20] 5°10} 4-70} 4:40) October, ...! 5-10} 5:00} 5-00} 4:90} 5:00
November, | 9°70} 9°50 |10°30| 8:70} 9:10|| November, | 8-00) 7-80] 7-80| 7:60} 7-80
December, | 5°30} 5:50| 5°60} 4°30| 5°20|| December,| 9°50| 8:70} 8:70| 8-60} 8-70
63°15 \69°35 '70-70 59°30 pen 74:00 |75°20 |75°00 |73:10 |74-60
Ran in 1835. Rain in 1836.
- Mean of the five guages = 64°66 inches, Mean = 74°38 inches,
Of which quantity 19°68 inches was lost 52°68 inches available, and
by Ee poratiga, &e., and 44°98 inches 21-70 inches lost by evaporation, &e.
available,

1837, __| Garden| No.1. | No. 2.| No.3. | No. 4 1838, | Garden.| No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3- | No. 4
January,...| 4°40} 4°70| 4:60] 4°60] 4:70]) January,...| 2°00) 2:00| 1:90] 1-30] 1-40
February, .| 7-00| 7:20| 7-10| 6°50] 7-00|| February, .| 1°10| 0-90| 0:95| 080! 1-00
March, .....| 1-90| 2°00] 1°80] 1°50| 1-70] March, 6°20 6°70) 6°80| 6-40} 6:90
April, ...... 3°20| 3°40] 3°70} 3°20] 3:40]) April, ...... 3'10| 3:40} 3:00} 3:00} 3°30

DY cectenia -| 2°70} 2°50| 2°60) 2°50) 2°60 BY silences, +c 2:00] 2:10} 2:20} 2:00! 2°10
June, ...... 3°00} 3°10} 3:00} 2:90) 3°00]} June, ...... 5'00| 5°60} 5:40| 5°10} 5:30
UTE any -| 3°30] 3:40} 3-40] 3:30) 3:40]] July,....... -| 6°50] 6:90} 7:00} 6-90| 6:80
August, ...! 4°45] 4°50} 4°50] 4-50| 4-60|| August, ...| 7°10] 6°50| 7:00| 6:50| 6-00
September,| 3°45| 3:50| 3:60) 3:40] 3:50|| September,| 5:10] 5°10| 5:00} 5-00| 5:20
October, ...| 7°40| 6°90| 7-00| 6:70} 7-00|] October, ...| 8:00| 7:30|.7-40| 7:20| 7-30
November,| 7°20| 7:00] 7-10} 7-00| 7-10] November, 7:00} 6°50| 6:50| 6°30! 6:50
December, | 7°30| 7-80} 7:90} 7:30} 7:10]| December, | 7°80 6:90} 6-90| 5:80} 5:90

55°30 |56°00 |56°30 |53°40 |55°10 60°90 |59°90 |60°05 |56°30 | 57-70
Ratn 1n 1837. RaIn 1n 1838.

Mean = 55:22 inches,
40°26 inches was available, and
1496 inches lost by evaporation, dc.

Mean = 58°97 inches.
38°08 inches was available, and
20°89 inches lost by evaporation, dc.

28 " ‘Tables of the Fall of Rain at Greenock.

Everton|

1839, | Garden.) No.1. | No.2.| No. 3.| No. 4
January,...| 4°90 5°40| 5°50} 5°40] 5-20
February, .! 6°50) 6°10} 6-80) 5°70| 6°80
March, ...... 6°60) 6°60| 6°80} 5°80| 6:70
April, ......| 2°45} 2°90} 2:40} 2°10] 2-40
May,.. 3°30} 3:40) 3°40) 3°30) 3-40
June, ......| 2°30} 2:50) 2°20) 2-10} 2°20
July, .......| 5°10) 5°40} 4°90] 5°30) 5°00
August, ...| 5°10) 5°20} 5°00} 4-90} 5:00
September,| 8°00| 7-40} 7:50} 7°20} 7-40
October, ...| 6°20} 6-40) 6°30| 6°40) 6°00
November,| 4°50) 4°50) 4°30) 4:00) 3°80
December,} 6°20) 6°40} 6°40) 6°20) 6°30

Rain in 1839.

Mean of five guages = 60°69 inches.
The quantity of water used and wasted has not been
kept this year, so I cannot ascertain the quantity
available and lost. Also, the rain in 1840 has been
neglected.

Everton

1842, | Cottage.| No.1. | No.2.| No.3. | No.4.
January,...| 3°90} 3°30| 3:40) 3°00| 3°20
February, .| 5°90} 5°80) 6:00) 5°30) 5-40
March, .....| 8°00} 8°00] 8-20] 7-80 8-00
Apri
M
October, ...| 1-70} 210} 3-00) 2:90| 2-60
November, | 380| 4-20] 4-40| 4:10| 4-00

December, |10°50 13 00 |12°80 12°70 |12°60

51-70 [54°60 56°10 53-20 5560

RaIn 1n 1842.
Mean of five gauges = 5424 inches.
37°50 inches was available, and
16-74 inches lost by evaporation, &c.

e |
~

DP Gt Oe HE O9 OF Gr
SS8SsSseq

December,

61:80 63:90 6420 61:70 \62:70

Ran rn 1841.
Mean = 62°86 inches.
45°92 inches was available, and
16°94 inches lost by evaporation, &c.

Everton

1843. Garden| No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4.
January,...| 7°00 |11-00| 9°10 16-00 |12-00
February, .| 1°70} 1-60) 1°30} 1-20) 1:30
March,......| 2°50} 2°70} 2:90} 2°80) 2-40
April,.......| 5°85) 5°60) 6:00) 5-40) 5°60
May, ........| 3°80} 3°50| 3°70! 3°30) 3°40
June,,.......| 3°80} 3°00} 4°80) 3-20) 3:60
Tulyye....2--.| 4°80} 4°60) 4°50} 4-20) 5:00
August, ....| 4°20} 3°60} 5°00| 4-60) 5-10
September,| 3°00| 3°70} 3:50} 3:00) 3-40
October, ...| 6°80} 7°80) 8-40} 8-00} 8-20
November, | 7°10}. 8:20) 8:50} 8-00| 8-10
December, | 3°25} 5°10) 5°20) 5°10) 5-10

52°80 pas 62:90 64°80 63-20

RaIn In 1843,
Mean of five guages = 60-82 inches,
38°78 inches was available, and
22:04 inches lost by evaporation, &c,

1844, | Cornge-| No. 1.| No.2, | No.3. | No. 4. ||
January,...| 4°40) 6°10) 620/ 6:00| 6:10
February,..| 3°40} 5°70) 5-70} 5°60) 5°80
March, ....| 5°00) 5-20| 5°30 5°10| 5:40
April, ee 325| 4°50) 4-40! 4-00| 4-60

iv cncsen | Peel Ptiasadl (ite | =
June,........| 6°10) 6-40| 6:50} 6-70! 6-80
July, ........| 3°90} 3°60) 3°65) 3:60! 3:70
August, ....| 2°45) 2°30| 2°50) 2°50) 2-40
September,| 2°60| 270| 2:80| 2:90| 265
October, ...| 3°65) 4°30) 4°20) 3°60] 3-60
November, | 5°40| 5°95) 6°00! 5°70| 5:50
December, 0°50) 0°50) 0°60) 0°50} 0°50

—_
40°65 ee ig ie jit 47°05

Ratn rn 1844,
Mean of five guages = 45°80 inches.
29°21 inches available, and
16-59 inches lost by evaporation, ce.

Everton

1845. Cottage.| No. 1.| No. 2.) No. 3.| No. 4.
January,...| 6°60} 7°50| 7°60! 7:00} 6-30
February,..| 2°75] 3°40} 3°45 | 3:20] 3-00
March, .....| 440) 5°40} 5°40} 5:00) 4°50
April, ...... 3°90 | 4:20) 4°15} 3°80) 3:70

AY, weve.-.| 1°15] 1°80} 1°75] 1°60} 1-50
June, .......| 5°00| 5°40} 5°80) 5°00) 510
SEULYs ndencyes 3°40 | 4:20) 4:40} 3:80) 4:00
August, 2°60} 3°00! 2°90) 2°50) 2-50
September,| 5°00) 5-80} 5:90) 5°50} 5-90
October, ...| 9°20 |11°55 |11°60 |10°50 |11-40
November, | 9°00} 8:00} 9°70} 860} 9°60
December, | 8°15] 8°30| 9:00 10-00 /10:95

Rain tn 1845,
Mean of five guages = 67°26 inches,
46°74 inches available, and
20°52 inches lost by evaporation, &e.

i

Tables of the Fall of Rain at Greenock.

29

Everton

1846. Cottage. | No, 1.| No, 2.| No.3. | No. 4,
January, ...| 7°80) 7°00) 7°50| 7-75} 7-70
February,..| 4°60} 5°00 550) 4°80] 4°50
March,.....| 7°10} 6°80 7°30} 5°70; 6°60
April,.......| 2°20 2°40} 2°40] 2:30} 2°10
May,.........| 310} 3°30 3°50} 3°40] 3°40
June,........| 5°90} 6°00} 6:10) 5-90) 5°60
<j. a 8°35 | 9°60 |11°70| 9°80} 9:40
August, . 6°70| 6°60} 7°80} 6:20| 6-40
September,| 3°79 4:00] 4°00] 3°90] 3°50
October, *30| 7°50) 7°60} 7:00) 6°80
November, | 6°80 6°90| 7°10) 6:00} 6°65
December..| 1°50} 2°00} 2:00) 1:90} 1-80

65°05 |67°10 72150 6465 64°45
Rain 1n 1846.

Mean of five guages = 66°75 inches.
52°09 inches available, and
14-66 inches lost by evaporation, é&e.

1847, | Gauge No.1. | No. 2.| No. 3.} No. 4.
January, ...| 3°60] 3:30) 3:40} 3-00) 3-40
February,.,| 3°00| 3°10} 3°40} 260} 2-70
March,......| 3°20] 240} 2-40| 2:50] 2-20
April, ...... 4°10| 4:20) 4:50] 4:30] 4°10
May,.........| 415| 4-40| 460] 420| 4-40
June,........ 2:55| 2°80) 3:00| 2°70] 2-80
July, «....-..| 3:20| 3-10] 3:20] 3-00] 3:20
August,....| 3°50| 390) 4:30] 3:60] 370
September,| 5°30| 5°60| 660] 6°60 5:80
October, ...| 8°10] 8:50| 8°60} 8-10} 8-20
November, | 8°30) 9°70 10-00 8:30} 8-70
December, 8°20) 8°20| 9-00] 7-20} 670

—

56°20 |59:20 e500 56°10 |55°90

Rain In 1847.
Mean of five guages = 58°08 inches.
41°28 inches was available, and
16°80 inches lost by evaporation, &c.

1848, | Gaden.| No.1.| No.2. | No. 3.| No. 4.
January,... 3°30| 3°40| 3°60} 2°80} 3°10
February, ,|11°70 |13°50 {14-00 13-10 {13:30
March, .....| 4°80] 5°10) 5°40} 4:70] 5°20
April,...... 1-60| 1:70| 1-70] 1:50} 1-60
May,......... 2:90} 3:10) 3°50} 2°60} 3:00
June,..... 5°50} 5°10} 5°30} 5°50} 5°00
SITY, ces: 6:20 | 6:30 6°70) 4:30 | 4°40
‘August, ....| 450| 4:50] 4°80) 4-20] 4-00
September,| 2°70} 2°80} 3:30} 3:10} 2-50
October,.... 5°00} 5°30| 5°80} 5°70} 5°20
November, 7°90} 8:10} 8:50} 6°30) 7°50
December,.| 7°10) 6°70 |12-40} 6-30 |10°50

63°20/65°60 |75°00 |59°50 ae
Rain 1n 1848.

Mean of five guages = 65°72 inches.

48°76 inches

was available, and

16-96 inches lost by evaporation, dc.

TOTAL MEANS.

61:18

At a mean height of 594 feet.
Mean of the lowest guages, 59 inches.

THE LARGEST QUANTITY OF RAIN THAT HAS FALLEN IN 24 HOURS,
IN EACH OF THE ABOVE MENTIONED YEARS:—

12th,..<... 1:30 inches,

* The rain for these years has been kept only monthly.

1°60 inches,
200 —

1847, xem October,

1848,...... December, 3d,

25th,......140 —
5th,......240 —
6th,......1°50 —

+ Also same quantity 14th November.

Observing guage No. 2 had always the greatest quantity of rain, and No. 3 the least,
on Ist January, 1847, I removed guage No, 2, to the situation of No, 3, and No. 3, to the
place of No. 2, and these two years give the same result as formerly, showing it was
not the guages, but the situation that gives the difference,

PETER MORRISON,

30 Mr. PATERSON on the Yam.

TABLE III.

TABLE OF THE FALL OF RAIN AT SYDNEY COTTAGE, GREENOCK,
25 Feet above the Sea,—By Captain M‘KELLar.

MONTHS. 1846, | 1847, | 1848, | Mean.
JANUALY 5.0 ccsap-vevoenveceues 33 | 27 | 35 | 316
Hebruarys sedi ess svanguehe 45 | 3°) | 12 65
Marah) iicsiedessctutenessde 6-4 14 4 3°96

Api, Lon. arene 17 | 35 | 25 | 29

1/98 Mitty. scodencs-atcouebecetae cee 2 2:8 | 2:2 | 2°33

1 DUNG) svesoaveuetnstewerters 45 19 37 | 3°36

°F ays iv cheeses etoeees 7 26 | 49 | 4:83

| August, ....e.sserccesseess 61 | 28 | 4:1 | 433

| September, ....... 33 | 48 | 21 | 34
October,..........++ 53 | 69 | 4:8 | 5°66
Noveniber) cect fesceer sO Sill On| eed Oo
December, .........000se00++ 15 | 66 | 67 | 49

Average,............| 51°8 | 45°8 | 58:2 | 52:23

| Total Mean= 51°96
1846—Greatest quantity of rain in one day,—20th Nov.

1847— Do. do. do. — 6th Dee
1848— Do. do. do. —22d Feb.
TABLE IV.

TABLE OF THE FALL OF RAIN AT GILMOURTON, AVONDALE.
By Mr. WISEMAN,

Mean of Four Years,

1847. 1848, 1845—48,

January, = - 2:10 . 2°70 - 3°65
February, aos ieore DLO et OB tiie RL
March, - - - Adee ter aL y= 3°43
April, = yee Seah peter: 3)
May, te A) a apy 7 2
June, - - - 3°30 - 4°70 - 4:25
July,¢ “=> y= ee BalO> Sh AS SOD Ged
August, - - - 1:30 0—C- 3°70 . 3°85
September, - - 440 - 1°85 - 3°63
October, - - - 5°90 - 4: = 6°70
November, - 6 - 7 - 5°80
December, - - 4:59 - 460 - 5°22

41°25 49°60 49°40

For Rain, d&c., 1845—46, see Vol. II. page 139.

Dr. R. D. Thomson read the following paper :—

V.—Analysis of the Yam. By Mr. James Pararson.

Tue very great scarcity of potatoes induced many persons, during the
spring of 1847, to use the yam, from its approaching nearer to the potato
in quality than any other known root.

To understand the composition and relation between these bulbs, I
made the following analysis of the yam, which, so far as I know, has not
been done previously. For the specimen employed, which was of excel-

Mr. PATERSON on the Yam. 31

lent quality, I was indebted to Dr. R. D. Thomson. The experiments
were conducted in the College laboratory under his superintendence.

Half a pound ayoirdupois of yam was taken, after being deprived of
all extraneous matter and skin, and was carefully rasped down and
allowed to fall into a clean porcelain basin, previously weighed. The
yam and basin were again weighed. The pulp was then thrown on a
searce, and washed with distilled water till it passed through clear; the
residue was then triturated and filtered, which diminished its bulk con-
siderably.

On being tested by iodine, the starchy reaction was strongly marked.
It was further subjected to a second trituration, and washed, when it still
indicated the presence of starch, but in a much more faint degree.

The ultimate residue was then collected from the searce, dried at
212°, and weighed. It was then a hard, gray, woody looking substance,
and had a faint resemblance to crumbs of very hard coarse sea biscuit,
and was fibrous ligneous matter, and contained a mere trace of nitrogen, as
was ascertained by experiment.

The solution, and that portion of the pulp which passed through the
searce, was filtered through a weighed calico filter, and washed till the
water passed through clear; what remained on the cloth was dried at
212°, and weighed; it was white and granulated, gelatinised when boiling
water was added, and gave a bright blue with iodine.

The solution was then evaporated, and on being heated to the boiling
point, a portion coagulated, being vegetable albumen, and on the addition
of a little acetic acid, the quantity was greatly increased, the increase
being vegetable casein. After being coagulated thoroughly, it was
filtered and washed with difficulty, dried at 212°, and weighed. Colour
dark gray.

The solution was then evaporated, and became a thick gummy sub-
stance ; it was finally dried at 212° and weighed. It was then boiled
for a length of time in water, to which some sulphuric acid was added,
the water being replaced as it evaporated. As much chalk was then
added as neutralized it. It was then filtered, and the solution evaporated,
when there remained sugar, but having a brackish taste.

Specific gravity of yam employed was 1:1416, It contained 77:81 of
water, 21:26 organic matter, and 0°93 of ash. By the above analysis,
it gave,—

Fibrous ligneous matter,.........s.ssesseeeees 351
A eae RE co a ir pr hi Bi Mein 15°02
BSB ey Dutvatettons tay sasavonegacbacsass aveat 2:25
Gumeat Abd Cini ted. s. casvetecivdsrevddcee sss 0°73
DOLUUIS BANE N Ts tslerslitecs seetttes tet estecess 0°75
PRBOMIRNG DLT, Ups: aves hees teense eek rin» +00 0-18
Wain st + cerserurrenritstere cadapestee Ys chests 77°81

100-07

32 Mr. STENHOUSE on Chloropicrine.

Ultimate analysis, in the fresh state,—

Carbon, .s.<. it TTA Tae 8:19
Hydrogen, 22.2280 eae abet 1:32
Nitrogen, 2550.22. Sos. doit Lee eemeweesenee 0°39
Oxygen, : Aid cE Ree aaa ee 11°36
Ashi 5. ite0otits RO ee eee 0:93
Watery leciacck aie cl teeters ces ane cane 77°81

100-00

When dried at 212°,—

Carbon, ....:ceene eh edsewe ee aevat. eect 36:99
Hydrogen, s.. 2 tit deanates tens state tteemen as enas 594
Nitrogen... jst2.de<cneetestars aw -Poncranss=eeh 1-80
Oxy pen; oo weeee so Ries deat geen ee ann 51-14
Ah, . .2.ccdvcteeeeetasomtnee teen teeeaae ental 4135

100:00

From the preceding analysis, it would appear that the difference
between the yam and potato is not considerable. The fibrous ligneous
matter is greater in the potato than in the yam. In the analysis of
Hinhoff, probably a portion of the starch was not separated from the
woody matter, as it is rather a difficult task; indeed, he terms it fibrous
starchy matter. There is also more albumen and casein in the yam; but
in the potato analysis, from the fibrous matter predominating, the albumin-
ous matter must be deficient, as it is retained in the fibrous matter.

To ascertain if the fibrous matter contained any nitrogenous matter, it
was subjected to analysis, and found to contain 0-161 per cent. in the
fresh state, and 0°725 per cent. dried at 212°.

From the yam having more albuminous and nitrogenous matter, it is
thus the most nutritious. Potato contains 1 nutritive to 9 calorifiant ;
yam 1 to 8; and 17 pounds of yam are equal to 18 pounds of potatoes,
being 6 per cent. in favour of the yam.

Mr. Simons exhibited an Electro-Magnetic Machine, constructed by
himself.

28th March, 1849.—The Prusmwent in the Chair.

Mr. Rozerr Sinciam was elected a member.

Mr. Stenhouse exhibited and described a new oily body called Chloro-
picrine, obtained by boiling either charbazotic, oxypicric, or chrysammic
acids with an excess of hypochlorite of lime.

Mr. Stenhouse also exhibited and described the properties of gyrophoric
acid and its ether. Gyrophoric acid is the colouring principle of the Gyro-

Mr. Fereuson on Geology of Buchan. 33

phora pustulata and the Lecanora tartarea. Beta-orcine was also shown.
-It is the principle analogous to orcine, and is obtained either by boiling
usnic acid with excess of alkali, or by subjecting it to destructive distilla-
tion. Likewise erythro-mannite, a sweet crystallizable body obtained
from the Roccella montagnei; and quinto-nitrated erythro-mannite, the
detonating compound analogous to quinto-nitrated mannite.
The Society afterwards resolved itself into a conversational meeting.

llth April, 1849.—The Prusment in the Chair.

Mr. Rosert Srvcuair and Mr. Howard Bowser, were elected members.
The following paper was read :—

VI.—On the Geological features of part of the district of Buchan, in
Aberdeenshire, including notices of the occurrence of Chalk-Flints, and
Greensand. By Witt Ferevsoy, Esq.

Tue general features of the district to which I purpose calling your
attention, are those usually exhibited where the primary or crystalline
rocks predominate: at the same time one or two interesting anomalies,
are presented, or at least what presently appear anomalies, though a
more minute investigation, and more extended observation of facts, may
clear them up.

I shall attempt to sketch, generally, the features presented by the
district, and then more minutely describe the peculiarities I refer to;
the principal of these being the occurrence of a deposition of chalk-flints,
and greensand.

Commencing our survey at the mouth of the Ythan, and proceeding
northward, the coast line is very bold and precipitous, broken, however,
here and there with creeks and bays. From the Ythan, the parish of
Slains extends six miles along the coast. The average height of the
rocks is from 170 to 200 feet, and they consist of gneiss and mica slate,
with numerous veins of quartz; and at one part of the coast they are
overlaid by limestone. I had occasion to traverse on foot several miles
of this coast last summer. I approached it at the village of Collieston,
where, in building the cottages of which it is composed, advantage has
been taken of a ravine, which affords a comparatively easy access to the
water. Part of the village is built on the water edge, and part on the
cliff, 200 feet above. A very deep deposit of clay covers’ the cliffs,
curling over them as it were, and presenting a steep slope covered with
grass, leading to them. In some places the clay reaches to nearly the
water edge, but in no instance, that I saw, touches it, an outlier of rock
shielding it from the action of the water. In one place the overflow of

Von. III.—No, 1. 3

34 Mr. Ferauson on the

a burn had washed out a chasm in the clay, at least 30 or 40 feet deep,
showing that the deposit is of very considerable thickness.

Between this spot, Collieston, and Ythan mouth, lies the old parish of ~
Forvie. For many years this tract of country, extending some three or
four miles along the coast, has been covered with sand to a great depth.
The remains of the church walls were, even at a recent date, still traceable
above the sand on the high lands near the shore.

Passing northwards from Collieston, we have the same high precipitous
coast line for several miles, but so indented by creeks and narrow tor-
tuous ravines, as to render the walk along the shore a very long one.
Numerous caves are met with, some of them of great extent. Many of
them enter from the sea, others are far above the sea level, indicating
change in it. One of these latter I explored last summer. It was of
considerable height, and after going about 45 yards into the rock, it
descended abruptly.

On a high rock jutting out into the sea, stand the ruins of the ancient
castle of Slains. To the north of it is a fine bay, with a beautiful sandy
beach ; but within a yard or two of the shore, numerous sunken reefs, and
rocks just raising their ridges above the surface of the water, render the
navigation of the coast very dangerous.

Not far from this point, still northward, is a very extensive cave called
the “ Dripping Cove.’’ It differs from the last in that it occurs in lime-
stone, and is filled with stalactites and stalagmites. I had often heard
of it, and searched for it long and minutely, though in vain. It seems
that the overlying clay, which is continuous all along the cliffs, has fallen
in mass over its mouth, and completely shut it up. I examined all the
brae, and climbed down to the sea level, and examined the rocks below.
A stream of water, strongly charged with calcareous matter, was falling
over the cliff, and covering the rocks with a limey incrustation. This
water was actually percolating through the cave; but so completely is it
now closed, that though, as I afterwards learned, I must have passed and
repassed the very spot where it was, it yet remained undiscovered.
Near this, where the clay reaches the edge of the cliff, it is fringed there
with tall grass. When the culms have withered and fallen over the cliff,
the water from the high ground above runs along them dropping from
their points, and such is the perpendicularity of the cliff, falls from 100
to 150 feet into the water below.

As I have already stated, the principal rocks met with on this portion
of the coast, are gneiss and mica slate, The next parish, that of Cruden,
earries on the coast seven miles farther. The gneiss and mica slate,
extend part of this way, after which there are two miles of a broad sandy
beach, called the Ward of Cruden. The south end of this beach is
marked by a remarkable reef of sunken rocks running out far into the sea,
called the Scars of Cruden. It is terminated towards the north by pre-
cipitous cliffs of red granite, which extend from this point onwards beyond
Peterhead.

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 35

There is little to be told of this part of the coast, further than a few
descriptive remarks to exemplify how it has been disrupted and torn, and
heaved into the ruggedest and most frowning coast line exhibited almost
any where, indicating a “turgidum mare,” and presenting a scene tallying
to the “Infames scopulos Acroceraunia” of Horace.

On the first granite headland after passing the Ward of Cruden, stands
the modern Slains Castle. It is almost insulated, a strip of sea running
round to the north, and trending so far west as to leave only a narrow
isthmus, affording access to the castle. This arm of the sea, called Lang-
haven, is narrow: in fact, is a mere rent or fissure on a large scale. It
contains deep water, and the sides are so perpendicular and so high, that
looking up from the water, the eye does not perceive a much greater
breadth of sky, than looking down it perceives breadth of water. Sea-
ward the cliffs are equally high and equally precipitous. It is said that
from the library or drawing-room windows, a stone dropped falls directly
into the water. It is recorded that there was formerly a carriage way
round the castle. This is now gone, owing to the fall of a large portion
of rock. looking from the windows, nothing is to be seen but sea and
sky.

Close by the castle there is a cave of peculiar construction. It opens
to the sea below water mark, runs horizontally for a considerable distance
into the rock, and then rises perpendicularly, till it comes to the surface
in a field some way from the edge of the cliff. From the rolling of the
waves into the cavern below, an atmospheric current is created, sufficiently
strong to blow into the air any light article thrown into the upper
aperture of the cave; and when there is a gale from the east, a column
of spray rises continuously from it. This cave also, as well as the one
formerly noticed, has received the name of Hell’s Lum.* Indeed every
cave of similar form, obtains this designation all over this coast.

Many isolated rocks of nearly equal height with the main line of coast,
are scattered all along at various distances from the shore—one of these
is called Dun Buy. Although Dr. Johnson says in reference to the urgent
request of Lady Errol, that he should not leave Slains without seeing
the Dun Buy, that there is nothing about it to detain attention, it is
nevertheless, to those who see it, a very striking object. Description,
however, can convey no idea of the peculiar feelings of awe and wonder,
with which such effect of forces with which we are now unacquainted,
cannot but be viewed.

The famous Buller of Buchan, is in this locality. On the north side
of a little creek, presenting the usual perpendicular walls of immense
height, the rocks jut out some way into the sea. In this promontory a
huge circular pit has been scooped out. Its sides present perpendicular
walls of rock, and towards the sea they are of comparatively inconsider-
able thickness. At the top, at one place, not more than two or three

* Scot. for Chimney.

36 Mr. FERGUSON on the

feet, but this only for a little space,—it is reckoned a feat to walk round.
The sea flows in by a natural arch. In stormy weather, with an easterly |
wind, the dashing of the waves through this narrow aperture, and the
recoil they make against the sides of the chasm, resemble the boiling of
a huge caldron, and hence the name. It was a beautifully calm day
when I was there. We took a boat and rowed round the point. We
found the aperture below not much broader than admitted an ordinary
sized boat. Even in the smoothest weather there is inside a peculiar
roll in the water, and as the rock is caverned out in all directions, there
is a hollow roar which adds very much to the sublimity of the scene. In
the pompous language of Dr. Johnson, which is, however, well adapted for
such a description as this, “we found ourselves in a place, which, though
we could not think ourselves in danger, we could scarcely survey without
some recoil of the mind. The basin in which we floated was nearly
circular, perhaps thirty yards in diameter. We were enclosed by a
natural wall, rising steep on every side, to a height which produced the
idea of insurmountable confinement. The interception of all lateral light
caused a dismal gloom. Round us was a perpendicular rock, above us
the distant sky, and below us an unknown profundity of water.”

Beyond Cruden the coast line extends about five miles, through the
parish of Peterhead, commencing a little to the south of the point of
Buchanness, and reaching beyond the town of Peterhead to the mouth of
the river Ugie.

“Between the parish of Cruden,” (I quote from the Statistical
Report,) “and the fishing village of Boddam, in this parish, the sea is
bounded by high cliffs of granite and other primitive rock, forming mural
precipices: and this part of the coast is indented with many chasms,
fissures, and caves, and these, in some cases, divide the granite from the
trap rock. From Boddam to the bay of Sandford the coast is low and
rocky. The bay of Sandford, extending some distance inland, is bounded
by a flat sandy shore, intermixed with pebbles.” Between the point of
Salthouse Head and Keith Point, on which the town of Peterhead is built,
the bay of Peterhead extends about a mile inland. Its shores are flat and
rocky, terminating in sand and pebbles where it runs most inland. All
this coast from Boddam to Peterhead, although low towards the sea, the
rocks scarcely appearing above high water, except where the heads run
out, and a sandy beach extending most of the way, is nevertheless abutted
upon by cliffs of diluvium of considerable height, so that the general
outline of the coast appears high. From Keith Point, which is the east-
most of Scotland, the coast recedes to the mouth of the Ugie, preserving
the same character of a rocky bottom, a sandy beach, and steep diluvial
cliffs abutting on the sands.

“The whole of the parish of Peterhead,” (I quote again from the
Statistical Account,) “is upon primitive rock. In the Stirling hill,
Blackhill, and Hill of Cowsrieve, the granite or syenite rises to the
surface. Along the coast, and in other parts of the parish, it is covered

i, i

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 37

with clay, supposed to be diluvial, and other matters to a greater or less
depth. Upon the Stirling hill the granite rises to the surface, or nearly
so, over an extent of from 100 to 150 acres. In every place where the
syenite or granite is laid bare, imbedded masses, veins, or dikes of primi-
tive trap, gneiss, quartz, and compact felspar, are alternate with, and run
through it. In some cases one half of a block is granite, and the other
primitive trap, in complete cohesion, and often passing into each other.
At the old castle of Boddam, the rock is separated by a fissure or chasm,
one side of which is granite, and the other primitive trap. This chasm
runs east and west, the granite being on the south, and the trap on the
north, with a considerable angle to the horizon. Near the Buchanness
lighthouse, there is a pretty extensive bed of hornstone porphyry, also a
rock resembling clinkstone porphyry. The rock along the coast, from
Buchanness to the mouth of the Ugie, may be seen at low water mark,
and consists of granite, primitive trap, syenite, gneiss, compact felspar,
felspar porphyry, and quartz, variously associated with each other. The
Meethill is covered with a deep mass of diluvial clay: at the brickwork,
which is about fifty yards from the beach, and where the clay has been
cut to the depth of from thirty to forty feet, it exhibits various strata,
which appear to have been deposited at different times, from their differ-
ences in quality and colour: some of the deposits are not above an inch
in depth, while others are several feet. The skeleton of a bird was lately
(1837) dug out of the clay here, at the depth of twenty-five feet from the
surface, and about fifteen or twenty feet above the level of the sea.”’
This diluvial clay, mixed in some places with rounded pebbles, covers a
very considerable part of the parish.

When I come to describe the chalk-flints, I shall have to recur again
to this portion of the coast, meantime I pursue my general sketch.

The next three miles represents the coast line of the parish of St.
Wergusy The beach is flat and sandy, and the whole line of shore is
thrown into two divisions by the rocks at Scotston Craig, each division
forming a rude segment of a circle; the one extending from the mouth
of the Ugie to the Craig, and the other onwards to near Rattray Head.
The shore is completely cut off from the inland by a series of hills, which
have been formed by the drifting of sand, and which being thickly covered
with bent grass, prevent the sand drift encroaching on the rich arable
lands of the interior.

The only rocks in situ, are to be seen at Craig Ewen, near the mouth
of the Ugie, and at Scotston Head.

At Craig Ewen, we have granite, containing very little quartz in its
composition, and exhibiting, though rarely, veins of compact felspar of a
deep red colour. ‘

At Scotston Head the rocks are accessible only at low water. They
consist of granite, gneiss, trap, quartz, and limestone. “The gneiss and
granite,” says the Statistical Account, “appear often in close and
inseparable union. The granite varies in appearance as it comes more

38 Mr. FERGUSON on the

or less into contact with the gneiss: when the junction is complete
it is white. When the granite underlies the gneiss, but without any
union between them except contiguity, it assumes a dark colour, and
discovers more hornblende in its composition than in its other positions.
At one point the granite is graphic. The limestone is separated by a
fissure from the granite, but appears in one or two places united to the
gneiss; and there is reason to believe that it forms a junction with the
granite at a more remote distance from the shore. At Hythie in the
parish of Old Deer, and in a line due west from Scotston Head, limestone
and granite of the same character as at the latter place, make their
appearance in very intimate union, At Blackstones, between Scots-
ton rocks and Craig Ewen, there are three distinct congeries of large
boulders within the flood mark, consisting indiscriminately of granite,
graphic granite, primary and secondary limestone, puddingstone, grey-
wacke, gneiss, and basalt.”

I have copied these sentences from the Statistical Account, and have
retained the words primary and secondary limestone, because I found them
there. I have, however, no evidence to give as to the distinction between
the limestone, further than that the description denominated secondary,
is said to contain ammonites and other shells, distinct from any of the
known existing species.

In part of the parish, beneath the soil, the substratum consists of sand _
mixed with the remains of marine testacea. There are also indications
along the coast that the land has been gaining upon the sea.

The parish of Crimond carries on the coast two miles farther. Beach
and sand hills form the predominating feature, except at Rattray Head,
where there is a long ridge of low-lying rocks called Rattray Brigs,
running at right angles to the shore, and extending a mile and
three-quarters in an easterly direction, into the German ocean. Great
part of this ridge is only visible at low water. These rocks seem to
consist of granite. Whinstone or trap, and also limestone, occur in
various places. The principal feature of interest is the existence of a
large loch, called the Loch of Strabeg. In 1700 this loch was of very
small extent, and opened to the sea, so that small vessels could enter it.
About 1720, a severe easterly gale blew up this communication with
sand. The loch now covers an area of about 550 acres; and it receives
all the streams of the neighbourhood. It has no outlet, and is wholly
fresh. Its average depth is about 3} feet, and it is being gradually filled —
up by debris carried into it by the streams. I said there was no outlet,
but it is very apparent that the surplus waters find their way to the
sea, through the sandbank which separates the loch from the ocean.
This belt, however, is about half a mile in breadth.

From Rattray point, four miles carries us over the sea board of Lonmay
parish, a flat sandy beach, trending considerably to the westward. Two
miles more cover the parish of Rathen, one point of which, that of
Cairnbulg, runs out northwards into the sea, the coast line receding

_

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 39

again south-westward, so as to form a very considerable bay between it
and Kinnaird’s Head; immediately to the south of which last, lies the
town of Fraserburgh.

The coast line of Frasersburgh parish extends about four miles. Two
miles of this to the south of the town, are low and sandy. The rest is
rocky but not high, except at Kinnaird’s Head, which forming the turning
point of the Moray Frith, stands out a high and bold headland. The
rocks on the coast are gneiss and mica slate. Mormondhill lying to the
south, in the interior, is quartz rock surrounded by gneiss.* Its height is
810 feet, ;}—at the upper end of the town of Fraserburgh, limestone
occurs, and is quarried for building purposes.{ Limestone also occurs
in the parishes of Lonmay and Rathen.

Westward, the two parishes*of Pitsligo and Aberdour, complete the
district of Buchan and the shire of Aberdeen in this direction.

The coast line of Pitsligo is four miles in length. My impression of
its appearance received from a hurried ride along the coast, was, that
from Fraserburgh to Rosehearty it was sandy, rising in considerable hills,
and at low water presenting low flat rocks beyond the beach. Onwards
from Rosehearty towards Aberdour it is very different, rising the whole
way in a continuous mural line of blackened and rifted precipices.

I staid two days one summer at Braco Park, about a mile west from
Rosehearty. To wile away a forenoon we went to fish. The house was
about a quarter of a mile from the sea. A single field lay between.
Till within a hundred yards of the cliff edge the field presented a steep
descent. At that point a little marshy hollow was carpeted with Anagallis
tenella, or the Bog Pimpernel, and starred with the beautiful Parnassia
palustris. Vaulting a three feet wall of loose stones, five or six yards
more took us to the cliff. These are so precipitous that there is but one
or two places here and there where it is possible to descend them. In
descending we passed a fissure, going down plumb to the water, quite
narrow, with equidistant sides, and in which the swell was roaring far
into the earth with a hollow sound. This and numerous other fissures
run farther into the cliff than the most adventurous ever yet penetrated.
Of this particular one it is related, what, however, is said also of many
others, that in it a curious explorer lost his life. He took with him the
national musical instrument, bagpipes, that he might indicate to his friends
on the earth, how far he had penetrated into it. It requires too great
eredulity to believe all that is told by the peasant, as to the length of
time his musie was heard, or the distance inland at which the decreasing
strains were audible. One thing is certain, they ceased at last, nor did
he ever return to tell how he had fared. About half way down the rocks,
a broad plateau expanded, from which, by various perilous ways, it was
possible to reach near the water, but at no point to attain it. Seated
here upon a jutting out cliff, with feet hanging over the deep green water,

* Nicol, p. 187. + Statistical Account, p. 250. } Ibid.

40 Mr. FERGUSON on the

nought was to be seen but the wide expanse of ocean in front, unscale-
able’ rocks on either hand, and behind, rugged precipices, our line of
descent a-down their faces scarcely discernible. Westward, like a dim
haze, rose into mid-air the Old Red Sandstone cliffs of Troup Head; the long
roll of the Moray Frith, every now and then, sending a cloud of spray far
up their rugged sides, as they stood out, as if it were in bold defiance
or proud contempt of its impotent buffetings. The features of solitude
are periodically changed during the season of the fishing; at least for an
hour or two every evening, when the boats of Fraserburgh may be seen
shooting out in crescent form from east to north-west; and those of
Rosehearty stretching away to join them in an inner segment. It is
beautiful to watch them as they gradually grow indistinct and dim in the
distance, till the scene which was but now instinct with life, and that a
life excited by all the perils of the deep, has been again resigned to the
wild solitude and undisputed sovereignty of ocean. Such is a rude
picture of this rock bound coast.

On the afternoon of the same day we rode along the coast as far as
Aberdour. The same stupendous cliffs are witnessed. But the colour
of the rock changes from the grays and blacks of the gneisses and mica
slates, to the reds and browns of the Old Red. All along the coast deep
glens run into the interior, so narrow and so steep in their declivities,
that it is necessary to make the roads zigzag down the sides, and so up
again. In these dens, as they are called, such as the Den of Aberdour,
the Den of Auchmedden, the Den of Dardar, the climate is so mild,
that stations for many of the rarer plants of our country are found
in them. I only specify the beautiful Trientalis Europea. Along the
coast caves abound. Several of these derive a deep local interest from
their having afforded hiding places to Lord Pitsligo after the battle of
Culloden. There is also to be seen at Pitjossie, a stupendous natural
arch, through which the tide flows at high water, said in grandeur
and magnificence to equal, if not surpass, the Buller of Buchan. But
the astonishing feature of the latter spot is not the arch, but the pot
into which the waters flow.

Gamrie, with its famous fish beds, follows Aberdour. On this I do
not enter as being rather beyond the limits of my sketch. Beyond Banff
at Boyndie bay the chalk-flints occur, as we shall see immediately when
we trace the course and extent of this curious deposit.

We now return to the consideration of these chalk-flints.

Running slightly to the south of west there is a ridge of high ground
taking its rise nearly at Buchanness, and stretching across the country
continuously for eight to ten miles. At its eastern extremity it branches.
One of the branches terminates south of Buchanness in the granitic mass
already mentioned under the name of Stirling hill. The other ridge runs
north of Buchanness, and may be said to terminate in the granitic
escarpment of the Blackhills. _ All along the shore, between these points,
wherever the rocks admit of a beach, quantities of water-worn flints

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 4]

are found mingled with the other pebbles, evidently brought there by the
waves. They are also found, although sparingly, on the southern ridge or
Stirling hill. But on the Blackhill, and the neighbouring hill of Inyer-
nettie, the surface is almost covered with them. This ridge, at the distance
of about seven-and-a-half miles from the sea, at Salthouse Head, attains an
inland distance of about five miles from the coast opposite Slains. The
flints are met with on the surface at various points along this line. The
ridge is bare and moorish, covered with peat and heather, and_ this
prevents the accurate tracing of the flints. At this point, however,
seven-and-a-half miles along the line of the ridge, and about five miles
from the sea, opposite Slains, they have been laid bare.

They occur at the extreme verge of the parish of Old Deer, and are
principally seen on the farm of Bogingarry, on the lands of Kinmundy.
The ridge of hill on which they occur, here trends to the north, coming
round again towards the west, so as to expose to the south a deep
bay, with a considerable inclination towards the south. The hill is
crowned with moss and heather, part of which has been planted. The
south face of the hill has, however, been under cultivation during the last
twenty-five or thirty years. The flints are seen on the surface, commen-
cing pretty far up on the east side of the hollow, and following at the same
height the form of the bay, disappearing among the heather which has
not yet been removed on the extreme west. They are in great abundance,
covering a space of some twelve to twenty yards in breadth.

About 1830, in cutting a ditch to carry off the surface water from
the garden of the farm house of Bogingarry, the bed of flints was come
on, and found to be of considerable thickness. The ditch ran from south-
west to north-east, traversing the flint bed; and a short cross one lay in
the line of the bed.

When I saw the ditch first, it had been cut a good many years, and
had become partly filled up. It had, however, a most singular appear-
ance. It was crossed by the road to the house; and the water-run of
the bridge was quite choked with rounded flints of all sizes. Above the
bridge the bottom of the ditch was quite covered with rounded flints
brought down by torrents. As you ascended the burn you could see the
nature of the ground. The layer of soil was extremely thin, and below
it the ditch was cut through a stiff yellow clay, scarcely a pure clay,
more like a yellow clayey gravel, and so hard as to be pierced with
extreme difficulty. Until you reach the bed itself very few flints are to
be seen amongst the clay. ‘The top end of the ditch and the cross one
are in the bed. ‘The flints lie closely packed together, imbedded in
the already mentioned clayey matrix.

They wither when exposed to the air, becoming white, and in some
cases, shivered. When newly taken out of the bed they usually break
with a clear fracture, but they soon become hard and lose their facile
cleavage. very one contains some trace of organic remains. I have
examined a great many and never missed seeing some indication of such,

42 Mr. FERGUSON on the

although it is more rare to find them sufficiently perfect to make them
worth preserving.

In the localities near Peterhead, there have been found “considerable *
varieties of the Echini family, occasionally entire, but more frequently
only small portions of the impressions of these shells are found. Single
spines frequently occur, and are distinctly marked. The Inoceramus,
Pectens, and Terebratulae, are very abundant.”’

Flints are also found on the surface, on the hill of Skelmuir, adjoining
Bogingarry. This hill is separated from that of Kinmundy by a valley,
and a deep morass called the bog of Ardallie. South-westward they
are found again on the hill of Dudwick, in the parish of Ellon. This
seems to be their southmost limit.

I learn from a paper of Mr. Christie’s, of Banff, published in the
Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, for 1831, that they occur, as already
alluded to, at Boyndie bay in that shire; and also in a mass of
diluyium covering the high grounds between Turriff and Delgaty Castle.
The flints at Boyndie bay are found strewed along the shore, and contain
traces of zoophytic organic remains. Those at Delgaty are likewise
characterised by similar remains. The station at the latter place is ten
miles from the sea, and is the highest ground in the neighbourhood. The
flints are found in a mass of diluvial clay, cresting the hills. None are
found in the hollows.

In my collection of fossils from Bogingarry and adjoining localities,
there are impressions of portions of spines, and also casts of at least three
varieties of the Echinus. There are also casts of Inoceramus, Terebratula,
Pecten, Plagiostoma, Turbinolia, and Flustra, together with other remains
not easily made out. From the remains in the flint, existing only as
casts and impressions, it is very difficult, indeed it is almost impossible,
to make out any of them with sufficient certainty to name them.

The other rocks in the immediate neighbourhood of the Bogingarry
chalk flints, are granite, trap, and limestone. We have northwards,
white granite at Smallburn, red at Newton and Greenmyre. The rising
ground on which the house of Kinmundy stands, is a greenstone trap.
Nothing but trap was met with in digging the foundation of the house;
it was also met with along with a loose gravel below it, in sinking the
well close by, 46 feet deep. Trap comes to the surface in the wood
behind the house, and is quarried for dikes and drains. In the hollow
behind, at Causey-ford, we have a deep deposit of peat. On the south
side of Millbill, granitic gravel. On the north side, granite quarried
for building purposes. Below Barnyards on the burn side, we have a
sort of mica slate. West from that, above the hills of Coynach and
Knock, there are immense boulders of clinkstone. These are water-worn:
some of them are many tons in weight. Four miles further, at Hythie,
limestone resting on granite.

North-westward, at Annochie, we have limestone quarried for burning.
It is much cut by veins, dikes, and blocks of gneiss, from which we

————— <= = —

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 43

may gather it rests there upon gneiss. It is impure, containing a good deal
of magnesia. Beautiful crystals of Iceland spar are met with in drusy
cavities in the rock.

The country presents numerous simple minerals. Many varieties of
quartz, such as milk, rose, violet, ferruginous, spongy-form, &c.; and some-
times very large specimens of rock crystal are picked up in the fields.
Jasper is common. Veins of antimony are found in the granite, as are
also some ores of iron in small quantities. Manganese in the dentritic
form, is seen sometimes in the limestone. Crystals of schorl, sometimes
of large size, I have often procured in huge fragments of white quartz.
In one spot there is a quarry of these quartz blocks, some of which are
of great size. They are not water-worn. I once picked up a piece of
granite covered with crystals of Beryl.

In the peat are found trunks of trees, principally oak; and large
quanties of birch and hazel, with nuts of the latter. Not a hazel bush
has been seen in the district for upwards of a hundred years, yet in some
places, by simply turning over the turf, hundreds and thousands of hazel
nuts may be laid bare.: The antlers of stags have also been dug up in
the district, but not recently.

I must now call your attention to another geological feature of very
peculiar interest. It was stated by Dr. John Sheir, to the natural history
class, Mareschal College, 1839, that the greensand was said to exist in
Cruden. * I have caused as particular an examination to be made as was
possible at such a distance from the spot, and I have received specimens
which I have submittted to Mr. Bryce, and which entitles us to say that
the greensand is found in Cruden.

The deposit in which it occurs seems to run through two parishes,
Slains and Cruden, and differs in its lithological character in different
places. My specimens are from two points, six or eight miles distant
from each other. ‘The first or southmost point, is about two miles inland
from Collieston. The deposit takes the form of a ridge of hills surround-
ing three sides of a loch. This loch has been ascertained to be in one
place fifty-two feet deep, and the hills rise around it to a height of
from forty to fifty feet. They are composed of gravel mingled with
comminuted shells, and containing water-worn nodules of limestone, mica
slate, and gneiss. The limestone nodules contain organic remains.
Among the specimens sent me, only one contains organic remains; I
cannot, however, determine what they are. I have also received several
specimens of the sand and gravel among which the nodules occur. After
removing the recent helices, there still remains the dekris of broken
seemingly marine shells. The nodules are much water-worn. Although
I describe this portion of this curious deposit in this place, it by no
means answers to the character of greensand.

* This fact was communicated by the late Dr. Knight to Dr. Thomas Thomson
nearly twenty years ago.—Epir.

44 Mr. FERGUSON on the

The deposit at the other point, namely, Moreseat, was said to consist
of a calcareous sand, visibly stratified, of a greyish hue, and also com-
posed of comminuted shells. This I have also had examined, and have ©
received specimens of a grey friable sandstone, not water-worn, and
containing shells of various genera, such as Cardium, Terebratula,
and Trochus. My informant writes of these:—“I went to Moreseat
and got some shells in a kind of sandstone. The stones they are to be
found in, are in a broken state, among clay of the same colour as the
stones, with another substance I have sent you.” This seems to be a
fuller’s earth. He does not say any thing of the stratification, nor of the
calcareous sand. From the friable texture of these specimens, and the
fragile nature of the enclosed shells, it appears obvious that the deposit
either is in situ, or at least cannot be far removed from it. Several of
the specimens are well marked with the small green grains of silicate of
iron, or chlorite, which has given the name of greensand to this the lowest
member of the cretaceous group. It is seen at Moreseat in two places.
It was first discovered in digging a pit for the water wheel of a threshing
mill. It is nine feet below the surface of the soil, and seemed deep, but is
now covered up. About 400 yards from this point, it was also opened
up in making a ditch, and there it is only three feet below the surface.
The locality is on the side of an eminence. There is a thin layer of a
brown substance like fuller’s earth. The shells are in fragmentary sand-
stone nodules, all presenting a broken appearance, and mixed with a half
sandy half clayey substance of the same colour. The fragments are very
soft when newly dug, but harden on exposure to heat, and turn lighter in
colour in drying. My specimens were dug from the bottom of the ditch,
and with difficulty, for the water filied the hole very fast. This prevented
very accurate observation of the nature of the bed.

It may not be uninteresting now to review what has been observed
and theorized, with respect to the formation of flints. They occur in the
highest bed of the cretaceous group found in this country, which from
their presence has been named the chalk with flints. It covers a very
large portion of the south-west of England, reaching as far north as
Flamboroughhead,* but has not been satisfactorily proved to exist in
Scotland.+ “ The chalk of this subdivision,” (says Dr. Mantell, Geol. Sur.
of S. E. of England, p. 73,) “is generally of a purer white, and of a softer
texture, than the inferior strata, but in other respects presents no sensible
difference. It is regularly stratified, and partakes of the general inclina-
tion of the other divisions of the series. It is separated by horizontal
layers of siliceous nodules, into beds that vary from a few inches to
several feet in thickness, and which in some localities are traversed by
obliquely vertical veins of tabular flint, that may be traced for many
yards without interruption. These are sometimes disposed horizontally,
and form a continuous layer of thin flint of considerable extent. The

* Ansted, I. p. 456. } Ibid. p. 458.

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 45

nodular masses of flint are very irregular in form, and variable in mag-
nitude; some of them scarcely exceeding the size of a bullet, while others
are several feet in circumference. Although thickly distributed in
horizontal beds or layers, they are never in contact with each other, but
every nodule is completely surrounded by the chalk. Their external
surface is composed of a white opaque crust, consisting of an intermixture
of chalk and silex, probably formed by a combination of the outer surface
of the nodule with its investing matrix, while the former was in a soft
state. Internally they are of various shades of gray, inclining to black,
and often contain cavities lined with chalcedony, and crystallized quartz.”
By the analysis of Klaproth flint, consists of

Silex, . ‘ : ¢ j : : geet

Lime, : ‘ ; ; P : 2 05
Alumina, . : : é : E ; °25
Oxide of Iron, . ; : : : P "25
Water, ; : é : : s fads 1 BAR

It is infusible. Submitted to a great heat it becomes white and opaque.
In withering it assumes various colours; becoming most frequently
either red or yellow.

It seems established by minute and extended observation, that each
flint is formed round some organic nucleus. Apparently these were in
all cases at first sponges; and the presence of plates and spines of echini
shells, &c., is accounted for by supposing that the sponges grew through
and over such.t The silex must have been held in solution in the waters
from which the chalk was deposited. I believe no chemical solvent of
silex, has yet been discovered. It is stated, however, that steam at a
very high temperature dissolves it: the temperature required being a little
above that of fused cast iron.| We know that it is held in solution by
many thermal springs, especially in the Geysers of Iceland, || and in
thermal springs in the neighbourhood of the volcanic mountain of Ton-
gariro, New Zealand. §

Dr. Buckland’s theory, as published in the fourth volume of the
Geological Transactions, is simply this,—he assumed that the whole
mass was, previous to consolidation, a pulpy fluid, and that the organic
bodies found in the flints, were lodged in it before the separation of its
calcareous from its siliceous ingredients: that then these organic bodies
became nuclei, to which the flint, upon the principle of chemical affinity,
attached itself. J

Mr. Bowerbank has examined, with great care, the flints of the upper
chalk, and he has arrived at the conclusion, that in all cases the siliceous
matter has formed itself on organic bodies; and that these organic bodies

* Mant. Geol. Sur. of 8. E. of Eng. p. 74. + Ansted, I. p. 474.

t Rep. Brit. As. 1840. Jeffrey’s Exp. || Hooker’s Tray.
§ Dieffinbach. {| Mantell, Geol. Sur. of S. E. of Eng, 77, 78.

46 Mr. FERGUSON on the

are sponges.* His main results given in Mr. Ansted’s words are these,
“Tt would seem as if the sponges, which under certain circumstances
had grown and flourished at the bottom of the sea, had been at succes- ;
sive periods covered up by fine calcareous mud, deposited gradually upon
them; that the particles of fine mud, thus sinking gently from suspension
in the water, had barely penetrated below the surface of the sponges,
resting upon them, but not flattening them by the pressure: and finally,
that owing to some chemical cause, a deposit of siliceous matter being in
progress, the particles of silex were attracted to these organic bodies,
themselves containing some portion of the same mineral. It appears that
we can in this way, and no other, account, with any degree of plausi-
bility, for these three phenomena, viz :—first, for the existence of beds of
flint in the chalk: secondly, for the organic structure visible in the flints,
and the frequent occurrence of fragments of corals, shells, and zoophytes
imbedded in them: and lastly, that in some cases large silicified sponges
are found growing vertically, one upon another, to a height of several feet
in the chalk; and that sponges, now silicified, have often grown through
and over the shells of echini, or molluscous animals, and even of other
sponges.t”

These theories of Dr. Buckland and Mr. Bowerbank, of which I have
given you an abstract, seem to be nearly all that is known about these
flints in their natural position, in beds in the geologic scale. They are,
as Mr. Ansted remarks, equally puzzling to the geologist, the chemist,
and the zoologist. But when they are found, as they are in Buchan,
overlying the granite, they form a geological problem as hard to solve as
their own substance.

From our brief survey of the surrounding country, we saw that
the predominating rocks are the crystalline, and the stratified unfossi-
liferous. Only in one instance did we find a limestone, with organics,
(an ammonite) which might consequently belong to the secondary group.
Old Red Sandstone occurs at Aberdeen, again (certainly)"at Gamrie, but
it has not been positively seen at any point between, although it has
been supposed that it may nevertheless envelope the primary rocks along
the coast, beneath the sea level. Oolite and Wealdenbeds occur in the
neighbourhood of Elgin. The distance between these beds at Llanbride,
and the flints of Buchan, cannot be less than between fifty and sixty
miles. Water-worn fossils of the lias occur at Blackpots, near Banff,
but there they are manifestly in a diluvial clay. The Old Red Sandstone
is the newest rock that is known to occur over all Banffshire; conse-
quently the whole of this county comes between the deposit under con-
sideration, and the newer formations of Morayshire.

This newly determined greensand of Cruden, is the only rock at all
approaching, in the geological sequence, the chalk beds from which the
flint boulders must have been derived. We are forced to conclude con-
cerning it, that if it is not in situ, it is at least not far removed from it.

* Ansted, I. p. 472, + Ansted, I. pp. 474, 475.

a

Geological Features of the District of Buchan. 47

The question then arises, How came the flints there, and whence ?

Mr. Hugh Miller, cautioning the young geologist against concluding
that because he finds a rock resting upon gneiss, it is therefore low in
the geological scale, instances, as an example of the error such a con-
clusion would lead to, the flints and chalk fossils of Banff and Aberdeen,
lying immediately over it in these counties, and adds, “It is probable
that the denuded members of the cretaceous group once rested upon it,
there.”* Mr. Jamieson too in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal
states the same opinion, adding, that it will probably be found in some
of the hollows of this part of Scotland.” +

This is one theory. That the lower beds, and the chalk of this very
bed itself, have been removed by denudation, leaving the flints resting
on the granite.

Opposed to this theory is the fact, that the flints are invariably water-
worn. ‘Trué, even according to it they would have presented such an
appearance, but not necessarily to such an extent, and it seems that a
denuding ‘agency sufficiently powerful to produce the rolled effect noted,
would have removed them as well as the other beds, especially as they
occur not in hollows, but always on the sides, and near the summits of hills.}

Mr. Nicol states his opinion thus :—“ Probably these recent secondary
formations once existed here, or may still be covered by the sea, and
connected with the similar beds on the Moray Frith. This opinion is
confirmed by the occurrence of lias, containing coal at Hogenaes, in the
south of Sweden, where it rests on gneiss and is covered by chalk.”||
This leads on to another theory which has been suggested to account for
these flints, namely:—That, however such secondary beds may have
once existed here, these individual water-worn flints owe their origin to
a transporting agency, which has brought them from the chalk formations
of the northern continent.

The volcanic and tidal agencies, (the latter modified by local currents, )
assume a direction between south-west and north-east. All the mountain
ranges and great formations of our island assume, in general, that direc-
tion. The great mountain range of Norway assumes the same. I am
too unacquainted with Norwegian geology, to be able skilfully to connect
it with Scottish. At Christiania there is a group belonging partly to the
lower, and partly to the upper silurian rocks.§ True chalk with flints
has been clearly determined in some parts of Denmark.§ This Danish

_ group may have been continued into Norway at one period, and after-

wards removed by denudation, the same agency transporting the flint
nodules to our own shores.

It may bear against such a supposition of transportation, that the
direction of the currents seem usually to have been from south-west to

* Old Red Sand. 3d. Ed. p 262. + 1831, Vol.°10, p. 163.
t A few individual specimens are found scattered over the hollows; the mass,
however, as stated in the text, is invariably on or near the tops of the hills.
_ || Geol. of Scot., p. 188. § Ansted, I. p. 118. { Ib. p. 461.

48 } Mr. FERGUSON on the

north-east, and that for this theory they required to have been reversed.
It may be suggested, Might not the elevation of the great northern moun-
tain ranges of the continent, have been sufficient to cause a current from -
its shores, capable of exercising the transporting power required? The
presumption is, however, against such a supposition.

Standing on the ridge of the hill of Kinmundy, and looking towards
the south and east, there is spread out before the eye a wide expanse.
Slightly to the north of eastward, the ridge is continuous to the sea at
Buchanness. Westward it undulates, receding northward, and again
stretching out a promontory to the south. Beyond this there is a gorge,
narrow and deep; and again the hills rise, stretching away westward and
northward, running out in a series of high grounds by Dudwick towards
Turriff and Delgaty, and so onwards to the sea at Boyndie. Between
this ridge and the sea, on the south and south-east, there stretches out
from the sort of bay described, a breadth of five or six miles of levelish
country, presenting inequalities of surface but in the main level, till it
reaches the sea with a coast line elevated 180 to 200 feet above the sea
line. {It is over this valley that the calcareous sands occur. Itis near its
centre that the greensand formation lies. And standing, as I have said,
on the hill ridge, and marking, as one cannot fail to mark, the band of
flint boulders that line near their highest, and at an equal elevation the
various bays and promontories, it requires no great stretch of imagination
to conceive of the waves of the German Ocean as having once rolled
even hither, bearing with them, and depositing on their innermost bounds,
the rounded flints that now mark their ancient shore.

But it may be argued, the greensand beds lay right in the way, and
must have suffered also from the denuding power of the waves. If future
examination shows these beds to be in situ, we must yet look for another
theory.

T have already stated that the shores of the little bays near Peterhead,
present large quantities of the rounded flints. These may be either
brought down by streams, or cast up from the sea, I have also inferred
from the condition of my specimens of organic remains, from the Cruden
greensand, that that formation is either in situ, or at least not far removed
from its original position; not presenting evidence of being water-rolled,
and not capable of undergoing, without destruction, that process.

I wish to connect these two facts with an idea hinted at by Nicol, as
already quoted, and additional grounds for which have been pointed out
to me by Mr. Hugh Miller. Across the southern districts of England, we
have a certain sequence of geological formations, including in regular
succession the lias, oolite, and wealden, succeeded by the cretaceous. Across
that portion of Scotland immediately to the north of the district at present
under our consideration, we have part of the same sequence commencing
with the lias. This formation at Cromarty and at Brora, in Sutherland,
is considerably to the west of the first appearance of the same formation
in England; but this results naturally from what was before mentioned

Geological features of the District of Buchan. 49

of the geological formations, running not east and west, but north-east
-and south-west, not right, but diagonally across the country. We have
thus lias at Cromarty, and a lower oolite near Elgin. May it not be
possible that all we want to complete the remaining members of the
series, is simply to be able to carry out our section into the Moray Frith?

Such an hypothesis receives confirmation from the fact, that in the
neighbourhood of Elgin, are beds containing wealden fossils, “ which,”’
says Nicol, “we are led to suspect are not original formations, but frag-
ments of more extensive beds, perhaps drifted to this place.”* The
diluyial clay containing lias fossils at Blackpots, also may indicate a
formation beneath the water of the bay. By referring to the geological
map of England, it will be seen that the greensand accompanies the
chalks lying on the west of it, and on the east of the lias, to the shore of
the channel. Our patch of it at Cruden, might form part of the termina-
tion of a similar stripe, unless it too can be accounted for in the same way
as the Moray wealdens, by supposing it a drifted fragment from the north.

May we then fairly infer, that at one period the space now occupied.
by the Moray Frith, contained a perfect sequence of the secondary forma-
tions? That first, the soft chalk strata suffered denudation by the ordinary
action of north-easterly gales, currents, and drift-ice, and that the roll of
the German ocean piled up its debris in the shape of these water-worn
flint boulders, along its successive ancient shores, and that the wealden
and oolite of Elgin, and lias of Blackpots, followed in the same course ?

That part of this theory applicable to the lias of Blackpots, Mr. Miller
states thus, in his description of that deposit :—

“There had probably existed to the west or north-west of the deposit,
perhaps in the middle of the open bay formed by the promontory on which
it rests,—for the small proportion of other than liassic materials which it
contains, serves to show that it could be derived from no great distance,
—an outlier of the lower lias. The icebergs of the cold glacial period, pro-
pelled along the submerged land by some arctic current, or caught up by
the gulf-stream, gradually grated it down, as a mason’s labourer grates
down the surface of the sandstone slab he is engaged in polishing: and the
comminuted debris, borne eastward by the current, was cast down here.”’

At Blackpots, the lias fossils occur in clay containing few other
boulders. At Boyndie, farther west, the flint boulders cover the shore ;
and at Delgaty, ten miles inland, they occur in great abundance, along
with boulders of quariz rock, but no fossils except their own. It would
therefore appear that we owe the flint boulders and the lias boulders to
different periods. And as the chalk overlies the lias, it may be that its
denudation was completed, and its fossils thrown up upon the high
grounds of the interior, previous to the formation of the boulder clay,
containing the fossils of the lias. Although apparently not here, the
boulder clay has in other places, (as on the banks of the Thorsa, in
Caithness,) been found to contain “fragments of chalk-flints, and also

Oe LOO,

Vor. III,—No. 1. 4

cel

~

50 Report from the Botanical Section.

a characteristic conglomerate of the oolite,’’ as well as comminuted
fragments of existing shells, These facts seem also to favour this
hypothesis.

The subject altogether is one involved in considerable darkness, and it
is perhaps vain to attempt any generalization upon it, till the local
geology has been far more accurately examined and determined. This
has not hitherto been attempted. A primary country is thought to pre-
sent a barren field, and is too often passed over as devoid of interest,
whilst it often happens, that from want of the proper survey, most inter-
esting facts are overlooked. We may yet find in primitive Buchan, a
beautiful geologic sequence. We have granite and trap, and gneiss
with its accompanying slates, we know. We have limestone, and some
trace of the Old Red. We have also a report of a fossiliferous limestone,
and an alleged greensand and chalk. The surmises on these subjects
may become facts, and the investigation requisite to make them so, must
lead to new discoveries. But proved or disproved, much of interest to_
the geologist, both scientific and economic, cannot fail to come to light in
the examination, and the labour which must be expended on the process
will not be thrown away.

25th April, 1849.—The Pruswent in the Chair.

Mr. Howarp Bowser was admitted a member. Mr. Keddie gave in
the following

Report from the Botanical Section.

19th December, 1848.—Dr. Walker Arnott made some observations
on the position of the carpels in the bicarpellary orders. The usual mode
of ascertaining this is by inspecting the flowers in a growing state, and
observing whether the two carpels are superior and inferior, or right and
left with regard to the axis of the plant, or with regard to the subtending
bracteas; but from the peduncles and pedicels having often a tendency to
twist, this method may lead to innacurate results. Dr. Arnott then
referred to the spiral disposition of the leaves on the stem and branches,
and of the theoretical arrangement of the verticels of the flower; and
showed that in all cases one of the sepals (when there were /ive,) was
either superior or inferior: when, therefore, the two carpels were also
superior and inferior, one must be placed opposite to the centre of a sepal,
the other between two sepals; when, on the other hand, the carpels were
at right angles, or right and left, a line passing through them would cut
the sepal on the one side precisely as it did the one on the other. By
attending carefully to this, an isolated flower would be sufficient to enable
one to determine the position of its carpels with regard to the axis of
inflorescence. Dr. Arnott mentioned that at least one group, reputed to
have its carpels superior and inferior, has them in some genera the con-
trary way, so that the whole subject requires revision, before we can place

———_ =

+

i
Dr. Arnott?’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway. 51

dependance on this character for distinguishing alliances and even natural
orders. It is, however, one that can only be successfully followed out by
those who reside in tropical countries.

27th February, 1849.—Mr. Gourlie read an account of a Botanical
excursion to the Breadalbane mountains, in July, 1841, and exhibited speci-
mens of the plants of that district, amongst which were the following :—

Arenaria rubella. Erigeron alpinus. Salix reticulata.
Saxifraga nivalis. Bartsia alpina. Aspidium Lonchitis.
cernua. Rubus Chamezmorus. Woodsia hyperborea,

Dryas octopetala. Cerastium alpinum. Myosotis alpestris.

Carex atrata. Potentilla alpestris. Hypnum Halleri.
saxatilis. Juncus biglumis. Saussurea alpina.
capillaris. triglumis. Arbutus uva-ursi.

Draba incana. - castaneus. Sibbaldia procumbens.
rupestris. trifidus.

18th April, 1849,—Dr. Walker Arnott read the following paper and
exhibited specimens of the plants collected.

VIL.— Account of a Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway.
By G. A. Watxer Arnott, LL.D., Reg. Prof. of Botany.

On Monday the 7th August last, as previously arranged at a meeting of
the Botanical section of the Society, Dr. R. D. Thomson, Mr. George R.
Alexander, Mr. William Kidston, and I, started by the railway for Ayr,
and from thence took the steamer to Stranraer, where we arrived between
eight and nine in the evening, too late to proceed further that night. By
means of a car next morning, we got to Drumore to breakfast, a long ride of
three hours. In this ride we passed Stoney Kirk, where we observed
Lythrum Salicaria, and Equisetum limosum, now known by the name of L.
Telmateia—Chapel Rosen Bay where we saw Sparganium simplex, and
between which and Grenan Craigs, Lepidiwm Smithii first made its appear-
ance. By many Sparganium simplex is confounded with S. ramosum, but
its simple infloresence affords a ready mark of distinction. The history of
L. Smithiit may not be uninteresting. It was first described by Sir J. H.
Smith under the name of ZL. hirtum, on the supposition that it was the
Thlaspi hirtum of Montpellier, a South of France plant, which agrees with
it in the length of the style, and in the nearly total absence of scales on the
pod, but differs widely in the form of the pod and its hairiness, besides
other characters. Hooker, in the Flora Scotica, expressly says that the
pod is not only free from scales, but also from hairiness, and although the
hairiness is characteristic of the true L. hirtum, he retains that name: it is
probable that at the time (1821) he was unacquainted with the true
species. In 1823 I first obtained the Linnean plant, and then noted in
my copy of the Flora Scotica, the differences between it and the English
one; when Sir W. Hooker prepared the'British Flora in 1830, he changed
the name to L. Smithii, having ere then received from myself and others,

52 Dr. Arnotr’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway.

the Th. hirtum of Linn., which is not found, so far as I know, beyond the
region of the olives: he made the remark also, that the English plant
seemed quite unknown on the continent. In 1825, however, I met with
an allied plant in the Pyrennees, which interested me a good deal: we
found it in the Vallée d’ Hynes, on the 24th June, quite glabrous: at La
Massane, in the republic of Andorra, on the 9th July, with the leaves
glabrous, and stem hairy: and at Mont Louis on the 29th June, with both
leaves and stem hairy, and in no respect distinguishable from the English
plant. That this species, scattered over the Pyrennees, couldnot beunknown
to De Candolle was highly probable, and it agreed so well with his Thlaspi
heterophyllum, as to leave no doubt on the matter. Bentham in his Cat.
des Plantes des Pyrenées et de Bas Languedoe, published in 1826, placed
it in its proper genus, and gave it the name of Lepidium heterophyllum,
characterising it as well as L. campestre, and L. hirtum. He did not,
however, advert to the Mont Louis hairy specimens, and speaks only of the
glabrous leaved form; this prevented him comparing it with the English
and north of France plant, which in his remarks under L. hirtum, he
says, seemed only a variety of Z. campestre. While drawing up some
notes connected with my excursion to the Pyrenees, I was led to recon-
sider the whole subject, and in August 1829, I published a note in
Jameson’s Journal, (p. 321,) pointing out that there was no essential differ-
ence between the English plant and the Pyrenean one, and to that opinion
I still adhere. The name L. heterophyllum is thus the older one by four
years, and ought to be retained, although it must be confessed the other
is always more likely to be adopted in this country. - I have no specimen
from the north of France, but I have no doubt whatever that it is as com-
mon there as in this country. A small plant, Z. humifusum, from
the mountains of Corsica, described by Requien in the Ann. des. Se.
Nat. y. p. 385, I can scarcely distinguish from the Pyrenean glabrous one.

On arriving at Drumore, our driver took us to what he believed the best
inn; but as we had been directed to go elsewhere, we, after making an
inspection of the premises, returned to the car, and drove to another. In
this we punished ourselves, for unquestionably the driver was in the
right, as far as cleanness was concerned ; and as for accommodation, they
were on a par, for none of the magnificent hotels of that town can boast
of more than a couple of beds for strangers. In the one we went to, on
the shore, they could only accommodate one half of our small party, two
having to seek nests elsewhere; and to add to our misfortune, the clean
inn we had first been at, now refused them admittance, no doubt offended
with our deserting them: and as it is not the custom in that primitive
place, to charge for lodging when one breakfasts or sups in the house,
the good people having been baulked of us in one way, had reason on
their side in refusing us mere lodging, for during the day one or two
visitors might possibly (though not probably) turn up. This leads me
to observe, that any excursion to the Mull of Galloway, in which the
party consists of more than four, will find themselves too numerous; if less

Dr. Arnotr’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway. 53

than that number, the expenditure for a car will be rather heavy, unless
when they have abundance of time in hand, and choose to walk, or wait the
time of starting of the Stranraer, Drumore, and Port Logan coach, when
unquestionably two will enjoy more comforts than any greater number.

After breakfast we started for the Mull, along the coast. The distance
by the road is probably only about five miles, but we found it increased
to nine or ten by following the sinuosities of the shore.

Not far from Drumore, in the bay, we found Glauciwm luteum rather
scarce, Polygonum Roberti, Atriplex laciniata, and another Atriplex which
presented so many different appearances, that I could make nothing of
them, even by the aid of Babington; some were erect, some prostrate,
some assurgent: and the form of the perianth (or bracteas, as Moquin
Tendon, perhaps properly, considers them,) of the female flower was so
variable, that I was forced to come to the conclusion that all were states
of A. patula. As to Polygonum Roberti Loisl. (the P. Raii of Bab.)
it is known very readily from P. aviculare by its pale coloured patulous
perianth, and large dark coloured shining seed-vessel, which projects con-
siderably beyond the perianth. Mr. Hewett Watson, has lately suggested
that it is a mere variety of P. maritimum, a subject on which I can
scarcely pronounce an opinion, from dried specimens, and those that I my-
self collected of P. maritimum abroad, were too little advanced to enable
me to judge of its striking first-sight character. The difference, however,
indicated in our books is far from satisfactory, and is taken from what
we know to vary in other allied species. It is singular that Sir W.
Hooker in his two last editions of the British Flora, says, that the fruit
is shorter than the perianth, although in the former editions, and in the
English Flora, it is characterised (as var. 6 of .P. aviculare) by fruit longer
than the perianth. The British P. maritimum, (from Jersey) may possibly
be only a form of P. Roberti, and different from the true one of the south
of Europe: of it I am not sure if I possess specimens, (if so they are at
present mislaid): the one from the Mediterranean has glaucous leaves,
which blacken by drying, and short joints in proportion to the stipules.
My friend Meisner, in his monograph, says of the P. maritimum, that it is
found also in the west of France, North America, Cape of Good Hope, and
perhaps in India. I fear he has jumbled several things together ; and the
west of France plant may be either our P. Roberti, or the Jersey P.marilimum.
Ido not seem to possess any thing ewactly agreeing with P. maritimum as
defined by that botanist, except from the Mediterranean. The P. aviculare
is a very variable plant, and has a wide geographical distribution.

At Killiness point is a large bank of drifted sand, held together by
Psamma (or Ammophila) arenaria, and Triticum junceum; here the
Calystegia Soldanella is found, and also Anacamptis pyramidalis. This I
believe to be the only certain spot in Scotland for the latter, and the local-
ity is extremely interesting, in so far as it differs entirely from that usually
assigned it, viz.: “grassy hills or banks, especially where the soil is
chalky.”—Sm. We saw a considerable number of specimens past flower ;

54 Dr. Arnorr’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway.

these of course we left: only about a dozen were obtained in a good
state. The coast instead of a south-easterly, takes now a south-westerly
direction to Mary-port, nearly half-way between Killiness point and Mull
farm. At Mary-port we met with Raphanus maritimus, very luxuriant,
but apparently passing into &. Raphanistrum, unless indeed both were
growing intermingled, and forming hybrids. The strangulated or beaded
appearance of the fruit has always appeared to me the best character,
although that has been departed from by most botanists, who lay more
stress on the lyrate, or simply pinnatisect nature of the leaves; to this
latter I object, as it does not seem of much value in other species of the
Cruciferze, but I by no means insist on the validity of that obtained from
the fruit, for reasons best illustrated by the specimens on the table. Near
Mary-port the Helosciadiwm nodiflorum was found, and Samolus Valerandi,
the first time we had seen it on this coast.

Carlina vulgaris was got on a sloping bank vis-a-vis to the Mull farm
house. From this point to the lighthouse, we observed nothing worthy
of notice: and no sooner had we got to the lighthouse, than a cold drizzle
came on, which made our scrambling down among the rocks too hazardous
to be attempted: we got here a boy accustomed to them, to descend for
the Crithmum maritimum, and Inula crithmoides: the former was not suffi-
ciently advanced, for this, like all other Umbelliferae, ought to be collected
when the fruit is almost mature. This plant is not so scarce in Scotland
as supposed, extending from the Mull of Galloway to the parish of Kirk-
bean, on the east coast of Kirkcudbrightshire: it is also found to the
south of Ayr. The Golden Samphire, J. crithmoides, is more rare.
To dry both I found it necessary, on my return to Glasgow, to scald
them in boiling water, not only to kill them, but to take the salt
out of them, which last, if not extracted, ruins specimens that are
not kept constantly in a perfectly arid atmosphere. We could not
obtain a boat, and therefore we found neither the Atriplex portu-
lacoides, nor Statice spathulata, found here, as I understand, by Dr.
Balfour and his party, in 1843. I was rather disappointed at this,
because I never happened to see, in a growing state, the Statice, so called
in this country, although it appears to be by no means uncommon. My
attention was many years ago directed to probably a form of it as
distinct from §. Limonium by Mr. M. Y. Stark, now a clergyman
in Canada, who found both on the south shores of England, and observed
that the S. spathulata uniformly grew in circles or rings, like fairy rings,
while the other never did. As to the name this plant ought to bear, it
seems tolerably certain that it is not S. spathulata of Desfontaines,—
indeed, Boissier, the latest writer on the subject, places them in different
sections of the genus; it appears to be the S. bellidifolia of most French
botanical writers, but not of Sibthorpe’s Flora Greeca, nor of De Candolle:
it is the S. olecfolia of Willdenow, but not of Scopoli, and it is the &.
Willdenovii of Loisleur in part only, the specimens he had chiefly in view

being the S. densiflora of Girard, a Mediterranean plant: indeed until —

:

Dr. Arnort’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway. 55

Girard attempted to clear up the point, not one name given to it was
correct. Girard, therefore, (in the Ann. sc. Nat. N.S. xvii. p. 31.) gives
it a new appellation, S. Dodartii, and indicated two varieties : his @ humilis
was supposed to be peculiar to the Mull of Galloway, while his « was
not uncommon along the west coast of France. Since then the S&.
Dodartii has been divided into two—S. Dodartii and S. occidentalis ; and
if distinct, it is not impossible we possess both in Great Britain. The true S.
Dodartii is said to have leaves obovato-spathulate, awnless or very shortly
mucronate, and tapering into a petiole about as long as the limb; the
scapes are rigid, straight, without a trace: of sterile branches; bracteas
green on the back, with a narrow whitish margin, and anthers somewhat
linear. S. occidentalis has leaves lanceolato-spathulate acute, or with a
long setaceous mucro below the point, tapering into a petiole that is
longer than the limb ; the scapes are slender, flexuose, with some of the
lower branches sterile; bracteas with a shining but reddish margin;
anthers ovate. Such, at least, are the characters furnished by Boissier,
in De Candolle’s Prodromus, just published: he mentions that S. Dodarti
grows in England and Ireland, on the authority of a specimen from Hooker;
but states that the S. binervosa of Gerard Smith, judging from the figure
in Engl. Bot. Supp. t. 2663, is rather S. occidentalis than S. Dodarti, on
account of the form of its leaves. Now, I lay before the Society all my
British ones, and they will see that every one has the lanceolate-spath-
ulate leaves of S. occidentalis, although some of the other points in its
character do not apply. On the other hand, Boissier refers, with doubt
certainly, to 8. spathulata of the Bot. Mag. as a figure of S. Dodartu:
but even the British S. binervosa varies much in its leaves; some being
much broader than others, although none resemble the figure in the Bot.
Mag. Our plant has the scapes generally low and extremely variable
in the mode of ramification; whereas Boissier says his plant has them
thick, rigid, and often two feet high! Ihave seen no such plant from
this country. In our herbaria, British specimens present sometimes the
spikelets approximated and closely imbricated, forming short dense spikes;
in others the flowers are more distant and the spikes slender: the former
I haye from Devonshire and Wales, the latter from Dover: but there
are intermediate forms, and in all there is a tendency to produce sterile
branches or branchlets: nor are the above differences accompanied with
the other characteristics indicated by Boissier.

I may here state that S. Limonium has been said to grow on the Galway
coast; but it is probable that this is rather 8. Bahusiensis of Fries, (the
S.rariflora of Drejer and Babington,) a plant which may, after all, be only
the northern form of S. Limoniwm. It is found on various places of
the Wigton and Kirkcudbright coasts, There,has been lately an endless
change of names among the Statices: even the well marked SS. reéi-
evlata of England is now supposed not to be the Linnzan one, but the 8.
Caspia of Willdenow, foundin England, France, and along the Mediterranean
to the Caspian Sea. It is therefore no longer to be found in De Candolle’s

56 Dr. Arnotr’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway.

Prodr. under the name we all know it by. As to Statice bellidifolia, awricu-
lefolia, and spathulata, there seems to be such an inextricable jumble, that we
must either drop these names entirely, so as to prevent false ideas arising from
the name, or we must conjoin many that have lately been disjoined. The
volume of De Candolle containing Boissier’s description of the Plumba-
gineze has only been published a few months ago: I have just got it,
and have as yet made only one hasty attempt to decipher my foreign
species by it. I may, however, be permitted to remark, that the species
seem to be founded on the philosophy of the modern schools, that plants
differmg in character, however trifling, if words can be found to express
them, must be distinct species ; instead of the older and more reasonable
doctrine of botanists, that plants must have a natural specific difference
before we can assign limits to their written characters.

Before leaving the lighthouse, (where we were requested to remain all
night, if the four would nestle in a couple of beds,) we were shown the
curious mechanism by which this modern Cyclops exhibits its solitary eye
to the erratic mariner; and perhaps no mechanism raises up in the mind
more lofty ideas than that exhibited by the lighthouses on our coasts,
erected by Stevenson,—inferior to none in the world, superior to most.

We were then conducted to the Smuggler’s Hole, and hoped to find some
good things on the adjacent rocks, but were disappointed. Near the “hole”’
itself I found one solitary plant of the hairy variety of the common heath,
Calluna vulgaris. On the shore about West Tarbet, we found Crambe
maritima, or Sea Kale, in considerable quantity ; a plant which, like the
Samphires, becomes much more tractable by dipping it in boiling water.

From this point we pushed on, keeping the top of the rocks, instead of
the coast, as the distance from Drumore was considerable, and we had
much work yet before us. or this reason it is probable that we missed
the Huphorbia Portlandica, said to grow along the coast. On coming
near to Cardrain farm, (Mr. M‘Culloch’s,) we thought it advisable to call
there, as we hoped to get him to conduct us to the little Ononis
reclinata, almost the scarcest of Scotch plants. Unfortunately he was
from home, and his lady could give us no assistance. We returned
to the cliffs, but having only Dr. Balfour’s notes in the Philosophical
Society’s Proceedings, (vol. i. 209,) to guide us, we were led to suppose
that the plant grew on the top of the cliffs, along with the Oxytropis
Uralensis, instead of at the bottom, on a gentle declivity near the sea. It
must be confessed, too, that to find this plant in a good state, we were a
month too late. Geranium sanguinewm was abundant. Alisma ranwn-
culoides and Hypericum Elodes, we did not see. ‘The former I met with
shortly before on the west side of the greater Cumbrae,—an island
interesting for the endless profusion of Anagallis tenella,—and the latter
we found afterwards nearer Portpatrick. On returning to Cardrain
farm-house for our vascula which we had left there, we found by the
side of a ditch, abundance of Lepidium Smithii, and a few specimens of
Stachys ambigua. This latter plant is supposed by many to be a hybrid

Dr. Arnort’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway. 57

between S. sylvatica and palustris; by others to be a slightly narrow-
leaved form of . sylvatica; that which we found differed only from S. palustris
by the leaves decidedly, although shortly stalked, and more cordate at
the base: that ours was the true plant, I have no doubt, since Mr.
Bentham, the best authority in the world for the species of Labiatee, has
reduced it as a mere variety to S. palustris; a variety which, although
he has called it g hybrida, appears to me to differ in no permanent degree,
as every legitimate variety ought to do, from the type of the species. We
also found the common state of S. palustris in the neighbourhood, but I
did not observe any of the S. sylvatica, although very probably it is to be
met with there likewise.

We returned to Drumore about seven o’clock, and thus concluded our
first day’s excursion.

Having seen our packages deposited in the Port Logan coach‘ for
Stranraer, which left Drumore at half-past seven next morning, we took the
direction of Port Logan across the peninsula. The road, made chiefly
for the use of the farm-houses, is extremely zig-zag. The distance was
stated first to be three miles, then about three miles ; as we got at least a
mile on the way, Port Logan seemed to be farther off than when we started,
and it was now about four miles. The true distance can scarcely be less
than five or six miles; so that, although we did not loiter much by the
way, we did not reach our destination till half-past nine. We found here
Peplis Portula, and at Cowans, the willows alluded to by Dr. Balfour:
they were Salix aquatica, caprea, alba, and fusca; the three first certainly
cultivated: Huonymus Europceus may also grow here, but, like many
others observed in the hedges, had obviously been planted. The neces-
sary interlude of breakfast being performed, we directed our steps to
the beach, where we observed Calystegia Soldanella, Eryngium maritimum,
Polygonum Roberti, Gnanthe Lachenalii, Atriplex laciniata, and perhaps
A. rosea, Scirpus maritimus, and a single plant of Beta maritima. It was
my wish to examine Scirpus maritimus with attention, as in North
America there are understood to be two very distinct varieties, or perhaps
species, confounded under that name or its synonyme S. macrostachyos
of Muhlenberg; and it is as yet doubtful which is our British one—if,
indeed, we do not possess both, The one, the true S. maritimus, has the
nut broadly obovate, lenticular, shining, and much longer than the hypo-
gynous bristles, which are slender ; the other, which more properly merits
the name of S. macrostachyos, the @ fluviatilis of Dr. Torrey, has the nut
triangular, narrowed downward, dull, acuminated, and only as long as the
hypogyuous bristles, which are rigid: the first is found in salt marshes,
or not far from the sea shore; the other, along the borders of lakes and
rivers, always in fresh or only slightly brackish water. Those we found
on the coast of Galloway I presume to be the true S. maritimus from the
locality, but the fruit was so extremely young as to throw no certain
light on the subject, or if in Europe the same differences of structure were
connected with the difference of locality. I recommend it to the attention

58 Dr. Arnorr’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway.

of those who reside in Glasgow during the month of September, as fine
specimens may be had between Bowling-bay and Erskine ferry, and else-
where on the banks of the Clyde.

At Port Logan we visited the far-famed fish pond, where we see the
inhabitant of the sea reduced to the same degree of tameness as a cat,
by means of that mighty engine, hunger; an excellent illustration of that
dominion which God promised to man, not only “over the fowl of the
air and every living thing that moveth upon the earth,’’ but also “ over the
fish of the sea.’ There was, indeed, something almost ludicrous in the
familiarity shown by some of the larger ones, coming to the very edge of
the pond, with their jaws expanded and half out of water, so as to be fed
with a few limpets.

Passing for a short way through the grounds of Port Logan, we took
the road to Port Gill, and met with the Aster Tripolium, Scirpus maritimus,
Helosciadium nodiflorum, a variety of Polygonum aviculare considerably
different from the ordinary one, and a small maritime form of Catabrosa
aquatica. On some grassy slopes we found Carlina vulgaris. The shore
being too much indented and rugged to permit of us following it, we again
left it in search of the road to Portpatrick. In this portion of our
journey we observed Hquisetum limosum, (LE. Telmateia) and in one or two
places, Isolepis Saviana, a species which, although distinguishable from
I. setacea by its nut being destitute of longitudinal furrows, has yet so
precisely the same appearance, that in the absence of the fruit, it would
have been impossible to decide which was the species. Besides 7. Saviana,
another species or form of this is found in some parts of England and Ireland:
itis the I.pygmea of foreign botanists, a name which is olderthan J. Saviana,
although it is not very applicable to some of the elongated Irish and even
Galloway specimens I possess. Under the name of J. pymea, the
plant has a very wide geographical distribution: as J. Saviana, it is
peculiar to Europe. In the specimens collected in Galloway, the nut
cannot be said to have any asperities or tubercles on its surface;
it only appears rough, on account of minute and very close numerous
impressed dots, like a thimble. After joining the road to Portpatrick, we
met with Radiola millegrana; and in one spot on the east side of the
road, Zormentilla reptans, a species which ought not to be confounded
with Potentilla reptams; but if blended with any, it must be with TZor-
mentilla officinalis, of which it has the ex-facie appearance of a very luxu-
riant variety. Iam not aware if any attempt has been made to cultivate
it, or compare it with Zormentilla officinalis, also cultivated: roots or
seeds for that purpose may however be easily procured near Glasgow, close
to Lambhill bridge across the canal, where I have seen it for two years
in the month of July in great luxuriance.

Coming near Port Float, we descended to the beach, but found nothing
worthy of notice, except Ligusticwm Scoticwm; and as much of the day
was spent, we resolyed on again seeking the road, and proceeding direct
to Dunskey Castle, a distance of five or six miles, This part of our walk

Dr. Arnori’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway. 59

was most unprofitable: indeed, throughout the whole peninsula called the
Rhynns of Galloway, nothing of any consequence is found away from the
shore ; and the shore, particularly on the west side, is so bold and rocky,
that it would consume as many days, as hours we devoted to it, to examine
it properly ; and were any one to attempt this, he ought to spend his
chief time between the lighthouse and Clanyard Bay, and probably accom-
modation at night might be had at the lighthouse itself.

When we came in sight of Dunskey Castle, we left the road and passed
through a moor. Here, about a quarter of a mile from the castle itself,
we found Hypericum Hlodes (Llodes palustris of Spach,) and Potamogeton
oblongus. The Hypericum was in considerable abundance: the only spot
along the Firth of Clyde where it has been found, is on the north side,
opposite to Gourock, about two hundred yards to the west of Portkill in
Dumbartonshire. As we were separated by a chasm from the castle, the
party divided, two descending to the shore, the others keeping the high
ground. The former found among the cliffs, Rhodiola rosea and Helian-
themum vulgare. In the moat behind the castle were Anagallis tenella,
(which, however, we had observed in several other places along the coast,)
Helosciadium inundatum in a very fine state of fructification, and
Callitriche platycarpa; with regard to the position of this last genus in
a natural arrangement, there can, I think, now be no doubt, that in the
youngest germen there is not the least trace of a margin or rim to denote
an adherent perianth: the fruit is thus superior, and the affinity with
Haloragez no longer tenable, It is difficult to compare it with any other
known natural order; for it bears no close resemblance to any of the
Euphorbiaceze, proteus-like as that order is; and yet that is the group
with which Lindley feels constrained to ally it.

Dunskey Castle is on the summit of the cliff, and close to its walls in
front were magnificent specimens of Arenaria rubra, that form of it called
by Linnzeus ¢. marina, but not the A. marina of most English botanists,
which is the A. media of Linnzeus and De Candolle. Iam not quite sure if I
understand what Babington means by these species, as he dismisses the char-
acters obtained from the ring of the seed, and relies on the round stems and
angular rough seeds for A. rubra; and compressed stem and compressed
nearly smooth seeds for A. marina. Now, in the Dunskey Castle plant, the
root appeared perennial, as in the usual maritime forms of these species,
the stem and seeds compressed, as in his A. marina, but the latter rough, as
in his A. rubra. Then, if this be his A. marina, we have no character
left but the compressed stem and compressed seeds, and these latter were
by no means lenticular—a transverse section exhibits a triangle.
Babington further assigns to his A. rubra, pointed leaves, while he says
that in A. marina they are blunt: in the Dunskey plant they are decidedly
mucronate. It is thus extremely difficult to pronounce what
are species, and what varieties; nor can a mere European observer
decide the question, as similar forms to our own occur in North America,
Buenos Ayres, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope; and it is useless

60 Dr. Arnott’s Botanical Excursion to the Rhinns of Galloway.

to draw up characters which only apply to European specimens, and
perhaps not even to them universally. In fact, here, as in all other cases,

we are not first to draw up a character, and decide on what is a species’

by its accordance therewith; but we must previously decide on what is
a species, and then do our best to express its limits in words.

To the north of the castle were abundance of small species of Daucus
Carota, probably the same that Dr. Balfour says resembles D. maritimus.
The true D. maritimus, however, is a widely different plant, and is
certainly not a native of Scotland. Between the castle and Portpatrick
wasabundance of a proteiform Hrythraa, sometimes resembling the common
state of EZ. centawriwm, sometimes approaching Z. latifolia. On the whole,
however, I could not decide that there were more than one species in this
locality, nor am I so much inclined to rely as Greisbach and others, on
the proportion of the calyx to the tube of the corolla, so as to distinguish
the £. latifolia from £. centarium: at first, in both, the whole bud is as
short as the calyx ; and when in fruit, the tube alone is considerably
longer than the calyx: between these two limits there are numerous
gradations ; besides it is extremely difficult to say what the period of com-
parison adopted by Greisbach is, viz., the precise time of the corolla
beginning to open; and if such be the only difference between the two, it is
of little use, whether practically or theoretically, to attempt to distinguish
them. At Portpatrick, we observed abundance of Samolus Valerandi, at
the south end of the pier, near a large quarry; and on the pier itself,
Pyrethrum maritimum, (surely a mere variety of P. inodorum,) Coronopus
huellii, and an Atriplex, with oblong lanceolate quite entire leaves, but
which may be only a form of A. patula. Along all the west coast we met
with Scilla verna, or at least with its withered scapes.

From Portpatrick we returned to Stranraer in a car.

Galloway, or the Rhynns of Galloway, is altogether a most remarkable
spot, whether for its form, or for its geological appearance, or its botanical
productions. The name Rhynns, or Rins, is very ancient. Buchanan,
in his History of Scotland, notices it under the Latinified name of Rinus,
and says that the word means an edge or short point ; and in this sense
it may be traced, on the one hand, to the Greek word ‘ge, and, on the
other, to the Gaelic word Roinn, a point or promontory. Babee
further states, that the name Gallayery: or Gallovidia, is from the word
Gallovid, which, in the old language of the country, means a cock. If
this be correct, the Rhinns may be compared to its head and beak:
but Buchanan may have merely conjectured this from the resem-
blance to the Latin word Gallus, for the Gaelic for that bird is not
Gallovid, but Coileach: two preferable etymologies present themselves ;
the one, the obsolete word Cailbhe, a mouth, and hence an estuary; the
other, Gailbheach, stormy, from the frequent storms to which the coast is
exposed. Buchanan elsewhere states, that the name was conferred on it
by the Irish, (when ceded to them about the year 430,) in honour of
their own Galwav.

Ol

—-!

.

Mr. Crum on a Peculiar Fibre of Cotton incapable of being Dyed. 61

Having relinquished our intentions of going down the east side of Glen-
luce Bay, we returned next morning (Thursday) to Ayr by the steamer,
and had an hour or two to examine the coast south of that town, before
returning to Glasgow by the train. We met with Juncus Gerardi, or
ceenosus of Bicheno, Atriplex laciniata, Polygonum Roberti, in abun-
dance, perhaps more so than on the coast of Galloway ; Borago officinalis,
Atriplex rosea, but nothing worthy of interest.

The weather was excellent, except the single instance mentioned of a
cold drizzle when at the lighthouse ; and in this we were more fortunate
than if we had been at Glasgow or Ayr, for in these places, on the Wed-
nesday, there had been partial thunder and much rain. Indeed, while
walking from Port Float to Dunskey Castle, we saw, from the clouds, that
there was a thunder storm about the head of Glenluce Bay, and for some
time we were not without fear that we should not escape, as the wind
came from that quarter. It, however, dissipated before reaching us.

I have only to regret that none other of the party has agreed to give
you this short account of our excursion, as I made no notes, and now
speak entirely from memory. I have to thank Dr. Thomson for bringing
some of the localities to my remembrance.

Mr. Crum then read the following paper :—

VIII.—On a Peculiar Fibre of Cotton which is incapable of being Dyed.
By Watrer Crom, Ese., F.R.S., Vice-Presment.

In the month of May last, Mr. Thomson of Primrose received from
Mr. Daniel Keechlin of Miilhausen some specimens of a purple ground
printed calico, each of them containing a portion of cotton which was
white, although subjected to the same treatment by which the rest of the
cloth, and even the threads which crossed the white one, was uniformly
dyed. The white part of the thread was usually thicker than the rest,
and little more than a quarter of an inch long, The whole fabric had
been thoroughly bleached before printing, so that it contained no grease
or other impurity that could resist the colouring matter.

White specks like these are not unknown or undreaded among the
printers of calicoes in this country. Mr. Keechlin mentions that the
cotton of which they are formed is known by the name of coton mort,
and here also it is called dead cotton. Mr. Keechlin has been the first,
I believe, to suggest that it may consist of unripe cotton, and that its fibre
may be solid, wanting the hollow of the more perfect fibre. He adds,
that if such should prove to be the case, its behaviour with colouring
matters may affect materially the question of the mechanical or chemical
nature of the union of cotton with its dye. Mr. Thomson did me the
honour to transmit me the specimens for examination.

The ordinary cotton fibre, it will be remembered, is described by Mr.
Thomson in the memoir where its form was first made known,* as a tube,

* Annals of Philosophy, for June, 1834. Lately reprinted in the Classical
Museum, No. 20, and in Liebig’s Annalen or January, 1849.

62 Mr. Crum ona Peculiar Fibre of Cotton incapable of being Dyed.

originally cylindrical, but which collapses in drying. It has then the
appearance of two small tubes joined together, so that a transverse section.
of the filament resembles in some degree a figure of 8. Until full matu-
rity, the cylinder is distended with water, in which bubbles of air are often
distinguishable. -

On placing a few of the fibres of the coton mort under the microscope,
IT found them to consist of very thin and remarkably transparent blades,
some of which are marked or spotted, while others are so clear as to be
almost invisible, except at the edges. These fibres are readily distin-
guished from those of ordinary cotton by their perfect flatness, without the
vestige of a cavity, even at the sides, and by their uniform as well as great
transparency. They are often broader, too, than the usual fibre, and they
show numerous folds, both longitudinal and transverse, but they are never
twisted into the cork-screw form of the ordinary fibre.

It occurred to me that cotton of this description might be detected
among the wool as it is imported. I searched accordingly for any portions
that had a different appearance from the rest, and having collected and
examined them, I found one sort whose filaments had exactly the appear-
ance, under the microscope, of the coton mort in the pattern of Mr.
Keechlin. It occurs in the form of a small matted tuft of a shining silky
lustre, and usually contains in its centre the fragment of a seed, or perhaps
an abortive seed. It consists of short fibres, having little tenacity.
Specimens of it are found in abundance among the motes or hard portions,
called droppings, rejected by the picking machine in the preparation for
spinning. Small tufts of it, however, do occasionally pass the sifting
process of the picking machine, and then, their fibres being too short to be
teazed out in the carding engine, or drawn into threads in the subsequent
operations of cotton spinning, remain as minute lumps or knots upon the
threads of better wool.

Although the microscopic appearance of the fibre in question is that of
a flat single blade, the cellular character of the tissue scarcely admits of
such a formation. We must rather suppose that like the healthy unripe
cotton fibre, it was originally an elongated cell or tube filled with liquid
—that the seed around which it began to grow had died soon after its
formation, while the fibres which clothed it were yet soft and pliable, and
that the flattening, and perhaps growing together of the sides of the tube
was occasioned by the pressure from the increasing crop of cotton attached
to the numerous other seeds confined in the same pod.

To explain the bearing of this peculiar structure upon the question,
whether cotton-wool and colouring matters form together a true chemical
compound, or are held together by a merely mechanical power, I must
quote a passage from a memoir on this subject which I read to the
Philosophical Society six years ago, and refer to the memoir itself for
additional illustrations.

“In many of the operations of dyeing and calico-printing, the mineral
basis of the colour is applied to the cotton in a state of solution in a

Mr. Crum on a Peculiar Fibre of Cotton incapable of being Dyed. 63

volatile acid. This solution is allowed to dry upon the cloth, and in a
short time the salt is decomposed, just as it would be, in similar circum-
stances, without the intervention of cotton. During the decomposition of
the salt its acid escapes, and the metallic oxide adheres to the fibre so
firmly as to resist the action of water applied to it with some violence.
Tn this way does acetate of alumina act; and, nearly in the same manner,
acetate of iron. The action here can only be mechanical on the part of
the cotton, and the adherence, as I shall endeavour to show, confined to
the interior of the tubes of which wools consist, or of the invisible passages
which lead to it. The metallic oxide permeates these tubes in a state of
solution, and it is only when its salt is there decomposed, and the oxide
precipitated and reduced to an insoluble powder, that it is prevented from
returning through the fine filter in which it is then enclosed.

“When the piece of cotton, which, in this view, consists of bags lined
inside with a metallic oxide, is subsequently dyed with madder or log-
wood, and becomes thereby red or black, the action is purely one of
chemical attraction between the mineral in the cloth, and the organic
matter in the dye vessel, which, together, form the red or black compound
- that results; and there is no peculiarity of a chemical nature from the
mineral constituent being previously connected with the cotton.’

To produce the purple dye of Mr. Keechlin’s pattern, the cloth has first
to be impregnated with iron. For this purpose it is made to imbibe a
weak solution of proto-acetate of iron, and afterwards dried. By expo-
sure to the air for some days the salt is decomposed. Its acetic acid
evaporates, and the oxide of iron, then become peroxide, remains in the
fibre. The cloth is afterwards subjected to severe washings in hot and
cold water, but its iron is not removed, and the question is, How is it
retained in connection with the cotton? Mechanically, as I maintain,
and probably in the interior of its hollow fibre, which it entered in a state
of ‘solution, and within which it was precipitated. Others, as I have
already stated, are of opinion, after Bergman, that the combination is a
chemical one ; and so fully is that view carried out by my friend Professor
Runge of Oranienburg, in his ingenious and excellent work on the chem-
istry of dyeing,* that he assumes coloured cottons to be combinations of
what he calls cottonic acid with the various bases in definite, and even in
multiple proportions. Thus a very pale shade of buff from oxide of iron,
is called percottonate of iron; another is called bicottonate of iron, and
still deeper shades cottonate and basic cottonate of iron.

But the new fibre, by the same treatment, is incapable of retaining the
iron mordant, and yet both fibres have the same chemical composition, and
the same ultimate structure. The only difference is that one is shaped
into tubes or bags capable of holding all matters which are insoluble in
water—that is, all bodies that can be caught upon a filter, while the other
is possessed of no such inclosure.

I take this opportunity, in reply to a review of my first memoir on this

* Farbenchemie. 2 vols. Berlin, 1832 and 1845.

64 Mr. Crum on a Peculiar Fibre of Cotton incapable of being Dyed.

subject, by M. Persoz, in his remarkable work, “Traité de l’impression
des Tissus,” of explaining, that I attribute to an attraction of surface

those cases of dyeing where pure cotton, by mere immersion, is enabled’

to decompose the solid matters in solution, and to withdraw them from
the solvent. Such is the case with the solution of deoxidized indigo in
lime—with the plumbite of lime—with the various salts of tin, and many
other solutions. Cotton, as I have stated, acts in these cases like char-
coal and other porous bodies, and I have seen no reason to confine the
attraction in question to the internal surface of the cotton fibre.

But I have not ranked the aluminous mordant among the class of
bodies so attracted, because cotton when immersed in a solution of acetate
of alumina, has not the power of separating its basis. That solution
must be applied to cotton and dried in it, and then the alumina only
adheres, or loses the power of being washed away, in proportion as the
acetic acid is removed by evaporation. I could see here no chemical
decomposition effected by the cotton-wool, for the same salt may be
decomposed by evaporation in a glass vessel. In this case I have repre-
sented the alumina as being held in the interior of the fibre, just as sand
may be held in a bag whose interstices are too narrow to allow its par-
ticles to pass.

M. Persoz has remarked, however, that by evaporating a solution of
acetate of alumina in a glass vessel, we do not so thoroughly decompose
it as by drying the same substance upon calico. This I also have observed;
and although I have been accustomed to ascribe the difference to the more
extensive division and exposure of the salt upon cotton, I have no proof,
and shall not deny that the presence of cotton at a particular stage of the
evaporation may accelerate the decomposition of the salt, and that its
fibres may thus attract a portion of alumina over their whole surface. If
this modification of the view I had given be correct, the action of the coton
mort proves at least that colouring matter adhering outside is not so
permanent as that which is held within the fibre of the mature cotton.

Neither view gives any countenance to the chemical theory. Porous
bodies are well known to attract, and even to decompose, without chemi-
cally combining with the substances they precipitate. Accordingly, none
of the oxides are changed either in colour or in chemical character by their
union with cotton. The hydrated oxide of copper, for example, precipi-
tated upon calico, becomes carbonate, or arsenite when exposed to carbonic
or arsenious acid. The protoxide of iron changes speedily in the air into
the red sesquioxide, and that again may be converted into prussian blue,
or into a black or purple lake—every new compound, if it only be
insoluble, adhering firmly to the wool.

Mr. Crum also reported upon some new facts in the Chemistry of
Digestion, and of Poisons.

The Society then adjourned till the next Session.

BELL AND BAIN, PRINTERS, GLASGOW.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE bi

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY-EIGHTH SESSION.

7th November, 1849.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Tuer Forty-eighth Session of the Society was opened this evening, when
Dr. Thomson, the President, read a paper on Distillation.

21st November, 1849.—The Prestpent in the Chair.

Tux following were elected members of the Society, viz. :—Dr. Allen
Thomson, Mr. James Cumming, Dr. Arthur Mitchell, Messrs. George
Lyon, John Parker, James Napier, Robert Rankin, Andrew Renfrew,
Charles. Thomas, John Condie, Dr. Ebenezer Watson, Mr. William P.
Smith.

Mr. Liddell, the Treasurer, gave in the following Abstract of his
Accounts for Session 1848-49, together with Inventory of the Society’s
Property :—

1848. Dr.

Noy. 11.—To Cash in Union and Provident
Banks at beginning of Session, £32 19 11

1849.
Noy. 11. — Interest on do.,.........ssssssesees eto oe
—_——— £3419 7
— 30 Entries of New Members,
| BD) ONAN ati os cece coccon mm anens 3110 0
— 14 Annual Payments from Ori-
ginal Members, at 5s.,,........ 3810 0
— 215 Annual Payments, at 15s, 161 5 0
— Arrears from one Member,...... 015 0
————————s | =—(197 (0.0
4 — Balance due Treasurer,.........ssccseseeesevees 1 17 10
£233 17 5

> Vol. ILL—No. 2. 1

66 Abstract of Treasurer’s Account.

1849. Cr.
Nov. 11.—By New Books and Binding,........ £58 15 1
— Printing Transactions, Circu-

laren, Aha ceaseeerieds-ccssice.sc. 3G 19-0

— Alterations on Bookeaseg,....... 212 0
—- £98 6 1

po RGME AIA se aNtetescs..-.c-. 15 O40

— Coffee for Evening Meeting.,...... 0 16 10

— Fire Insurance,.................... 216 0

_— Society’ s Officer, Clerk ie
: ing Circulars, and Poundage

Collecting Dues,............... 13 10 4
— Postage, Delivering Letters, and

Stationery,.... ...... Saskinesee ete CIT!
Be Agns for Bill 800i. cee sencaeaty Oo 160)
———__—— 4114 38
— Subscription to Cavendish Society,............ 2 2 0
— Cash in Union Bank,.............. 90 0 0
— Do. in Provident Bank,.......... |e ce

———. 9115 1

£233 17 5
GLAsGow, 12th November, 1849.—We have examined the Treasurer’s Account, and com-
pared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there is in the Union Bank of Scotland
the sum of Ninety Pounds sterling, and in the Provident Bank One Pound Fifteen Shil-
lings and One Penny; and that the Treasurer is in adyance One Pound Seventeen Shil-
lings and Tenpence (say £1 17s. 10d.) sterling, thus leaving a net Cash Balance in favour
of the Society of Eighty-nine Pounds Seventeen Shillings and Threepence. The Treasurer
has also exhibited to us a Voucher which he holds for money lent to the Corporation of
the City of Glasgow, from the proceeds of the Philosophical Society Exhibition in 1846,
with the Interest thereon up to 15th May ult..—the amount at said date of 15th May
being Five Hundred and Five Pounds Sixteen Shillings and One Penny sterling.
THOMAS DAWSON.
WILLIAM COCKEY.

Vote by the Treasurer—l4th November, 1849 From the above Account it will be seen
an the Income has exceeded the Expenditure in the amount of £56 17s. 4d. This has
arisen chiefly from the increased number of Members admitted. But the Society is under
liabilities to Booksellers about £55, which, when paid, will reduce the money stock to
nearly the same amount as at commencement of last Session. The number of Members
on the Roll at commencement of the Session was 222; new Members admitted, 30;
making in all 252. Of these have died 8; resigned by letter, 5; and expunged from the
roll of Resident Members for being in arrears, 8;—in all 21, to be deducted from the
above-named number,—leaving 231 Members on the roll at this date. There are now 13
Members in arrear of dues for one year, the major part of whom have removed their resi-
dence out of Glasgow, but have not intimated this officially to the Secretary. Had this
been done, conform to Law XI., and a desire expressed that their names should be re-
tained on the list of Non-Resident Members, their privilege would have thereby been
reserved of “resuming their position as Resident Members whenever they return to
Glasgow, upon payment of the current year’s subscription.” By neglect of giving this
intimation, the name is retained on the General Roll, and dues exacted till expiry of two
years, at which period, if not paid, the name is then expunged from the list, and cannot
be restored without a new election, and one guinea of entry-money paid.

=

ae Oe

Report on State of Library. 67

In compliance with Law VL. the Treasurer now reports that the only property possessed
by the Society consists of the following, viz. :—The Library (of which a new Catalogue
isin the press). Portrait of President, in Gilt Frame. Marble Bust of President. Presi-
dent’s Chair of Oak from Roof of Cathedral. Table in Hall, in two pieces. Writing Desk on
do. Four Gas Lustres. Three Book-Presses. Small Black-Board. Stove in upper Library-
room. Eight Benches with top-rails. Steps for Book-cases. Ballot-Box. Secretaries’ Tin
Box.—The Treasurer presents to the Society an Abstract of the Moneys paid for Books
and Binding during the Session 1843-44 to this date, being six years :—

Session 1843-44, : 5 - - 4 : : 4 - 45° 6° 0

oe) = ae f f 2% 211

— 1845-46, ° F . 82 0 1

a IT , 104 4 9

, eee ee ee ee ee as he
— 184849, - 2 “Paid; ; 3 6081o
—_ — . - Not paid,about . 55 0 0

113 15 1

£514 12 11

On the motion of Mr. Crum, seconded by Mr. Hastie, it was resolved
to place the name of Mr. John J. Griffin, of London, on the list of Hono-
rary Members of the Society.

The Secretaries were instructed to make up a list of the Honorary
Members, to be placed in future at the head of the printed list of the
Society.

It was resolved to instruct the Treasurer to intimate to members falling
into arrears with their annual subscription for two years, that their names
will, agreeably to the laws of the Society, be erased from the roll unless
the same is paid.

Mr. Hastie read a communication from certain native proprietors of the
Caleutta Public Library, accompanying a presentation of Catalogue of

the Library and last Annual Report. The letter solicited for the Library
a copy of the Society’s ‘‘ Proceedings.”

The Librarian reported on the state of the Library. In the course of
the last two years considerable progress has been made towards the com-
pletion of the various series of periodicals, so as to render them valuable
as sources of consultation. Previous to this period, the Library did
not contain one complete journal. The Society is now annually in the
receipt of 40 periodicals. Of 26 English periodicals, there are 18 com-

_ plete from the commencement. Of the 9 French periodicals, only 1 is
complete, viz., Quesneville’s Revue Scientifique. And of the 4 German
journals, only 1 is complete, viz., Liebig’s Annalen der Chemie. During
the last two years blanks have been filled up, and series completed in the
periodical literature, to the extent of 146 volumes, at an expense of about
£56, or 7s. 6d, a volume. To render the remaining journals worthy of

a scientific library, 255 volumes require to be purchased, at an estimated

cost of £97, at 7s. 6d. per volume. These it is proposed to supply

gradually, a selection being made for the completion of one or two journals
annually. The total number of volumes in the Library on the Ist of

November, 1849, was 1600.

68 Mr. Rogs on a new Portable Smith's Forge.

The Society proceeded to the annual election of Office-bearers, and the
vote papers having been collected, Mr. Dawson and Mr. Cockey were _
appointed to examine the votes and report the result, and they retired
for this purpose to another apartment. During their absence,

Mr. Charles Robb, civil engineer, read a paper explanatory of the
principle of a new Portable Smith’s Forge, Furnace, and Ventilating
Apparatus, the invention of Mr. Chaplin, of Glasgow. Models of the
machine were exhibited by -Mr. Robb, showing its mode of operation. It
is constructed wholly of iron, and may be folded up into the dimensions
of three feet six inches, by two feet six inches, with eight inches of thick-
ness. It is contained in an upright frame, and consists of an eccentric
fan with three blades, which is set in motion by means of a crank handle.
In the model exhibited, the ratio of the diameter of the driving wheel to
that of the pulley on the fan spindle, was twenty to one. A hundred
revolutions of the driving wheel per minute is a rate of motion that can
with all ease be produced and sustained for a long period ; and this would
give a velocity of 2000 revolutions of the fan per minute, or a speed of
5750 feet at the circumference of the fan. To the upright frame, the
receptacle for the fuel, which is simply an iron tray, mounted on wheels,
for shifting, is attached by bolts, and to the end of this the cold water
trough is affixed. A dead plate is also placed before the inner front of
the frame, the design being thus to protect the blowing mechanism from
the injurious influence of the heat. The main cause stated by Mr. Robb
for the extraordinary efficiency of the machine, viewed in proportion to
the slight power required for its impulsion, was the extreme lightness of
the various parts of the fan, together with the accuracy and delicacy of
their motion. In commenting upon its superiority to the common smith’s
forge, Mr. Robb claimed for it not only the qualifications of greater com-
pactness and durability, (its titles to which are indisputable,) but also that
of greater efficiency. As illustrative of its rate of heating, he referred to
the experiments made with it in the blacksmith’s shop at the Woolwich
Dockyard, in the presence of the chief engineer and master shipwright. It
was found then that a bar of iron, 13 inch in diameter, could be brought
to a welding heat in from three to four minutes. By a slight modifica-
tion, involving merely the addition of a set of fire bars, through which
the blast is directed, the instrument was also capable of being converted
into an excellent shot-heater. In this respect, too, its capabilities were
fully tested in the experiments previously mentioned. The application of
the machine to the purpose of ventilating public buildings and ships was
next illustrated. The application of the fan to this purpose is not new;
but, as usually constructed, it requires a very considerable amount of
power to impel it, a great proportion of which is absorbed in overcoming
the inertia of its mass, and sustaining it in rapid motion. In the form
given to the fau by Mr. Chaplin, however, the resistance arising from
friction and inertia is reduced to a minimum, and the power applied is
almost wholly employed in exhausting or pumping out the vitiated air,

Office Bearers of the Society. 69

and as is sometimes necessary in the case of ships, forcing pure air.
Both these functions may be performed at pleasure by the machine under
notice. The fan and driving apparatus are precisely similar to those pre-
viously explained, the only distinction being, that the blades are made
considerably wider, and the forcing and exhausting apertures are situated
on the same side. In the case of public buildings it is proposed to drive
the ventilators by water-power, derived from the water-pipes which tra-
verse the streets; in ships manual power will suffice; and in steam-boats
the engine would be available.

Mr. John Wilson, Mr. Smith of Deanston, and Mr. Hart, made some
remarks on the applicability of the machine to the ventilating of mines
and other purposes.

Mr. Dawson and Mr. Cockey having finished the examination of the
vote-papers, reported that the following had been elected Office-bearers
for the current year, viz. :—

President.
Dr. Tuomas Tomson,
Vice-Presment,..Watter Crom. Lrprariay,...R. D. Toomson, M.D.
TREASURER,........ANDREW LIDDELL.

Secretaries,
Aexanper Hastie, M.P. | Wi11am Kepprg.
Council.
A. Anverson, M.D. Witt1am Gourtie. Pror. Wm. Tomson.
A. Bucuanan, M.D. Apex, Harvey. G.A.W. Arnott, LL.D.
James Bryce. Witrt1am Murray. JouN WILson.
THomas Dawson. Joun STENHOUSE. A. K. Youne, M.D.

5th December, 1849.—The Prestpent in the Chair.

Mr. Tuomas Cuapman was elected a member. ;

The Librarian reported that Mr. R. Gardner had presented to the
Society a copy of his Natural History of the County of Stafford. A vote
of thanks was passed for the handsome present.

The Secretary reported that the Honorary Members of the Society are
the following, viz. :—

Elected in 1826, Mr. Charles Chalmers, Bookseller, Hdigharghe
— 1826, Professor William Couper.
— 1827, Mr. Alexander Hastie.
— 1834, Professor Thomas Graham.
— 1849, Mr. John Joseph Griffin, London.

The following paper was read :—

IX.—On some Remarkable Effects of Lightning observed in a Farm-house
near Moniemail, Cupar-Fife. Communicated by Wm. Tomson, Esa.,
M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

Tue following is an extract from a letter, addressed last autumn to me
by Mr. Leitch, minister of Moniemail parish :—

70 Remarkable effects of Lightning observed in a Farm House.

“ Monremar Manse, Cupar-Fire,
26th August, 1849.
* * We were visited on the 11th inst. with a violent thunder-
storm, which did considerable damage to a farm-house in my immediate
neighbourhood. I called shortly afterwards and brought away the wires
and the paper which I enclose. * *

“T have some difficulty in accounting for the appearance of the wires.
You will observe that they have been partially fused; and when I got
them first they adhered closely to one another. You will find that the
flat sides exactly fit. They were both attached to one crank, and ran
parallel to one another. The question is, how were they attracted so
powerfully as to be compressed together? * *

“You will observe that the paper is discoloured. This has been done,
not by scorching, but by having some substance deposited on it. There
was painted wood also discoloured, on which the stratum was much
thicker. It could easily be rubbed off, when you saw the paint quite
fresh beneath. * *

“The farmer showed me a probang which hungona nail. The handle
only was left. The rest, consisting of a twisted cane, had entirely dis-
appeared. By minute examination I found a small fragment, which was
not burnt, but broken off.”

[The copper wires and the stained paper, enclosed with Mr. Leitch’s
letter, were laid before the Society. ]

The remarkable effects of lightning, described by Mr. Leitch, are all
extremely interesting. Those with reference to the copper wires are
quite out of the common class of electrical phenomena; nothing of the
kind having, so far as I am aware, been observed previously, either as
resulting from natural discharges, or in experiments on electricity. It
is not improbable that they are due to the electro-magnetic attraction
which must have subsisted between the two wires during the discharge,
it being a well-known fact that adjacent wires, with currents of elec-
tricity in similar directions along them, attract one another. It may
certainly be doubted whether the inappreciably short time occupied by
the electrical discharge could have been sufficient to allow the wires,
after having been drawn into contact, to be pressed with sufficient force
to make them adhere together, and to produce the remarkable impres-
sions which they still retain. On the other hand, the electro-magnetic
force must have been very considerable, since the currents in the wires
were strong enough nearly to melt them, and since they appear to haye
been softened, if not partially fused; the flattening and remarkable
impressions might readily have been produced by even a slight force sub-
sisting after the wires came in contact.

The circumstances with reference to the probang, described by Mr.
Leitch, afford a remarkable illustration of the well-known fact, that an
electrical discharge, when effected through the substance of a non-
conducting (that is to say, a powerfully resisting) solid, shatters it, with-

“<c

Remarkable effects of Lightning observed in a Farm House. 71

out producing any considerable elevation of its temperature; not leaving
marks of combustion, if it be of an ordinary combustible material such
as wood.

Dr. Robert Thomson, at my request, kindly undertook to examine the
paper removed from the wall of the farm-house, and enclosed with his
letter to me by Mr. Leitch; so as, if possible, by the application of
chemical tests, to discover the staining substance deposited on its surface.
Mr. Leitch, in his letter, had suggested that it would be worth while to
try whether this case is an example of the deposition of sulphur which
Fusinieri believed he had discovered in similar circumstances. Accord-
ingly tests for sulphur were applied, but with entirely negative results.
Stains presenting a similar appearance had been sometimes observed on
paper in the neighbourhood of copper wires through which powerful dis-
charges in experiments with the hydro-electric machine had been passed ;
and from this it was suggested that the staining substance might have
come from the bell wires. Tests for copper were accordingly applied, and
the results were most satisfactory. The front of the paper was scraped
in different places, so as to remove some of the pigment in powder; and
the powders from the stained, and from the not stained parts, were repeat-
edly examined. The presence of copper in the former was readily made
manifest by the ordinary tests: in the latter no traces of copper could be
discovered. The back of the paper presented a green tint, having been
torn from a wall which has probably been painted with Scheele’s green;
and matter scraped away from any part of the back was found to contain
copper. Since, however, the stains in front were manifestly superficial,
the discolouration being entirely removed by scraping, and since there was
no appearance whatever of staining at the back of the paper, nor of any
effect of the electrical discharge, it was impossible to attribute the stains
to copper produced from the Scheele’s green on the wall below the paper.
Dr. Thomson, therefore, considered the most probable explanation to be,
that the stains of oxide of copper must have come from the bell-wire. To
ascertain how far this explanation could be supported by the circumstances
of the case, I wrote to Mr. Leitch asking him for further particulars, espe-
cially with reference to this point, and I received the following answer :—

“ Monrematt, Cupar-Frrr,
30th Nov., 1849.

« * * JT received your letter to-day, and immediately called at’
Hall-hill, in the parish of Colessie, the farm-house which had been strnck
by the lightning, * *

“T find that Dr. Thomson's suggestion is fully borne out by the facts.
I at first thought that the bell-wire did not run along the line of dis-
colouration, but I now find that such was the case. * *

[From a drawing and explanation which Mr. Leitch gives, it appears
that the wire runs vertically along a corner of the room, from the floor, to
about a yard from the ceiling, where it branches into two, connected with
two cranks near one another, and close to the ceiling.]

72 Remarkable effects of Lightning observed in a Farm House.

“The efflorescence [the stains previously adverted to] was on each side
of this perpendicular wire. In some places it extended more than a foot
from the wire. Tne deposit seemed to vary in thickness according to the ©
surface on which it was deposited. There was none on the plaster on the
roof. It was thinnest upon the wall-paper, and thickest upon the wood
facing of the door.* This last exhibited various colours. On the thickest
part it appeared quite black; where there was only a slight film, it was
green or yellow. * *

“T may mention that the thunder-storm was that of the 11th of August
last. It passed over most of Scotland, and has rarely been surpassed for
terrific grandeur,—at least beyond the tropics. It commenced about 9
o’clock, p.m., and in the course of an hour it seemed to die away alto-
gether. The peals became very faint, and the intervals between the
flashes and the reports very great, when all at once a terrific crashing
peal was heard, which did the damage. The storm ceased with this peal.

“ The electricity must have been conducted along the lead on the ridge
of the house, and have diverged into three streams; one down through
the roof, and the two others along the roof to the chimneys. One of these
appears to have struck a large stone out from the chimney, and to have
been conducted down the chimney to the kitchen, where it left traces upon
the floor. It had been washed over before I saw it, but still the traces
were visible on the Arbroath flags. The stains were of a lighter tint
than the stone, and the general appearance was as if a pail of some light-
coloured fluid had been dashed over the floor, so as to produce various
distinct streams. All along the course of the discharge, and particularly
in the neighbourhood of the bell-wires, there were small holes in the wall
about an inch deep, like the marks that might be made by a finger in
soft plaster.

“Most of the windows were shattered, and all the fragments of glass
were on the outside, I suppose this must be accounted for by the expan-
sion of the air within the house.

“The window-blind of the staircase, which was down at the time, was
riddled, as if with small shot. The diameter of the space so riddled was
about a foot. On minute examination I found that the holes were not
such as could readily be made by a pointed instrument or a pellet. They
were angular, the cloth being torn along both the warp and the woof.

“The house was shattered from top to bottom. Two of the serving
maids received a positive shock, but soon recovered. A strong smell of
what was supposed to be sulphur was perceived throughout the house, but
particularly in the bed-room in which the effects I described before took
place.”

The following paper was also read :—

* These remarkable facts are probably connected with the conducting powers of
the different surfaces. The plaster on the roof is not so good a conductor as the

wall-paper, with its pigments; and the painted wood is probably a better conductor
than either.—W. T.

Mr. Smita on Sewage Water of Towns. 73

X.—On Sanitary Reform and the Use of Sewage Water of Towns. By
James Suitu, Hsq., late of Deanston.

Te author began by observing that the causes of disease are to a great
extent within our own power, and can be removed or diminished. There
was much less sickness when the population was smaller and less crowded
together; and it is found that the more populous a town becomes, the
greater is the increase of endemic disease. Much of the disease in every
country is caused by poverty and the want of domestic comfort, and above
all, by irregular habits. The latter cause is to be removed by moral
means; the former, so far as it can be removed, by physical means. The
most prominent cause of disease is the accumulation of the various putrify-
ing matters generated by the community. He described the pernicious
effects arising from defective sewage, and especially the decomposition of
animal and vegetable matter in cess-pools. The removal of these sub-
stances without allowing any portion of them to escape would be the per-
fection of sewerage. This requires an unlimited supply of water available
at all times under pressure in every apartment where matter is generated,
to provide proper orifices for receiving it into air-tight sewers ; such orifices
to he thoroughly water-trapped, to prevent the possibility of the escape
from the sewers of any smell or gas whatever into the apartment, which
can be effectually done at small expense. The first thing to be done,
therefore, in order to the removal of these noxious matters, is to provide
an abundant supply of water. Then the question arose, are these decom-
posing substances useless, and to be thrown into the nearest river? or can
they be made useful to the community by which they are generated? He
proceeded to answer this question by showing how it could be applied to
the purposes of agriculture, so that it could not only be got rid of alto-
gether, but rendered, at the same time, a source of profit to the commu-
nity. Various methods had been proposed for this purpose; some pro-
posing that the matters of suspension should be allowed to deposit in
ponds, to be afterwards dried, and used as a light portable manure; the
watery part being allowed to flow into the rivers as heretofore; not
adverting to the fact, that the watery part contains the greatest amount
of enriching matter in solution. Others have proposed to precipitate the
matter in solution, as far as it can be done, by cream of lime or some such
cheap agent, by which there would still be a sacrifice of the ammonia and
alkaline constituents. Such treatment implies a considerable extent of
space for the necessary apparatus, a considerable quantity of material for
precipitation and desiccation, besides a great amount of expensive mani-
pulation, whilst it has been ascertained that the application of the mate-
vials in their state of suspension and solution, as in the recent sewage

water, is much more efficacious in promoting the growth of plants, than
when extracted, dried, and otherwise prepared. But if it shall at any
time be found that the manufacture of a portion of the manure in the dry
state shall be desirable, manufactories can be established through the

74 Mr. Suara on Sewage Water of Towns.

country on any of the main lines of pipe, apart from the town and the
dense population. The remoyal of the sewage water in its original fluid

condition by pumping, and its conveyance in pipes to the spot where it is”

to be applied, obviously afford a simple and efficient mode of dealing with
it. It has been ascertained by careful calculation that sewage water can
in this manner be taken up and conveyed a distance of ten miles, and be
thrown upon the ground in most equal distribution, at a cost of 3d. per
ton; containing all the elements, unchanged and undiminished, and be
presented to the great chemist Nature, to be dealt with by the never-
ceasing and costless labourers of the vegetable kingdom. The pumping,
conveyance, and distribution had been tested at several places on a suffi-
cient scale to demonstrate its perfect practicability and efficacy. The
first experiment of the pumping, conveyance in pipes, and distribution by
hose, was made at Clitheroe, in Lancashire, under Mr. Smith’s direction,
by Mr. Henry Thomson of the extensive print-works there. The liquid
consisted of the sewage of a village of the ordinary character, with that
from the works, which contained, of course, a greater amount of soap suds
and alkaline matter; this was thrown into a tank containing the drainage
from a farm-yard. The pumping, conveyance, and distribution by the
hose, answered admirably. The experiment was made on some old

meadow land, This liquid was applied to a meadow at the rate of about

eight tons per statute acre, whilst farm manure at the rate of fifteen tons
per acre was applied to a corresponding extent. The grass from the
liquid manure grew considerably more luxuriant than that from the farm-
yard manure; but, unfortunately, the relative weights produced were not
ascertained on cutting. The next experiment was made on a farm on the
estate of Possil, near Glasgow, by Mr. Robert Harvey, of the Port-
Dundas Distillery, who, in the most enterprising and spirited manner, at
Mr. Smith’s suggestion, laid down pipes for conveying liquid manure over
his whole farm, consisting of upwards of three hundred acres, and had the
liquid manure from a dairy of upwards of five hundred cows pumped to
an altitude of more than seventy feet. The distribution of liquid manure
has been carried on on this farm for more than four years, very little
solid manure being used except for comparative purposes. The distribu-
tion is chiefly on what may be termed the low pressure system, as instead
of being jetted with force to form an artificial shower, it is simply allowed
to be discharged upon the surface (by tin-plate pipes of about an inch and
half in diameter, and four feet in length, fitting into each other with slip
joints, and these can be led to discharge the liquid at any point within
their range, which can be extended to a length of two or three hundred
yards, if necessary). In this manner, one man can distribute the manure
over from one to two acres per day. The manure is thus applied to pas-
ture land, to grass for cutting, for house-feeding, and for making hay. It
is applied also to stubble land, and to fallow, and has uniformly raised
magnificent crops of grass, potatoes, turnips, wheat, beans, barley, and
oats, on land not of the best quality. These men are employed during

Mr. SmirH on Sewage Water of Towns. 75

the whole year in distributing the manure, and go on in wet weather as well
asin dry. Mr. Harvey has lately extended his system of pipes, and has
erected a twelve-horse engine, which is more than master of the work.
The Sewage Manure Company of London, which obtained Acts in 1846
and 1847, for taking a portion of the sewage water of Westminster, has,
after much untoward obstruction and delay, got to work with a thirty-
horse engine, and is now distributing the liquid in several of the market
gardens at Fulham, and upon meadow land in the neighbourhood, with
most satisfactory results. The Company receives £3 10s. for the season’s
watering of the garden ground, and £2 for that of the meadow land.
The results in growing lettuce have been very extraordinary, a market
gardener admitting that he had sold the lettuce from an acre of land, so
watered, fourteen days earlier than that from some land which had not
been watered, and that the pecuniary result had been £25 per acre more.
The operations of the Company are going forward, and in another season
the value of liquid sewage manure will be fully demonstrated. The water
at present applied by the London Company is very much diluted, and has
very little smell, and being immediately absorbed by the ground, all offence
is avoided. It was at first thought by the engineer of the Company that
it would be necessary to employ their own servants to make the distribu-
tion; but it has been found in practice that the men, women, and boys
who are usually employed about gardens are quite competent to the work
under the direction of the master gardener, so that the whole matter is,
in the meantime, left in his hands, to use the liquid as he thinks most
fitting. It has been objected by some that the distribution of the sewage
water would generate miasma all over the country, to which it may be
replied that the matter taken from the sewers being in a fresh condition,
and before it has had time to pass into any extensive decomposition, and
being in itself much diluted with water to facilitate its conveyance and
distribution, and being thrown over an extensive absorbing surface, with
a great area of atmosphere, any poisonous matter that may emanate from
it will be so diluted that it cannot affect the health of man or beast. It
is impossible, with present information, to determine what may ultimately
be the profit derivable to any community from this source; but taking
what data we have from scientific inquiries, as well as that from the prac-
tical experience which has been worked out, it does not seem extravagant
to anticipate a free yearly income of one pound for each individual of the
- community. But to render the estimate safe, in the first instance it may
be made at ten shillings, which would afford to the city of Glasgow an
income of at least a hundred and fifty thousand pounds, which would put
it in the power of the public authorities to root out by degrees all the
narrow and unwholesome lanes and the wretched dwellings, which are a
disgrace to the present age, and to carry on continuously the progressive
improvement of the city. It has been suggested by many that customers
will not be found for the manure in this condition to so great an extent;
but it must be obvious to every intelligent agriculturist who takes the

—_

trouble to make a survey of the surrounding country, and it will come
home to the experience of every farmer, that there is every where a great

want of manure to produce the fullest effect. If manure can be furnished -
in this manner at half the cost of ordinary manure, and be laid on the
ground when the farmer wishes it, without carting over his land, with
very little trouble to himself, and with results beyond the average of ordi-
nary crops, there can be no doubt of finding customers every where. The
crops of the farmer who uses this manure will excite the jealousy of his
neighbours, which will lead them, I would almost say force them, to follow
his example.

The question of the disposal of the sewage water in the liquid form,
for agricultural purposes, being determined, the engineering of the system
of sewers will be greatly simplified and rendered independent of tidal
influence, as wells can be put down at points most convenient for the
drainage of specific areas, and for the transmission of the liquid by the
nearest route to the country. The sewerage should consist of a double
system of air-tight tubular sewers, the one to receive the sewage water,
the other to receive the rain water falling upon the streets and houses.
All the inlets being securely trapped, so as to prevent the escape of any
gas from the sewers, whatever gas may be generated must find its way to
the general outlet, when it can be passed through the furnace of the
pumping engine, and be thereby deprived of its noxious qualities, and be
thrown into the air at a height above the streets and dwellings.

In order to test the usefulness of the manure in the liquid form, Mr.
Smith said he had made extensive inquiries for several years. A number
of experiments had also been made with the view of testing the practica-
bility of dealing with it in the liquid form, and ascertaining the cost at
which it could be pumped into pipes, and thus conveyed into the country.
It was ascertained that sewage water can be conveyed, by pumping, ten
miles, and delivered on the ground for 3d. a ton, with a moderate profit ;
whereas, to cart a ton for ten miles costs 5s. The liquid is not only con-
veyed at this charge, but distributed. The expense of distributing liquid
manure by cart is considerable, and in the solid form it is more expensive
still. Mr. Smith next remarked that the sewage water of large towns
contains all the elements of the food used by the inhabitants and by
animals. These elements exist in the state of mechanical mixture, of
suspension, and of solution. A large dilution of these matters with water
not only deprives them of smell, but fits them better for being applied to
the land. The suspended matter moves easily in properly constructed
sewers, and can be conveyed with facility through pipes. The sewage
matter applied in the liquid form is much less liable to be washed away
by rain, than when applied in the solid state; and besides, both chemical
investigation and the results of experience combine to show that solid
manure is less valuable than manure in a state of suspension or solution.
In the Meadows at Edinburgh, which are irrigated by sewage water, it is
found that the matter in suspension has a tendency to lodge at the roots

76 Mr. Smith on Sewage Water of Towns.

Dr. Ratny on the Detection of Arsenic. 77

of the grass, causing decay; while the fluid manure which ultimately
remains, after flowing through several meadows, produces the healthiest
and best grass. Some of these meadows are let for £30 to £50 for the
cutting of the grass. Six different specimens of water from the meadows
of a gallon each, yielded—

1. Water taken up immediately on its leaving the sewer, 244 grains
of solid matter, and 82 grains in solution.

2. Taken as it flowed from subsidence pond, 52 grains of solid matter,
and 87 grains in solution.

3. Taken after having flowed over one plat, 31 grains of solid matter,
and 89 grains in solution.

4, Taken after having flowed over several plats, 15 grains of solid
matter, and 82.7 grains in solution.

5. Taken still farther on, 24 grains of solid matter, and 67.2 grains in
solution.

6. Taken at the sea when passing away, 2} grains of solid matter, and
72.9 grains in solution.

The meadows farthest from the source of the sewage water consist of
poor sandy land, yet they produce better grass, in consequence of the
water being deprived in its progress of its grosser matter held in suspen-
sion. Mr. Smith observed that sewage water contains a larger propor-
tion and variety of nutritious matter than even guano.

Mr. Smith illustrated by diagrams the method of sewerage recom-
mended by him, showing the importance of having a sufficient and uniform
fall in the sewerage, and of using small air-tight pipes, instead of the
large ones commonly employed.

19th December, 1849.—The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

Tue following were elected members of the Society :—Messrs. John
Paterson Brown, Hugh Wilson, Moses Provan, Robert Walker, William
Mirrlees, jun.

On the motion of Mr. Gourlie, seconded by Dr. Walker Arnott, it was

unanimously agreed to elect Dr. Balfour, Professor of Botany in the
University of Edinburgh, an Honorary Member, in consideration of his
eminent services to the Society during his residence in Glasgow.
_ Mr. Crum proposed, on the recommendation of the Council, that the
_ next meeting of the Society should be held on the 9th proximo, and be a
conversational meeting, which was agreed to. The following paper was
agreed to :—

XI.—On Reinsch’s Process for the detection of Arsenic. By Harry Raryy,
M.D., Professor of Forensic Medicine in the University of Glasgow.

This process consists in boiling the suspected fluid with about ;); of its
bulk of muriatic acid along with copper. The arsenic is deposited on the
copper in the form of 2 steel-grey film.

ae

78 Dr. Rawyy on the Detection of Arsenic.

Tt is generally supposed that this process is equally applicable to all the
compounds of arsenic soluble in dilute muriatic acid; and that in all cir-

cumstances it detects the presence of the metal, with a delicacy more ~

than. sufficient for every practical purpose.

Soon after the publication of Reinsch’s method, I made various experi-
ments, with the view of determining the limits within which its indications
might be relied on. The result was unsatisfactory ; for while, in some
cases, it appeared to be fully as delicate as the method of Marsh, in other
eases I failed to obtain the metallic deposit where the arsenic was present
in a much higher proportion. Similar observations have been made by
others; for it is stated by Fresenius and Von Babo that, “the presence
of nitrates and various salts of mercury, and other metals, render the
separation of arsenic by copper difficult or even impossible.” It seems
also to be a general opinion, that when the proportion of arsenic is ex-
tremely minute, the process of Marsh is decidedly preferable.

It is obviously important that the cause of such discrepancies should
be investigated, as the great simplicity and rapidity of Reinsch’s process
render it peculiarly suitable for medico-legal investigations, and give it a
decided superiority over every other, if it can be conducted in a manner
that will ensure equal delicacy.

The following experiments were made with the view of ascertaining the
cause of these discrepancies, and, if possible, the means of preventing
them. The copper was used in the form of very thin foil, which was
easily cleaned and polished, so as readily to show any change of colour;
the fluid usually contained one tenth part, by measure, of muriatic acid
of the ordinary strength, except when the object was to ascertain the
effects of varying this proportion ; and in order to prevent any diminution
of the fluid, or any change in its strength during the boiling, a condenser,
containing cold water, was placed closely over the mouth of the vessel i
which the process was carried on.

1. My first object was to ascertain the extent of copper surface that
can, in the most favourable circumstances, be distinctly coated by a given
quantity of arsenic. The results were very uniform. One thousandth of
a grain of arsenious acid gave a full steel colour to one square inch of
copper surface. When éwo square inches of copper are used with the
same quantity of arsenious acid, the effect is still distinct; but the de-
posit is, in these circumstances, so thin, that there is a tinge of yellow,
apparently from the copper shining through, or not being uniformly coated.
Two square inches is the uémost extent of copper surface that can be dis-
tinctly coated by one thousandth of a grain of arsenious acid; and it can
be proved that, in these circumstances, the thickness of the film of deposited
metal does not exceed 4.553.555 (one-four millionth) of an inch.

It follows from this result, that if the extent of copper surface be too
great relatively to the arsenic present, no distinct deposit will be obtained ;
thus, a fluid containing one thousandth of a grain of arsenic, with three
square inches of copper surface, might give a tarnish, but no distinct coating.

|

Dr. Rainy on the Detection of Arsenic. 79

2. The effect of dilution was next examined. When the fluid was to
the arsenic as one million to one, the deposit was distinctly formed in
fifteen to twenty minutes. Thus, one thousandth of a grain of arsenious
acid in one thousand grains of fluid, and consequently constituting one
millionth part, gave a distinct coating to one square inch of copper surface
in twenty minutes. The same quantity of arsenious acid in two thousand
grains of fluid, also gave a deposit on the copper; but it was less distinct,
and required a longer time. It appears then, that with a dilution of one
million times, the effect is distinct and prompt, and when the dilution is
carried to two million times, it is indistinct and tedious. A dilution of
two million times appears to constitute the practical limit in Reinsch’s
process. By continued boiling it is easy, of course, to concentrate the
fluid, so as to bring the dilution within these limits, if arsenic be present in
any proportion, however small; for there appears to be no loss of arsenic
by evaporation during the boiling.

3. The proportion of muriatic acid in the solution has a considerable
influence on the rapidity of the deposition and even on its production,
when the arsenic is in very minute quantity. Thus, if the arsenic is less
than one millionth, the process is very slow in a fluid containing one tenth
muriatic acid of the ordinary strength; but when it amounts to one
seventh or one sixth, the deposition is much accelerated. And in solu-
tions in which the quantity of arsenic is so small, that with the ordinary
proportion of acid no deposit is obtained, the copper becomes distinctly
coated if the proportion of muriatic acid is doubled.

4, From these observations it would follow that the rapidity with which
copper acquires a distinct arsenical coating, is directly as the proportion of
arsenious acid and also of muriatic acid in the solution, and inversely as
the extent of the copper surface. -

5. As copper receives a coating of a similar colour from other metals,
from sulphur and sulphuretted compounds, the mere formation of such a
deposit cannot be considered a conclusive proof of the presence of arsenic.
It is merely a convenient method of separating the suspected substance,

_ inorder that it may be subjected to the appropriate tests. The most
2 satisfactory of these tests are, the formation of a white crystalline sublimate
_ by heating the coated copper—the solution of this sublimate in water,

and its conversion, by the appropriate reagents, into arsenite of silyer—
orpiment—and arseniate of silver, all of which are very easily recognised
_by the peculiarities of their colour and other properties. In estimating
the value of Reinsch’s process, it is therefore necessary to ascertain, not
only the smallest quantity, and the utmost dilution under which it can be
separated and distinctly exhibited on copper, but also the smallest quantity
which, when so separated, can he satisfactorily subjected to the conclusive
tests.
In repeated experiments, I found that one thousandth of a grain of
arsenious acid in one million times its weight of fluid, could be separated
as a distinct deposit on copper. The copper thus coated, when heated

80 Dr. Ranyy on the Detection of Arsenic.

gently ina small tube, yielded a slight but distinct sublimate, most obvious
on a black ground, and which, with a magnifying power of ten to twenty

diameters, was found to consist of crystals with triangular facettes, and

which, when dissolved in water, yielded orpiment and the red arseniate of
silver, when treated with the appropriate reagents.

This I believe to be as great a degree of delicacy as has aati been
obtained by the more tedious and troublesome process of Marsh; and is
more than sufficient for every practical purpose.

6. When investigating the delicacy of Reinsch’s process, I prepared
Se of ue dilute solutions of arsenious acid, varying in strength
from 15,455 t0 zoa!saa, and kept these solutions in readiness for the experi-
ments which I had planned. When first tried with copper and muriatic acid,
_ they gave results entirely conformable to those already stated. A portion
of any of these solutions, containing one thousandth of a grain of arsenious
acid, when diluted, so that the fluid amounted to a million times the
weight of the arsenic, gave a distinct and rapid deposit on the copper ;
but afterwards I could obtain no deposit from larger quantities of arsenious
acid, though in a more concentrated state. As an example—a portion of
solution containing 34, of a grain of arsenious acid in sixty grains of
water, and ae with a dilution of one in twelve thousand, gave no
deposit whatever when boiled in the ordinary way with copper and muriatic
acid for upwards of fifteen minutes. In this case the surface of the
copper was only 4 of a square inch, and therefore could not interfere with
the result by its too great extent.

I was perplexed with the apparent inconsistency of these results with
those previously detailed, and began to suspect that I had been misled in
my first estimate of the extreme delicacy of Reinsch’s process. But after
repeated trials [ found the difference to depend on the length of time that
the solution is kept. Very dilute solutions of arsenious acid become
gradually less and less sensitive to Reinsch’s process, so that after several
weeks no deposit can be obtained on copper from solutions containing
arsenic in the proportion of one in jifty thousand, or even one in twenty
thousand. I have recently found, however, that the addition of a small
quantity of any animal matter, such asmilk, effectually preventsthis change.

7. I was thus led to examine whether these dilute solutions underwent
any appreciable change in their chemical properties, and found that with
nitrate of silver they gave a white cloud—when concentrated by evapora-
tion to a small bulk, the residual fluid strongly reddened litmus, and when
evaporated to dryness, left a white stain, which did not sublime at a low
red heat. This stain redissolved in a few drops of water, forming a
solution which still strongly reddened litmus, and which, on the addition
of a strong solution of nitrate of silver, gave a brick red precipitate.

These experiments clearly indicate the conversion of arsenious acid
into arsenic acid.

8. In all watery solutions of arsenious acid this change appears to
take place to a certain extent, if the solution is kept for a considerable

Dr. Raryy on the Detection of Arsenic. 81

time. I have uniformly found arsenic acid in such solutions, if concen-
trated to a small bulk by evaporation. The residual liquor reddens litmus
and gives a brick-red precipitate with nitrate of silver. But this conver-
sion of arsenious into arsenic acid is restricted within very narrow limits,
as the arsenic acid increases the change goes on more slowly ; and when the
arsenic acid amounts to one part in ten or fifteen thousand, no further
conversion takes place. Hence, the whole, or nearly the whole of the
arsenious acid may be converted into arsenic acid in a very dilute solution,
while in a concentrated solution, though the same absolute quantity is so
converted, it will bear a trifling proportion to the arsenious acid which
still remains unchanged. I have recently ascertained that solutions of
arsenious acid, containing animal matter, do not undergo this change, but
remain, after an interval of several months, as sensitive as ever to
Reinsch’s process.

9. I cannot assign the cause of this change with absolute certainty,
but there are strong reasons for believing that it depends on some prin-
ciple communicated from the air: for it occurs more readily if the solution
is exposed to the air in an open vessel, or kept in a vessel only partially
filled and often shaken. It is natural to suppose that it is the oxygen of
the air which, in these circumstances, unites directly with the arsenious
acid. This opinion is in accordance with the partial conversion of sul-
phurous acid into sulphuric acid, when its aqueous solution is in contact
with atmospheric air. Still I can adduce no proof of the correctness of
this supposition, and it is conceivable that chlorine, or some nitrous com-
pound in the atmosphere may be the real agent.

10. Supposing, however, that arsenious acid, in very dilute solutions,
is gradually changed into arsenic acid, will this account for the fact,
that such’ solutions gradually become less sensitive to Reinsch’s test?
This leads us to examine how solutions of arsenic acid, prepared in the
usual way, are affected by that test. Is arsenic deposited on copper as
readily in solutions containing arsenic acid, as in solutions containing
arsenious acid? I believe it is generally supposed that there is no ma-
terial difference. Mr. Taylor, in his valuable work on Toxicology, repre-
sents the process as no less applicable to arsenic acid and its combinations
than to arsenious acid.

I made several experiments on this subject several years ago, and
having operated on very dilute solutions, such as one part of arsenic acid
in ten thousand parts of water, I was led to conclude, prematurely, that

"arsenic cannot be detected by Reinsch’s process, when it is in the state of
arsenic acid. This inference was erroneous; for the process succeeds
partially when tried with moderately dilute solutions; still the difference
between arsenious and arsenic acid is very great, for a solution of one
part of arsenic acid in fifteen hundred parts of fluid, containing one
tenth of ordinary muriatic acid, gives no deposit when boiled with
copper, while one part of arsenious acid, as already stated, gives a

distinct deposit when diffused in one million parts of a similar fluid. From

——aAPT es

82 Dr. Ramy on the Detection of Arsenic.

numerous comparative experiments, it follows that arsenious acid is a
thousand times more sensitive to Reinsch’s process than arsenic acid; or,
in other words, in order to give a similar deposit, arsenic acid must be
present in a thousand times greater quantity.

An increase in the proportion of the muriatic acid promotes the de-
position, so that indications of the presence of arsenic may be obtained
with weaker solutions. Thus, a solution of >;',, gave no deposit, when
the muriatic acid formed ;4,, a slight tarnish when the acid was 3, and
a distinct steel-grey deposit when the acid was 1.

In solutions containing ~5355 of arsenic acid, I obtained no deposit
even when the mixture contained 4 of the muriatic acid of ordinary
strength.

11. These statements will serve to show that Reinsch’s process is not
applicable to the detection of arsenic when it is in the state of arsenic
acid. They also explain, in a satisfactory manner, how the process be-
comes impaired in its delicacy when applied to dilute solutions of arsenious
acid, which, by keeping, is gradually changed into arsenic acid.

12. The injurious effects of nitrates and other compounds, such as the
persalts of mercury, is also explained by these facts; for when such sub-
stances are present along with muriatic acid, they readily convert the
arsenious acid into arsenic acid, and thus render it much less sensitive
to Reinsch’s process.

13. In conformity with these views, it might be expected that if arsenic
acid were reduced to the state of arsenious acid, it would be brought into
a suitable condition for the application of Reinsch’s process. This can be
accomplished by sulphurous acid. Ifa current of sulphurous acid gas is
passed through the mixture, the arsenic acid is changed into argenious acid,
and the process resumes all its original delicacy, as I have ascertained by
numerous experiments both on dilute solutions of arsenic acid, and dilute
solutions of arsenious acid altered by keeping.

14. The mixture which is to be examined should first be boiled for a few
minutes with the proper porportion of muriatic acid. It should then be
allowed to cool, and a current of sulphurous acid gas should be passed
through it till it is thoroughly saturated. This is most conveniently done
by heating a mixture of sulphuric acid and charcoal in a flask furnished
with a suitable tube for conducting the gas. Carbonic acid is produced
at the same time, and escapes along with the sulphurous acid; but it
does not, in any respect, interfere with the process.

It is indispensably necessary, however, that the sulphurous acid should
be kept in contact with the arsenic acid for some time. The reduction of
the arsenic acid into arsenious acid is a gradual process. Ihave sometimes
found two hours necessary for its completion. When a sufficient time is
elapsed, the superfluous sulphurous acid should be boiled off, till all smell
of sulphurous gas is gone, the copper may then be introduced, and the
process completed in the usual way.

15. Deposits bearing a considerable resemblance to the arsenical film

>.

-

}

Dr. Ratyy on the Detection of Arsenic. 83

are produced by boiling copper in solutions containing free sulphur, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and the combinations of sulphuretted hydrogen with
bases, sulphuret of copper being thus formed as a thin film on the
metal. The presence of muriatic acid is in no respect necessary for this
reaction.

I thought it possible that sulphurous acid might act in a similar manner,
and give rise to a coating of sulphuret of copper. On trial, I found this
supposition incorrect; for the copper undergoes no change in its colour
or lustre when heated in a watery solution of sulphurous acid.

If, however, muriatic acid and sulphurous acid are present together in
a solution, the copper is speedily changed. It assumes a steel colour of
a blueish tinge, dependent on the decomposition of the sulphurous acid
and the consequent formation of a thin film of sulphuret of copper. In
this reaction we have SO, + 2 HCl. + 3Cu= SCu + 2HO+2C1Cu
—l atom sulphurous acid + 2 atoms hydrochloric acid + 3 atoms copper,
yield 1 atom sulphuret of copper, 2 atoms water + 2 atoms protochloride
of copper.

This bears a close analogy to the action of hydrochloric acid—arsenious
acid and copper in Reinsch’s process in which 8 HCl + 8 Cu + AsO,=
3C1 Cu + 3 HO + As, or 3 atoms hydrochloric acid + 3 atoms copper
+ 1 atom arsenious acid yield 3 atoms protochloride of copper + 3 atoms
water + 1 atom metallic arsenic. It is also interesting to observe, that
while the combined action of copper and muriatic acid can decompose
arsenious acid and sulphurous acid, on the more stable compounds, arsenic
acid and sulphuric acid, they act on the one very feebly and on the other
not at all.

16. I have been led into these observations of sulphurous acid, in
order to obviate an objection which might be made to its employment, in
bringing the arsenical solution into a fit state for Reinsch’s process. It
may be objected that the presence of sulphurous acid may itself cause a
deposit on the copper, and thus mislead the experimenter. This difficulty,
however, is obviated at once by boiling off the superfluous sulphurous acid
before the copper is introduced. This will remove every ambiguity. But
besides this, the subsequent testing, which is indispensable in every case,
will afford complete security against error.

17. In a former part of the paper I mentioned that dilute solutions of
arsenious acid, when long kept, give a white cloudiness with sol, of nitrate
of silver, whereas it is well known that nitrate of silver gives no preci-
pitate whatever in solutions of perfectly pure arsenious acid. The occa-
sional production of this cloudiness in solutions of arsenious acid has
frequently been noticed. I am not aware that any attempt has been made
to account for it. I have satisfied myself that it arises from the presence
of arsenic acid, produced in these solutions, as I have already explained,
by exposure to the air. The arseniate of silver, in its ordinary form, no
doubt is of a deep brown or red; but the colour varies greatly with the
state of dilution of the flaid—when concentrated, it is of a reddish brown

84 Letters of Acknowledgment from various Societies.

—when more dilute, brick-red—when still more dilute, greyish, and when
extremely dilute, as +5455; a whitish cloud, exactly similar to that which
is observed in solutions of arsenious acid after they are kept for some
time.

9th January, 1850.—Mr. Crom in the Chair.

Tue Society held a conversational meeting.

The following were elected members:—Messrs. Alexander Mitchell,
Gilbert Lang, Alexander Reid, James Ritchie, Andrew Risk, Laurence
Clark, John Cuthbertson.

23d January, 1850.—The Vicz-Presment in the Chair.

Tue following were elected members:—Dr. James Steven, Messrs.
James Robert Napier, Charles Thorburn, James M‘Kenna, James Graham,
Thomas Ferguson, John Burnett, George M‘Callum.

Letters were read from the Royal Society of London, Royal Institu-
tion, Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, acknowledging receipt
of Vol. 3d, Part 1st of Proceedings of the Society.

The Librarian intimated that Robert Blackie, Esq., had presented to
the Philosophical Society's Library a copy of the Imperial Dictionary, in
2 vols., recently published by the Messrs. Blackie, and moved the thanks
of the Society, which were unanimously given.

Mr. Stein exhibited and described a machine invented by him for
checking the charge of duty upon spirits. A communication was made
by Dr. R. D. Thomson, of a simple and continuous method of washing
filters, by Mr. Eustace Cary Summers, which has been published in the
Philosophical Magazine, vol. 35, p. 96.

6th February, 1850.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Tue following were elected members :—-Messrs. David Wilson, George
Simpson, James Manson, John Blackie, jun., John Neilson.

Letters acknowledging receipt of Proceedings were read from Royal
Institution, Liverpool, and the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester.

Dr. R. D. Thomson communicated an account of his experiments on
the Fluids of Cholera, and on the atmosphere in December, 1848, and
January, 1849, which have been published in the Transactions of the
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, for 1850.

Dr. MircHELt on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 85

20th February, 1850.—The Prestwwent in the Chair.

Tue following were elected members :— Messrs. William Brand, James
George Morison, William Rae Arthur, John Burns Bryson, David Cross.

Professor William Thomson gave an experimental demonstration of
Mr. James Thomson’s theoretical conclusion, that the freezing point of
water is lowered by pressure.

The following paper was read :—

XII.—On the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. By
Artaur Mircnert, A.M., M.D.

Tu importance of any new fact bearing on the subject of digestion,
will, I trust, be received as my apology for reading to the Society the
following paper. The subject belongs more peculiarly to the physiologi-
cal section, but as the aid of chemistry has been constantly called in
during the progress of the investigations, and as the works of Liebig have
now rendered these subjects more or less commonly understood, I hope it
may not be altogether uninteresting to the members generally.

To Liebig, Payen, and to the learned professor of Strasbourg, M.
Persoz, as well as to Lassaigne, Bouchardat, Mialhe, and more recently
to Bernard and Barreswill, we are indebted for the knowledge of facts
with regard to the transformations which the saccharine aliments undergo
in the process of digestion, of the highest physiological interest.

Amongst these is one now universally admitted; I refer to the cata-
lytic power, which the salivary and pancreatic fluids possess of converting
starch into sugar. Since their researches, however, it has been shown by
Magendie that the same property belonged to almost all the fluids of the
economy, such as the bile, urine, gastric juice, serum of blood, spermatic
fluid, &c. Moreover, on making infusions of portions of brain, heart,
lung, liver, kidney, muscle, &c., and adding these to solutions of starch,
the transformation was found to be equally complete.

Having observed that the serum of blood acted thus on feculents, after
it had been drawn from the body, the same observer was naturally led to
ingnire if, while circulating in the animal, it could effect the same change.
Accordingly, a quantity of starch was injected into the jugular vein of a
rabbit, and in less than ten minutes afterwards a portion of blood was
withdrawn for examination. Not the slightest trace of starch, however,
could be detected; ‘but, apparently in its place, there existed a large
amount of sugar. (That the origin of this sugar might not seem to be
the food which the animal had last eaten, Mageudie had the precaution
to take, as the subject of this experiment, a rabbit which bad been fasting
for three days.)

After the first bleeding, successive quantities were abstracted at
intervals of an hour, and subjected to analysis; and it was found that for

86 Dr. MrrcuExt on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

the first five hours the quantity of sugar increased rather than otherwise,
but after that time it gradually went on diminishing until the quantity
became too small for detection. It thus appeared that when starch was
injected into the circulation, the blood at once possessed the power of
converting it into sugar, and thereafter, by some similar influence, of
causing it to disappear.

But as the artificial introduction of starch into the veins is not one of
the regular phenomena of life, it became interesting to ascertain if the
blood of an animal, nourished on substances containing a large proportion
of starch, would indicate the presence of sugar. A dog was therefore fed
on a mixture of boiled potatoes and lard for several days, and then, while
in full digestion, a vein was opened and sugar readily detected in the
blood. The same experiment frequently repeated always gave the same
result, and this uniformity naturally led to the following conclusion :—
that the existence of sugar in the blood is not, as formerly supposed, a
state of disease, but the normal or regular consequence of the digestion
of aliments containing starch or sugar itself.

This deduction was the more readily drawn from the notion, which
was so generally admitted, that animals have not the power of creating
any immediate principle, such as albumen, fibrin, casein, &e.; but only
possess the power of appropriating and then destroying such of these as
are furnished ready made by the animal or vegetable kingdoms. I say
the power of creating sugar, or forming it de novo, being thus
denied to the animal organism, to maintain consistency it became directly
necessary.to attribute its presence in blood to the use of feculent or
saccharine food.

The matter, therefore, stood thus,—Men had observed that during the
digestion of a food containing sugar or starch, the blood of animals con-
tained sugar, and they therefore concluded that it had been furnished by
these aliments.

Comparative experiments shall show in how far this was correct.

But before proceeding to their enumeration, I cannot refrain from
alluding to the postscript of a paper “on the White or Opaque Serum of
the Blood,” read to this society by Dr. Andrew Buchanan. He states
therein, that his experiments on that subject led him to suspect that the
starch might be converted by the organs of digestion into sugar, and be
absorbed in that form into the blood. Accordingly, he treated with
yeast some serum of blood, which had been withdrawn about three hours
after a full meal, and found that fermentation ensued. The same experi-
ment was repeated, and the result again was affirmative of the presence
of sugar.

In the second case, however, there was one difference worthy of note,
—while the feculent diet had been used more sparingly, the sugar appeared
to exist more abundantly. And what seemed still more strange was, that
the serum of the blood of the same individual after fasting still indicated
the existence of sugar, though in small quantity.

Dr. MircHEt on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 87

This leads us directly to suspect that the occurrence of sugar in the
animal economy, is more or less unconnected with the use of the saccha-
rine aliments. And what is here simply hinted at, I shall now adduce
experiments to prove.

lst Hxperiment.—A rabbit was fed for several days on a mixture of
potatoes, starch, and carrots, it was then killed instantaneously, and blood
drawn from the right side of the heart. This was laid aside for coagula-
tion, which was found complete in about one hour. The serum, which
was alkaline, was then examined, and I determined in it the presence of
sugar in a manner the most positive.

The stomach and small intestine also contained sugar, and traces of
starch unaltered.

The urine was turbid, alkaline, and contained no sugar.

2d Experiment.—A full grown rabbit was kept without food for two
days and then killed. The chest was at once opened, and the blood from
the right side of the heart collected in considerable quantity. In less than
an hour coagulation was complete, and the serum, clear and alcaline, gave
palpable indications of the presence of sugar.

The stomach and small intestine were perfectly empty, and of course
contained no sugar.

The urine, which prolonged abstinence as usual had rendered acid, was
likewise void of sugar.

3d Experiment—A dog was allowed to fast for a couple of days, and
then put for a week on a diet wholly exempt from saccharine or feculent
matters. After this, while in full digestion, he was bled from the right
side of the heart. On subjecting the serum, which had completely separ-
ated from the clot in about three quarters of an hour, to the usual
re-agents, I had not the slightest difficulty in detecting the presence of
sugar.

I then made infusions of the contents of the stomach and of the
chymous mass from the small intestine, but in neither could I find evidence
of the existence of sugar.

The same result, negative of the presence of sugar, followed the
examination of the urine. The urine gaye an acid re-action with litmus
paper, as also did the infusions above referred to.

I have repeated these experiments, and varied the manner of perform-
ing them, but without affecting the result, and the same has been the
case in the hands of other observers.

There can be little hesitation, therefore, in at once drawing the con-
clusion, to which they so naturally and necessarily lead us, viz. that the
occurrence of sugar in the blood of animals is constant and without refer-
ence to diet.

One animal was fed on non-axotised food, a second was fed on azotised,
a third was subjected to complete abstinence, and in all three sugar was
equally detected in the blood. I say we cannot but arrive at one con-
clusion—the necessary deduction from these facts—“ That sugar exists

88 Dr. MIrcHELL on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

constantly in the blood, whether the animal have used a saccharine diet,
an animal diet, or have been subjected to abstinence from food of all sorts.”

In the case of the animal forming the subject of the first experiment,
the sugar detected in the alimentary canal and stomach might be, and
probably was, the source of that found in the blood; but the same cannot
be the case with the animal which was fed entirely on nitrogenised food, and
whose intestine contained not a trace of sugar; and still less so with the
animal which had been subjected to prolonged abstinence, and whose
stomach and intestinal canal were perfectly empty.

Whence then, it is naturally asked, came the sugar which existed in
the blood of the animals which were nourished on flesh, or denied food
altogether? Such is the interesting question which I now proceed, as
far as possible, to determine. You have observed that it was invariably
found in the blood from the right side of the heart; here, however, it
could not have been formed, but must simply have been transported to it
from some more or less distant organ, ‘To discover this source, the
following experiments were instituted :-—

lst Experiment.—An adult and healthy dog, having made a copious
repast on cooked flesh, was killed seven hours afterwards. On opening
the abdomen the phenomena of active digestion were observed. The
following were laid aside for examination, viz.:—I1st, A portion of the
matters contained in the stomach and small intestine. 2d, Some chyle
from the thoracic duct. 34d, Blood from the portal vein, by an incision
near the point where the splenic vein joins it. And, 4th, Blood from the
right side of the heart.

1st, In the contents of the stomach and small intestine no trace of
sugar existed. Both were acid.

2d, The serum of the chyle from the thoracic duct was alkaline, but
gave no indications of the presence of sugar.

3d, The serum of the blood from the portal vein was slightly lactescent
and alkaline, and contained sugar in great abundance.

4th, The blood from the right ventricle of the heart presented a serum
also milky and alkaline, and giving indications of the presence of sugar,
but in much smaller quantity than in the blood from the portal vein.

2d Experiment.—A healthy and adult dog was killed on the third day
of a total abstinence from food of all sorts. On opening the abdomen,
such phenomena were observed as always accompany the inactivity of the
digestive organs; a paleness and anzemia of all the organs, with vacuity
and retraction of the stomach and intestines. The thoracic duct contained
a chyle or lymph, which was transparent, or very slightly opalescent.

1. In the first place, blood from the trunk of the portal vein was
examined. The serum which separated was limpid and alkaline, and
contained evident proofs of the presence of sugar, although certainly in
Jess quantity than in the former experiment.

2. The blood from the right ventricle was then subjected to the usual
re-agents, and gave indubitable proof of its containing sugar.

ee

—_—

/

Dr. MircHEL on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 89

3. The lymph from the thoracic duct appeared to contain not a trace
of sugar.

These two last experiments were performed by M. Bernard about
twelye months ago, and were repeated by him several times with inva-
riably the same results. Ihave also myself, for further accuracy, per-
formed the experiments under circumstances slightly varied, in order to
avoid as far as possible the occurrence of any error. They come, there-
fore, to be of a nature deserving the greatest confidence. They do not
certainly point out definitely the origin of sugar in the blood of animals,
fed on azotised food or fasting, which was the question for the solution of
which the experiments were instituted, but they draw forcibly our atten-
tion to the unaccountable fact, that the vena porta seems to contain in its
blood a very large amount of sugar, whilst the contents of the intestine in
both cases contained not a trace.

I may here state, for the information of the non-professional gentlemen
present, that the portal vein is that which returns the blood from all the
chylopoietic viscera, or organs concerned in the formation of the chyle, to
be distributed through the liver. It is formed principally by the con-
fluence of the splenic and mesenteric veins, receiving contributions also
from the pancreas, duodenum, stomach, and gall bladder. The portal
vein is thus made up principally of the veins returning from the intestines,
spleen, and pancreas. It seemed, therefore, very singular that the blood
of this vein should contain such large quantities of sugar, while the con-
tents of the stomach and intestine were entirely devoid of it. The follow-
ing experiments were naturally suggested, as likely to throw light on this
difficulty.

lst Experiment.—Having killed as quickly as possible, that is in some
seconds, by division of the spinal bulb, a dog in digestion of matters
exempt from sugar or starch, the abdomen was immediately opened, and
then, with the greatest possible quickness, ligatures were placed on the
following vessels, viz.:—I1st, Veinous branches from the small intestine,
and not far from the intestine ; 2d, On the splenic vein; 3d, On the pan-
creatic veinous branches; 4th, On the trunk of the vena porta. Then
opening these vessels between the ligature and the organ, blood was col-
lected from these different sources: the small intestine, the spleen, the
pancreas, and that which flowed backwards from the liver. 1st, In the
blood from the intestinal veins, the existence of sugar was rendered
evident. 2d, The blood from the spleen gave no indication of its pre-
sence, nor did that (3d,) from the pancreatic branches. 4th, In the
blood which flowed from the vena porta, very freely, when divided, as in
the other cases, between the organ and the ligature, large quantities of
sugar were found to exist. On seeing then the blood from the liver con-
taining so much sugar, it was presumable that some would also exist in
its tissue, A portion of the liver of this dog was therefore analysed, and
sugar detected in great abundance; while the tissues of the spleen and

cave. a

90 Dr. MrrcHeLt on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

pancreas, treated in the same way and with equal care, gave no indica-
tions of its presence.

2d Experiment.—I bled a rabbit, which had been kept fasting for
several days, from the veins which return the blood from the fore and
hind legs, and in the serum of neither could I detect the presence of
sugar. While in the blood from the right side of the heart, and in the
infusion of the liver of the same animal, it existed in abundance..

3d Experiment.—Another rabbit, which had also been subjected to a
lengthened abstinence from food, was the subject of the next experiment.
A ligature was applied to the portal vein, through as small an aperture
in the abdominal cavity as possible. The vessel was then opened on both
sides of the ligature, and the blood from each portion laid aside for coagu-
lation, and the same was done with a small portion from the mesenteric
artery (the vessel which conveys the arterial blood, or blood from the
heart ¢o the intestines). In the arterial blood, and in that from the vein
between the ligature and the gut, no sugar could be detected, or if any,
a mere trace. Nor did any proof appear of its presence in the matters
contained in the stomach and small intestine. But in the blood from the
portal vein, between the ligature and the liver, as well as in infusions of
the tissue of the liver, I found sugar in very considerable abundance.

From all this it appears that the liver is in some way the source whence
the sugar comes, in such cases at least as those wherein the animal has
been confined to a nitrogenised diet, or which amounts to the very same
thing, subjected to long fasting.

Sugar is not found in the blood going to the intestine, nor in the blood
coming from tt and going to the liver, nor in the blood coming from the
spleen and going to the liver, nor in that coming from the pancreas and
going to the liver, nor in the tissues of the spleen or pancreas, nor in the
contents of the stomach and intestine, and yet is found in abundance in the
tissue of the liver. I repeat, that from all this it appears that in some
way or other the liver is the origin or seat of this sugar, at least in such
cases as those wherein the animal had been confined to a nitrogenised
diet, or which amounts to the very same thing, subjected to long fasting.

Before proceeding to the examination of this result, I shall cite one
other experiment, briefly. Haperiment.—In rabbits fed on potatoes and
beet root, I was able to detect sugar in the blood from any part of the
mesenteric veins, as also indeed throughout the whole circulation. But
here again it appeared in greater quantity in the liver than elsewhere.

A moment’s reflection on what has been written will at once suggest
the query,—if the sugar is formed in the liver, how does it find its way
back again into the portal vein? We never find in the general cireula-
tion that blood, which has already passed a capillary tissue by a progres-
sive movement, ever retrogrades. But this reflux in the portal vein, I
conceive more easy of explanation than may be imagined. In a physio-
logical state the portal circulation is mainly dependent on the pressure

Dr. MircHetn on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 91

exercised on the viscera by the abdominal wall. When the abdomen is
opened, this pressure ceases by the escape of the various organs, while at
the same time the vessels are dragged out and elongated, and a sort of,
depletion through the whole length of the vena porta takes place. This
vacuum, so to speak, aspires the blood from the liver and other organs,
which takes place the more readily that there are no valves to impede
the retrogression of the blood. I account, therefore, in this manner for
the appearance of the sugar in the portal vein, and I do so the more
readily, that Bernard asserts that he has avoided this reflux by the
application of a ligature to the vein at its entrance into the liver, before
laying open the abdomen.

I consider, therefore, this fact as established, that the sugar in the
animal economy is found concentrated in the liver. Whether it exists
there from some transformation of the elements of the blood taking place
within the organ, I cannot say, but such seems very probable. It may
be asserted, however, that it is merely deposited and accumulated in the
liver, being originally derived from some feculent or saccharine diet.
And this opinion is strengthened by the property which the liver is known
to possess, of retaining in this manner arsenic and other metallic poisons.
Indeed, it cannot be denied that the liver does freqently play the part of
a condensing or accumulating organ, but in the case in question experi-
ment shows it not to have this property.

Experiment—A. dog was subjected to abstinence both from liquid
and solid aliment for eight days, after this time he was supported exclu-
sively and abundantly on cooked flesh, principally boiled sheep’s head.
On the nineteenth day of his sequestration, the animal was killed while
in full digestion. On examination his blood and liver were found to con-
tain sugar as abundantly as in the former.experiments,

This was also performed by M. Bernard three times under similar
circumstances, and with similar results.

It cannot be imagined that this sugar had been retained during all
this time in the liver, for certainly the elimination must have been wholly
effected long ere the expiry of the nineteen days. One or two experi-
ments, afterwards to be noted, in reference to the influence of nervous

action on these phenomena, will serve to remove any remaining doubt on
this subject.

In the discussion of a subject of such importance, it is necessary that
every guarantee for the accuracy of the results be given, and I shall
therefore now proceed to detail the methods of detecting sugar, which I
haye employed during these and other investigations. I do not mean to
call the attention of the Society to all the tests which have been proposed
for sugar, but briefly to enumerate those on which I have placed reliance.

Tests for Sugar.—tin searching for sugar in the blood, Trémmer’s test
is that which is most convenient and most sure. There are various ways

92 Dr. MrrcnEtt on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

of applying it when examining animal fluids, of which I shall enumerate
two. Ist, Precipitate the protein compounds by anhydrous alcohol, and
add dry carbonate of potash to the filtered spirituous solution. On the
addition of a little sulphate of copper and the application of heat, we
observe, if sugar be present, a yellow or yellowish brown tint developed,
produced by the reduction of the copper to a state of suboxide. This is
the method which was employed by Simon in his elaborate researches in
animal chemistry, and Trimmer states that its delicacy is sufficient to
detect one grain of sugar in 10,000 of blood. I can affirm myself that
sugar may he detected in a solution of twice that strength, which is stil]
a state of extreme dilution.

A second method of procedure is the following :—When the blood is
extracted from the heart or vessels, it is left to coagulate; then taking a
portion of the serum which separates in a test tube, add about a sixth of
its volume of the double tartrate of copper and potash ; then boiling the
mixture, a reduction of the salt of copper will be effected proportional to
the quantity of sugar contained in the serum. This mode of operating
is very simple, very rapid, and very delicate; and in making comparative
experiments it is all that is required. It is that which has been adopted
by Bernard, Barreswill, and Mialhe in their various researches on the
digestion of feculents.

M. Ferrand has proposed another method, which I find very accurate,
but not always readily applied. The blood of the animal is received into
boiling water, which separates, by coagulation, the albumen and fibrin,
and retains the substances soluble. The liquid is filtered, rendered
neutral by some drops of acid, and evaporated gently; the residue treated
with alcohol, &c. as in the former cases.

Although this test, employed in either of these three ways, is most
valuable in comparative experiments, yet for additional security occasional
recourse must be had to others. Among these, the fermentation test decid-
edly stands first. A small quantity of barm is added and the gas collected
in a suitable apparatus. If the quantity of sugar be too small to give the
products of fermentation sufficiently distinct, various plans are employed,
and one of the best is that proposed by Dr. M‘Gregor of Glasgow. The
serum is coagulated by heat, and carefully dried on a steam bath. The
solid clot is divided as minutely as possible and boiled in water; this is
then filtered and evaporated to a certain extent. To the concentrated
fluid the yeast is then added. When the fermentation test is applied in
its widest bearings, I conceive it to be absolutely conclusive of the pre-
sence of sugar. If the gas given off be proved, by suitable tests, to be
carbonic acid, and if the liquid left be shown, by distillation, to contain
alcohol, I think all will assert that sugar must have existed in the fluid,
And such proof have I of the occurrence of sugar in the liver. The
specimen of spirit which I have in my hand, sufficiently concentrated to
be inflammable, is the result of the distillation of a calf’s liver. It was
purchased in the market immediately after the animal was killed, and

Dr, MITCHELL on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 93

fermentation, as soon as possible, established in an infusion. When the
process was completed, it was distilled and redistilled till I obtained what
IT now present to you.

There is another application of the fermentation test—I refer to the
production of the Torula Cerevisi, which can be readily and positively
recognised by the microscope, when the examining eye is one accustomed
to the use of the instrument.

In quantitative analyses, I have estimated the sugar by the amount of
carbonic acid given off, reckoning one cubic inch of gas as equivalent to
one grain of grape sugar, or by more accurate calculation, 100 C. I. of
CO, correspond to 106.4 of sugar. Or if the CO, be estimated by weight,
one grain of the gas will be found equal to 2} grains of sugar.

One thing of importance has to be attended to in searching for sugar
in the blood, viz. that sugar is destroyed in, and disappears from, the
blood, after being drawn with great rapidity, so that it becomes necessary
to act on the serum as soon as ever the coagulation is sufficiently com-
plete. In order to prevent this destruction it is only requisite to coagulate
the blood as it escapes from the vessel by alcohol or acetate of lead, after
which the sugar will remain unchanged for a considerable period.

As regards the variety of sugar which exists in the animal economy,
we may conclude that it is neither sugar of milk nor cane sugar. It
cannot be the sugar of cane, for it is rendered brown by the action of
potash, and reduces the salts of copper; nor, since it ferments readily,
can it be the sugar of milk. There remains, therefore, the grape sugar,
and of this the sugar of the liver presents the chemical characters. The
optical experiments of M. Biot show the sugar of diabetes to be identical
with the sugar produced from starch. It is possible, therefore, that this
animal sugar may possess certain differences in its properties, although it
agrees in all essentials with the grape sugar. Indeed, there is some
reason for believing that this will by and by be established.

I shall now, gentlemen, recapitulate the conclusions, which, to my
mind, seem the necessary deductions from the foregoing considerations :—
It would appear, in the first place—Ist. That sugar exists uniformly and
normally in the blood of the heart; I say the blood of the heart, because
it will be shown afterwards that it may have all but disappeared before
arriving at the superficial veins of the body, where bleeding is usually
practised.

2dly. That its presence there is independent of diet.

3dly. That the sugar is found specially concentrated in the liver of
animals,

4thly. That there is reason to believe that it is formed in the liver,
which thus becomes at once the seat and origin of the sugar.

5thly. That in the use of a saccharine diet, sugar enters the circula-
tion directly as sugar.

And lastly, that these considerations oblige us to reject the doctrine
that animals do not create any immediate principle, but simply destroy

i “OAS
“ , pal 4

94 Dr. MrrcHety on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

those supplied by the vegetable kingdom, for we have found them both
forming and destroying sugar.

It does not follow, that because the animal organism seems thus to
possess transforming powers, which we cannot command in the laboratory,
that chemistry is to be dismissed from the study of the phenomena of life.
On the contrary, I believe that it alone can, in many cases, remove the
difficulties which arrest the progress of physiology; but I am also of
opinion that, in order to the successful prosecution of such investigations,
they must enter the field and work conjointly. The saliva, &c. possess the
power of converting starch into sugar without any reference to whether
chemists know or are ignorant of their having such properties; and
although we have not yet discovered them, many other catalytic influences
may be effecting their transformations in the organism, and amongst them
may be one capable of converting the oleaginous into saccharine and
and albuminous matters.

The simplest conception of the saccharine principle is an association of
water and carbon, and in this light it may be regarded as the interme-
diate link between inorganized and organized matter. This union of
water and carbon, and the consequent formation of the saccharine prin-
ciple is effected by the lowest vital agency with which we are acquainted
—that of plants. It may occur, as Prout believes, from a direct union
between these substances; but it seems to take place most usually by the
aid of a collateral extrication of oxygen, during which the unfettered
carbon is appropriated. When this association is simple, starch or sugar
is the result; but when more complicated, and nitrogen, phosphorus, and
sulphur are involved, various compounds are produced, which differ in
their properties between sugar and albumen.

It has not yet been shown, whether the vital energies of plants can
convert oléaginous into saccharine and albuminous matters; but the vital
organs both of plants and animals appear capable of performing the
reverse act, that of changing saccharine into oleaginous matters, and this
is probably the usual mode in which oils are formed in plants and animals.

The union of water with carbon, and afterwards with nitrogen, has
been maintained to be the peculiar function of plants. There seems
reason for believing, however, that it is not limited to them. Prout, who
holds this opinion, gives this singular paragraph, written more from an
apprehension of what he felt would eventually be discovered, than from
what he himself knew at the time :—

“Tn all animals there is a vegetative organ, (if we may be allowed the
expression,) capable in a greater or less degree of performing the same
functions as vegetables, i.e. of combining water with carbon; or, if not
beginning at this low point of the scale, at least of combining the organized
saccharine principle with azote, &c. so as to form albuminous products.
This vegetative organ is the liver; and though the vegetative faculty
alluded to appears to exist in the livers of different animals in very different
degrees, yet in no instance is it entirely wanting. In all the more perfect,

‘
‘

ide ial

Dr. MircHent on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 95

and particularly in carnivorous animals, when appropriately fed, this
function is little called into action, and its existence therefore is probably
intended merely as a resource to fall back upon in case of necessity.
Without it, however, animal life would be most precarious, or, in many
instances, even impossible.”

With these remarks I shall conclude the first part of my subject, and
proceed at once to the examination of the great and important question
which at once presents itself as now requiring an answer :—How, or by
what agency, and in what part of the system, does this sugar disappear
from the blood ?

IT have hitherto dealt with my subject in a pure chemico-physiological
light, nor do I purpose doing differently in that part of the paper which
is to follow. I may state, however, that these researches have been
undertaken by me, and possess an interest to my mind, in as far as they
may possibly lead to some rational, and I hope successful, method of
treating that most distressing disease, wherein sugar appears in the urine,
and which has hitherto been regarded as beyond the reach of the vis
medicatrix.

SECOND PART.

How is this sugar which has been shown to exist in the blood and
liver caused to disappear? How is it destroyed? By what agency, and
under what influences? What are the products of its transformations,
and in what part of the system do they take place?

Such is the problem, in the attempt to solve which I have been for
some time occupied. I proceed at present to lay before you a few facts
bearing on this interesting subject.

The changes which sugar undergoes when brought into contact with
other bodies, having a marked influence on it, are not confined to any
narrow limits, like those of inorganic bodies, but are, in fact, unlimited.

In inorganic compounds, we find that acid acts upon a particular con-
stituent of the body, which it decomposes by virtue of its affinity for that
constituent, and its proper chemical character is maintained in whatever
form it be applied. “But when the same body acts upon sugar, producing
great changes in that compound, it does this, not by any superior affinity
for a base existing in the sugar, but by disturbing the equilibrium in the
mutual attraction of the elements of the sugar amongst themselves.
Muriatic acid and sulphuric acid, which differ so much from one another
both in properties and composition, act in the same manner upon sugar.
but the action of both varies according to the state in which they are;
thus, they act in one way when dilute, in another when concentrated, and
even difference of temperature causes a change in their action. Thus,
sulphuric acid-of a moderate degree of concentration converts sugar into
a black carbonaceous matter, forming, at the same time, acetic and formic
acids. But when the acid is more diluted, the sugar is converted into
two brown substances, both of them containing carbon, and the elements

oe

96 Dr. MrrcHett on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

of water. Again, when sugar is subjected to the action of alkalis, a whole
series of different new products is obtained; while oxidising agents, such
as nitric acid, produce from sugar carbonic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid,
formic acid, and many other products not yet examined. If, from the
facts here stated, we estimate the power with which the elements of sugar
are united together, and judge of the force of their attraction by the
resistance which they offer to the action of bodies brought into contact
with them, we must regard the atom of sugar as belonging to that class
of compound atoms which exist only by the vis inertize of their elements.
Its elements seem merely to retain passively the condition in which they
have been placed.”

It has been shown that the blood of animals contains sugar; and the
same substance, as is well known, exists also in the sap of plants. Instead,
however, of being destroyed and disappearing from the sap of plants, we
find it deposited in some particular part, or aggregated in the general
tissue. Now, in what respects does the sap of vegetables most ostensibly
and uniformly differ from the blood of animals? When in a healthy
condition the blood is an alkaline fluid, while the sap of such plants is
either neutral or acid, and never alkaline. But will the difference in this
property account for the destruction of the sugar in the one case, and its
being hoarded up in the other? ‘Let us change the respective conditions
and mark the effect.

If the acidity of the sap of the vegetable be modified by watering it
with a slightly alkaline solution, it acquires chemical properties analogous
to those of the blood, and we find, as an apparent result, that the sugar
is destroyed as rapidly as formed, that the secretions are no longer sac-
charine, and that it no longer bears sweet fruits. This fact has been
established by M. Frémy.

And now, in cases of diabetes, where sugar, ceasing to be destroyed,
passes off in the urine, let us inquire, if the change this supposition would
predict has really taken place—if, instead of being alkaline, the blood is
neutral or acid.

We find certainly the saliva of diabetes acid, and the humours generally
more acid than normal; but with regard to the blood, I believe that in
this disease it is often found neutral, very rarely acid, and generally
alkaline. It may still, however, be that the alkalinity is diminished in
degree, and in this manner its healthy functions may be impeded, suf-
ficiently to give serious results.

These facts, standing alone, incline us]to suspect that the alkaline
condition of the blood is active in effecting the destruction of the sugar,
either in part or in whole; and here, in the meantime, I shall quit the
consideration.

Do we derive any information on this subject from comparative analyses
of blood from different sources? I fear not, from any hitherto performed,
which are sufficiently extensive and accurate to yield a fair average and
authorize a deduction. I shall briefly state, however, the averages of

Dr. MircnEt on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy. 97

some such analyses, more as showing the necessity, in all analyses of blood,
for stating the point of the circulation from which the blood was drawn,
and the circumstances, as regards diet, under which the animal existed
at the time of the experiment; I say more for these reasons, than that I
conceive them to have any practical bearing on the solution of the question
in hand.

Three dogs were bled, each from the jugular vein and vena porta, and
the six portions of blood were analysed. No two of the analyses were
identical, but the differences all went in one direction; and I give the
following as an average of the three: That from the jugular vein con-
tained in 1000 parts 769.21 of water and 230.78 of solids, while that from
the portal vein gave 726.54 of water and 273.46 of solids, showing an
excess of nearly 41 per cent. in the solids of the portal blood. (This excess
consisted mainly of the globules and fibrine.) These three animals had
been fasting some time before losing these specimens of blood; and I now
give you the average of five other experiments, in which the dogs, at the
time of death, were in active digestion of fluids and solids. In these, the
blood from the jugular vein gave, in 1000 parts 780.92 of water and 219.08
of solids, and the portal blood 790.11 of water and 209.89 of solids,
showing, under these altered circumstances, a loss of solids, where an
excess existed when the animals were fasting. The precaution, to which
I alluded, is surely inculcated in these results.

I now would inquire if sugar exists in the same proportion in all classes
of animals, under conditions as similar as possible, and I find that in birds
and maminiferous animals the amount is alike very considerable. In
reptiles, such as the frog and lizard, the sugar existed merely as a trace,
while in fishes, as in the skate and eel, not a trace could be found.
Whence comes this disappearance of sugar in cold blooded animals? Does
it arise from the diminished energy of the respiratory functions?

This query leads us to the path, by diligently following which, I believe,
we shall arrive at the explanation of this important phenomenon,

“ Several circumstances have induced recent writers to conclude that
nitrogenised foods are alone capable of conyersion into blood and of
forming organized tissues; that, in fact, they only are the foods properly
so called, and hence have been denominated by Liebig the plastic elements
of nutrition. The non-nitrogenised foods, it is said, are incapable of
transformation into blood, and are therefore unfitted for forming living
tissues. They are, nevertheless, essential to health; and Liebig asserts
that their function is to support the process of respiration, (by yielding
carbon and hydrogen, the oxydation of which is attended with the
development of heat,) and some of them, he states, contribute to the
formation of fat. These non-nitrogenised foods he calls the elements of
respiration.”

It would appear, then, at all events possible that respiration is actively
concerned in bringing about this destruction of the saccharine principle.
If s0, we shall probably find some change in the expired air, a diminution

Vol. IIL.—No. 2.

98 Dr. MitcHett on the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal Economy.

or excess in some of its ingredients. Accordingly, I have carefully esti-
mated the amount of CO, in the expired air of several diabetes; I have
done the same with the expired air of healthy individuals, after a similar
diet, and otherwise under conditions as nearly as possible the same. I
have searched in both for the presence of other ingredients. I have endea-
youred to examine and state comparatively the condition of the cutaneous
respiration in diabetes and in healthy persons. I have inquired if the
temperature of diabetics falls below the normal standard. I have
examined the blood and urine of persons in whom the respiratory act was
incomplete, from a morbid condition of the lungs. I have done the same
with individuals who had been long in a state of anasthesia, from the
inhalation of chloroform, and in whom the oxygenation of the blood must
necessarily have been incomplete. I have compared the blood before enter-
ing the lungs with that which had passed through them. I have impeded
respiration by division of the pneumogastric nerves, singly, doubly, and in
different localities, and have then searched for the result in changes of the
blood, urine, &e. I have irritated various portions of the brain, which I
thought might affect thesame. In short, I have cross examined nature in
every way which I thought might extort the truth. The answers I have
hitherto received lead me towards certain inferences; but I do not yet
consider the experiments sufficiently multiplied to warrant the announce-
ment of deductions, especially as the subject is one of such high importance.
I shall continue to prosecute them; and I hope on some future occasion
I may have the honour of communicating the results to this Society.

P.S.—Before beginning a series of researches, (having for their end
the discovery of the manner in which the sugar, constantly entering the
circulation, is removed therefrom,) I deemed it right to establish the
accuracy of the conclusions arrived at by other experimenters on allied
subjects, and which required to be received as true at the outset of my
investigations.

The first part of the foregoing paper contains the results of a train of
experiments instituted with this object.

Free reference has been made to the works of the following observers:
Bernard, Barreswill, Mialhe, Magendie, Liebig, Persoz, Miiller, &e. &c.

March 6th, 1850.— The Presment in the Chair.

Ir was agreed, on the motion of Mr. Liddell, that a deputation should
be sent from the Society to the meeting of the British Association to be
held in Edinburgh in August.

Dr. Allen Thomson gave an account of recent observation respecting
the germination of the Ferns.

The following paper was read on the parallel roads of Glen Roy.

Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. 99

XIII.—On the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. By James Bryce, Jun.,
MA., F.G.S.

I.—Inrropuction.

Tue Lochaber glens have been subjected to so keen a scrutiny by the
advocates for the various theories of the Parallel Roads, that it cannot be
expected there should remain many facts of importance to be yet ascer-
tained. By this circumstance, however, the obligation upon an observer
at once to make known such facts as may have come under his notice is
Tendered more imperative, while the value of new facts is enhanced.
Observations, which in other circumstances would be scarcely deemed
worthy of record, become of importance when viewed in connexion with
an inquiry such as this, which, after all the discussion elicited by it, still
remains the great unsolved problem of Scottish geology. In submitting
the following communication, it is not my purpose to advance a new
theory. I have merely in view the much more humble object of putting
on record a few facts, which seem to have escaped the notice of previous
observers; and of offering, in connexion with these, some remarks on the
two theories last proposed. I refer to those of Mr. Chambers of Edin-
burgh, and Mr. James Thomson of Glasgow, both published early in
1848; the latter immediately before my visit, which took place in July
of that year. My examination of the district had thus additional interest
given to it, as the facts were to be viewed under a somewhat novel aspect,
and had not yet been commented on by any geologist, with reference to
their bearing upon the two theories in question. -

Before proceeding, however, to remark on these theories, it will be
necessary to state the principal facts which have been ascertained
respecting the Parallel Roads.

If.—Assrract or Facts.

The Parallel Roads are shelves or terraces on the sides of certain glens
in Lochaber, perfectly parallel to one another and to the horizon, through-
out their entire course, and at exactly the same height on opposite sides
of each glen. They conform to all the windings of the hill slopes, their
continuity being broken only by rocky projections, and by the lateral
streams. The breadth is various, generally from 8 to 10 yards, in a few
rare cases reaching to 18 or 20, owing to the peculiar form of the ground ;
but the precise width is difficult to ascertain, in consequence of the outer
edge of the shelf being rounded off towards the valley. There are five
principal shelves in the district, besides some minor ones. They are most
distinctly marked in Glen Roy and Glen Gluoy. There are three in the
former glen and two in the latter. The upper shelf in Glen Gluoy is
called No. 1, and the highest, middle, and lowest in Glen Roy, No. 2,
No. 3, and No. 4, respectively. The second Glen Gluoy shelf having been

100 Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. °

very recently discovered, is not yet designated by any number. There is
another well-marked shelf, also recently discovered, near Kilfinnan, at the
northern end of Loch Lochy; and in various parts of the district there
are traces of higher, and also of intermediate shelves. All these are laid
down upon the map referred to in the next section. The principal shelves
are also marked on Johnston’s Map of Scotland. Their situation is shown
in the annexed diagram, No. 1.

1

aa Supposed original surface of rock. 6b Present outline of the hill slopes.

Shelf No. 4 is 847 feet above the sea, or about 500 feet higher than
the opening of Glen Roy, which is about 347 feet above the sea. Shelf
No. 3 is 212 feet higher, or 1059 feet above the sea. No. 2 is 80 feet
above No. 8, or 1189 feet above the sea. Shelf No. 1 in Glen Glouy is
30 feet higher than No. 2, or 1169 feet above the sea. The lower Glen
Gluoy shelf is about 210 feet below the upper, or 870 feet above the sea,
and therefore 23 feet higher than No. 4 in Glen Roy. It might hence be
designated by the number 3’ or 33, being intermediate between No. 3 and
No. 4.* The shelf at Kilfinnan is 40 feet higher than No. 1, or 1209
feet above the sea.

In Glen Roy each shelf runs farther towards the mouth of the glen
than the one above; thus, No. 3 terminates farther down the glen than
No. 2, while No. 4 not only runs farther down the glen than No. 3, but
passes outside the glen, and can be traced on both sides of Glen Spean

* These heights are given on the authority of Robert Chambers, Esq., to whom
geologists are much indebted for the careful measurements obtained by him ofa
great many points in the Lochaber district.

Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. 101

to within 6 or 7 miles of Fort-William. In Glen Gluoy, on the contrary,
the upper shelf extends farther down the glen than the lower. Hach shelf
is on a level with some watershed, that is, with some col, or landstrait, or

lowest part of the ridge dividing two glens, as in the annexed sketch,
No. 2.

aa Ridge dividing two glens. b Lowest part of ridge, or col. c Shelf.

Thus, shelf No. 1 is on the level of the passage leading from Glen Gluoy
into Glen Toorat, which branches off Glen Roy near its upper end. No. 2
stops at the extreme north-eastern angle of Glen Roy, near the level of
the opening into Strathspey ; and so of the other shelves, as expressed
by the arrows on the map referred to in the next section. The only
exception is the second Glen Gluoy shelf, (No. 3',) which is not on a level
with any watershed.

Up to so recent a date as 1817, the Parallel Roads were regarded as
works of art; but it is now agreed on all hands that they are due to
natural causes. If we suppose that, in a former condition of things, the
sea penetrated to these glens, or that, the mouths of the glens being
blocked up by earthy materials, or by ice, the waters of the rivers accu-
mulated behind so as to form lakes, then, the action of the water on the
alluvial coating of the hills, and on the earth and stones which descended
from the heights and were arrested and re-arranged at the margin, would
form a beach line such as we now see upon most shores when the water
stands a little lower than usual. The shelves thus mark the successive
levels of the water as the sea retired on each upheaval of the land,
or as the lakes sank to successively lower levels, by the partial disrup-
tion of the barriers. The cols, or passages between the glens, coincident
with the several shelves, are, according to one theory, the channels or
straits between islands; in the other they mark the levels where the
redundant waters flowed out from glen to glen, during the time that the
lakes were forming the several terraces. In confirmation of the latter
view, it has been shown that there are at the cols several deserted river
channels, having no reference to the present drainage.

III.—Error or rue Mars.

Mr. Chambers’ account of the Parallel Roads, with his theory of their
origin, forms a portion (pp. 95-180) of his-valuable and beautifully illus-
trated work on Ancient Sea Margins. A map of part: of Lochaber,
showing the shelves in the glens, is given at the end, It has been “con-

102 Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber.

structed by Messrs. W. and A. K. Johnston, under the direction of Sir
George M‘Kenzie, Bart., David Milne, Esq., and Robert Chambers, Esq.”
The same map accompanies a late paper on the Parallel Roads, by Sir
George M‘Kenzie; (Ed. N. Phil. Journ., vol. xliy.;) it is that to which
Mr. Milne refers in his late important paper, (Ed. N. Phil. Journ., vol.
xlii. p. 339,) and on which the reasonings of Mr. James Thomson are
founded, an enlarged copy of it having been laid before the Royal Society
of Edinburgh along with his paper.

Now, this map contains an important topographical error, calculated to
mislead those who may frame theories of the Roads without having made
a personal inspection of the ground. The error consists in this—that at its
junction with Glen Fintec, Glen Gluoy is laid down as opening towards
Loch Lochy ; whereas, in point of fact, the high ridge descending from the
table-land at the top of Glen Toorat, and shutting in Glen Gluoy on the
west, continues its course southwards fully a mile below the point where
Glen Fintec opens into Glen Gluoy. Glen Fintee is thus completely cut
off from direct connection with Loch Lochy, the ridge in question being
continuous throughout, and rising to the height of from 1200 to 1800 feet
above the sea, or from 300 to 700 feet above the upper shelf. The rocks
of which the ridge consists are chiefly micaceous slate and quartzite, the
strata being nearly on end, and.ranging in the direction of the ridge, or
about S.W. I could detect no traces of scratching or grooving, though
the rocks are laid bare in many places, and strew the surface in huge flat
masses.

The error now pointed out involves another in the representation of a
portion of the upper shelf. The eastern portion is correctly represented
as terminating at the south-west corner of Glen Fintec; but on the west
side, the shelf, instead of terminating as expressed on the map, is con-
tinued a considerable distance southwards of the opening of Glen Fintee ;
from half a mile to a mile, or perhaps more ; at first less distinct than usual,
then more plainly marked, till coming against a rocky projecting ledge on
the hill side, it fails as usual to impress it, and is seen no more.

On referring lately to Sir T. D. Lauder’s map accompanying his paper,
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. Vol. [X.,) which I had not looked into before
visiting the Parallel Roads, I found that his representation of this portion
of the district is much more correct. Glen Glouy is given in its true
dimensions; and the stream formed by the union of the Gluoy and Fintee
waters is laid down as turning, at a place called Lowbridge, round the
southern termination of the mountainous ridge just described, and dis-
charging into Loch Lochy, nearly opposite to a village named Kyle-Rose
in Mr. Chambers’ map. ‘This representation is very near the truth; but
perhaps too great extension is given to the southern part of Loch Lochy.

IV.—Mkr. Rozert Cuampers’ Tueory.

One of the principal objections which has been urged against Mr.
Milne’s theory, is the absence from the district of a sufficient quantity of

Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. 103

detrital matter to account for the barriers at the mouths of the glens,
required by the theory. The force of this objection would be very much
diminished, if we could receive Mr. Chambers’ account of the hill of
Oonchan, as correct. It appears to me, however, that he quite over-esti-
mates the amount of detritus in this hill.

After giving a full and accurate description of the other principal
detrital accumulations of the district, Mr. Chambers thus notices the hill
of Oonchan :—“ By far the grandest delta of the district is that hill
which has been referred to under the name of Unichan as occupying so
much of the lower part of Glen Spean. This is a mass of gravel 11 miles
long by perhaps 2 broad, reaching an elevation of 612 feet. I observed
rock rising through it at one place; but it is mainly, as has been said, a
hill of gravel.” He considers that, “when the sea stood somewhat above
622 feet (and there is evidence of its having paused long at 628 or 630)
the rivers descending from the Ben Nevis group of mountains delivered
their spoils into the estuary filling Glen Spean: on the withdrawal of the
sea this mass was left.”

The high ground in question, part only of which is called Oonchan, is
an undulating ridge parallel to the main chain, and stretching from near .
Fort- William to within 1} miles of the bridge of Roy, a distance of about
12 miles. Such subordinate elevations are seen at the base of almost
every high chain, and mark the axes along which the upheaving forces
acted with decreasing intensity. This ridge is separated from the main
chain by a slightly depressed tract, having a very smooth outline, into
which five glens, descending from the Ben Nevis group, open at right
angles, the surface presenting no marked change of character at the
junction. The streams from these glens, as well as those which drain the -
tract itself, being prevented by the high ground in front from following
direct courses to the valley of the Spean, are deflected to the east and
west, parallel to the high ground on either side. The watershed of the
tract being nearer the western than the eastern end, and the inclination
eastwards slight, there is an imperfect discharge of the waters, and con-
sequently extensive swamps have been formed, which sometimes become

a, Steep slope of the Ben
evis group.

6. The hollow, or swampy

tract.

ec. Swelling top of the ridge.

d, Sides of Oonchan,

e. River Spean.

JS: Bape ascending towards
oel-dhu.

lakes. The annexed sketch, No. 3, will give an idea of the outline of the
surface. ;

On the western part of the ridge the rock is seen in many places; and
about the middle I found it a little lower than the highest point, c, of the
ridge at that part; and I think there can be little doubt that the thick-
ness of the detrital covering is in most places inconsiderable. At its
eastern termination detritus appears in more imposing quantity. Near
the bridge of Roy the end of the ridge is cut through by numerous
streams, or rather the channels of streams, for there is often no water;
and the detritus stands out in numerous round or elliptic flat-topped
mounds with steep sides. Towards the base of Cruachaninish and Ben-
chilinaig these are smaller and rounder, resembling Danish raths; while
further back the detritus only shows in terraces, formed by the streams
cutting into the talus at the base of the high mountains; asin Nos. 4 and 5.

4 P

104 Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber.

Ez

e
: d
a, 6 Forms of the diluvium. c, d River channels.

a2

aa Ascent towards the Ben Nevis group. 6 Gravel terrace. c Stream.
d Abraded surface.

Mr. Chambers regards the question of the origin of the Parallel Roads
as “involved in that of the superficial formations generally, which bear
the marks of former levels of the sea at various intervals up to 1200 feet ;”
the various markings in the three kingdoms, in France, &c., “all falling
into such conformity as to prove that the shift of level has been effected
from at least that height, with perfect equability throughout.” He con-
siders this widely extended and strongly marked conformity “as more
favourable to the idea of a recession of the sea, as opposed to that of an
elevation of the land, since it is precisely what would result from the
former operation, while there is an obvious difficulty in supposing” that
so large a portion of the earth’s crust could be repeatedly upheaved, and
yet the relative levels so preserved that “between Paris and Inverness
not a vertical foot of derangement could be detected.”

The explanation of the origin of the Parallel Roads is thus mixed up
with, indeed forms an essential part of, his general theory. And what-
ever difficulty geologists may feel in giving their assent to such generali-
zations as those just quoted, or however unwilling they may be, in the

Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. 105

present state of inquiry, to admit many successive equable sinkings of the
waters of the ocean all over the globe, the same difficulties and hesitation
must be experienced in receiving Mr. Chambers’ explanation as the true
theory of the Parallel Roads. Besides, the speciality of the phenomena is
by no means accounted for on this hypothesis. It appears to me to require
a special local cause. On the hypothesis of the shelves being formed by
the sea, it cannot, I think, be shown why other Highland glens were not
equally impressed ; or that any conservative influences have operated in
Lochaber, which were not just as likely to prevail in other places. This
argument cannot be properly estimated by one who has not seen the
shelves in Glen Roy and Glen Gluoy; from examining sea and lake-
terraces, from descriptions and drawings, the faintest conceptions only
can be formed of the wonderful reality. Any one on whose view the
scene which is presented on turning the flank of Bohuntine hill, bursts for
the first time, must look with the deepest astonishment at the distinctness,
continuity, and extent of the shelves; he will feel how inadequate were
all his conceptions, and how little the Parallel Roads have in common
with any appearances which have come under his notice before. Mr.
Chambers eloquently describes the first impressions, and acknowledges
the “singular distinctness” of the shelves in this locality; yet his theory
affords no explanation of a phenomenon so remarkable. But this argu-
ment has been so ably handled by Mr. Milne in his reply to Mr. Darwin,
(Ed. N. Phil. Journ., vol. xliii. p. 437,) that it is unnecessary to insist
further upon it.

The faint and higher markings on the south side of Glen Spean, which
Mr. Chambers lays so much stress upon as supporting his view, I did not
notice. “The whole,” he says, “might appear doubtful to many persons;
in an unfavourable light, a hasty observer might pass them by altogether.
unnoticed.” These may have been my circumstances, and I do not
therefore question the existence of such markings; but I cannot regard
the conclusion as warranted by the facts—the existence, namely, “
Glen Spean of a body of water at levels above the barriers assigned to it
by M‘Culloch, Lauder, and Milne.” Are not these and similar slight and
local markings best explained on the received theory—original inequalities,
the action of currents upon the submerged land, or occasional pauses in
the process of elevation ?

While thus dissenting from the theoretical conclusions at which Mr.
Chambers has arrived, I cannot forbear to express my high admiration of
his patient and active research,—his clear, truthful, and eloquent descrip-
tions,—and of the service he has rendered to geology by his many exact
measurements, and by proposing a theory which will lead to a more care-
ful study of phenomena of this class.

V.—Mr. James Tuomson’s Turory.

The lake theory has gained immensely of late by the advocacy of Mr.
Dayid Milne. His paper, already referred to, is perhaps the most able

106 Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber.

which has been written upon the Parellel Roads. The evidence in support
of his own views has been collected with the greatest sagacity, and the
arguments founded upon it conducted with consummate skill; while he
appears to me to have completely demolished both the theory of Mr.
Darwin, and the glacial theory, in the form proposed by M. Agassiz.
The agency assigned by Agassiz will not explain all the phenomena, and
is positively inconsistent with many facts. But it does not hence follow
that glacial action is to be rejected, as explaining the blocking up of the
mouths of the glens,—for it is required for this purpose alone. May not
a form be given to the theory which will adapt it to all the exigencies of
the case, and thus remove from the lake theory the one great remaining
objection—the origin and the disappearance of the enormous earthy
barriers at the mouths of the glens? Since Agassiz wrote, the question
has been placed-on a very different footing. The first glacialist in Kurope,
Prof. J. D. Forbes, has given it as his decided opinion that glaciers
formerly existed on the Cuchullin hills in Skye (Ed. N. Phil. Journ., vol.
xl. p. 79). Why, then, may not masses of ice have filled the still higher
valleys of the Ben Nevis group of mountains? Professor Forbes’ late
discoveries in Switzerland respecting the viscidity of glacier ice, and
the nature of glacier motion, appear to have suggested to Mr. James
Thomson the highly ingenious modification of the glacial theory lately
proposed by him (Ed. N. Phil. Journ., vol. xlv. p. 49). The gist of this
theory is contained in the following passage :—
“Tn Switzerland the mean temperature of the comparatively low and
flat land is so much above the freezing-point, that the ice no sooner
descends from the mountains than it melts away; and it is thus usually
prevented from spreading to any considerable extent over the plains. In
.the Antarctic continent, on the contrary, the mean temperature is no-
where so high as the freezing-point. The ice, therefore, which descends
from the hills unites itself with that which is deposited from the atmos-
phere on the plains; and the whole becomes consolidated into one con-
tinuous mass, of immense depth, which glides gradually onwards towards
the ocean... .. Now a climate somewhere intermediate between these
extremes appears to be that which would be requisite to form the shelves
in the glens of Lochaber. The climate of Switzerland would be too
warm to admit of a sufficient horizontal extension of the glaciers; that of
the Antarctic continent too cold to allow the lakes to remain unfrozen.
If the climate of Scotland were again to become such that the mean tem-
perature of Glen Spean would be not much above the freezing-point,
there seems to be every reason to believe that that glen would again be
nearly filled with an enormous mass of ice; while its upper parts, and also
Glen Roy, would be occupied by lakes... . . >
The state of things here supposed is extremely critical; not likely long
to maintain itself under the same geographical distribution of the surface
as now prevails, and liable to be changed by many slight causes. If the
mean temperature of Glen Spean was little above freezing, and wide fields

Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber. 107

of ice covered its surface, it is not probable that the lakes in the glens,
at considerably higher levels, would long remain unfrozen; and if the
Ben Nevis group of mountains, whose mean height we may take at some-
what less than 4000 feet, not only nourished glaciers in their higher
recesses, but were wholly enveloped in sheets of ice, can we suppose that
the mountains surrounding Glen Roy and Glen Gluoy, many of which
attain the altitude of from 2000 to 2500 feet, would not likewise give
origin to masses of ice, descending into the glens, and occupying the very
sites of our supposed lakes? On the other hand, it may be stated in
favour of Mr. Thomson’s views, that the hypothesis of Glen Spean being
“ filled with an enormous mass of ice” which would block up Glen Roy, is
more consistent with the geography of the district, than the supposition
that a glacier descended from one of the high valleys of the Ben Nevis
group, and forced its way into the opening of Glen Roy. There is nothing
in the nature of the country to determine a glacier to follow such a course.
The form of the surface between the Lochaber glens and the Ben Nevis
group is such, that if a glacier descended from any one of the five great
glens, whose directions are inclined to that of Glen Roy at an angle of
60 or 70 degrees, and reached the open country at the base of the moun-
tains, there would be nothing to determine its course up Glen Roy, or
indeed in any one direction more than another, except the slight eastward
and northward slope already described. Glaciers descending from these
glens would thus coalesce into one huge sheet, coextensive with the valley
of the Spean. The hypothesis of sheets of ice covering the whole surface
—“des grandes nappes de glace”—seems also more consistent with the
absence of “ perched blocks” and moraines, than the idea of separate
glaciers. These are not seen anywhere over the surface of the open tract
between the mountains and the river; and the peculiar detrital covering
is very like that which would be formed under such advancing sheets,
most of it being stratified sand and small gravel, the result of wearing, or
decomposition 7 sit.

Mr. Thomson’s explanation of the phenomena of Glen Gluoy is very
ingenious. It will be remembered that these are peculiar. The shelves
do not correspond with those in the other glens; and while in the latter
each successive shelf, as we descend, extends further down the glens than
those that are higher, in Glen Gluoy the upper shelf extends further
towards the mouth of the glen than the lower; and this lower shelf,
unlike all the others, is not in connexion with any summit level. If the
lake theory be true, it will follow from these facts that the barrier which
retained the water at the lower level was further up the glen than that
which retained it at the higher; and that when the lower shelf was form-
ing, the overflow must have taken place at the mouth of the glen. Mr.
Thomson supposes “that the glacier which occasioned the formation of
the higher of the Glen Gluoy shelves, had at some former period protruded
a terminal moraine as far up the glen as the termination of the lower

108 Mr. Bryce on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber.

shelf; that, on the final retiring of the glacier, this old moraine served as
a barrier to dam up the water to the level of the lower shelf, and that it
has been subsequently washed away by the river flowing over it.” He
then suggests that the space between the terminations of the upper and
lower shelves should be examined, to ascertain if the remains of such a
moraine exist. I made this examination with considerable care, but
could find no such remnants. There is some detritus in the main glen
opposite the mouth of Glen Fintec; but it has obvious reference to the
present drainage, and is in no way remarkable. The whole of Glen
Gluoy is indeed singularly free from detritus ;—a peculiarity which I con-
sider due toits form. It is narrow, and the hills rise steep and high from
the very margin of the river, so that there is no space where detritus
could rest; and it is thus swept away as soon as it is brought down.
This circumstance is also favourable to the rapid and complete removal
of such a moraine, or barrier, as Mr. Thomson supposes may have once
existed. The mouth of the glen is equally free from detritus, or other
indications of the existence of earthy barriers in a former condition of
things.

“A glacier occupying the present site of Loch Lochy, and receiving
supplies from the neighbouring mountains, would appear,” Mr. Thomson
says, “to afford a sufficient explanation of the phenomena observed in
this glen.” This was no doubt written under the impression that Glen
Fintec communicated with Loch Lochy, and that the mouth of Glen
Gluoy was in the way of a glacier advancing from that lake. But this is
not the case. A glacier haying its origin among the high mountains to
the N.W. of Loch Lochy—the only hills high enough to produce one—
and advancing from Loch Lochy, must make its way past Maucomer and
Brecklech up the valley of the Spean, for so only will the levels permit.
This direction is about perpendicular to that of Glen Gluoy ; and it would
be only a lateral branch or arm, parting from the main body, that could
penetrate that glen. The mouth of the glen is narrow, and the hill sides
rise steep and high; a little way up there is a considerable bend before
we reach, at a mile’s distance, the bosom or sinus in the hill side, where
the moraine is conceived to have existed in connexion with the lower
shelf. All this shows the improbability of a moraine being deposited at
this place by such a glacier; and that recourse may as well be had to the
masses of ice with which Glen Spean has been supposed to be filled, from
its chief source in the Ben Nevis group. But it seems impossible that
such masses of ice could deposit a moraine in the situation required; and
it even appears doubtful whether sheets of ice would deposit moraines at
all. On these grounds I do not see how we can admit Mr. Thomson’s
theory in its present form.

VI.—Concrvston.
I do not feel myself competent to express a decided opinion upon this .
“vexed question ;” but regarding the lake theory as the true one, I think

Mx. CURRIE on the Composition of some Fermented Liquors. 109

it now only remains to be determined whether the barriers at the mouths
of the glens consisted of ice, or of earthy materials. Perhaps we know
nearly as much regarding the latter as we ever can know; but the valley
of the Spean has never been carefully examined, with reference to the
former passage of glaciers through it, by one fully competent to the task.
Till this has been done, geologists are not, I think, in a position to decide
between the rival theories.

A new white Gunpowder was exhibited, invented by the assayer of the
mint at Constantinople, composed of sugar, chlorate of potash, and yellow
prussiate of potash.

March 20, 1850.—7he Preswwent in the Chair.

Tue following papers by Professor Thomas Graham of London, were
presented by the author, viz. :—“ On the Motion of Gases,” Parts I. and
II. “On the Diffusion of Liquids,”—Thanks voted.

Mr. Bryce moved that the sum of £6 6s. be granted to purchase one
or two Aneroid Barometers for the use of an association of naturalists,
chiefly members of this Society, who were about to investigate the geology
and natural history of the basin of the Clyde.—The vote was agreed to.

Mr. Stenhouse read a paper “On the Artifical Production of Organic
Bases.”

April 3, 1850.—Mr. Gour.is in the Chair.

Tue following were admitted members, viz. :—Messrs. Thomas R.
Gardner, John Barclay, Robert Thomson, Thomas Neilson, Thomas
Davidson.

Mr. Bryce’s motion for a grant of £6 6s. for the purchase of an Aneroid
Barometer, was submitted to the Society for the second time, and finally
agreed to.

Dr. R. D. Thomson communicated the following paper :—

XIV.—Composition of some Fermented Liquors. By Mr. Joun Wricur
Currin.

Tue mode of conducting the experiments was to weigh out generally
2000 grains of the liquor under examination; it was distilled until the fluid
passing over gave no smell of aldehyde, or any green colour with bichromate
of potash and sulphuric acid. The distilled fluid, which consisted of alcohol
and water, and the residue formed of saccharine and albuminous matter,
were then weighed; the difference between the weight of the fluids
and that of the original fluid was the loss, The specific gravity of the
distilled fluid was then taken; then by referring to a table the per centage

110 Mr. Currie on the Coniposition of some Fermented Liquors.

of alcohol in the fluid was ascertained ; then by multiplying the quantity
of distilled fluid by the per cent. of alcohol in it, and dividing by the
weight of the original fluid, the quantity of alcohol in the liquor is obtained.
The following tables show the result of a few of the experiments conducted
in this manner.

There is another method adopted by the excise, which consists in taking
the specific gravity of the liquor under examination, distilling about $ds.
of it, then filling up to the original bulk with water, and taking the specific
gravity. The second will be greater than the first, as the water is heavier
than alcohol; by taking the difference between the two specific gravities,
subtracting from 1000, and by referring to a low wine table, the quantity
of alcohol in the liquor is obtained. Many of the experiments were checked
by the second method.

With the exception of the Prestonpans beer, the wines and Dublin
stout, all the specimens were manufactured at the Perth brewery. The
Madeira was above forty years old and had been at Calcutta. The Sherry
was upwards of twenty years old and had likewise been in India. The
Port was about fifteen years old. The Samshoo is a spirit distilled by
the Chinese from rice. It had been long in bottle, but was probably
imperfectly stoppered.

TABLE [,
FIRST EXPERIMENT. SECOND EXPERIMENT,

SP iy (Quantity! pictinca | Resi Dried || Distillea| Resi; Dried

Saceha- |Pistilled,| "Fiyid. | dual | Loss.) Residuel| Fluid. | {¥al |b°SS-| Residue.

rometer. = .
Prestonpans Beer,...| 1011 | 2000 |1476-4| 478 |45°6| 70-2 || 1607 | 380 | 13 | 72:4
Small Beer,...........- 1022 | 2000 | 1257 | 738 | 5 | 86:4 }} 1567 | 400 | 33 85
Table Beer,........+++ 1005°5 | 2000 |1415°6 |543-4| 41 | 55 || 1318 | 672 | 10 54
Common Porter,.,....| 1014 | 2000 | 1678 | 319 | 3 | 76°8|) 1738 | 251 | 11 77
Brown Stout,.........- 1011 | 2000 | 1619 | 330 | 51 | 66 || 1656 | 340 | 41 65:4
Double Brown Stout,| 1013 | 2000 | 1372 | 612 | 16 | 80 || 1525 | 455 | 20 80
Imperial, .........--+0+- 1024 | 2000 | 1725 | 275 | 0 | 110 |] 1560 | 440} 0} 110
EXpOrt,....cescesereeees 2000 | 1320 | 640 | 40} 74 || 1552 | 430 | 18 76
MNGacscsecccsvsccsuneness 2000 | 1872 | 128 | 0} 55 || 1294 | 660 | 46 55
No. 3 Ale,...<sccccssess 2000 | 1371 | 570 | 59 | 114 || 13885 | 605 | 10} 114
Won 4 Ale. sasesqn-cade 2000 | 1384 | 610

6 |133:4 |) 1254 | 706 | 40 | 133°6
Port Wine... ..- | 2000 | 1382 | 600 | 18] 47 hes cia | eve, fies
Madeira, 40 yrs. old, | +9888 | 1840 | 1304 | 516 | 20 | 73 |) 1860 | 610 | 30 79

homey ccs. 1002 | 1680 | 1570 | 90 | 20] 60
Porter— Guiness’s 4
ata i 10165 | 2000 | 1226 | 760 | 14 | 100

(0) Fo) 2] APS eee 9958 | 2000 | 1630 | 356 | 14} 74

Mr. Mrrcwe.t on the Electric Telegraph. 111

TABLE II.
FIRST EXPERIMENT. SECOND EXPERIMENT.
Per Per Per Per Per Per
sees, [Car | ail, | Cars| x. | gre: | Oxy | tot, | cet. | do
eo il ea i ogg oe Re a om Bee eA a
oer | a eae REO silgmintad|)* pra: autres amen
Prestonpans Beer,| *9928} 4* | 59°056| 2°95} 3°51 || *9954| 2°5 |40°175 | 2°10 | 3°62
Small Beer,........| °9963| 2° | 25°14 | 1:25] 4°32 || -9954] 2-5 |39°175| 1:95 | 4:25
Table Beer, ........ *9919| 4:6 | 65°117| 3°25) 2°75 || -9921| 4:4 |57-992 | 2:89 | 2-7
Common Porter, | ‘9918| 4:7 | 79°866| 3:90| 3°84 || -9918| 4:7 |81-906| 4:08 | 3°85
Brown-Stout,......) °9902] 5°6 | 90:664| 4°53) 3:3 *9902| 5°6 |92:736 | 4:63 | 3:27
veda “ie -9858| 8°6 |117-992| 5:89] 4+ |} -9858| 8-6 [131-15] 6-55 | 4
Imperial, andes ....| °9869| 8 |138°0 6°96 | 5° || -9846| 9:4 1145-64] 7:28 | 55
Export Ales, ...... 9807 | 12°4 |167-68 | 8:36] 3:7 || *9842] 9:75)|151-32] 7°56 | 3:8 |-
India Ale,.......... -9837 | 1071 |189°07 | 9:4 | 2°75)| -9797 |13°2 117080} 8:54 | 2:75
D055) Ale@, acs..-+02° 9836 | 10°25)/140°-52 | 7:02) 5°7 9836 |10°25 |141°96 | 7:09 | 5:7
No. 4 Ale,. 9817 | 11°6 |160°54 | 8:02] 6°67 || 9807 |12:4 |155-49| 7°77 | 6-68
Port Wine,......... *9668 | 23°6 132615 |16°3 | 2°35 > eas nes eee ove
Madeéira,.......... are ac es 4°75| 3°96 || 9745 |17:4 |236-44 |11°832} 3:95
BINEYTY,%<<becssse-.:- 9777 | 14°9 |233:93 |14:09| 3°57 con “ee = “8 a
Guiness’s Dublin, | ‘9858| 8°6 |105°43 | 5°27) 5-
MAXDE esemee cap sce ted *9838:| 10° 11630 8:15 | 3°85 on
a ee ee ee ee
TABLE III.
Mean M Mean y
se per cent. Per cent. oats a per eont Per cont.
Alcohol} 5} Water Alcohol | yy | Water.
annie! Residue. minders Residue.
Prestonpans Beer,...| 2°525 | 3°565 | 93°91 || India Alle,.............. 8:97 |2°75 | 89-28
Small Beer,........ eeee] 1°60 | 4°285 | 94°12 || No. 3 Aley.....c00c0.00 7055 | 5:7 87°25
Table Beer,......-.....| 3°07 | 2°725 | 94:21 || No. 4 Ale,........0000 7°855 | 6-675 | 85:47
Common Porter,.....| 4°035 | 3°845 | 92°13 || Port Wine,............ 163° | 2:35 | 81°35
Brown Stout,......... 4:58 | 3°285 | 92-24 || Sherry, ...... Pe ce 14:09 | 3:57 | 82:44
Dble. Brown Stout,.| 6°22 | 4° 89°78 || Madeira.,................| 11.83 | 3:95 | 85-22
Imperial, ...,..se..006..| 7°09 | 5°5 87°41 || Claret,........ Gaoeted.< 815 13:85 | 88
Export Ale,........... 7:96 |375 | 88-29 || Samshoo,....... casey 200)! ses 1c Gs00)

Mr. Alexander Mitchell brought before the Society an improvement
which he has made in the construction and working of the Electric Tele-
graph. He began by describing the telegraph generally as consisting of
three parts, namely, a battery to generate electricity, a wire to conyey it,
and a mechanical arrangement to communicate signals at once to different
and distant places. The moving power in every case being the same, tho
difference in the various instruments in use consists solely in the mechanical
combinations. Already sixty different machines have been invented,
upwards of thirty of which have been patented. The objects aimed at in
these diversified forms of the telegraph have been chiefly in the simplifi-
cation of the arrangements, and the transmission of a greater number of
signals at the same time. The desideratum still is, the transmission of intel-
ligence by means of one wire, as rapidly and distinctly as it is now done by

112 Mr. Mircrent on the Electric Telegraph.

three. All the different methods were classed under three varieties, namely
the needle, the printing, and the step-by-step telegraphs. The signals by
the first method are produced by the deflection of one or more needles; the
second prints as well as transmits messages; and the third employs a
revolving pointer to indicate letters or signs upon a dial. The telegraph
commonly in use is the double-needled one, invented and patented by Cook
& Wheatstone. The construction of this instrument having been described,
and its operation illustrated by the transmission of messages betwixt two
machines in different parts of the hall, Mr. Mitchell pointed out the
principal defects of this method, as consisting in the expense caused by
the necessity for having three wires, and in the liability of the wires to
come into contact with each other. This is a contingency of such frequent
occurrence as to require the constant employment of several men to
separate the wires when the contact takes place. Another inconvenience
arises from the difficulty of attaining perfect insulation of the wires.
In wet weather it often happens that all the wires become connected
electrically at the posts, by the-water passing from one wire to another.
What is still required, then, is an instrument combining cheapness with
accuracy and rapidity. When this has been attained, the use of the electric
telegraph will be brought within the reach of all classes of the community.
At present the high charge for transmitting intelligence limits its useful-
ness for the purposes of trade and commerce. In America the telegraph
is much more accessible. A message which would there be sent for several
hundred miles, at the charge of half a dollar, would, in this country, cost
nearly four dollars, or eight times more. In the United States there are
about 9000 miles of telegraph ; in England between 2000 and 3000; in
Scotland only about 160 miles. In America, the expense of fitting up a
mile of telegraph is about £30, and being generally single wires, the
expense of maintaining them is inconsiderable. In this country the price
per mile is about £150, and the expense of maintenance proportionably
high.

The plan invented by Mr. Mitchell, and which was illustrated by a
machine in working order, consists of only one wire. Instead of the
arbitrary and conventional symbols of the ordinary method, which are
deficient in precision, and liable to misapprehension, Mr. Mitchell employs
the ordinary Roman Alphabet and numerals, along with the common
figures. The letters are painted upon a segment in front of the operator,
and corresponding letters are inscribed on four-and-twenty ivory keys,
placed exactly as in the piano-forte, and touched in the same manner.
The letters are so distinct that a child could scarcely err either in com-
municating or receiving a message by the instrument. When one of the
keys is pressed down, a needle instantly points to the corresponding letter
on the segment; and when a series of instruments are established at the
different stations along a line of railway, by the simple act of pressing
down the keys, one after another, the duplicate letters will be shown upon
all the instruments in the same circuit. From 80 to 100 letters can be

Mr. BrycE on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 118

transmitted every minute, or as fast as they can be read, by means_of
Mr. Mitchell’s invention. The working of the instrument was highly
satisfactory. The ease, precision, and unerring accuracy with which it
can be wrought, were made apparent to all present.

April 17th, 1850.—Mr. Lippetn in the Chair.

Tue Society appointed Mr. Harvey, Mr. Gourlie, and Mr. Keddie to
represent the Society at the Meeting of the British Association, to be
held in Edinburgh in August next.

Mr. Bryce gave the following outline of the Geology of the Peninsula
of Roseneath, and the adjoining tracts :— .

XV.— On the Geological Structure of the peninsula of Roseneath and the
adjoining parts of Renfrew and Argyle. By James Bryce, Jun.,
M.A., F.G.S.

I.—Intropouction.

1. In a paper which I had the honour to lay before the Society two
years ago, on certain peculiarities in the geology of Bute, I promised, on
a future occasion, to call the attention of the members to some analogous
strata further up the Frith, which I had not then examined with sufficient
care. They seemed to possess considerable interest; and on a more
careful inspection of them I have not been disappointed. I propose to
state briefly, in this communication, a few of the facts most worthy of
being put on record.

TI.— Roseneatu.
a. Primary Strata.

2. The peninsula of Roseneath forms the south-western portion of the
county of Dunbarton. It is bounded on the south by the frith of Clyde,
and has the Gareloch and Loch Long on the east and west. It is eight
miles long, and the breadth varies from one and a-half to two miles. It
consists of a single irregular ridge of hilly ground, which runs through its
whole length, scarcely reaching the height of 1000 feet, and declining with
a nearly equal slope toward either estuary. In the northerd part the rocks
near the summit of the ridge rise into detached craggy knolls, presenting
steep and bold fronts towards Loch Long; while the central and southern
portions exhibit none of those rugged or serrated forms, which give a
highly picturesque character to the adjoining tracts. But, although of
such inferior elevation, and itself devoid of any remarkable feature, this
ridge affords a series of more beautiful and striking prospects in every
direction, than perhaps any part of the varied shores of our great
western frith,

Vol. III.—No. 2. 4

7

114 Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

3. The geological structure of the peninsula is very simple. The
upper and middle portions are composed of micaceous and clay slates,

while old red sandstone occupies the southern part. These rocks are portions —

of the great bands of sedimentary strata which traverse Scotland from sea to
sea, in a direction parallel to the principal axis of the Grampians, and to
the great Caledonian valley. They deviate very little from their ordinary
type, and it is therefore unnecessary to enter into any lengthened de-
scriptions. The usual varieties, depending upon the varying proportions
of the constituent minerals, occur abundantly, but in no definite order,
and without,much continuity. Thus the clay-slate series exhibits beds of
flinty slate often approaching to quartz rock, of highly bituminous
slate, and of coarse grained compact thick bedded slate, mixed up
irregularly with the commoner kinds, such as coarse and fine roofing
slates and a semi-crystalline silky slate, passing into chlorite or talcose
schist. All these varieties are well seen on the road-side between Rose-
neath and Kilcreggan, and on the shore between the latter place and
North Ailey. On the same coast thick cotemporaneous beds and also
veins of quartz occur, in the cavities of which rock-crystal is often met
with. Roofing slate of good quality is obtained from several quarries ;
but neither in this rock nor in the mica slate which underlies it, have
any indications of metallic ores been noticed. Iron pyrites occurs in
the slate rocks in many places. Beds of quartz containing rock-crystal
occur frequently in the mica slate, and are well seen on the road-side to
the west of the village of Gareloch-head. To the east of Tom-na-hary
hill, I found crystals of schorl in a variety of mica slate, containing very
little quartz.

4. In the accompanying map, these two slate rocks are marked as
separated by a definite boundary; but in nature no such distinction exists;
the transition is in fact so gradual, that it is impossible to say where the
micaceous series terminates, and the argillaceous commences. Towards
its outer boundary the mica slate begins to assume the character of
chlorite schist, and to contain occasional beds of fine roofing slate, the
true mica slate still constituting the greater part of the mass. Farther
out, the argillaceous and chlorite slates begin to prevail, so that the
micaceous beds may be said to be subordinate to them; and thus through
oft repeated alternations, we at last reach the true clay slate series.
We can conceive, therefore, of a certain middle line, along which the
strata partake equally of both characters; it is this imaginary line
which in such a case may fairly represent the boundary. These
remarks are equally applicable to the other slate rocks of the district,
and indeed to all the rocks of this class in the West of Scotland.
In order to explain the mode in which this gradual loss of a marked
character, and assumption of one considerably different was brought about,
it is necessary to remember that the slate beds were originally deposited
from the sea, layer over layer, in the state of silt or fine mud, and after-
wards exposed to great heat, combined with pressure. A slight change in

‘ena,
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ROSENEATH |

WITH PORTIONS OF |
RENFREW & ARGYLE,
1850.

Garctoch-toan

Sante! ay

of Colors

Sephyry

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i Bryce, Jun™ Maclure & Macdonald jith® Glasgow.

Mr. BRYCE on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 115

the nature of the sediment, or in the amount of heat or pressure, would be
sufficient to produce the want of uniformity, and the variations from a
definite type, which we now observe. The general direction of the beds
is about north-east and south-west, the dip being to the south-east, at
angles varying from 40° to 70° ;—but there are many local exceptions.

b. Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks.

5. The slates above described contain subordinate beds and veins,
which possess considerable interest.

In passing over the summit level of the road between Gareloch-head
and Portincaple Ferry, the observer who is accustomed to distinguish
rocks from a distance, by the peculiar forms which the different species
impress upon the surface, cannot fail to notice a remarkable ridge on the
right, projecting from the smooth outline of the hill side, and trending ina
straight line towards the base of the mountains. Its form, as seen from
the road, is represented in the annexed sketch, No. 1, which gives the

a Ridge of porphyry, rising through the mica slate.

5b The hill sides formed of mica slate.

e Summit level of the road between Gareloch and Portincaple.
d Mountain stream running along the junction.

outline of the surface. It is obviously composed of matter erupted through
the slate, and on examination is found to consist of a highly felspathic
_ rock, The base of this rock is a very compact mixture of quartz and
felspar, in which crystals of felspar and mica are imbedded, the latter
ingredient being constantly present, the former often wanting. The pre-
vailing colour is yellowish red, given by the felspar in the base. From
the prevalence of felspar, and the mode in which the crystals are dis-
seminated, the rock must be called, according to the present views, a
felspar porphyry; though the constant presence of mica as a constituent,
and the compound character of the base, seem rather to require that it
should be considered a granite.

At the sides of the vein next the slate, the rock is of a more homoge-

116 Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

neous character, resembling a compact claystone or flinty slate, but still
enclosing crystals of mica. The laminz of the slate in contact with the
sides of the vein have a very close resemblance to this variety; being,
in fact, a yellowish grey fine grained flinty slate, with occasional spangles
of mica. It is thus difficult to determine the exact boundary line between
the slate and the vein. This assimilation of mineral character has
obviously been induced by the cooling of the masses from a state of
fusion, at nearly the same rate, but more rapidly than the inner portions
of the vein. The breadth of the vein is various; in some places no more
than twelve or fifteen yards, in others as much as twenty-five, and even
thirty, and perhaps considerably above that, as it cannot in many cases
be exactly measured. It rises above the general surface of the hill side
from fifteen to forty feet in different places.

6. The course which this erupted mass follows is indicated on the
accompanying map. In the northern part of its course it is interposed

as a bed between the strata of slate. To

Yj Zz the south of the high road, on the side of a

yy little stream, it is seen intersecting the beds
Yl voi ff at a small angle, as in the annexed sketch,

] YY No. 2, which is a vertical section. A little

; farther south the ground rises considerably,

aa Mica slate, highly inclined. 204 the vein does not appear upon the

b b Plutonic rock intersecting surface; the mica slate occupying the entire

the beds. space where it is possible the vein could

appear; but on the lowering of the ground still farther south, it again

emerges from beneath the slate and occupies the surface for some distance.

A similar overlapping occurs farther north, near the high road. Both of
these are expressed on the map.

Though preserving a general N.N.E. and 8.8.W. direction this vein
makes several undulations, throwing it a good deal out of its usual
course. The most remarkable of these is
seen not far from its northern termination,
and is represented in the annexed sketch,
No. 3, which is a ground plan.

7. The appearance of this plutonic rock,
now as a bed interposed among the strata, and
again as a vein intersecting them, and the
undulating course which it pursues, point out
its posterior origin and the nature of the
resisting force. This is plainly to be found
in the peculiar undulations and twisted forms
which everywhere characterise the mica slate,
indicating the powerful compressing forces
which acted upon it while yet plastic under
the influence of heat.

aa Vein of felspathic rock, about 25 yards wide. b b Metamorphic schist.
e ¢ Common schist in beds nearly vertical and parallel to the vein,

a

Mr. BRYCE on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 117

’ A little way north of this point, and at another bend in the vein, the
outer or salient angle is intersected by a dike of greenstone and basalt,
in such a manner that a portion of
the felspathic rock is isolated be-
tween the whin dike and the mica
slate, and the continuation of the
vein lies on the same side of the
dike as before the intersection.
The annexed sketch, also a ground
plan, shows the mode of this inter-
section, which is the most singular
I have ever met with.

The dike is very distinctly trace-
able for several hundred yards to-
wards the north-east, the surface
occupied by it rising into conical
hummocks. It is then lost in
marshy ground for a short distance,
but is again continued towards the I:
mountains. In the other direction, yy fe
after a lengthened and most careful YY, =p
search, its course was satisfactorily q @ Vein of felspathic rock.
made out as far as Portincaple 2 5 Altered schist.

Ferry, where it is well seen; and I ee acini Sa

haye met with a dike of the same

width and bearing, near the top of the mountain on the east side of
Loch Eck, traversing mica slate and altering it considerably; which, I
have no doubt, is a prolongation of this dike. The width is about 25
yards, and it bears a point S. of W. It is in many places inclined at
the same angle as the slate, among the beds of which it seems to
have insinuated itself in a serpentine course. The mica slate in some
places is slightly changed by the contact, being rendered harder and
more massive: the lamination is partially destroyed, and the rock is
banded, parallel to the sides of the dike. In one place pieces of the slate
are seen enclosed in the dike, and slightly altered. Portions of the wedge
shaped mass of slate, d, between the two veins, are entangled in the basaltic
dike, and altered in the same manner.

At the edges the dike consists of blue slaty basalt, but the greater
part of the mass is a coarse grained greenstone, which at several points
exhibits in great perfection that peculiar structural arrangement in
concretionary spheroids, which is the most frequent and characteristic
form assumed by the trap rocks, and of which the columnar is but the
result, when under favourable conditions, they parted more slowly with
their heat of fluidity. The best marked of these is in a cliff about 60
feet high, overhanging the marshy ground above mentioned, where the
dike has a considerable underlie, the slate being in contact on both sides.

118 Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

It is here divided into colwmns of spheroids perpendicular to the sides of
the dike, and separated from one another by imperfect joints. Sometimes
each joint is composed of a single spheroid; one was noticed measuring 15 ~
inches by 10; in other cases numerous small closely packed spheroids
make up a joint. Instead of a distinct separation as in basaltic pillars,
the columns are connected by narrow seams of decomposed greenstone.
The columnar structure is here seen in the act of development—if the
heat had parted more gradually, a facade of pillars would have been
the result. See the remarkable experiments of Mr. Gregory Watt on
fused basalt, (Phil. Trans. 1804) of which this spot affords an excellent
illustration.

It will appear from the foregoing statements, that the small area we
haye been describing, is one of considerable interest, exhibiting, as it does,
the rare association of many species of erupted rocks in connection with
the primary strata; and affording illustration of some curious questions
in theoretical geology.

c. Limestone.

8. Ata place called the Cove, in the townland of North Ailey, on the
shore of Loch Long, a bed of limestone is interstratified with the clay
slate. It has been originally six or seven yards wide, and has extended
eastwards across the low ground between the shore and the cliff, into the
cliff itself, and probably much further inland; but it cannot be satisfac-
torily traced. The part next the shore has been almost entirely removed
by quarrying ; but from portions which are found among the slate—as in
the annexed sketch, No. 5, a vertical section—there can be no doubt of
the true position of the bed.

aa Inclined strata of clay slate. 6 Bed of limestone. c Bay with accumulations
of shingle.

The limestone is impure, from intermixture with slaty laminae; the
prevailing colour is bluish gray; it contains much calcareous spar; and,
like the slate, is destitute of fossils.

In the new statistical account of the parish of Row adjoining, beds of
limestone are stated to occur in the slate rocks of Glenfruin; these are
most probably similar to the bed now mentioned.

d. Old Red Sandstone.
9. The junction of the slate and sandstone is strikingly marked on

Mr. BRYCE on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 119

the features of the landscape.* It crosses nearly through the middle
of the remarkable and very picturesque dell, which intersects the
peninsula from Campsail Bay to Kilcreggan in a direction nearly
north-east and south-west. Thus, in external aspect, and in the
nature of its rocks, this southern portion is isolated from the rest; it
consists of a single hill of a depressed conical form, having a smooth
outline, and extending in gentle and fertile slopes to the water’s
edge on three sides. Here, as in other places, the soil formed by the
decomposition of the sandstone contrasts most fayourably with that which
rests upon the cold retentive clays of the coal formation on the one side,
and the old slate rocks on the other. ‘The series exhibits but its
lowest members—conglomerates, coarse sandstone, and finely laminated
red sand, irregularly disposed. The base of the conglomerate is coarse
red sand; and the imbedded fragments are granite, porphyry, quartz,
and various kinds of slate ; the three former are very much rounded, the
latter have lost their angularity, and present elliptic forms, The origin of
these is to be looked for in some near district of the Grampians, where
such varieties exist, and which we know were elevated and exposed
to the action of mechanical forces prior to the epoch of the old red sand-
stone; the quartz and slate pebbles are from the adjoining strata.

The contact of the sandstone and slate is nowhere seen. © In the
western part of the cliffs at Portkill Bay, the two rocks approach very
close, the sandstone dipping at a small angle towards the nearly vertical
slate; and in Campsail Bay a considerable space of flat beach intervenes,
concealing the contact. The line of junction passes near the Saw-mill,
and across the upper part of the fields, which slope down from the
northern edge of the plantation crowning the heights on the south side of
the great hollow or dingle.

On the south coast of the peninsula the sandstone dips for a short dis-
tance towards the south; the dip then changes, and continues in other
parts to be between west and south-west, at an angle of about 15° to 20°.

e. Proofs of Elevation.

10. In the paper referred to in Art. 1. the phenomena which indicate
a change of level in the sea on the shores of Bute were so fully stated
that it is unnecessary to enter here at any length into the subject, the
evidences being of the same character. A well defined terrace exists along
most parts of the shores of the peninsula. It is but faintly impressed upon
the bold rocky shores (Art. 3) in the northern part. But from Culeport
southwards to Kilcreggan it is extremely well marked. The breadth
varies from ten or twenty yards, to one hundred, or even more. It is
terminated inland by a perpendicular cliff, twenty to forty feet high, com-
posed of slate rocks much worn and often hollowed into caves. In some

* “Rosneath” is said by some to mean in the Gaelic language, “the little dell
or dingle;” and that the name was given to the whole from this peculiar feature.
See New Statistical Account under “ Roseneath parish, Dumbartonshire.”

120 Mr. BRYCE on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

places high tides rise to the very edge of the terrace, but in general it is
from ten to twenty feet above the level of the tide; and the cliffs show
evidences of the action of the waves to near their summits. On the
surface of the terrace, huge masses of slate rest in some places, being
portions of the original rock, which, from their extreme hardness and
toughness, have longer resisted, but bear obvious marks of the action of
the sea. The largest of these seems to be several hundred tons in
weight: it is situated in the townland of Ailey, and is known over the
whole peninsula as the “Big Stane.”” The coast road is carried along
this terrace, and upon it here, as on all the shores of the Frith, the
coast residences are erected. Owing to its flatness and the high cliff
behind, it is often swampy and difficult to drain, and contains deposits of
peat with trees. In sinking for foundations it is very common to find
sand or clay mixed with sea-worn stones and sea-weed.

In passing eastward from Kilcreggan and entering on the sandstone
district, the terrace is found to expand very much. It is from 200 to
400 yards wide in most places, and in some much more, as in the eastern
part, near Roseneath castle, where it stretches out into a low, flat pro-
montory fully half a-mile in extent. Contracting northwards from this for
some distance, it again expands between the “ Clachan”’ and the landing
pier, into a wide level tract, the outer part of which is a mass of fine
shingle cast up by the sea. In the western part, near Portkill, the
surface of the terrace consists of round sea-worn stones imbedded in
the scanty soil. These are all masses of primary rocks; and the
immediate shore, which is here composed of sandstone, is strewed thickly
with the same. They consist of mica and clay slates, granite, quartz,
and porphyry, all of which exist only to the north-west of this point, and
whose transport hither must be referred to the long continued action
of tides and currents and prevailing winds. One mass of mica slate,
whose parent rock is at least two miles distant, seems too large to have
been thus transported, being upwards of twelve feet in each dimension.
Eastward these loose masses diminish, and the terrace to the east and
south-east of the castle consists chiefly of sand or sandstone. At Port-
kill a bold precipice of conglomerate rises behind the terrace to the height
of nearly forty feet, and presents the most unequivocal evidence of the
former action of the sea. It is undermined in many places, and over-
hangs its base; veins of red sand are washed away, and beds of hard
conglomerate project; it is cut into grotesque forms, and hollowed out
into considerable caves, which are large enough to afford residences to
families of gypsies, or troops of mussel-gatherers, for weeks together.

These cliffs are succeeded towards the east by steep grassy slopes,
marking the boundary of the terrace, and terminating in rich fields
descending to the edge of the water; the whole presenting, with the
tasteful plantations, a most pleasing scene of pastoral beauty. To the
south-west and west of Roseneath house the cliff is resumed. Here, at
and on both sides of a spot called “ Wallace’s loup,” the same evidences

Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 121

of the action of the sea, as have been just mentioned in reference to
Portkill, are to be seen in the perpendicular cliffs of sandstone, which run
nearly east and west for about a quarter of a mile along the south side
of the principal approach, and then turn south ata right angle, and
gradually subside towards the slopes above-mentioned.

a Upper-slopes on which the offices stand, perhaps a former beach.
b Sea-worn cliff of sandstone, called Wallace’s loup.

e Terrace, or former beach, on which Roseneath house stands.

d Sea level.

11. Through the kindness of Lorne Campbell, Esq., of Roseneath, I
am enabled to present a valuable series of levellings of these terraces,
which has been made under his directions, and which it is very desirable
to have compared with the heights of the other terraces in the Frith,
viz. :-—

1. Height of the base of the north Be of Roseneath house

above high water, - - - - 42 feet.
2. Base of “ Wallace’s loup” at the south ate level with the
above; face of rock 12 feet high, we sloping Procly to

the west, 42 + 12, - 54 —
3. Lower part of the base of this ie ae Bowie 26 feet,

height of rock at this point, 33 feet, - - - 59 —
4, Height of the stables, &c. above high water, - - 79 —

5. Height of a hollow adjoining these buildings, where shells,
sea-weed, &c., were found some yer 989 5 or 6 feet
below the otean - 68
6. Height of the base of the cliffs a at Portkill, at the A end
38 feet ; rock, 18} feet, - - - 56; —
7. Lower part of the base of the rock, 25 feet ; height of the
rock, 37 feet, - - - - - - - 62 —

It thus appears that there are indications of terraces and former beaches
at still higher levels; and that the one we are now more especially con-
sidering, which marks the last upheaval, preserves a pretty equable level
round the peninsula, and corresponds with the terraces in Bute.

I am informed by James Smith, Esq., of Jordanhill, that when the
foundation was dug for Roseneath house, shells and sea-weed were found
mixed with shingle; and that this shingle consisted chiefly of flat pieces
of slate about the size of a penny; whereas on the present beach the
fragments are mostly round. He considers that the whole terrace at
this part consists of such marine shingle; by levelling, the same height
was obtained for this beach as that above given. The discovery of these

122 Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

beds and of similar shelly deposits on the opposite coast at Ardencaple,
first noticed by the late Duke of Argyle, led Mr. Smith to that extensive
and most valuable series of investigations by which he established the
former existence of a sub-arctic climate, anda distinct place for the
Clyde beds among the tertiary strata.

Within the Gareloch the cliff bounding the ancient beach is not
marked with the same continuity or distinctness; but where it is seen,
the levels appear to be the same as those already mentioned.

POSTCRIPT, Avcusr, 1850.

SF. Scratched Rocks.

12. The striated and grooved rocks of Gareloch have been described
by Mr. Charles M‘Laren in several papers in late numbers of Jameson’s
Journal; and it is‘therefore unnecessary to enter into any details respect-
ing them. I have verified his observations in several places, and have
no doubt that the phenomena are described with that precision and strict
attention to facts which mark Mr. M‘Laren’s other productions. But I
cannot agree with his conclusion, that they are due to glacial action.
It seems much more reasonable to connect them with the deposit of the
boulder clay, and the transport over the plains of Lanerkshire of rocks
which exist only to the north-west, and which are often striated and
polished. The total absence of any such gravel deposits as could be
considered moraines is a serious objection; for though Mr. M‘Laren
gives one instance in the shingle-bed at Row-ferry, I think it is perfectly
clear, from the sea-worn character of its materials, that this is a true
bank of shingle, formed by the sea in consequence of the peculiar
movements of the tide at this part. Owing to the narrowness of the
outlet, and the great extent of water inside, the tide ebbs at Row-ferry
with a powerful current: between this and the surf the bank has been
thrown up, there being both at flood and ebb a stream on the western side
of the outlet, and an eddy on the eastern. This fact has been pointed
out to me by Mr. Smith, who also states that the shingle bank vests upon
the old boulder clay or supposed glacial deposit, and must therefore be of
later formation than the rock-striation and boulder-transport. Other
weighty objections are ably stated in Professor Oldham’s anniversary
address of this year to the Dublin Geological Society; and the sub-
ject need not therefore be pursued farther. The most accessible
points for seeing the striation and grooving are at the landing place at
Row; at the point of divergence of the roads leading along the east and
west sides of the loch, about a quarter of a mile above Gareloch-head ;
and at several points on the road-side, between the latter place and the
summit level, particularly on the east side of the road, exactly at the
summit. But at none of the points which I visited were any marked
examples of polishing noticed, or of that peculiar “moutonnée ”’ character
which is so extremely well defined in the case of rocks in the lake district
of Westmoreland, which I have lately described, and of some pointed out

-

Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 123

to me a few weeks ago by Mr. Robert Chambers, at Parson’s Green near
Edinburgh. They resemble more the cases long ago described by Sir
James Hall, as oceurring at Corstorphine hill and several other places
in the neighbourhood.

Ti1.—East Coast oF tHe Cowat District.

13. This coast consists of slates of the argillaceous and chloritic series,
passing westwards into mica slate. In the southern part, between Innel-
lan and Toward Point, old red sandstone, with its associated cornstone,
oceupies the coast, extending, however, no farther inland than the terrace,
into the landward boundary or wall of which the slate rises to a consider-
able height ; but in neither the sandstone nor limestone have fossils yet
been found. The old slates near Dunoon are associated with rocks of
igneous origin, to whose effect upon the slates, and their own peculiar
forms, much of the picturesque beauty of this favourite watering-place
is due. Thus the ridge lying between the coast and the valley of
Hafton lake, owes its elevation and bold outline to an outburst of
igneous rocks, which have induced a very decided change upon the slate
along the planes of contact. It consists of crystalline greenstone, of
a different type from that of the dikes common on the coast, the
structure being slaty and the hornblende in excess. It is from
60 to 100 yards wide, and ranges from near Hunter’s Quay, across the
highest part of the ridge, transversely to its length, appearing along the
summit in a series of conical hummocks, with deep hollows between; and
thus presenting a bold picturesque outline when viewed from the low
grounds in the neighbourhood. It is interrupted by the Hafton valley,
but is resumed on its western side, and attains its greatest altitude in
Dunloskin hill, which rises prominently above the surrounding slopes,
strikingly relieving their monotonous outline. Westwards, for about
half a-mile, it is seen in other rocky eminences, but its farther extension
in this direction was not traced. The ridge is not seen intersecting the
coast, which is everywhere occupied by the slate rocks; so that it seems
to terminate before reaching the shore. Owing to the metamorphic
character which has been impressed upon the adjoining slaty beds, it is
difficult to determine the precise limits of the plutonic rock; near the
contact the slate breaks under the hammer into very compact four-
_ sided prisms.

In a similar manner, the high ground dividing the Hast and West
Bays, and projecting beyond the general line of coast, has acquired
its strikingly picturesque aspect from a great dike of basalt which
traverses it. The castle hill consists of this dike, and of slate borne
up with it, and adhering to it. By contact with the dike, the slaty
structure is effaced; the rock has been fused and reconsolidated into a
compact flinty slate, closely resembling basalt; crystals are developed
along the boundary, and bands of different colours are disposed parallel
to the sides of the dike. The width is about 100 feet, and the bearing

124 Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

W.N.W. The Gantock rocks are exactly in the line of bearing, but
were found to consist of very hard slate. On the opposite coast, however,
near Ardgowan, a dike of the same width and direction occurs, which
may be the continuation.

TV.— Coast or RenrrEewsHIRe.

14. The coast section of this county presents only old red sandstone
and trap, with occasional beds of limestone. The sandstone rises sea-
ward, dipping east and south-east, at a small angle, and everywhere
oceupies the coast except at Kempoch Point and Cloch Point, where
the overlying trap reaches the coast line, and is seen between high and
low water, resting upon and altering the sandstone. The great overlying
mass of trap sends out innumerable dikes intersecting the sandstone of
the coast, and running in very various directions, but with a general ten-
dency to the west and north-west. Into a general description of these,
and the changes produced by them upon the rocks which they intersect,
we cannot enter in this place. One instance only will be given, as bearing
upon the subject referred to in Art. 1., in the changes induced upon the
limestone at Innerkip. This rock appears in two places near Innerkip;
one bed extends from the bridge on the Greenock road, at the north end
of the village, up into the hill on the south-east of the village, rising
with the slope of the sandstone beds, and preserving a thickness through-
out, of about 12 feet; it has been extensively quarried behind the village,
but is now little worked. As it is extremely hard, and contains much chert
disseminated in veins and bands, the rock is capable of taking a fine
polish, and being applied to ornamental purposes;—the colour is dark grey.
Between the limestone and the sandstone above it, there is interposed a
bed of loose materials, consisting of red sand, spotted with round grey
spots, and enclosing pieces of limestone and sandstone. Hence the bed
of lime must have been exposed to considerable decomposition before the
sandstone was deposited over it. A lengthened and careful search was
not rewarded by the discovery of any fossils. It is however obviously
in the position of the cornstones of England.

Several beds separated by strata of sandstone occur on the shore at
the mouth of the river. The whole series is here traversed by dikes
of greenstone, the largest of which is about sixty feet wide, and ranges
about N.N.W.; the others are so numerous, and so ramified, as almost
to defy description. They pierce through the limestone in every direc-
tion, thin veins branching from the greater, and often again uniting,
while small portions of the limestone and sandstone are entangled in
the trap, and traverse it in disconnected veins. The changes produced
upon the limestone are of the most interesting kind; I know no
locality in the West of Scotland where the posterior origin and intru-
sivo character of the trap rocks are so clearly manifested, and I
would strongly recommend it as a point to be visited by the student
of geology. The changes which the limestone has undergone run through

ee

Mx. BryYcE on the Geological Structure of Roseneath. 125

every variety of external aspect, from the impure, dark coloured, perfectly
opaque state, to that of a pure white marble, translucent on the edges,
homogeneous throughout, and devoid of stratification, or visible lines of
cleavage. Intermediate between these extremes there are an indurated
semi-crystalline limestone, a granular saccharine marble crumbling into fine
powder under slight pressure, and phosphorescing when thrown upon a
heated surface; a very hard white or blue crystalline marble, having the
crystals in distinct plates, besides other gradations, similar to those
described in the paper on Bute already referred to, the degree of
alteration depending on the distance from the sides of the dike. The
entangled portions are among those which exhibit the greatest amount of
change. The most altered parts of the sandstone resemble quartz rock.

15. In order to determine whether any and what chemical changes
had been induced simultaneously with these alterations of mineral char-
acter, and to afford terms of comparison with the metamorphic action
upon limestones of the same age in Bute, (Art. 1,) Dr. Robert
Dundas Thomson has most kindly furnished me with analyses of several
specimens, made under his care in the laboratory of the University.
These are as follows :—

Specimen No. 1, is the unaltered limestone, as pure a specimen to the
eye as could be selected.

No. 2, is the saccharine marble, crumbling readily into powder, in the
same state as No, 1 of the Bute specimens. (Proc. Phil. Soc. Glas. vol.
III. page 20).

No. 3, is the most altered specimen in this locality, described above as
‘a pure white marble, translucent on the edges,” &c., and which turns
out to be Table spar.

No. 4, is a carefully picked specimen of the same, free from carbonate
of lime.

No. 5, is a calcareous sandstone, altered by contact, scarcely distin-
guishable from No. 2.

No. I.
By Mr. P. Kater.

NORV OIG INOIG, SF. 0,s0ees. can cod eeew aie dente 42-40
NOI ety he arcs tainvtcnp scar este berntactat@earerettnetes 54:58
PORE gates seca ctres vss +reagceedeanmtlemtomernarts te 0°70
MUO aloes cfagac'ar is seceserenctecutrsapetee crate 0°40
WEE AUDRME okocsss rove 0s czesacenfoatetmerenn tte 1:92
100-00

No I
MCOMNE AAHE v ras ssc 00r ccs aaceceeteasall apetubar ty 42:52
BOOT ah iad) sc2 0.0 aFaenagdarsareten ted ante. 54°68
Insoluble Siliceous Matter,........scseceesesencens 1:14
MACHER 5 79 0te op ho ut Fach doe PE ee ras a trace.

98°34 -

®

126 Mr. Bryce on the Geological Structure of Roseneath.

No. III.—Spee. Gray. 2°88.

By Mr. T. Carlile. By Mr. R. Kirkwood.
PIO sis cme eign ak SiQesmess 4B OO. sececicel.cs 46:64......... 49:38
Mii, cage chews Cn! eee 3 | res 46°27.......0 44:59
Protox. of iron 161
pa dusachae oy Scaonne oT ene 1-49
Water, kes. BOs. i OBO a8. AN OBO sie th 1:60
Magnesia,......... OFORE LK ORS ante ee Me 1:05
Seiad aes 2 AS OW aah Eos 94
Epes aay peat etre siaoneD ABB. .ceseee. 95
and loss,......
99°30... nash 7 100-00........100-
No. IV.
By Mr. R. Kirkwood.
1 Lie add eet 49-380 In atoms this is
oS eee ee ae 44-596 BUGS ace nace 24°89...... 1.93
Alumina and eet 1-490 TONG sexs ase ecs Ll: roo
fc ee ee And the formula is, omitting
SLE aaa a geet ean 936 the impurities—
BEA nn cs cerns a atsmn 1-050 Ca0,28i0,
I Sa aso cia san’ 1-600 or Bisilicate of Lime.
99-052
No V.
MCAT BODISUG OF LONG c65 05 <ceansaccacess-semegescuranes 31:94
Insoluble Siliceous Matter,...............sceseeees 68:06
100-00

It appears from these analyses, 1. That the cornstones of Innerkip are
carbonates of lime, and not dolomites, as are those of Bute.

2. That in this locality igneous action has converted a carbonate of ~
lime into a bisilicate. Now, as it appears from Analyses 1 and 2 that
there is but a trace of siliceous matter in the limestone, the origin of the
silica must be sought in the igneous rock; in fact, a transference of a
portion of its silica must have taken place when the basalt was in a state
of fusion. Such transfer, indeed, could readily take place under the
influence of chemical attractions, when the rocks were in a state of even
imperfect fusion. See the Paper already referred to, in Art. 1, sub finem.
On No. 4, or the Table spar, Dr. R. D. Thomson remarks :—

“Tt is an interesting fact in connection with this mineral, that it gives
a yellow colour before the blowpipe when moistened with muriatic acid ;

Mr. Macapam on the Paper Manufacture. 127

and yields crystals of common salt when treated with the same acid. It
is thus associated with Wollastonite, or soda-table spar, a mineral occur-
ring in the Bishopton tunnel, and in the Kilpatrick hills.” There is
however this difference between the two cases, that in the localities last
mentioned the mineral has no direct connection with limestone, although
caleareous spar occurs abundantly ; whereas at Innerkip, it has obviously
originated in a change induced upon common limestone.

The following communication was made :—

XVI.— Observations and Experiments on the Paper Manufacture, with
some Improvements on the usual process. By Joun Macapam,
Lecturer on Chemistry.

Tue author first gave a condensed statement of the process of paper
making, especially of those varieties used as printing papers, and which
are rosin-sized. His descriptions were illustrated by suitable diagrams,
specimens and experiments. Mr. Macadam then referred to various
applications of Chemistry to this important branch of manufacture, and
certain improvements he had effected on the customary process. The
processes and improvements detailed had reference to the paper factories
of Messrs. Alexander Duncan & Son, of the Herbertshire Mill, Denny,
and Messrs. R. & J. Couper of Cathcart; and for obvious reasons are
here referred to, in a partial and abridged form.

Under the chemical part of the subject, the soda-ash used in the
cleansing of the crude rag was first treated of. Soda-ash appears to have
been employed in paper works in a partially or totally undecarbonated
state. The alkaline solutions in use were therefore far from being econo-
mically prepared. Caustic soda ley had been found more effectual and
economical. The proportions recommended for its preparation were 121,
Ibs. of soda-ash, containing 44 to 48 per cent. of alkali, 100 lbs. of best
caustic lime, and 150 gallons of water. The proportion of water stated is
sufficient, if maintained throughout the preparing process, to prevent the
after decomposition of carbonate of lime by concentrated leys, noticed
by Liebig. The proportion of lime is higher than the theoretical quantity,
but was found in practice to yield a thoroughly caustic ley when waste
steam was the heating agent, a source of heat very generally at command.
The usual precautions adopted in laboratories, as the boiling of the ash in
water, with the addition of the lime in the state of a creamy paste, in suc-
cessive portions—the boiling of the soda solution between each addition of
lime—the supplying of the loss of water by evaporation, and the covering
up of the material when made, were enforced. Some apprehension existed,
that the soda, in its caustic condition, might act too energetically on the
rags, injuring the finer fabrics, and causing the stronger portions to
become vopy, and consequently more difficult afterwards to reduce to the
state of pulp, This was obviated by using the solutions at much lower

128 Mr. Macapam on the Paper Manufacture.

specific gravities than formerly, the rags being even then more thoroughly
cleansed. In one of the paper works, the use of the caustic ley had thus
effected a saving of 80 Ibs. of soda-ash per day, or one-fourth of the
material previously in use. As different strengths of leys are employed for
the cleansing of the different kinds of rags, it was found that the possessing
of a standard ley was advantageous. By this means a scale of measures
had been adopted for charging the boilers for each variety. - As the
obtaining of a standard ley of a uniform strength, necessitated a constancy
in the per centage of alkali in the soda-ash, the usual alkalimetry process
was introduced, for the purpose of testing the ash on its arrival at the
works. Mr. Macadam, before leaving this part of the subject, referred
to two errors, not uncommon among manufacturers requiring caustic soda.
First, The use of an aqueous solution of lime alone, obviously unaware of
the slight solubility of that substance in water, and its decarbonating
function; and Secondly, The using of the materials in the cold state, a
practice very general amongst soap boilers, and indeed in some cases pre-
ferred by them. Although the digestion, under such circumstances, be a
lengthened one, the maximum of causticity of the carbonated alkali is not
obtained.

The solvent action of caustic leys on glass instruments was also
adverted to. Chemists have long known that water exercises a very
decided solvent action upon glass, especially when containing traces of
Fluorine compounds, as has been lately shown by Dr. George Wilson, in
reference to the corrosive action of some of the Edinburgh waters on glass
instruments in use by brewers. As might be expected, alkaline solutions
act much more powerfully, especially at high temperatures. From some
observations made by Mr. Robert Clarke of the Campsie alum works and the
author, glass hydrometers have been found to give way from this solvent
action after a few months usage in hot and concentrated alkaline solutions;
while others gave erroneous indications, to the extent of three or four
degrees, because of the lightening of the instruments by the material
removed from their surfaces. Mr. Clarke has instituted experiments to
determine the rate of this solvent action, by weighing carefully a number
of instruments before and after various periods of usage. Cold alkaline
solutions act more slowly, but the action is still a marked one, and points
to the necessity of devising some means of removing this source of error,
in the determination of the strengths of leys. The coating of the instru-
ment with gutta percha dissolyed in chloroform might serve the purpose
in regard to cold liquors, since the envelope adds little to its weight, and
is transparent and unacted on by alkalies; but such an application is
obviously useless in determining the specific gravity of solutions of
elevated temperatures.

In reference to the bleaching process—bleaching powder, being variable
in quality, being liable to adulteration and other causes of inferiority, a
testing process is just as essential for a knowledge of its value, as in the
cease of alkaline compounds, for the determination of the pure alkali present

Mr. Macapam on the Paper Manufacture. 129

inthem. The process recommended was that in which the peroxidation of
the proto-sulphate of iron is made the index of strength. This process is
best suited for commercial purposes, being easy of performance and speedy
in result. It has long been a matter of difficulty with paper makers (as
well as others) to find material of which to construct vessels capable of
retaining solutions of bleaching powder for any length of time without
leakage, as also to form the necessary piping, &c. for transmitting the
liquor to the bleaching engine. This has been supplied in gutta percha.
The receiving vessels are built of wood, lined with this substance. This
application of gutta percha has been found not only in the highest degree
effective, but consequently economical, the casements having been in use
for fully twelve months, without being injured to any perceptible extent.
The boots of the workmen in this department, and the smaller vessels
employed are now manufactured from the same material. The hydro-
meter can be used with considerable accuracy in determining the
value of bleaching liquors, when the original bleaching powder has
been proved by experiment to be of good quality; but this instrument
does not indicate the presence of impurity, and consequently the
proportion of available chlorine. This is especially true in determining
the value of partially exhausted liquors, or those which have been
already in use. The hydrometer in this department was therefore
superseded by the very satisfactory process of Mr. Walter Crum, as
detailed in the printed proceedings of this Society. This process depends
for its use upon the red colour of the per-acetate of iron, produced when
solutions containing chlorine are brought in contact with the proto-acetate
of iron; the depth of tint depending solely on the amount of available
chlorine in the solution tested, irrespective of any generally occurring
impurities which may be present. As the waste bleaching solutions from
the pulp are collected, and form the basis of the contents of the bleaching
engine, much foreign matters are unavoidably present in them; in short,
the products of their previous bleaching action. The hydrometer cannot
therefore be used as a test for the value of such partially spent liquors ;
thus, on testing a previously used solution of bleach, whose specific gravity
was 12 by Twaddell’s hydrometer, this liquor gave a lighter tint, with the
stipulated proportion of “Crum’s proof solution,” than a fresh unused
liquor at + T. yielded. Another advantage attending the introduction of
this testing process, was the capability of having a liquor of constant
value in the cistern appropriated for the reception of the waste bleaching
solutions, -as well as a standard for fresh or unused ones. Moreover, as
the varieties of pulp obtained from dissimilar kinds of rags require bleach
of different strengths, the charging of the engine for each variety was
effected with the greatest regularity, by this constancy in the value of
the partially spent solutions, since the larger or smaller proportion of the
standard fresh liquid was easily added to the contents of the engine,
according to a scale of measures for each variety of rag. Phials indicating

the tints produced by the whole mass of bleaching liquor, suited for each
Vou. LI.—No. 2. 5

130 Mr. Macapam on the Paper Manufacture.

kind of pulp, were also prepared and at hand, to serve as a check upon
the contents of the engine, when charged according to the fixed scale of
measures.

Mr. Macadam further referred to the late introduction of Antichlore,
or sulphite of soda, for the purpose of removing any remaining traces of

chlorine from the pulp, after being washed with water in the engine, ,

subsequent to the bleaching process. The chemical action of this useful
de-chloridising agent, under such circumstances, may be thus repre-
sented—

NaO SO., + Cl + HO,=NaO SO; + HCl.

In reference to rosin-sizing,—The proportions which had been found
most suitable for the preparation of rosin-size were 42 Ibs. of crystallized
carbonate of soda, 80 Ibs. of rosin, and 60 gallons of water. The materials
are heated in a water, in preference to a steam bath, and when dissolved
are further diluted with 120 gallons of hot water. The solution thus
obtained has a specific gravity of 1.014, and is strongly alkaline to test
papers. Though slightly milky to appearance, the liquid is completely
filterable through bibulous or unsized paper, indicative of the total solution
of the rosin present. This dissolved state of the rosin was further corro-
borated by there being no deposition of solid matter on the exposure of the
filtered liquid. The size was, moreover, not decomposed, or its dissolved
condition disturbed by extensive dilution with water, as might be anticipated
from its haying the constitution of a soluble soap. The size so prepared
was extremely susceptible of decomposition on the addition of very dilute
acids or solution of acid salts, as alum, and was completely clarified when
treated with very dilute alkalies. These reactions showed that the size
was in the best condition for its intended use, viz. for the precipitation of
the rosin, on being brought in contact with alum in a very diluted form
in the engine, so as to size the pulp. Though this decomposition of the
size and precipitation of rosin, on the addition of alum, is ultimately
necessary for the sizing process, still, it is an important point for considera-
tion, which should precede the other, the alum or the size? or, under
what circumstances the deposition of the solid matter would prove most
advantageous and effective for the sizing of the paper? This, in reference
to rosin-size, where no antiseptic influence is necessary, seems to have
been an open, and, apparently, an indifferent question. Dr, Ure and
others describe them as being mixed together before adding either to the
sizing engine. Many manufacturers, as the Herbertshire Mill Company,
placed the rosin-size in the engine first, and subsequently the alum; a
system quite right in principle if the size were of animal origin, and
required the presence of excess of an antiseptic agent, as alum, to prevent
any after decomposition. Veiwing, as the author did, the alum, when
acting in rosin-sizing, as similar to a mordant in dyeing with adjective
colouring matters, it was presumed that the alum should precede the size,
This opinion was confirmed by the results of two experiments, viz. :—

Mr. Macapam on the Paper Manufacture. 131

Haperiment I.—When a portion of bibulous or unsized paper, was folded
as a filter, and soaked with the alum as used in sizing, and then the
filter, in its wetted condition, filled with size solution as used, the
passage of the latter through the filter was not permitted for many
hours, and after that, it passed but in a very partial manner.

Experiment II.—This was conducted as before, only the bibulous paper
was soaked with size as used, and the filter so treated filled with
solution of alum as used in sizing. The paper, in this experiment,
permitted the passage of the alum solution with considerable freedom,
the filter being emptied in less than one hour, showing an increased
permeability over the previous case.

These results indicated the order in which the ingredients should be
employed, that the alum should precede the size, as the paper pulp, after
being saturated with the alum, decomposes the size subsequently brought
in contact with it, the solid rosin being deposited within the pores of the
fibres, or in close proximity to them. The introduction of the alum first
into the engine, was made trial of at the Herbertshire Paper Mill in the
beginning of May, last year, half an-hour being allowed before adding the
size, and the result was in the highest degree satisfactory. Specimens of
paper, sized by both processes, and shown the Society, exhibited a manifest
superiority in the manufactured article. As this modification of the
customary process has had twelve months’ trial, at the rate of 4000 lbs.
weight of paper daily, its regularity has been sufficiently tested.

In conelusion, as the alum, so far as rosin-sizing is concerned, is only
useful in decomposing the alkaline solution of rosin, it appeared to Mr.
Macadam that a more economical agent might be employed, which, while
it combined equal safety to the pulp, would prevent the passage of salts
of potash into the paper. From the results of a few experiments, acetate
of alumina appeared to be a suitable substance, especially as the acetate
of soda, which would be formed on the decomposition of the size, is an
efforescent salt under ordinary circumstances, and would have little or no
tendency to cause subsequent dampness in the paper. Besides, any, slight
excess of acetate of alumina remaining in the pulp would, in most part, be
decomposed, with precipitation of alumina, by the temperature of the heated
cylinders attached to the machine, and over which the paper passes when
being deprived of moisture. The red liquor of commerce offered itself as
a cheap and abundant source of this compound ; but, on examination, it was
found incapable of serving the intended purpose, from its containing very
considerable quantites of oxide of iron and tarry matter. These tinged
the size, bestowing upon it a very decided and objectionable colour, while
the latter, gave it besides, an unpleasant and persistent odour. The author
had some hopes that the sulphate of alumina of the alum works, just before
its conversion into alum, might be found of sufficient purity to warrant
the preparation of an acetate from it, by the addition of acetate of lead.
Several gallons of this liquor were therefore obtained from the Campsie

*

132 Botanical Report.

works. The liquor was a very concentrated one, having a specific gravity
of 1.342, and was certified as being as free from salts of iron as was obtain-
able, having been evaporated to a greater degree of concentration than
usual, so as to remove all the copperas possible. The thorough separation
of the salt of iron is, however, a difficultly obtainable result, since the two
sulphates occasionally combine and form a double salt. On analysis it was
found still heavily charged with protoxide of iron, containing fully six
ounces of the anhydrous protosulphate in each imperial gallon. The
inevitable peroxidation of this quantity would no doubt have discoloured
the paper. On concentrating the solution to a slightly greater extent
than received, in the endeavour to deposit a further portion of the iron
salt, the whole liquor solidified on cooling, so that this anticipated source
of alumina had to be set aside.

For the purpose of making trial of acetate of alumina as a substitute |

for alum, in the rosin-sizing process, without regard to economy, a quantity
of the acetate was prepared from pure acetate of lead and alum. The
proportions required for the perfect decomposition of these two compounds
were found by experiment to be, 500 of the lead salt, to 315 of alum, or,
stated in more practical proportions, 5 lbs. of the former to 3 Ibs. 2 oz. of
the latter, 8 gallons of water being employed, and the addition of 2 oz. of
crystallised carbonate of soda to the materials after their mutual decom-
position. These proportions are somewhat different from those generally
adopted by calico printers and others, in the preparation of acetate of alumina
from this source. The result of the application of the acetate of alumina
so prepared, was a paper more thoroughly sized, and consequently heavier
sized, than by any process previously in use, and the paper answered the
purposes of the printer equally well. It, however, softened slightly in
moist states of the atmosphere, owing to the presence of the deliquescent
acetate of potash, from the use of alum in the preparation of the acetate.
The influence of the weather on the paper so sized, was less than on a
quantity prepared by using “concentrated or patent alum,” a substance
now being experimented with at some paper manufactories, as at Dickin-
son’sin London. This patent alum, on analysis, was found to be principally
composed of sulphate of alumina with a small proportion of soda salts.
From the results of the experiments with the acetate of alumina, its use
in the sizing prosess would, Mr. Macadam anticipates, be found worthy
of the attention of paper manufacturers, were an economical and pure
source of alumina at command.

The following report was read :—

19th December, 1849.—Botanical Report.

At a meeting of the Botanical Section on the 11th instant, Dr. Walker
Arnott made some observations on two American trees, exhibiting an
anomalous mode of growth. Mr. Keddie reported that the Botanical
Section had elected the same office-bearers as last year.

Botanical Report. 133

Dr. Walker Arnott made some observations on the supposed occurrence
of Achillea tormentosa, near Belvie in Dunbartonshire, and on the hills
near Paisley, as mentioned by Hopkirk.- The probability is, that the
plants found at these stations were specimens of Achillzea millefolium in
a young state. The plant was also reported in Mr. Babington’s manual,
as found in Banffshire. Dr. Arnott had carefully investigated into this
statement, and ascertained that there was every reason to believe that the
plant had been introduced at a former period from the south of Europe,
and that the specimen seen by Mr. Babington had sprung from a root
dug up in the progress of some alterations in a garden where it had
originally been cultivated. Dr. Arnott added, that, about twenty years
ago, this was a common plant in gardens and nurseries. Mr. Leeshing
stated that this plant was a favourite of the common people in Germany,
who cultivated it for medicinal purposes. Dr. George Macleod exhibited
specimens of Smilax officinalis, S. sarsae, and other species of Sarsa-
parilla, in a state better fitted for botanical examination than is usual
with the specimens imported for commercial purposes,

ERRATUM.

Page 77, 7th line from bottom, for ‘‘ The following paper was agreed to,” read “ The
following paper was read.”

GLASGOW:
PRINTED BY BELL AND BAIN, 87. ENOCH SQUARK,

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FORTY-NINTH SESSION.

6th November, 1850.—The Preswwent in the Chair.

Tae Forty-ninth Session of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow was
opened this evening. :

Mr. Gourlie, on the part of the deputation nominated at last meeting
to represent the Society at the British Association, reported that the
appointment had been fulfilled.

Mr. Gourlie presented the following donations to the Library, viz. :—
From Dr. Hugh IF. Cleghorn, of the Hon. Hast India Company’s Service,
- paper “On the Hedge Plants of India.” Thanks voted. From William
John Macquorn Rankine, Esq., civil engineer, “On an Equation between
the Temperature and the Maximum Elasticity of Steam and other Vapours.”’
“‘ Account of the effect of a Storm on Sea-walls or Bulwarks on the coast
near Edinburgh.” “On the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices, and its
Application to the Mechanical Theory of Heat.”’ ‘‘ Experimental Inquiry
into the Advantages attending the Use of Cylindrical Wheels on Rail-
ways.” “On a Formula for Calculating the Expansion of Liquids by
Heat.” ‘On the Mechanical Action of Heat, especially on Gases and
Vapours.”—Thanks voted.

The following paper was read :—

XVII. Biographical Account of Dr. Wollaston. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D.

Wittram Hype Wottaston, one of the most eminent chemists that
Britain has produced, was born on 6th of August, 1766. He belonged
to a Staffordshire family, distinguished for several centuries for their suc-
cessful cultivation of science. The well known work, entitled “ The
religion of nature delineated,” was the production of his great-grandfather.
His father, the Rey, Francis Wollaston, of Chapelhurst in Kent, was an
astronomer. He made an extensive catalogue of the northern circum-
polar stars. He was the author of ten papers, chiefly astronomical, which
appeared in the Philosophical Transactions between 1769 and 1796.

Vol. ITI.—No. 3. 1

186 Biographical Account of Dr. WouLaston, by Dx. THoMAs THoMsoN.

Dr. Wollaston was one of seventeen children, all of whom lived to the
age of manhood. His mother was Althea Hyde, of Charterhouse Square,
London. He was born at East Dereham, a village about sixteen miles
from Norwich. After the usual preparatory education he went to Cam-
bridge, and entered at Caius College, where he made great progress. He
did not graduate in arts, but took the degree of M.B. in 1787, when he
was twenty-one years of age. In 1793 he took the degree of M.D.,
being of the age of twenty-seven. At Cambridge he resided till 1789,
devoting himself chiefly to astronomy—a taste which he probably imbibed
from his father. He was chosen a fellow of Caius College soon after
taking his degree, and this fellowship he retained till his death.

After acquiring the requisite preliminary knowledge, he settled at
Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk, as a physician. But his success as a
practitioner was so bad, that he soon after left that place and went to
London. Soon after, a vacancy occurred in St. George’s Hospital, and
Dr. Wollaston and Dr. Pemberton started as candidates for the office of
physician. Dr. Wollaston was particularly ill qualified for canvassing,
and almost, as a matter of course, was unsuccessful. This want of suc-
cess he took so much to heart, that he renounced the practice of medicine,
and declared to his friends that he would never write another prescrip-
tion. Indeed, he never liked the profession; nor was it well suited to
his peculiar turn of mind. He turned his attention to science, and haying
discovered a method of welding the grains of platinum into metallic bars,
became a manufacturer of this metal on an extensive scale, and gradually
acquired a handsome fortune.

He has been accused of avarice, but apparently ae reason. His
brother wrote him to request him to apply to the ministry of the time
being, for some situation (probably in the church) on which he had set
his heart. Dr. Wollaston replied that he had never applied for any thing
for himself, and could not think, therefore, of applying for another. But,
continued Dr. Wollaston, if the enclosed bill be of any service to you, you
are perfectly welcome to it. This enclosure was a bank bill for £10,000.

He was elected a member of the Royal Society in the year 1793, and
soon became one of the most active and distinguished members of that
scientific body. He and Davy became the two secretaries; and Dr.
Wollaston contributed no fewer than thirty-nine papers, which were pub-
lished in succession in the Philosophical Transactions; fourteen of these
were upon chemical subjects, ten on subjects connected with optics, the
remaining fifteen on miscellaneous subjects.

Dr. Wollaston enjoyed uninterrupted health for many years; but
about two years before his death, which happened on the 22d of Decem-
ber, 1828, at the age of sixty-two, he was afllicted with a disease of
the brain. After death, it appeared that the portion of the brain from
which the optie nerve arises was occupied by a large tumor. In spite of
this extensive cerebral disease, Dr. Wollaston’s faculties remained un-
clouded to the last. His powers of vision were exceedingly perfect. I

e
Biographical Account of Dr, WouLAston, by Dr. Tuomas THOMSON. 137

have seen him write on paper and upon glass in so sinmall a hand, that it
seemed to be merely a single line drawn across; but when examined by a
microscope it assumed the form of regular letters, distinctly visible and
easily read. This power he retained to the last. When he was nearly
in his last agonies, one of his friends having observed, loud enough for
him to hear, that he was not at that time conscious of what was passing
around him, he made a sign for a pencil and paper, which were given
him. He wrote down some figures, and after casting up the sum returned
them. The account was right.

In the June before his death he was proposed as a member of the
Astronomical Society of London; but according to the rules of that
Society he could not have been clected before the last meeting for the
year. When the Society met in November, 1828, the alarming situation
of his health, and the great probability of his dissolution previous to the
December meeting, induced the council at once to recommend to the
assembled members a departure from the established rule, and that the
election should take place at that sitting. This was done, and received
the unanimous sanction of the mecting, which insisted on dispensing with
even the formality of a ballot. Dr. Wollaston then, within a few days of
his death, acknowledged this feeling and courteous act by presenting the
Society with a valuable telescope which he greatly prized. It originally
belonged to his father, and had been subsequently improved by the appli-
cation to it of an invention of his own, the triple achromatic object glasg
—a device on which astronomers set great value.

At the death of Sir Joseph Banks, Dr. Wollaston was chosen as
interim president from the time of that death, to the 30th November of
the same year, which was the usual time for the election of the president.
Not a few of the members were anxious that he should have succeeded
Sir Joseph Banks as president, but he peremptorily refused to allow him-
self to be put on the list of candidates. The consequence was, that Sir
Humphrey Davy was chosen to fill that important office without opposi-

tion.

Towards the latter part of 1828, Dr. Wollaston became dangerously

‘ill of the disease of the brain of which he died, Finding himself unable

to write out an account of such of his discoveries and inventions as he
was reluctant should perish with him, he spent his numbered hours in
dictating to an amanuensis an account of some of the most important of
them.

The chief of these is indisputably his method of rendering platinum
malleable, which he had practised for many years upon so large a scale,

_ that he is said to have cleared thirty thousand pounds by that process

alone. He had ascertained the fact that platinum, like iron, is capable
of being welded. Hence he inferred that it might be converted into a
metallic rod or plate, susceptible, by skilful hammering, of being converted
to vessels of any shape or size required. As it is capable of resisting the
greatest heat of our furnaces, and is not acted upon by the reagents

138 Biographical Account of Dr. WOLLASTON, by Dr. THomas THOMSON.

employed in chemical experiments and analysis, its immense importance
in chemical researches became at once obvious.

But native platinum is a compound or mixture of eight different metals.
It was necessary to get rid of these foreign bodies before converting pla-
tinum into bars. He dissolved crude platinum in nitro-muriatic acid,
filtered, and precipitated the platinum by sal-ammoniac. The yellow pre-
cipitate was carefully washed, and heated very cautiously in a black lead
crucible to drive off the sal-ammoniac. The grey residue is platinum.
It is rubbed to powder by the hand, and then triturated by a wooden
pestle in a wooden mortar, care being taken to do nothing that would
polish the edges of the platinum powder, because that would prevent the
welding process from taking place. The powder is now put into a brass
mould, filled with water, taking care that no vacuities are left. The top
of the powder is covered first with paper and then with cloth, and it is then
compressed with the force of the hand by a wooden plug. After this a
circular plate of copper is placed on the top, and it is exposed to a very
violent pressure in a horizontal press. It is then put into a charcoal fire
and heated to redness, to drive off the water.

The ingot of platinum thus formed is placed upon an earthen stand,
about 23 inches above the grate of a wind furnace. The ingot is placed
on its end, and is exposed for twenty minutes to the highest temperature
that can be raised in the furnace. It is now placed on an anvil, and
struck while hot on the top with a heavy hammer, so as at one heating
effectually to close the metal. It must never be struck on the sides,
which would cause it to crack. By this hammering it is brought into the
state of a perfect ingot fit for all purposes.

During Dr. Wollaston’s experiments on crude platinum, he discovered
a new metal, to which he gave the name of palladium, or new silver. In
the year 1803 he drew up a statement of the most remarkable and char-
acteristic properties of palladium. This statement, together with some ~
specimens of the metal, was exhibited in the windows of some shops in
London, without the least hint of who the discoverer was, or from what
source the metal was obtained. This yery uncommon mode of exhibiting
a chemical discovery, naturally led Mr. Chenevix to suspect that the pre-
tended new metal was nothing else than an artificial compound of some
metals previously known. He purchased, accordingly, all the specimens
of palladium exhibited in London for sale; and after an elaborate and
laborious course of experiments, drew up a paper on the subject, in which
he showed that it was an amalgam of platinum, or a compound of mer-
eury and platinum. This paper was read at a meeting of the Royal
Society, and unless I am mistaken, Dr. Wollaston himself was the person
that read it to the Society.

Chenevix’s paper was not only read to the Royal Society, but published
in their transactions for 1803, without any information afforded that the
metal called palladium had been discovered and examined by Dr. Wol-
laston. On taxing Dr. Wollaston with cruel and unhandsome conduct

Biographical Account of Dr. WoLLaston, by Dr. Tuomas THomson. 1389

for not intrusting the secret to Mr. Chenevix, he assured me that he had
done all in his power to convince Chenevix that he was mistaken—that
he had written him, assuring him that he himself had repeated Mr. Chene-
vix'’s experiments and found them inaccurate, and that he himself was
satisfied, from careful examination, that palladium was a distinct metal.
I haye no doubt that Wollaston’s statement is correct, but think that he
ought not to have allowed Mr. Chenevix to publish his paper, without
betraying the secret of the discovery of palladium, and the reasons which
induced him to believe that palladium was a peculiar metal. Chenevix
had been occupied at the rate of fourteen hours a day for nearly a quarter
of a year. It is not surprising that he was not likely to yield to a set of
experiments differing from his own. But the effect of Dr. Wollaston’s
conduct was to destroy the chemical reputation of Chenevix, and put an
end to the chemical career of one of the most active and laborious che-
mists of his time.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1804, Dr. Wollaston published
an account of the properties of palladium, and pointed out the mistake
into which Chenevix had fallen. In the same paper he described the
properties of another new metal which he had found in crude platinum,
and to which he gave the name of rhodium.

It will be worth while to take a short review of Dr. Wollaston’s che-
mical papers, published in the Philosophical Transactions, that we may
see the discoveries for which chemistry is indebted to him.

1. The earliest of these discoveries, though the last given to the che-
mical world, was the method of rendering platinum malleable and ductile.
It furnished practical chemists with a most important utensil, to which
chemistry is indebted for the great degree of perfection to which chemical
analysis of minerals has reached. Every body now can analyse a mineral
with tolerable accuracy; but before Dr. Wollaston supplied a platinum
crucible, the analysis of the simplest mineral was a work attended with
great labour, and a great waste of time.

All the great improvements in chemistry were preceded by the dis-
covery of certain utensils, which, when applied to chemistry, developed a
new series of important facts. The pneumatic apparatus contrived by
Oayendish and Priestley, led to the discovery and examination of numer-
ous elastic fluids which had hitherto escaped the attention of chemists.
Dr. Wollaston’s platinum crucibles speedily brought the art of analysing
minerals to a state of perfection. The discovery of the galvanic battery,
and the decomposing power of electricity, led Davy to the discovery of
the constitution of the fixed alkalies, alkaline earths and earths proper,
which had previously been considered as simple substances. The simpli-
fication and perfection by Liebig of the apparatus contrived by Gay Lussac
and Thenard for the analysis of vegetable bodies, led immediately to the
examination of an immense number of substances of vegetable origin, and
the discovery of numerous interesting and important bodies which had
hitherto escaped the attention of chemists.

7

2. It is well known to every individual who takes any interest in che-
mical investigations, that what is called Dalton’s atomic theory was made
known to the public about the year 1804. According to that theory
every simple substance is an atom having a determinate weight. Bodies
combine either atom to atom, or an atom of one with a certain number of
atoms of another. At that time chemists were in possession of hardly
any accurate analysis of salts or of chemical compounds in general. Mr.
Dalton founded his theory on the analysis of two gases, namely, protoxide
and deutoxide of azote; the first consisting of a certain quantity of azote
united with a determined weight of oxygen, the second of the same quan-
tity of azote united to twice as much oxygen. The first of these he con-
sidered as a compound of one atom of azote with one atom of oxygen, and _
the second of one atom of azote united with two atoms of oxygen.

In the year 1808 I supplied Mr. Dalton with two instances of similar
combination, namely :—

140 Biographical Account of Dr. WoLLAston, by DR. ToomAs THoMson.

1, Oxalate of potash.
Binoxalate of potash.

2. Oxalate of strontian,
Binoxalate of strontian.

After the perusal of my paper on oxalic acid, Dr. Wollaston read a paper
to the Royal Society on super-acid and sub-acid salts, which was published
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1808. In this paper he gives six
examples of similar combinations, namely :—

1, Carbonate of potash.
Bicarbonate of potash. 4. Oxalate of potash..

2. Carbonate of soda. Binoxalate of potash.
Bicarbonate of soda. Quadroxalate of potash.

3. Sulphate of potash.

Bisulphate of potash.

3. About the beginning of the present century, Mr. Hatchett dis-
covered a new metal in a mineral from America, a specimen of which was
in the British Museum. To this new metal he gave the name of colum-
bium. Soon after Mr. Hatchett’s discovery, a metallic substance was
detected in Sweden by Mr Ekeberg, differing from every other with
which he was acquainted. This new metal he distinguished by the name
of tantalum. The discovery of Hatchett was made known to the public
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1802, and that of Ekeberg in the
memoirs of the Swedish Academy of Sciences for 1802.

In the year 1809 Dr. Wollaston procured specimens of the Swedish
mineral containing tantalum, and of the mineral in the British Museum
containing columbium, extracted a little of the oxide of tantalum from
the one, and of the oxide of columbium from the other, and by a very
ingenious comparison of the two, demonstrated that both oxides are
identical, and that columbium and tantalum constitute one and the same
metal. These results were published by Wollaston in 1809 in the Philo-
sophical Transactions, and exhibit a very satisfactory display of his

Biographical Account of Dr. WouLAsron, by Dx. THoMAS THomson. 141

mode of experimenting on a minute scale, and of the sagacity which
enabled him to draw the proper conclusions from very simple premises.

4, Dr. Wollaston’s discovery regarding titanium, ought not to be passed
over in silence. Titanium is the name given by Klaproth to a new metal
discovered by Mr. Gregor in the valley of Menachan in Cornwall, and
called on that account menachine. Mr. Gregor published an account of
his discovery in 1791. In the year 1795 Klaproth discovered a new
metal in a mineral at that time distinguished by the name of red schorl,
to which he gave the name of titantwm. And in 1797 he made a com-
parative set of experiments on the menachine of Gregor and his own
titanium, by which he established the identity of these two metals with
each other. All attempts to reduce the oxide of titanium to the metallic
state failed, if we except the small quantity of metallic titanium ex-
tracted by Vauquelin and Hecht in 1796, and the subsequent method
of reducing the oxide to the metallic state contrived by Liebig in 1831,
and deduced by him from Henry Rose’s experiments on ammonio-chloride
of titanium.

Red cubes having the metallic lustre, are occasionally discovered in
the slag of the hearths of the great iron smelting houses,’so abundant in
this neighbourhood and in Wales. These cubes were examined by Dr.
Wollaston in 1822, and shown to possess the characters of titanium in
the metallic state. He found the cubes to consist of ‘metallic titanium
of the sp. gravity 5-3, and to be hard enough to scratch rock crystal.

Such was the state of our knowledge of these cubes of metallic tita-
nium, as was supposed, when Wobler published an elaborate set of experi-
ments on them in the year 1850. He showed that they always contained
graphite mechanically mixed. By’a very ingenious but complicated set
of experiments, Wohler showed that the metallic cubes of supposed tita-
nium were, in fact, composed of titanium, azote, and carbon, in the pro-
portions—

Patatibasts, 77.8 een ee 78.00
PAT OEGH HES tI, Maceo one Sites els Botan 18-11
Carbon, ....... Ee tesncapeds sedges Warnes jefe... BSD

The carbon was combined with azote, constituting cyanogen, while the
remainder of the azote was united with the titanium, constituting an
azotide, The crystals, according to these experiments, are composed of —

Cyanide of titanium,,...........0+..sesensseres 16:21
ZOGO Gh TGADITIN" . na. sos ceceemain counts 83°79
or, 100-00

1 Atom cyanide of titanium.
3 Atoms azotide of titanium.

In the year 1823 when Dr. Wollaston’s paper was published, the
science of chemistry was not far enough advanced to enable him to make
a complete and satisfactory analysis of this very remarkable compound.

142 Biographical Account of Dr. WoLLAston, by Dr. THomAs THoMson.

5. The next paper of Dr. Wollaston which I shall notice, was inserted
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1814, and was entitled a Synopti-
cal Table of Chemical Equivalents. It had been observed by Richter,
that when solutions of two neutral salts which decompose each other are
mixed, the new salts formed are always equally neutral. Thus, if 9 parts
of sulphate of soda be mixed with 16°25 parts of nitrate of barytes, the
two neutral salts will be converted into 10:5 parts of nitrate of soda and
14-5 of sulphate of barytes, the sulphate of barytes will precipitate, and
the nitrate of soda will remain in solution. Richter found this law to
hold in all the cases tried, and thence inferred that the ratios of satura-_
tion of acids and bases, were always the same. Thus, 4 by weight of
soda will just saturate 5 of sulphuric acid, 6°75 of nitric acid, 7-25 of
arsenie acid, 45 phosphoric acid. Dr. Wollaston explained this remark-
able property by means of the atomic theory of Dalton. Acids and
bases unite atom to atom, or one atom of the one with 1 or 2 or more
atoms of: the other. He showed, by a most laborious investigation, that
the same law holds in all chemical combinations. Metals combined with
one two or more atoms of oxygen to form oxides, with two or more atoms
of sulphur to form sulphurets. Every body has a peculiar atomic weight.
This he determined in a very considerable number; drew up a table of
atomic weights referred to oxygen as unity, and transferring them to a
sliding scale, enabled the practical chemist to see at once the weight of
any body necessary to saturate an atom of any other. These scales were
exposed to sale, and at one time were very common in laboratories. But
the vast number of names upon the scale, made it difficult to discover the
name wanted, and on that account they have gradually gone out of use.

6. In the year 1813 a paper by Dr. Wollaston was published in the
Philosophical Transactions, giving an account of a very ingenious mode
of showing the cold induced in water by evaporation. ‘To the apparatus
used he gave the name of cryophorus. It consisted of a glass tube
about 4 of an inch in diameter, terminating at each extremity: in a glass
ball about one inch in diameter. This tube was bent at a right angle
about half an inch from each ball. One of these balls should contain a
little water. This water is boiled till all the air is driven out of the balls
and tube. The tube is now hermetically sealed and allowed to cool.
The water is then collected in one ball, while the other at the distance
of the tube, is plunged into a freezing mixture. By this contrivance the
vapour as it rises from the water is condensed, and thus the evaporation _
from the water is continued unabated. The cold generated by this
evaporation is so great, that in a few minutes the water in the remote
bulb is converted into ice.

7. There is still a paper of Dr. Wollaston’s to be noticed. I mean his
examination of urinary calculi. It was published in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1797, and was indeed the first of his publications. One
species of urinary calculi had been examined by Scheele, who showed
that it was composed of a peculiar acid substance which exists in urine,

7

Biographical Account of Dr. WotiAston, by Dr. THomAs THomson, 143

on which account it got the name of wric acid calculus. Dr. Wollaston
analysed 4 new species of calculus, and determined the composition.
These were :— .

1. Fusible calculus. This calculus before the blow-pipe fused into an
opaque white glass. It is a mixture of phosphate of lime, and ammonia-
phosphate of magnesia. 2. Mulberry calculus.—So called by surgeons —
because it has a brown uneven surface, having some resemblance to a
mulberry. It consists essentially of oxalate of lime. 3. Bone earth cal-
culus. It has a brown colour and a smooth surface. It consists essen-
tially of phosphate of lime, and differs from bone earth by containing no
carbonate of lime. 4. In 1810 Dr. Wollaston discovered a new calculus,
to which he gave the name of cystic oxide calculus. 5. Gouty conere-
tions, composed of urate of soda,

8. Such is a meagre catalogue of Dr. Wollaston’s chemical papers pub-
lished in the Philosophical Transactions ; there is still another notice by
him which deserves to be stated.

Dr. Marcet, at the time of his death, was occupied with a set of experi-
ments to determine the quantity of salt in the Mediterranean sea, and with
endeavouring to account for the constant influx of the Atlantic ocean by the
straits of Gibraltar, without any sensible increase of the specific gravity.
He had applied to Captain William Henry Smyth, who was engaged in
surveying part of that sea, to supply him with water at great depths from
that sea. Dr. Marcet dying before he received the water expected, Cap-
tain Smyth gave to Dr. Wollaston three bottles from the bottom of the
sea, and at different distances from the Straits of Gibraltar. The first
two specimens were taken from 680 miles, and 450 miles from the Straits,
at the depths of 450 and 400 fathoms, contained water of the usual
specific gravity, namely, 1-0294 and 1.0295. But the third, taken 50
miles from the strait, and at a depth of 670 fathoms, had a specific gravity
of 1:1288. The first two contained 4 per cent. of salt, the last 17-3 per
cent, It is clear from this, that an under current outward, if of equal
breadth and depth with the current inward at the surface, would carry
as much salt below as is brought in above, although it moved with } part
of velocity, and would thus prevent any increase of salt in the Mediter-
ranean beyond what exists in the Atlantic.

The remaining papers by Wollaston in the Philosophical Transactions,
amount to 25. They are on various subjects, all ingenious, and each
_ containing a new fact.

Dr. Wollaston’s Papers in Philosophical Transactions.

1. On Gouty and Urinary Concretions, vol. 87, p. 386, 1797.

2. On Double Images by Atmospherical Refraction, vol. 87, p. 239,
1800.

3. Experiments on’ the Chemical Production and Agency of Electri-
city, vol. 87, p. 427, 1801.

144 Biographical Account of Dr. Woxaston, by Dr. THOMAS THOMSON.

4. A Method of Examining Refractive and Dispersive Power by Pris-
matic Reflection, p. 365, 1802.
5. On Oblique Refraction of Iceland Crystal, p. 381, 1802.
6. Quantity of Horizontal Refraction, &c., p. 1, 1803.
7. On a New Metal (palladium) in Platina, p. 419, 1804.
8. On the Discovery of Palladium, p. 316, 1805.
9. On the Force of Percussion, p. 13, 1806.
10. On Fairy Rings, p. 133, 1807.
11. On Superacid and Subacid Salts, p. 96, 1808.
12. On Platina and Native Palladium from Brazil, p. 189, 1809.
13. Identity of Columbium and Tantalum, p. 246, 1809.
14. Description of a Reflective Goniometer, p. 253, 1809.
15. On the Duration of Muscular Action, p. 2, 1810.
16. On Cystic Oxide, p. 223, 1810.
17. On the Non-existence of Sugar in the Blood of persons labouring
under Diabetes Mellitus, p. 96, 1811.
18. Crystals of Carbonate of Lime, Bitter Spar and Iron Spar, p.
159, 1812.
19. On a Periscopic Camera Obscura, &e., p. 870, 1812.
20. On the Elementary Particles of certain Crystals, p. 51, 1813.
21. Method of Freezing at a Distance, p. 71, 1813.
22, Drawing very fine Wires, p. 114, 1813.
23, Single Lens Micrometer, p. 119, 1813.
| 24, Synoptic Scale of Chemical Equivalents, p. 1, 1814.
25. On Cutting Diamonds, p. 265, 1816.
26. On Native Iron in Brazil, p. 281, 1816.
27. Cutting Rock Crystal for Micrometers, p. 126, 1820.
28. Sounds Inaudible to certain Ears, p. 306, 1820.
29. Concentric Adjustment of Triple Object Glass, p. 82, 1822.
30. On the Finite Extent of the Atmosphere, p. 89, 1822.
31. On Metallic Titanium, p. 17, 1823.
32. Magnetism of Metallic Titanium, p. 400, 182s.
33, On the Semidecussation of the Optic Nerves, p. 222, 1824.
34, Apparent direction of the Eye in a Portrait, p. 247, 1824.
35. Method of making Platinum Malleable, p. 1, 1829.
36. Microscopes Double, p. 9, 1829.
37. Comparing the Light of the Sun and Fixed Stars, p. 29, 1829.
38. Water in the Mediterranean, p. 29, 1829.
39. Differential Barometer, p. 133, 1829.

20th November, 1850.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Mr. Liddell gave in the following Abstract of the Treasurer's Account,
which, haying been printed in the circular calling the meeting, was held
as read, and unanimously approved of :—

:

Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

1849. Dr.
Noy. 11.—To Cash in Union and Provident
AEs Rank bs £91 1504
— Interest on do.,........cccsceceeeee tee)
1850. ————
Noy. 1. — 48 Entries of New Members,... 50 8 0
— 13 Annual Payments from Ori-
ginal Members, at 5s.,......... 3.5 0

— 246 Annual Payments at 15s.,..184 10 0
— 4 do. arrears of one year, each

A a AOC tet we ie, peer es oreo

1849. Cr.
Nov. 11.—By balance due Treasurer,.............scsseeeeeees

1850.

Noy. 1. — New Books and Binding,...............+ sss
— Printing Transactions, Circulars, &e.,........
— New Table and Repairs on Hall,.............
— Rent of Hall,........... eats sae £15 0 0
— Coffee for Evening Meeting,..... 4 7 0
—— Hire, Tistiranee,......s-.-.sc«0erse- 216 0

— Society’s Officer, Clerk, Address-
ing Circulars, and Poundage

collecting dues,.......0....s0c0- 12 2 0
— Postages, Delivering Letters, Sta-

PONCE MOssile saan deseo 80s 12 8 9
= Gas forall; &o5: sess tim O40
— Sub-Librarian’s Salary, 43

WeOKAs: ab: GS, ov. saxe seen euuinsies 12 18 0
— Dress for ditt0,....0sssesscccessss Bie 24, c6

— Subscriptionto Ray Society,lyr.. 1 1 0
— Subscription to Cavendish So-

Glety, 1 YeaT,...0.2ess090scacsrne aes ie
— Subscription to Palaeontographi-

cal Society, 2 years,........+00+ 22-0
— Donation to Clydesdale Natural

History Society,.......s000+00+. é=0.. 0
By Cash in Union Bank,............. 90 0 0
— Do. in Savings’ Bank,............ 038 4

145

£93 3 1
241 3 0
£334 6 1
£1 17 10
EL7 (19:8
40 16 0
AS OK,

47 13 9
16 0 6
E740
90 38 4
£334 6 1

146 Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

Tue Mover Exursrrion Founp.
1849.
May 15.—To balance as per deposit Receipt from the Cor-
poration of the City of Glasgow,...............£505 16 1
1850.
May 15.—To one year’s Interest on do.,........sssseeeeeeeeees . 28. Dis

Amount in the hands of the Corporation,......£529 16 9

Guascow, 14th November, 1850.—We have this day examined the Treasurer’s Accounts,
and compared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there is in the Union Bank of
Scotland the sum of Ninety Pounds, and in the Savings’ Bank Three Shillings and Four-
pence, making a balance of £90 3s. 4d. in favour of the Society. The Treasurer has also
exhibited to us a Voucher for £529 16s. 9d. which he holds for money lent to the City of
Glasgow, from the proceeds of the Exhibition in the year 1846, with interest to 15th May

last.
RICHARD S. CUNLIFF.

WILLIAM COCKEY.

Report by the Treasurer, 6th November, 1850—The expenditure has exceeded the
income of the Society this year to a small amount, notwithstanding the great increase of
revenue from new members; their number admitted during last Session being nearly
double that of any former year. The increase of expenditure this year has been entirely
in the Library department. The balance in Bank of £90 3s. 4d. is under liabilities to
booksellers and others to nearly £50. The number of Members on the Rell at com-
mencement of Session was 231; new Members admitted, 48; making in all 279. Of
these there have resigned by letter, 3; dead, 4; struck off list for arrear of dues, 8;
removed from the ordinary to the non-resident list, 4; and removed to list of Honorary
Members, 1; making in all 20—which leaves 259 in all on the list of Ordinary Members
at this date. The Treasurer has to report that but few of the Members who remove
their residence from Glasgow give intimation of their having done so, or express any
wish that their name may be retained on the non-resident list. As he believes that in
many instances this arises from oversight, he will now quote what was stated in his
Report of last year:—“ Had the Members who have removed their residence from Glas-
gow expressed a desire conform to Law XI., that their names should be retained on the
list of Non-Resident Members, their privilege would have thereby been reserved of
‘ resuming their position as Resident Members whenever they return to Glasgow, upon pay-
ment of the current year’s subscription.’ By neglect of giving this intimation, the name is
retained on the general roll, and dues exacted till the expiry of two years, at which period,
if not paid, the name is then expunged from the list, and canuot be restored without a
new election, and one guinea of entry-money paid.’ All dues exigible must be paid up
to the period of giving such intimation, before the name can be placed on the non-resident
list.

In compliance with Law VL, the Treasurer now reports that the only property possessed
by the Society is the Cash in Bank, as per Account current now presented; the Books
in the Library, and Book Presses, as per Librarian’s Catalogue ; Portrait of President, in
Gilt Frame; Marble Bust of President ; President’s Chair of Oak from roof of Cathedral;
Hall Table, in two pieces; Writing Desk, one do.; Four Gas Lustres; Black Board;
Stove in upper Library-room; Eight Benches with Top Rails; Steps for Book-cases;
Ballot-Box; Secretaries’ Charter Chest; Treasurer’s do.; and a Portable Table for
Evening Meetings.

The Librarian reported that the Society was now in the receipt of 27
English, 10 French, and 4 German periodicals. One German journal
has been completed, viz., Erdmann’s Journal fiir Praktische Chemie, by
the purchase of 36 vols. at a cost of £11. All the volumes in the Library
have been inspected, and, with one exception, viz., Whewell’s Philosophy
of the Inductive Sciences, volume 1, which is missing, all have-been

a

Mr. Fercuson on a Marine Deposit containing Shells. 147

found in good order. The advantage of having a person stationed in the
hall to give out and receive books during the day, appears to have given
general satisfaction, as is evinced by the increase in the number of books
borrowed by members. The total number of volumes in the Library on
the 1st of November was 1663.

The Society then proceeded to the Forty-ninth annual election of
Office-bearers, having previously appointed Mr. James George Morison
and Mr. Charles Watson as scrutineers of votes.

The scrutineers reported the following gentlemen to have been elected
Office-bearers of the Society for the year 1850-51, viz. :—

resident.
Tuomas Tuomson, M.D.
Vicr-PRresivEnt,..WatTeR Crum. | Liprariay,...R. D, Tuomson, M.D.

TREASURER,........ Anprew [Ipe..
Joint Secretaries,
ALEXANDER Hasrin, M.P, | Witram Keppie.
Councillors.
Pror. Wu. THomson.

James Bryce. | A. Mrrcuett, M.D.
Wi1aM Ferguson. Witiiam Murray. Joun WILson.

Ws. Gourtiz. J. Srennouse, LL.D. | Watxer Arnort,LL.D,
ALEXANDER Harvey. | Aten Tuomson, M.D. | A. K. Youna, M.D.

The following paper was read :—

XVIII.—WNotice of a Marine Deposit containing Shells, lately discovered
in Sauchiehall-Street. By Wrtu1am Ferauson, Esa.

Tue fact which I have this evening to bring before the Society, is
another proof added to the many already recorded of the existence of
the sea, at former levels, higher than those it now occupies. Mr. Smith of
Jordanhill has already noted many of the Clydesdale series of these proofs,
in connection with their organic remains; and Mr. Robert Chambers, in
his interesting book, entitled “Ancient Sea Margins,” has described
topographically, what he considers a series of ancient sea beaches in this
neighbourhood, and connected them with others existing at similar levels,
not only throughout this country, but also on the continent and abroad.
The most marked of these are the Low Green and King’s Park, the level
of London-Street, the Trongate, and Argyle-Street, the level on which
Elmbank Crescent is built, and that occupied by the College. He also
mentions another which he traces around Garnethill, and it is more
especially to what may probably be a part of this one, I now wish to call
your attention. I premise, however, that I do not conceive Mr. Chambers
concluded the ancient beach he refers to, occupied the higher level of
Sauchichall-Street; I rather understand him to confine it to the lower
portion of Sauchiehall Road, where Albany Place and the Rows westward
are built.

The present deposit was cut into in the line of Sauchiehall-Street, 25

148 Mr, FerGuson on a Marine Deposit containing Shells.

paces westward from the entrance to the Wellington Arcade, and opposite
No. 184. Between this and the western part of the road there was a
considerable eminence opposite Clarence Place, which has now been very
much lowered ; previous to this the ground must have risen from towards
George Square by the head of Buchanan-Street, and so westward, reach-
ing its highest level at Clarence Place, with a hollow along the line of
Sauchiehall-Street, and a ridge existing to the south, the watershed of
which lies between Bath-Street and West Regent-Street. This ridge
terminates westward at Blythswood Square, and I am informed that
originally the site of the square was very much higher than it is at pre-
sent, and that the descent from Bath-Street to Sauchiehall-Street, was
very much more abrupt than now, the material cut from the top of the hill
in levelling the square, having been used to fill up eastwards. It would
be very interesting to trace the alterations which have been made on the
features of our city’s locality by these levelling operations, but this does
not come within my province at present, farther than what is necessary
to form an idea of the physical geography of the spot at the remote period
to which these shelly deposits carry us back.

Keeping in view, then, the extent to which these levelling opera-
tions have been carried on, in and around the very spot with which we
are now dealing, it is not a little surprising, that so recently as within
two months, in opening an excavation for a sewer, a section such as that
now represented should have been exposed.

Section of Excavation in Sauchiehall-Street. There is a sewer in the street,
joined at this point by a side drain,
from a well in the back court of
the houses immediately west of the
Arcade. This side drain had got
choked, and required to be opened.
Clay and mould disturbed, 2 0 Tts exact position was not accu-

rately known, and was missed.

The excavation was made past the
9 original sewer, and broke up new
u ground.

\ Black moss or peat,.......... 1 0 After removing the causeway
and sand to the depth of fourteen
inches, three feet of clay and mould
were passed through. Of this two
feet were evidently artificial, but

Clay and mould undis-
Gn Wetsrscassteenseensesscenk el

‘| Coarse and fine sand beds or i
layere 2 te acuhies eae the lower portion bore every mark
rs ogrenclng expos of being the original soil. Below
to the depth of 4 fect, but :
not passed through... Sides 4 0 this there was one foot of black
— moss or peat, so pure, that some
Het. 22s aasseae apt Die

children residing close by carried
it into the house for fuel, and told
their parents that they were cast-

Mr. Fercuson on a Marine Deposit containing Shells. 149

ing peats on the street. Under the peat, a depth of four feet of alternating
layers, from two to four inches in thickness, of fine and coarse sand were ex-
posed. This deposit was not perforated, and its depth is therefore unascer-
tained. It contained shells, none of which, however, with one exception,
were preserved. Several were obtained, but no value being attached to
them by the workmen, they were broken and thrown aside. The one in
question owed its preservation to its having attracted the attention of one of
the men from the brilliant appearance of a portion of its pearly structure,
apparent through the broken epidermis. The party who preserved it, Mr.
James Peters, happened to be a patient of my friend Dr. Lorrain, who has
favoured me with this narrative, and it struck him that this pretty shell
would be an acquisition to the Doctor's Conchological Collection. It
accordingly reached him, and this led to the examination and recording of
this interesting discovery. The shell is Trochus xexiphanus, 2 common
enough species on our shores. Mr. Peters informs me, that the workman
who dug up the shells, observed five or six in one spadeful of the sand,
but paying no attention to them, they were thrown out and destroyed.

An old building next the new land of houses adjoining the Arcade, is
to be taken down and rebuilt in spring. This house stands on the origi-
nal soil without any sunk-story. As the new houses will have such
sunk-stories, we may look forward to obtaining more evidence on this
subject when the foundations for the new houses come to be dug out.

Mr. Chambers’ description of the Glasgow terraces, is as follows :—

“ At Glasgow the river has ceased to be an estuary, though affected
by the tides for three miles higher, namely, to Rutherglen. Around,
and also within the city, I have found several of the ancient beaches. In
Glasgow Green the same two haughs which occupy so much of the Leven
Vale are distinctly seen, one of them about 11 and the other 26 feet
above the ordinary level of the sea, The Trongate and adjacent districts
of the city, are built upon the second of these plateaux, which also
extends over a large space on the opposite side of the river; at Partick,
to the west of the city, this beach is also clearly marked, being there
about 26 feet high.

“The Ascog beach likewise appears in or near Glasgow, but does not
pass through it so uninterruptedly. Ascending from Partick towards the
Observatory, we find it at Dowanhill, and also on the east side of the
Kelvin Valley. If we make a cross movement from the river bank at
the Broomielaw, the following beaches will be found :—First, the strect
of Broomiclaw, a piece of ancient haugh 10 feet above high water mark ;
second, another flat at Anderston-Street, at about 30 feet; third, a
terrace sloping up to the skirts of Garnethill, somewhat irregular, but
exhibiting some entire pieces, (for example, the site of Free St. Matthew's
Church,) and attaining an extreme height of somewhat more than 80
feet. A similar cross movement in the eastern suburbs, starting at the
Green, and passing up to the lodge at the House of Refuge, gives a pre-
cise repetition of these gradations. The Hill-Street Factory is thus

150 Mr. Fercuson on a Marine Deposit containing Shells.

seated upon the 64-70 feet level. In the central part of the city we
pass at once from the 26 feet alluvium (for example at George-Square)
up a steep slope, to an irregular height not less than 100 feet, remarkable
for a capping of diluvium, containing a number of far transported boulders.
But in the line of the High-Street, the University Buildings clearly sit
upon the same terrace which we find at Dowanhill and the Hill-Street
Factory. On the right bank of the Molendinar Burn, opposite to the
Craig Park, there is a fine piece of terrace about 150 yards in length,
and perhaps 50 feet above the tiny stream. This is approximately 144
feet above the level of the sea.”

There is collateral proof of the correctness of the theory of ancient
beaches in the records of the discovery of several canoes, imbedded in
sand, at various places on our river. For instance, in 1847, one was dis-
covered at Springfield. It was found about 100 feet from the margin of
the Clyde, and rested on a bed of gravel fifteen inches thick, covering a
bed of finely laminated sand. Over it was a bed of loam nine or ten feet
thick, surmounted by sand; the entire depth of the situation of the canoe
below the surface was seventeen feet, being just about the level of low
water in the river. Three others were afterwards found here.

Previous to this, in July, 1825, a canoe was also discovered in digging
a sewer in London-Street. An account of it in the Gentleman’s Magazine
states that the boat lay “in a bed of blue clay, which was covered and
surrounded by fine sand, like that found on the shores of a navigable
river or wide frith.” The author of “Glasgow Delineated” says that
inside were sand and shells; and Mr. James Peters, the same man who
preserved the Trochus of the Sauchiehall-Street beach, informs me that
he saw the canoe dug up, and that it was covered with mussels and wilks
which were adhering to the wood, and which he took off with his own
hands.

There is some vague account of another of these boats having been
discovered in cutting a sewer in Stockwell-Street, but nothing definite
seems to be known about it.

It is stated in Chapman’s Picture of Glasgow, published in 1818, p.
152, that a boat was discovered in digging the foundation for the Tontine
buildings. He describes it as imbedded in sand and gravel, several feet
below the surface; and one was dug out of the foundations of the original
church of St. Enoch’s in 1780. It was lying flat, and filled with sand
and shells. In the bottom there was sticking a celt or hatchet used by
the aboriginal inhabitants. The boat was seen by the late John Wilson,
Esq., who secured the possession of it, and it is now the property of
Charles Wilson Brown, Esq. It is in good preservation.

As to the extreme duration of the period during which these terraces
were formed, Mr. Smith of Jordanhill has made the following remarks :—

“At an elevation of about forty feet, there has been observed upon
many parts of our coasts a series of raised beaches and terraces, which,
by their magnitude, indicate the prodigious length of time at which the

4

Se iA eC

Mr. Fercuson on a Marine Deposit containing Shells. 151

sea level must have been stationary at this height, and if we may judge
of its duration from the relative size of the ancient terraces with those
now forming, it must have exceeded the recent period, of which 2000
years is but a part, by an immense amount; but this is but one of the
epochs in the history of this formation : between the great terrace and the
sea, several subordinate ones and beaches have been observed, each of
them marking long continued periods of repose, whilst a sudden deepen-
ing two or three fathoms below low water mark is probably caused by
another line of terraces now covered by the sea.’’

The following table of the classification of the different formations of
this, the pleistocene or glacial period of geology, is constructed from Mr.
Smith’s paper, and will help us to form an idea of the extent of time
necessary for its production :—

1. Elevated marine beds. Ancient beaches.

2. Submarine forests,

3. Alluvial beds, most likely marine, but affording as yet no organic
remains,

4, Upper diluvium or till, the most recent deposit of the till.

5. Marine beds in the till affording shells, at Airdrie.

6. Lower diluvium, till, or boulder clay.

7. Stratified alluvium, consisting of sand, gravel, and clay, without
organic remains, resting in this district immediately upon the upper mem-
bers of the carboniferous system.

I have divided the diluvium or till into two members, as certain recent
observations, lately laid by Mr. Smith before the Geological Society, have
shown it to have been deposited at two periods, with quiet water inter-
vening, and this also adds indefinitely to the already almost boundless
extent of time required for the development of these beds.

Without entering into any of Mr. Chambers’s conclusions as to uni-
formity in the oscillations of level of the sea and land, or the vexed ques-
tion as to whether it is the land that has risen or the sea that has fallen,
we may conclude with him, that there was a time when “the Frith of
Clyde was a sea several miles wide at Glasgow, covering the site of the
lower districts of the city, and receiving the waters of the river not lower
than Bothwell Bridge.”’ And we may imagine that at the time when
these beds of sands were being laid down, where I have described them

_ in the hollow of Sauchiehall-Street, the waters of this noble estuary eddied

around the various eminences which yet mark the physical geography of
Glasgow. Garnethill would stand out conspicuously, separated by a
narrow and not deep channel from Blythswood-hill. A broader and deeper
current would flow betwixt it and the hill where Port-Dundas now stands,
finding its way into the main channel farther westward, while to tha
south the wide expanse of water would sweep onward, with perhaps an
islet here and there, towards the Cathkin and other southern hills, pre-
senting more the appearance of a landlocked bay or inland sea, than an
estuary. But on the remote antiquity of this era who shall speculate ?
Vol. III.—No, 3. 2

152 Proceedings of the Philosophical

And if this, the most recent of all geologic periods is so utterly, in its
limits and duration, beyond mortal calculation, what of the vast series of
eras which preceded it? The indefiniteness of time which geology
requires, is only equalled by the indefiniteness of space which astronomy
demands, and the twain only surpassed by the infinity of Him who actively
fills both with the evidences of his presence and his perfections.

December 4th, 1850.—Mr. Crum, the Vicr-Prestent, in the Chair.

Tue following were admitted members of the Society, viz. :—Dr. John
Strang, city chamberlain, Dr. William B. Lorrain, Messrs. Robert Gray,
Hugh Heugh, Hermann L. Seligmann, Roger Hennedy, James P. Fraser,
John Muir Wood, James Taylor, John Macharg, James Reid, Thomas
Allan, James Stein, John Inglis.

The Vice-President, in alluding to the subject of the communication of
papers to the Society, stated, that although the Society had been estab-
lished for the reading of original contributions on scientific subjects, it
was not the less desirable that members should bring under the notice of
the Society mechanical improvements and new applications of scientific
principles which might not strictly come under this description.

Mr. Liddell added some remarks to the same effect, and recommended
the suggestion to the attention of the members.

Mr. Bryce gave notice of a motion for a grant of money to the Clydes-
dale Naturalists’ Association, to aid in the researches which they are at
present prosecuting, and some of the fruits of which would be submitted
to the Society in the paper now to be read.

Mr. Bryce then read a paper “On the Lesmahagow and Douglas Coal
Field,’’ which was illustrated by a map and section, and specimens of the
fossils. This paper will form part of the General Report.

Mr. William Ferguson afterwards directed the attention of the Society
to some of the more characteristic fossils collected during the survey of
this portion of the coal measures.

Letters, acknowledging the presentation of No. 2, Vol. III. of the
Society’s printed proceedings, were received from the Secretary of the
Royal Society of London, the Secretary of the Liverpool Literary and
Philosophical Society, and the Secretaries of the Literary and Philoso-
phical Society of Manchester.

December 18th, 1850.—The Vice-PresipEnt in the Chair.

Tax following were admitted members, viz.:—Messrs. Robert M‘Ghie,
C.E., John Lawson, George Lyon, John Anderson, Charles M‘Lean, John
Finlay, Robert Taylor.

Mr. Bryce brought forward the motion of which he had given notice,

Society of Glasgow. 153

for a grant of money to the Clydesdale Naturalists’ Association, to aid
them in their investigations into the Lanarkshire coal field. He moved
that the grant should be £15.

The motion was seconded by Mr. William Ferguson, and pest by
Mr. Goutlie.

The first vote was taken, and the motion unanimously agreed to.

Mr. William Murray took occasion to state that a collection was now
forming of the various minerals of the district, from the upper part of the
coal field to the lowest strata, the specimens to be in cubes of six inches
each, for the Exhibition in London. The collection was being made
under his superintendence, and he had stipulated, at the suggestion of
Mr. Crum, that the specimens should be returned to Glasgow, and become
the property of the Philosophical Society.

Mr. Bryce gave notice that at next meeting he would move that the
Society take some active step with regard to the necessity of expediting
the Ordnance Survey of Scotland.

A paper was read on Apiine by Dr. Adolph v. Planta (Reichenau, )
and Mr. William Wallace, communicated by IF. Penny, Ph, D, which
has been since printed in the Philosophical Magazine.

January 8th, 1851.—The Vicu-Preswent in the Chair.

Messrs. Toomas Suerter, Thomas Bayne, Archibald Nairn, and John

M‘Donald were admitted members.
~ Mr. Bryce’s motion for a grant of £15 to the Clydesdale Naturalists’
Association was voted on a second time, and finally agreed to.

Mr. Bryce brought forward the motion of which he gave notice at last
meeting, “That the Society authorize and do hereby recommend the
council of the Society to co-operate, as speedily as possible, with the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, in urging upon the government the necessity
and importance of expediting the Ordnance Survey of Scotland.”

The motion was seconded by Dr. Walker Arnott.

Mr. William Brown proposed, as an addition to the motion, that the
council should have a discretionary power to make a direct application to
government on behalf of the object in view, and also to co-operate with
any public body in the west of Scotland whom it might influence to take
up this matter.

Mr. Bryce having consented to this addition being made to his motion,
it was unanimously agreed to.

A letter from the Geological Society of London was read, acknowledg-
ing receipt of the last Number of the Society’s printed proceedings.

Dr. Robert D, Thomson read a notice of the travels of Dr. Thomas
Thomson, jun., in Sikkim Himalaya, and the Khasya hills.

Dr. Thomson exhibited likewise Boutigny’s experiment of plunging the
fingers into melted lead.

154 Botanical Section.

January 22, 1851.—The Vice-Preswent in the Chair.

Messrs. ArcurpatD M‘Laren and William M‘Adam were admitted
members.

Dr. Robert D. Thomson stated that the council had this evening had
under consideration a proposal which it agreed to recommend to the
Society, namely, that the Society should submit to the Town Council the
propriety of a weekly or monthly publication of the bills of mortality, and
returns of the state of disease in the city, in conjunction with meteoro-
logical reports for the periods embraced in the returns. He moyed that
the Society shall respectfully recommend the proposal to the Town
Council.

Dr. Walker Arnott seconded the motion, and proposed that a com-
mittee of the Society shall be appointed to communicate the suggestion
to the Town Council, the committee to consist of Dr. R. D. Thomson,
convener, Dr, Strang the city chamberlain, Mr. William Murray, chair-
man of the Statistical Section, and Mr. Keddie, one of the Secretaries.
Which motion was unanimously agreed to.

A letter from the Secretary to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts was
read, acknowledging receipt of the last Part of the printed proceedings of
the Society.

Professor William Thomson read a paper on the question, “ Is Heat
Matter?” maintaining the negative opinion of the subject.

Professor William Thomson afterwards exhibited and described a series
of Magnets, of which the magnetism was latent.

February 5th, 1851.—The Vicz-Preswent in the Chair.

Mr. Wrir1am Morray reported that the Town Council had favourably
entertained the proposal submitted by this Society, for a more frequent
publication of the bills of mortality and the vital statistics of the city.

The following report was received from the Botanical Section :—

Botanical Section.

The Botanical Section met on the evening of Wednesday the 29th
January, and elected its office-bearers for the year, viz. :—

President, sccadeccoo’ Dr. WALKER ARNOTT.
Vice-President...... Mr. Wo. Gourtig. | Secretary........ Mr. W. KEDDIE.
Curator of Herbarium..Mr.F. ADAMSON. | Treasurer......MR. JOHN ALEXANDER.

Mr. Gourlie exhibited a specimen of Isonandra Gutta, the Gutta
Percha plant, from Singapore.

The following paper was read:—

Dr. ArNnot?’s Notice of the Species of Salvadora. 155

XIX.—Notice of the species of Salvadora. By G. A.Watxur Arnott, LL.D.

Tue genus Salvadora possesses a peculiar interest, from its having been
generally agreed of late years that one of the species is the ojwezu, or
mustard plant of Scripture. The proof of this hypothesis being correct,
was first analysed by Dr. Royle. (See the Gardener’s Chronicle for
1844, P» 199; Athenzeum for 1844, p. 272; and Kitto’s Biblical vee
peedia, ii. p. 772).

Botanically speaking, the genus was proposed by M. Garcin of Neuf-

.chatel for a plant found near the shores of the Persian Gulf, and described

in the Philosophical Transactions for 1749. Although the calyx was
omitted. and the corolla mistaken for it, the original description was
sufficiently accurate to enable Linnzeus, and afterwards Vahl, to refer
plants from East India and Arabia to it. Of the old descriptions, the
most correct is that given by Vahl. He considers the Persian plant, the
East Indian, and the Arabian, (mentioned by Forskaol under the name of
Cissus arborea,) to be one and the same species, and retains the name of
S. persica given by Garcin.

The first figures of Salvadora I find are in Lamarck’s Illustrations des
Genres, t. 81, and Vahl’s Symbol Botanice, t. 4, both published about
the same time, and both representing the common Hast Indian plant.
Then follows the figure in Roxburgh’s Coromandel Plants, t. 26, and this
of course also exhibits the Hast Indian form. Of the original Persian
plant no figure exists, nor is there any of the Arabian one, or, which is
probably the same, of an Egyptian species; for the latter, the figure in
Bruce’s Travels, v. t. 12, of a tree he calls Rack, is quoted by Delile in
his Flore d’Egypte; but Bruce’s plant is unquestionably a species of
Avicennia, as was long ago indicated by Brown in his Prodronus Flor.
Noy. Holl, p. 519.

To the S. persica Loureiro added two species from Cochin-China, viz.,
S. capitulata and S. biflora ; but as these two are destitute of a corolla,
have alternate rough serrated leaves, and flowers at the extremity of a
long axillary peduncle, they can have no affinity with Salvadora, or any
allied genus; what they may be I do not here conjecture.

The next addition to the genus was made by A. Sprengel, but the
plant he describes, from Surinam, belongs to the Myrsinaceze, and is the
Weigeltia Swrinamensis of Alphonse De Candolle.

Thus, then, all the forms mentioned, that really belong to the genus,
have been reduced to S. persica of authors; but this species may possibly
be made up of several, and in that case, in order to determine the true
_tmmustard tree of the Bible, it is necessary to ascertain which is the species
‘found in Palestine.

The first, so far as I know, who indicated two positively distinct species
of the genus, was Dr. Royle, in his work on Himalayan plants. He there
says—‘‘ Salvadora is a genus common to India, Persia, and Arabia, and
the same species (S. persica) occurs in the Circars, north of India, and

156 Dr. ArNorr’s Notice of the Species of Salvadora.

the Persian Gulf; but along with this, another species is found on the
banks of the Jumna, and from Delhi to Saharumpore. This is S. indica,
nob., jal of the Hindoos, irak-hindw of Persian authors, who also give this
tree the name of miswak, or tooth-brush tree; the leaves are called ra-
suna, resemble those of the lanceolate Bonnns and are like them of a
purgative nature; the fruit is called peel and pinjoo. I know not if it be
the same as that brought from Hansi, and sold in the Delhi bazaar as an
edible fruit, under the name of peeloo. S. persica is called khwrjal in
northern India, arak and irak in works on materia medica. The bark of
the root is acrid, and raises blisters (Roxb.); a decoction of the bark of .
the stem is considered tonic, and the red berries are said to be edible.”

From, this passage we infer that Dr. Royle considers the S. persica of
the Persian Gulf to be the same as the plant of Roxburgh, a shrub which
the latter found in the Cirears, (and is not uncommon in the Peninsula and
many other parts of India,) and is identical with the plants of Lamarck and
Vahl, (at least the figures of both of these authors coincide with Rox-
burgh’s;) but that there is a second species, a tree, growing along with
the former on the banks of the Jumna, and about Delhi. Royle’s work
was published in 1839; unfortunately he gives no description of the new
species more than that now quoted.

M. Jacquemont, a French naturalist, had travelled from Calcutta to
the Punjaub between the years 1828 and 1832, and the materials he
collected were published previous to 1844. Such is the date on the title
page of the 4th volume, but this portion of the work was commenced in
1835; so that it is more than probable, as it appeared in parts, that the
one containing Salvadora was published as early as 1839, or even pre-
viously. In this 4th volume, which is devoted to natural history, the
genus Salvadora is introduced, the description and observations being
made by Decaisne, one of the first French botanists of the present day.
He there considers that only three species were known, and thus
characterizes them:—1. S. persica; leaves ovate-lanceolate, racemes ter-
minal lax, calyx small, segments of the corolla reflexed. 2. S. oleoides;
leaves linear-oblong obtuse or mucronulate, racemes short densely-
flowered, calyx subcampanulate, its segments rounded, segments of the
corolla roundish erect scarcely longer than the calyx, stamens included.
3. S. madurensis; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate, racemes terminal or
axillary, calyx tubular, corolla a little longer than the calyx erect, stamens
protruded.

The S. persica, which he considers common to India and Persia, is thus
essentially characterised from the two others, by the lobes of the corolla
considerably longer than the calyx, and reflexed; in the other two the
corolla is scarcely longer than the calyx, and erect; and these two-again
differ from each other by the calyx short (or campanulate), and the
stamens included in S. oleoides, and the calyx tubular and stamens pro-
truded in S. madwrensis. The last of these, which is from Madura, an
island off the north-east coast of Java, (not from northern India, as erro-

i

Dr. Arnorr’s Notice of the Species of Salvadora. 157

neously stated by Walpers in his Annales Botanices Systematice,) is
unquestionably a very distinct species, as far as can be understood from
the figure, for I have not seen specimens. As to S. oleoides, it is said to
be a tree, and to form extensive woods on the western banks of the Jumna
and Hyphasis, and to grow also at Khitul and Pallinlah, as well as in
the salt sandy parts of the Punjaub, and to be frequent between Agra
and Delhi, as far as the desert of Bihassir. Now, from this locality, and
the plant being a tree, it appears to me the same as that noticed by Royle
under the name of S. indica; and I find in my herbarium a few fragments
of an unnamed Salvadora, collected also on the banks of the Jumna, and
inserted by Dr. Wallich in his list under No. 7530, which has the narrow
leaves and erect short corolla of Decaisne’s plant; but Jacquemont’s
species is described and figured with very short (only 3-6 lines long)
dense racemes or spikes of flowers, whereas my plant, which, however, is
in fruit, has them from 1 to 12 inches long, and neither crowded nor
closely flowered ; but in Jacquemont’s, as well as in Wall. list, No. 7530,
the flower or fruit is almost sessile.

Of S. persica, Decaisne remarks that there are a great many varieties;
that sometimes the leaves are oval, sometimes linear, and occasionally
both kinds are found on the same specimen: in his plant the flowers are
distinctly pedicellate, giving the panicled raceme a loose appearance.

He states, as I have already said, that he only recognises three spe-
cies, and yet the Arabic, or at least the Egyptian species, with which he
must be well acquainted, does not quite agree with any, unless we are to
suppose that he intends to combine all the forms with a reflexed corolla
into one.

I now come to two works published simultaneously within these few
months by my friend Dr. Wight at Madras. TI allude to the last part of
vol. 2 of his Illustrations of Indian Botany, and the last part of vol. 4 of
his Icones. In the former a plant is figured at t. 181, under the name
of S. indica; in the latter another at t. 1621, under the name of S. per-
sica, with a portion of a third species called 8. Stocksii ; these three being
all the species of the genus which he acknowledges. The first, which he
says is common in India, has the corolla reflexed, leaves elliptic-lanceo-
late, and the racemes lax; it is thus identical with the S. persica of all
previous writers on Indian botany, Roxburgh and Royle inclusive. The
name of indica is, no doubt, adopted from Royle, but is certainly not the
plant from the Jumna meant by the latter. The second, S. persica of
Wight, has narrow leaves precisely as in Royle’s 9. indica, or Decaisne’s
S. oleoides, and like it has the flowers nearly sessile; the racemes, too,
are as compact as in Wall. list, No. 7530, to which I have referred, but
the corolla and protruded stamens are precisely as in the preceding spe-
cies. His third species has the leaves ovate or oval and mucronate, the
racemes compact, flowers short-pedicelled, and the corolla is said to be
deciduous, while it certainly remains on till the fruit advances to maturity
in all the other species. As Dr. Wight has not seen the corolla, it is

158 Dr. Arnorr’s Notice of the Species of Salvadora.

probable that it merely escaped notice from being erect and short, as in
S. oleoides; and if so, the only distinction between this last and Dr.
Wicht’s new species rests on the broad or narrow leaves.

Now the question again arises, what is the true 8. persica? and which
of the Indian ones approaches it most? We have two principal com-
petitors for the honour, but before assigning the preference to either, we
must examine what Garcin himself says on the subject :—

1st. The corolla which he describes in place of the calyx is “ divided in
four lobes, which, as-soon as they spread open, turn outward, and roll
backward on themselves;” the real calyx was probably small and concealed
by the revolute corolla. 2d. The stamens are about the same length as
the lobes of the corolla. 3d. “ This plant is woody; it grows sometimes
into a tree, sometimes into a shrub, and sometimes into a bush;” “ that of a
larger_sort of a shrub is what it most frequently grows into; it produces a
number of boughs without order, and very tufted branches, which most
commonly hang down to the ground.” 4th. The length of the leaves,
which varies on the same branch, ‘‘is generally from one inch and a-half
to two inches and a-half, and their width is from nine lines to an inch a
little below.the middle in each, which is the widest part.” 5th. The
flowers “are small, and disposed in clusters on the tops of the shoots.”
6th. “The berry is of the shape and size of a gooseberry, of three or four
lines in diameter: at first it is of a pale green, then a bright purple, and
in its maturity of a dark red; each berry is supported on a strong thick
pedicle attached to a small bunch.” ‘The seed “is as large as a grain of
hemp seed, that is, about two lines in diameter, but sometimes less.” Garein
adds, “it delights in the hottest and driest places, such as those adjacent
to the Persian Gulf, and perhaps more so than palm trees, wherefore I
doubt of there being any growing in the countries that lie to the east of
the gulf, and accordingly I have met with none, either in the neighbour-
hood of Surat or in the kingdom of Bengal, where there are regular rainy
seasons every year. I should rather believe it is more likely to be found
in the deserts of Africa, on this side of our tropic, these being proper
places for it, and where it rains seldomer than in any other part of the
globe.” The inhabitants of the gulf call the plant Tchuch.

Now, all the Indian species of Salvadora may be divided into those
with short erect, and those with reflexed lobes to the corolla; and if, as
I conjecture, S. Stocksii of Wight belongs to the former (Dr. Wight having
seen it only in fruit, in which state the corolla of S. oleoides is also scarcely
perceptible), then the only Indian ones that can be compared with Gar-
cin’s plants are the S. persica of Wight, and the S. persica of Roxburgh.
As to the former, Wight describes it with ‘‘ narrow elliptic-lanceolate
leaves,” but figures it with leaves linear-oblong, or narrow oblong-lanceo-
late, (the largest being 2} inches long and only 43 lines wide,) which does
not accord with the original species of the genus. Again, Wight says,
“the berries of the Persian plant are described as yellow or black, those
of the Indian one are red,” while he himself does not know the colour of

—

Dr. Arnott’s Notice of the Species of Salvadora. 159

the fruit of his own persica, Assuredly Garcin does not say that the
berries are not red, but that they pass from green to purple, and then to
red. Wight seems to have copied the colours from Forskaol, as quoted
in Roemer and Schultes’ Systema; and Irby and Mangles, in their travels
between the southern extremity of the Dead Sea and Kerak, met with
probably the same bearing a fruit resembling the currant in appearance,
but with the colour of a plum. As the colour seems to depend on the
maturity of the berries, it is not perhaps of much consequence. Wight says
of his plant that the flowers are sessile, and the panicles terminal and com-
pact. To this there is nothing opposing in Garcin’s description, although
it is not so precise as could be wished. If, however, any dependance is
to be placed on the shape of the foliage, on which Dr. Wight relies, his
plant cannot be precisely the original S. persica.

Again, as to Roxburgh’s species, the usual form of the leaves perfectly
accords with Garcin’s description; so that, as far as can be determined
from the foliage, the presumption is strong that the species widely distri-
buted throughout India is the same as that from the Gulf of Persia; and
confirmatory of this view I may add, that the name khuzjal, given to this
species in the north of India, is almost the same as khardal (mustard), by
which latter appellation the mustard-tree of Palestine was known to the
Talmudists, and is still known in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem, accord-
ing to M. Ameuny. But etymologies are not much to be trusted to in
the discrimination of allied species, all with similar properties ; and a diffi-
culty of some importance lies in this:—Qarcin states that the fruit is 3-4
lines in diameter, whereas the fruit of all the known East Indian species
is considerably smaller than that; and although no great stress can be laid
on the size, still it is an element not to be entirely overlooked. In neither
the S. persica of Roxburgh nor of Wight is the fruit larger than a grain
of black pepper. Besides, in Garcin’s plant the fruit is on a strong thick
pedicel, the length of which is not noticed; in Roxburgh’s plant the pedi-
cel is by no means thick, but rather slender. In Wight’s S. persica, how-
ever, it is certainly thick, at least in proportion to its length. Thus, then,
Garcin’s description agrees with Roxburgh’s species and not with Wight’s
as to the leaves, but more with Wight’s than with Roxburgh’s as to the
inflorescence, while the size of the berry accords with neither.

Hitherto I do not possess, and have not been able to see any specimens
of the Persian plant, or of that from Arabia, or the one from Palestine,
As to that from Arabia, however, Forskaol describes it with oblong entire
thick leaves, sessile flowers, and a berry larger than a pea, and this accords
very well with the Persian one. I have no doubt of the identity of these
two. Again, Delile found a species in Egypt, of which he has unfortu-
nately not given a figure or detailed description; but of the Egyptian
form I have a specimen collected by Raddi, in which the leaves vary from
oval to ovate, and the flowers are almost quite sessile, thus agreeing with
Forskaol’s description (except as to the fruit, which I have not seen).
This corroborates the opinion that the plants from Persia, Arabia, Pales-

160 Dr. Arnorr’s Notice of the Species of Salvadora.

tine, and Egypt, are all the same; and, moreover, shows the accuracy of
Garcin’s suggestion, that his plant was more likely to be found in Egypt
than in India.

The only other species which requires notice is one from Senegal, called
by Zucearini S. paniculata, and on it I can throw no light whatever. I
am even ignorant where Zuccarini has published an account of it. Dr.
Wight considers it to be the same as Roxburgh’s plant, but whether he
has seen Zuccarini’s memoir, or judges only from the name, which is cer-
tainly more applicable to Roxburgh’s than to the Arabian or Hgyptian
species, I have no information. Delile says of his S. persica, that it is
found over the whole north of Africa, from Egypt to Senegal; and Guille-
min states in the Dict. Class. @ Hist. Nat. that he had received specimens
of S. persica from Le Prieur from Senegal; although, therefore, more
information is required on this point, there appears to me a presumption
that the Senegal species is also the Egyptian one, and consequently that
the true S. persica, or the plant of Garcin, extends from the Persian Gulf
to the west coast of Africa.

The conclusion, then, which I draw is, that the S. persica of the Per-
sian Gulf and the countries to the west, and consequently the mustard-
tree of Scripture, is not the plant of Koenig, Vahl, Roxburgh, Royle, or
Decaisne, which, to distinguish it, I shall call S. Aenigii ; but that it is
very nearly allied to S. persica of Wight, which for the same reason may
be designated S. Wightit ; it differs chiefly from this last by the much
greater breadth of the leaves, and perhaps also by the larger fruit.

Without giving any decided opinion as to what are species or what
varieties, (which I can scarcely do without having more materials at my
disposal,) I propose to arrange the different forms of the genus as follows:—

A. Corolla persistent; its lobes much longer than the short campanu-
late calyx, reflexed ; stamens protruded.

1. 8. persica (Garcin) ; leaves oval or ovate, racemes rather short with

close nearly sessile flowers—Cissus arborea Forsk. 8. paniculata Zuce. ?
—Hab. Persian Gulf, Arabia, Palestine, and northern Africa.

2. S. Wightii; leaves linear-oblong or narrow oblong-lanceolate, racemes
rather short with close nearly sessile flowers. SS. persica Wight Icones, t.
1621.—Hab. Scinde.

3, S. Kenigii; leaves from linear to ovate, racemes lax, flowers dis-
tinetly pedicellate.—S. persica Vahl Symb. t. 4; Lam. Ill. t. 81; Roxb.
Cor. t. 26; Royle; Decaisne in Jacquem. Voy. iv. t. 144, f. 8. indica,
Wight Ill. t. 181. Embelia grossularioides Kan. Embelia Burmanni
Retz. Obs. Bot. fase. 4. p. 23. Rivina paniculata Linn.—Hab. From
near Cape Comorin, at the south extremity of the peninsula of India, to
the northern Cirears, and thence to Delhi and northern India.

B. Lobes of the corolla short and erect (or deciduous?) ; calyx cam-
panulate.

4. 8. Stocksii (Wight); leaves oval or ovate, racemes rather short, with
shortly pedicellate flowers. — Wight Icones, t. 1621. B,—Hab. Scinde.

nD
7

Mr. Napier on Copper Sheathing. 161

5. S. oleoides (Decaisne) ; leaves linear or narrow oblong-lanceolate,
racemes short, flowers close sessile, stamens included.—Jacquem. Voy. iv.
t. 144. S. indica Royle. Wall. L. No. 7530.—Hab. Banks of the Jumna
and northern India.

C. Lobes of the calyx erect, scarcely longer than the tubular calyx:
stamens slightly protruded.

6. S. madurensis (Decaisne).—Jacquem. Voy. iv. t. 144,.—Hab. Island
of Madura, near Java.

I am unwilling to enter upon the affinities of this genus; the most pro-
bable conjectures are those lately made by M. Planchon, that Salvadora,
Dobera (to which he refers Schizocalyx coriaceus Hochst, and Blackburnia
oppositifolia, or rather B. monadelpha, Roxb., and Azima, to which
Monetia of L’Heritier and Actegeton of Blume are reducible), form a small
order allied to Oleaceze: at the same time the distinct petals and hypo-
gynous stamens of the two last of these genera, and the one-celled ovary
of the first, are considerably at variance ; while between each other they
have few common links, except the structure of the seed and number of
stamens.

Messrs. Wm. Black and Jas. Murdoch, jun., were admitted members.

A new drainage level, patented by Mr. T. R. Gardner, Buchanan-
Street, was exhibited, and its construction explained by Mr. Bryce.

The following paper was read :—

XX.—On Copper Sheathing, and the probable cause of its deterioration.
By James Narter, Esa. F.C.S

Tue objects for which ships and other sea-going vessels are covered
with metal are twofold. 1st. To prevent worms and other marine animals
boring into the wood and destroying the vessel; and, 2d, To prevent the
adhesion of sea-weed and shell-fish to the bottom of the vessel, which
greatly impedes her progress and otherwise affects her sailing qualities.

The protecting of sea-going vessels, by covering them over with metal,
appears to have been practised by the ancients. Leo Baptista Alberte
observed upon the remnants of a ship discovered in the neighbourhood of
Lake Reeccia, that it had been sheathed with an alloy of copper. More
commonly vessels were covered over with wood; but when the milling of
lead was invented, about the year 1670, a patent was granted to the
inventor for sheathing vessels with milled lead, and this was practised for
a period of thirty years, but was afterwards given up and wood again
adopted. The reasons for abandoning the use of lead were the fouling
of the vessel, and the destruction of her iron work. Notwithstanding
these results, several patents have been since taken out for lead sheathing,
and the government, so late as 1832, made a trial of it on a hulk, but

the lead dropped off by the rapid destruction of the nails which fastened
it.

162 Mr, Narier on Copper Sheathing.

The object required is a metal or alloy that will combine the qualities
of keeping the vessel clean, and protecting it from destruction by worms
at the same time within a reasonable cost. Notwithstanding many sug-
gestions and trials with different metals and alloys, none has been found
more suitable than good copper.

Sheathing with copper was first adopted in the navy in 1 761. In the
course of forty years after, it was observed that there was some diversity
in the wear of the sheathing, especially in that which had been more
recently applied, which diversity has continued greatly to increase, and,
according to observations made, this has become much more so since about
1832. The extent of the diversity may be stated to range from thirty
months to thirty years, and this under all the varied circumstances in
which a vessel may be placed. The natural idea suggesting itself to all
observers as to the cause of this, was impurity in the copper used, and
that the wear was in proportion to its quality. This was put to the test
of experiment in 1824. At the commencement of his researches, Sir H.
Davy found that sea water acted more rapidly upon pure copper than
when slightly alloyed. It is to be regretted that the nature of the alloy
experimented upon was not given; however, later experiments made upon
sheathing which had been in wear, some remarkable for their durability,
others for their rapid decay, he found their action upon_sea water to
differ so little as induced him to look for other causes of destruction than
the quality of the metal, and he conceived it probable to be owing to the
electrical condition of the metals in relation to the sea water, under certain
circumstances which had to be sought for by experiment. If it depended
wholly upon the electrical condition of sea water and copper, or, in other
words, upon the solubility of copper in sea water, then as pure copper
had been found more soluble in sea water than impure, it would conse-
quently follow that pure metal was not the best for sheathing; therefore
the conditions which regulated the electrical relations of the water and
metal upon a ship’s bottom became the object of Sir H. Davy’s inquiry,
and this being of great importance to the present inquiry, I may here
briefly state what is meant by the electrical conditions of metals and sol-
vents. If any two metals be put into a solvent, say an acid, this acid
will act more rapidly upon one of these than upon the other; if the two
metals while in the solvent be made to touch each other, the one which
had been least acted upon will now be dissolved with less, and the other
with greater facility. Thus, suppose a piece of copper in sea water be
acted upon with a force equal to one, and a piece of iron in the same
water acted upon with a force equal to three; if the two metals are brought
into contact, the copper will cease to be acted upon, while the iron will
now be dissolved with a force equal to four. The copper in this experi-
ment is said to be rendered electro-negative, the iron electro-positive.

Sir H. Davy found that oxide of copper is negative to metallic copper.
An alloy of tin and copper is negative to pure copper, and hammered or
hard copper is negative to soft copper. That the green rust which forms

Mr. Napier on Copper Sheathing. 163

upon copper is negative to metallic copper, that the nails used were nega-
tive to the sheathing, and also that copper alloyed with small quantities
of tin, zinc, iron, or arsenic, promotes the formation of insoluble com-
pounds upon the surface of copper in sea water, and that being negative,
hastens the destruction of the sheathing. Here was ample source for
explaining the diversity of wear in sheathing; and, it may be observed, it
brings us back to the original idea, that impure copper causes more rapid
destruction when used as sheathing than pure; and although the direct
action of sea water be a little greater upon the latter, it being regular
and not subject to local galvanic influence, it will be more lasting, and
also more effective for prevention of fouling, &c.

To overcome the evils both of the local and total destruction of sheath-
ing by electrical conditions, Sir H. Davy suggested the rendering of the
whole surface of the sheathing negative, and destroying all local electrical
influences, by bringing a positive metal into contact with it. The trials
and experiments made upon these suggestions were eminently successful.
“‘ When a piece of zinc having a surface equal to ,1,th of the copper was
attached, there was no corrosion or decay; with smaller quantities, such
as from z},th to zjoth, the copper underwent a loss of weight which was
greater in proportion as the copper was smaller.” ‘Trials were made upon
an extensive scale with vessels under various circumstances, and all proved
the correctness of the principle. But it was found that copper thus pro-
tected soon became covered with an earthy coating, composed of carbonate
of lime and hydrate and carbonate of magnesia, and to this coating weeds
and shell-fish easily adhered and produced fouling, so that this beautiful
application of a philosophic principle had to be, in less than two years,
completely abandoned.

The late Professor Daniell, thinking that the abandonment of the prin-
ciple was too absolute and premature, proposed a mode of partial protec-
tion, by arranging the protectors in such a manner that they could be with-
drawn in part or in whole, and that the sheathing might be fully protected
where there was no liability to foul, and where this liability existed, the
protectors would be partly or wholly removed. We are not aware if
trials were made upon this suggestion. The subject of fouling, and its
prevention by copper, I may mention, have been viewed differently. Some
suppose it to be owing to the poisonous quality of the copper compound
formed by the action of the sea water, which kills the barnacles and other
organisms that attempt to adhere and thus drop off, while others, and
among whom ranked Sir H. Davy, consider that the weeds and shell-fish
are prevented from adhering by losing their hold from the corrosion of
the surface.

The next who drew public attention to this subject, was Mr. Prideaux,
chemist at the Plymouth dock-yards, in a paper to the British Associa-
tion at their meeting in 1841. In this paper we find it stated that the
popular opinion then was, that alloyed copper was best, originating, says
that authority, “from observations made upon several samples of copper

164 Mr. Napier on Copper Sheathing.

used for sheathing, especially one analysed by Sir H. Davy that lasted
long, and contained 1:4 per cent. of tin, and another by R. Phillips, which
only lasted four years, and was the purest copper he had seen; it was
therefore considered that pure copper was not the best for sheathing, and
that the presence of tin and zinc were favourable to its durability.” These
conclusions, be it observed, differ from that Sir H. Davy came to, and
that which R. Phillips analysed may be corroborative of Davy’s opinion,
because such copper put upon a vessel in connection with impure or
alloyed sheets will cause its rapid destruction, and all the conditions not
being given, the conclusion come to from an analysis may be erroneous.
Upon these conclusions Mr. Prideaux remarks, that the durability of the
sheathing does not depend so much upon the presence of these two metals,
tin and zinc, but that their presence guarantees the absence of suboxide
of copper, which he considers very injurious to sheathing, facilitating the
action of sea water both mechanically and chemically. Here we find the
presence of other metals even to 1°5 per cent. thought of no consequence,
except as a negative test for the presence of a compound supposed to act
deleteriously, which, I think, is sufficiently answered by the analyses
given by Mr. Prideaux of five different coppers, where it will be seen that the
presence of tin and zine are greatest in the copper most rapidly destroyed :—

New copper. In wear 30 yrs. In wearl7 yrs. Inwear5yrs. Rapid wear.

1 Meagan i nt ah let 4 fo uel Ut Fs Us sna 0:07
ca eae ey ti Es ly topuleye OWS... 5 (5 oh O20 teas 0°15
ME e ets cans aes 1155 fgg ies OUT czas: 020% xs. 50 OV casars 0:36
BSVOR,.ccssccsc LU as 13 Soapeee OUP ccc. vB Na Oy aaees 0:06
Mieadsseccsereccs trace ...... tYACO 6.4 = SE aha iae ma Achar trace

0:46 0°25 0°61 0°53 0°64

It is to be regretted that Mr. Prideaux did not give the amount of copper
also in these analyses.

Pieces of each of these coppers were put into sea water having a little
salammoniac in it, and exposed for twelve days, when the loss was as
under :—

New. 30 years. 17 years. 5 years. Rapid wear.

De T vccace Oe een aste SP ieiease SEN es cia 5-2

Although there is not much to be deduced from these experiments, as
they would require repetition, and without salammoniac in the solution,
nevertheless the results correspond with Sir H. Davy’s views. That
which had lasted thirty years is the most pure, and sea water has the
greatest action upon it.

Mr. Prideaux also examined the effects of the nails used, and says, in
some cases they seemed to have acted as protectors to the copper, it being
thickest round them; in other cases as negative, the copper being destroyed
round them. When tried by a galvanometer the nails were found mostly
negative to copper, but when the nails were covered with verdigris and

Mr. NAPIER on Copper Sheathing. 165

the copper clean, they were positive. It is to be regretted that an
analysis of these nails experimented upon was not given, the omission of
which takes from the value of the experiment. I here give the analyses
of three qualities of sheathing nails, which may be taken as the general
character of the nails now in use for copper sheathing. The first two are
by Dr. Percy, taken from the Chemical Gazette for 1850 :—

No. 1. No. 2.
WOppersn sce. sss ces 52°73 Copperas se. 62°62
BAND precscer eres estes 41:18 JV TSE ae a 24°64
Wicd tof re. Ric. et sce 4:72 LOE eR 8°69
Mie ter svete cece — Pits es cuccis sues. 2°64
98°63 : 98°59

No. 1 is said to have corroded rapidly, becoming rotten at the heads and
breaking off; No. 2 is good, and had been taken from a ship’s bottom
after a voyage to India and back.

The next, No. 3, are sample nails exhibited at the meeting of the
British Association, Swansea, analysed by Mr. John Cameron :—

No. 3.
ROO Gis dase tee sara eras ivienmse ahoeamieh Seen t ot Os 60:0
PANGS Socaeinorcaaicwacesacte ae astageine boa daks ab toutes 34:8
lem Ar pt ciattgs otuotine a ses ucsereacetes <kescncetiee 0-7
Mee rac Sas as tarastagesnaxne detaode caniaek ob cnkesavs 3°8
ETON eons slealensiin case caweses sannaenanatranaeusna sats 0:3

99°6
The application of any of these nails to fasten copper is a very question-
able practice.

About two years ago, Mr. Prideaux resumed the subject of inquiry
into the causes affecting copper sheathing, in a series of papers to the
Mining Journal, in which it appears that little or no advance has been
made to our knowledge of this subject since his former communication to
the British Association. In these letters he says, “ With respect to the
quality of the metal, I have been called upon to analyse many specimens
of good and bad wearing sheathing, old and recent, and to examine a
great many more, and have not found in the analyses any characteristic
or constant difference between the bad and the good, nor have those which
wasted quickest, nor wore worst at sea, been uniformly or decidedly more
susceptible to corrosive agency in the laboratory than the very best old
samples,”

How valuable would a table of these analyses have been, to enable
others to draw conclusions, as very often men employed constantly in any
particular branch investigate with certain preconceived expectations,
which cause them to overlook many important circumstances; hence we
find Mr, Prideaux expecting the same kind of results in the laboratory

166 Mr. Napier 0” Copper Sheathing.

as on the vessel, and with this view he adds, “TI have from twenty to
thirty samples, distinguished for good or bad sea wear, fixed to a buoy in
the tide-way under exactly similar conditions, and when these come to be
stripped off, if the greater or less waste correspond to their previous sea
wear, it may be then fairly referred to quality of the metal, and will form
a more trustworthy ground for analytical inquiry.” The results of these
trials with an analysis of each specimen, I hope, will yet be given to the world.

A trial somewhat similar was made at the request of Dr. Perey, by
Captain James. Specimens of different coppers were kept in sea water
for nine months, the loss of each per square inch is given thus: —

Hilsctrotype copper lostijs. ei... i..dsss.easaessaavevsssocasseepnians 1-4
OP REt WAG MENCHIG scat ewedu ss tanec hagiinos sats cevecedas sa ons 1:2
isp perma thi PROMBN BENE ir 3.45 kcoaspawes nat aseiedetasadanendes none.
Specimen copper marked “from Frolic,”............ceeceeseee 1°12
Copper (suppose cementing), ..........csesceeeeceseeeeseeeneaees 0°8
Copper from dock=yard),.vvssese«cancmevcvs Midedsedses<cuntieat de 1-66
Do. GO. HLL Aldea ARG La Ed ade a seeuaneee 3°
Do Bosal dk oe eR ME wesw ER he kee 2°48
Do dO}, 175 daca ta doe ai SaaS Sap le eran opine ee wees 233
Vellowine tal. (Miuinity’s),. in ssexcn-<a-nvsnes onoanes-naacanengeeds 0°95

Here again want of careful analysis of every specimen, and particulars of
condition, render this otherwise interesting experiment useless as data
for a proper investigation ; however, the object of the experiment was no
doubt gained by the comparing of alloys of copper and phosphorus with
ordinary metals. The results are interesting, and may be usefully applied.
The analysis of such an alloy is given in the same paper, whether the
exact one subjected to the above experiment is not mentioned—

Ee Roa Oe EOC ABE A EPO OPUS: “MBER ANS SJ gap 95°72
MS Te oe ht nce wh Slee eed ec gakode So te deah « eRe eRe 2:41
PHOS PROP Wiy5. 2. 5:2) 5 cht one « saddn idtendee poe aes< de emeece Manse 2°41

100-54

Experiments from which we are to deduce an application to such pur-
poses as sheathing, may lead to false results, not being in accordance
with the conditions of application, such as where one sheet of copper
overlaps another, making a connection extending over the whole external
surface of a ship, and embracing thousands of plates. Where a slight
variation in the composition of a few will induce an electrical action
throughout the whole, and thus give results entirely different to suspend-
ing any single sheet, so that we must make our experiments under the
same condition, or have a thorough understanding of how to apply the
results got from single sheets to the conditions to which these may be
applied, such as the clear conceptions which characterises Sir H. Davy’s
inquiry, and from which I have no hesitation in saying, that were a ship

ee

Mr. Naprer on Copper Sheathing. 167

sheathed with a mixture of all these coppers given in Captain James’
experiments, that the few sheets of Dr. Percy’s alloy of copper and phos-
phorus would induce a rapid waste of the whole, and to analyse those
sheets destroyed first and those wearing best, we should have the conclu-
sion that impure copper is best for sheathing.

Mr. Prideaux, whose long experience in the matter under discussion
deserves deference, seems almost inclined to abandon the quality of the
metal, and seek the cause wholly in the conditions, which he states thus:—

Ist. Friction from heavy shore work, faster sailing and more active
service,

2d. Corrosive waters, as the drainage of mines, manufactures, sewers,
and putrescent matters in the sea.

3d. Cumare—corrosive action being increased by heat, and sheathing
is known to waste quicker in tropical climates.

‘Ath. Weatuer.—Electrical and thundery, storms, &c.

5th. Execrro-cuemrcat.—Nails and metal giving a positive tendency to
waste.

6th. Matters laid under sheathing—as tar, paper, felt, which may have
acid or alkaline properties. y

7th. Timber of the vessel—some wood having acid properties, Kc.

Some of these seem as catching at straws, while others, as already
referred to, are important. Sir H. Davy found, that on a vessel going
at a speed of eight miles an hour, the copper most exposed to the friction
of the sea lost more than double that which was least exposed; and Mr.
Prideaux found that pieces of the same quality of copper put into sea
water from different localities, were differently acted upon. In thirteen
days’ exposure the waste of copper in water from

earn oh Grult: Stream, WAR necks eansck cides osee ee N2cRan cee 1°81
Waribbeane Seats ees. conte ee ee Se ened 0:40
Plymouth Harbour. 1. rece wets aepehee vai 0-31

Such circumstances as these are easily defined; but the circumstances, that
when two vessels are sheathed at one time, and kept nearly under the same
conditions, the copper of the one lasting two or three times that of the
other, or even one vessel, her sheathing at one time lasting seventeen or
twenty years, and at another not more than three or four, and employed
on the same service, are not so easily accounted for, and require a
more strict investigation.

Mr. P. sums up his inquiry with the following :—‘ To whatever extent
the recently increased waste of sheathing may be due, such as constant
employ, much greater velocity, &c., there is reason to fear the fault is
still to be sought too often in the copper itself.” These views induced
him to seek information, in a series of letters to the Mining Journal, to
find if any modification or change had taken place in the smelting of the
ores, so that it might lead to the cause of the increased deterioration of the

Vor. II.—No. 3. 3

168 Mr. Napier on Copper Sheathing.

copper, but such information is not to be had, except by a detailed history
of all the operations of smelting during the last eighty years.

Having thus briefly given an outline of the present state of our know-
ledge of the important question of copper sheathing, I will now call the
attention of the Society for a short time to my own views of the matter,
or rather to a vindication of the principle upon which Sir H. Davy based
his opinion, namely, that pure copper, and uniformity of composition and
character, are what are required for good sheathing, referring at the same
time to some of those prominent changes which have taken place in the
production of the copper, to cause the great deterioration recently so
much complained of.

That old sheathing, such as that in use last century, is superior to that
of this century, especially to that made within these last twenty-five years,
is a fact generally admitted. Is, then, the cause of this difference due to
the quality of the metal? In the absence of chemical analyses of old
sheathing, I have sought out probable proof in respect to its quality in
the source from which the copper was obtained. Dr. Black, in his che-
mical lectures (vol. ii. p. 647) says, “ Anglesea contains the richest bed
of copper perhaps in the world, and of late years yields about 25,000
tons of metal annually. The vein is about seventy feet thick.”

These mines were discovered about the time sheathing was introduced
into the navy, and it is computed that for many years not less than
80,000 tons of ore were extracted annually, and the copper commanded
the market of the world. Now the copper from these mines has always
been, as it still is, although the quantities now got. are very small, the
best and purest in quality, and entirely free from those impurities which
I consider deteriorates the copper of this century. Towards the close of
last century, these mines became poorer, and have gradually declined;
the ores from Cornwall and other sources have increased, but the Cornish
ores do not yield copper of the same purity as the Anglesea ores. The
produce of the Cornish mines from 1800 to 1850 was more than doubled
—that of 1800 being 5,187, and that of 1830, 11,554 tons, but consider-
able importations of good copper ore were made from Russia, and assisted
to take the place of the declining supply of the Anglesea ores.

In so far, then, as these ores varied in quantity and quality, so would
be the relative deterioration of the metal; but it was more than relative as
regards the sheathing, for the superior quality of Pary’s mine, and Russian
copper, caused it to be used either wholly, or mixed with the best Cornish
for hammered and other particular work, throwing the burden of the
inferior copper into sheets, as a lower quality of copper will roll better
than it will hammer.

Mr. Prideaux, to whose papers I am indebted for many valuable practical
hints, asks, in one of his inquiries respecting the mixture of the ores for
smelting, “ Were these mixtures not modified to suit the rich American
ores, when these were introduced, from which period some of the best
informed persons date the most rapid sea waste in the sheathing ?”’

Mr. Napier on Copper Sheathing. 169

The ores referred to are from Chili, and the localities on that coast.
There are some of these ores very pure, but the following analyses of two
samples will show their general character :—

EE rns 0s - sanagach esses 30°6 OQPED) a.25<.+4<ccnececeaeeet 28°50
PPAR cc accas ces ciee 5s 29°3 Meat traces scce ses ty ccie teen 25:83
_ PRE eee 21-4 RUIDHUL, .2r-.ccece0s ieeceeene 23°70
Siliceous matter,.......... 16°8 DUVET i, ss Papeete icc 0:06
ATEIMONY,..:......000s0+00- 16 eect mi sescacarcee 18°70

—— Antimony and arsenic,..... 2°80

99°7 —-
A. Tuomas. Joun CAMERON. 99°59

Poorer ores of Chili, and which would not pay transit, undergo an oper-
ation of calcining and fusing near the mines which takes away the matrix,
and the product is brought to this country under the name of regulus.
The following two analyses will give an idea of the general composition of
this compound :-—

REAM ere cose cce cases eins 59°6 OMPCLs ccctewsvvarane say eee 52°8
Bere ree) acness o-'n 191 Rete rccavcgeea¥eirar see 20°83
ATG Behe s.sacis adele wlos as 15°4 MTOM veswalhtosereceorstnees us 18:6
AntimOny,........0seseeeees 12 RVD sac ctvevecsetenreesqss 0-1
Siliceous matter,........... 2°8 AYUMI. sss catceneees cen 1-4
—— DUlGaet sarees seencarscccance 4:2
98-1
974%

The ores and regulus are mixed with the Cornish ores during their pro-
gress of smelting. Previous to the introduction of these ores, the average’
of the ores smelted did not exceed eight per cent. The operations of
smelting are a series of calcining, fusings, and roastings, amounting to
about seven or eight operations, during which the greater portion of
impurities are scorified. The introduction of these richer ores shortened
and lessened the number of operations, and also the chance of so com-
pletely slagging off the deleterious matters. About the same time these
South American ores were introduced, Muntz’s yellow metal came into
use, an alloy of two equivalents of copper and one of zine. The success
of working this alloy depends much upon the purity of the copper used ;
hence, with an increased supply of impure ores, came an increased demand
for good quality of copper to make this alloy, which copper was con-
sequently taken out of the copper market. This was obtained by the
process termed selecting, and to show the bearing of these circumstances
upon the subject under consideration, I must briefly describe the pro-
cess and principle of smelting and selecting. The ore is first calcined
by being placed on the floor of a large high roofed reverberatory

* Some of the iron existed as oxide, which accounts for the loss.

170 Mr. Napier on Copper Sheathing.

furnace, and kept at a dull red heat for several hours, which expels
a great quantity of the sulphur, and oxidates a portion of the iron.
It is then fused in a separate furnace, the silica and oxide of iron com-
bining forms scorfa, or slag; the copper with iron and sulphur combines,
forming what I have described as regulus; the slag or scoria floats and
is skimmed off, the regulus is tapped into a deep pit of water which
granulates it. This granulated regulus is again subjected to calcining
and fusing, until the iron is mostly all oxydised, when the copper remains
as a sub-sulphuret, with a little iron and a portion of the impure metals.
This product is now roasted, by being put into a reverberatory furnace
furnished with air holes, and kept at a semi-fluid state, with a free cur-
rent of air passing over the surface. The reaction may be thus explained.
A portion of sulphur is carried off by the oxygen of the air, and the
copper is oxidated, and this oxide of copper instantly reacts upon or is
decomposed by another portion of sub-sulphuret, the copper of both being
reduced to the metallic state without any carbonaceous matter. Copper
in the fused state has a stronger attraction for sulphur than any of the
other metals, so that when copper begins to be reduced, it will first reduce
all the other sulphurets present, except iron. Therefore, by carrying on
this roasting until about the half of the copper is reduced, and then tap-
ping the furnace, this reduced portion will contain all, or mostly all, the
impurer metals which had existed in the regulus. The sub-sulphuret
remaining is selected and reduced by itself in a separate furnace, to
make pure or select copper for yellow metal. Thus the process of selecting
affected the whole copper trade, and particularly the. sheathing, for the
yellow metal was not only a competing article with ordinary sheathing,
but its production almost necessitated the deterioration of that against
which it was to compete. The reduced copper with the impurities was
taken and subjected to long roasting and refining; if the quality after
that would bear rolling it was used up for sheets, if not it was sold as ¢ie.

The copper trade is now almost entirely relieved from these circum-
stances, by the abundant supply of Australian ores, which are mostly all
pure, giving copper of the best quality; however, so far as regards the
past, and the question under discussion, these circumstances all tend to
show that the cause of the deterioration of sheathing is impurity in the
copper.

The question now occurs, what are the impurities which have thus
deteriorated our copper so much? The paucity of rigid analyses of copper,
and especially of that used for sheathing, prevents a positive answer being
given to this question; but of the few analyses which have been made
public, with one or two exceptions, it is remarkable that there is no men-
tion made of the presence of antimony, but often of tin, and in those
given by Mr. Prideaux, there are both zinc and tin. These analyses
were no doubt made with the"greatest care, nevertheless we cannot help
thinking that the presence of this metal has been overlooked. Our
reasons for thinking so are, that antimony is an ingredient in almost all

Mr. Napier on CopperSheathing. 171

Cornish ores, and in most of the Spanish and South American ores. Out
of twenty-one samples of sheet copper obtained in the market, the analyses
of which I have either made or seen, not one was entirely free from antimony,
and while some had only a trace, one sample had as much as one-half per
cent. Only three of these contained tin, two had sulphur, and none zine.
From upwards of fifty commercial samples of ore from as many mines in
Cornwall and Devonshire, not one was free from antimony, and only fourteen
contained tin. However, the character of mines varies in a series of
years, and the ores obtained fifty years ago from these Iccalities may
have been purer. ;

The absence of lead in any of the analyses given is another thing worthy
of remark. Mr. Prideaux mentions that a little lead is put into the
refining, but says it is only to scorify the tin, and reduce any suboxide,
but it does not remain in the copper. This is not the only reason for lead
being put into copper. Lead, where there is antimony, is essential to
enable the copper to roll. Copper with from three to five hundred of a
per cent. of antimony, would be hard and brittle without lead, but I have
seen copper with 0°65 per cent. of antimony, having been made tough
to roll by lead, and in use as sheathing. Two analyses out of many will
suffice :—

Hard copper would not roll. Copper in sheets said to roll well.
RAORUOM sabe sdecieees seve ~ 99°40 Copperye...ceceeserereeees 99°35
PRES Ges cscs oa aesleaaeices 0-10 Praiis sss Bhsrerev tres My 108. -
PaMMONY;. 2.002) Nice. ss 0:06 Antimony, ......sscereeees 15
Sulphur,......... eens trace Mead eas. te deren Aesceasts or Ih

99-56 99:69

Here then the presence of antimony is not only bad in itself, but it neces-
sitates the addition of another impurity to it, and one I consider also
deleterious to sheathing. The external appearance also of the sheets favours
this view of the question. ‘Recent sheathing,” says Mr. Prideaux, “is
complained of as being less smooth and compact than old sheathing ;”
exactly what the presence of these alloys will give as they become scori-
fied on the surface during the annealing and rolling. “Good sheathing
becomes quickly covered with a thin scale or crust of green, which
adheres all over, and seems to remain. Bad sheathing keeps brighter,
or takes on a soft blue crust, with patches or edges of purple.” These
are exactly what the experiments of Sir H. Davy, and the view here
taken of the subject, would lead us to expect from pure and alloyed
copper.

I have also had my laboratory experiments, extending over many
months, and not yet complete, hoping to find some data to follow, but
so far as results haye been obtained, I am still bound by the inferences
drawn by Sir H. Dayy. I have taken all the published analyses of sea
water from different localities, and made up little quantities accordingly,
and submitted pieces of copper of the same quality to their action. The

172 Mr. NAPIER on Copper Sheathing.

only conclusion yet apparent is, that chloride of magnesium is more destruc-
tive to the copper than any of the other salts found in sea water; and,
according to the principle of diffusion recently defined by Professor
Graham, the chlorides being most easily diffused, there is an excess of
chlorides over sulphates near to the mouth of large rivers, which may
account for the rapid destruction of sheathing sometimes observed on
vessels lying near the mouths of rivers. However, I do not give this as
any explanation of the general question.

I have again taken copper alloyed with from one to two per cent. of
other metals, as zine, iron, lead, arsenic, tin, bismuth, cobalt, nickel, and
antimony, and submitted them to the action of sea water. The results, so
far as they have gone, only tend to verify the general question, that pure
copper is acted upon more rapidly in salt water than alloyed copper. One
general principle seems indicated, namely, that copper alloyed with a
metal electro-positive to it, is more rapidly acted upon by sea water than
when alloyed with a metal electro-negative to it, so that I would infer
that a ship sheathed with copper of various qualities of alloy, however
minute, will be more rapidly destroyed than if sheathed with copper of
one quality. The sample alloyed with antimony was least acted upon,
that with no alloy most, the proportion being as three to seven; there-
fore, if a vessel were sheathed with a mixture of these qualities the waste
would necessarily be rapid, and an analysis of any single sheet from the
vessel would not give the true cause. This, I believe, has led to much
error. One sheet having worn well is analysed and found to contain an
alloy, another wearing thin in two or three years is found nearly pure;
hence alloyed copper is recommended, and this is no doubt the cause of
the haphazard manner in which different applications have been made, to
the disappointment and loss of many.

Thad intended calling attention to the various patents taken out for
improvements in sheathing, as an illustration of the great want of prac-
tical knowledge, and of the application of principles to ‘such questions
which often tends to give our merchants and manufacturers a very indif-
ferent opinion of the value of science, but time will not permit. Only
one of the numerous patents taken out has stood the test of experience,
as I have already noticed, viz. Muntz’s yellow metal; and any want of
uniformity in the sheets of this alloy, also causes more rapid destruction
of the sheathing. 7

Mr. James Thomson explained his patent apparatus for obviating
priming in steam engines,

19th February, 1851.— Mr. Wi114am Murray in the Chair.

Messrs. Arcoipatp M. Fre and James Milne were admitted members.
A letter was read from the Swansea Literary and Scientific Society,

Dr. MitcHEtt on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine. 178

acknowledging receipt of the last part of the Society’s published pro-
ceedings.

Mr. James Thomson read a paper on his Patent Turbine Water
Wheels.

5th March, 1851.—The Vicz-PreswEnt in the Chair.

Mr. Maruteson was admitted a member.

Dr. Robert D. Thomson produced copies of the documents prepared
for the Town Council, with a view to the monthly publication of the bills
of mortality and the vital statistics of the city. He stated, that on com-
municating with Major Graham, the Registrar General, on the subject,
that gentleman had, in the most liberal manner, placed at his disposal,
for the use of the medical men of Glasgow, 250 copies of a Statistical
Nosology, which would be of great service in making up the returns for
the Town Council. Dr. Thomson proposed that the Committee on this
subject should be continued, for the purpose of endeavouring to promote
an improved registration of births. The Committee was accordingly con-
tinued.

Dr. Allen Thomson read the first part of a paper “ On the Structural
Relations of the Nervous and Muscular Textures in the Higher and
Lower Animals.”

19th March, 1851.—The Vicz-Presipent in the Chair.

Messrs. Cornetius J. Hucues, J. KE. Harvey, and Dr. John Aitken,
were admitted members.
The following papers were read :—

XXI.—On the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine, with
a Notice of their Chemical Constitution. By Arruur Mrronett, M A.,
M.D., &c.

By subjecting large numbers of plants, under circumstances as nearly
similar as possible, first to one powerful chemical reagent, and then to
another, we might almost predict results of considerable interest. With
the view of elucidating the nature of vegetables by these means, a series
of investigations was instituted by Dr. Stenhouse, of St. Bartholomew’s,
London, and the results, as communicated to the Royal Society, fully
realize anticipations.

During these experiments, it was found that almost all plants, when
subjected to the action of strong nitric acid, yielded oxalic and nitropicric
acids, showing that many more vegetables are capable of yielding this

174 Dr, MircHELt on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine.

latter body, than is generally supposed. Among the plants experimented
upon, and yielding these results, were the Bedford willow, the labur-
num, the mahogany, the apple tree, the hawthorn, the black currant,
the alder, the furze, the heather, turmeric, the alder, and the common
broom.

Some peculiar exceptions, however, presented themselves :—The popu-
lus balsamifera, and the other plants of the poplar tribe, were found to
yield a new acid, which has been called the nitropopulic acid, and which
resembles, in several of its characters, indigotic acid. It is deposited in
silky needles, in groups having a concentric arrangement. The produc-
tion of this body, therefore, seems to characterize the poplar tribe, and is
probably the result of the action of NO; on the populine they contain.

The extracts of the common oak and birch, yielded simply oxalic acid.
Neither nitropicric, nor any other analogous nitrogenated acid, could be
found.

I haye thus given in very brief and general terms, the results of these
interesting researches.

As the extract of the spartium scoparium, or common broom, besides
yielding nitropicric acid, as above stated, exhibited some interesting
peculiarities, it was subjected to a more minute examination.

When an aqueous decoction of this plant was concentrated to about
one tenth of its bulk, and set aside in a cool situation for half a-day, it
was conyerted into a gelatinous mass, of a greenish brown colour. This
jelly was then thrown upon a filter, and washed with cold water, slightly
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and further purified by repeated
erystallizations out of hot water and spirit of wine. In this pure condi-
tion it consists of pale yellow prisms, and has a feebly acid reaction. Its
behaviour with chemical reagents is of a negative and doubtful character,
neither distinctly occupying the position of an acid or a base. Its
empyrical formula is C_ Hy Oy. To this substance Dr. Stenhouse has

given the name scoparine, and with its physiological actions we shall

have shortly to deal.

I now proceed to notice, with equal brevity, the chemical characters of
the other substance named in the heading of the paper.

When the mother liquor from the crude scoparine has been concen-
trated to a moderate bulk, and distilled with an excess of soda, we obtain
in small quantity at the bottom of the receiver, a pale yellow basic oil,
which has been designated spartine. Its reaction is strongly alkaline,
the most powerful acids being completely neutralized by it. The base
itself is but slightly soluble in water, but disappears readily in alcohol and
ether. Its combinations, however, with NO;, SO;, and HCl, are
exceedingly soluble, and crystallize with great difficulty. With nitropic-
rie acid a body is formed, in long acicular crystals, scarcely differing in
appearance from the compound of that acid with potash. Its formula is,
Cis His N, C,. H2 N; Ors + HO. :

The double chloride of platinum and spartine crystallises in rectangn-

.

.

Dr. MircuE.t on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine. 175

lar prisms of considerable size and great lustre. This salt contains 2
equivalents of water which it loses at 266° F.

The double salt of mercury and spartine presents the form of the right
rhombic prism. The crystals formed are large and of great brilliancy.
The ultimate composition of the base itself, as found by analysis, gave,
as an average, in 0°2507 grammes of spartine of CO, 0°7052, and of HO
0°251, and its formula has been fixed to be C,; Hi; N.

Between spartine and scoparine every one will have observed a wide
difference. The former is a body possessing very strongly the properties
of a base, readily entering into combinations, and in such cases presenting
us with regular and beautiful crystalline pon while scoparine, on the
other bind, is much more of a negative, and is found wanting in positive
characters. They both exist as spartine and as scoparine in the plant, no
violent chemical reagent having been employed in their extraction. The
one is already prepared in a concentrated decoction of the broom, and to
obtain the other nothing is needed but simple distillation, an alkali being
added to liberate it from its combination.

The results of the chemical examination of this plant are therefore
highly satisfactory, and especially sowhen we compare them with those
obtained by Cadet de Gassicourt, and given by him in the Journal de
Pharmacie, (x. 448.) He tells us that broom tops are composed of “a
concrete volatile oil, wax, chlorophylle, a fatty matter, a sweet sub-
stance, a yellow collouring matter, mucilage, tannin, albumen, and woody
fibre.’ There is a vagueness about this which shows to disadvantage
side by side with the precision of our knowledge respecting spartine and
scoparine. Unfortunately, the; chemical examination of the plants
employed in medicine are too frequently like those by Cadet, and much
too rarely like that the notice of which I now conclude.

We have hitherto regarded the physiological action of broom upon
man and the lower animals to be that of a diuretic, occasionally pro-
ducing, when given in ‘very large doses, vomiting and purging. Its
diuretic action, however, has always been looked upon as the most
prominent. Notwithstanding these views, it struck me as possible that
these two principles might have separate and independent physiological
actions, and to determine this point I began a series of investigations.
With scoparine, the gelatinous principle of broom, I commenced, and my
first experiments were, of course, made on the lower animals. :

Obs. I. Three young rabbits were placed under such circumstances as
that all the urine voided by them in twenty-four hours could be ascer-
tained with accuracy. They received as nearly as possible the same food,
both as regards quantity and quality, and being left in this condition
during two complete days, it was found that the daily amount excreted
by each was pretty nearly equal. The same three rabbits were continued
under the same conditions during a second period of two days ; but on
this occasion I gave to two of them 8 grain doses of scoparine repeated
every eight hours. I found at the expiry of this period, that the two

176 Dr. Mrrowett on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine.

under the drug had voided more than double the amount of urine which
they had passed in the same time formerly, and double also of the

amount passed by the third rabbit, which was left in the old state with-

out receiving any of the medicine. The same three animals were kept
during a third period of two days, and at the end of that period the
urine they voided had reached the original standard. Before performing
this experiment in so conclusive a manner, I had made repeated observa-
tions on single rabbits, where, however, the liabilities to error were con-
siderable. Yet, although the results in this case were of a satisfactory
nature, I repeated the observation, employing three other rabbits, and
obtaining almost the same results.

Obs. II. I gave to a young dog, whose urinating powers I had tested
as well as I possibly could, 5 grain doses of the scoparine, repeated at
intervals of eight hours; and I found that, when under the drug, he invari-
ably passed an amount of urine considerably above the standard of health.
This experiment I repeated several times.

Obs. III. When I had reached this point in the aca I felt at all
events satisfied that the substance was harmless in moderate quantities,
and I accordingly exhibited it in 5 grain doses to A. B, a young man
in good health, and léading a life having an average share of out-door
exercise. In his case it had been ascertained during a lengthened train
of experiments, for another object, that the average amount of urine
passed daily was 34 oz. and that the widest range was only 5 oz., or
from 32 to 37 oz., while at the same time it was shown that the average

specific gravity was 1023. Now, how did the use of the scoparine

affect these figures? The third dose had not been taken when there
was an evident increase observed in the secretion from the kidneys, and
this continued during the whole period of its use, and disappeared on its
withdrawal. But to what extent was this increase observed? The
average rose from 34 to 80 oz. daily, and at the same time the specific
gravity fell to 1010. And it is worthy of note, (as confirmation of a

continued diuretic action,) that during the latter period of its administra- -

tion considerable thirst was experienced. This was not, however, gratified,
the solids and fluids being in quantity and quality as nearly as possible
the same, when the average was 34 oz., as now when the average was
80 oz. And it has still further to be noted, that a return to the former
high specific gravity at once followed its discontinuance. This observa-
tion was repeated several times on the same person, and afterwards on
others.*

That this is a diuretic principle, therefore, we can have no doubt. It
increased the whole amount voided, lowered the specific gravity, created
thirst when persevered in, and, in the case of the rabbits, rendered clear,

* Among these I mention Dr. Pereira, to whom Dr. Stenhouse sent a small
quantity, and who experienced in his own person an evident diuretic action from a
single 5 grain dose, the quantity voided amounting to 78 oz. He considers it a
diuretic, but not a powerful one.

ee

Dr. MrrcHEtt on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine. 177

transparent, and acid, their urine, which is nominally opalescent and
alkaline. In its action upon the kidneys in man, it appears merely to
increase the secretion of water. In the case of A. B., the amount of
solids thrown off daily in the urine was, on an average, 827 grains; and
while under the stimulus of scoparine, the amount of solids averaged 826
grains ; thus showing the singular fact, that between the periods when the
whole excretion averaged 34 oz., and that when the whole averaged
80 oz., there was only the difference in the average of contained solids of
1 grain. These results are so very close, that they almost seem acci-
dental; but it must be remembered, that in both cases the averages are
struck from a long train of experiments, the only safe method of conduct-
ing such researches as the present. As far as possible, too, I had made
all the conditions in the two cases identical. We thus find the absolute
amount of salts in the urine to be unaffected, while the aqueous portion is
more than doubled. I ascertained, too, in a rough manner, that these
salts were in the relative proportions of health.

Now it seems somewhat astonishing that a body possessing such
indefinite and negative properties as scoparine, should have a diuretic
action, or indeed any marked action at all on the animal economy.
And it at once becomes a point of interest to ascertain the channel
by which it stimulates the kidneys to an increase of their secretion.
About the period of conducting these researches, I happened to observe,
in giving gallic acid in pretty large doses, for the purpose of arresting
hzemorrhage from the lungs, that it exerted a diuretic action. A
few experiments and additional observations determined the quesiion.
In examining the urine of these cases, I detected, without difficulty, the
presence of gallic acid itself. The same thing was done in the milk of
the mother, and the urine of the child at the breast. I believe this is
the first notice of such a property possessed by gallic acid, although Dr.
Christison recently told me that such has of late been observed in the
Edinburgh Infirmary. I make allusion to it, however, with reference to
its mode of action, This substance appears to operate as a direct
stimulant to the secreting vessels of the kidney, being taken into the
current of the circulation, and carried without undergoing any decom
position in transitu to the urinary organs. Now to this class of diuretics,
Pereira refers broom; but J could in no case detect any evidence of
the existence of scoparine in the urine. I therefore felt inclined rather
to suppose that being partially acted on by the digestive organs, some of
its component parts thus.eliminated had been conveyed to the kidneys,
and that they had thus been stimulated to increased action, or, that this
substance had acted primarily on the stomach, and that its action on the
urinary organs was a secondary one, communicated by sympathy. 'ind-
ing this diuretic property in both gallic acid and scoparine, I thought it
possible that some of the other yellow colouring principles might be
similarly endowed. And such observations as I made were affirmative of
this expectation, so that we have a class of bodies somewhat analogous in

178 Dr. Mircuett on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine.

their composition and general chemical relations, having probably analo-
gous physiological actions, Amongst the substances referred to, I may
enumerate the two yellow colouring principles from the bois jaune or
morus tinctoria, the morine and moritannic acid of isomeric composition,
the quercitannic acid, the purreeic acid, the morindine from the morinda
citrifolia, &c. &e.

With these remarks I terminate, for the present, the consilenitien of
scoparine, although, after pointing out the physiological actions of spartine,
I shall have occasion briefly to revert to it.

Spartine.—This substance, a volatile oil, has a strong and persistent
odour of tobacco. Its taste is acrid and bitter. It acts locally as an
irritant. When applied to the mucous lining of the eye, it produces red-
ness and pain; and, indeed, to whatever part applied, as, for instance, to
a cut surface, it excites immediate expressions of suffering. These
local effects, however, are lost in the remote action of the drug.

Obs. I. When a couple of drops of the oil were laid upon the tongue
of a young dog, symptoms*of uneasiness from the local irritation were at
first observed, but these soon disappeared, and were followed by drowsi-
ness and loss of muscular power, which lasted for fifteen or twenty
minutes, and then gradually disappeared without producing any apparent
injury.

When the dose was increased to three or four drops, and when the
base was saturated with acetic acid, the same symptoms were produced,
only in a more intense form. The animal made some staggering forward
movements, became drowsy, and at last fell asleep. ‘Some slight convul-
sive movements were observed, but they were very trifling, and are better
styled tremors than convulsions. The respiration and pupils in these
cases remained unaffected, at least to any observable degree.

Obs. II. When a single drop of the oil, dissolved in weak acetic acid,
was given to a young rabbit, a state resembling intoxication was pro-
duced after the lapse of two or three minutes; the animal staggered in
walking, allowed its head to drop upon the floor, dragged its limbs for-
ward, opened and shut its eyes heavily and slowly, and then adjusted
itself for sleep. From this state it soon recovered. When its posture
was rendered uncomfortable, it invariably made efforts to rid itself of the
annoyance, showing that the external senses are unimpaired or not wholly
destroyed, at least while the action of the drug is only carried thus far.
I was able also to satisfy myself that sight and smell were not materially,
if at all, affected. I repeated this observation several times on different
rabbits, increasing slightly the dose, and obtaining a corresponding
increase in the intensity of the symptoms, sometimes producing a depth of
narcotism and general paralysis, from which it seemed doubtful if the
animal would recover. I also found, in repeating these experiments, that
the substance acted more energetically when in combination, than when
exhibited in its pure state.

Obs. III. In gradually increasing the dose, as detailed above, I ascer-

Dr. Mircne.y on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine. 179

tained that six drops produced the death of a rabbit ina few minutes.
Deep stupor, with palsy of the voluntary muscles, followed rapidly by
palsy of the diaphragm, &c., terminated in death from asphyxia. Slight
convulsive movements took place, and the pupil appeared to be con-
tracted. No internal lesion was detected on examining the cadaver.
No vomiting, or purging, or voiding of urine preceded death. Efforts
were made to restore life to the animal, and artificial respiration was
persevered in for a considerable time, without any success. Sometimes a
longer period was required to produce death, and, in one case, it occurred
three hours after the drug had been given.

It thus appears, in general terms, that spartine is a pretty powerful
narcotic poison, producing ceath in doses which are small. The exis-
tence of a body possessing these properties in broom was what I had
never anticipated. Yet on inquiry I find that every sheep farmer in the
Highlands is familiar with the fact. And country people generally con-
sider the plant to possess intoxicating virtues, as evidenced by its use in
Germany and elsewhere in the preparation of beer, to which it is sup-
posed to impart its heady influence. During snow storms, when the
sheep are compelled ¢o feed almost entirely on the tops of broom, it is a
common thing to see them reel and give evidence of intoxication. The
facts would of course have remained unaltered, whither such had previ-
ously been observed or not, but still it is satisfactory as in confirmation.*

Anatocies To Coniitne and Nicormve.—There are two other plants
which yield volatile natural alkaloids, and to the properties of these my
attention was naturally directed. I refer to conéine and nicotine, whose
general chemical and physical characters present a very close similarity
to those of spartine. In their ultimate composition, too, while there is
certainly not a sufficient analogy to make us predict in all three the same
physiological actions, yet there does exist an analogy close enough to
arrest attention. There is at all events a marked absence of dissimilarity.
I represent, in a tabular form, the ultimate composition of these three
bodies.

Conéine, as determined by Ortigosa, ...........065 Oi, Hie N.
x Nicotine, as determined by Barral,..............+. Cig Ns
Spartine, as determined by Stenhouse,.............Cy; Hy N.

‘Now these three bodies may be said to possess the same physiological
actions, differing only in the degree of intensity, the first being the most

* Dr. Paris has ingeniously referred the diuretic action of digitalis to its sedative
influence. Had he known that broom possessed a narcotic principle also, he would
have referred its diuretic action also to the same cause. But is it not more pro-
bable that the diuretic property of digitalis depends upon one principle, and the
sedative upon another, which are separable? Dr, Paris reasons thus:—As the
energy of absorption is generally in the inverse ratio of that of the circulation, it is
presumable that all means which diminish arterial action must indirectly prove
diuretic, by exciting the fimction of absorption.

180 Dr. MircHett on the Physiological Actions of Spartine aud Scoparine.

powerful, two or three drops injected into the femoral vein of a dog killing
it ina couple of seconds. They are all three narcotic poisons of con-
siderable power, acting upon the spinal cord, of which they appear to
exhaust the energy. They are, I think, the only three volatile natural
alkaloids with which we are acquainted, at least the only ones extracted
from plants employed in medicine.

I have often felt inclined to believe that bodies similarly constituted,
chemically and physically, should exert similar influences on the animal
economy, and, as the reverse, that where similar effects are manifested,
similarly constituted principles should be found to exist. I know that
serious difficulties meet me on the threshold, but some of these are melt-
ing away under more accurate modes of investigation, and the new facts
which are from time to time being added to our stock, for the purposes
of generalization, are rather in favour of, than opposed to, such a view.

In the datura stramonium, hyoscyamus niger, and atropa belladonna,
all belonging to the solanacez, three principles have been discovered,
atropine by Liebig, daturine and hyoscyamine by Brandes. And it has
been pointed out by Runge, that these three bodies have the same com-
position, C., H,; O, N. Now between their physiological effects there
exists no difference in kind. They all produce “ dilatation of the pupil,
insensibility of the iris to light, diminished feeling, giddiness, delirium
(extravagant) followed by stupor, a remarkable affection of the throat and
mouth.’’ Between these results, however, and those from nicotine,
conéine, and spartine, we have essential differences; instead of dilata-
tion we have contraction of the pupil; we have the absence of delirium
and the throat affection; and, as somewhat characteristic, we have the
paralysing effect on the muscular system. But we have not only a
wide difference in their action on living beings, but a wide one also
between their chemical constitutions and general properties. And, as a -
further illustration, it has been found, that wherever a plant has been
generally and extensively employed to yield a favourite and refreshing
beverage, some body has been detected in it, either the same as theine,
or closely allied to it.

Most people admit, as a general rule, “that plants of the same family,
or, in other words, having the same botanical affinities, agree in the
nature of their medicinal operation,” but we cannot, therefore, argue with
Dr. Lindley, in saying, “ that a knowledge of one plant is a guide to the
practitioner, which enables him to substitute, with confidence, some other
plant which is closely allied to it,” for to this statement there are many
remarkable exceptions, which, however, diminish, but do not destroy its
utility in practice. "

In what manner then does spartine produce the effects detailed?
The answer may be derived in part from what has been already stated. |
Omitting altogether the question whither it acts by absorption or a
by sympathy—a questio vexata on which no new light is thrown by
these researches—we are led to locate its primary action on the

Dr. MircHeE on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine. 181

spinal cord. The effects, however, are directly opposed to those of
strychnine, for while the latter exalts the nervous energy of the cord, and
produces muscular spasm of more or less permanence, the other exhausts
it, and causes muscular paralysis. Both appear to act (but in ways
opposed) on the seat of the reflex functions; and, if Grainger’s views be
right, this must be on the gray matter of the spinal cord. And here I am
naturally brought to a practical inference. If the actions of this body
are so manifestly the counterpart of those of strychnine, it follows, or is
presumable, that in cases of poisoning by the latter substance, it should
prove an antidote or remedy; and so also, in like manner, in con-
vulsive or spasmodic diseases, with analogous symptoms, as tetanus,
hydrophobia, &c. Now, strange to say, I find that in 1813, Marochetti
recommended broom as a specific in cases of hydrophobia ; and Geiger, in
his Pharmaceutical Botany, tells us, that even yet the genista tinctoria is
employed in Germany in cases of this disease. Tobacco, too, from
which nicotine is prepared, enjoyed at one time the reputation of being
curative of this affection; and, in 1838, a trial of conéine was actually
made with such an object in the London Hospital. Of this I give a brief
report :—“ In the case of hydrophobia, in a middle aged man, after the
disease was fully formed, two minims of conia, dissolved in 30 drops of
acetic. acid, were applied endermically to the pericardium. The effects
were instantaneous. The pulse fell from 64 to 46, and became more
regular. The vomitings and convulsions ceased; the respiration became
less difficult, and the symptoms of the disease became altogether miti-
gated. The man expressed himself as feeling much better, and enter-
taining hopes of an ultimate recovery. These effects, however, were but
transitory, and, in about seven minutes, the symptoms began to reappear,
and shortly assumed their previous urgency. Three minims were
injected into the rectum, about a quarter of an hour after the endermic
application, but it produced no effect in allaying the symptoms of the
disease. The remedy was not repeated, and the man became rapidly
worse, and died in a few hours.” Convulsive movements have been
several times produced in rabbits by strychnine, and have almost invari-
ably been stopped by conéine, but instead of preventing, it has appeared to
hasten, a fatal issue. May this not have arisen from the remedy itself
being too powerful an agent, too active a poison? And might we not
with reason, in such a case, make trial of spartine, whose effects are
identical in kind, but whose power or violence is much diminished ?
Under this feeling I made the following experiments :—

Obs. I. To a full grown rabbit I gave 4 grain of strychnine, which
produced, in twenty minutes, violent, persistent, and general spasms.
The head was rigidly bent backwards, the muscles of the abdomen were
tense and hard, the limbs stiff and inflexible, and, as far as could be dis-
covered, respiration was wholly suspended, as was also the case with the
action of the heart. I placed three minims of pure spartine immediately
upon the back part of its tongue. ‘The result was striking. The spasm

182 Dr. Mitcuent on the Ph ysiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine.

and rigidity instantly and wholly disappeared, and the body of the animal
became so flaccid as to appear unnatural by comparison with its previous
condition. Beyond a slight and occasional pulsation of the heart, no
evidence of life, however, still existed. I at once began artificial respira-
tion, and after persevering for three minutes, a jerking and irregular
respiratory movement was restored, which gradually became natural, and
was followed by evidences of returning consciousness, until at length the
animal was able to walk about. It still, however, appeared to be uneasy,
and refused to eat. In less than ten minutes slight convulsions returned,
and these went on increasing in severity, till they attained a parallel
with those which first occurred. I again exhibited three drops of spar- ~
tine, and again the spasm disappeared. But on this occasion I failed in
establishing the respiration, and the animal became cold and died, with-
out the occurrence of convulsions, or even twitchings.

Obs. II. To a young healthy rabbit I-gave strychnine in doses on ido
of a grain, repeated at intervals of half-an-hour. Five doses had been
taken without any unpleasant effect. Shortly after the fifth, however,
most violent and intense tetanic spasms or convulsions were suddenly
induced. I instantly gave it three drops of the base, and as immediately
all spasm vanished. The animal, however, never recovered, death
taking place from the action of the spartine.

Obs. III. I gave less than one thirtieth of a grain of strychnine to a
young rabbit, and no symptom of uneasiness occurred till nearly three
hours after the exhibition of the drug. At this period slight and occa-
sional twitchings were observed in the limbs, which gradually embraced
the muscular system generally, and at length became violent and lasting
spasms. I then gave very small doses of the spartine, dissolved in weak
acetic acid, at short intervals of about two or three minutes. I continued
this till I had given in all a couple of drops of the base, and as I went on
I found the intensity of the spasm giving way, and the intermissions
lengthening, until nothing remained but occasional twitchings, which,
in their turn, as I persevered with the spartine, also disappeared, and the
animal fell asleep. It remained in this condition for half-an-hour and
upwards, when suddenly the breathing became laboured, and death, from
asphyxia, ensued in a few minutes. There were no convulsions.

Obs. IV. Scarcely one fiftieth of a grain of strychnine was given to
a young rabbit, but this was sufficient to induce, after a lapse of six
hours, a state of restlesness, with slight and occasional startings of the
muscles of the limbs and abdomen. A small quantity of the spartine,
neutralised in weak acetic acid, was then given slowly and cautiously
to the animal. Drowsiness followed, and the intervals of repose between
the twitches were lengthened, but there was no sudden cessation of the
spasmodic action. The animal perfectly recovered. Had no spartine
been given in this case, I do not think the issue would have been fatal,
but the duration and intensity of the spasms would probably have been
greater.

Dr. MrrcHe on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine. 188

All that I would say as the result of these experiments is, that I
would think spartine worthy of a trial in tetanus or hydrophobia ; but in
making such a trial, my hopes of success would not be very high, for I
have a resistless conviction that the diseases are scarcely amenable to
treatment. Dismissing, however, the practical view, I rest the interest
of these facts on their scientific or physiological aspect. One train of
symptoms is induced by one substance, and an opposite by another ; and
it is found that the effects of the first, when manifested by an animal, can
be removed, or, so to speak, neutralised by the exhibition of the second.

We have thus shown in broom the existence of two principles, the one
diuretic and the other narcotic. In employing, therefore, a decoction of
broom, as has hitherto been the practice in dropsical and other affections,
we subject the patient to the narcotic influence of the spartine, as well as
to the diuretic effects of the scoparine, a result which might not be desir-
able, but which is not of much consequence in this particular case, since
the amount of spartine given in the decoction is exceedingly trifling. I
have lately observed, however, that where it was administered freely, its
soporifie qualities were rendered sufficiently evident. To avoid these I
do not think it necessary to employ chemically pure scoparine. If a
simple decoction be evaporated to dryness on the water bath, then treated
with a little dilute hydrochloric acid, the mixture thrown upon a filter,
and washed with cold water, almost the whole of the spartine will be
removed, and the dark green gelatinous mass remaining on the filter will
be found to possess the diuretic without the narcotic properties of the
plant.

T haye said that, in the case of broom, I do not think this separation of
much value, as regards the practice of medicine, and I have given my
reasons. It might have been otherwise, however. We have many plants
in the materia medica possessing known complex actions, depending (as I
am inclined to believe) on principles of definite chemical characters, which
are separable, and to possess these separated would surely be a benefit.
Thus, we have a plant exerting a physiological action, which I shall call
ABC; and we give it in a case for its action A, where its actions
B and ©, are contra-indicated. To say the very least, we have done a
thing that was far from desirable, and we should certainly have been
fainers, great gainers, had it been in our power to administer A alone,
when we wanted its effects alone; and so also, in like manner, B and C
alone, when we desired their uncomplicated effects. Regarded in this
light only, such researches as the present are proved to be of importance,
and of practical importance too, although in one case it may be negative,
and in another positive.

I offer a further illustration of its importance. There is a very great
diversity of opinion about the efficiency of broom as a diuretic. Accord-
ing to Dr. Pereira, it never fails to act upon the kidneys, and is the most
certain of all diuretics in dropsies; and he states that he cannot call to
mind a single instance in which it failed. Mead, Cullen, and Pearson,

Vor, ITI.—No, 3. 4

184 Dr. MrrcHent on the Physiological Actions of Spartine and Scoparine:

take a middle course ; while Christison and others pronounce it uncertain,
and, as compared with others, of little value. Now, these researches
account, in some measure, for this discrepancy. It was found that plants,
which had grown under different circumstances, yielded very variable
amounts of these active principles, and of all experimented on, those were
found to yield most which grew on a low-lying sandy ground, with a
sunny exposure, and which seemed to be stunted in their growth, the
entire plants not exceeding a foot or a foot and a-half in height I need
not enlarge on this point, for it is thus quite clear how one man’s experi-
ence of the efficiency of the plant may be widely different from that of
another. But I cannot pass this opportunity of alluding to the uncer-
tainty that must necessarily attend the use of all vegetable infusions or
decoctions where so much of their activity depends upon the circumstances
under which the plants grew, &c. And, while I notice this uncertainty,
IT cannot but call attention to the comparative certainty that attends the
employment of the vegetable alkaloids. When we give, for instance, 1
grain of quinine, we know exactly that which we have given, and we may
reckon, with corresponding confidence, on its operation; but when we
give of the cinchona bark what we deem an equivalent of 1 grain of
quina, we are presuming some certainty where very wide variations are
known to exist. And if that for which we give the bark be really the
quina contained in it, I have shown it to be, in a twofold sense, advan-
tageous to give the alkaloid itself; for, in the first place, we give it freed
from such other matters as shall either impede, modify, or counteract its
action; and, in the second place, we know precisely the amount of the
substance given, whose action we desire.

With how great certainty can we count upon the effects of morphine,
strychnine, nicotine, or any of the other active principles of plants which
are employed. Among such a class of bodies, I feel firmly convinced we
shall seek, with profit and wisdom, for additions to our pharmacopeeia; or
rather, I should say, important substitutions, since the voluminous list of
vegetables at present admitted into the materia medica, would rather be
diminished than increased by such discoveries. This is very evident, if
we suppose (as is probable) that similar actions are dependant upon
similarly constituted “active principles” existing in these plants, and
which, I believe, in nine cases out of ten, to be capable of isolation.

Influenced by considerations like the foregoing, I undertook the
experiments detailed. But I did not confine myself to spartine and
scoparine. I investigated the actions of some other natural vegetable
alkaloids, and of one artificially produced. I refer to furfurine, the base
of the furfurol. I am led in these researches to suspect that this may prove
an antiperiodic, and, as such, a cheaper substitute for quinine. More
extended experiments, however, are required, the real modus operandi of
antiperiodics being very imperfectly known.

Mr. Brown on the Commercial Value of Black Oxide of Manganese. 185

XXII.—On the Estimation of the Commercial Value of some Specimens
of Black Oxide of Manganese. By Mr. Georce Witt1am Brown.

Tue value of binoxide of manganese may be estimated in various ways,
all of which depend on the determination of the amount of oxygen which
they contain. The first of these is the method by oxalic acid, and con-
sists in the oxygen of the manganese giving oxygen to the carbonic oxide
of the oxalic acid, and converting it into carbonic acid. The first
method of accomplishing this was proposed by Berthier, who disengaged
the carbonic acid in a flask from which a bent tube passes into another

flask containing barytes water; the carbonic acid being disengaged,

passes through the barytes water, and precipitates the barytes in the
form of carbonate. The precipitate is then weighed, and from the
amount of oxalic acid decomposed, the amount of oxygen is calculated.

A modification of this plan was made by Dr. Thomson, who,
instead of estimating the amount of oxalic acid decomposed by weighing
the carbonic acid, calculated it by the loss sustained in the flask contain-
ing the oxalic acid, &c. This method is much more convenient, as one
small flask is only employed, while, by Berthier’s plan, two flasks are
necessary. Less time is also required to calculate the value of the
manganese by this plan than the former The mode of applying this
method is, to fit a light flask with a cork, through which a small tube
containing chloride of calcium passes. The oxide of manganese is then
weighed out in the tube which is suspended from the cork by a thread;
the oxalic acid, with a small portion of sulphuric acid and water, being
first introduced into the flask. The whole is weighed, and then the tube
containing the manganese is allowed to drop into the oxalic acid. Car-
bonie acid is immediately disengaged. When the action is over the
apparatus is weighed again; the difference between the first and second
weights gives the quantity of carbonic acid which has escaped. From
this weight the oxygen in the manganese is calculated. Then, since
there are two atoms of carbonic acid driven off, and the weight of two
atoms of carbonic acid exactly equals the weight of one atom of binoxide
of manganese, the amount of loss between the first and second weighing
will be equal to the amount of binoxide in the specimen.

T have made two analyses of a specimen of sesquioxide of manganese
from New Brunswick, the results of which are as follows :—

“60 grains was the amount worked on.

First analysis.

Weight of apparatus before disengaging CO,,.... = 1105-16
Weight of apparatus after disengaging CO.,...... pee DU Ce

BOE ML OU GRAINS, ,... .xckscencsvevvaqecedectcsasses = 28°06
MEETS POF COLL t ck ots cbbdassssoe ere orabevasdsteos = 56°12

186 Mr. Brown on the Commercial Value of Black Oxide of Manganese.

By another method the equivalent of binoxide per cent. was found to
be 55°99.

This method is very convenient, both from the short time it takes to
make an experiment, and from the small number of weighings required ;
it also yields very correct results.

The next method is that of Gay Lussac, which is effected by chlor-
imetry. The manganese is weighed out and conveyed into a flask with
a bent tube passing into an inverted retort, into which a certain quantity
of water with a little caustic lime is introduced. Muriatic acid is then
poured on the manganese, and a slight heat is applied, the chlorine is
evolved, and is absorbed by the milk of lime. After all the chlorine is
disengaged, the milk of lime is taken out and tested, and from the amount
of chlorine, the amount of per centage of binoxide of manganese is caleu-
lated. The milk of lime containing the chlorine is then tested by the
method of Gay Lussac, which consists in the conversion of arsenious
into arsenic acid: and from the amount of chlorine taken to convert the
arsenious into arsenic acid, the binoxide of manganese is calculated.

Instead of arsenious acid, a solution of the nitrate of the protoxide of
mercury may be employed. When the chlorine is added to this solution,
a precipitate of dichloride of mercury or calomel immediately falls, and as
more chlorine is added, more dichloride of mercury is precipitated, till all
is thrown down, when immediately on the addition of a few drops more,
the whole disappears, since the dichloride of mercury is quite soluble in a
slight excess of chlorine, being converted into corrosive sublimate.
Whenever the liquid becomes quite clear, the process is to be stopped.
As a certain quantity of nitrate has been taken, the amount of chlorine
will be obtained in the quantity of liquor which it took to dissolve the
chloride of mercury, and from that the quantity in the whole liquid, and
thence the quantity of binoxide of manganese in the specimen.

The next method consists in the conversion of binoxide of manganese
into protoxide, by reduction by hydrogen gas. The first stage to effect
this, is to ascertain the amount of water contained in the specimen. The
binoxide of manganese is weighed out in the bulb of a hard chloride of
calcium tube, and then heated gently in a current of dry air. The air is
drawn over it by an aspirating vessel, and is first passed through sul-
phuric acid, which dries it; it then passes over the manganese, and car-
ries off the water, which is caught in a tube containing chloride of
ealcium. When all the water is driven off, the manganese is allowed to
cool, and then weighed; the decrease in weight in the binoxide of man-
ganese, and the increase in the chloride of calcium gives the quantity of
water contained in the amount of manganese taken. After the water is
driven off and weighed, the apparatus is then put up again, only the
aspirating vessel is not required, but a flask containing zine is fastened on
at the other end. The whole apparatus being then made quite air tight, a
little water and sulphuric acid are poured on the zine so as to evolve
hydrogen, which is dried by passing it through sulphuric acid, and is

4

Mr. Brown on the Commercial Value of Black Oxide of Manganese. 187

then brought in contact with the binoxide of manganese, which is to be
heated to redness. The manganese begins at the edges to burn; the
combustion gradually approaches the centre; and when heat is applied
somewhat longer, the mass becomes quite green from the formation of
the protoxide. The hydrogen uniting with the oxygen of the man-
ganese is converted into water, which is caught by the chloride of
calcium. The oxide of manganese is then allowed to cool in a current
of hydrogen, to prevent its oxidizing. When cool, it is weighed, and
the decrease of weight between its present and the former weight,
gives the quantity of oxygen above protoxide contained in the mineral.
The chloride of calcium is then weighed, and the increase multiplied by
8 gives also the quantity of oxygen, which is a check on the decrease of the
binoxide. The protoxide thus formed is then converted into protosesqui-
oxide or red oxide, by heating it in a current of air. This is again
weighed, and from the increase between it and the protoxide, we can
ealeulate the amount of oxygen that should be in the specimen, if the red
oxide and protoxide were pure.

TABLE I.
Exact results of Analyses.

Binoxwes. *
Amount used in grains, Water. Oxygen. Impure Protoxide.
RGIRRON since: vpievinnss sas Be. cores OA e vasts ae) ISA 40°45
— 2dexample,. » ...... SG odoin: BS sedans 40°47
EUIGABEICK, «5.50 cs nena Me saneuis dG le mies I tats 39°74
AGU OXAM sop bull usec dsc IRS ean rohan 39°65
PERUTINGIAS conse ach eoy's We eae ae Cine RE een TBO. hos. 41:00
— 2dexam.,... 0 ...... 7 | Ya Sas hee 40°84
New Zealand, ......... ae ae Oe Oba. aia [RULE 39°80
Table Mountain, ...... eae i ee Tay Maa wett | 43°21
pa OL OXAT pac ac Meee Le Opee s2 HO. tate os 43:07
SesQuioxivEs.
st paca Water. Oxygen. Impure Protoxide.
Braanitio ss 2.576300 SOR I 5 4 ME GOT! chs 40°36
eae h) ad Oma 2.08 a" eves Shrehd ha Benes OSes 40°10
New Brunswick, ...... De Meats ri) ee OO: Be 40°34
TABLE IT.
Mean per centaye.
BINoxIDEs.

Water. Oxygen. Seen cnidee

EE) ee 1:24 sicieaseibes RT Dottie sks _—
Balpatricks: sip edsesisscesees 2:26 is tei eide tah LUO cents ks 17°52

DAMPING IS, sc rcabaradeesetsses AAD <saahia sal 2 —

New Zealand, ............. BBB cxavereiis 1 —

Table Mountain, ......,... Ae ee DADO) 5 awncaih _

188 Mr. NAPIER ou the Effects of inhaling Cyanide Fumes.

SEsQUIOXIDES.
Water. Oxygen.
BrauniteyiecieeeGses BOP ks 12°94
New Brunswick,...... ODA es. 2a 10°18
TABLE III.
Mean of all Experiments.
BINoXIDEs.
Oxygen. Chlorine. Binoxide.
CS OIRSOM: pa caccnsaeceeaaxene 1, PO pes scac ns {fst Rae 5 97°84
BSR ATIC 65s. pw acennne » TiO Bee cease Cte en eee 94:54
SR AGTAIN GS 525.0 can sense <n LOAF. sningnaen BATE seri gcain 79°42
New Zealand, ..'.......... AOD eka a oe re he os
Table Mountain,......... NS Oderasteecers DODDS Senseo 4 62°64
SESQUIOXIDES.
Oxygen. * Chlorine. ng eet 4
IESFAUNIEG. soe: vero sees os TEOAS a Se... Lay Gey) Ale eae yGlsl ive
New Brunswick, ......... T0187. ee: AIG | een 55:99

The column headed Chlorine gives the relative value of the oxides for
the preparation of bleaching powder, and is obtained by multiplying
the oxygen column by 4°437, the atomic weight of chlorine.

2d April, 1851.—The Vice-PResiDent in the Chair.

Messrs. David Tainsh and Paul Cameron, were admitted members.

The following papers were read :—

“ Notice of Liebig’s new method of Analysing Common Air.” By Mr.
R. M. Murray.

“‘ Notice of a pure form of Sesquioxide of Chromium and on Sesqui-
chromate of Potash.” By Dr. R. D. Thomson.

XXIIl.—The Effects on Health of inhaling the Fumes of Cyanide of
Potassium Solutions. By James Nartsr, Ese.

I BELIEVE it is a fact well known in medical practice, that different
trades and occupations give rise to distinct kinds or forms of disease. I
was told a few years ago by an eminent physician, that so much does the
modification of disease depend upon the influence of our occupation, that
in some trades, such as that of a printer, a change of colour continued in
for a length of time will give a distinct form of disease; and that much
difficulty is experienced in the medical profession by the paucity of
observations upon the causes which influence these modifications. It may

Mr. NaPier on the Effects of inhaling Cyanide Fumes. 189

therefore be useful as well as interesting to give a brief notice of the
effects produced upon the health of those employed in a new art or trade,
namely, electro-plating and gilding ; it may be remarked, however, that the
effects to be described were under conditions where proper caution was not
taken, so that the magnitude of the evils to be referred to is not necessarily
connected with the new art, where care is taken, which is the more
gratifying, so far as gilding is concerned, as it supersedes a process
notoriously injurious to health, even under every care, namely, the gilding
by mercury. ;

The operations of electro-plating and gilding are performed, as is well
known, by depositing the metal from its solution by means of electricity.
The solutions used are a double salt of cyanide of potassium, and the
metal, whether silver or gold, having a great excess of cyanide of potassium,
which is constantly undergoing slow decomposition, and giving off fumes
of hydro-cyanic acid. The-room in which the subsequent cbseryations
were made, measured 20 feet by 16 feet, having very imperfect means
of ventilation. The vats containing the solution were at one end,
exposed a surface of solution of 16 square feet, and contained dissolved
not less than from 50 to 70 lbs. weight of cyanide of potassium, so that
although the decomposition was slow, the quantity of solution made it
great in that size of room, which always smelt strongly of cyanogen gas.
In the mornings especially, after being closed during the night, the smell
was heavy and sickening.

On entering the room, the first impression was a heavy smell, and after
a short time a saline taste was perceptible, producing a dry frothy spittle.
This, with other effects, makes me believe that the poison, although in a
gaseous state, was not taken into the lungs, but was dissolved by the
saliva of the mouth, and went into the stomach; so that the effects are
those of taking very minute and constant doses of prussic acid, extending
over a period of at least from two to three years.

I may here mention an occasional effect of an intermitting sort. The
nose becomes dry and itchy, and breaks out internally into small pimples,
so painful that they can hardly be touched. This effect, however, I have
often, and more constantly, experienced in breathing the hydrogen evolved
from the galvanic batteries, than from the fumes of cyanide solutions,
although cyanide fumes produce the same results.

The first permanent impression is languor—a feeling of weariness comes
over the body, with an inclination to seek warmth, without feeling any
actual sensation of cold. Then follows the want of inclination to eat—
the meals being begun as a matter of duty, although when commenced
the relish seems restored, and the persons are capable of taking the usual
quantity of food. These feelings were worse towards evening than morn-
ing, and often long after I was sensible of the effects produced did I feel
quite well in the morning. ‘Then the colour of the face becomes pale or
sallow, the visage grows sharp, eyes sunk in the head, and a dark colour
immediately round them.

190 Mr. Napier on the Effects of inhaling Cyanide Fumes.

As time went on these effects became more permanent. Stomach
almost always acid, with flatulence ; mouth ill-tasted, and in the mornings
dry and parched, and bad breath ; occasionally there occurred a feeling of
irritability in temper and great restlessness, starting often through sleep,
and awaking in fearful dreams; there was then often felt a benumbing
sensation in the head, the mind having no individuality, with heavy
pains, not acute, shooting along the brow, giddiness, and momentary
heavings, as if the earth was making a lurch like a vessel, with occasional
gloomy apprehensions of death. The feeling of languor increased, bringing
on drowsiness, which, towards evening, was often irresistible, so that I
would often fall asleep a few minutes after sitting down anywhere. For
several weeks almost every other morning the nose bled copiously shortly
after getting out of bed. To all these effects were at last added rushing
of blood to the head with a hissing noise ; in the day momentary blindness
and rapid giddiness, which often lasted several minutes.

With other two individuals this rushing of blood to the head was
followed with severe pain and flushing of the face, but in my own case I
experienced no flushes of the face nor pain in the head, but a burning
sensation and giddiness, and a dimness in the sight which lasted several
hours.

I cannot help remarking here, and no doubt anticipating your remarks,
how foolish it now appears for us to have remained under such evidently
dangerous conditions; I cannot account for it in any other way than from
the gradual accession of the symptoms; for although I have described
them in a few minutes, they took upwards of two years and a-half of being
fully developed ; and were so insidious, that although sensible of the cause,
it did not strike us as serious until the sudden rushing of blood to the
head and blindness sounded the alarm. Our culpability seems more now,
knowing how easy it is to avoid the danger by proper ventilation.

In the early stage of the business, when any thing went wrong with the
solution, the only means of recovering the silver was by precipitating it
by an acid, which produces an enormous evolution of gas; for these
operations a number of ordinary labourers were employed to clean out the
vats. The floor of the room was all sprinkled with ammonia, to neutralise
the effects of the prussic acid as much as possible. Some of those men
became giddy and had to be led out of the room, not being able to stand
it any length of time; others, after some time, became sick and vomited,
but after a supply of victuals and fresh air could resume their labour;
while not a few stood it without feeling much annoyance beyond what a
glass of spirits put to rights. Those whose occupation and habits were
of an intellectual sort, were more easily and powerfully affected than those
whose occupation and habits were merely physical.

One modification is singular, and has struck me as curious. An indi-
vidual of a strong healthy constitution, and who felt the effects described
upon myself very slightly, although he was longer under its influence ;
but after breathing it for a few days felt stronger than usual, had severe

Mr. Narier on the Effects of inhaling Cyanide Fumes. 191

ulcerations on his legs and other parts of his body. The bad gas, as it is
termed, was blamed, but for some time I could not convince myself that
that was the cause; an experience, however, of at least five years, has
now completely verified the observation, that these outbreaks are the re-
sults of breathing these prussic acid fumes. Any circumstance which neces-
sitates the inhaling much of these fumes for a few days successively, gives
rise to ulceration, and often the person has to retire for a few days to the
coast, where they heal rapidly. Another curious circumstance is, that a
person who has wrought in the fumes these last seven years, has com-
pletely lost the sense of smell for every thing but strong ammonia; even
sulphuret of carbon, using his own language, “smells as sweet to me as a
rose.”

Ihave not heard of any fatal results, either directly or indirectly,
arising from following this occupation; and in some works where care is
taken, the effects I have been describing are produced only in a very
mild form, and are only’ occasionally felt, being considered quite
evanescent. One remarkable difference I may notice between the effects
of breathing these fumes, and that of inhaling the vapour of quicksilver ;
in the old process of gilding, pure mercury enters and gets a footing in
the system; it undermines it, and permanently destroys health and shortens
life; but in the cases I have given of the effects of breathing cyanide
fumes, notwithstanding the great want of care in the conditions, and the
dangerous nature of the effects, by an absence of a few months from the
business the health of all the parties described has been completely
restored.

The solutions of gold and silver in cyanide of potassium are deadly
poisons if taken into the stomach, but from their extremely disagreeable
bitter taste, the slightest drop getting into the mouth is immediately
washed out with water, to get rid of the taste,—a great preventative of
evil from that source, as small drops often unavoidably get into the
mouth, and would be unconsciously swallowed were it not for the taste.

When any part of the skin is broken and comes into contact with the
solution, severe ulcerations and great pain are caused. ‘The solution
coming upon the healthy skin creates little ulcerations. The operator is ©
much more liable to this when‘ gilding than plating; the gold solution
being wrought hot, when it comes in contact with the hands is more
powerful. The hands are also much exposed to the steam of the solution,
and often, from this cause, break out in watery pimples, which are very
itchy and painful. When ulcerations are caused by the solutions, or when
the solutions come into contact with ulcerations, the metal is reduced to
the metallic state in the sore, and if looked at through a common lens,
the metal is quite visible. The reduction and presence of the metal are,
no doubt, the cause of the irritation and pain.

I have thus briefly endeavoured to give the ‘results of observations
upon the effects experienced by myself, and at least four other indivi-
duals, during a period of several years’ working in prussic acid fumes.

192 ' Report from the Botanical Section.

And although these observations are in plain language, I have no doubt
but the medical members present will be able to apply them in a proper
way. They will also be a warning to young experimenters who use
cyanide solutions in their electrotype operations, and who occasionally
keep these in presses in their bedrooms, such practices being very
injurious.

I may also mention another thing in connection with this and other
operations where deleterious gases are evolved, that clothes absorb great
quantities of gas; and the individual who works in these gaseous fumes
and does not change his clothes when he leaves the work, will move
about like a distinct planet, having an atmosphere of his own in which he
lives and breathes for many hours after leaving his employment. This
fact cannot be sufficiently impressed upon the mind of both workmen and
employers, who should urge the proper conditions of health—a subject I
have some hopes of bringing before the Society on a future occasion, in a
more formal mauner.

16th April, 1851.—The Vice-Presivent in the Chair.

Dr. Atten Tuomson continued his observations “On the Relations of
the Nervous and Muscular parts in Animals,” and intimated his intention
of resuming the subject next session.

Dr. Andrew Buchanan made some remarks on the importance of the
inquiries prosecuted by Professor Thomson, more especially in their
bearings upon the philosophy of the mind.

April 30, 1851.—The Vice-Preswent in the Chair.

Tue concluding meeting of the Session was held this evening.

Mr. J. G. Houston was admitted a member.

Mr, William Ferguson read “ Notes on the Geology of Dunbar Shore,”
illustrated by maps, drawings, sections, and fossils.

Mr. J. P. Fraser read a paper by Mr. John Gray, “ On the Lepid-
optera of the Vale and Frith of Clyde,” illustrated by specimens.

A paper by Mr. George W. Brown was read, ‘“ On the Composition of
Orkney Kelp.”

Mr. Keddie gave in the following Report from the Botanical Section :—

Botanical Section.— April 22, 1851.—Dr. Waker Arnott in the Chair.

Dr. Thomas Thomson, jun, read the following paper, illustrated by
specimens presented by him, through Dr. Robert D. Thomson, to the
Herbarium belonging to the members of the Section.

’

a " ——

Dr. THOMSON on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. 193

~

XXIV. — Sketch of the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. By
Tuomas THomson, M.D., Assistant Surgeon in the H.H.L.C. Service,
Bengal Establishment.

Tue great range of the Himalaya, when taken in conjunction with the
still more elevated mountains behind, which are in nowise distinguishable
from it, constitutes the most stupendous mass of mountains in the world,
not only from containing the highest peaks, but also, and still more re-
markably, as presenting by far the greatest area of elevated land.

This gigantic mountain mass lies to the north of the great plain of
India, from which it rises on the whole very abruptly. It has a direction
very nearly from east to west, its west extremity is however a little more
northerly than the east, the latitude rising from 26° at the east, to 33°
at the west extremity.

The mountain chain to which the name of Himalaya is most properly
applied, may be considered as bounded at the south by the plains of

“India, and on the north by the rivers Indus and Burrampooter, which

have their sources in the same spot, and run one to the east, the other
to the west, among lofty mountains, till they enter the Indian flat country.
Nearly in the centre of this chain, in the most westerly part of Nepal
proper, lies the point of separation between the two river great systems,
that of the Indus and that of the Burrampooter, constituting a north and
south axis, which, when better known, will probably prove to be the
grand axis of Asia.

From this centre the chain of the Himalaya extends to nearly an equal
distance in both directions, the central axis of the chain being the line
of water-shed between the streams which run toward the plains of India
on the south, and those which flow toward the Burrampooter and Indus
on the north. This line of water-shed or central axis will, on inspection
of a map, be seen to be in general somewhat to the north of half way
between the two boundary lines of the chain, so that the distance from
the axis to the plains of India, is greater than from the same place to
the northern rivers. The mean width of the whole chain may be stated
roughly to average about 150 miles, of which 90 are to the south of the
line of water-shed and 60 to the north of it.

From the central axis of the chain, lateral ranges of mountains run
both to the north and south, stretching in the latter direction as far as
the plains of India, and separated from one another by deep narrow
valleys, which extend far into the interior of the mass of mountains,

The number of lateral chains of the first class which form the line of
division or water-shed between the basins of the great rivers on the south
side of the central axis of the Himalaya, is about fourteen, separating
from one another in a series from left to right the waters of the Jhelum,
the Chenab, the Beas, the Ravi, the Sutlej, the Jumna, the Ganges,
the Gogra, the Gandak, the Kosi, the Teesta, and the Subhansheri.
These great chains, like the central axis, throw off lateral branches,

194 Dr. THomson on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya.

which separate from one another the different branches, by the union of
which within the mountains the great rivers are formed.

The elevation of the central axis of the Himalaya is probably at a
mean about 18,000 or 20,000 feet; it is nearly uniform at about these-
elevations throughout a great part of the chain, but gradually diminishes
toward both ends. Like all mountain chains, it presents alternations of
high and low portions, the lower parts or passes as they are called, from
their affording the means of passage to travellers from one side to the
other, being at the upper extremities of the river basins. These passes
are, with a few exceptions, rarely under 17,000 or 18,000 feet. The
lateral chains, starting from the more elevated portions of the central
axis between the passes, gradually diminish in elevation as they approach
the plains of India, not however with any exact uniformity of progression,
for it is not unfrequent to find them rise into lofty peaks considerably
more elevated than any known part of the central axis. The greater
part of the giant peaks, which rise to an elevation of 26,000 or 28,00U
feet, are situated in this manner, not on the central axis, but to the south
of it; it is however by no means improbable that masses of equal eleva-
tion not yet measured or observed may occur behind them, it being un-
questionable that the general elevation of the country continues to increase
as we advance to the north, and that we have not yet (except in one place)
attained to any point from which a descent is commenced towards the
northern plains.

The direction of the principal lateral chains and of their included
valleys, is on the whole perpendicular to the main axis, but with an in-
clination from the centre; those on the extreme east inclining to the
eastward, while those on the extreme west have a very westerly direction.
There are certain anomalies in the courses of the rivers, particularly at
the north-west extremity of the chain; which, however, may be overlooked
in a view so general and cursory of these rivers, as must necessarily be
taken on the present occasion. The most marked of these peculiarities
may be observed in the course of the Sutlej, which runs for a very con-
siderable part of its course nearly parallel to the Indus before it turns
toward the plains, thus separating the western part of the Himalayan
chain almost from its very origin into two branches, one of which separates
the Sutlej from the Indus; the other to the south of, and nearly parallel to
the other, divides the basin of the Sutlej'from that of the Jumna and Ganges.

From the great depth of the valleys which separate the different moun-
tain chains, it but seldom happens that any road crosses from one valley
to another, a traveller has therefore, in general, excellent opportunities of
studying the direction and ramifications of the different chains, either in
following the course of the valleys, or by travelling along the top of the
ridges. In both cases he will find that his course is an undulating one,
each chain and each branch of a chain being a curye, which bends first to
one side and afterwards to the other, giving off generally a spur on the
convex side, while the head of a yalley insinuates itself into the concavity.

Dr. THOMSON on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. 195

\

After these few words on the physical structure of the mountains, the
vegetation of which it is my wish briefly to describe, it will still be ne-
cessary to devote a few minutes to the subject of climate and humidity,
before I can proceed to my proper subject.

Situated in the most southern part of the temperate zone, and bound-
ing on the north a great peninsula, which extends far into the torrid zone,
the base of the Himalaya to the south possesses an almost tropical cli-
mate, tempered however when the sun is on the tropic of Capricorn by a
moderately cool winter, and variously modified in different parts of the
chain by the degree of humidity, a most important matter to be taken
into consideration in every question connected with the phenomena of
vegetable life.

The source of humidity in the Himalaya is almost entirely the Bay of
Bengal, which is situated about 5 degrees to the south of the eastern
extremity of the chain; and the wind which carries the humid atmosphere
along the chain, is that which is known to nautical meteorologists as the
south-west monsoon, a wind which begins to blow in the open sea about
the month of April, but whose effects are not felt in the far interior before
the month of June. This wind, though constant in its direction at sea,
is not so in its inland course; at the head of the Bay of Bengal it is
almost a south wind; it blows from the sea nearly due north towards the
Himalaya, striking in its course upon the low chain of the Khasya hills,
whose maximum elevation is scarcely 7,000 feet.

Upon this range the first force of the monsoon is expended, and the
annual fall of rain at Churra Poonjee, elevated 4,000 feet on its southern
slope, amounts to about 500 inches. This range, which has its origin
among the mountain ranges of the south of China and north of Burmah,
lies to the south of the Burrampooter, and following the course of that
river, terminates in the concavity of its great bend, where it turns down
toward the sea. The Khasya mountains do not therefore entirely run
across the Bay of Bengal, so as to intercept the force of the monsoon from
the whole of the Himalaya, a part of which wind, laden to saturation with
moisture at a temperature of nearly 90° F., blows due north from the Bay
of Bengal upon the district of Sikkim, which is on that account the most
rainy part of the whole range of the Himalaya, for, on the one hand, the
more eastern parts of the chain are protected by the Khasya range, and
on the other, the more westerly parts are more distant from the source
of moisture, and therefore receive a less share of it. The interception
of the moisture from the province of Bootan and the independent states
north of Assam, by the Khasya range, has this curious effect, that the
lower ranges of this portion of the Himalaya are dry and arid, while
above 7,000 feet, to which elevation only the hills to the south attain,
the climate is very much more humid.

The diminution in the amount of moisture in proceeding to the west-
ward along the Himalaya from Sikkim is extremely gradual, but also so
far as our at present rather limited number of observations goes, very

196 Dr. THOMSON on the Climate and. Vegetation of the Himalaya.

regular. The effects of the south-west or rainy monsoon diminish step
by step, as we advance westward, till on arriving at the valley of the
Indus at the western extremity of the Himalaya, it ceases to be observed
at all. In these most western portions of the chain, very little rain falls
at any season of the year, and the little which does occur, falls in the
spring months, and is therefore quite independent of the regular monsoon.

It is als) worthy of note, that in the more western parts of the chain,
the climate is extremely dry at all periods of the year, except during
the monsoon or rainy season, as it is called in India, while to the east-
ward the climate of the mountains shares to a considerable extent the
more equable and always moist climate of Bengal.

The most important point of all, however, regarding the climate in re-
spect of its effects on vegetation which requires to be borne in mind, is
that a very great portion of the rain which falls is deposited on the first
range of mountains upon which the rain wind strikes. I have already
pointed out that this is the case with the Khasya range, and it is
there highly strikingly illustrated by the fact, that it is only on the very
south side of the hills that the rain fall is so enormous, the fall twenty
miles north of Churra being probably less than half what it is there.

This tendency of the rain fall to exhaust itself very considerably on
the first range of mountains to which it has access, is peculiarly important
in a mountain chain 150 miles in width, its effect being that the upper
part of all the large valleys, and especially the interior valleys and their
ramifications, are much more dry than those adjacent to the plains of
India. Evyen inthe most humid part of the Himalaya, in Sikkim, this dif-
ference is extremely marked, and in the more dry parts to the west,
(the extreme east interior is not known,) the inner valleys are so dry
that rain is scarcely ever known to fall.

In close connection with the increase of aridity, as we advance from
the plains of India to the interior of the mountains, I may mention the
increased elevation of the line of perpetual congelation, which has evi-
dently the same cause. In the outer lofty ranges of the Himalaya, the
snow line is met with at about 16,000 feet, while in the Tibetan part of the
chain, many ridges of 20,000 feet of elevation are almost entirely bare of
snow.

Having thus alluded in very brief and general terms to the most pro-
minent physical features of the mountain chain of Himalaya, I shall pro-
ceed to describe, as rapidly as is consistent with clearness, the general
character of the vegetation which is to be observed in its different parts at
all elevations, from the plains of India to the uppermost limit of vegetable
life. This would be an easy task if the vegetation were uniform through-
out the whole chain, but owing to the great variations of climate to which
T have just adverted, there is a very great difference in this respect, few
indeed of the plants of the eastern extremity of the Himalaya being
identical with those which occur in the far west. In general terms, it

’
p

Dr. THomsoN on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. 197

may be said, that to the eastward the vegetation is very much more
luxuriant and tropical, and that it changes very gradually in advancing
to the westward, in exact proportion to the diminution in the quantity of
rain. The same gradual transition in the vegetable world may also be
observed in advancing up the valleys, or in passing across the mountains
from the outer valleys to those which are further removed from the In-
dian plain; though in the latter case, of course, the effects of gradually
increasing elevation must be taken into consideration as partly the cause
of the change as well as the decrease of humidity.

The plains of northern India which skirt the base of the Himalaya, do
not (if we except the belt immediately at the base of the mountains,)
present by any means a rich flora. From their situation nearly on the
tropics, their distance as a whole from the sea, and their proximity to the
mountains, they are not very damp, and their climate has too decided a
lowering of temperature in the cold season to permit them to be clothed
with the dense forest vegetation which clothes the tropical plains of South
America. They are in general open plains without much wood, and
where not under cultivation, are covered either with a dense jungle of dif-
ferent species of arundo and saccharum, or with scattered trees of various
tropical families, acacize and zizyphi being very common genera. Here
and there only there are patches of forest generally low and scrubby, and
without much underwood, or any of the fine parasitical plants and ferns
which are so ornamental in tropical woods.

In the lower parts of Bengal, the proximity of the sea somewhat modi-
fies this general character; a number of ferns, one or two species of
pothos, and a few Orchidez, among which Vanda Roxburghii and a large
and fine Cymbidium are the most common, are to be found. In the same
way the valleys of Silhet and Assam are exceptional in character, but
from their being inclosed with mountains of some elevation on all sides,
they are scarcely to be regarded as part of the Indian plain, but may
more properly be considered as wide mountain valleys, and they in fact
closely resemble in vegetation the valleys of the larger Himalayan rivers
in the east part of the chain.

Close to the foot of the chain of mountains throughout its whole course
from east to west, there lies a belt of forest and swampy land, which is
well known in India by the name of Terai, and which, where it is de-
veloped to any considerable extent, bears a very bad character for un-
healthiness, and is indeed in many places quite impassable for Europeans
at most seasons of the year. ‘This forest belt seems to be due to the
greater humidity of atmosphere, and at the same time greater equability
of temperature, which is produced by the proximity of the mountains. Its
width is very various, from forty or fifty miles, to which I believe it attains
in some parts of Nepal, to eight or ten miles, which is a more common
width. Westward of the Jumna it almost disappears, being represented
by a line of swampy or marshy ground, and a low jungle of bushes of the
common plain species of trees.

198 Dr. Tomson on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya.

In this belt, which oceupies the base of the mountains, the vegetation
is of course quite tropical in character, and is too varied to be described
in detail. Large cotton trees (Bombax) are in all parts of it particularly
conspicuous from the immense size of their trunks, which are not cylin-
drical, but buttressed all round by immense plates which project far for-
ward from the main trunk. Numerous fig trees of very various species
are also common, especially to the eastward, where many fine forms
of these magnificent trees everywhere meet the eye, along with species of
Dillenia, Careya, Bauhinia, and Lagerstrémia.

It is from the forest which lies along the foot of the Himalaya that a
great part of the timber is derived which is consumed in northern India.
In the most eastern part, the most valuable timber is furnished by Lager-
strémia regine, and perhaps other allied species; further west, the sd
Patica robusta, the Shorea robusta of Roxburgh, is that which is most
esteemed. The sal extends from the valley of Assam as far west I
believe as the Punjab, and is found not only in the forest tract, but also
in hot valleys among the mountains. It belongs to a natural order
(dipterocarpeze) which is peculiarly Indian, and which furnishes many
valuable kinds of timber. None of the species, however, except the one
under consideration, extend beyond the tropics; but they abound in the
hilly countries of the peninsula as well as in the low ranges of the Malayan
peninsula, and I believe in Java and other Indian islands. The sal is so
much valued that it has become in accessible places from whence it can
easily be conveyed to the plains, very scarce, and in the vicinity of large
towns where there is a great demand for timber, I believe almost extinct.
It is therefore less commonly employed than the sissoo, a species of
Dalbergia, which is particularly abundant along the foot of the mountains,
more especially to the westward, growing in great profusion on gravelly
soil, and yielding a most ornamental and valuable wood.

The forest belt which skirts the base of the mountains rests for the
most part upon a dry gravelly soil, which slopes somewhat rapidly, though
not perceptibly to the eye, toward the open plains, and is generally dry.
Just outside the forest, or sometimes still interspersed with patches of
wooded ground, there is generally a low swampy tract, which is lower
than the country immediately beyond, and from which the water drains
away slowly and with difficulty. This is the Terai par excellence, and
is, from the constant dampness of the soil, and the dense heat of the sum-
mer, peculiarly unhealthy. It is too low and too unhealthy to be much
cultivated, and is generally covered by a dense jungle of tall grasses, species
principally of Saccharum, Arundo, Andropogon and Anthistiria, which rise
high enough to cover an elephant, and afford shelter during the greater
part of the year for multitudes of tigers and other wild animals; at the
commencement of the cold weather, this long grass is set on fire and
burnt down by the inhabitants of the hills, who at that season descend to
the level country to feed their cattle and flocks. It is again abandoned
to itself at the commencement of the hot season, as soon as grassy vegeta-

:
]

Dr. THOMSON on ihe Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. 199

tion has made sufficient progress in the mountains. These swampy tracts
are a series of lateral valleys which run parallel to the base of the moun-
tains, and which, from being very slightly inclined, present great obsta-
cles to the escape of the water discharged into them by numerous streams
from the mountains.

Along many parts of the Himalaya, a similar series of valleys nearly
parallel to the axis of the chain, but bounded externally by hills of from
2,000 to 4,000 feet in elevation, may be observed. These valleys are
known in the western Himalaya by the name of Dhins. One of the
largest of them is the Deyra Dhun, well known to Indian trayellers
as being traversed en route to Masuri a favourite hill station, and
now celebrated as the seat of an extensive cultivation of tea in a climate
which seems to suit admirably that valuable plant. The Deyra Dhiin is
in its centre or highest part, from which it slopes down both to east
and west towards the Ganges and Jumna, about 2,500 feet above the
level of the sea, or 1,500 feet above the level of the plains, immediately
outside of its bounding range.

Other Dhuns occur all along the hills to the westward. They are
bounded on the north by the ancient rocks of the Himalaya, but on their
outer side always by the tertiary sandstones and conglomerates, now so
well known from the labours of Falconer and Cautley, as the Sewalik
formation. In the north of the Punjab there are cften several series of
these valleys, the innermost only resting on transition rocks, the others
excavated out of the tertiary sandstones, which have there often a width
of from 30 to 50 miles.

The vegetation of the low ranges of hills by which the Dhuns are
bounded externally, does not deviate much, if at all, from the tropical
type. They nowhere exceed an elevation of 4,000 feet, which is not
sufficient in isolated ridges, to bring about a sufficient change of mean
temperature, to produce much alteration in the vegetation. They are
only known, I believe, to the westward of Nepal, and therefore, in the

drier parts of the region, they are generally covered with trees the same

as those of the forest belt, with, in addition, a good deal of pinus longifolia,
a subtropical species of pine, and of a dwarf species of Phoenix, almost the.
only palm of the western Himalaya.

From these valleys where they exist, or from the open plains in other
cases, the exterior ranges of the Himalaya generally rise abruptly to a
height of 7,000 or 8,000 feet, in all parts of the chain, except at the
point of exit of the great rivers, where of course the outline of the moun-
tains is much modified. I shall probably better explain the structure of
the mass of mountains, by saying that the lateral chain which separates
any two adjacent river basins, generally terminates abruptly towards the
plains in a bold promontory 7,000 or 8,000 feet in height, from which
lateral branches parallel to the plains run in each direction, gradually
diminishing in elevation till they are terminated by the great rivers.
After the first sudden rise, the different ridges increase much more gra-

Vol. 3.—No. 3. 5

200 Dr. Taomson on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya.

dually, generally running nearly level for a number of miles, and then
rising abruptly from 1,000 to 2,000 feet.

In ascending on the Himalaya (or indeed on any range of mountains)
from the base to the line of perpetual snow, the change of vegetation is
extremely gradual, and within a limited change of altitude barely per-
ceptible, any division into groups must therefore be in a great measure
arbitrary. Still some mode of subdivision is quite necessary for the pur-
pose of description, as otherwise the mind would be puzzled by the mul-
titude of facts. The less complicated, however, the mode of division is,
the more intelligible it will be; it appears therefore quite sufficient to refer
the forms of vegetation to three groups, similar to the three zones inter-
posed between the equator and the pole, namely, tropical, temperate, and
arctic; or to use the term more commonly applied in the case of mountains,
alpine vegetation.

There is so great a diversity in the vegetation of different parts of the
Himalaya, that I should entirely fail, were I to attempt to give any gene-
ral idea of the vegetation of these different zones. I shall therefore select
two particular spots, and by relating in some detail the gradual changes
of the vegetation in each of these, I shall, I hope, be able to give a good
general idea of the general appearance of the phenomena of vegetable
life.

The hill station of Darjiling is distant from the plains of Bengal a
little more than 36 miles, the road following a ridge which ascends in the
first 13 miles rapidly to about 7,000 feet, and then runs gradually with
little change of level for the remainder of the way. Throughout the
whole distance the mountain sides are lined with dense forests; except
in the early morning, an almost perpetual mist hangs over the trees,
which collect and throw down from their foliage an abundant supply of
moisture. On emerging from the dry belt of tropical forest, the ascent
commences at once up a dry ridge, covered at first with the same species
as grow upon the plain, species of Bombax, Terminalia; Sterculia, Emblica
Duabanga, Alstonia, Gmelina, Bauhinia and others are abundant, with
many figs, some species of Artocarpus, and a proportion of bamboos. By
degrees a vegetation characteristic of mountain tracts, but still tropical,
takes the place of those just mentioned. A Gordonia is extremely abun-
dant, with numerous euphorbiaceous trees allied to Mappa, various species
of Garcinia, the toon, (Cedrela toona or serrata,) a variety of mimoseous
trees, arboreous species of Vernonia and Helicia, beautiful Bauhiniz both
erect and scandent, the latter climbing to the tops of the highest trees with
a trunk nearly as thick as a man, The road runs along the top, or on one
side of the ridge, looking down into deep valleys full of the densest forest.
If we leave the road to enter into these dark and moist hollows, we find
that there are occasionally small tracts of flat land along the banks of the
streams, which, however, more frequently run through deep ravines, clothed
with dense thickets of shade-loving trees, species of laurel, alder, magno-
lia, being mixed with the giant figs, which often form a great part of the

———— sii Ur

—- =r

Dr. THomson on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. 201

forest. In these more shady places the plantain and tree fern luxuriate,
and a dense brushwood covers the ground. Not unfrequently large tracts
are covered with thickets of Calamus, a prickly palm which attaches itself
by long hooked flagelli to the trees, and often presents a formidable barrier
to the traveller who tries to penetrate into its recesses. The trunks of
the trees are often clothed with a dense mass of Pothos, and of the huge
leaved Scindapsus, completely encircling them all round, and converting
them into leafy columns, while the wide-spreading branches of the higher
trees bear a profusion of Orchideze, which overspread them even to the
very top, and, when in flower, have a most gorgeous effect.

In shady valleys, as low as 2,000 feet, appear the first specimens of
oaks and chestnuts, which in the equable temperature of such places, de-
scend much further on the mountain slopes than in the more arid and
variable climate of the western Himalaya.

On attaining an elevation of about 6,000 feet, the vegetation has be-
come temperate. The purely tropical forms have almost entirely disap-
peared, and in their place the forest abounds in trees of temperate climes.
Species of oak, holly, cherry, laurel, Rhododendron, Styrax, and Magnolia,
of gigantic size, form the forest, densely covered with mosses and orchideze,
and with an underwood of species of Berberis, Daphne, Lonicera, many
species of Vitis, and smaller species of bamboo than those of the tropical
region. Terns are at such elevations extremely abundant.

From the station of Darjiling, the view in every direction overlooks
mountain ranges, covered with dense forest, except in a few spots where
partial clearances have been made for cultivation. No bare or grassy
mountains meet the eye, no rocks or precipices afford any relief from the
prevailing uniformity, which, but for the magnificence of the snowy moun-
tains behind, would be undoubtedly monotonous and fatiguing.

The ascent from the plains of north-west India to Simla, is about the
same length as that to Darjiling, but presents the most marked contrast
in vegetation, being throughout bare and grassy. The road ascends at first
in ten miles to an elevation of 6,500 feet, then descends to about 1,000
feet, and ascends gradually to 5,000. The ascent commences from the
Pinjore Dhun, a lateral valley which runs at the foot of the mountains from
the Sutlej to the Jumna rivers. There is no forest in this valley, which
is open, and to a great extent cultivated. The lower hills are covered
with a shrubby vegetation characteristic of a dry climate. Species of
Zizyphus, Carissa, Butea, Adhatoda, Bergera, Algle, Flacourtia, and other
common shrubs, with one species of bamboo, and only one fig. After the
ascent commences, these bushes are only scattered at intervals over the
hills, the greater part of the surface being bare and grassy. A similar
open country extends all the way to Simla, except where a few fir trees
(Pinus longifolia) crest the ridges, and in the more shady rayines, which
are lined with a few small trees.

The transition from tropical to temperate vegetation begins, in so far
as it is indicated by the small amount of shrubby vegetation, at about

202 Dr. THOMSON on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya.

5,000 feet, but on the more exposed slopes, plants of warm climates ex-
tend up 1,000 feet higher, and the herbaceous vegetation, principally
grasses, is entirely composed of tropical forms.

It is only on approaching Simla, and attaining a height of nearly 7,000
feet, that forest vegetation commences; at that elevation, open forests of
oak, Rhododendron, and Andromeda, intermixed with several species of
pines, and a great number of temperate shrubs, of such genera as Rosa,
Rubus, Viburnum, Berberis, Spiraea, Lonicera, Indigofera, Prinsepia,
Salix, Daphne, and others.

The view from Simla presents a very marked contrast with that from
Darjiling. The general outline of the mountains is very much the same,
but they are more rocky, and very generally bare; the forests, which to the
north are dense and abundant, occupying chiefly the north slopes of the
mountains, so that in looking from the south the crest of the ridges only
are seen to be wooded. The scenery, therefore, is more diversified than
in the eastern Himalaya, and abstracting the snowy mountains, more
pleasing to the eye.

Between the two extremes which I have described, every intermediate
form may of course be met with, the law of alteration being apparently
the following, that in advancing westward towards less humid climates, the
lower hills from about 6,000 to 2,000 feet, become more and more bare and
grassy, while the lower levels and the base of the mountains retain a greater
degree of damp and are clothed with forest. It would appear also that
above 6,000 or 7,000 feet, up to 10,000 or 11,000 feet, at which eleva-
tion mountain ranges sensibly interrupt the passage of the moist atmo-
sphere, the temperate ranges are more moist than those below them, which
do not collect the clouds, and have a higher temperature, and consequently
more powerful sun. To the eastward of Sikkim, the same phenomena
are very well marked, the lower ranges being extremely dry and arid,
while above 7,000 feet, dense forest and a humid atmosphere prevail, just
as in the mountains of Sikkim. ;

The valleys of the larger rivers which traverse the Himalaya from
north to south, have of course a much lower elevation than the mountains
by which they are surrounded; and up them, therefore, tropical vegetation
penetrates very far into the interior. In the extreme west, the valleys
of the Indus and Chenab, and even of the Sutlej, are up to the height of
5,000 feet, which they do not attain till more than 100 miles from their
exit into the plains, hot, dry, and tropical. Further east, the tropical
forest stretches far up the vallies, and they are only bare for a small por-
tion of their extent, and in the humid atmosphere of Sikkim they are
densely wooded throughout. In that province, the valleys of the Teesta
and its tributaries, carry tropical vegetation far into the interior, almost
within a day’s journey of the line of perpetual snow, and the luxuriance
of the dense and dripping forest requires to be seen to be understood.

The temperate region of the Himalaya may be said to extend” from
about 5,000 feet, or a little above it, to the upper limit of arboreous vege-

Dr. THomsoNn on the Climate and Vegetation of the Himalaya. 208

tation; which, to the westward, is about 12,000 feet, to the east about
1,000 feet higher. Above 9,000 feet, however, the temperate region is
characterized by many remarkable forms, which do not extend lower ; these
are generally, in the west especially, of very European type; but in the
eastern flora, it is at such levels that the magnificent Rhododendrons of
Sikkim, which form so striking a part of its flora, principally occur. In
this zone a great part of the trees are of Kuropean genera, alders, oaks,
birch, hazel, hornbeam, horse-chestnut, and cherry, being characteristic
forms. It is also especially the region of coniferous trees, very few of which,
extend either below or aboye it. The pine which descends to the lowest
level in the Himalaya, is Pinus longifolia, which is a common tree through-
out the whole region from the mountains of the Punjab to the east of Bootan.
It is confined in a great measure to the outer ranges of the mountains,
and commences as low as 1000 feet above the level of the sea, rarely if
ever attaining a greater clevation than 7,000 feet. This tree appears to
have a very great power of enduring varieties of climate, for it seems
equally at home in the hot, damp valleys of Sikkim, surrounded by an
entirely tropical vegetation ; and on the dry stony hills of the Punjab
where rain hardly ever falls, and it is at all seasons exposed to a power-
ful and scorching sun. ‘The only other coniferous tree of low elevations
in the Himalaya is Podocarpus, one species of which is a native of the
lower ranges of Nepal and Sikkim.

Pinus excelsa, which is allied to P. strobus, and Pinus Smithiana,
which is near abies, are the more common species of the central zone,
which are distributed throughout the whole extent of the Himalaya. In
the same zone, the deodar (Cedrus deodara) is confined to the western
mountains, not being, I believe, to be found indigenous in any part of Nepal,
while P. Brunoniana, on the other hand, commences in the eastern parts
of Kamaon, and extends as far east as Bootan. The most alpine species
of the family are P. Gerardiana, P. Webbiana, and several species of
juniper, of which all but the first, which is a western tree, seem universally
distributed.

It would be needless to dwell at any length on the alpine zone, because
luxuriant as is the vegetation, and beautiful as are the plants, the forms
at least must be familiar to most of my auditors.

Imust be content, in conclusion, with drawing your attention to the
change produced in the vegetation in the temperate and subalpine zones
as we advance towards the interior of the mountains, in consequence of
the diminution in the amount of rain.

If in travelling through the Himalaya we ascend a great river, the
ascent is so very gradual, that the change of climate and of vegetation in
ascending is almost imperceptible, and is only detected by careful obser-
vation. If, however, on the other hand, we cross a range of considerable
elevation, and descend on its northern side into another valley, the transi-
tion is often very striking, and if the chain be sufficiently elevated to
intercept the greater part of the rain, the contrast between its two sides

204 Mr. Kiye’s Thermometric Observations for 1850.

is perfectly astonishing; when the transition is thus complete, the tra-
veller leaves dense forests and common Himalayan vegetation on the one
side, to find on the other a dry barren burnt up soil, with scattered Astra-
gali, Boragineze, and Cruciferze, of forms quite characteristic of the flora
of Siberia. Such is the vegetation of Tibet, which may be reached either
suddenly by crossing a lofty pass, or gradually by ascending the Indus,
the Chenab, the Sutlej, the Ganges, and many other of the Himalayan
rivers. This arid vegetation is met on the Sutlej as low as 10,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and is therefore in no way dependent upon
mere altitude.

The members then adjourned to the Hall of the Andersonian Insti-
tution, to witness the experiment of the Rotatory Motion of the Earth,
which was previously explained by Mr. Crum.

XXV.— Thermometric Observations for 1850, made at Windsor Terrace,
Glasgow, by James Kine, Esa.

Height of Thermometer above the level of the sea, 94:14 feet.
Taken at 9 o’clock a.m., and 9 o’clock p.m.

JANUARY.
AM. P.M AM. P.M. A.M. PM.
Lee. 32 36 13, cee 33°25 29 25s. es 395 42
Dae 40 40°5 if he a Ra 30°75 Pm gee 345 31
Rigeecteewes 43°75 43°5 Wetacecensteae 25° 28 2 ne ens 25°5 36
ree eee 39°37: L6.000666.80°5 — 32°5 28, 435 44
eee 33°5 = 32 pl paces 18° 24° V2 Bee a 36 33°5
Rigcctees's oa 25 25 Ge -veecs see 30° 32° LL Ree Saas 34°75 36
ee 25 25 “hee 33°5 — 82°5 Sie wae 36 44°75
Be 6 31° 345 PT eae 32° 30°5 i
igenccewens 31° 32° 2A ba SE 29° 31° | Mean for
rt; cobiaet 29: 32° 22.4036 385 | Month, i 33:153 “94/169
eat ieee 32:5 231:5 Deke tenwns 41 42°5
"eee eee rm iss i hee Sea 42° 41: | Mean corrected, 34°-3
FEBRUARY
AM. P.M. AM P.M. A.M, P.M.
Eis ivenues 465 45°75 Up: ne oe 35° 33°5 chigascelee’ 45°75 45°75
ee 465 41°5 Paces 30°5 35" oe. 45° 45°75
= Reape Cy aimee he Li teh at CS 42> 48° QWByeveeearee4 45 47°
ee tenes 40° 42° LD sennneses 49°5 45° 2 Ae 45° 47°5
OR BASS fs See 39°55 43° | 46°75 47°5
ine alee 41° 34 a preceiet. 45° 48°5 psp eee 46°25 45°75
thoes 34° 33°5 Di eesweoeee 48°75 49°5 F
Oe lomcack 35°55 42°5 UG ee SSS 48°5 52° ean for .
geen, 45° 38° = ietallode 45° 43°75 | Month, \ hr Bag
TT Paid Sa 35°5 9 37°5 Py eee ee 46°25 50°5
Te caeeus 39° 33°5 DON se ntade 48°25 46°5 Mean corrected, 43°°6
MARCH,
AM. P.M. | AM, P.M. ec aM PM
i eaexesee au 48°5 47°5 1 Sjeseseasee AA AT We QB ieecnses 29°75 34°
ey 485 505 | Ay eeeeeeee48'25 47°25 ay sheets 31° 33°
Tin eae 465 42° ese 46 46%) | Since 32°75 33°
ha ae 35°75 40° 16, ceed 45° * 43 mY Me 29:25 33
Byevnceebewtocdo, 487 Mince seman 42°5 40°75 29, 36°75 40
eit 48:5 49°75 18s ake 405 44°75 | , eh ee 39°75 40
Taceaks «2-00 48 We ALG Pea Fe Se BG SST bb Olyondencees 40°55 46°5
Gy avesoness 485 47 DOV sedades 455 47°5 lore :
Dy vessnosve AG Wate aeaieh: ||. ebgeuccecess 425 47 | Mean at
TRY |i T Bae ant, 455 44: | Month,s “1562 42475
L1,..000000.37°75 38°5 OB ciate, 38°25 33:5 |
Ls axaenas 41° 41°5 24,...0004533°5 29°75 | Mean corrected, 43°1

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Mr. Kine’s Thermometric Observations for 1850.

AM.
Pi eee 42°5
SR Be:
Qi sccscesnee AT‘75
sass: 46°5
Pr eae. 42°
a0nts ee 45

Mean for

Month ¢ aie

A.M,
oN a 51'S
I6% hss 53°25
Ci ee 54:
Py hehe 57°
CT ee 57
SR 62°5
Ses) 565

Mean for ,
Month, 49°88

Mean corrected,

AM
D5 eae: 615
D6 etnies 615
Py pone 55'5
Osa s. 59°75
29) ...0006.. 55"
30,...b05...53°

Mean for

Month, } aei18

A.M,
Oh aaa 61:25
AGrcssacdens 61°5
Oran ee, 64°75
DY ie conte ..63°5
7 a Etta 58°5
SOM ee 64°5
Th etme 65°75

Mean for

AM.
abe a 58°75
26, ecceeeeee 545
SH Ta. .52'25
Dy aN See 49°75
DO eee 5275
BO res 50°
Bly seeeeeee D525

Mean for
Month, } 57-09

60°09

60°-2

55°93

Mean corrected, 56°:9

206
AM.
(1 el feign 59°25
3 cg 58°75
Seesbondss 58°5
A iracecsess 445
Dass cwess eae oe
Gye eeseeas 52°
TPencepocdae 50°
Beccccaes 47°25
Qietececees 45°75
LO ceanespe 48°5
‘Ie ce, 54°
HO a oere 52°25
A.M.
Lyssseoseee 52°
Disdvens sss 415
Spekwescses 49°5
i 51:
Bigcwas ese 44°75
Glawscrsces 47°
Bibl ccs: 49°25
be CRORE 50°75
eocancaca 46°75
1 ee 44°
Tt Peesed 43°75
(pe eoten 36°5
AM
LOS erer ac 54°5
Disktessers 54°5
game's ah 50°5
th RSROCEN 46°
acs gcciaecls 50°
Bycwncsabes 45°5
Mgeterscnas 50°25
Sieve nea 44°5
Jbefagdicce 45°5
ee
Tyrer BOTS
eS 45°25
AM.
Leona
Dicuss sens 40°
eloeeeoeneas 45:5
Me ccstests 46°
Bile cade 50°25
Gyiveccvses 48°75
igeassdense 36°5
Bouncy 33°25
Oreaws ns a 315
MO. sseocees. 32°5
Ll cecnepese41°75
12)...00000044°25

SEPTEMBER.
A.M.
Nese 51°75
Phe tecate 50°75
Abe tet es 52.25
ee. ots 48°
ii 47°
i an 55°
Pe ek 54°75
See. ©. ae 54:25
Q1,..ceveeeeD5"
Ee 2 54°75
pisces ses 545
D4, ....e000.50°5
OCTOBER
A.M.
Miles aescch 49°5
(ee 51°25
a 40°5
Ler ocae 50°75
rh a ee 515
a 53°
19g. as 52°25
DO ee kens 45°5
Besse sne0e04B°D
po RR ea 35°5
23, ..5000g9040°75
OF ete) 40°75
NOVEMBER.
AM.
(eae 39°75
1 eee 630°
apace 35°25
iT eine , 45°
ch oon oe 44:5
Vette cae 42°5
idan... 48°75
Si pero 45°5
Se | 39°
BO ce 44°75
ae 46°5
24, ...00000049°75
DECEMBER.
AM.
13,.0000000.46°25
Tbvcxcccseahe 41:25
Boats pee 40°75
lGpcicnaky
Lipa scour
phen 31°25
LOysskcee 28°
D0, wis. cacke 30°75
Dy ee 44°
Oo Sica 42°
23,.0000000045°
votes # 46°

Mean for
Month,

Mr. Kine's Thermometric Observations for 1850.

P.M.
oosD 56°75
ee00" 54°5
v0.00" 55°5
.53'25 46°75
49°95 9 45°75
«45° 47°

} B174 51°71

Mean corrected, 52°°4

Mean for
Month,

A.M. P.M.
ALS 40°5
+34" 39°5
---40° 42°75
+3825 «387°
Pry fe 39°25
4T75 48°5
48° 50°

} 45.096 45516

Mean corrected, 45°°9

A.M. P.M.
Po etek 43°75 43°75
Orie we 41°75 40°5
Bites 33°5 31-25
28,.20..-.265 33°5
aupaits ice 38° 38
Slee. ite 32°25 31°
Mean for : ;
Month, 44-041 43°758

Mean corrected, 440°6

AM, P.M.
«4 1 44°
14825 45°75
14895 42°5
+42°75 43°25
+4475 AT'S
48° 44°25
Ad 52°25

Mean nt 41016 41-717

Month,

Mean

Mean Temperature of the year, 48°.

GLASGOW:

PRINTED BY BELL AND BAIN, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.

corrected, 42°

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FIFTIETH SESSION.

5th November, 1851.

The Fiftieth Session of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow was
opened this evening.

Walter Crum, Esq., the Vice-President, on taking the chair, expressed
his regret at the absence of the President from the opening meeting, and
still more at the prospect of his being unable, from advancing years, to
take his place in the Society during the Session. He was sure, however,
that it would be the unanimous wish of the Society to continue Dr. Thom-
son as President, notwithstanding his inability to attend its meetings. In
these circumstances it had been submitted to the Council this evening,
whether it would not be advantageous to the Society to appoint an addi-
tional Vice-President, and to allow that office to circulate more than -
heretofore amongst the members of the Society. On this subject, which
he thought it proper to mention to the Society thus early, the Council
would probably be in a condition to give a definite opinion at next meet-
ing of the Society.

Mr. James Bryce called attention to the fact, that the Society was
now entering upon the 50th year of its existence, and proposed, with the
concurrence of several members whom he had consulted, that its jubilee
should be celebrated by a dinner, to which eminent men connected with
the various sciences should be invited.

Mr. William Brown supported Mr. Bryce’s proposal, and suggested
that it should be remitted to the Council for consideration; which was
unanimously agreed to.

The Librarian mentioned that Mr. Thomas M‘Micking had presented
to the Society a copy of a flora of the Philippine Islands, written in
Spanish by a Spanish Friar, and printed at Manilla, the capital city of
the group, and seat of the colonial government.—Thanks voted.

On the motion of Mr. Liddell, it was agreed to request Mr. Cockey and
Mr. Dawson to audit the Treasurer’s accounts.

Dr. R. D. Thomson, at the request of the President, gave an account

Vor. III.—No, 4. 1

208 Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney.

of the American “ New Observations on the Winds and Climate of the
Atlantic.”

XXVI.—The following paper was read last Session, but was not
printed in the proceedings :—

Chemical Examination of Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. ‘ear Mr. Grorar
Wit1am Brown.

Drirt weed kelp is derived from the sea weeds which grow on the rocks
at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. These plants being torn from their
native soils by the force of tides and currents, are drifted to the north
and north-west coasts of Scotland and Ireland, on which they are thrown
by the surge, and being gathered, are burnt either in kilns or in depres-
sions dug in the ground.* By this process most of the organic matter is
removed, although in the specimen of kelp investigated and described in
this paper, a small portion of carbon and nitrogen still remained. The
most important constituents of kelp are the iodine and potash salts. The
carbonates were formerly used by the soapmakers, and the insoluble salts
for the manufacture of bottle glass.

Previous Analysis.—Although the composition of the kelp salts is well
known in a general point of view to the professional chemist, it does not
appear, from any experiments which have been recorded, that they have
been made the subject of recent minute investigation. Mr. Kirwan, in
the end of the last century, published a paper (Memoir read at the Royal
Dublin Society and Annales de Chimie, 1793, tom. 18, p. 163,) on the
alkaline substances employed in bleaching linen. The following is his
. analysis of what he calls sweet barilha from Spain, which corresponds
with kelp in its physical characters :—

CarbamiGAcKbee acc. <0 +. dts whee. Soeeee dees ar neseanies - 16°66
Garbo ny a assee sone FE ARES Co oN PECL 14:95
DUAN, os acco snes eee oe wean dnt saga gg st Cane See 9°42
MPa OSI A ET: coc encl a uek «cat asecsns cote «aeetes aot atene 2°20
BB Sys dp Hialeah Raa valet ds whee we Beaaeemeas ends 2°27
Ph CU ee ee a one EERE EE ae oe 4:33
Bila DUE! sf. Se Seieacdasscccesnveroumeaeesereasenss seas 14:63
Soda, impure,..........csssee Seesaw tunewveceah on ens 4-34
Soda, with! common‘saltit./:.2.2 ce soesace loses scene eee ee 2-20
Sulphate of sodaj..0... tedmeussvere teevestveersccassnces 2:17
Chloride of: sodiwiiysesivs' vise vere idee ve concn teeneeeees 1:21
Harthy deposit,..5 552.2. aeestacesteeseesssecteut Seat 0°34
Water ci Rk Ae eee 25:23

In another volume of the Annales de Chimie, there is a paper by M.
Gay Lussac (Annales de Chimie for 1828, tom. 39, pp. 159-163,) on

* History and Description of the kelp manufactory. Proceedings of Glasgow
Philosophical Society, vol. ii, p. 241. By C. F. O. Glassford.

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. 209

a

_
“The Potashes of Commerce,” in which he gives an analysis of salts of
wareck—

Sulphate of potash,.......0\ ..:sessessessrseresersrescases 22°2
Ciloride OF POtAssvailyes.cti'- as tjwap sn oneas-cectabevedner 24:6
COOEIOG OF SOMENG: oii. 5 s<pcrense.8T's see -bhs<ekS obs scxas 53:2

This appears to be a general statement of the constitution of the soluble
salis only.

Dr. Ure, in his Dictionary of the Arts and Manufactures, published in
1840, gives the extremes of his analysis of kelp as follows :—

foucvonn Of SOMA sor eetccrat ee. sete: Be: SHG
Carbonate of soda,.........-.cese0e he

Soluble taltss ang sulphuret of sodium,............ \ ey a5

Muriates of potash and soda,....... 86°5 ... 37°5

Carbonate of lime,...........s.scese0e DAO iy 10:0

SIG Aye tar eis cities sorsctess chee cesneeee 8:0 0:0

Alumina, with oxide of iron,........ O27. 10:0

Sulphate of lime,................00006 ODS eB

Sulphur and loss,............000e0000 GiOsnyie0F 8H

100 100

The peculiarity of these results is in the presence of a large quantity
of alumina, and the absence of phosphate of lime and alkaline phosphates,
which are at variance with the analysis to be described in this paper.
The quantity of phosphate of lime in these analysis corresponds with

what Dr. Ure terms alumina. It would be difficult to explain the source

of such an amount of this earth, as alumina rarely or never enters into.
the constitution of the vegetable kingdom.

There are analysis of the ashes of some kinds of fuci, viz., F’. digitatus,
F. vesiculosus, F'. nodosus, and F, serratus, in Liebig’s Annalen, vol.
liv. p. 350, by M. J. Gédechens of Hamburg, published in 1845. The
following table gives the calculated mean of these analysis :—

SARs; ins shobla wets <kxaas<aiksats <amstaalbe ncabubevgs cae 12°54
AMAR, 5, hy sigeaate daca clvauvalsincdaneind odenshians eoeuagantery 11:32
A jeichl satadunia «wns nesiins adnapbine «mays tanh 8:29
PPRIAGIOE OM iaie ccnsto guess cava sine ttad sx enabgesaeettesevk 0°32
lorida of codintiyexdcess cascniesnnceavdwdeaascatetce 20°61
UAE OF BOGITIN ce ue0 20> aes caty ov:<abamars eee ceetink 1:33
III AOI ski dads <naidoana siidddanandersaloavageds di 19:77
PMPEDONIC: BOD j7 0040. ved sen snahids ddiveiesoedss saben 2°19
BERR se vissiits «ele pastinsivie c's» skitanns oid> emaiilie deans aaah 1-01
RRO ROT ig 15a kg bin) 0X. stv aes iGURMURAMahe a da kN 0 ts 5:27
SPOT WADE TAd Veins vvedvy ss thaanvgs Hetete Meh ad buena a. va 6:05

100°37

‘

210 Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney.

ANALYsIs OF OrKNEY Drirt Weep Ke tp.

For the specimen of kelp subjected to examination, I am indebted to
W. Paterson, Esq., alkali merchant, Glasgow. The investigation was
conducted in the laboratory of the University of Glasgow, under the
superintendence of Dr. R. D. Thomson. In making these analyses, the
first points to be determined were the quantity of soluble and insoluble
salts and water. To effect the first object, a portion of the kelp was
digested in water, the solution and residue thrown upon a weighed filter
and washed, till all the soluble salts were removed. The insoluble salts
were then dried at 212° Fahrenheit :—

rab atin ~ "Scena Tomtahla mt 5 Sai
400 grains gave..... 114°80 ... 285-20 ... 28°700 ... 71:3
500 “ age LOSS ... Cte) .-. SL 09S ... eae
1000 “ Psp ee lO”... Tad 3. oa) wo Cee

VGA Soon ctinn mate intae a trer 29-736 ... 70°264

Water.—The quantity of water was estimated by heating the kelp at
212° Fahrenheit, till it ceased to lose weight.
Water. Water, per cent.

200, grains GAVE. ..%..J00setace weve este 0s LerGO> To aes

If the quantity of water be subtracted from the soluble salts and water,
the real amount of soluble salts will be obtained, which is as follows :—

Insoluble salts. Soluble salts, Water.

29:069 es 63-464 ee iit

Anatysis or InsoLusLe Satrts.
The following is the description of analysis and results obtained from
the insoluble salts :—

Testing Analysis of Insoluble Salts.

Before proceeding to the quantitative analysis of the insoluble salts, a
qualitative investigation was made. The kelp under examination was
very hard, with a strong alkaline taste, and greyish colour, with black
portions of carbonaceous matter interspersed through it. It was partly
soluble in water. That which remained undissolved in water was a
greyish powder, which, when ignited, became perfectly white. On addi-
tion of acid to the insoluble matter, carbonic acid and sulphuretted
hydrogen were evolved, and the greater part of the salts dissolved, that
which remained being silica. The portion thus dissolved in acid gave on
addition of ammonia, a copious precipitate, which proved on examination
to be phosphate of lime, with a trace of iron. ‘To prove the presence of
phosphoric acid, it was converted into phosphate of iron by Berthier’s
method, and the phosphoric acid precipitated as ammonia phosphate of
magnesia ; the iron being detained by tartaric acid. On the phosphate of
lime being separated by filtration, the filtrate gave, with oxalate of

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Wee Kelp from Orkney. 211

ammonia, a white pulverulent precipitate, proving the presence of lime,
which must originally have existed as carbonate or oxysulphuret. After
the oxalate of lime had been removed, phosphate of soda and ammonia pro-
duced a white crystalline precipitate, indicating the presence of magnesia.

Quantitative Analysis of Insoluble Salts.

Estimation of Organic Maiter.—As has been already mentioned, the
specimen of kelp under examination had not been entirely freed from
nitrogenous matter. This was discovered while deflagrating a portion of
the kelp with nitre, when a strong smell of ammonia was given out. At
first it was supposed that this might originate from the decomposition of
the nitre, but on further investigation it was observed that the kelp, when
ignited without the nitre, produced the same odour. A quantitative
determination of the nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon was therefore made.

Estimation of Nitrogen.—The nitrogen was determined in the usual
manner, by combustion with soda lime, and passing the ammonia through
muriatic acid. The muriate of ammonia thus formed was precipitated by
means of the bichloride of platinum, as the yellow ammonia muriate of
the bichloride of platinum, which was thrown on a weighed filter washed
with alcohol, and dried at 212° Fahrenheit :—

NEEL poe Nitrogen. Nitrogen, per cent.

20 grains gave...,........ 2° a "1317 7 6585

Carbon and Hydrogen.—To prepare the carbonaceous matter for ana-
lysis, 300 grains of the kelp were carefully washed with distilled water,
by which process the soluble salts were removed. The matter which was
insoluble in water was digested in dilute acid when the insoluble salts
were taken up, and organic matter, with silica, remained unacted on.
The carbonaceous matter and silica in 300 grains were equal to 14-46
grains. The residue was then subjected to combustion with oxide of

copper. The following are the results :—
Carbon. Carbon p. ct.

Amount of carbonic acid obtained, == 10:12 ... 2:76 ... :920
Hydrogen. Hydrogen p. ct.
Amount of water obtained,.......... Se. BAT sus SAB, waked

When the matter insoluble in water was subjected to ignition in a pla-
tinum crucible, it lost in weight from the dissipation of the organic matter ;
but along with organic matter a minute quantity of sulphur and carbonic
oxide, from the decomposition of the carbonate of lime, were also driven
off, which rendered the results, as far as concerns the organic matter, not
strictly accurate :—

Loss by ignition, Loss by ignition, per cent.

400 grains gave......s...sssceeeee 11:52 ewe 2°88
500“ Os capndsiiiste sa isi 1218 ue 2:437
500 « Shs alah dampens sada 12:15 nina 3°431

212 Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney.

Estimation of Silica and Sand.—A portion of the kelp was weighed
out, and the soluble salts washed out with boiling water. When this was
accomplished, the insoluble salts were dried, and the carbonaceous matter
removed by ignition; after which they were dissolved in muriatic acid,
which took up the insoluble salts, and left the silica and sand. This
residue was then boiled with carbonate of soda, which removed the
previously combined silica, and the sand remained: —

Bie ant ios a9 reas la
400 grains gave.....13°24 ... 7-01... 6°23 ... 1°75.... 1°55
Ua Saute ant AoA 4s fla... O40 ... 27S ... coe
Mean...... 1:765... 1575
. Estimation of Carbonic Acid.—The carbonic acid was determined by
introducing the insoluble salts into a flask, from which a tube passed into
another flask containing barytes water. The carbonic acid was disengaged
by the addition of weak muriatic acid to the salts. The gas passing
through the barytes solution yielded a precipitate of carbonate of barytes,
which was weighed.
Carb. of Barytes. Carbonic Acid. vice cana

500 grains gave.......10205 ... 22°91 ... 4:58

Estimation of Sulphur.—The sulphur was determined by means of the
same apparatus as was employed for the estimation of the carbonic acid ;
but instead of barytes a solution of arsenious acid in caustic soda was
used. When the sulphuretted hydrogen was evolved, by means of muriatic
acid, it converted the arsenious acid into the tersulphuret of arsenic.

AsO; + 3SH = As&S, + 3HO.

The tersulphuret of arsenic was held in solution by the soda, but when
muriatic acid was added the yellow tersulphuret fell. This precipitate
was then thrown on a weighed filter, and washed with water slightly
acidulated with muriatic acid.

Tersulphuret = c Sulphur,
of Arsenic. Sulphur. per cent.
000 grains gave........... D1 gasssly Cees say 5 eee

Estimation of Phosphate of Lime.—The insoluble salts having been
dissolved in acid, and the silica separated, the phosphate of lime was
precipitated by ammonia.

Phosphate of Phosphate of Lime,
ime: per cent,
400 grains gave.........000 Ls eee 10°71
500... § C Fe cned asain VAT Oe Weer Sete Be 10-50
HOO. < oa rciceaae tei ee AiO) lech anecbinacheld 10°46
Meantintvesvcasies 10:556

Estimation of Alumina.—To ascertain if the phosphate of lime contained
alumina, it was dissolved in acid, and then boiled in an excess of strong
caustic soda, which would redissolve any alumina. It was found that it
contained a small quantity, which was probably accidentally introduced
by the caustie soda or other reagents.

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. 213

Alumina.

per cent.
400 grains gave...........- TAO (a5 és ssc Pak eaweee 185
A Sas etait nies EBD) sewage aepcust ‘100
Mea Nias w<scascerxe "1425

Determination of Lime.—To the liquid from which the phosphate of
lime had been separated, oxalate of ammonia was added, when oxalate
of lime fell. This precipitate being washed and heated to redness was
converted into carbonate.

Carbonate of Lime. Lime. Lime, per cent.
BOO GUANA csanctieass SESS aaecs yA hy 65) ee ato

Estimation of Magnesia.—Having removed the lime by filtration, the
magnesia was precipitated by means of phosphate of soda and ammonia,
as the ammonia phosphate of magnesia, which, when heated, was converted
into the diphosphate of magnesia 2 (Mg QO) P O;.

: 2 MgO) P Os. Magnesia. Magnesia, per cent.
500 grains gave...... SS GO. «cua 15607, ean 3:121

The results of the preceding analysis are comprehended in the following

table :—

PUMOROM wai avant ceo me wiatinids «Sans. aah 6585
PYAR OOO sais nniccidn scm ansAepandasex <p 144
(Wambon scene tewctesiia as ideas obes “920
Se ee RS Cees aera eee te 1-765
Sian (sete woacie tne a toanonascaastascses Ls As)
@arhonie: acid Sescschssaescne cacices sete 4:58
RR aa marys onsen as ocean ike 386
Phosphate, Of Times. ..ua5-<sincepaaneso2s- 10°556
PAUEITININ er ide sina de siaapias aasinw Suisse eamsilens *1425
Whumtonmeneec. caret active watiec teens cosets. 4-351
RED RUCR spine yoo sexs cass fapessieee snes « 3°121
28-1990
Lime. Magnesia. Conant Hieohorie Silica. Sulphur.
Carbonate of lime.. 2°591 1:451 — 1:14. — set. nies
Phosphate of lime..10°556 5376 — =e 5:18 = as
Prpedsiaa (~~ 1008 900 —. — — B86
Silicate of lime...... 3°824 2059 — —_— — 1765 -
Carbonate of
magnesia i wo. 6554 — 3°121 +3:43838 — = —
A oD 1°575

SeP00R2 i2555....... °920
Hydrogen............ °144
Nitrogen............. 658
1 Che 1°152

29°067

214 Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney.

The oxygen was obtained by calculating the quantity necessary to
form water, which, being united to the nitrogen, would not be driven off
at 212° F.

Anatysis oF SonuBLe Sars. ;

Testing Analysis of Soluble Salts.—Those salts which were soluble in
water were, before proceeding to the quantitative analysis, tested qualita-
tively. The following are the results :—On addition of muriatic acid to
the solution of salts, an effervescence took place, with evolution of carbonic
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphuric acid produced a dark colour
in the solution, from the liberation of iodine. This, however, disappeared
on heating the liquid, fumes of iodine being evolved. After precipitating
the sulphurets by sulphate of copper, the addition of a small quantity of
sulphuric acid made the liquid slightly turbid from the precipitation of
sulphur, proving the presence of a small quantity of hyposulphurous acid.
When nitrate of silver was added to a solution of the salts, a black
precipitate fell from the formation of sulphuret of silver; but after a
portion of the salts had been boiled with nitric acid, the precipitate with
nitrate of silver was white and curdy, indicating the presence of chlorine.
Chloride of barium gave a white precipitate, part of which being dissolved
with effervescence in nitric acid, indicated the presence of carbonic acid.
A white powder remained unacted on by the nitric acid, showing that the
salts contained sulphuric acid. After a portion of the salts had been
heated to redness, the addition of bichloride of platinum produced a
yellow precipitate, proving the existence of potash salts in the kelp.
Oxalate of ammonia caused a slight precipitate of lime; and phosphate of
soda and ammonia, after some time, a precipitate of ammonia phosphate
of magnesia.

Quantitative Analysis of Soluble Salts.

Estimation of Sulphuric Acid.—Having separated, by filtration, a
portion of the soluble from the insoluble salts, the sulphuric acid was
precipitated in the soluble salts by the addition of chloride of barium
and muriatic acid, to dissolve sulphites and phosphates.

Sulphate of Barytes. Sulphuric Acid, per cent.
100 grains gave ...........0..+ 14-21 Le 4°89
HOON S <S Gaccbisseeeee ees 14:34 5 4-94
Mean per centage,............ee00+ 4-915

Estimation of Sulphurous Acid.—To a solution of the soluble salts
chloride of barium was added, which precipitated the sulphuric, sulphur-
ous, carbonic, and phosphoric acids, as salts of barytes. This precipitate
was thrown on a filter and washed with hot water. The sulphate, sul-
phite, and carbonate of barytes which were on the filter, were then
treated with nitrie acid, which converted the sulphite into sulphate, and
dissolved the carbonate. The sulphate of barytes was then washed with

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. 215

water and weighed. The difference between the weight of this precipi
tate and that of the sulphate of barytes, previously obtained, indicated
the amount of sulphate of barytes formed by the action of the nitric acid
on the sulphite. From this the sulphurous acid was calculated—

Sulphate of Sulphuric Sulphuric Acid : : Sulphurous
ervies ‘Acid. before obtained. Difference Acid.
Rave COO se BAU rey AIL <. “485 ..- 392

Estimation of Hypo-sulphurous Acid.—The soluble salts being sepa-
rated, by means of cold water, from the insoluble salts; the sulphurets
and carbonates were removed by sulphate of copper. After separating
this precipitate by filtration, sulphuric acid was added to the liquid,
which decomposed the hypo-sulphites, sulphurous acid being evolved and
sulphur precipitated. This sulphur was then washed, dried at 212° F.,

and weighed. .
Hypo-sulphurous Acid,
Per Cent.

400 grains gave...... 18 = “54 a 115

Estimation of Sulphur.—The quantity of sulphur in the soluble salts
was estimated by deflagrating a portion of the kelp with nitre. By this
process all the sulphites, hypo-sulphites, and sulphurets, were converted
into sulphates. The sulphuric acid was then precipitated by chloride of
barium as sulphate of barytes, which was weighed, and the sulphuric
acid contained in it calculated. It is obvious that the sulphuric acid
thus obtained, comprehended all the sulphur existing as sulphurets and
sulphur acids in the original kelp. If we subtract from it the sulphuric
acid found to exist, as such, in the kelp, we have remaining the sulphuric
acid equivalent to the sulphites, hypo-sulphites, and sulphurets in the
kelp. If, again, we subtract from the last result the calculated quantity
of sulphuric acid equivalent to the sulphurous, hypo-sulphurous acid, and
the sulphuret of the insoluble salts, the remainder will be the sulphuric
acid equivalent to the sulphur of the soluble salts.

Sulphate of Barytes. Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric Acid,

Sulphur. Hypo-sulphurous Acid.

per cent,
200 grains gave ......... AGNID Vong cats RO QE Yoke ecees 8:02
Sram SE PHUITC ROAM). cers davcanereoescecsorsesscnacine vans 4:92
Sulphuric acid = Sulphurous acid, ............. 490 ... 3°10
— — = Hypo-sulphurous acid,....... °191
— — = Sulphur of insoluble salts,.. -965
Total calculated sulphuric acid,.................. 1.446
Sulphuric acid == Sulphur of soluble salts, ................ 1-654
Sulphur, soluble salts, per cent.,..........cs.ssccsecseeeeeees 6616

Estimation of Phosphoric Acid.—To the solution from which the sul-
phurie acid had been precipitated, by chloride of barium and muriatic
acid, after separation of the precipitate, ammonia was added, when phos.
phate of barytes fell.

Phosphate of Phosphoric Phosphoric Acid,
Barytes. Acid. . per cent.

200 grains gave .... 2°02 ..........06 ROME ia cae tondevns 3245

216 Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney.

Estimation of Carbonic Acid.—The carbonic acid in the soluble salts
was determined in the same manner as in the insoluble salts, by passing
the gas evolved by the muriatic acid from the solution of the salts,
through caustic barytes dissolved in water. The carbonic acid precipi-
tated the barytes as carbonate, from which the carbonic acid was calcu-
lated.

Carbonate of Barytes. Carbonic Acid. Carbonic Acid, per cent.

500 grains gave ..... 48°62 ............ Ls a = Some 27180

Estimation of Chlorine.—A solution of the soluble salts was boiled
with nitric acid, to convert the sulphurets into sulphates; the chlorine
was then precipitated by nitrate of silver.

Chloride of Silver. Chlorine. Chlorine, per cent.
15 grains gave ...... Re aan cans GEO? sans daeeenee 23°40
— — eres WD Sioee cassees 3 ie Co eee ee 25°33
Means. cc dccon+sseseaeceaseanees 24°365

Estimation of Iodine.—This, which is one of the most valuable con-
stituents of kelp, was determined by the following method, which has
yielded results very satisfactory.

A portion of the kelp was exhausted of its iodide, by digestion several
times in alcohol. The alcoholic solution was then evaporated to dryness,
and, to convert any sulphuret which might have been taken up by alcohol
into sulphate, was deflagrated with chlorate of potash, and kept at a red
heat till any iodate that might have been formed by the action of the
chlorate of potash, was decomposed. The mass was then dissolved in
water, and the iodine precipitated, by means of chloride of palladium, as
iodide of palladium, which was dried at 212° F., and weighed—

Todide of Palladium. Todine. Iodine, per cent.
1000 grains gave ...... BOS. sano BSR Ae, joc -wies ‘283
_ ee So iaiatsin ER ieee eee ee SOG ers ccidienoet 306
500 ee Ue aca FOB veto comer spe i: 51 Caen ‘287
Mean Iodine, per Cent,...........00000+ 292

Separation of Bromine and Iodine.—To effect the separation of the
iodine and bromine, a pound of kelp was treated with alcohol which
dissolved out the bromide and iodide. The alcohol was then driven
off. Through the aqueous solution of the salts, chlorine was passed in
order to decompose the iodide and bromide, the iodine and bromine being
set free. This liquor holding in solution free iodine and bromine, was
frequently agitated with ether in a stoppered bottle. The aqueous
solution gradually became clear on standing, and the ether, containing the
bromine and iodine, floated on the surface. This ethereal solution was
then decanted and saturated with soda, after which it was evaporated
to dryness and heated to redness, to destroy any iodate or bromate. The
residual salts were dissolyed in water, and the iodine precipitated by

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. 217

chloride of palladium. The iodide of palladium being separated by fil-
tration, the excess of palladium was removed from the filtrate by sul-
phohydret of ammonia. It was found in this experiment that sulpho-
hydret of ammonia answered better than sulphohydric acid for removing
the excess of palladium; because, when sulphohydric acid is employed,
part of the sulphuret of palladium is dissolved by the acid, which was
previously united to the palladium, which was set free by the sulpho-
hydric acid. Having removed the excess of sulphohydret of ammonia
by boiling, chlorine was again passed through the solution to decompose
bromide. The bromine which was set free was taken up by ether (this
had a yellow colour, probably from the presence of a small quantity of
bromine). The ethereal solution was then neutralized by soda, evaporated
to dryness, and heated to redness. The aqueous solution of the residue
gave a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, which consisted principally
of chloride of silver. But from the colour of the ether, it was evident
that it contained a small quantity of bromine.

Estimation of Potassium.—To determine accurately the quantity of
potash, it was considered advisable to convert any potash that might exist
as sulphate into chloride, which was effected in the following manner.
From the solution of the salts, the sulphuric acid was precipitated by
chloride of barium and the sulphate of barytes, separated by filtration. The
excess of barytes was then thrown down by carbonate of ammonia. The
liquor, after the carbonate of barytes had been removed, was evaporated
to dryness, and heated to redness to expel the ammonia. The residue
was dissolved in water, and the potassium precipitated by the addition of
the sodium bichloride of platinum, as the potassium bichloride of platinum
(KCI Pt Cl.).

(KCl Pt Cls) Potassium. Potassium, per cent.

30 grains gave.........000+. IOs a COROT Lares Ge

Estimation of Lime.—This was determined by precipitation as oxalate
of lime; the precipitate, when heated, was converted into carbonate of
lime.

Carbonate of Lime. Lime. Lime, per cent.
BOO PTAINS: ZAVCss.cscre0s0eseraeoe | amis = 1s aeeagt |
500“ See coats iiss e svn Maen O38 css, SO eas)
Mean lime per Cent.......0+.secessesererers 230

Estimation of Magnesia.—The magnesia was precipitated from the
solution of the salts, by phosphate of soda and ammonia, as ammonia
phosphate of magnesia, which was converted, by heat, into the diphos-
phate of magnesia.

Diphosphate of Magnesia, Magnesia. Magnesia, per cent.
500 grains gave ...... 3°61 le 1°321 ar 264
400 * Ser svience 3°00 we 1:071 ie 267

Mean magnesia, per cent..........+.0e0+s 277

218

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney.
Results of Analysis of Soluble Salts.

Sulphuric acid, ...........csecessssecceecspecseeeeenes 4915
Sulphurous acid, ..........scsseeeseeeeesceseeseeeeeees 392
Hypo-sulphurous acid, .........00seseeeeeeee sieeeeaee 135
SIPHON, .<oescccarenaccseecseccsccccsssescnssrncosnscnes 6616
Phosphoric acid, .......ssseseeeeee seeeeeeeeeeeeeners 3245
NPRM oe tect ct enemscners<s2scesphadems tone 2:162-
(PES. 58S 2 a eee Meare, At A 24365
RIED vascy des vncete- -nyen'owen vcsuuaueiupvessns sees “292
SATE foc ccnee = -ns0v sderomsievnbeeree eed wveeutr se trace.
REPRE, o. o.sccevese vers ooueciusasesdontenesetxtye. 16:000
BAN ac cvs cesctee code ered tee aapas venan cs Net eahnaee oY ezO
MIADTONIES ccc. 2, soccecestsss pice yabswidaes cece Mauuwek sts 277
49-754

The deficiency here is the soda, as may be seen in the two following
tables in which the acids and bases are united according to their affinities ;
and the result of the examination of a hundred parts of the kelp is
given, comprehending both soluble and insoluble matter :-—

Sulphuric Sulphurous Hyposulphur- § i Y jum. Lime. la.
hed. ca pe julphur. Chlorine. Potassium. Sodium. Lime. Magnesia

Sulphate of potash, 2058 — _ = ey S|) ee
Sulphate of soda, 2000 — — = = = 106 —
Sulphate of lime, 0164 — = == = — — ‘115
Sulphateofmagnes. *693 — = = = — -_- —
Sulphite ofsoda, — ‘392 — = — — 261 —
Hyposulphite ofsoda, — — 132 = an pe: 058 —
Sulphuret of sodium, — — — 6616 — — ‘9894 —
Phosphoric acid.
Phosphate of soda, — *°3245 — _— _ — 162 —
Carbonic acid.
Carbonate of soda, — 27180 — = — — 1:346 —
Chloride of potassium — — — — 12584 13:°948 — —
Chloride of sodium, — _ — — 11570 — 7764 —
Chloride of calcium, — — — = "147 = = oe hE
Todine.
Iodide of magnesium — -292 — — — = = ai

Bromide of magnesium, trace.

TABLE OF PER CENTAGE Composition oF Orkney Ke tp.
Insoluble Salts.

Jee bOLALS OF 1UNMG,....5.05 olde en tere nor etey nae 2°591
Phosphate Of limo,..:...<ccses.scenarvesees sateen 10°556
Oxysulphuret of calcium, 3 CaS, CaO......... 1:093
Silicate of lime,........... vs ete EE pie te 3-824
Carbonate of magnesia,................ceeceeeees 6554

SO 5 os. 5 dns b0ca.26 ous axnaraore tenet 1575

Mr. G. W. Brown on Drift Weed Kelp from Orkney. 219

J ALENT re RoSe esos Sear ic OSC EEE AEE CORD COLE OREO SICC 142
Ca thOUs Gveaee -ccecsandecneos ead ueseecasctssasseseas *920
Hydrogen,....-.--+sceseseceesssresaeeesereeeenatess 144
OXYQOD,..-ceceeeeeceeeeeersserreneeeseeesesennenees 1°152
Nitrogen, ......ccescceeeeenseeeeeseeteeeeseneseenes 658 29-209
Soluble Salts
Sulphate of potash,......sssssessesseseereeeenee: 4°527
Sulphate of soda,......+:.ssssesseeeeesseseenneees 3600
Sulphate of lime,........:.sseseecsereseeeeseesanee “279
Sulphate of magnesia,.........2+ssseeeeeeneeeees 924
Sulphite of soda, ..........-:ssseesseeeeerseeeeees ‘784
Hyposulphite of soda, ......sseseessesseeesseeees ‘220
Sulphuret of sodium, .......0.ssssseseeeeeeeeeees 1-651
Phosphate of soda, .......-.sesseseesseseeere oo 540
Marhadate Of SONS, .c0.cc00.cnccnecscnresceenseses 5306
Chloride of potassium, ........-..:.sseeeeseeeeees 26°491
BlGrie: OF BOUIN, i..0c0nssrccscvddsce cette n gana 19-334
BORING Ob GAMES 25 cess anmensesecemcs ss anace 229
Todide of magnesium,...........-sseeseeeeeeeees 316
Bromide of magnesium, .............seeeeeseeeee trace.
WGI as a stiddaevensanadokaqpiuassnsscnesa-s<srent 6800 71-001
100-210

November 19, 1851.—Mr. Crom in the Chair.

Tux following were elected members, viz. :—Rey. Dr. Robson, Rev.
Dr. Memes, (Hamilton,) Messrs. John Thomson, civil engineer, William M.
Thomson, William Wright.

The following is the substance of a report read by the Librarian on
the state of the library :—

Every volume in the library has been inspected, and found to be in
good order. The missing volume of Whewell’s Inductive Sciences, vol. 1,
has been recovered. The number of vols. in the library was, on the Ist
of November, 1851, as follows :—

French periodicals, . : : : : 308 vols.
English periodicals, . : : 537
German periodicals, with 60 French vols; , 317
Societies’ Journals, . : F : , 234
General science, i F 5 : : 229
Encyclopedias, d&c., ; ° ; : 295

Total in 1851, d p J 1920
Total in 1850, P , oe L688

Increase, : : ; ; 237

220 Report of Librarian.

The number of periodicals is as follows : —

English. French. German.

Weekly, ] Weekly, 2 Weekly, 1
Fortnightly, 1 a _

Monthly, 9 Monthly, 5 Monthly, 3
Bimonthly, 1 — -

Quarterly, 5 Quarterly, 2 —

Annually, 13 Annually, 1 —

Total, 30 10 4—Total, 44.

TBE or THE NuMBER OF VoLUMEs IssUED MontHty, anD NUMBER OF
Reapers Monraty.

1850. 1851.
No. of Vols. No. of Readers. No. of Vols. No. of Readers.

January, — eo 127 a 42
February, 20 a Deena 116 ste 44
March, 108 A A eercckans 87 Se 3

April, 123 ee HD) sox eves 157 ee 45
May, 91 53 3 Nae 138 aa 46
June, 79 ie aca ge 120 aes 38
July, 94 sale OO: Asuna 94 a 35
August, 87 ene ZO. onsets 112 wee 37
September, 85 a be neers 150 ae 41
October, 72 wee avn Sees 140 re 44
November, 118 oa AS pecs. 162 ee 45
December, 118 es oF Se erate & Ys oe. 50

The mean number of volumes out each day of the month of
September, 1851, was 70°6
October, 1851, “ 85:

Since last report, the abridgment of the Philosophical Transactions,
from 1665 to 1837, in 21 volumes, and the Transactions of the Society
of Arts, from 1806 to 1832, in 49 volumes, have been added to the
library, in furtherance of the project of completing important series of
works annually.

A supplement to the library catalogue has been printed, containing all
the additions during the last two years, up to the present time,

Abstract of Treasurer’s Account.

Mr. Liddell, the Treasurer, gave in the following Abstract of his
Account for Session 1850-51 :—

1850. Dr.
Noy. 1.—To Cash in Union and Savings Bank,..£90 3 4
1851.
Nov. 1. — Interest om do. ........csecsecsseeseees 3.5 3
——— £93 8 7

Report of Librarian. 221
Noy. 1.—To Society’s “ Transactions”’ sold, ............0e.066 416 0
— Entries of 38 New Members, at 21s.
OO Bae a OS eS 39 18 0
— 12 Annual Payments from Original
Members, at 5s. each,.............. 3 Ox
— 270 Annual Payments at 15s. each, 202 10 0
oe 245 8 0
£343 12 7
1851. Cr.
Noy. 1.—By New Books and Binding,....................0000- £93 4 4
— Printing Transactions, Circulars, &c............ Bo a 0
— Gas Fittings, d&ic., in Hall,.,.........cccccecceess- 119 0
Ment Gf: Hall, ....csivsssecatscaees .0ae £15 0 0
— Coffee, &c., at Annual Meeting... 215 0
— Fire Insurance,.................0000. 216 0
— Society's Officer, Clerk, and
Poundage on dues collected,... 13 1 6
— Postages, Delivering Letters, and
Statiowary;:. Lhe hii eed 1417 6
= Gas for-Hall). &escicsiscccsscseevess 013 0
—— 49 3 0
— Librarian’s Salary (503 weeks),................. BS iy! On.
: — Subscription to Ray Society, yr. 1 1 0
— Do. to Cavendish Society, lyr... 1 1 0
— Do. to Palzeontographical Society,
Be FEAT ies sted cacalveasee dYshdc Be Bod
— Donation for investigating the
Local Natural History,......... 15 0 0
—— 19 4 0
— Cash in Union Bank,............... 120 0 0
— Cash in Savings Bank,............. 8:15.03
—— 12815 8
£343 12 7
Tae Puriosopaican Soomry Exmmrrion Funp.
1850.
May. 15.—To balance, as per deposit Receipt from tho Cor-
poration of the City of Glasgow,........+..scs00. £529 16 9
1851.
May 15.—To one year's Interest on do.,....ssesecsecceeeseceee 21 4 0
£551 0 9

222 The late Mr, John Hart.

GLascow, 3d November, 1851.—We have examined the Treasurer’s Account, and com-
pared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there are in the Union Bank of Scotland
One Hundred and Twenty Pounds, and in the Savings Bank Eight Pounds Fifteen
Shillings and Threepence—together, One Hundred and Twenty-Eight Pounds Fifteen
Shillings and Threepence at thé Society’s credit. The Treasurer has also exhibited to us
a Voucher, which he holds for money lent to the Corporation of the City of Glasgow,
from the proceeds of the Philosophical Society’s Exhibition in 1846, with interest thereon

up to 15th May ult., being £551 Os. 9d.
THOMAS DAWSON. ,

WM. COCKEY.

Report by Treasurer, 5th November, 1851.—The property possessed by the Society at
this date consists of the above-named balance of £128 15s. 3d. in Bank; the Books in
Library, and Book Presses, as per Librarian’s Catalogue. The Furniture, Picture, Bust,
&c., remain same as in Report of last year.

The number of new Members admitted Session 1850-51, is 38. From this there fall to
be deducted 13 dropped from the Roll, viz., for arrear of dues, 4; placed on non-resident
list, having removed from Glasgow, dues being paid to date, and intimation to be placed
on this list being given, 2; resigned membership by letter, 4; dead, 2; for non-payment
of entry-money and first year’s dues, 1. The total number on the Roll at this date is
286; of these 10 are in arrear of dues for one year.

Tne LATE Mr. Joun Hart.

Mr. Anprew Lippe, the Treasurer, in reporting on the deaths during
the past year, referred to that of Mr. John Hart, one of the original
members of the Society, and begged permission to make a short statement
respecting him.

He asked this not only because of Mr. Hart having been for so many
years (nearly thirty) connected with this Institution, and for the greater
portion of these a very active member, but also and chiefly because, in
the history of the deceased, we have a brilliant specimen of the effects of
self-culture, in a comparatively unlettered youth acquiring a highly
cultivated mind, a thorough knowledge of many branches of science,
becoming a good worker in several branches of handicraft, and a pro-
moter of schools and institutions like our own, that taught to others the
same things.

The deceased was a careful observer of all new inventions in mechanics,
and of all new discoveries or theories in philosophy. Many of these he
brought to the test of experiment in the laboratory and workshop which
adjoined his bakery in Mitchell-Street. By practice he acquired con-
siderable proficiency in wood and metal turning, as also in other branches
of mechanical art: he made working models of steam-engines, optical
instruments, including large sized telescopes, with various other machines
and instruments. The turning lathes in his workshop were moved by a
steam-engine of his own making. The parts of that engine, which
required to be bored or turned, were done by power from a water-wheel
which he had previously set down in the course of St. Enoch Burn, which
runs close by his premises.

The late Mr John Hart. 223

Mr. Hart was a native of Borrowstouness; born 18th August, 1783,
died 27th June, 1851; was consequently in his 68th year. It may be
noticed that his natal day was that on which the great meteor or fire-
ball traversed the horizon of Great Britain. After getting the school
education usually given in a country town at that date, he was for some
time employed by a timber merchant in his native place as an interim
clerk, When about seventeen years of age, he removed to Glasgow in
search of similar employment, but not finding a suitable place, he learned
the trade of a pastry-baker with an uncle. His brother Robert followed
soon after, and also learned the same trade. The two brothers ultimately
succeeded their uncle in his business, in which they continued till 1831.
At this date both retired from all business pursuits. It may be here
mentioned, what indeed is known to many present, that Mr. Robert Hart
was not only a co-partner in business, but was also a hearty co-operator
with the deceased in all his learned and scientific pursuits. That gentleman
is still amongst us, and, it is hoped, will long continue to prosecute the
useful arts which he and his brother so creditably pursued for many years.

The only instruction in philosophy or the arts which the deceased got
was in the Mechanics’ Class of Anderson’s University, he all the time
following his business of pastry-baking. Feeling the great advantage
which he derived from this source, he at an early period took an active
part in the management of that class for the good of others, and not only
of that particular class, but also of all the concerns of Anderson’s Uni-
versity. For about forty years, and up to the period of his death, he was
a trustee and a member of the Managing Committee of that Institution,
and he has been a member of this Society for nearly thirty years. In
addition to philosophy and mechanics, the deceased had a taste for, and a
considerable knowledge of, the fine arts. He was a good draughtsman,
and excelled in the art of modelling. We have a good specimen of his
work in this line in the full-sized statue of the late Professor Anderson
in the museum of the University. His great knowledge of many of the
sciences and of the mechanic arts, his being also of easy access, modest,
and unassuming, and withal ever ready to communicate, encouraged his
friends and the citizens generally to draw upon him for information. This
was done frequently for their guidance in applying the information thus
acquired to the arts and manufactures in which they were respectively
engaged. And it is believed that much useful knowledge was got in this
way. In his workshop, or laboratory, were to be seen or heard of, on all
occasions, almost every thing that was new in science or art. At one
time you might see, in a half finished state, a tiny steam-engine, the
speculum and other parts of a large sized telescope, also in a half finished
state, and perhaps the plan of a gas apparatus. On your return you
might find the engine driving his turning-lathes, the telescope on its
pedestal, and the gas apparatus brilliantly illuminating all his premises.
This was the case prior to the operations of the Gas Company in 1818,
for Messrs. Harts’ premises alone were lighted with gas at that date. As

Von. III.—No, 4. 2

224 Proceedings of the Philosophical

a consequence, they were visited by many of the citizens, and not by
them only, but also by many scientific strangers. Amongst the latter
may be mentioned the late James Watt, who, on every visit he made to
Glasgow, uniformly called on the deceased and his brother, and fre-
quently invited them to spend evenings with him at his hotel. Shortly
after his return from the last visit he made to Glasgow, he, as a mark
of his regard, presented the Messrs. Hart with some valuable work
tools, and accompanied the present with a letter, of which the following
is a copy:—
‘‘ Heathfield, Birmingham, December 19th, 1815.

‘«« GentLemen,—On Saturday last, I took the liberty of sending, by
the Manchester waggon for Glasgow, a small box, directed as this letter,
containing a best Sheffield brace, and thirty-eight bits, and two drill
stocks, with twelve drills each, of which I request your acceptance, as a
mark of my regard. I hope they will be of use in your pursuits.

«« They may be in Glasgow in a fortnight, and you may inquire for the
box at Mrs. Walsh’s, in Stirling Square.

‘IT shall be glad to hear that you receive them safe, and how your
telescope goes on, And remain with esteem,

** Gentlemen,
‘* Your obedient humble servant,
(Signed) ‘* James Warr.

“Messrs. J. & R. Hart,
Mitchell-Street, Glasgow.”’

The Society then proceeded to the Viftieth Annual Election of Office-
Bearers. Mr. Cockey and Mr. Dawson were requested to act as
serutineers of the yotes. The scrutineers having retired to examine the
vote-papers,

Professor William Thomson read a paper “ On the Decomposition of
Water by Galvanic Elements of low intensity, and on the Electro-
Polarization of Platinum Plates.”

The scrutineers reported the following to be the result of the election: —

Wresivent,
Tuomas Tomson, M.D.
Vicg-PRresivent,..Watter Crum. | Liprartay, ..R. D. Tuomson, M.D.
TREASURER,........ ANDREW LIDDELL.

Doint Secretaries.

ALEXANDER Hasriz, M.P. | Wiiitam Keppir.
Council.
James Bryor, M.A. | Arruur Mitcuett, M.D.) Wit14m THomson, M.A.
Wii1t14m Ferauson. | Witr1am Murray. Auten THomson, M.D.
Wu11am Gouri. New Rosson. G. W. Arnott, LL.D.

Atexanper Harvey. | Ropert Sincparr. A. K. Youna, M.D.

Society of Glasgow. 225

December 3d, 1851.—Jn the absence of the Prusipent and Vice-PREsIDENT,
Mr, Lippect was called to the Chair.

Tux following were elected members, viz.:—Messrs. Nathaniel Holmes,
William Wallace, Robert Bruce Bell, Daniel Miller, George Glennie,
William Thomson, Ramsay Thomson.

The Society voted a second time on the proposal submitted by the
Council that an additional Vice-President should be appointed, when it
was unanimously and finally approved of. It was in like manner agreed
that neither of the Vice-Presidents shall be eligible for more than two
years consecutively, and that the election to the office shall be annual, as
in the case of the Office -bearers.

Dr. G. A. Walker Arnott was elected Vice-President.

It was resolved that at next meeting the Society should elect a member
of council in room of Dr. Walker Arnott.

Mr. Robert Blackie gave notice of a motion to the following effect: —

“That instead of the entire council of this Society going out of office
annually, and being eligible at once for re-election, only four members of
council shall retire annually, who shall not be eligible for re-election till
they have been one year out of office, and that four new members be
elected annually in room of those that go out.

“That this change be brought into operation at next general election,
in the following manner:—The names of the twelve councillors then
elected to be arranged in accordance with the number of votes recorded
for each,—the one having the greatest number of votes to be placed at
the bottom of the list, that he may remain longest in office, and the
others progressively above—the one having the least number of votes
being placed at the top. That at the end of one year the four councillors
whose names are at the top of the list, retire from office, and four new
ones be elected, and their names placed at the bottom, and so on in
succession.”

Mr. John Thomson, C.E., read “Remarks on the Advantages of
Tubular Drainage, as applied to Houses, Streets, and Towns.”

December 17th, 1851.—Jn the absence of both the VicE-PRESIDENTS,
Mr. Wiiu1am Morray was called to the Chair.

Tue following were elected members, viz:—Lord John Hay, Com-
mander, R.N.; Messrs. Thomas Carlile, Andrew Kelley, Robert Stark.

Mr. Hastie stated that Mr. Blackie’s motion for a change in the mode
of electing the members of council, had this evening been under the con-
sideration of the Council, by whom a report on the proposal would be
submitted to the Society before the close of the Session.

The Society proceeded to elect a member to fill the vacancy in the
Council, caused by the appointment of Dr. George Walker Arnott to the

226 Dr. Scouter on the Introduction of the Potato into Scotland.

office of Vice-President. Mr. Ramsay and Mr. King were requested to
scrutinize the votes; which having been done, it was found that the elec-
tion was in favour of Mr. William Cockey,.

Mr. James Bryce stated his views respecting ‘“‘ The Dispersion of
Granite Boulders in the South Highlands, in reply to a late paper by the
President of the Geological Scciety.”

The following paper was read :—

XXVII.—WNotes on the Introduction of the Potato into Scotland. By
Joun Scouter, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S.
(Communicated by William Gourlie, Esq.]

Tue following notes respecting the progress of the culture of the
Potato, although very incomplete, will, I trust, be of some interest to
the Society. It is a common but certainly a most erroneous opinion, that
the potato was first introduced into Ireland by Sir W. Raleigh, and that
from thence it was disseminated over the rest of Europe, under the name
of the Virginian potato. The following remarks will, however, exhibit
the fallacy of this opinion. The different esculent roots, the produce of
America, were confounded by the older writers, and thus it is often
difficult to ascertain the particular species they intended to describe; in
consulting their works we must distinguish between the (Helianthus
tuberosus), Canada potato or Artichoke, the Batata or sweet potato, and
the papa or true potato. Bearing this distinction in mind, we may state
that there is no evidence of a satisfactory kind that the true potato was
a native of North America; we find no notice of it in the early history of
Virginia, a'though the first colonists often suffered from famine, and con-
sequently had a deep interest in ascertaining what were the resources of
the country. In like manner, although we have copious information of
every thing relating to Mexico, in the narratives of the conquerors, we
never find the potato mentioned. As respects Peru and Quito the case
is very different, and we have early and authentic information respecting
the potato. In the work of Cieca de Leon, published in 1554, the culture
of the potato is described, he expressly distinguishes the “batatas dulces”’
or sweet potatoes from the true potato, called by the Peruvians papa,
and he informs us that in the more elevated regions of the Andes,
where the maize did not ripen, the papa or potato was an important
article of food. Whatever opinion we may form respecting the native
country of the potato, it is certain that the merit of importing it into
Europe does not belong to Raleigh. As a convincing proof that the
potato was cultivated in Europe previous to the voyage of Raleigh we
may, with Parmentier, quote the evidence of Clusius, in his work entitled
Rariorum Plantarum Historia, and printed in the year 1601. Clusius
informs us that in the year 1586, the potato was in common use in Italy,
not only as food for men but also for cattle. Raleigh returned from his
voyage in the year 1585. In addition to this evidence we may cite that
of Matthiolus, which is equally explicit. In his edition of Dioscorides,

as —on

Dr. ScOULER on the Introduction of the Potato into Scotland. 227

published in 1598, we have an excellent wood engraving of the potato
plant, and its culture appears to have been well understood on the
continent for several years before that date—the following is his state-
ment :—“ hyberno tempore radices eximebantur ne putrescerent ver-
nalique tempore rursus terre committebantur, ast nune non item, si
quidem tot se tuberibus propaget, ita ut ad unam plantam hiberno tem-
pore eratam ultra quadraginta tubera notarem, quamvis etiam ex rarimis
reclinatis terra tectis Burgundi propagare solent.” It is right, however,
to add, that he states the potato was introduced by the English from
Virginia. In whatever way this notion may have arisen, we have already
seen that it had been well known in Italy before the voyage of Raleigh
to America. The names by which it was known on the continent seem
to point out that it was transmitted from Spain to Italy, and from thence
to Germany, thus the Spaniards in Peru gave it the name of ‘‘turmas de
tierra” or truffles, and hence the Italian ‘* tartuffoli,” and the German
“ kartoffeln.”

Although the potato was cultivated on the continent previous to its
introduction into Ireland, yet it was in the latter country that its impor-
tance was first ‘appreciated. The earliest notice with which I am
acquainted respecting the general culture of the potato occurs in the
Political Anatomy of Ireland, by Sir William Petty, which was published
in 1672. He remarks, speaking of the Irish, ‘‘their laziness seems to
me to proceed rather from want of employment and encouragement to
work, than from natural abundance of flegm in their bowels and blood ;
for what need they to work who can content themselves with potatoes,
whereof so the labour of one man can feed forty; and with milk, whereof
one cow, in summer time, will give meat and drink enough for three men;
and when they can every where gather cockles, oysters, mussels, crabs,
&c.; with boats, nets, and angles, or the art of fishing; and can build a
house in three days.” From this time the use, or rather abuse of the
potato, became more and more general in Ireland, and Threlkeld, in his
Trish Herbal, after a quaint panegyric on the potato, observes “ dearth
of bread can never affect us much while this crop answers as it has done
this year, 1725.”

The progress of the culture of the potato was both later and slower in
Scotland than in Ireland, and it seems to have spread from west to east,
that is from those parts of the coast opposite Ireland. The earliest
notice of the plant by any Scottish writer, is in Sutherland's Catalogue
(1683), of plants cultivated in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. In this
case it is to be considered asa botanical curiosity rather than asa plant of
any economical importance, The earliest notice with which I am
acquainted occurs in Martin's Western Islands (1703), from which it
appears that they constituted, even then, an important article of food to
the Islanders, and also renders it probable that they had been originally
imported from Ireland. It was many years after their introduction into
the Western Islands before they became an object of attention to the

228 Dr. ScouLer on the Introduction of the Potato into Scotland.

Lowland farmer. In the Cowntryman’s Rudiments, 1723, we have the
following advice to the farmers from Lord Belhaven, “for roots I advise
you to sow potatoes and turnips, a larger or lesser quantity as you affect
most, but rather potatoes, because being once planted they will never
fail, they require little more labour than to keep the ground where they
grow free from grass. The Flandrian boors make so much of this root,
and had such plenty thereof, that both the Confederates and French
army found great support thereby, by feeding the common soldiers most
plenteously ; it is both delicious and wholesome.” (p. 33.)

It appears, however, that notwithstanding this advice, founded upon
observations which prove that the potato was extensively cultivated in
the low country, that it was unknown in the east of Scotland, while its
value was gradually becoming known in the districts adjacent to Ireland
and the Western Islands. It appears from Stewart's Trial, 1753, that
they were generally cultivated in Argyleshire, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of Glencoe. The earliest notice I find of their introduction into
Ayrshire, occurs in Robertson's Rural Recollections, in which he says,
“*from an old lease which I have seen, dated in 1729, between John
Montgomery the proprietor and his tenant William Liddle, of the lands
of Broadlee, in the parish of Dalry, it is stipulated that the tenant shall
allow the laird to cultivate a certain quantity of land yearly for potatoes
so far as he can find dung.”’ The progress of the potato cultivation must
have been very slow, for the same author informs us that in the year
1733, the potato was served up for supper several times in the Eglinton
family. It would appear, therefore, that the potato was considered
rather as a garden vegetable than as an important crop for the farmer.
If the narration in the statistical account of the parish of Kilsyth be
correct, the merit of introducing the potato into general use belongs to
Robert Graham, of Tamrawer, in that parish. It is stated that before
1739, he and others had raised them in gardens, but it was a common
prejudice that they could not be raised any where else to advantage. Mr.
Graham, to show the absurdity of this opinion, planted about half an acre
of ground in the croft of Neilston, where he then resided; the report of it
soon spread far and wide, insomuch that people of all denominations, and
some noblemen of the highest rank, among whom was the Earl of Perth,
came to visit the plantation ; and further, he rented lands in the vicinity
of the towns of Renfrew, Perth, Dundee, Glasgow, and Edinburgh, on
speculation, and for many years he obtained the premium for cultivating
potatoes,

In accordance with these statements, it appears that previous to 1746,
Glasgow was supplied with potatoes from the Highlands, at all events
water-borne, and subsequently the city began to obtain supplies from
the surrounding districts. The following extract from the Glasgow
Journal (271), gives us much curious information respecting the spread
of the potato, which is contained in a proclamation by the magistrates
regulating the sale of that vegetable. ‘‘ Oct. 6th, 1746.— Whereas the

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 229

inhabitants have been in the use to be served with potatoes from the
coast, water-borne, and sold with the water measure; and that now of
late potatoes are planted in the neighbourhood, and brought into the city
for sale by country people who use different measures, and less than the
water measure, and make thus mercat in many parts of the streets, and
before shop doors, and at the entry of closes; and by these different
measures the inhabitants are imposed upon, and it being judged proper
that the place be ascertained where the potatoes are to be brought to for
sale, and all to be sold for the water measure; therefore the magistrates
enact, that from and after the 8th October instant, the mercat-place for
the sale of potatoes be at the entry of the Candleriggs from the Trongate,
upon both sides of the street, to which place the inhabitants are to repair;
except as to potatoes sold at the Bromielaw, water-borne, and that no
mercat be made upon any of the parts of the streets, or entries of closes,
but the place above ascertained, and that all potatoes, whether water-
borne or brought into the city from the country for sale, be sold by the
water measure, at the weighhouse, and no other measure certifying the
contrayeners hereof, both sellers and buyers, that they will be fined,
punished, and the potatoes confiscate.”

January 21, 1852.—Dr. Wauker Arnort in the Chair.

Lerrers were produced from the Secretaries of the Royal Institution
of Great Britain, the Royal Society of London, and the Geological
Society of London, acknowledging receipt of the last Number of the
printed Proceedings of this Society.

Mr. Paul Cameron read a paper on the “ Properties of Steam, and the
best Means of calculating its Power.” He afterwards exhibited a new
salineometer.

February 4.—Mr. Crom in the Chair.

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RanxieE was elected a member.

The following Minute of Council was read :—

“‘ February 4,—The Council having resumed consideration of the pro-
posal made at last meeting by Mr. Murray, that the Society shall invite
the British Association for the Advancement of Science to Glasgow, Mr.
Liddell produced the draft of a memorial to the Lord Provost, Magis-
trates, and Town Council, requesting their concurrence in the invitation
which memorial was approved of, and Mr. Liddell was authorized to
bring the subject before the Society this evening.”

Mr. Liddell, after some explanatory remarks, moved the adoption of
the following Memorial :—

230 Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow.

“Unto the Honourable the Lord Provost, Magistrates, and
Council of the City of Glasgow. The Memorial of the
President, Vice-Presidents, and Members of the Glasgow
Philosophical Society,
“ Sheweth,

“That, in the year 1838, the then Magistrates and Conta at the
suggestion of the Philosophical Society, were pleased to forward an
invitation to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to
hold its annual meeting in 1839 in Glasgow, or if not in that year, at
as early a period thereafter as possible. And that at the suggestion of
the Magistrates and Council, the Principal and Professors of the Univer-
sity, and the other public bodies in the city, were severally pleased to
send invitations to the same effect.

“ The simultaneous request from the public bodies in Glasgow, thus so
cordially made, was responded to by the Association, and its meeting in
1840 was held in our city. It may be recollected that at that meeting
were congregated not only the members of the Association, natives of
Britain, but also nearly one hundred foreigners, including many names
of the highest respect in Europe and America, a greater number than
have been present at any other meeting of the Association.

“Considering the many advantages that accrued to Glasgow from the
past, and that similar may be expected to flow from another, visit of that
distinguished body,

“ Your memorialists are of opinion that the time has arrived when the
British Association should receive a cordial invitation to hold its meeting
in Glasgow in 1853, or in an early year thereafter.

“They therefore respectfully solicit the Lord Provost, Magistrates,
and Council to present an invitation to that effect to the Association at
its next meeting—which is to be in Belfast in the course of next
summer—and to take such steps as may seem most expedient, in order
that the Principal and Professors of the University, and the heads of the
public bodies, may be induced to co-operate, and forward at the same
time similar invitations.

“The Lord Provost and Magistrates may depend on the cordial con-
currence of the Philosophical Society in this very important measure.

* Signed by the office-bearers in name and by appointment
of the Glasgow Philosophical Society, this twenty-sixth
day of February, Eighteen Hundred and Fifty-two.”

The motion was seconded by Sir James Anderson, who stated that it
would afford him pleasure to support the memorial in the Town Couucil.

Mr. Murray mentioned that the Lord Provost had requested him to
say that he regretted being unable to be present in the Society to-night
to support this motion, to which he had no doubt his coadjutors in the
Magistracy and Town Council would agree.

The Memorial was then approved of.

Mr. Napier on Mineral Veins and Water- Worn Stones. 231

Professor William Thomson read a paper “ On the Thermo-Electric
Properties of Platinum, Copper, and Iron.”

February 18, 1852.—Mr. Crom in the Chair.

Mr. Wiuu1am Harvey, junior, and Mr. Charles Wilson, were elected
members.

Dr. Penny read a paper on “The Chemical Analysis of Commercial
Salts of Potash.”

Mr. Daniel Miller, C.E., described his “ Patent Hydraulic Purchase
Machinery,” for drawing up Ships on Slip Docks, and “ Hydraulic
Quadrant Dock.”

March 3, 1852.—Mr. Crum in the Chair.

Mr. Axexanper Harvey reported that the Magistrates and Town
Council had unanimously concurred with the Philosophical Society in
the proposal to invite the British Association for the Advancement of
Science to revisit Glasgow, and had appointed a committee in furtherance
of the object.

It was moved by Mr. Liddell, seconded by Dr. Walker Arnott, and
agreed, to remit to the Council to prepare an invitation to the British
Association for the Advancement of Science to hold its meeting in
Glasgow in 1853, or at the earliest period convenient to it; and also to
select a deputation from this Society to lay the invitation before the
Association at its meeting in Belfast during the present year; and
further authorize the Council, or a committee of it, to co-operate with
the Lord Provost, Magistrates, and Committee of Town Council, and with
the other public bodies in the city who propose to send similar invitations.

Mr. J. Napier read the following paper :—

XXVIII.— Remarks upon Mineral Veins and Water-Worn Stones. By
James Napter, Esa, F.C.S.

In the crust of the earth are found a great many cracks or fissures
varying in size from a few inches to hundreds of feet in breadth, and of
a length and depth unknown. These cracks are supposed by some to be
the results of an internal upheaving pressure, by others, of a magnetic
current.

A great number of these fissures have become wholly or partially filled
with various kinds of minerals, generally of a crystalline character, and
often distinct from any composing the rocks, forming the side walls of the
fissure. These cracks thus filled are termed yeins—mineral veins. To
account for the filling of these veins by minerals, many speculations and

232 Mr. Napier on Mineral Veins and Water- Worn Stones.

theories have been advanced. Some suppose that the minerals, which
are often combinations of the oxides and sulphurets of metals, have
been injected in a fused state from below. Thus M. Agassiz, speaking of
the beds of copper found at Lake Superior, says,—“ It must have been of
pre-historic origin that the copper has been thrown up in a melted state, as
it were boiled up. In places where great quantities have come through,
and the rock very compact, it has remained unaltered by other in-
fluences; but where it was thrown up in less quantity, and the rocks not
so compact, it has been oxidised and combined with other compounds, as
carbonic acid and sulphur, &c. Nearest the metallic beds the copper is
found in the state of oxide; then as we proceed farther, it is found as
carbonate and sulphuret, and coming to a greater distance, it is all sul-
phurets.”

Another theory ascribes the filling of these veins to emanations of
mineral matters in the form of vapours, also from the centre, analogous
to the vapours given off from volcanoes, this hypothesis being supported
by the fact that metals having analogous properties of sublimating, are
often found together. A third, that water holding minerals in solution
has passed into the crack, or fissure, and the water having evaporated,
has left the mineral; or that the minerals have been crystallized from
their solution, by a galvanic, or electric current.

It is not my intention to discuss these theories in the present paper.
It is sufficient to say, that there is much to be said both in favour, and
against each, and many practical difficulties stand in the way of their
adoption. There is, probably, no subject connected with the physical
sciences, where the theories of the scientific observer, and the opinions of
practical men are so universally opposed, as upon the origin of the filling
of mineral veins. And although the practical miner may not be the best
authority upon the causes which are, or have been, at work, to fill the
veins which he may be engaged in emptying; nevertheless, we have
always found that the observations of intelligent working-men are
worthy of some attention, and should not be thrown overboard in order
to clear the way for the establishing of some favourite theory, until they
have been subjected to a rigid scrutiny, and proved to be useless.

An opinion prevails amongst miners, that minerals grow, from obsery-
ing them efflorescing, or crystallizing, from the sides of the rocks; and,
also, that certain veins have been known to become richer in metal, in
the course of years, either by the metal increasing, or the matrix
decreasing. I will here transcribe the opinion of a practical mining
engineer, Mr. Evan Hopkins, who supposes that not only the veins have
been filled, but that the crack or fissure, in the rock, is the result of a
magnetic action.

“Numerous instances may be mentioned, where old workings have
been partially filled with a fresh crop of minerals; and also where
minerals have been decomposed, and disappeared.

These chemical actions, governed by the subterranean polar currents,

Mr. Narier on Mineral Veins and Water-Worn Stones. 2338

continue to fill every fissure or vacuity with crystals, the growth of
which swells open the crack, and thus causes new fractures and disloca-
tions, according to the variable nature of the containing rock, and the
amount of resistance. This gradual opening of the veins, with the
growth of the crystals from the sides, accounts for the isolated masses of
the bounding rocks found in veins, which could not possibly occur, had
they been open fractures. Indeed, the hypotheses which supposes
minerals to be filled by solution from above; or that of the injections of
igneous matter into an open fissure from below, are so crude and irrecon-
cilable with the contents, that they do not deserve our attention, The
facts brought forward fully justify the conclusion, that all veins, whether
they be mineral or not, have been formed and filled upon the same
principle of polar action, as described. In the east and west, or trans-
verse fissures, the crystals are formed from side to side ; and in the splits,
longitudinally, in parallel plates,” &c.

Such, then, are, briefly, a few of the conflicting ideas upon the filling
up of mineral veins, exhibiting the humiliating fact, that, as yet, we know
nothing about it, and that many observations and experiments must yet
be made, before all the conditions and facts known will harmonize. We
cannot penetrate to the depth of a vein, to trace the orifice through
which the fluid mineral may have flown, or their gaseous emanations may
have filtered. The beautiful crystalline appearance of some of these
minerals, however, form no objection to the igneous theory, as some of
the samples of slags exhibited will show, although we have heard such
objections made. In examining some of the crystalline minerals, it is
evident, in many instances, that the crystals have been formed under the
influence of a current of some sort, both constant and of considerable
power, as the specimens on the table will show. Where and when the
objects upon which the crystals have formed protrude, the crystals are
only upon one side of the protruding object, and in one direction, such as
is often seen in cabinet specimens, where sulphuret of iron, carbonate of
iron, fluor and calcareous spar, &c., &c., have crystallized upon other
crystals, such as quartz, that these minerals have formed only on one
face of the quartz crystal; or, if the edge of the crystal has been
_ exposed to the current, two faces are covered with the mineral, none
being behind. So that if the stone, or specimen, be held in a certain
position, the line and direction of the current may be easily traced. And
we find this crystallization, or deposition, has taken place with minerals,
and upon minerals, so that the idea of their having been in a fused or
vapourous state by heat is inadmissible ; at the same time, the crystalline
mineral must have been either in a gaseous, or fluid state, and that for
a considerable time, to be thus formed, and subject to a powerful
influence, which produced and maintained the erystallization upon one
face of a crystal, or series of crystals, and not over the whole surface.
Whether this force be polarity in the crystals themselves, or a general
polarity over the mass, we are not in a position to assert.

234 Mr. Napier on Mineral Veens and Water- Worn Stones.

As the formation of many of these minerals may depend upon causes
constantly in operation, I have thought it possible that indications of
these might be obtained in detached stones, found in the alluvial deposits.
My search into these have been, as yet, limited, but by drawing the
attention of the members of the Society to the subject, more extensive
observations may be made, and either the utility, or futility, of the
research manifested.

In some of the loose stones found in the alluvial bed, are seen changes
that have evidently taken place since they were detached from the rock,
and analogous to those changes that are taking place in the rock.

The first changes I refer to are well known; it is, that water in contact
with, and passing through, rocks, changes the character of these, by
dissolving out some of their component minerals. A piece of trap rock,
for example, exposed to water, very soon changes, when alternately wet
and dry, and exposed to the atmosphere; the decomposition is sensibly
apparent, a brown crust is soon formed, which becomes soft and brittle,
breaking off by slight friction, leaving a new portion of the stone to
undergo the same change. The same sort of stone imbedded in the
gravel under the soil, passes through the same changes, but the crust, in
this case, is not so soft and brittle; the change soon penetrates to the
centre of the stone, giving it a different character and appearance.
Analysis of the stone so changed, compared with the original, makes the
change very apparent. We! give the average of many analyses, from
different localities :—

Kernel, or Original Crust, or Altered
Stone. Stone.
Insoluble Silicate of Insoluble matter, ....... (Pas
i ae 66°8 Peroxide of Iron, ........ 19.7—¥e138
Protoxide of Iron,...... TS:5— Foie’ | Lite, .. .ss'sswesaeaccas se 0-9
MANE ao srrcicuts Sees sw 38 Magnesia, ..cesessea-iess 0°3
LLG ot Salas ere 15 Potash x ches ack nasi trace
PORABD Sooo acs «dv oe sp min ss 26 Loss at red heat,........ 58
Loss at red heat water, 6:2 —
— 99-2
99-4

Here, then, we find that water has dissolved out, lime, iron, magnesia,
and potash, and the remaining iron changed to the peroxide state. The
length of time required for the water to penetrate a piece of trap I know
not, but that the soluble power of the water is great, is evident, by
placing a piece of such rock in distilled water; 100 grains digested for
6 days, at summer heat, lost one per cent., the water had an alkaline
reaction, and contained magnesia, potash, and lime. Now, if a crack or
fissure existed in such a rock, and water oozed through, which it does,
more or less, in all rocks, the crack would unavoidably get filled with
lime in a state less or more crystalline, according to circumstances, lime
being much less soluble in water, while the potash, and probably mag-

Mr. Napier on Mineral Veins and Water- Worn Stones. 235

nesia, might pass off with the remaining water. Many whinstones con-
tain a great quantity of lime as a component, which makes this reaction
more certain; and veins of cale spar are abundant in the trap rock—a
specimen taken within a few inches from a vein of spar, contained 9 per
cent. of lime.

The change by water is not confined to the trap rock. We have here
a boulder of bastard limestone, completely changed in its character for
several inches deep, so as to give no idea of its original appearance by
external observation. The following is the nature of the change :—

Kernel. Altered Part.
Silica ae EE a ais 12°2 Silica :......0.00.- haere 28°4
Carbonate of lime...... 22°5 Carbonate of lime...... 36
Carbonate of iron...... 42°8 Peroxide iron .......... 40°5
Carbonate of magnesia 12°4 Carbonate of magnesia 1°4
Semlpaigie sav cosea.uss eee: 1-1 Sal plier’ vs. .+ sees cae 3°5
WVALOT ee: osssse ss <csesece 8:4 Wiatererc..sccen costs sees 21:3

99°5 98-7

Thus the same class of change has taken place, as with the trap, lime
and magnesia has dissolved, and the iron, peroxidised, has lost its car-
bonic acid. We have occasionally found stones in the gravel deposit that
apparently have been broken in two, and the two halves lying very
close to each other, have received a deposition of minerals between them,
so as occasionally to cement the two parts together at the points closest
to each other, such as in the sample present—this sample stone before
you, which is composed of

Insoluble matter ..............5, Be oa ee 60°5
ProtoxidesOf OMe sees. see-ses-re tees 22°5
Carbonate of lime ............ee0e0s ee. 6°6
Magnesia ........0+-+2-0+08 pao h nee scenes 0°8
Sulphur .......c:scsecssessceerscessveseenes 2°5
Togs at red hedtsacecscroasecesercecetess 6°6

99°5

The three minerals filling up this fracture, namely, sulphur, iron, and
carbonate of lime, are also, we observe, component parts of this stone,
but we would not venture to say that the stone is the source of these
minerals, neither would we assert that the deposition of these minerals
has taken place in the alluvial deposit in the position in which the stone
was found,—the question suggesting itself being, why the crystallization
only goes on in the fracture, and not upon any other part of the stone.
Should these mineral depositions be found to take place in such stones in
their position as boulders, it will show, what we believe to be the case,
that there is some influence effecting mineral depositions in veins or
fractures, or even in the fragment of a rock, when these are placed in

236 Mr. NAPIer on Mineral Veins and Water-Worn Stones.

proper circumstances. Another boulder of a singular sort, exhibit-
ing the powerful action constantly going on in the earth to change the
character of rocks, is the specimen now shown, the crust of which is
of the appearance and composition of trap rock, while the kernel is
black, and more like a piece of shale. The crust or outer portion of
stones of this sort have generally been looked upon as incrustations, from
the water in which they have been placed having salts in solution, that
have become deposited upon the stone or kernel portion. Such incrusta-
tion does take place upon organic substances placed in mineral waters;
but in this instance, as in most other minerals, the change has evidently
been caused by the decomposition of the original stone. The analysis of
the crust and kernel will show the change that has taken place in this
instance.

Original Stone. Crust.

Insoluble: :seaccestesese (6:0 gee ences 64:7
Protoxide Ob ironiesel Ue ig ce seniewss as 16°3
Carbonate. of lime...<.0 0:42: sccvsesa ses. ips
Magnesia se. ..05 2220s LD cahiegs. asks 3°8
Sen ma rascna ds <ées SDA hase ewaee 3:2
Coaly matter ......... eb codawatna scenes 0-4
Winterce te ccccncnesaeece SiGe eee Yh
100°2 99°6

Here we find the coaly matter disappearing, no doubt becoming oxid-
ised, and in all probability fixing from the water a quantity of lime
as carbonate.

Another class of boulders gives a still more decided specific character,
and exhibits the same character of phenomena as some mineral veins,
and these changes evidently have taken place in the boulder since they
were detached from their parent rock. One or two specimens will illus-
trate these remarks. The first specimen is a dark crystallized carbonate
of iron, and has been acted upon from the surface, a vein of iron pyrites
marking the line of division between the crust, or part acted upon, and
the kernel, or portion not decomposed.

Kernel. Crust

ligase eee! 6°5 Rilioay o'-2- etaceain ashes 37:2
Protoxide of iron ....60°3 Protoxide of iron ...30°0
Carbonic acid.. ...... 32°7 Sulphuret of iron..... 9°6
~— Copper pyrites........ 0°8

99-5 Carbonic acid......... Disi

99:3

The changes here are very evident, and that they have taken place since
the stone became a boulder, we have only to trace the form and posi-
tion of the changed portion and vein of pyrites, and also that the change
has been caused by water penetrating the mass which has contained

Mr. Napier on Mineral Veins and Water-Worn Stones. 237

sulphur and copper. The origin of the iron pyrites vein, so regular and
distinct, is worthy of notice, and not easily accounted for, but by a sort
of polar action between the crust and kernel causing a line of demarca-
tion at the junction, marking the central point of the influence.

Such veins of mundic, sulphuret of iron, in rocks, are generally ascribed
to heat, and more especially to sublimation, as we referred to at the com-
mencement of this paper; but under the circumstances in which such
boulders as this have been placed during the formation of this vein, no
such cause as heat or sublimation can be admissible. Both animal and
vegetable substances imbedded in the earth, and subject to the action of
water containing sulphate of iron, undergo decompositions; the sulphuric
acid is decomposed, and sulphuret of iron formed. Thus many fossils are
converted into pure pyrites, but these conditions differ from this, although
we have heard these also ascribed to sublimation.

We have met with many other specimens of carbonate of iron having
veins in them of iron pyrites, but in all cases the composition of the
mineral internally to the vein of pyrites, represented by the kernel, was
of a different composition to that part externally to the vein represented
by the crust, as in this second specimen, in which the analysis exhibits
the same character of changes as were shown in the trap rock—thus:

Internal to pyrites vein, External to pyrites vein.

CAE sr senaes caeeneew 6°4 Dilicae ee ertene ees 93:2
Protoxide of iron ....48°6 Protoxide of iron ....87°4
Iron pyrites .......... 54 Tron pyrites .......... 15:0
MANSY. SPAes Boao N85e a2 Dnte A Re 1:0
Magnesia ..........0+ 2:0 Magnesia ...........+ 0-4
Carbonic acid......... 32°7 Carbonic acid......... 22°7

98-3 99°7

We will refer to one other kind of boulder, or nodule, of very common
oceurrence, formed all of iron pyrites, similar to the pyrites fossils re-
ferred to. Nodules of this sort are of frequent occurrence in chalk and
clay, many of them haying, no doubt, an organic origin. The centre of
these nodules, although they have always a different structure from the
erystalline crust, differ little in composition, but when such nodules
are found in mineral veins, where several other metals exist, as in this
specimen, which is from the Parys mines, Anglesea. The centre and
erystalline crust are very distinct in composition, as shown in the following
analysis :—

Crystalline crust. Kernel
"fA ee 2 LT SARE ae 23-2
Bei Re Wash vise 06045°6 Tron pyrites ........... 55°2
‘hy Sulphur ......... 52°4 GIES ‘sr csev sees ss 56
—- Vino Dlond .......2.... 14:5
99°2 Sulphate of lime...... a

238 Dr. THOMSON on the Vinegar Plani.

Here we have an opposite result from the changes produced by water, the
kernel being the most impure. The nature of the surrounding matter to
such nodules would require to be also considered, when we might see the
course of a similar polarization between it and the centre, inducing the
formation of that pure line of crystalline pyrites crust, which separates
the centre from the external rock or mineral, in the same manner as in
the former specimen.

We have thus, in a somewhat desultory manner, recorded the results
of observations made during some investigations for another purpose.
The changes which are taking place in these loose stones are, we believe,
taking place in the rocks forming the crust of the earth, and if these
changes be found analogous, observations may be more easily extended,
being more within every individual’s reach.

We must not be supposed in the meantime as either objecting to or
supporting any particular theory of the filling of mineral veins. If they
have been filled by the minerals, whether metallic or otherwise, being
dissolved out of the rock, and carried in solution to the fissures, where
they become reduced, either by ordinary crystallization or electrical
influence, they must have been diffused through the rocks originally.
The solvent that would dissolve out all the metals that are found in
veins from such rocks in which the vein exists, without dissolving in the
first instance many of the principal earthy minerals, even although ac-
companied with strong magnetic currents, it would be difficult to suggest.

There are, again, so many strong and practical objections to the igneous
and sublimation theories, in almost every step we take, that we think it
best to pause until a more rigid chemical investigation has been made
of substances under every condition in which they may be found, as
the practice of theorizing upon external observation is as likely to lead
to error as to truth.

March 17, 1852.—Mr. Crum in the Chair.

Tue following communication was made :—

XXIX.—WNotice of the Vinegar Plant. By Dr. R. D. Tuomson.

Tue Vinegar Plant, or mother of vinegar, belongs, according to
Kiitzing, to the genus Ulvina, characterized by consisting of a compact
lubricous layer of very minute granules. Ulvina aceti, at first mem-
branaceous, then forming a compact stratum, vertically divided into
dichotomous branches densely aggregated. He describes it as occurring
always in the vinegar fermentation, upon the surface of the vinegar pot.
The formation of the vinegar plant commences with that of the vinegar.
Tt begins as a thin pellicle on the surface of the fluid, with little consis-
tence. Under the microscope it consists of small globules, which are six

Dr. THomson on the Vinegar Plant. 239

times smaller than those of yeast. ‘This pellicle becomes thicker, more
compact, and coherent, and in fourteen days it begins to grow on the
exterior border. It then presents the aspect of a chatophora—a gela-
tinous, fucoid appearance.

To endeavour to throw some light upon the mode of action of the
vinegar plant, I inserted a portion of a plant, well washed with distilled
water, in a solution of sugar, and exposed the whole to the influence of
the air. The liquid, when first formed, had no action on litmus paper,
but in a few days it was characterized by a distinct acid reaction, After
some weeks I took a portion of the fiuid, saturated it with carbonate of
soda, and distilled it in a glass retort. A liquid passed over which pos-
sessed the odour of alcohol, and which gave aldehyde and green oxide
of chromium when treated with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid,
according to a mode of testing which I described some years ago. (Proce.
Phil. Soc. Glas., ii. 94.) After two-thirds of the fluid in the retort
was distilled, the receiver was changed, and sulphuric acid was poured into
the retort, heat being applied cautiously. An acid liquid passed over
into the receiver, which possessed the odour of vinegar, and rendered
yellow a colourless solution of sesquichloride of iron. It was therefore
acetic acid. Another experiment was made to determine the nature
of the products of the vinegar plant, in the absence of oxygen. An ounce
of sugar was dissolved in twenty ounces of water, a vinegar plant was
introduced into the solution, the bottle was stopped close with a ground
stopper, carefully waxed, and inverted in a glass full of distilled water.
After some weeks, only a small portion of fluid was found in the bottle,
smelling strongly of alcohol, and yielding aldehyd and green oxide of
chromium to bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid. The stopper was
still fixed in the bottle, but the wax had given way in one place by the
pressure of the gas, so as to allow of the expulsion of the fluid into the
exterior vessel filled with water. The greater portion of the 2 bottle
was filled with a gas, which upon examination was found to precipitate
lime water abundantly, and to be absorbed by caustic soda. It was,
therefore, carbonic acid.

Formation of Alcohol.—From these experiments it seems undoubted
that the vinegar plant possesses the power of breaking up sugar in its
solutions into alcohol and carbonic acid, and as the plant during the
process appears to be increasing in bulk, it seems scarcely legitimate to
ascribe the decomposition of the sugar to any process of decay in the
plant itself. I am not prepared from my own observation to state that,
in absence of air, the vinegar plant when immersed in a solution of sugar,
does increase in bulk, or, in other words, grow, although [ have no reason
to doubt the fact. But from the observations of Schlossberger and
Schmidt, there can be little hesitation in concluding that the vinegar
plant is merely a modification of the yeast globules, and therefore that
it is capable of augmenting in size under the same conditions as the
latter form of vegetation. When a plant of this description is found to

Vou. III.—No. 4. 3

240 Dr. TuoMson on the Vinegar Plant.

vegetate in a position of immersion in a liquid, it must possess a power
of extracting nourishment from the fluid atmosphere with which it is
surrounded, just as sea and water plants effect their object. It is, how-
ever, impossible that in a solution of pure sugar the vinegar plant can
increase from the influence of vinegar and any albuminous substance, as
has been asserted (Mulder Scheid. Onderz Deel. i. 539,) to be the mode
of its propagation, since the presence of the vinegar plant precedes the
formation of the vinegar in the trials detailed. If the numerous experi-
ments of various chemists are to be depended on, it is certain that the
cellular structure of the vinegar plant, consisting of cellulose chiefly, must
derive its carbon from the carbonic acid of the sugar, in absence of com-
mon air, or possibly from the atmosphere, in its presence, which may also
supply it with nitrogen for its albuminous constituent; or the nitrogenous
principle, like the salts, may be capable of a greater diffusion, without
any considerable increase in its original amount.

Formation of Vinegar—The circumstances most favourable to the
production of vinegar from sugar are, when a vinegar plant is introduced
into an open shallow vessel, containing a solution of sugar or treacle.
The plant exposes its upper layer near the surface of the solution, and
augments by the deposition of a new layer or stratum above the old
plant, to which it is attached, but both can readily be separated simply by
lifting up the superincumbent layer. It is thus worthy of notice, that the
new growth takes place between the old plant and the atmosphere that
is in closer contact with the air. My observations tend to show that
when the vinegar plant falls to the bottom of a deep vessel filled with a
saccharine fluid, the progress of the acetification is much more slow than
when the plant is in contact with the air. The action of a cellular
plant is, under these circumstances, analogous to that of a porous body
which is capable of condensing oxygen from the atmosphere, to a condition
approximating to fluidity upon the area of its wall cells, The action of
spongy platinum and platinum black in the absorption and condensation
of oxygen, are sufficiently well known ; and through this power, of oxidizing
and acidifying, hydrous oxide of methyle into formic acid, and alcohol
into vinegar. The absorption and retention of air in the cells of the
vinegar plant may assist in explaining the fact, which is particularly
noticed by Kiitzing and Schmidt, that it is distinguished by its floating
at the surface of the fermenting fluid, while the yeast globules remain at
the bottom of the liquid.

The influence of cellular plants in decomposing the higher oxides, in
consequence of their absorptive action on oxygen, is well exemplified in
the case of yeast globules, which, when brought in contact with binoxide
of hydrogen, speedily cause the removal of the second atom of oxygen.
(Liebig Ann. y.211.) This action seems quite parallel to that of porous
paper on certain coloured solutions, as the red solution of permanganate
of potash, and the amethyst solution of ferrate of potash, the former of
which is slowly, the latter with great rapidity, deprived of tint when

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 241

passed through common filtering paper. The yeast globules and vinegar
plant, when introduced into a solution of permanganate of potash, remove
its fine colour rapidly, but the action is not so instantaneous as when
these globules are placed in the ferrate of potash. The action in these
instances appears to be parallel to that of the deoxidation and decolour-
ization of the permanganate of potash by spongy platinum, which is, how-
ever, somewhat more slow than that of the influence exerted by the yeast
plant. It is in this way also that the cellular matter, in the form of
chips of birch, acts in the formation of vinegar from alcohol in the quick
vinegar process.
ANALYSIS OF THE VINEGAR PLanr.

107:05 grs. gave 101:2 water.
— 6°85 solid residue.

The constitution of 100 per cent. was found.

OWiSter eet cicesacs cadence swete 94:53

Mellnlasestesscc ataccscesteee 5:134

Alkaline salts .............0. 336
100:

The salts, when dissolved in water, indicated the presence of chloride,
sulphate, and a trace of phosphate. The plant, when digested in weak
caustic soda, gave a turbidity when the alkaline fluid was saturated with —
acetic acid, indicating the presence of some albuminous matter.

Mr. Alexander Harvey exhibited and described Mr. Kennedy’s water
meter.

March 31, 1852.— Mr. Crum in the Chair.

The Council reported, that after carefully considering Mr. Robert
Blackie’s motion for a change in the method of electing members of
Council, they agreed to recommend its adoption by the Society, with this
modification, that the entire Council should retire from office every year ;
eight of the twelve members being re-eligible, and four not being re-
eligible until they shall have been out of office for one year—the election
to be regulated otherwise in the manner proposed to be enacted by the
motion.

Mr. Blackie haying expressed his concurrence in the alteration of his
motion, the Society unanimously approved of the Council’s report ; and it
was further resolved, by the first vote of the Society, that the substance
of the following regulation respecting the annual election of office-bearers,
shall be embodied in the thirteenth section of the constitution of the
Society, in place of the penultimate clause as at present, namely :—

“The president, the treasurer, the secretaries, and the librarian, may
be re-elected. Neither of the two vice-presidents shall be eligible for

242 Mr. Murray on the Waters of the Dead Sea.

more than two years successively. Of the twelve retiring members of
Council, four shall not be re-eligible till they have been out of office for
one year. The names of the councillors to be arranged in accordance
with the number of votes recorded for each, the one having the greatest
number of votes to be placed at the bottom of the list, and the others
progressively above. The four councillors at the top of the list to be
those who retire, and are ineligible till they have been out of office for
one year.”

The Council also reported that they had taken into consideration Mr.
Bryce’s motion, that the Society shall celebrate its jubilee year at the
beginning of next session by a public dinner, to which several eminent
scientific men might be invited. The Council recommended the proposal
to the adoption of the Society, suggesting that it be remitted to the
Council to make the necessary arrangements, and to constitute a com-
mittee of its number for this purpose, together with the following addi-
tional members from the Society, viz.: The Lord Provost, Sir James
Anderson, James Campbell, Hsq., younger of Stracathro, William Brown,
Esq., William Bankier, Esq., Dr. Strang—the committee to have power
to add to their number. This was agreed to.

Professor Allen Thomson described recent discoveries in regard to the
Reproduction of Invertebrate Animals.

April 14, 1852.—Dr. Watxer Arnott in the Chair.

A second vote was taken on the proposed alteration of the rule for the
election of members of Council, which was finally agreed to.

Mr. R. M. Murray read a paper on “ The Water of the Dead Sea.”’

Mr. Paul Cameron read a paper on “The Force of Vapour from
Saline Water, as applied to Marine Engines.”

XXX.—Eaxamination of the Waters of the Dead Sea. By Rozerr M.
Murray, Esq.

Tue Dead Sea, as is well known to every person acquainted with
geography, is situated in the south-east of Palestine, at a distance of
about fifteen miles from Jerusalem. It is mentioned in Scripture under
the several appellations of the ‘Salt Sea,” the “Sea of the Plains,” and
the “ Hast Sea.” It is the “ Lacus Asphaltites,” or Bituminous Lake of
the ancients, and the “ Bahr Lout,” or Sea of Lot of the Arabs. It lies
in a deep caldron, surrounded by high cliffs of bare limestone rock,—the
western range being 1500 feet above the water, and the eastern range
about 2500. Its breadth is about 9 miles, and its length 39 or 40.
According to the survey of Lieut. Lynch in 1847, its depth varies from
114 to 218 fathoms in the north end, and from 2 to 18 in the south end.

One of the most singular circumstances in the character of the Dead

Mr. Murray on the Waters of the Dead Sea. 243

Sea, is the great depression of its level below that of the Mediterranean.
According to Bertou, the difference of level is between 1300 and 1400
feet. The Dead Sea has no outlet, but it is now the received opinion
that it loses its waters by evaporation, which, except in the rainy season,
is sufficiently great to counterbalance the influx from the Jordan. On
the surface of the Sea there is often found floating an immense quantity
of asphaltum, which is collected by the Arabs and sold for medicinal and
other purposes. Sulphur is found on various parts of the shore, which is
also collected by the Arabs, and used by them for making their gun-
powder. Small lumps of nitre and pumice-stone are found occasionally.
The specific gravity of the water is so great, that it is almost impossible
for a man to sink in it. Lieut. Lynch was overtaken by a storm on the
Lake, and he states that, from the density of the water, it seemed as if
the boats were encountering the sledge-hammers of the Titans, instead of
the opposing waves of an angry sea; and that when the wind abated, the
sea as rapidly fell,—the water, from its ponderous quality, settling as
soon as the agitating cause had ceased. SBathers in the Lake experience
a curious sensation of the eyes—a kind of temporary blindness, and upon
getting out of the water, the evaporation leaves a thick oily incrustation
of salt on the skin, which remains for many days, as it is impossible to
remove it completely, even by repeated ablution.

Lieut. Lynch states that on dredging the sea at some places, cubic
erystals of salt were brought up along with the mud. There are also
several mines of rock salt in the sides of the mountains on the western
coast ; indeed Usdum, a mountain in the south-west extremity of the
Lake, is a solid mass of rock salt.

The water has a slightly greenish hue, and is not entirely transparent,
but objects seen through it appear as if seen through oil. Its taste is
intolerably nauseous and bitter. The first analysis made of the water
was by Dr. Perry in 1742; but from the experiments he made, he could
not conclude whether the water was impregnated with anything besides
common salt and something of a compound nature, partly sulphureous
and partly bituminous. It was analysed by Lavoisier in 1778; by Dr.
Marcet of London in 1807, who operated upon a small quantity of the
water ; by Haproth in 1809; by Gay Lussac in 1818; by Professor
Gmelin in 1826, who first discovered the presence of bromine in it; by
Dr. Apjohn in 1839,—his specimen was taken at half-a-mile from the
mouth of the Jordan, near the close of the rainy season, which may
account for its lower specific gravity. It has also been analysed very
recently by Messrs. Herapath of Bristol, and by MM. Boutron Charlard
and O. Henry, in March last. The specimen analysed by the latter
chemists was obtained at a distance of two hours’ march from the Jordan,
on the 2d April, 1850, one of the months of the rainy season. It ex-
hibited a lower specific gravity than any specimen previously analysed,
being only 1-099, and the per centage of salts was only 14:93. In all the
analyses which have been made of the Dead Sea water, the total amount

Fig:

244 Mr. Murray on the Waters of the Dead Sea.

of salts is found to be nearly the same, but the relative proportions of
the different salts vary greatly. These varying results are partly
accounted for, by the specimens of water analysed having been collected
at different seasons, and at different parts of the Lake,—their composition
thus being modified by the proximity of the Jordan and other streams.
During the rainy season, the Lake rises ten or twelve feet. A sheet of
fresh water of that depth will thus be thrown over the Lake, which
water may be supposed to flow over a fluid nearly in 1-2 in density,
without greatly disturbing it. The salts rise from below into the superior
stratum of fresh water by the process of diffusion, which will bring up
salts of the alkalies with more rapidity than salts of the earths, and
chlorides of either class more rapidly than sulphates. The composition
of the water near the surface must therefore vary greatly as this process
is more or less advanced.

The specimen which I have analysed was collected in April, 1847, on
the western shore of the Lake, and about a mile from the mouth of the
River Jordan. Its specific gravity at 60° Fah. was 1-156. Its taste
was intensely bitter and nauseous, but it had no unpleasant odour.
There was no definite reaction with either blue or reddened litmus paper,
proving the absence of any free acid or carbonated alkali. It did not
affect acetate-of-lead paper, proving the absence of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Qualitative testing showed that it contained lime, magnesia, alumina,
potass, soda, chlorine, bromine, and sulphuric acid. Not a trace of iodine
could be detected. On the sides of the bottle in which it had been kept,
a deposit was formed, which was found to consist of carbonate of lime,
peroxide of iron, organic matter, and silica.

Quantitative Analysis.

100 grs. evaporated to dryness with 10 grs. of pure carb. soda, gave
as the per centage of saline ingredients, 22°09.

1000 grs. of the water were precipitated by BaO, NO*, and the pre-
cipitated BaO, SO®*, weighed 1:51 grs. = ‘0517 of sulphuric acid per cent.

500 grs. were precipitated by NH* + NH‘Cl, which gave -05 of
alumina = ‘01 per cent.

The solution filtered from the alumina was precipitated by NH*O,
O+NH*‘Cl, which gave 10°50 grs. of carb. lime = 1:17 per cent. of
lime.

The solution filtered from the lime was precipitated by phosphate of
ammonia, which gave 4:48 per cent. magnesia.

500 grs.—The alumina having been separated by NH*, the bromine
was precipitated by a saturated solution of Ag Cl in NH’, which gave
2°37 of Ag Br = :20 per cent. of bromine.

50 grs were precipitated by AgO, NO’, which gave 57-96 grs. per
cent. of mixed Ag Cl and Ag Br: Deducting ‘47, the per centage of
Ag Br, gives 57:49 of Ag Ol = 14:23 per cent of chlorine.

100 grs. gave of mixed chlorides of sodium and potassium, 998. The

Mr. Murray on the Waters of the Dead Sea. 2465

potassium was separated by Pt Cl’, which gave 7-64 grs. of the K O]+
Pt Cl’ = 1-47 per cent, of potass, leaving 4:044 per cent. of soda.
100 parts of the Dead Sea water yielded accordingly—

BSP INET CMe rre ce cance dale sic css «00 051
Clone ce creer dete seca cGcceens sess. 14-230
AESTOMIMO Seesee Rae rca s coe ee tw eeces ‘200
PATMIN Re eteecee ccs aves sesacess «sc ‘010
PIN pecicne Sen ee ee Raat MA ds ee dots eens 1:170
I IRORT aa crema nesta Nets Nc tvas chants 4484
1 EASTIFIS) Oh tis Rey te es ven AIO en Se 1-470
‘SLOG En CREAR A OOREERG OE EE eae REE 4:044
Consequently its true composition will be—
RP Hate rat TN eats oa init ainonnsernes 086
Carbonate Oflimere. ces. sccers.deocoes on traces.
Chloride of calcium ...............00000. 2°245
Chloride of aluminum )o5..:.cs2scese. +s: 024
Chloride of potassium ..........s....005 2°330
Chloride of SOdIUM\, ....c<es0cecsseecsee. 7650
Chloride of magnesium ..............+65 9560
Bromide of magnesium ............... 231
IPeroxidevonerOnleces: crscssccdaces cance oe traces.
Silica and organic matter .............. traces.
22-126

Total amt. of salts by actual experimt. 22:09

Composition per Gallon.

Sulphate of, lime ....:....,.-0cnsee00s 69.59
Chloride of calcium...............++. 1:816:66
Bromide of magnesium ............. 186:92
Chloride of magnesium ............. 7°737°95
Chloride of aluminum............... 19-42
Chloride of potassium............... 1:885°43
Chloride of sodium ..........se0esee 6:190°38
Carbonate of lime.............000.00s traces.
Peroxide ot rons. seeahe nc ceneneroes traces.
Silica and organic matter........... traces.

Puged saltessh.saccsaeees 17°906:35

Waters 3.7 ssacatens tine 63:014°20

Weight of a gallon...80'920°55

7

246 Mr: CaMERON on Vapour from Saline Water.

XXXI—The force of Vapour from Saline Water, as applied to Marine
Engines. By Pav Cameron.

Wuen the following experiments were made, the barometer stood at
29-6, the temperature of the room being 62°.

I exposed a quantity of salt for three hours, and placed a thermometer
in it, until it indicated a temperature of 60°. A glass globe was pro-
cured, two inches in diameter, with a stem ten inches long; to the stem
was attached a scale, divided from 60° to 233°, representing the expan-
sion of pure and saturated water; the glass globe and stem were filled
with pure water at 60°, the thermometer indicating the same heat. The
glass globe was then placed in a tin vessel, containing water, on the fire ;
the boiling point was marked on the scale attached to the stem, which is
divided so as to represent the scale of a thermometer: from this I was
enabled to determine the expansion of pure water, and to compare it with
water saturated with salt.

The globe was again placed in the tin vessel over the fire till the
water boiled; it was then quickly immersed in a tin vessel containing
four gills of water, at 60°; in five minutes the water in the tin vessel
rose to 82° 5’, and in forty minutes it fell to 78°. The glass globe, or
water thermometer, was filled with saturated water, and placed in the
tin vessel containing boiling water, and remained there till the saturated
water in the stem remained stationary at 220°; it was then quickly im-
mersed in the tin vessel, containing water at 60°, and in five minutes
the water in the tin vessel rose to 82°, and in forty minutes it fell to 78°.
The water in the tin vessel was then saturated till its boiling point was
226°. The water thermometer was again placed in the tin vessel, and
stood at the boiling point, when its expansion was 233°; it was then
quickly immersed in water at 60°, and in five minutes the water rose
to 86°, in forty minutes it fell to 81°, and in one hour it fell to 78°.

A tin vessel was procured, 3} inches diameter, 8 inches deep, contain-
ing four gills of water, with salt in solution: its boiling point previously
known to be 216°. Two thermometers were made to pass through a
stuffing box in the cover, the scales being divided on the right hand side
to indicate the temperature, and on the left to indicate the pressure in
pounds on the square inch; the bulb of one being immersed in the water,
the other placed in the space for the steam. On the top of the cover
were screwed two stop-cocks; attached to one of them was a mercurial
gauge to indicate the pressure of the steam, the other used for blowing
off when required. The spirit lamp being then applied, and the water
made to boil, the thermometer, immersed in the water, indicated 216°,
and the one in the steam indicated 215°. At this stage of the experi-
ment, the mercurial guage began to move along with the thermometer ;
the steam was then allowed to blow off, and the water removed.

An equal quantity of water with salt in solution, its boiling point being
221° 8’, was then placed in the tin vessel over the spirit lamp; when the

Mr. CAMERON on Vapour from Saline Water. 247

water boiled, the thermometer in the water indicated 221° 8’, and the
one in the steam indicated 220° 5’: at this point the mercurial gauge
indicated a rising along with the thermometer.

The water was then removed, and replaced by saturated water, its
boiling point being 226°, when similar results followed as in the former
case. ‘The apparent difference of heat in the steam and water, I think,
arises from the steam being more sensitive to cooling effects.

It will be evident, from these experiments, that the water and steam
are nearly of the same temperature, and whatever the amount of satura-
tion may be, its vapour can only balance the atmosphere when the water
is at the boiling point.

This brings me to the point that has been called in question by many,
as they maintained that the vapour from saline water, at 212°, was equal
to the pressure of the atmosphere.

From the above experiments, and the experiments which follow, I hope
you will be satisfied that such is not the case.

This led me to examine the vapour from saline water, to ascertain
whether it did not contain a portion of salt.

To the blow-off stop-cock was attached a glass tube, having a globe at
its end, which was immersed in water. The vapour from saturated water
was then allowed to pass freely into the globe to be condensed. I then
removed it, and applied a few drops of nitrate of silver, when, at the
moment of contact, it showed the condensed vapour to contain salt,
This may be one of the causes why vapour, from saline water, requires a
greater amount of heat, compared to that from vapour from pure water,
as the salt contained in the vapour must occupy a certain amount of its
bulk, therefore its elastic force must be less in proportion to the extent
of saturation. It was from these deductions I was led to the construc-
tion of one of the scales on the salinometer, showing the decrease of the
elastic force in proportion to the amount of saturation.

From deductions made from a few of the foregoing experiments, I was
led to the construction of the two other scales on the salinometer.

In a former paper I stated it was necessary, that in proportion to the
extent of saturation, so must there be a proportionate increase of injection
water to the condenser, for the engine to work effectively. It is evident
(from tables which I have drawn up) that, in proportion to the extent of
saturation, there is a proportionate increase of heat and loss of elastic
force ; hence the necessity of care being taken to keep the water as free
as possible from increased saturation. On a previous evening I did not
refer to any other instrument used for finding the quantity of salt con-
tained in the water of marine boilers; but I beg to take the liberty now
of referring to them. ‘The scales of the different instruments I have seen
used for this purpose, have been constructed from experiments made with
salt dissolved in cold water, in different proportions, so that the one in
present use cannot give even an approximation, as the saturated point of
boiling water will be upwards of three pounds to the gallon, and that of

248 Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow.

cold water about two pounds. ‘This being the case, it may be a correct
instrument as applied to cold water, but never can be correct as applied
to the water of marine boilers.

April 28, 1852.—Mr. Crum in the Chair.

Tue concluding meeting of the session was held this evening.

It was reported from the Council that it had agreed to meet on the
4th of August, for the purpose of appointing delegates to represent the
Society at the meeting of the British Association at Belfast.

The Council proposed that the Jubilee Dinner of the Society shall take
place on the 9th of November, when the Society completes its fiftieth year.
It was recommended that members be allowed to introduce their friends
on the occasion. The arrangements were left in the hands of the Council.

The following papers were read :—

1. Mr. J. A. Campbell—“ Visit to the Quicksilver Mine of Idria.”

2. Mr. C. J. Hughes—“ Remarks on Binocular Vision and the Stereo-
scope, with Photographic Illustrations.”

3. Mr. Harvey exhibited and described Bourdon’s Steam Pressure
Guage.

GLASGOW:
PRINTED BY BELL AND BAIN, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FIFTY-FIRST SESSION.

November 3, 1852.

Tur Fifty-first Session of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow was
opened this evening. Mr. Walter Crum, the Senior Vice-President, in
the chair.

The following minutes of Council were read, of date October 26:—

“On the motion of Mr, Liddell, it was resolved unanimously, that
before proceeding to business, the Council should record in the minutes
an expression of their sorrow for the death of their late distinguished and
venerable President, Dr. Thomas Thomson; and of the estimation in
which he was held by them for his eminent scientific attainments and
discoveries ; for his untiring attention to the business of the Society, the
meetings of which he regularly attended, till a comparatively recent
period, during the eighteen years in which he occupied the chair; and
also for his other valuable qualities. The Council at the same time
resolved to express their deep sympathy with the family of Dr. Thomson
in their bereavement. Further, that Mr. Crum, the Senior Vice-President,
be requested to prepare for the first meeting of the ensuing Session of
the Society a sketch of the life and labours of Dr. Thomson,

“It was also agreed, on the motion of Mr. Liddell, to record the
thanks of the Council to Dr. Robert Thomson, on his leaving this city,
to settle in London, for his valuable services as Librarian to the Society,
in which capacity he has introduced various important improvements, more
especially by his painstaking efforts to complete several sets of previously
imperfect periodicals, and to obtain copies of rare and valuable works ;
and also for his editorial superintendence of the Society's printed “ Pro-
ceedings.” In acknowledgment of these and other services to the Society,
rendered by Dr. Robert D. Thomson, the Council resolye to recommend
to the Society that he be elected an Honorary Member.

“The Council unanimously and cordially agreed to recommend to the
Society that Mr. Crum be elected President; and that Dr. Allen Thom-
son be elected to the vacant chair of Vice-President.

“ It was also resolyed to propose to the Society that the law of last
Vou. III.—No. 5. 1

250 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

Session limiting the tenure of office of the Vice-Presidents to two years
in succession, be now also made applicable to the President, so that he
shall not be eligible for more than two years consecutively.

“The Council agreed to recommend to the Society that Mr. William
Cockey be sips Librarian.”

Mr. Liddell reported on behalf of the deputation from this Society to
the British Association, that that body had given the preference to Hull
for its meeting of next year, but that there was reason to hope that
Glasgow would be honoured with a visit from the Association in the year
following.

The Society, by acclamation, elected Dr. Robert D. Thomson an
Honorary Member.

Dr. Thomson expressed his sense of the honour conferred upon him,
and stated that his connection with this Society had always been of the
most delightful kind; and although he was about to remove to a consider-
able distance, he still hoped to have the pleasure of occasionally visiting
the Society, the continued success of which would afford him sincere
satisfaction.

The first vote of the Society was taken on the recommendation of the
Council, that the law with respect to the Vice-President should in future
be made applicable to the office of President. The proposal was affirmed.

Mr. Clark, Curator of the Royal Botanic Gardens, placed on the table
a variety of exotic plants in flower.

Mr. Smith of Sheffield, who was introduced by Mr. Cockey and Mr.
Liddell, exhibited and explained a heating apparatus,

The Vice-President, Mr. Crum, then read a Sketch of the Life and
Labours of the late Dr. Thomas Thomson, President of the Society :—

XXXII.—Shetch of the Life and Labours of Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
President of the Philosophical Society. By Waren Crom, F.R.S.

Dr. Tuomas Tuomson was elected President of this Society on the
12th of November, 1834. During the eighteen years which have since
elapsed, his attention to the detest of the chair was unremitting, until the
beginning of the session in November 1850, when the state of his health
made it dangerous for him to go abroad in the evening. Such was the
~ respect in which he was held by the Society, that although it was evident
that he would not again preside at any of its meetings, it was unani-
mously agreed to make his case an exception to the rule lately adopted, -
limiting the period during which any President or Vice-President can be
chosen to these offices.

Dr. Thomson died on the 2d of July last, and it falls to me, as the
senior Vice-President, to lay before you some account of the man, whom,
for so long a period, the Society has looked upon as its great honour and
ornament. With this view I have not failed to renew my acquaint-
ance with his works—originally with the intention of drawing up a

The late Dr. Thomas Thomson. 251

detailed report of his various labours—and it was not until I had nearly
completed an enumeration of his publications, comprising as they do the
results of fifty years of a most active literary and scientific life, that I
found it necessary to cireumscribe the undertaking.

To draw up a Catalogue raisonnee of such materials would not certainly
have been difficult. Nor would it have been difficult to compose an Hloge
of their author, as is frequently done in such circumstances, by pointing
out passages in each writing, to illustrate his industry and his talent.
That course would be the most grateful, as it is at first sight the most
becoming in one who, like myseif, has for many years enjoyed frequent
and friendly intercourse with him; and it might also be the safest for the
moment with a society which has so recently been deprived of an
honoured head. But this would be an unphilosophical use to make of
such accumulated results of industry, and in adopting it we should stray
very widely from the example our President has left us in the graphic
sketches which he drew of his predecessors and their works. There we
find no symptom of that distemper with which biographers are so often
afflicted, termed by Macaulay “the Lues Boswelliana or disease of
admiration.” Dr. Thomson was himself in little danger of yielding to the
temptation, in such cases, to exaggerate, and would have despised the weak-
ness which could lead into such a snare.

Before speaking more particularly of his works, I think it right on this
occasion to give the Society a sketch of the personal history of Dr.
Thomson; and along with what I myself know of his private life, I
shall make use of the chronological and other statements, and even of the
Sentences when they suit me, which appeared in the Literary Gazette, and
were thence copied into the Glasgow newspapers soon after his death.
They are evidently from the pen of Dr. R. D. Thomson.

The subject of this memoir was the seventh child and the youngest
son of John Thomson and Elizabeth Ewan, and was born at Crieff on the
12th of April, 1773. His education commenced at the parish school of
Crieff, and in 1785 he was sent, for two years, to the borough school of
Stirling, presided over at that time by Dr. Doig. Here he acquired a
thorough classical education, and wrote a Latin Horatian poem, which
attracted for him the attention of Professor M‘Cormack of St. Andrews,
as well as of his uncle the Rey. John Ewan, minister of Whittingham
in East Lothian. By their advice he went to St. Andrews in 1787, and
stood an examination in that University for a bursary which was open to
public competition. He carried the scholarship, and was thereby
entitled to board and lodging in the University for three years.

In 1791 he became tutor in the family of Mr. Kerr of Blackshiels.
At the end of 1795, being desirous of studying medicine, he went to
reside in Edinburgh with his elder brother, now the Rey. Dr. James
Thomson of the parish of lccles, who had succeeded the late Bishop
Walker as colleague to Dr. Gleig in the editorship of the Encyclopedia
Britannica. In the session 1795-96 he attended the chemistry class in

252 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

the University of Edinburgh, at that time taught by Dr. Black—a man
of whom he could never speak without admiration. Although all Dr.
Black’s discoveries were made before 1766, when he left the chair of
chemistry in Glasgow, the lectures he continued to give in Edinburgh were
scarcely less remarkable, and were no doubt of immense advantage to
Thomson. As published after his death by his friend Professor Robison,
they contain an inexhaustible fund of information, and are wonderfully
free of the errors of the time. During the session of his attendance at
Dr. Black’s lectures, Dr. Thomson wrote the article on the “Sea,” for
the Encyclopedia Britannica. In November 1796 he succeeded his
brother in the editorship of the Supplement to the third edition of that
work, and remained in this position till 1800, It was during this period
that he drew up the first outline of his System of Chemistry, which
appeared in the Supplement under the articles, “chemistry, mineralogy,
vegetable substances, animal substances, dyeing substances.” These all
appeared before the year 1800, when the preface was published which
contains the following remarks by Dr. Gleig. “Of the writer,” he says,
“of these beautiful articles, a man of like principles with Dr. Robison, it
is needless to say anything, since the public seems to be fully satisfied
that they prove their author eminently qualified to teach the science of
chemistry.” From this passage it may be inferred that it was during the
winter of 1800-01, that Dr. Thomson first gave a course of lectures on
chemistry. He was thus before the public as a lecturer for the long
period of fifty-two years, and for some time before his death he had
considered himself the oldest teacher in Hurope. He.graduated in 1799.
“The self-taught chemist,” says Dr. R. D. Thomson, “began to devise
many of his views in a narrow close in the High-Street of Edinburgh;
the author being in the receipt of a salary of £50 a-year, from which he
sent £15 to his aged parents.”

Dr. Thomson continued to lecture in Edinburgh till 1811, and during
that time he opened a laboratory for pupils, probably the first establishéd
in Great Britain. Among those who worked there, was Dr. Henry of
Manchester, who had visited Edinburgh for the purpose of graduation,
and who there made his first experiments on the constituents of coal gas.
During this period, Dr. Thomson likewise made investigations for
government on the malt and distillation questions, and afterwards wrote
tke article “Distillation” m the Edinburgh Encyclopedia. He also
invented his Saccharometer, still used, according to Dr. R. D. Thomson,
by the Scottish excise, under the title of Allan’s Saccharometer.

In 1812 Dr. Thomson published his history of the Royal Society,
which might rather be called a Digest of the “Philosophical Transac-
tions.” The papers are arranged in it under distinct heads, according to
the sciences to which they respectively belong. Every science is intro-
duced by a history commencing with its origin, and traced down to the
period of the establishment of the Royal Society. Sketches are also
given of the lives of the most eminent of the contributors.

The lute Dr. Thomas Thomson. 253

In August, 1812, having finished his history of the Royal Society, and
being accidentally detained in Edinburgh without any specific employ-
ment, he took advantage of the peace just concluded with Sweden, and
sailed for that country in company with his friend Mr. William Ritchie,
of the High School of Edinburgh. He collected there much information
on the natural and political history of the country, as well as on the
state of its science, and published his observations in the following year.

On his return from Sweden he went to London, and projected the
“ Annals of Philosophy.” He conducted that work during the six years
of his residence in London, and for two years more after his removal to
Glasgow. He then found himself obliged to resign the editorship in
consequence of his distance from the place of publication, which quad-
rnpled, as he said, the labour of the editor, and diminished almost in the
same proportion, its successful exertion. The work was taken up by Mr.
Richard Phillips in 1821, and in 1827 it was purchased by Mr. Richard
Taylor, and merged in the Philosophical Magazine.

In 1817, on the death of Dr. Cleghorn, and at the recommendation of
Sic Joseph Banks, Dr. Thomson was appointed lecturer on chemistry in
the University of Glasgow, and in the following year, at the instance of
the late Duke of Montrose, chancellor of the university, the appointment
was made a regius cae Ss

During the long period of twenty-three years, until the year 1841, Dr.
Thomson discharged all the duties of his chair without assistance. Being
then in his sixty-ninth year, and feeling his strength decline, he associated
with him his nephew, Dr. R. D. Thomson, who was then resident in
London, continuing himself to deliver the inorganic course till 1846. The
dangerous illness of his second son, hurried him for the winter of that
year to Nice, when his nephew was appointed by the University to dis-
charge the entire duties of the chair, which he continued to do until his
uncle’s death.

In mentioning the termination of Dr. Robert Thomson’s connection
with the University of Glasgow, I mention also, I am sorry to say, that of
his connection with this city, and with this Society, or at least of that
intimate connection which he has had with the Society for so many years.
Those who have taken the largest share in administering the affairs of
the Society, know best its loss.

One cannot but remark the constant recurrence of evil which pre-
yails in the Scottish Universities, from the want of a provision for the
retirement of its superannuated Professors. Hither is there an un-
seemly and injurious bargaining between the incumbent and his suc-
cessor, with the connivance, of course, of the patron, preventing an open
competition for the place about to become vacant, or the aged professor
retains nominal possession of his chair after he is disqualified to dis-
charge its duties. In the latter case a substitute is appointed, who
may, or may not, act his part well. If, as is too likely to be the case,
other than public motives guide the appointment, the University may

254 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

suffer from the class being inefficiently taught ; and if, on the other hand,
the substitute be found really worthy to become ultimately the professor,
a meritorious teacher, perhaps in the middle of his days, is left, on the
death of the incumbent, at the mercy of whoever may chance at the time
to have the dispensation of the patronage. The system is, therefore,
a mischievously defective one, and I make the remark at this time with
the less reluctance, that neither has the substitute on the present occa-
sion been unworthy of the succession, nor, on the other hand, can the new
appointment, whatever may have been the motive of the minister, be con-
sidered otherwise than an excellent one. I will only add the hope that
the subject may receive attention in quarters where there is power to~
apply the remedy. :

Dr. Thomson continued to attend the examinations for degrees for
some years after retiring from the duties of the chair, but in consequence
of the increasing defect in his hearing, he ultimately gave up these
examinations, and confined his public labours to attendance at the fort-
nightly meetings of the Philosophical Society. During the early part of
the present year his frame became visibly weaker, and latterly, having
removed to the country, where it was hoped the freshness of the summer
air might brace his languishing powers, he breathed his last in the bosom
of his family at his temporary residence at Kilmun.

Dr. Thomson married, in 1816, Miss Agnes Colquhoun, daughter of
Mr. Colquhoun, distiller, near Stirling. He enjoyed uninterrupted
happiness with her; and her loss in 1834, I well know, he deeply
lamented. He has left one son, Dr. Thomas Thomson of the Bengal
army, the author of Travels in Tibet, which have just appeared—the
result of several years’ researches into the botany and physical structure
of the Himalaya mountains. He has left also one daughter, married to
her cousin Dr. R. D. Thomson.

Of Dr. Thomson's personal character I can scarcely speak too highly.
All who knew him must have remarked his manly independence—the
unbending rectitude of the course which he invariably pursued—the
sincerity displayed in all his interecurse—the readiness with which he
gave his assistance when it was wanted. I agree most thoroughly, from
personal observation, in all that has been said of the kindness of his
disposition and the steadiness of his friendships; and I believe there is
not one of his pupils who does not remember him with affection and
esteem. More than twenty years since I asked him to name one of his
pupils for a situation of some promise in Lancashire. He recommended a
young man, who subsequently accepted the appointment, and who is now
an extensive manufacturer. On being asked by a friend why he had not
named a nephew of his own, who was also well qualified, Dr. Thomson
answered that the other had a mother and a sister to support. That
former pupil travelled from Manchester to follow the remains of his
master to the grave.

Dr. Thomson's deportment to strangers, of which perhaps too much has

The late Dr. Thomas Thomson. 255

been said, was, I am persuaded, misunderstood in most of those cases
where he left an unfavourable impression; for although little attentive to
conventional usages, and decidedly sparing of complimentary language,
he was well known to be remarkably sensitive to the feelings of others.

In ecclesiastical matters Dr. Thomson adhered to the Church of Scot-
land, and was, if I am not mistaken, a licentiate of that body. He took
no part, however, in church politics, and although in articles of faith, as
indeed on every other subject, he had fixed and well-considered opinions,
he has never given them to the world; nor, so far as I know, has he
made them known to friends out of his own family I was favoured some
years ago, without Dr. Thomson’s knowledge, with permission to copy
out a Catechism of his composition, written in his own hand, for the use
of his infant family. It proves the religious feeling, which none who
knew Dr. Thomson doubted him the possession of, and it touches upon so
many points in the Christian faith, on which the opinions of its author
have scarcely been made known, as to call from a friend of mine in
another church an expression of satisfaction at finding in the Catechism so
much of which he could approve, and so little to‘condemn. The work is
not certainly a “body of divinity,’’ but, so far as it goes, it must be ad-
mitted to be excellent.

As a collector and compiler, I believe it will be generally granted that
Dr. Thomson, particularly in the earlier part of his career, was unequalled.
His System of Chemistry was looked upon for many years as the most
complete and well arranged collection of facts, and it abundantly proved
the prodigious industry and perseverance, as well as the extensive know-
ledge of its author. Asa systematist he may have adhered too long to
the arrangement which he founded on the combustibility of bodies, excel-
lent as it was, and consistent with what was known at the time of its
introduction, but in our earlier days Thomson’s system was deservedly
esteemed the standard work on chemistry, and was always referred to for
the state of the science on any particular subject.

Of Dr. Thomson as a journalist, there can be no doubt that he did essen-
tial service to the progress of science, in commencing the “ Annals of Phi-
losophy.” Nicholson's Journal, as well as the Philosophical Magazine, had
then lost much of its interest for the student of chemistry. Dr. Thomson
introduced many new features into his journal. Besides original papers
contributed by his friends, he gave abstracts of the most important
researches of the Continental as well as the British chemists, and accom-
panied them with remarks which, if themselves sometimes open to
criticism, gave all the life and interest to the subject, which open discus-
sion gives to the papers read at the meetings of a scientific society. He
was the first, as his nephew has remarked, to introduce annual Reports of
the progress of improvement in the natural sciences. These were com-
menced in 1814, and continued till 1820. In the collecting and arrang-
ing of materials for such a contribution, we can understand how an
actively conducted journal keeps its editor aw courant of the subjects of

.

256 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

which he treats, and in imagining such a work, we sce how ready Dr.
Thomson was to turn all his labours to account. In the “Annals” also were
Comptes rendus of the proceedings of the Royal Society. Every chemical
paper read there was reported with an exactness which will astonish any
one who looks back at the array of figures and of facts, and who also
knows that they were transcribed from memory alone. I have heard
Dr. Thomson explain that the rules of the Society prevented the taking
of notes with a view to publication before the appearance of the
“Transactions,” and that he consequently applied himself to the com-
mitting to memory even of numerical statements for insertion in the
following number of the Annals of Philosophy. As soon as possible,
after leaving the meeting, he transferred to paper what he had carried
away, after which he could not have remembered more of it than the
general facts.

I shall now relate the part Dr. Thomson took in the promulgation of
the Atomic theory, and I shall do so at some length, as I think he has
not received due credit for the share he had in the progress of that great
work. I reckon this the most important proceeding of his life, unless we
place before it his System of Chemistry, the influence of whose earlier
editions it is difficult to estimate. On the 26th of August, 1804, Dr.
Thomson went to Manchester, and saw for a day or two much of Mr.
Dalton, who explained to him his views on the composition of bodies.
He saw at a glance, as he tells us, the immense importance of such a
theory, and was delighted with the new light which immediately struck his
mind. He wrote down at the time the opinions which were offered, and
three years later, when about to publish the third edition of his System
of Chemistry, he obtained Dalton’s permission to insert the sketch he had
taken, before Dalton himself had given it to the world. The theory was
at that time very slenderly supported by facts, for chemists possessed
few experiments which could be considered as even approaching to
accuracy. Up to the time when Thomson published the sketch, he seems
to have been Dalton’s only convert. Perhaps no other chemist had
taken the trouble to listen to it, if we except Dr. Henry of Manchester,
who was Dalton’s frequent visitor, but there is no probability that even
he at so early a period accepted the theory, for he speaks of it, so late as
1810, in rather doubtful terms, in the sixth edition of his ‘‘ Elements.”

Thomson's paper on the oxalates, read to the Royal Society in
1807, contained the first direct example of the application of the Daltonian
theory to supersalts. He there shows that oxalic acid unites with
strontian as well as with potash in two different proportions, and that the
quantity of acid combined with each of these bases in their superoxalates,
is just double of that which saturates the same quantity of base in their
neutral compounds. During the same year Dr. Wollaston read his famous
paper on the oxalate, binoxalate, and quadroxalate of potash, and he
commences it with a relation of what Thomson had already done. He.
states that he had remarked the same law to prevail in various other

ail

The late Dr. Thomas Thomson. 257

instances of superacid and subacid salts, and that he had intended to
pursue the subject so as to learn the cause of so regular a relation; but
that such a pursuit was rendered superfluous by the appearance of Dal-
ton’s theory, as explained and illustrated by Thomson. He shows also
that the bicarbonate of soda loses one-half its carbonic acid by exposure
to a red heat—that the potash in supersulphate of potash is united to
twice as much acid as the same quantity of potash in the neutral sulphate,
and that potash unites with three different quantities of oxalic acid,
which bear to each other the relation of 1,2, and 4. Dr. Thomson
always said, that in the absence of Dalton, Wollaston would have been,
very soon, the discoverer of the atomic theory.

These facts gradually drew the attention of chemists to Mr. Dalton’s
views. Sir Humphry Davy, however, and others of our most eminent
chemists, were hostile to them. In the autumn of 1807, Dr. Thomson
had a long conversation with Mr. Davy at the Royal Institution,
during which he attempted in vain to convince him that there was
any truth in the new hypothesis. A few days after, he dined with
him at the Royal Society Club at the Crown and Anchor in the
Strand. Dr. Wollaston was also present. After dinner every mem-
ber left the tavern, except Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Davy, and himself, who
all remained behind, and sat an hour and a-half conversing upon the
atomic theory. Wollaston and Thomson tried to convince Davy of the
inaccuracy of his opinions ; but he went away more prejudiced than ever.
Soon after, Davy met Mr. Davies Gilbert, the President of the Royal
Society, and exhibited to him the atomic theory in so ridiculous a light,
as to make Mr. Gilbert call afterwards on Dr. Wollaston, to learn, pro-
bably, what could have induced a man of his sagacity and caution to adopt
such opinions. Dr. Wollaston begged of Mr. Gilbert to sit down and
listen to a few facts which he would state to him. He then went over
the principal facts, at the time known, respecting the salts in which the
proportion of one of the constituents increases in a regular ratio; and the
relations also which Dalton had found carbon to bear to hydrogen in
olefiant gas and carburetted hydrogen. Mr. Gilbert went away a convert
to the truth of the atomic theory, and had soon the merit of convincing
Sir Humphry Davy, who ever after was a strenuous supporter of it.

This incident is related in Dr. Thomson’s “ History of Chemistry,”
published in 1831—one of the most delightful books that can be read by
a zealous chemist. It is full of biography-and anecdote connected with
chemistry and chemists. ‘he lives of most of the moderns are taken,
with little alteration, from the Annals of Philosophy, where he had
first published them, and the series is there completed, not of course
with the same originality, but with prodigious industry and great dis-

' crimination, accompanied also with interesting additions and criticisms of

his own. The book was published in the modest form of a contribution
in two volumes to the “National Library.” It has never appeared in
any other form, and if Messrs, Colburn and Bentley could induce Dr.

258 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

R. Thomson to superintend a new edition, completing it with a memorial,
such as he might write, of its illustrious author, they would produce one
of the most interesting works that could be given to scientific men. —

Instead of Dalton’s term ‘“‘atom,’’ which Thomson adopted, Davy
always used the word “ proportion,” and Wollaston * equivalent,” which
was much better ; but whatever term we employ, now that the thing itself
is understood, there can be no doubt that the use of the word “atom,”
(which conveys at once the idea of an ultimate indivisible particle,)
greatly contributed to the reception of the doctrine of definite proportions.
In 1808 Mr. Dalton published a volume of his own, in which not more
than five pages, widely printed, and one plate with explanations, were
devoted to the announcement and illustration of the atomic theory. This
treatise, if such it can be called, is little more copious than that which
had been given the year before from Dr. Thomson’s notes.

In 1809, Gay Lussac made known his theory of volumes. In 1810,
as I understand, Berzelius first published his ‘‘E:say on the Cause of
Chemical Proportions,” and it was translated by Dr. Thomson for the
Annals of 1813-14. It contains a determination of the constituents of
many important bodies. It shows that when a sulphate is formed from a
sulphite or a proto-sulphuret, the sulphate is always neutral, and that in
compounds of acids and bases, containing oxygen, the acid contains 2, 3,
4, 5, &e. times as much oxygen as the base. In 1813, Dr. Thomson
commenced in the Annals an elaborate treatise on the Daltonian theory,
and appended to it an extensive list of atomic weights. This he was
enabled to do by comparing together the results of experiments which had
recently been undertaken by Davy, Gay Lussac, Biot and Arago,
Berzelius, Wollaston, and others, on the specific gravities of gases and
the composition of solid bodies. The numbers for the elementary bodies
are exceedingly near the truth. They attracted the notice of Dr. Prout,
and in November, 1815, that chemist announced anonymously his cele-
brated doctrine, that the atomic weights of all bedies, solid as well as
gaseous, are multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen.

The view taken by Dr. Prout was not an arbitrary one, guessed at
from the accidental approach to it of a few of the elements. The
discovery of Gay Lussac, that gases unite together in exactly equal or
multiple volumes, and the circumstance that the specific gravities of
several of the gases had been already ascertained (before 1815) with
great precision, led directly, as far as these gases were concerned, to that
conclusion. There were means also for taking the specific gravities of
solid bodies in the gaseous state, as carbon in the state of carbonic acid,
sulphur in sulphurous acid, &c., and the application of the principle to other
solid substances, such as potassium, calcium, or iron, although none of their
compounds can be produced in the state of gas, was apparently inevitable.
Round numbers were thus obtained for several of the elements.
Carbon, for example, had an atomic weight six times that of hydro-
gen. Oxygen, as it united with twice its yolume of hydrogen to form

The late Dr. Thomas Thomson. 259

water, and having exactly sixteen times its density in the state of
gas, had an atomic weight of 8. In the same way he gave 14 for azote
and for phosphorus, 16 for sulphur, 20 for calcium, 24 for sodium, 28 for
iron, 32 for zine, 36 for chlorine, 40 for potassium; and thus he obtained
not only round numbers as compared with hydrogen, but numbers which
when divided by 2, and most of them by 4, were still multiples by even
numbers, and without residue, of the weight of hydrogen.

Thomson was again the first to perceive the truth and the importance
of the discovery made by Dr. Prout. He immediately adopted it, and in
November, 1818, he published a new table of atomic weights, embodying
its principles, and taking advantage of all the improvements that had been
made in analysis during the previous five years.

In the meantime Berzelius, by a long course of the most persevering
exertion, had obtained experimental results of great exactness and great
value, from an immense number of bodies. Many of them were published
in 1813, and others followed. When Thomson published his illustrations of
the doctrine of Prout, Berzelius refused to accept it, or to be guided other-
wise than by the results of his experiments. The numbers of Berzelius were
adopted almost universally on the continent, and partially even in this
country. In most instances they differed but slightly from Thomson’s num-
bers. In others, however, the difference was considerable, as in the very
important case of carbon, where it was nearly 2 per cent. It was not
till 1840, that any chemist of note joined Thomson in the defence of
Prout’s doctrine. During these twenty-five years, he maintained his
principles and the correctness of his numbers almost single-handed, for,
as in the case of Dalton, Prout had done a great proportion of his work
when he announced his theory. The experiments of Biot and Arago,
which guided Wollaston, Thomson, and Prout, gave 75:4 as the atomic
weight of carbon, oxygen being 100; and Prout, on the theoretical
considerations I have mentioned, reduced it to 75, which is equal to 6 on
the hydrogen scale. But Berzelius, conjointly with Dulong, had obtained
a different experimental result, and, in accordance with it, his number for
carbon was 767438.

At length, however, in December, 1840, a most important paper was
read to the Academy of Sciences, by MM. Dumas and Stas, on the
quantity of carbonic acid produced by the burning of carbon. Graphite,
after undergoing a process of purification, was taken for one set of
experiments, and diamond for another. These substances were burned
in a modification of the tube for organic analysis, and the carbonic acid
was collected in a Liebig’s-alkali-apparatus. The details are exceedingly
interesting, but I must not repeat them here. Several months were
spent on this single experiment, and nearly half-an-ounce of diamond
burned. ‘The results from graphite gave

Por tne atoty of carbon, ists. «ivesecatoent es. 74-982
And those from diamond gave, .......+60.....00e 75°005
The mean of the whole being..............:0606+ 74-9938

260 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

The experimenters purposely kept themselves ignorant of the weight of the
diamond they had employed, until the results were calculated. On one
occasion they concluded that 708 milligrammes had been burned, when
in reality 717 had been weighed to them. They examined the tube which
had contained the diamond, and found there the deficiency—equal to 9
milligrammes—in fragments of Brazilian topaz. These experiments were
repeated the following year by MM. Erdmann and Marchand. They
obtained a result nearly similar, viz. 75,087 for the atom of carbon.
The French as well as the German chemists concluded that 75 was the
real number for carbon.

In 1845, M. Dumas made known his adherence to the atomic weights
of three more of the elements on Prout’s list, viz. hydrogen 0°125, azote.
1-75, and caleium 2°50. Erdmann and Marchand again corroborated his
results for hydrogen and calcium, and determined anew the number for
‘mercury to be 12°5, and for sulphur 2:0, oxygen being 1:00. Svan-
berg and Norlin found the number for iron to be exceedingly near
to 3°5, a result which was confirmed by Berzelius himself. Marignac
found, for azote, the number 1°7525, and Anderson 1°744 from his
experiments on the nitrate of lead; close approximations on either side of
1:75. It must be admitted, however, that Thomson’s numbers for chlorine,
potassium, sodium, and a few others of the elements still want confirmation.
There seems little doubt, then, (and these experimenters incline to the
opinion,) that the doctrine of multiples of hydrogen is a law of nature, and
that the more exact we become in our analyses, the more shall we ap-
proach to it in our results. These are the precise numbers which Prout
originally determined, and Thomson for twenty-five years maintained,
against much opposition ; and seldom do ingenuity, sagacity, and persever-
ance meet with so successful and triumphant a conclusion. I remember
having had the chance to announce to Dr. Thomson one of these sub-
stances, [ forget which, as having dropped into his list. I need not tell
his friends that no expression of triumph or of gratification escaped him.
He took the result as a matter of course, and was confident, that for other
numbers also, it was only a question of time.

To give an account of Dr. Thomson’s own contributions to Nicholson’s
Journal, to the Philosophical Transactions, to the Annals of Philosophy,
to the Records of Science, and to the Proceedings of our own Society,
would be to take in review his merits as an investigator more fully than
is consistent with my present plan. I will only say that they have their
excellences and they have their wants. Other men have observed more
of the hidden characters of the substances on which they worked; and,
considering the multitude of experiments Dr. Thomson has conducted, he
has certainly made known to us comparatively few important new bodies.

In 1804, in a paper on the oxides of lead, Dr. Thomson first introduced
the use of the Greek ordinal numbers to denote the degree of oxidation
of a metal. Thus, the protoxide is that in which the metal is united to
a minimum of oxygen; the deutoxide has the second degree of oxidation ;

The late Dr. Thomas Thomson. 261

the tritoxide the third, and so on—the term peroxide being given to
that in which the metal is united to a maximum of oxygen. When it was
discovered that in a supersalt the proportion of acid to the base was
twice as great as in the neutral salt, Dr. Wollaston, to denote that rela-
tion, prefixed the Latin word bis to the acid of the supersalt. In the
same way he gave the name quadroxalate to a salt of potash in which the
proportion of acid to the base was four times as great as in the neutral
salt. When the base is doubled, Dr. Thomson denotes this by prefixing
to the name of the acid the Greek syllable dis ; and for salts having three
and four times the proportion of base, tris, tetrakis, &c.

As an analyst, Dr. Thomson, by his earlier experiments, which are ex-
ceedingly numerous, contributed greatly to the advancement of the science,
when it needed such information. His analyses professed to be nothing
more than approximations to the truth, and they served their purpose
well. But after the atomic theory was established, and the question became,
to determine the weights of the equivalents of bodies, a degree of pre-
cision was required, which till then had been practised in but few cases,
and which indeed the means at their disposal seldom enabled chemists to
attain. After the part which, as we have seen, Dr. Thomson took in
promulgating the principles of Dalton and of Prout, he undertook a great
amount of labour for the purpose of establishing, by experiment, the
weights of the elements. His experiments on the specific gravities of the
gases confirmed most exactly the numbers of Prout. They were performed,
with the assistance of Mr. Alexander Harvey, with great care—minute
particulars are given of the methods employed; and the series attracted
none of the severe animadversions that have been bestowed upon the
analyses of the salts.

The results of five years’ labour upon the salts were published in 1825
in the two volumes forming the “‘ Attempt to establish the First Princi-
ples of Chemistry by Experiment.’’ The principal method employed
was that by double decomposition, used with great advantage by Wenzel.
A quantity of muriate of barytes, for example, was weighed and dissolved
in distilled water. A quantity of sulphate of potash, nearly an equivalent
of the first, was also weighed and dissolved. The two solutions were
mixed together and filtered, and the liquid was tested for barytes and for
sulphuric acid. If barytes was indicated, the mixture was made anew,
with an additional portion of sulphate, and vice versa—the process being
repeated until a point was found at which no precipitate occurred on the
addition of either salt. The atomic weight of one of the salts being
known, the experiment decided that of the other. No attempt was made
to collect the two new salts formed in the process. The proportions of the
constituents of a great number of salts were thus determined; and here
the confirmation given to the original numbers of Dr. Prout, was not only
complete, but if taken literally, was altogether marvellous.

It is to be regretted that the examination of this work should not have
been conducted in a better spirit. There were, no doubt, causes of irrita-

262 ; The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

tion on the part of Berzelius. He felt his authority to be as great as that
of Dr. Thomson, and with a temper more easily ruffled, he could not be
expected easily to bear the commendations and the censures that had for
years been awarded him by the Scottish chemist, according to the view he
took of his results. In the preface, also, to the “ First Principles,”’ there
may have appeared to Berzelius an excess of confidence on the part of its
author in the importance of his work, and something like an undervalu-
ing and setting aside of previous determinations. But nothing can justify
the language employed by Berzelius in the “ Report” which he published
annually, and in which he also was in the habit of distributing judgment
with more freedom than could always be received with equanimity, I
shall not repeat the expressions; but in touching the moral character of
Dr. Thomson, as if he had purposely invented results, he showed how
little he knew the man. Dr. Thomson was incapable of deceiving others
when not himself deceived, and that is the question alone worthy of our
attention.

It was evidently the opinion of other chemists as well as of Berzelius,
that Dr. Thomson would not have reached the same perfection without
previously knowing the exact results he ought to obtain, supposing the
substances on which he operated to have been absolutely pure. How this
may be true, without taking from the genuineness of the experiments
to which the statement refers, is now understood by every practical
chemist. Dr. Thomson, as is well known, followed the example of
Wollaston in taking the atomic weight of oxygen for unity. Hydrogen
consequently became 0125, and the rule he had laid down for his
guidance from’ Prout, enabled him to decide that the atomic weight of
every other element, and consequently of all bodies, must be a number
divisible without remainder, by 0°125, the atomic weight of hydrogen.
It is thus that an experimenter obtains a standard by which to test the
accuracy of his results, and it is only after repeated preliminary experi-
ments, and a continued reference to the table of equivalents, that he can
be certain of the removal of all his errors.

In every case of more than usual precision, however, and particularly in all
debated cases, the chemist is expected to state every step in his progress.
He must tell the difficulties he has met with, and how they have been
obviated. Above all, he must satisfy other chemists that he knew the
purity, or the degree of purity of his materials, and especially their
hygrometric state at the moment when they were weighed.

Now it is a very general opinion that Dr. Thomson did not give the
details necessary to inspire confidence in the accuracy of his results. He
has not even described the methods by which he prepared some sub-
stances, which, as we know, can only be produced in a state of purity by
tedious and difficult processes. The results, as they are stated, are at
the same time unusually and perplexingly exact. The consequence is,
that the work has exercised little of the influence which appears to have
been expected from it by its author,

The-late Dr. Thomas Uhomson. 263

It is but lately that I noticed in a paper on sulphate of zine, published
by Dr. Thomson soon after the appearance of his work, that he freely
admits the scantiness of detail, and that he accounts for it in a manner
which leads, I think, to an answer to the whole question. ‘I abstained,”
he says, “‘ from describing the processes which I followed, because I thought
them rather too tedious for a work of the nature that I had projected;
and because it was in my power, in a book intended chiefly for my own
students, to supply verbally whatever was wanting in the practical part.”
I have also the impression, from that paper, and from a review of the
work itself, notwithstanding some appearances to the contrary, that the
results, which appear so perfect in the “First Principles” are not to be
understood as the actual results of any one experiment, or even as the
mean of several experiments, but rather as results which might fairly be
deduced from them; and which, being in round, as well as more perfect
numbers, were more suitable for a school book. Had Dr. Thomson been
more explicit in the work itself, he would have been saved much
annoyance, and chemists would have known that the experiments he
related were undertaken, and described, more as instructions to his pupils
than as contributions to the science.

It is not without considerable difficulty that I have been enabled thus
to reconcile the remarks, not always unjust, which have been made upon
this work, with the faithfulness which distinguished all the statements of
its author; and I have entered into the subject on the present occasion
the more fully, and with the less hesitation, from being convinced that
the appearance of failure in a work like this, which demanded greater
delicacy of manipulation than I believe him to have possessed, and a
keener eye for possible slight inaccuracies, has acted prejudicially and
most unjustly upon his reputation in other departments where these
qualities are not so essential, and in which he stands pre-eminent.

I would not be understood as denying the existence of positive errors
in the experiments described in the “First Principles.’’ The mode of
analysis, as it is there related, where a salt of barytes is decomposed by
one containing sulphuric acid, is itself liable to objection; and certainly
nothing like accuracy can be expected from a similar experiment with a
salt of lead. The chapter on the salts of alumina might also be instanced
as defective.

It is to Dalton that we are indebted for the first proper application of
Symbols to chemical science. With him a circle represented an atom of
oxygen—a circle enclosing a dot was an atom of hydrogen—a circle with
a line an atom of azote, and so on. Thomson indeed had long before
used initial letters to denote the composition of minerals; as A for
alumina, L for lime, S for silica, and A M G for a mineral containing
alumina, magnesia, and glucina. These occur in his article “ Mineralogy”
which appeared in 1798 in the Encyclopedia Britannica, but they indi-
cated no particular quantity of the substances they represented, and are
scarcely worthy of mention in this sketch. In the very first paper, how-

264 The late Dr. Thomas Thomson.

ever, that was published after Dalton, in illustration of his theory,* Dr.
Thomson not only substituted alphabetical symbols for the circles of
Dalton, but he employed them in the construction of formule, for the
purpose of building up and picturing to himself the composition of oxalic
acid, as ascertained by the substances obtained during the application of
heat to oxalate of lime.

“Tet an atom of oxigen,” he says, “be2, an atom of carbon ¢, and
an atom of hidrogen h. Anatom of oxalic acid may be represented by
4w+8c+4+2h.” “Three particles of oxalic acid resolye themselves
into these substances in the following proportions :—

“4 particles of carbonic acid, .......... = 8wHde.
2 particles of carburetted hidrogen, = 2c+4h.!
2 particles of carbonic oxide, .......... =2w+2e.
2 particles of water, .........-.s0+10+ =2w + 2h.
1 particle of charcoal, ..........- a Ee:
IP GESLS, cnc Scssedcae ees l2w+9c+6h.
3 particles of oxalic acid, ............. —12w+9c+6h.”

“ Sugar,”’ he says, “is a compound of 12 atoms, namely: five of oxigen,
three of carbon, and four of hidrogen; the weight of an integrant particle
of it is 47°5, and its symbol is 5w+3c+4h.’’ Berzelius greatly
extended the use of these symbols, but he did not claim the merit of
haying introduced them in chemical investigations. Dr. R. D. Thomson,
in the paper to which I have already referred, quotes a passage to this
effect from a work of Berzelius published in Swedish in 1814, where he
says that he strictly “followed the rules for this purpose given by
Thomson in his system of chemistry’’ (och skall dervid folga en enledning
som Thomson gifvit isin kemiska handbok.) ‘The work,’ continues
Dr. R. D. Thomson, “in which this passage occurs, entitled ‘ Forsok att
genom anviindandet af den electrokemiska theorien Xc., grundligga for
mineralogier’ af J. Jacob Berzelius, Stockholm, 1814, page 18, was sent
by Berzelius to Dr. Thomson in the same year, with a request, in a letter
which is still extant, that he would endeavour to procure a translator for
it. Dr. Thomson applied to Dr. Marcet and others without success, but
at last prevailed on his learned friend, John Black, Esq., who so ably
conducted the Morning Chronicle newspaper for many years, to undertake
the task.”

It is not claiming, then, more for Dr. Thomson than his due, when we
say, notwithstanding the extensions and improvements of Berzelius, that
he was the inventor of the use of symbols as they are now employed in
chemical language.

At a future time, if the Society think fit, I shall lay before it some
account of Dr. Thomson’s biographical works. His Lives of the
Chemists must always be read with interest.

* Philosophical Transactions for 1807, page 63.

Report of Librarian. 265

November 17, 1852.—Mr. Crum, Senior Vice-President, in the Chair.

Tue following were proposed as members, viz.:—Thomas Anderson,
Professor of Chemistry, Mr. James Young, (Edinburgh), Mr. Edward
Meldrum, (Bathgate), and Mr. William Nielson.

The second vote of the Society was taken on the change in the law
limiting the President’s tenure of office to two years at a time, and
finally agreed to.

The Society then proceeded to the fifty-first annual election of its
office-bearers.

Mr. Robert Blackie called attention to the importance of the votes of
the Society being more concentrated than heretofore, inasmuch as the
law regulating the eligibility of members of Council by the number of
votes recorded for them was now about to come into operation. In order
to prevent the votes from being diffused over a large proportion of the
entire list of members, he proposed that twelve or more names be written
on the black board, after being moved and seconded, and that it be
optional for members to add to the number, and otherwise to vote as
they chose.

This proposal having been submitted to the Society, permission was
given to write the names on this occasion.

A list of names having been moved and seconded, was then written on
the black board by the mover. Several additional names were proposed
by other members, and also written upon the board.

The voting then took place in the usual manner. Mr. William
Ramsay and Mr. Donald Campbell were requested to act as scrutineers
of the votes. The scrutineers having retired to examine the vote papers,

Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine read a paper “ On Telegraphic Com-
munication between Great Britain and Ireland, by Mr. W. J. Macquorn
Rankine and Mr. John Thomson.”

“The authors maintain that the best route for a Submarine Electric
Telegraph between Great Britain and Ireland is by the Mull of Cantyre ;
the breadth of the channel between that headland and Tor Point on the
coast of Ireland being less than 13 miles, while the breadth between
Portpatrick and Donaghadee is 22 miles; while in the former strait, the
exposure is so great as to render it almost impossible for vessels to
endanger the telegraphic cable by anchoring across it.

“They contend that on grounds of national advantage, this line of
telegraph ought to be made, even supposing those by Holyhead and
Portpatrick to be in operation.

“ Besides its general utility, this scheme would be fraught with great
local benefit to the west of Scotland and north-east of Ireland.’

Mr. Rankine exhibited several specimens of submarine telegraphic
cables manufactured by Messrs. R. 8. Newall and Company. The
copper conducting wires, each imbedded in a thick cord of gutta percha,

are twisted together, wound round with rope-yarn, tarred, and finally
Vor. III.—No. 5. 2

266 2 Report of Librarian.

encased in the centre of an iron cable composed of wires of from one-
eighth to one-quarter of an inch in thickness, according to the strength
required. :

Mr. Cockey, on the part of Dr. Robert D. Thomson, gave in the
following report on the state of the Library at the period when he ceased
to be Librarian :—

The Library has this year been carefully examined by Mr. James
M‘Lagan, (who has discharged his duties of giving out and receiving
books since his appointment with great efficiency,) and has been found
free from defects. The total number of volumes is 2070, showing an
increase during the last year of 150 vols.; that in November, 1851, being
1920.

Taste oF Number or Votumes anpD NumpBer or Reapers Monraty.

No. of Readers. No. of Vols.

1851, 1852, 1851. 1852.
January, 42 an ST ere 127 P 163
February, 44 ae AO ide whe ton: 116 ee 134
Mareh, BA, ges: SYR ee eee 87 as 161
April, »45 a eg Oca 157 Me 170
May, 46 a DOM Meareccacs 138 bat 113
June, 38 is ee cain 120 ra 134
July, 35 iz Stile a dsap'n 94 sia 96
August, 37 = GLE .sanae 112 ae 81
September, 41 aie alle Ee 150 aa 120
October, dt oe Soe) cect. 140 oe 90
November, 45 a SS MOE 162 vue —_—
December, 50 se =e Oe 147 ais =

From this table it might be supposed that in some months the number
of vols. read and the readers had diminished. This circumstance appeared
to depend in some measure on the regulations in returning books, within
the time specified by the rules of the Society. The second series of the
Annales de Sciences Naturelles, the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Insti-
tution, and the second series of the Annals of Philosophy, have been com-
pleted during this year. The journals now requiring to be completed, are
principally the Annales de Sciences, first series, Poggendorff’s Anualen,
Annales de Chemie, first series, Annales de Mines, early series, Journal
de Pharmacie. It is a pleasing duty on the part of the Curator to be
able to hand over such a valuable and thriving library to his successor,
remembering, as he does, eleven years ago, when the volumes were com-
prised in a small cupboard, under one of the windows of the Andersonian
Library—the number of ordinary members of the Society then numbering
‘ about 80, while at present they amount to 278.

Mr. Liddell gave in the Treasurer’s Account, which was ordered to be
engrossed as follows :—

Jieport of Librarian. 207

Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

1851. Dr.
Noy. 1.—To Cash in Union and Savings Banks, £128 15 3
1852.
Mov. 1. — Interest on do. .......ssccessesseeesees 3.4 9
—— £132 0 0
To Society's Transactions sold,........00......eseeceees 114 0

— Entries of 17 New Members, at 2]ls. 17 17 0
— 1] Annual Payments from Original

Members; at (8s, saaeectsece be eaees. mle)
— 256 Annual Payments, at 15s. each,192 0 0

212 12 0
— Rent from Sabbath School Teachers, for use of
Sa rablis ass cstnisa roan wn geeks. sav eogdees Mabodt cacees 010 0
£346 16 0
1852. Cr.
Noy. 1.—By New Books and Binding,................sseeeeeees £100 5 0
— Printing Transactions, Circulars, &e............- 32. Liy0
— Wright Work, &c. in Hall,............cscceseeeees 1. 4G
— Rent of Hall, One Year, ............ £15 0 0
— Coffee, &c., at Annual Meeting...... Darn 6
o=— ATO MMBUNATICE, cc snec cee wae sectestse. 2,46 °..0
— Society’s Officer and Clerk, .......... 6 0 0
— Postages and Delivering Letters,... 11 10 6
— Stationery and Die Stamp,.......... 415 6
ae POTOEIALD sc osa0e devciey sina stuavids cess eel
—— 4310 6
— Librarian’s Salary, One Year,....... 20 16 0
— Librarian for Poundage Collecting
DUR; 901 bs Ids vevidevaseeiys 614 4
——. 2710 4
— Subscription to Ray Society, ....... ae aR
— Do. to Cavendish Society,............ 1 lle A
— Do. to Paleontographical Society, 1 1 0
a tee
P— Eamting the Hall, scivviiivescsss<sdaaseusreass oes ie. GeO
— Balance—
Cash in Union Bank,.............. 120 0 0
Do. in Savings Bank, ..........+. 310 0
—— 123 0 10
£346 16 0
Tae Purmosopmicat Socrnry Exurerrion Fonp.
1851.
May 15.—To balance, as per deposit receipt, from the Cor-

poration of the City of Glasgow,........ cesses £551 0 9

»
>

as

-~

268 . Election of Office-bearers.
1852.
May 15.—To One Year's Interest on do. .............0065 wa 22 One

£573 1 6

Guascow, 1st November, 1852,—We have examined the Treasurer’s Account, and
compared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there are in the Union Bank of
Scotland One Hundred and Twenty Pounds, and in the Savings Bank Three Pounds and
Tenpence—together, One Hundred and Twenty-three Pounds and Tenpence—at the
Society’s credit. ;

The Treasurer has also exhibited to us a Voucher which he holds for money lent to the
Corporation of the City of Glasgow, from the proceeds of the Philosophical Society’s Ex-
hibition in 1846, with Interest thereon up to 15th May ultimo, being £573 1s. 6d.

THOMAS DAWSON.
RICH. S. CUNLIFF.

Report by Treasurer, 3d November, 1852.—The property possessed by the Society at
this date consists of the above-named Balance of £123 Os. 10d. in Bank; the Books in
Library, and Book Presses, as per Librarian’s Catalocue. The Furniture, Picture, Bust,
&c., remain same as in last Report.

The number of Members admitted, Session 1851-52, and who have paid dues, is 17.
The ordinary list has been reduced 4 by death, 8 by resignation, 4 from arrears in pay-
ment of dues, 7 from being placed on non-resident list, by desire, having paid arrear of
dues, and 1 elected an Honorary Member; making in all 24. The total number on roll
at this date is 281; of these, 24 are in arrear of dues for one year.

The scrutineers having now returned gave in the following report of
the result of the election: —

President,
Mr. Water Crum.

Vice-Presidents,
Dr. Georae A. WaLkeR Arnott. | Dr. Atten THomson.

TREASURER,............MR. ANDREW LippELt.
LIBRARIAN, ............ MR. Witttam CooKEY.

Soint Secretaries.

Mr. Atexanprr Hastie, M.P. | Mr. WiiiamM Keppre.
Council.

Mr. Atexanper Harvey. Dr. Joun STRANG.
Dr. A. K. Youna. Mr. Wiri1am Murray.
Mr. Witu1am Gour.in. Mr. Ropert Buackin.
Mr. Jamus Bryce. Mr. Nem Rosson.
Proressor W. Tuomson. Mr. J. Macquorn Ranke.
Mr. James R. Napier. Dr. Artaur MircHett.

PROFESSOR THOMSON on the Heating and Cooling of Buildings. 269

December 1, 1852.—The Prustpent in the Chair.

Tue following gentlemen were elected members of the Society, viz :—
Thomas Anderson, Mr. James Young, Mr. Edward Meldrum, Mr. Wil-
liam Nielson.

The following were proposed as members, viz.:—Mr. John L. Dunn,
Mr. Robert Mackay, Mr. William Boyd, Mr. William Broom, Mr.
Andrew Jackson, and Mr. Edward Meikleham.

Professor William Thomson gave an “ Account of Experiments by Mr.
Joule and Professor William Thomson, on the Changes of Temperature
occasioned by the Rushing of Air through Small Apertures.”’

Professor William Thomson afterwards read a paper “ On the Economy
of Heating or Cooling Buildings by means of Currents of Air.”’

XXXIII.—On the Economy of the Heating or Cooling of Buildings by
means of Currents of Air.* By Proressor W. THomson.

Ir it be required to introduce a certain quantity of air at a stated
temperature higher than that of the atmosphere into a building, it might
at first sight appear that the utmost economy would be attained if all
the heat produced by the combustion of the coals used were communi-
cated to the air; and in fact the greatest economy that has yet been
aimed at in heating air or any other substance, for any purpose what-
ever, has had this for its limit. If an engine be employed to pump in
air for heating and ventilating a building (as is done in Queen’s
College, Belfast), all the waste heat of the engine, along with the
heat of the fire not used in the engine, may be applied by suitable
arrangements to warm the entering current of air; and even the heat
actually converted into mechanical effect by the engine, will be recon-
verted into heat by the friction of the air in the passages, since the
overcoming of resistance depending on this friction is the sole work
done by the engine. It appears therefore that whether the engine be
economical as a converter of heat into mechanical work, or not, there
would be perfect economy of the heat of the fire if all the heat escaping
in any way from the engine, as well as all the residue from the fire,
were applied to heating the air pumped in, and if none of this heat
were allowed to escape by conduction through the air passages. It is
not my present object to determine how nearly in practice this degree
of economy may be approximated to; but to point out how the limit
which has hitherto appeared absolute, may be surpassed, and a current
of warm air at such a temperature as is convenient for heating and
ventilating a building may be obtained mechanically, either by water
power without any consumption of coals, or, by means of a steam
engine, driven by a fire burning actually less coals than are capable of
generating by their combustion the required heat; and secondly, to

* Mathematical demonstrations of the results stated in this paper have since
been published in the Camb, and Dub. Math. Journal, Noy. 1853.

G : +

270 PRorEssoR THomson on the Heating and Cooling of Buildings.

show how, with similar mechanical means, currents of cold air, such as
might undoubtedly be used with great advantage to health and comfort
for cooling houses in tropical countries,* may be produced by motive
power requiring (if derived from heat by means of steam engines), the
consumption of less coals perhaps than are used constantly for warming
houses in this country.

In the mathematical investigation communicated with this paper, it is
shown in the first place, according to the general principles of the
dynamical theory of heat, that any substance may be heated thirty
degrees above the atmospheric temperature by means of a properly con-
trived machine, driven by an agent spending not more than about -5 of
energy of the heat thus communicated; and that a corresponding
machine, or the same machine worked backwards, may be employed to
produce cooling effects, requiring about the same expenditure of energy
in working it to cool the same substance through a similar range of
temperature. When a body is heated by such means, about $+ of the
heat is drawn from surrounding objects, and =. is created by the action
of the agent; and when a body is cooled by the corresponding pro-
cess, the whole heat abstracted from it, together with a quantity created
by the agent, equal to about +; of this amount, is given out to the sur-
rounding objects.

A very good steam engine converts about ,, of the heat generated in
its furnace into mechanical effect ; and consequently, if employed to work
a machine of the kind described, might raise a substance thirty degrees
above the atmospheric temperature by the expenditure of only 49, or
2, that is, less than one-third of the coal that would be required to
produce the same elevation of temperature with perfect economy in a
direct process. If a water-wheel were employed, it would produce by
means of the proposed machine the stated elevation of temperature, with
the expenditure of 5 of the work, which it would have to spend to
produce the same heating effect by friction.

The machine by which such effects are to be produced must have the
properties of a “ perfect thermo-dynamic engine,” and in practice would

* The mode of action and apparatus proposed for this purpose differs from that
proposed originally by Professor Piazzi Smyth for the same purpose, only in the
use of an egress cylinder, by which the air is made to do work by its extra pressure
and by expansion in passing from the reservoir to the locality where it is wanted,
which not only saves a great proportion of the motive power that would be required
were the air allowed simply to escape through a passage, regulated, by a stop-cock
or otherwise, but is absolutely essential to the success of the project, as it has been
demonstrated by Mr. Joule and the author of this communication, that the cold of
expansion would be so nearly compensated by the heat generated by friction, when
the air is allowed to rush out without doing work, as to give not two-tenths of a
degree of cooling effect in apparatus planned for 30 degrees. The use of an egress
cylinder has (as the meeting was informed by Mr. Macquorn Rankine), recently
been introduced into plans adopted by a committee of the British Association
appointed to consider the practicability of Professor Piazzi Smyth’s suggestion,
with a view to recommending it to government for public buildings in India,

a

Proressor THOMSON on the Heating and Cooling of Buildings. 271

be either like a steam engine, founded on the evaporation and re-conden-
sation of a liquid (perhaps some liquid of which the boiling point is
lower than that of water), or an air engine of some kind. If the sub-
stance to be heated or cooled be air, it will be convenient to choose this
itself as the medium operated on in the machine. For carrying out the
proposed object, including the discharge of the air into the locality where
it is wanted, the following general plan was given as likely to be found
practicable. Two cylinders, each provided with a piston, ports, valves,
and expansion gearing, like a high-pressure double-acting steam engine, are
used, one of them to pass air from the atmosphere into a large receiver,
and the other to remove air from this receiver and discharge into the locality
where it is wanted. The first, or ingress cylinder and the receiver,
should be kept with their contents as nearly as possible at the atmospheric
temperature, and for this purpose ought to be of good conducting material,
as thin as is consistent with the requisite strength, and formed so as to
expose as much external surface as possible to the atmosphere, or still
better, to a stream of water. The egress cylinder ought to be protected
as much as possible from thermal communication with the atmosphere or
surrounding objects. According as the air is to be heated, or cooled, the
pistons and valve gearing must be worked so as to keep the pressure in
the receiver below, or above, that of the atmosphere. If the cylinders
be of equal dimensions, the arrangement when the air is to be heated,
would be as follows :—-The two pistons working at the same rate, air is
to be admitted freely from the atmosphere into the ingress cylinder, until
a certain fraction of the stroke, depending on the heating effect required,
is performed, then the entrance port is to be shut, so that during the
remainder of the stroke the air may expand down to the pressure of the
receiver, into which, by the opening of another valve, it is to be admitted
in the reverse stroke; while the egress cylinder * is to draw air freely
from the receiver through the whole of each stroke on one side or the
other of its piston, and in the reverse strokes first to compress this air
to the atmospheric pressure (and so heat it as required), and then dis-
charge it into a pipe leading to the locality where it is tobe used. If
it be required to heat the air from 50° to 80° Fahr., the ratio of expan-
sion to the whole stroke in the egress cylinder would be ;1,3,, the pressure
of the air in the receiver would be 8%, of that of the atmosphere (about
27 Ibs. on the square inch below the atmospheric pressure), and the

' * Tn this case the egress cylinder acts merely as an air pump, to draw air from
the receiver and discharge it into the locality where it is wanted, and the valves
required for this purpose might be ordinary self-acting pump-valves. <A similar
remark applies to the action of the ingress cylinder in the use of the apparatus for
producing a cooling effect on the air transmitted, which will then be that of a
compressing air-pump to force air from the atmosphere into the receiver. But
in order that the same apparatus may be used for the double purpose of heating or
cooling, as may be required at different seasons, it will be convenient to have the
valves of each cylinder worked mechanically, like those of a steam engine.

272 ; Mr. Ure on Ventilation.

ratio of compression to the whole stroke in the egress cylinder would be
3% If 1 Ib. of air (or about 15} cubic feet, at the stated temperature
of 80°, and the mean atmospheric pressure,) be to be delivered per second,
the motive power required for working the machine would be -283 of a
horse power, were the action perfect, with no loss of effect, by friction, by
loss of expansive power due to cooling in the ingress cylinder, or otherwise.
If each cylinder be four feet in stroke, and 26:3 inches diameter, the
pistons would have to be worked at 30 double strokes per minute.

On the other hand, if it be desired to cool air, either the ingress
piston must be worked faster than the other, or the stroke of the other
must be diminished, or the ingress cylinder must be larger, or an auxiliary
ingress cylinder must be added. The last plan appears to be undoubt-
edly the best, as it will allow the two principal pistons to be worked
stroke for stroke together, and consequently to be carried by one piston
rod, or by a simple lever, without the necessity of any variable connecting
gearing, whether the machine be used for heating or for cooling air; all
that is necessary to adapt it to the latter purpose, besides altering the
valve gearing, being to connect a small auxiliary piston to work beside
the principal ingress cylinder, with which it is to have free communi-
cation at each end. If it were required to cool air from 80° to 50° Fahr.,
the auxiliary cylinder would be required to have its volume ;, of that
of each of the principal cylinders; and, if its stroke be the same, its
diameter would therefore be a little less than a quarter of theirs. The
valves would have to be altered to give compression in the ingress cylin-
der during the same fraction of the stroke as is required for expansion
when the air is heated through the same range of temperature, and the
valves of the egress cylinder would have to give the same proportion of
expansion as is given of compression in the other case; and the pressure
kept up in the receiver, by the action of the pistons thus arranged, would
be 118 atoms, or about 3:2 lbs. on the square inch above the atmospheric
pressure. The principal cylinders being of the same dimensions as those
assumed above, and the quantity of air required being the same (1 lb. per
second), the pistons would have to be worked at only 24°6 double strokes
per minute instead of 30, and the horse power required would be -288,
instead of as formerly ‘283, when the same machine was used for giving
a supply of heated air.

Mr. John Ure then exhibited a Model Ventilating Apparatus which
had been constructed by him. He explained its structure and illustrated
its action, &c. It consisted of an oblong case, about 2 feet long, 1 foot
broad, and 15 inches high, with sides and top, but no fixed bottom. The
interior of this case represented that of an apartment to be ventilated.
The sides and ends were glazed, so as to enable the observer to ascertain
the changes which might occur within. The’ case (see drawing, No. 1)
was provided with a moveable bottom, around the margin of which was
a gutter or groove filled with water (see drawing, No. 2), into which the

———

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY oF GLASGOWS PROCEEDINGS

M® URES APPARATUS

for illustrating the principle of Ventilation.

Mr. Ure on Ventilation. 273

walls of the case dipped, thus rendering the case air-tight at its lower
part. In the centre of the roof there was a tube nine inches high (a) by
three and a-half in diameter. At the sides of the roof, and at its ends,
were a series of additional tubular openings, each three-fourths of an inch
in diameter—in all, eleven in number (8). These projected above the top
one-half inch, so as to admit of an air-tight cap being put on each. Two
other tubes (c), equal in height to the centre one, were placed at either
end. These were one inch in diameter, and their use is noticed in the
sequel. The bottom of the case was perforated by a number of tubes (D) ;
these rising to the height of three inches in the interior of the case. They
could be opened or closed as desired. These openings when patent
permitted of the ventilation of the case on the most natural, and
consequently the most efficient principle. Practical difficulties, how-
ever, are in the way of the universal adoption of this system. The
apparatus designed by Mr. Ure had in view ventilation by the roof
alone, or in conjunction with the upper margins of walls.

The subjects of experiment and points of comparison lay between
the two sorts of tubes first mentioned—the large central aperture
and the series of small ones. The case was lifted out of the water
channel, and six lamps placed on the case bottom—two at and equally
apart from the sides and near to each end, and two in the centre of
length. At this period the lamps were burning full blaze. The case
was now restored to its place with a diaphragm or division (£), of the
exact width, and extending the whole length of the centre tube, thus
dividing the tube into two semi-circular vents. By this arrangement,
as has long been known, two opposite currents were caused in the tube
—one on each side of the diaphragm; the cold air passing in by the
one opening, while the heated air and products of combustion made
their escape by the other. In less than three minutes a great decay
of the energy of combustion in the lamps was quite perceptible, and in
about four minutes all the end lamps were much reduced in flame, and
two of them were nearly extinguished. The two in the centre, being
those immediately under the ventilating arrangement, continued to burn
more freely, but still languidly. At this stage the combustion was a
true maximum, and remained stationary. Its energy was indicated by
the whole amount and local distribution of ventilation which the apparatus
as used was capable of supplying. The mode of ventilation here ex-
perimented on has been lately patented, and is characterised by and
distinguished from that of Mr. Ure by one or more tubes placed in the
roof, and each equally divided by a diaphragm, the requisite supply of
cold, and the emission of heated and contaminated air, being expected
to take place by these semi-tubes.

When the stationary point of ventilation by the model apparatus in
use had been reached, the eleven small openings distributed over the

top were quickly uncapped, the diapbragm withdrawn, and an amount
of the opening of the large centre tube, as nearly equal in area as

274 Mr. URE on Ventilation.

possible to the sum of the areas of the eleven small ones, was instantly
closed up by means of a cap with an opening in the centre, two inches
in diameter (F). The absolute amount of space for charge and discharge
was thus left equal to that in the first experiment with the single divided
tube. In about 90 seconds the combustion of the lamps was restored
to their original brillianey. The dispersed short tubes supplied the cold
air, the heated air making a strong escape by the opening left in the
large tube. ‘The entire area of the large opening being about 9°6 square
inches; the sum of the areas of the eleven small ones about 6°5, and
the area of the discharge tube in this experiment about 3:1, the sum of
these two last are equal to the area of the first or large tube. This last
experiment was further continued by closing in succession several of the
small tubes so as to reduce the energy of combustion to the diminished
condition attained and rested at in the first experiment with the single
divided tube, being the maximum referred to, as determined, in the first
experiment shown. The number of tubes ultimately closed amounted to
four, leaving only seven open, when a condition sensibly better than the
stationary state then referred to, was in three minutes arrived at. At
this stage the combustion was not only less languid, but continued more
uniformly distributed. According to this result the sum of the areas
of the seven tubes for the descending current being about 4:1 square
inches, and the area of the descending tube 3:1, together 7:2, the
ventilation by Mr. Ure’s method of the dispersed tubes was as effec-
tive as that in the first experiment (9°6 square inches), with less than
three-fourths of roof opening, while from the uniformity of the rate of com-
bustion in all the lamps, the ventilation was more equably distributed. A
third experiment was made, in which the seven entrance tubes remained
as before, but instead of the two-inch escape tube, two tubes, each one
inch in diameter (c), situated at different parts of the roof, were opened.
The result was that the combustion was still as perfect as in the first
experiment. The areas of the entrance tubes being as before 4-1, and
the areas of discharge tubes 1:56, in all 5°66 square inches for charge
and discharge, the dissimilarity in necessary roof opening came to be
9°6, as compared with 5-66, or little more than one-half: The cost for
the erecting on the large scale of the two arrangements, when calculated,
was found to be in favour of Mr. Ure’s proposed method. Other experi-
ments bearing on the certainty and direction of the currents, were suc-
cessfully exhibited to the meeting.

Mr. Ure, in conclusion, considered that distinct tubes, of unequal
lengths, should be employed in ventilation, tke taller for the ascending
current, and the shorter for the descending; that the tubes, particularly
the smaller ones, so as not to interfere with the uniform appearance or
elegance of buildings, might be distributed around the upper walls, or
on the roofs of the apartments. Those for the ascending current might
consist of one centrally placed or several judiciously disposed at inter-
vals along the roof, or otherwise, according to convenience or necessity.

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society. 275

December 15, 1852.—The Presiwent in the Chair.

Tue following were admitted as members, viz.:—Thomas Anderson,
Mr. James Young, Mr. Edward Meldrum, Mr. William Nielson.

The following were elected as members, viz.:—Mr. John L. Dunn,
Mr. Robert Mackay, Mr. William Boyd, Mr. William Broom, Mr.
Andrew Jackson, Mr. Edward Meikleham.

Letters were received from the Secretaries of the Royal Society of
London, and the Geological Society of London, acknowledging receipt of
the last part of the Society’s printed Proceedings.

Mr. Ramsay presented a copy of Lecture, by Dr. Lyon Playfair, on
Industrial Instruction on the Continent; and of Paper by Professor
A. C. Ramsay, on the Superficial Accumulation and Surface Markings
of North Wales.

Mr, Bryce read a paper “ On the Connection between the Slate Rocks
of the South of Scotland and those of the opposite Coast of Ireland.”

January 5, 1853.—The Present in the Chair.

Mr. Joun L. Dunn, Mr. Robert Mackay, Mr. William Boyd, Mr.
William Broom, Mr. Andrew Jackson, jun., and Mr. Edward Meikleham,
were admitted members.

Dr. Thomas H. Rowney, College Laboratory, was elected a member.

The following were proposed as members, viz.:—Mr. George Donald-
son, Mr. James Taylor.

A letter was received from the Secretaries of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society of Manchester, acknowledging receipt of the last part of
the Society’s printed Proceedings.

Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine moved that the Society memorialise the
Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury, in favour of employing the scale of six
inches to a mile, in preparing the maps of the Ordnance Survey in the
Counties of Lanark, Ayr, and Renfrew, and also recommending that the
levels of the ground be marked by figures at the more important points,
and by contour lines. Mr. Liddell seconded the motion, which was
agreed to; and a committee, consisting of Professor William Thomson,
Mr. Liddell, Mr. Bryce, Mr. Reid, and Mr. Rankine, was appointed to
prepare and transmit the memorial, and also to communicate on the
subject with the Provosts of burghs, and the Clerks to the Commissioners
of Supply, in the Western Counties of Scotland.

Mr. William Johnson read a paper “On the Patent Laws and their
recent changes.”

Mr. Macquorn Rankine ead a oer “On the General Law of the
Transformation of Energy.” The discussion on the latter paper was
adjourned till next meeting.

276 Mr. RaNKINE on the Transformation of Energy.

XXXIV.—On the General Law of the Transformation of Energy.
By W. J. Macquorn Ranxine.

Actuat, or SensrpLe Enerey, is a measurable, transmissible, and
transformable condition, “whose presence causes a substance to tend to
change its state in one or more respects. By the occurrence of such
changes, actual energy disappears, and is replaced by

Porentiat or Latent Enerey ; which is measured by the product of a
change of state into the resistance against which that change is made.

(The vis viva of matter in motion, thermometric heat, radiant heat,
light, chemical action, and electric currents, are forms of actual energy ;
amongst those of potential energy are the mechanical powers of gravita-
tion, elasticity, chemical affinity, statical electricity, and magnetism.)

The law of the Conservation of Energy is already known, viz. :—that
the sum of all the energies of the universe, actual and potential, is
unchangeable.

The object of the present paper is to investigate the law according to
which all transformations of energy, between the actual and potential
forms, take place.

Let V be the magnitude of a measurable state of a substance ;

U, the species of potential energy which is developed when the state
V increases ;

P, the common magnitude of the tendency of the state V to increase,
and of the equal and opposite resistance against which it increases; so
that—

dU

dU=PAV ; and Pe ose (A)

Let Q be the quantity which the substance possesses, of a species of
actual energy whose presence produces a tendency of the state V to
increase.

It is required to find how much energy is transformed from the actual
form Q to the potential form U, during the increment dV; that is to
say, the magnitude of the portion of dU, the potential energy developed,
which is due to the disappearance of an equivalent’ portion of actual
energy of the species Q.

The development of this portion of potential energy is the immediate
effect of the presence in the substance of the total quantity Q of actual
energy.

Let this quantity be conceived to be divided into indefinitely small
equal parts dQ. As those parts are not only equal, but altogether alike
in nature and similarly circumstanced, their effects must be equal ; there-
fore, the effect of the total energy Q must be equal simply to the effect

of one of its small parts dQ, multiplied by the ratio fa

Mr. RANKINE on the Transformation of Energy. 277

But the effect of the indefinitely small part dQ, in causing develop-
ment of potential energy of the species U, during the increment of state
dV, is represented by—

agi

whence it follows, that the effect of the presence of the total actual
energy Q, in causing transformation of energy from the actual form Q to
the potential form U, is expressed by the following formula :—

which is the solution required, and is the symbolical expression of the
GENERAL Law oF THE TRANSFORMATION oF ENERGY :—

The effect of the whole Actual Energy present in a substance, in causing
Transformation of Energy, is the sum of the effects of all its parts.

The difference between this quantity and the potential energy
developed, viz. :—

ap
(P—Q.5 i9)4:

represents a portion of potential energy, due to causes different from the

actual energy Q. This difference is null, when the resistance (P=ay)

against which the state V increases, is simply proportional to the total
actual energy Q.

It is next proposed to find the quantity of actual energy of the form
Q, which must be transmitted to the substance from without, in order
that its total actual energy may receive the increment dQ, and its state
V at the same time, the increment dV.

This quantity is composed of three parts, viz :—actual energy, which
preserves its form, dQ; actual energy which transforms itself to some
unknown form, in consequence of the resistance which is offered to the
increase of the total actual energy, LdQ; actual energy, already deter-
mined, which transforms itself into potential energy of the form U,

P
Q.

iQ —.dV ; the sum of these parts aoe

dQ = (14 L)dQ+Q. ie Egy Bar waany (2.)

in which nothing remains to be determined except the function L.
If we subtract from the above formula, the total potential energy
developed during the increment dV, viz :—

P.aV,

we obtain the algebraical sum of the energies, actual and potential,

278 Mr. RANKINE on the Transformation of Energy.

received and developed by the substance during the changes dQ, dV;
which is thus expressed :—
a¥ =-4-Q—AU =(1+ 1) aQ.4(Q Qa. dV ......(B.)
This quantity must be the exact differential of a function of Q and V;
for otherwise it would be possible, by varying the order of the increments
dQ, dV, to change the sum of the energies of the universe.
It follows that—
aL 0 a2
WW (Q5- ) P=Q iP

and consequently, that

L=f(Q)+ Qi,

where f’ (Q) is a function of Q and constants, the first derivative of f’ (Q).
We find at length the following equation —

painted

dy—d.Q —aU=(1 +f (Q)+ Qos f Pav) Q+ (55 —1)

a {a +£(Q)+(Q oD sav } QB.)

which represents the algebraical sum of the energy, actual and potential,
received and developed by a substance, when the total actual energy of
the species Q, and the state V, receive respectively the increments
dQ, dV.

It is to be observed, that in the last equation, the symbol if P.dV
denotes a partial integral, taken in treating the particular value of Q, to
which it corresponds as a constant quantity; while d. U represents the
real magnitude of the potential energy developed.

The application of the general law of the transformation of energy
may be extended to any number of kinds of energy, actual and potential,
by means of the following equation: d.¥ = 2d.Q — 2d.U.

ag! Pav) dQ} +3f Gon] )pav }
= af3Q + 3f(Q) + 3 (3: am 1) / Pav} sie (4.)

= {a + £(Q) + Q3

This equation is the complete expression of the general law of the
transformation of energy of all possible kinds, known and unknown. It
affords the means, so soon as the necessary experimental data have been
obtained, of analysing every development of potential energy, and referring
its several portions to the species of actual ey from which they have
been produced.

Mr. RANKINE on the Transformation of Energy. 279

Amongst the consequences of this law, the author deduces that which
may be called the general principle of the maximum effect of engines.

An engine consists essentially in a substance, whose changes of state,
and of actual energy, between given limits, are so regulated as to produce
a permanent transformation of energy.

Let Q, be the given superior limit of actual energy; Qo, the inferior
limit.

To produce the maximum permanent transformation of energy from the
actual to the potential form, the substance must undergo a cycle of four
operations, viz. :—

First operation.

The substance, preserving the constant quantity Q, of actual energy,
passes from the state V, to the state V,, receiving from without the
following quantity of actual energy, which is converted into potential
energy :—

t

Py ee
Hy =Q. ag fy Pa

Second operation.

The substance passes from the superior limit of actual energy Q,, to
the inferior limit Q,. Let V¢ be the value of the state V at the end of
this operation.

Third operation.

The substance preserving the constant quantity Q of actual energy,
passes from the state V, to the state Vy, transmitting to external sub-
stances the following quantity of actual energy, produced by the disap-
pearance of potential energy :—

av. ¥e
Hy = Qag J y" Pav

Fourth operation.

The substance is brought back to its original actual energy Q,, and
state V ,, thus completing the cycle of operations.

In order that the second and fourth operations may be performed
without expenditure of energy, the following condition must be fulfilled :—

d .Vo Fiance
qQ Wh v,rav (for Q = Q)=a9 f y,Pav (for Q=Q,.)

This being the case, the total expenditure of energy during a cycle of
operations will be H', being the quantity converted from the actual to
the potential form during the first operation; the energy lost will be Hy,
the quantity reconyerted to the actual form, and transmitted to external
Substances, during the third operation; and the quantity of energy per-

280 Mr. RANKINE on the Transformation of Energy.

manently transformed from the actual to the potential form, that is to
say, the work done by the engine will be—

H, —H, = (Q,; — Qe) wal yew (for, Q: = Qa) eacews (6.)

The ratio of this work to the total expenditure of energy is

This principle is applicable to all possible engines, known and
unknown.

In the sequel of the paper, the author gives some examples of the
application of the general principles of the transformation of energy to
the theory of heat, and to that of electro-magnetism; and deduces from
them, as particular cases, several laws already known through specific
researches.

The details of the application of these principles to the theory of heat
are contained in the sixth section of a memoir read to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, “On the Mechanical Action of Heat.”

The actual energy produced by an electric pile in unity of time is
expressed by—

Q= Mu
where M is the electro-motive force, and u, the strength of the current.
The actual energy of an electric circuit is expressed by—

Ru?

where R is the resistance of the circuit. This energy is immediately
and totally transformed into sensible heat.

The proportion of the actual energy produced in the pile which is
transformed into mechanical work by an electro-dynamic machine is
represented by—

Q, ee Q, — M — Ru
Qe M
The strength of the current is known to be found by means of the

equation—
uit M—wN

R

where N is the negative or inverse electro-motive force of the apparatus
by means of which electricity is transformed into mechanical work.

Hence
Q, wa Qo —* N
Ons mate
The above particular forms of the general equation, agree with formule

already deduced from special researches by Mr. Joule and Professor
William Thomson.

u

PROFESSOR THOMSON on ihe Distribution of Electricity. 281

January 19, 1853.— The Preswent in the Chair.

Mr. George Donatpson and Mr. James Taylor were elected members.

The discussion on Mr. Rankine’s paper “On the General Law of
the Transformation of Energy,’’ was resumed, and Professor William
Thomson and Mr. James Reid expressed their opinion on the subject.

A paper “On the Mechanical Values of Distributions of Electricity,
Magnetism, and Galvanism,’’ and another “On Transient Electric Cur-
rents,” were then read by Professor William Thomson.

XXXV.—On the Mechanical Values of Distributions of Electricity,
Magnetism, and Galvanism. By Proressor W. Tuomson.

I, Exvecrriciry at Rest.

To electrify an insulated conductor (a Leyden phial, for instance, or
any mass of metal resting on supports of glass,) in the ordinary way by
means of an electrical machine, requires the expenditure of work in turning
the machine. But inasmuch as part, obviously by far the greater part,
of the work done in this operation goes to generate heat by means of
friction, and of the small residue some, it may be a considerable propor-
tion, is wasted in generating heat (electrical light being included in the
term) by the flashes, illuminated points, and sparks, which accompany the
transmission of the electricity from the glass of the machine where it is
first excited, to the conductor which receives it, the mechanical value of
the electrification thus effected would be enormously overestimated if it
were regarded as equivalent to the work that has been spent. Notwith-
standing, the mechanical value of any electrification of a conductor has
aperfectly definite character, and may be calculated with ease in any parti-
cular case, by means of formulz: demonstrated in this communication. The
simplest case is that of a single conductor insulated at a distance from
other conductors, or with only uninsulated conducting matter in its
neighbourhood. In this case the mechanical value of the electrification
of the conductor, is equal to half the square of the quantity of electricity,
multiplied by the capacity of the conductor.*

In any case whatever, the total mechanical value of all the distribu-
tions of electricity on any number of separate insulated conductors electri-
fied with any quantities of electricity, is demonstrated by the author to
be equal to half the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the
“potential ” + in each conductor by the quantity of electricity by which

* A term introduced by the author to signify the proportion of the quantity
of electricity that the conductor would retain to that which it would communicate
to a conducting ball of unit radius, insulated at a great distance from other conduct-
ing matter, if connected with it by means of a fine wire,

+ A term first introduced by Green, which may be defined as the quantity of
mechanical work that would haye to be spent to bring a unit of electricity from
a great distance up to the surface of the conductor, supposed to retain its distribu-
tion unaltered.

Vor. III.—No. 5. 3

282 Professor THOMSON on the Distribution of Electricity.

it is charged. Lach term of this expression does not represent the inde-
pendent value of the actual distribution on the conductor to which it
corresponds, inasmuch as the “ potential’’ in each depends on the pre-
sence of the others, when they are near enough to exert any sensible
mutual influence; but independent expressions of these independent
values are readily obtained, although not in a form convenient for state-
ment here; and the author proves that their sum is equal to the total
value, as calculated by the preceding expression. When a. conductor is
discharged without other mechanically valuable effects being developed,
the heat generally, as for instance in the sparks produced when the
knob of a Leyden phial is put in communication with the outside coating,
or when a flash of lightning takes place, is equal in mechanical value
to the distribution of electricity lost. Hence, by what precedes the
amount of heat is proportional to the square of the quantities discharged,
as was first demonstrated by Joule, in a communication to the Royal
Society in 1840, although it had been announced by Sir W. Snow
Harris as an experimental result, to be simply proportional to the
quantity. Mr. Joule’s result has been verified by independent experi-
menters in France, Italy, and Germany. The author pointed out other
applications of his investigation, some of a practical kind, and others in
the Mathematical Theory of Electricity. He mentioned, that although
he had first arrived at the results in 1845, and used them in papers
published in that year, the first explicit publication of the theorem re-
garding the mechanical value of the electrification of a conductor Bppears
to be in 1847, in a paper entitled “ Ueber die ae der Kraft,”
by Helmholz.

Il. Magnetism.

Ifa piece of soft iron be allowed to approach a magnet very slowly
from a distant position, and be afterwards drawn away so rapidly that
at the instant when it reaches its primitive position, where it is left at
rest, it retains as yet sensibly unimpaired the magnetization it had
acquired at the nearest position, a certain amount of work must have
been finally expended on the motion of the iron. For during the approach,
the iron has only the magnetization due to the action of the magnet on
it in its actual position at each instant, but at each instant of the time in
which the iron is being drawn away, it has the whole magnetization due
to the action of the magnet on it when it was at the nearest. Hence it
is drawn away against more powerful forces of attraction by the magnet,
than those with which the magnet attracts it during its approach; from
which it follows that more work is spent in drawing the iron away than
had been gained in letting it approach the magnet. The sole effect due
to this excess of work is the magnetization which the iron carries away
with it; and consequently, the mechanical value of this magnetization
must be precisely equal to the mechanical value of the balance of work
spent in producing it.

PROFESSOR THOMSON on the Distribution of Electricity. 283

After a very short time has elapsed with the piece of soft iron at a great
distance from the magnet, it will have lost, as is well known, all or
nearly all the magnetization which it had acquired temporarily in the
neighbourhood of the magnet; and in this short time some energy, equi-
valent to that of the magnetization lost, must have been produced. Mr.
Joule’s experiments show that this energy consists of heat, which is gene-
rated during the demagnetization of the iron; and we infer the remark-
able conclusion, that at the end of the process, which has been described,
or of any motion of a piece of soft iron in the neighbourhood of a mag-
net, from a certain position and back to the same, the iron will be as
much the warmer than it was at the beginning, as it would have been
without any magnetic action, if it had received the heat that would be
generated by the expenditure of the same amount of work on mere
friction.

The same considerations are applicable to the magnetization of a piece
of steel, with this difference, that according to the hardness of the steel,
the magnetization which it receives in the nearest position will be more or
less permanent, and if there be any demagnetization after removal from
the magnet, it will be much less complete than in the case of soft iron,
and that heat will be necessarily generated both during the magnetization
which takes place during the gradual approach, and in the subsequent
demagnetization. Further, by putting together a number of pieces of
steel, each separately magnetized, a complete magnet will be formed, of
which the mechanical value will be equal to the sum of the mechanical
values of its parts, increased or diminished by the amount of work spent
or gained in bringing them together.

Upon the principles which have been explained, the author has investi-
gated the mechanical value of any conceivable distribution of magnetism,
in any kind of substance. The result, which cannot be well expressed,
except in mathematical language, is as follows :—

oo
SS f 7.92 dudydz + ad IS R°dzdydz
oo

where R denotes the resultant magnetic force at any internal or external
point (x, y, ~), of the intensity of magnetization at a point (a, y, 2), of
the magnet, and a a quantity depending on the nature of the substance
at this point.

The integral constituting the first term of this expression, includes the
whole of the magnetized substance, and expresses the sum of the separate
mechanical values of the distributions in all the parts obtained by infinitely
minute division along the lines of magnetization. ‘The second term
expresses the amount of work that would have to be spent to put these
parts together, were they given separately, each with the exact magnetiz-
ation that it is to have when in its place in the whole. If the substance
be porfectly free in its susceptibility for magnetization or demagnetization,

284 PROFESSOR THOMSON on the Distribution of Electricity.

a will express such a function of the inductive capacity that if a ball of
similar substance be placed in a magnetic field where the force is F, the
intensity of the magnetization induced in it will be—

ty
2a+4e
3

III. Hxecrriciry 1x Motion.

If an electric current be excited in a conductor, and then left without
electro-motive force, it retains energy to produce heat, light, and other
kinds of mechanical effect, and it lasts with diminishing, or it may be
with alternately diminishing and increasing strength: before it finally
ceases an electrical equilibrium is established, as is amply demonstrated
by the experiments of Faraday and Henry, on the spark which takes
place when a galvanic circuit is opened at any point, and by those of
Weber, Helmholz, and others on the electro-magnetic effects of varying
currents. The object of the present communication is to show how the
mechanical value of all the effects that a current in a close circuit can
produce after the electro-motive force ceases, by a determination, founded
on the known laws of electro-dynamic induction, of the mechanical value
of the energy of a current of given strength, circulating in a linear con-
ductor (a bent wire, for instance) of any form. To do this, in the first
place it may be remarked, that although a current, once instituted ina
conductor, will circulate in it with diminishing strength after the electro-
motive force ceases, just as if the electricity had inertia, and will diminish
in strength according to the same, or nearly the same, laws as a current of
water or other fluid, once set in motion and left without moving force, in
a pipe forming a closed circuit. But according to Faraday, who found
that an electric circuit consisting of a wire doubled on itself, with the
two parts close together, gives no sensible spark when suddenly opened,
compared to that given by an equal length of wire bent into a coil, it
appears that the effects of ordinary inertia either do not exist for electri-
city in motion, or are but small compared with those which, in a suitable
arrangement, are produced by the “ induction of the current upon itself.”
In the present state of science it is only these effects that can be deter-
mined by a mathematical investigation; but the effects of electrical
inertia, should it be found to exist, will be taken into account by adding
a term of determinate form to the fully determined result of the present
investigation which expresses the mechanical value of a current in a linear
conductor, as far as it depends on the induction of the current on itself.

The general principle of the investigation is this; that if two conduc-
tors, with a current sustained in each by a constant electro-motive force,
be slowly moved towards one another, and there be a certain gain of
work on the whole, by electro-dynamic force, operating during the motion,
there will be twice as much as this of work spent by the electro-motive

PROFESSOR THOMSON on Transient Electric Currents. 285

forces (for instance, twice the equivalent of chemical action in the
batteries, should the electro-motive forces be chemical,) over and above
that which they would have had to spend in the same time if the con-
ductors had been at rest merely to keep up the currents, because the
electro-dynamic induction produced by the motion will augment the
currents; while on the other hand, if the motion be such as to require
the eapenditure of work against electro-dynamic forces to produce it, there
will be twice as much work saved off the action of the electro-motive
forces by currents being diminished during the motion. Hence the aggre-
gate mechanical value of the currents in the two conductors, when brought
to rest will be increased in the one case by an amount equal to the work
done by mutual electro-dynamic forces in the motion, and will be dimi-
nished by the corresponding amount in the other case. The same con-
siderations are applicable to relative motions of two portions of the same
linear conductor (supposed perfectly flexible). Hence it is concluded
that the mechanical value of a current of given strength in a linear
conductor of any form, is determined by calculating the amount of work
against electro-dynamic forces, required to double it upon itself, while a
current of constant strength is sustained in it. The mathematical
problem thus presented leads to an expression for the required mechanical
value consisting of two factors, of which one is determined according to
the form and dimensions of the line of the conductor in any case, irrespec-
tively of its section, and the other is the square of the strength of the
eurrent. If it be found necessary to take inertia into account, it will be
necessary to add to this expression a term consisting of two factors, of
which one is directly proportional to the length of the conductor, and
inversely proportional to the area of its section, and the other is the
square of the strength of the current, to obtain the complete mechanical
value of the electrical motion.

XXXVI.—On Transient Electric Currents. By Pror. Wm. THomson.

Tue object of this communication is to determine the motion of elec-
tricity at any instant after an electrified conductor of given capacity,
is put in connection with the earth by means of a wire or other linear
conductor of given form and given resisting power. The solution is founded
on the equation of energy (corresponding precisely to “the equation of
vis-viva” in ordinary dynamics) which is sufficient for the solution of every
mechanical problem, involving only one variable element to be determined
in terms of the time. That there is only one such variable in the
present case follows from two assumptions which are made regarding the
data, namely,

(1.) That the electrical capacity of the first mentioned, or principal con-
ductor, as it will be called, is so great in comparison with that of the
second or discharger, as to allow no appreciable proportion of its original
charge to be contained in the discharger at any instant of the discharge,

286 PROFESSOR THOMSON on Transient Electric Currents.

which will imply that the strength of the current at each instant must
be sensibly uniform through the whole length of the discharger.

(2.) That there is no sensible resistance to conduction over the princi-
pal conductor, so that the amount of charge left in it at any instant of the
discharge will be distributed on it in sensibly the same way as if there
was complete electrical equilibrium.

The theorems demonstrated in the first and third parts of the previous
communication give expressions for the mechanical values of the charge
left in the principal conductor, and the electrical motion in the discharger,
at any instant, in terms of the amount of that charge, and the rate at
which it is diminishing. The sum of these two quantities, constitutes the
whole electro-statical and electro-dynamical energy inthe apparatus, andthe
diminution which it experiences in any time, must be mechanically com-
pensated by heat generated in the same time. We have thus an equa-
tion between the diminution of the electrical energy in any infinitely small
time, and the expression according to Joule’s law for the heat generated
in the same time in the discharger multiplied by the mechanical equiva-
lent of the thermal unit. The equation so obtained is in the form of a
well-known differential equation, of which the integral gives the quantity
of electricity left at any instant in the principal conductor, and conse-
quently expresses the complete solution of the problem. Precisely the
same equation and solution are applicable to the circumstances of a pen-
dulum, drawn through a small angle from the vertical, and let go ina
viscous fluid, which exercises a resistance simply proportional to the velocity
of the body moving through it.

The interpretation of the solution indicates two kinds of discharge,
presenting very remarkable distinguishing characteristics; a continued
discharge, and an oscillatory discharge; one or otherof whichwill take place
in any particular case. In the continued discharge the quantity of elec-
tricity on the principal conductor diminishes continuously, and the dis-
charging current first increases to a maximum, and then diminishes con-
tinuously until after an infinite time equilibrium is established. In the
oscillatory discharge, the principal conductor first loses its charge, becomes
charged with a less amount of the contrary kind of electricity, becomes
again discharged, and again charged with a still smaller amount of elec-
tricity, but of the same kind as the initial charge, and so on for an infi-
nite number of times, until equilibrium is established ; the strength of the
current and its direction, in the discharger, has corresponding variations ;
and the instants when the charge of either kind of electricity on the prin-
cipal conductor is at the greatest, being also those where the current in
the discharger is on the turn, follow one another at equal intervals
of time. The continued or the oscillatory discharge takes place in
any particular case, according to the electrical capacity of the principal
conductor, the electro-dynamical capacity of the discharger, and the resis-
tance of the discharger to the conduction of electricity. Thus, if the dis-
charger be given, it will effect a continued or an oscillatory discharge, ac-

PROFESSOR THOMSON on Transient Electric Currents. 287

cording as the capacity of the principal conductor exceeds or falls short of
a certain limit. If the principal conductor, and the length and substance
of the discharger, be given, the discharge will be continued or oscillatory
according as the electrodynamic capacity of the latter, depending as it
does on the form into which it is bent, falls short of, or exceeds a certain
limit. Lastly, if the principal conductor, and the length and form of the
discharger be given, the discharge will be continued or oscillatory, accord-
ing as the resistance of the discharger to conduction exceeds or falls short
of a certain limit.

It ought to be remarked that, although the electrical equilibrium is not
rigorously attained, whatever kind of discharge it may be, in any finite
time ; yet practically, in all ordinary experimental cases the discharge is
finished almost instantaneously as regards all appreciable effects; and
the great obstacle in the way of experimenting at all on the subject arises
from the difficulty of arranging the circumstances, so that the periods
of time indicated by the theory for the succession of various phenomena,
(as for instance, the alternations of the charges of the contrary electricity
on the principal conductor), may not be inappreciably small.

It is not improbable that double, triple, and quadruple flashes of light-
ning which are frequently seen on the continent of Europe, and sometimes,
though not so frequently, in this country, lasting generally long enough to
allow an observer, after his attention is drawn by the first light of the
flash, to turn his head round and see distinctly the course of the light-
ning in the sky, result from the discharge possessing the oscillatory char-
acter. A corresponding phenomenon might probably be produced arti-
ficially on a small scale, by discharging a Leyden phial or other conduc-
tor across a very small space of air, and through a linear conductor of large
electro-dynamic capacity and small resistance. Should it be impossible, on
account of the too great rapidity of the successive flashes, for the unaided
eye to distinguish them, Wheatstone’s method of a revolving mirror might
be employed, and might show the spark as several points or short lines of
light separated by dark intervals, instead of a single point of light, or of
an unbroken line of light, as it would be if the discharge were instantane-
ous, or were continuous and of appreciable duration.

The experiments by Riess and others on the magnetization of fine stee]
needles by the discharge of electrified conductors, illustrate in a very re-
markable manner the oscillatory character of the discharge in certain cir-
cumstances ; not only when, as in the case with which we are at present
occupied, the whole mechanical effect of the discharge is produced within
a single linear conductor, but when induced currents in secondary con-
ductors generate a portion of the final thermal equivalent.

The decomposition of water by electricity from an ordinary electrical
machine, in which, as has been shown by Faraday, more than the electro-
chemical equivalent of the whole electricity that passes appears in oxygen
and hydrogen rising mixed from each pole, is probably due to electrical

288 ProFessor THOMSON on Transient Electric Currents.

oscillations in the discharger consequent on the successive sparks.* Thus,
if the general law of electro-chemical decomposition be applicable to cur-
rents of such yery short duration as that of each alternation in such an
oscillatory discharge as may take place in these circumstances, there will
be decomposed altogether as much water as is electro-chemically equiva-
lent to the sum of the quantities of electricity that pass in all the succes-
sive currents in the two directions, while the quantities of oxygen and by-
drogen which appear at the two electrodes will differ by the quantities
arising from the decomposition of a quantity of water electro-chemically
equivalent to only the quantity of electricity initially contained by the
principal conductor. The mathematical results of the present communi-
cation lead to an expression for the quantity of water decomposed by an
oscillatory discharge in any case to which they are applicable, and show that
the greater the electro-dynamic capacity of the charger, the less its re-
sistance, and the less electro-statical capacity of the principal conduc-
tor, the greater will be the quantity of water decomposed. Probably the
best arrangement in practice would be one in which merely a small ball
or knob is substituted for a principal conductor fulfilling the conditions
prescribed above; but those conditions not being fulfilled, the circum-
stances would not be exactly expressed by the formule of the present
communication ; the resistance would be much diminished, and conse-
quently the whole quantity of water decomposed much increased, by sub-
stituting large platinum electrodes for the mere points used by Wollaston;
but then the oxygen and hydrogen separated during the first direct cur-
rent would adhere to the platinum plates and would be in part neutralized
by combination with the hydrogen and oxygen brought to the same plates
respectively by the succeeding reverse current; and so on through all the
alternations of the discharge, In fact, if the electrodes be too large, all
the equivalent quantities of the two gases brought successively to the same
electrode will recombine, and at the end of the discharge there will be only
oxygen at the one electrode and only hydrogen at the other, in quantities
electro-chemically equivalent to the initial charge of the principal conduc-
tor. Hence we see the necessity of using very minute electrodes, and of
making a considerable quantity of electricity pass in each discharge, so
that each successive alternation of the current may actually liberate from
the electrodes some of the gases which it draws from the water. Pro-
bably the most effective arrangement would be one in which a Leyden
phial or other body of considerable capacity is put in connection with the
machine and discharged in sparks through a powerful discharger, not only
of great electro-dynamic capacity, and of as little resistance as possible
except where the metallic communication is broken in the electrolytic
vessel, but of considerable electro-statical capacity, so that all, or as great a
* This conjecture was first, so far as I am aware, given by Helmholz, the exist-

ence of electrical oscillations in many cases of discharge having been indicated by
him as a probable conclusion from the experiments of Riess, alluded to in the text.

Mr. Napier on Water-tight Compartments in Iron Vessels. 289

portion as possible, of the oscillating electricity may remain in it and not
give rise to successive sparks across the space of air separating the dis-
charger from the source of the electricity.

The paper is concluded with applications of the results to determine
the laws, according to which a current varies at the commencement and
end of any period, during which a constant electro-motive force, such
as that of a galvanic battery, acts in a conductor of given electro-dynamic
capacity and resistance, and to show how the relation between the electro-
statical and electro-dynamic units of electrical quantity and electro-motive
force may be experimentally determined.

February 2, 1853.— The Presipent in the Chair.

Mr. Donaupson and Mr. Taylor were admitted as members.

Mr. Maleolm M‘Niel Walker, optician, was proposed a member by
Mr. James R. Napier, Mr. W. M. Buchanan, and Mr. Charles Griffin.

Papers were read by Mr. James R. N apier, “On the Bulk-heads and
Water-tight Compartments of Steam-vessels.”’

“Experiments on the Evaporation of Water in Copper, Iron, and
Lead Vessels.”

“« Experiments on the Compasses of Iron Vessels.”’

XXXVII.—Jllustrations of the Utility of Water-tight Compartments in
- Iron Vessels. By Mr. J. R. Napizr.

Tron steam-yessels are obliged by Act of Parliament to have three
water-tight compartments, which is usually done by placing one bulk-
head before the machinery and one abaft it.

It is well known that many accidents have happened to vessels, which
would in all probability have been fatal, or attended with very serious
loss, but for the timely assistance of one or other of these compartments.
' The “Fire Queen,” for instance, a small screw vessel, originally built
asa pleasure yacht for Mr. Assheton Smith, was in 1850 placed as a
goods and passenger vessel upon the Glasgow, Ardrossan, and Ayr
station. One afternoon, at low water, on leaving Ardrossan harbour, she
struck the fluke of an anchor a few feet before one of the water-tight
bulkheads; the fore compartment filled with water, and the bow sank to
the bottom. The middle and after compartments, however, kept her from
entirely sinking, as the tide rose they floated her to the shore, where the
cargo was discharged without damage, and the hole being temporarily
stopped, the vessel steamed to Glasgow next day for repairs,

The late ‘* Metropolitan,” screw steamer, also on one of her passages
from London to Glasgow, struck a sailing ship in the Bristol Channel,
The ship sank in about ten minutes afterwards, and although the fore-
most compartment of the steamer was filled with water, she proceeded on

290 Mr. Narrer on Water-tight Compartments in Iron Vessels.

her voyage and discharged her cargo at Glasgow as if nothing had
happened. The foremost compartment in this case, however, was very
small, as an additional water-tight bulkhead had been placed near the
stern, in order to make a fourth compartment. On a subsequent occasion
this steamer was herself struck amidships by a sailing vessel off the south
of England, but she did not sink till about three hours after the accident,
though the centre compartment filled immediately.

Many other instances might be mentioned; the most remarkable case
with which I am acquainted is that of the “Thistle” steamer, a vessel,
which after striking the rocks on the North of Ireland, steamed without
assistance thence to Greenock, a distance of about seventy nautical miles,
across the North Channel, with the fore-deck under water, the fore and
after compartments filled with water, and nothing but the centre or
engine compartment free. She arrived in other respects safely at her
destination.

The accompanying letter from the managers of the vessel, gives the
particulars of the accident, and the sketches taken partly from the vessel
while repairing, and partly from the original designs and from information
received from those on board during the accident, show very correctly
the appearance she presented on arriving at Greenock, and also the
injuries the bottom sustained upon the rocks.

If it were necessary to lengthen this paper many other examples might
be given, but the preceding show that water-tight bulkheads of sufficient
strength have been the means of saving both lives and property.

Care, however, must be taken in endeavouring to make strong bulk-
heads water-tight, not to weaken materially the general strength of the
ship by piercing the shell plates with too many holes in a line.

From the descriptions given at the time of the loss of H.M.S. “ Birken-
head” off the south coast of Africa, it appeared that her sudden breaking
up must have been owing to this cause.

“ Glasgow, 11th March, 1852.
“ Rosert Naprer, Esq.

“Dear Str,—You have no doubt heard of the accident to ‘ Thistle’
steamer, on the evening of Saturday last, while proceeding along the
north coast of Ireland in a fog. She struck on some sunken rocks, and
stove in part of the bottom plates both forward and aft. The fore-hold,
after-hold, and cabins filled, but fortunately the middle compartment,
forming the engine and boiler space, remained uninjured. And after
she was floated off the rock the bulkheads both before and abaft the
engine space stood firm, and she returned to Greenock by the power of
her own engines alone, without assistance from any other vessel, though
solicited by two steam vessels to allow them to assist. The fact of a
vessel of her tonnage (670 tons) steaming across the Irish Channel
safely with her holds and cabins full of water, the mid compartment of
the vessel only keeping free, is most remarkable, and a strong testimony
to the value of water-tight bulkheads.

P 2 lasqow & tondmvdercy Shean

ra

REFERENCES. >
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tle, Uhalt bu Robert dapier, Glasgotu,

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Sona) = = REFERENCES.
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= = . Head ( b) te alls thewer am Cmfiarde
OTE, FY tflew an ws C7 GgerL confartnont

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Scale lor Fig. Ld 2 7 inth = Foot
Stale lr Fig. 3 Finch = [hoot

are v ‘ Tea : ie

Mr. Napier on Evaporation of Water in Copper and Iron Vessels. 291

“ Those in the ‘Thistle’ were made particularly strong ; and we think
it must give you gratification as the builder of .the vessel, to learn it
is to that circumstance (the strength of her bulkheads) that the safety
of the vessel and the passengers on board of her is to be attributed.

‘Captain Dalzell, agent of the Glasgow underwriters, happened to be
on board the time of the accident, he was the only passenger who
ventured to return with her, and he tells us that but for her strong
substantial bulkheads, the vessel must have gone down, and been
another case similar to the ‘Orion.’ The case altogether deserves the
notice of both shipowners and shipbuilders.

“ Yours truly,
(Signed) “ THos. Cameron & Co.”

XXXVIII.— Experiments on the Evaporation of Water in Copper, Iron,
and Lead Vessels. By Mr. J. R. Napier.

In many works on the steam engine it is stated that copper, on
account of being a better conductor of heat than iron, is therefore a
better material for steam boilers.

In the last edition of the “ Encyclopzedia Brittanica,” for example,
Mr. John Scott Russell affirms that “Copper is the best of all sub-
stances for steam engine boilers in a mechanical point of view; that it
is not the best in a mercantile point of view,” he says, “is proved by
the almost universal use of wrought iron boilers. Yet it is difficult to
see why this should be the case, when we remember that copper lasts
for ever, is worth when old nearly two-thirds of its first cost, besides
being a much better conductor of heat, and so saving fuel and space. The
efficiency of a copper boiler,” he adds, “in generating steam is to that
of iron as three to two.”

Mr. Damens, in his paper on Boilers in the Appendix to Tredgold on
the Steam Engine, states, “I confidently express my opinion that copper
boilers are very far superior to iron for marine purposes.” And he gives
as one of his reasons “that copper is a better conductor of heat than
iron, and that if the advantages of encasing marine boilers with non-
conducting matter were properly considered and availed of, boilers
might be reduced in capacity, weight, and expense, to the obvious
account of the proprietor and to the increased stowage of fuel.”

Prideaux also in his rudimentary treatise on Fuel, published this
year, states “ That as the conducting power of copper is to that of iron
as 24 to 1, 4 much smaller extent of heating surface and water space
suffice.”

Mr. Scott Russell might either have removed his difficulties by a
simple experiment, or have pretty safely concluded, from the almost
universal adoption of iron boilers, even for the longest voyages, where

292 Mr. Narier on the Evaporation of Water in Copper and Iron Vessels. 3

if there really were any saving of space and fuel, this would not be the
case, that the efficiency of 3 to 2 was altogether an error.

In order to satisfy myself, and perhaps others also, whether the
quantity of water evaporated followed the law of the conducting power
of the substances in which it was evaporated, (the foregoing quota-
tions being evidently based on this supposition,) I had a number of
vessels made of copper, iron, and lead, and the time which equal quan-
tities of water took to evaporate noted, and as if the preceding statements
were true, I certainly expected to find that the evaporation would be
completed in much less time in a thin copper vessel than in a thick lead
one. I was satisfied that the mode I adopted of conducting the experi-
ments, though rude, was sufficiently accurate to get at least a rough idea
of the subject. The vessels, five inches diameter and two and a-half
inches deep, were placed over a gas-burner, first with wire gauze be-
tween, and latterly without it, and the water evaporated to dryness.
The results are as follows :—

pine ahd ite vessel Copper vessel | Iron sides = z @ Iron sides sy ,| Iron sides gl :
off. 3g inch thick. 36 inch thick. | & cop. bot. 3h | & cop. bot. 2? lead bottom *. y
Fluid. oz. Min. Sec. Min. Sec. Min. Sec. Min. See. Min. Sec.
4 | 19 aan 18 30 35 Le = a eos >
11 33 tee 30 45
53 50 ta 44 nae =e =
aa 35 40 ae Bee 36 50 Ses Secale tee
Aa oa = 53 30 54 ‘Es 55

I think from this it is evident that the conducting power of the con-
tinuous metal has little or nothing to do with the quantity of water eva-
porated in a given time, any more than the thickness of the metal has to
do with it, as the same experiments prove. And therefore the universal
adoption of iron for steam boilers, is based no doubt upon well-grounded
experience, for iron is stronger and cheaper, is equally effective in
raising steam, and lasts, when well made, frequently till the fashion has
changed, and some better arrangement taken its place.

As Peclet treats of the same subject in his “ Traité de la Chalure,”’
and arrives at similar results, I have taken the liberty of introducing
some of his remarks. He comes to the conclusion that in the limits of
thickness generally employed, the nature and thickness of the metal are
without sensible influence. ‘For example,” he says, “in the case of
steam boilers, at least for that part which does not receive the radiation
from the fire, I have not made direct experiments on this subject, but
the result of practice does not permit me to doubt that if the nature and
thickness of the metal have any influence it is very small, for it has been
long known that boilers of cast iron, of copper, and of malleable iron of
the same dimensions, but in which the metals have very various thickness,
give sensibly the same products in the same circumstances. This,’ he
adds, “is a fact upon which all engineers are agreed. We might besides

Dr. ANDERSON on the Natro-Boro- Calcite. 293

easily take account of it. When the thickness of it increases or its con-
ductibilities decrease, the temperature of the exterior surface increases.
This is a fact well known, for in cast iron boilers the exterior surface
often becomes red hot; and as to malleable iron boilers, the alteration
which they experience from the action of the heat increases with their
thickness, but as the quantity of heat which they transmit increases
with the temperature of the exterior surface, we conceive the influence of
the nature and thickness of the metal to be very feeble.”

February 16, 1853.—Dr. Georaz Watker Arnort in the Chair.

Mr. Matcourm M‘Niet Waxker was elected a member.

Mr. Donaldson and Mr. Taylor were admitted as members.

The following motion was proposed by Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
and seconded by Dr. Walter Blackie :—

“‘ That the office-bearers of the Society be requested to prepare and
sign a memorial to the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury, in support of
the application of the Town Council of Glasgow, recommending that the
Ordnance Survey of the Municipality of Glasgow be made on a scale of
ten feet to one mile, and be conducted with vigour by means of an ade-
quate supply of funds.”

The motion was supported by Mr. D. M‘Kain, Mr. Andrew Liddell,
and Mr. William Brown, and unanimously agreed to.

The following paper was read :—

XXXIX.—On the Natro-Boro-Calcite, or ‘ Tiza’ of Iquique.
By Tomas Anperson, M.D.

Tux object of the present communication is to bring under the notice
of the Society a mineral of considerable scientific and practical interest,
the former dependent on the remarkable conditions under which it is
found, the latter on the possibility of its becoming an important com-
mercial article, as a source from which boraciec acid and borax may be
obtained. The specimen which I have examined and analyzed is part of
a considerable quantity which has been imported into this country with
the view of ascertaining its mercantile value.

The mineral was originally discovered some years since, and was
described and analyzed under the name of Hydro-Boro-Calcite, by an
_ American chemist, Hayes, who found it to consist of boracic acid, lime,
and water. Since then it has been analyzed by Ulex, who detected in it
a quantity of soda which Hayes had overlooked, and altered its name
to Natro-Boro-Calcite. With the exception of these observers no
person has examined it, and it appears to have excited comparatively
little attention, for the new edition of “ Phillips’s Mineralogy,” by Brooke
and Miller, published last year, contains only a very cursory notice of it.

294 Dr. ANDERSON on the Natro-.Boro- Calcite,

The Natro-Boro-Calcite is found in the nitrate of soda beds of the
province of Tarapaca in Peru, and is known to the natives by the name
of Tiza. It occurs in rounded masses, varying from the size of a hazel-
nut to that of an egg. Externally these fragments have a dull and
dirty appearance, but when broken across they are found to be formed
of a series of interlaced needles of a brilliant white colour and silky
lustre. These erystals were extremely minute in all the pieces I have
examined, but the specimen analyzed by Hayes was composed of prisms
a quarter of an inch in length. According to Ulex, crystals of brogni-
artine are invariably present in these masses, but in all those I ex-
amined only one small crystal of that mineral was found.

The qualitative analysis indicated the presence of boracic and sul-
phuric acids, lime, soda, water, siliceous sand, and traces of chlorine.
Ulex found also traces of nitric acid, but that I examined contained
none. Ihave also been informed that iodine has been observed in it
to the extent of 1:5 per cent., but a careful examination failed to detect
it in this specimen. The method of analysis adopted was similar to
that of Ulex. The water was determined by ignition, and the result-
ing mass dissolved in hydrochloric acid; the siliceous matters separated
by filtration, and the sulphuric acid determined in the fluid. Another
portion was treated with hydrofluoric acid, so as to expel the whole of
the boracic acid in the state of fluoride of boron. The residual mass
was then treated with sulphuric acid to convert the fluorides into sul-
phates, and the excess of sulphuric acid expelled by heat, the residue
being moistened with ammonia and again ignited, so as to ensure
absolute neutrality. The mixed sulphates of lime and soda were
weighed, and the quantities of lime and sulphuric acid being determined
in the ordinary way, the difference gave the amount of soda. The
results were—

MPCALGE,« somes cpus ars ce avueceat ene eatear 25°46
ISOLAUIO AGIs. .escudos cece secenceee tees 47°25
METI G sen cece ease ee tec nace aee cane eaaeet 15:98
ro i | ae ann wes de ania BA ncaa 0°45
UlplUne UGId....cc.s..eqcuhenec sere woe 9°88
HMOLMG Lr ss.h. cose shos eeeeineeeee etree trace.
SMM fers cour ent popenec pomeenan etec sce 0:98

100-00

This analysis gives results which accord very closely with those of
Ulex, excepting that previous to his analysis he boiled the mineral with
water, so as to extract the nitrate and sulphate of soda which he had
detected in it, and which are obviously a mechanical mixture, and not
essential to the constitution of the mineral. This was not done in my
case, as the analysis was made for commercial purposes, and I was

Dr. ANDERSON on the Natro- Boro- Calcite. 295

desirous of ascertaining its exact composition as it occurs. Ulex
obtained—

AVEC E so cee tit ct oevec ses occkacatyscuteuey 26:0
Tisprirteeyee cde Onset A ee 15'7
SLL A AE oa oP od 8:8
HFOTACIG HONMMeT das he. oadee cies wc ceeds as 49°5

100:0

If the small per centage of sand and sulphuric acid, and the quantity
of lime or soda necessary to combine with the latter, be subtracted
from my analysis, the results will be found to approximate very closely
to those of Ulex, and to agree well with the formula—

NaO 2BO, + 2Ca0 8B0, + 10HO.

The conditions under which this substance is found in loose masses in
the nitrate of soda beds, give it a peculiar interest in a scientific point
of view, and render it highly desirable that we should have full details
regarding the whole circumstances of its occurrence. The district of
Tarapaca has been as yet but little explored by scientific observers, but
it would appear that it is chiefly volcanic, and it is remarkable that up
to the present moment boracie acid has never been found abundantly
except in volcanic districts. The commercial interest is equally great,
for should the mineral prove abundant it will form an important source of
borax, of which the supplies at the present time are by no means great.
Nothing can be simpler than to obtain borax from the Natro-Boro-Calcite ;
it suffices to boil the mineral in powder with the proper proportion of car-
bonate of soda, filter and evaporate, when the borax is obtained in
erystals and in a state of great purity. One hundred parts of the sub-
stance treated in this way yield about 130 of borax, and as the process
could be performed at a cost little, if at ail greater, than that incurred
in the purification of the tincal or crude borax of Thibet, it is easy to
see that it may become an article of considerable commercial value. Its
importance will, however, greatly depend on the quantity in which it
can be obtained, but on this point we have at present but little definite
information. I learn from the importers that the expense of collection
is considerable, and the quantity by no means large; but it would appear
that no very systematic attempts have been made to obtain it in quantity,
so that it may possibly be more abundant than it at present seems, and
a more extended examination might lead to the discovery of larger
deposits. It is possible even that it may occur not merely in masses, but
disseminated in minute crystals through the soil, and if this were the
case borax might be obtained in larger quantity by lixiviating with car-
bonate of soda the residue of the extraction of nitrate of soda. It is also
worthy of inquiry whether other compounds of boracic acid and even borax
itself may not be found in the same district.

296 Proceedings of the Philosophical Society.

The importance of such an inquiry I believe to be considerable, for
borax is employed to a considerable extent in various processes in the
arts, and its uses would probably be much extended if its supply increased,
and price diminished, so that there might be some inducement to experi-
menting with it, but until this is the case it is not likely that its employ-
ment will be much extended.

Mr. Cockey, the Librarian, read the following recommendation of the
Council, met as the Library Committee, and which received the approval
of the Society :—

“The Library Committee has agreed to the following rules :—During
the Session of the Society, new books shall not be given out till they
have been laid upon the table at the first meeting after they have been
received into the Library; and during the summer months, new books
shall lie on the table for at least a fortnight before being given out. All
the Periodicals shall lie on the table until the next number of each be
received, provided the period does not exceed a month. Rare and yalu-
able books to be divided into two classes; one class to be marked, ‘ Not
to be given out ;’ and the other to be given out only on special applica-
tion in writing to the Library Committee.”

Mr. Cockey laid on the table a copy of Dr. Strang’s collected Statistical
Publications, presented to the Society by the author. ‘Thanks voted.

March 2, 1853.—The Presment in the Chair.

Mr. Matcoum M‘Nict Waker was admitted a member.

The following were proposed as members :—Mr. David Kirkaldy, and
Mr. William Rigby.

A letter addressed to Mr. Hastie was read, acknowledging, in name
of Mr. Wilson, receipt of Society’s memorial to the Lords Commissioners
of Her Majesty’s Treasury in regard to the maps of the Ordnance Survey
for the West of Scotland.

Mr. Liddell moved that the Council be authorised to appoint a deputa-
tion to proceed to Hull to attend the meeting of the British Association
this year, and invite that body to visit Glasgow in 1854. Dr. G. Walker
Arnott seconded the motion, which was agreed to.

Thomas Anderson, Esq., M.D., Professor of Chemistry inthe Univer-
sity of Glasgow, read a paper “On the Changes in the Properties of
Chemical Elements and the General Phenomena of Allotropy.”’

March 16, 1853.—The Presment in the Chair.

Mr. Wittram Riesy and Mr. David Kirkaldy were elected members
of the Society.

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society. 297

Mr. Henderson was proposed as a member.

Mr. Liddell moved the following resolutions : —

** First—A memorial to the Lords of the Treasury, praying that they
give peremptory instructions to the Commissioners of Patents to transmit
transcripts of Specifications for Patent Inventions to the Chancery Office,
Edinburgh, in ccnformity with Act of Parliament, 1852. That the Lords
of the Treasury would not sanction an Act proposed to be brought into
Parliament by said Commissioners, for repealing so much of the Act of
1852 as provides for a copy of each Specification being sent to Edinburgh;
but rather that duplicate copies be sent to Glasgow and other large cities
and towns of the empire ; and further, that the surplus fund arising from
the charges for Patents be applied to that purpose.

“ Second—An Address to Prince Albert, approving of the suggestions
and propositions which His Royal Highness has made of additional
Libraries and Museum for the reception of Transcripts of all Patent
Inventions of this and other countries, from the earliest times till the
present day, to be arranged under heads, with indices.

“ Third—A Memorial to the Commissioners of Patents, praying the
Honourable Board to aid Prince Albert in the highly national work sug-
gested by him, as the surplus funds arising from charges for Patents can-
not be more beneficially or legitimately applied than in doing this, and in
transmitting to the large cities and towns duplicates of the proposed
Library and Museum.”

The resolutions were seconded by Mr. William Murray, supported by
Mr. Rankine, Mr. Jaffrey, Mr. John J. oseph Griffin, and Dr. Francis
Thomson, and unanimously approved of.

The President announced that in compliance with the request of the
Council, Dr. Anderson, Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow, had consented to become editor of the printed Proceedings of
the Society.

Mr. Hart exhibited a piece of limestone from Upper Canada, with an
iron spear-head imbedded in it. The specimen was obtained from a lime
quarry in the river Thames, forty miles above London, and consisted of a
mass of fossil shells.

A letter from Mr. Hastie was read, acknowledging receipt of the
Society’s Memorial to the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury, in favour of
laying down the Ordnance Survey of the city of Glasgow, on the scale of
ten feet to one mile, and stating that he will transmit it to the proper
authorities with his cordial recommendation,

Dr. Penny gave an account of the method of preserving meats for long
voyages, as practised in Messrs. Ritchie and M‘Call’s establishment,
London, showing the scientific principles involved in the process, and
illustrating the description of numerous specimens obtained from Messrs.
Ritchie and M‘Call.

Vo. III.—No, 5. 4

298 Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina.

March 30, 1853.—The Presipent in the Chair.

Mr. Davm KirKatpy was admitted a member.

Mr. William Henderson was elected a member.

Mr. Napier exhibited specimens of Rock Salt from Carrickfergus.

Mr. Bryce briefly described the geological structure of the district in
which the salt occurs, it being obtained from the upper beds of the new
red sandstone.

Mr. Paul Cameron read a paper “On the Variation of the Compass,
and the best means of Rectifying it;” and “ On the best means of Con-
structing Iron Ships, with a view to a more Correct Indication of the
Compass.”

April 13, 1853.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Mr. Witt1am Henperson was admitted a member.
Professor Allen Thomson described the ‘‘ Anatomical Relations of the
Limbs of Vertebrate Animals to each other and to the Skeleton.”

April 27, 1853.—Mr. Harvey in the Chair.
Mr. Crum read the following paper :—

XL.—On the Acetates and other Compounds of Alumina.
By Watrer Crom, F.R.S.

Tue salt from which most of the products described in the present
memoir were produced, is the tersulphate of alumina, now manufactured
in large quantity in the north of England, under the name of concentrated
alum. It is formed by the direct action of sulphuric acid upon clay, and,
after a eertain purification, is evaporated and sold in cakes,

The impurity which the commercial article contains in largest quantity
is potash alum. To separate that substance, advantage was taken of
its insolubility in a saturated solution of the tersulphate. The cake-
alum was dissolved in a quantity of boiling water insufficient for its
entire solution in the cold. On cooling, the excess of sulphate of alu-
mina, mixed with almost the whole of the potash alum, deposited, and
was separated by filtration through calico. The filtered solution was
then evaporated and cooled, when the tersulphate was found to crystal-
lize in granular spongy masses. It was then drained and separated as
much as possible from the mother liquor by strong pressure between
numerous folds of calico. The product was re-dissolved in boiling water,
and again crystallized and pressed.

A salt was thus obtained, having little more than traces of the arseni-

Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina. 299

ous acid and the potash of the original material, together with a little
iron and chloride of sodium. It has the formula

Al,0;, 350; + 18HO

first observed in 1825 by Boussingault in the hair-like substance found
among the black schistus of the Andes of Columbia, near Bogota. He
afterwards found the same substance in the volcano of Pasto, (north of
Quito,) where it is formed by the action of the sulphurous vapours upon
the schistus. It exists there in such quantities as to have enabled the
Pastusos to become the manufacturers of chemical products for the whole
country. They dissolve the alum in water, evaporate it to dryness, and form
it into spherical masses like camphor, which are altogether free from iron.

The same substance is formed in this neighbourhood from a schistus
containing pyrites, in which case it is mixed or combined with sulphate of
iron.

The quantity of cake-alum now produced annually at New-
castle and at Sowerby-bridge, according to statistics
furnished me by Mr. Wilson of Hurlet, is .............-ceeeee 1,500 tons.
And of crystallized alum (chiefly ammoniacal) in England, 13,200 “
Do. do. do. in Scotland, 4,200 “

Total in Great Britain, ......... 18,900 tons.

It is estimated by Mr. Wilson that about one-fourth of this quantity is
consumed by calico printers, and converted more or less completely into
acetate of alumina. There is no other example of a substance so im-
portant and so extensively employed in the arts, as acetate of alumina,
having been so little attended to by chemists.

Insotuste Acrrates or ALUMINA.

I. Insoluble Binacetate of Alumina, 5 Hydrate. An acetate of alumina
was produced by mixing together strong solutions of tersulphate of
alumina (purified as already described) and of acetate of lead. They
were poured slowly together into a vessel surrounded with cold water,
and much agitated to reduce the temperature of the mixture. To
the filtrate was added sulphide of hydrogen, to precipitate the lead of
the sulphate of lead which remained in solution; and acetate of baryta
to throw down its sulphuric acid.

The strongest solution formed in this way contained about 5 per cent.
of alumina, (from about 6 Ibs. acetate of lead in an imperial gallon of the
mixture.)

When such a solution (or one containing even 4 per cent. of alumina)
is set aside and left at rest at a temperature of 60° or 70° Fahr.,"it begins
after four or five days (without losing much of its transparency) to deposit
upon the vessel a crust, which continues for some time to increase in

300 Mr. Crum on the Acetates ef Alumina.

thickness. When the liquid is poured off, and the crust allowed to dry,
it separates readily from the vessel in hard plates like porcelain. If the
solution be not left strictly at rest, it becomes turbid after some days,
and the crust is produced in a more friable state. In cold weather the
solution remains unaltered for a much longer time. Heated to redness,
the salt becomes black from the decomposition of part of its acetic acid,
and in this state it very slightly affects the colour of moistened litmus
paper, showing that it retains but little alkali. Dissolved in nitric acid
and tested with nitrate of silver, it showed a trace of chlorine, and it
contained also a little iron. It was freed from these impurities by
processes to be afterwards detailed.

To ascertain the quantity of alumina in one of these salts, it is enough
to moisten it with rectified and concentrated sulphuric acid in a platinum
crucible, to evaporate the excess of acid over a spirit lamp, and then to
subject it to a white heat half-an-hour in a furnace. The sulphuric
acid expels acetic acid, and thereby secures the absence of charcoal. It
facilitates the disengagement of water; and the powder, which, without
it, becomes so pulverulent by calcination as to be with difficulty* pre-
vented from escaping, is thereby rendered coherent.

Attempts were first made to determine the acetic acid by the alka-
limeter, taking potash alum of known purity for a standard, and for a
comparison of results. The substance being kept in water at a boiling
heat during the addition of the alkali, (soda,) and by a careful compari-
son of the shades of the litmus paper, appeared at first to redden that
test, so long as any portion of the salt remained undecomposed. But it
was found, after some practice, that at least 5 per cent. of the insoluble
salt remained untouched by the alkali after all trace of acid reaction had
disappeared in the process, and that within a range of 3 or 4 per cent.
the method was not to be depended upon. It gave valuable assistance,
however, in this investigation, in the testing of solutions of alumina, with
which it gave results much more accurate than with the insoluble salts.

33°24 grains of the substance, dried first in the air, then pulverized
and dried further in a stove twenty hours at 100° Fahr., were moistened
with 80 grains of rectified sulphuric acid in a platinum crucible, and eal-
cined as above. There remained 8-64 grains. When this residue was
treated with water and filtered, the solution showed no trace of sulphuric
acid, and was alumina nearly pure = 25°99 per cent. of the original
substance.

In another experiment, 32°64 grains, dried four hours in the stove,
and treated as above, left 8-4 grains of alumina — 25°74 per cent. The
mean is 25°86 per cent. of alumina.

Burned with oxide of copper, 2°985 grains produced 5-526 cub. inches
of dry carbonic acid = 2-612 grains, and corresponding to 50°69 per cent.
of acetic acid. In another experiment 1'685 grains indicated 50°58 of
acctic acid. The mean is 50°63. It was assumed that the remaining
23°51 per cent. was water. ‘The salt was therefore composed of—

Mr. CruM on the Acetates of Alumina. 301

MCCA ALIDy vciavace sce sdesdansanihe 50°63

PANG ah aGiaies fa woes wes ates 25°86

WW rater tascncstesrlccdao. cess cee. Sees 23°51

i 100-00

The formula, Al,O;, 2A + 5HO, requires—

Acetiovaardrs, sec oeadi lvoe. 51°41

PRPOMENG, jrcchukceadks ad iee cDitdite 25°91

Waters! Js. dsmuatiat. den aliaiive ree 22°68

100-00

II. Insoluble Binacetate of Alumina, 2 Hydrate. If heat be applied
to the strong solution of acetate of alumina, described in the previous
page, it speedily becomes turbid, and deposits a heavy white powder,
which falls readily to the bottom of the vessel. In a couple of days,
at 100° Fahr., a considerable quantity of this powder is deposited ;
but in two or three hours at 160°, and in much shorter time at boiling
heat, the whole of the salt is thrown down, and nothing remains in the
liquid but acetic acid, excepting a trace of alumina, just distinguishable
by carbonate of soda.

The precipitate has a crystalline shining appearance in the moist state,
and seems, under the microscope, to consist of small oval particles of uniform
size. It falls into fine powder in drying, after which, when mixed with
water, it remains for a long time in suspension. Boiling water does not
free it from chloride of sodium, of which it contains about 0:1 per cent.

To remove that impurity, the substance is to be dissolved with the
assistance of heat in two equivalents of rectified sulphuric acid, diluted
with three times its weight of water. The solution is decomposed by
subacetate of lead—

A105, 2A 4+ 280, + 2PbO, A
=Al,0;, 3A + 2(PbO, 8O;)

and the filtrate freed from lead and sulphuric acid as before. When heat
is now applied to this solution, a precipitate is obtained, in which no
trace of alkali or of chlorine can be detected.

A portion of the substance obtained at a boiling heat, and dried 24 hours
at 100° Fahr., yielded 29°83 per cent. of alumina. Another portion dried
48 hours gave 30°54 per cent. Burned with oxide of copper, 1697 grains
of the salt, dried at 100° Fahr., indicated 59°87 per cent. of acetic acid.
In another experiment 1:605 grains indicated 58°88 per cent. The
mean is 59°37. The substance is, therefore, composed of —

ACONG BOG, oie sche sseccthevereese. 59°37
ANOMIN GN /cves> coreicichtes spark tees 80°18
MALT: cttolocs svectneatenaebt ace 10-45

302 Mr, CruM on the Acetates of Alumina.

The formula, Al,0;, 2A +- 2HO, requires—

AGOUUG SOldseesecastaeach cde cecs cs: 59°51
Aluminiarenssee bates. saceoedue --29°99
WV Vin teh eee ieee chicos « eieicinksislsn'e 28 10:50

100-00

Numerous specimens of this salt were formed by precipitation from solu-
tions of various strengths, at various temperatures below boiling water, and
analyzed for acetic acid and alumina. They generally agreed in the pro-
portions of acid and base, but varied in the absolute quantity; indi-
cating a range of from 3 to 5 equivalents in the proportions of water. The
two salts which have been described as deposited, one at 60° and the
other at a boiling heat, gave results nearly uniform.

When heat is applied to a solution of teracetate of alumina weaker
than that which has been described; to one, for example, containing 3
per cent. of alumina, it also yields the insoluble binacetate, but, in that
case, not acetic acid alone, but a considerable quantity of acetate of
alumina remains in the solution. Solutions containing 2 per cent. of
alumina are precipitated by boiling, if they have been kept some weeks,
but not if recently prepared. It appears from these experiments, that
the presence of free acetic acid favours, in some way, the production of
the insoluble binacetate of alumina from a solution of teracetate. It was
found, accordingly, that a solution of teracetate containing # per cent.
of alumina, and which could not therefore be precipitated by boiling,
acquired that property when made to contain acetie acid equal to a solu-
tion of teracetate, with 4 per cent. of alumina.

In whichever way deposited, this substance is exceedingly insoluble in
water, either cold or hot, and it is equally insoluble in acetic acid. When
one part of itis digested for an hour and a-half in two hundred parts of
boiling water, it dissolves; and the solution consists partly of soluble
binacetate of alumina, and partly of acetic acid and the bihydrate of
alumina to be afterwards described.

It dissolves in two equivalents of sulphuric acid, or of hydrochloric, or
nitric acid, forming bisalts of alumina, and liberating the two atoms of
acetic acid. It also dissolves ina strong solution of tersulphate of
alumina, with the assistance of heat, forming bisulphate of alumina and
free acetic acid.

2(A1,0;, 3805) -+ AlO,, 2A = 3(Al,03, 2S0,) + 2A

The mixture does not precipitate on the addition of water like the
bisulphate alone, and must therefore be changed by water into tersul-
phate and binacetate of alumina.

2(Al,0;, 380,) + Al,05, 2A
A solution of potash alum dissolved this binacetate in the same cir-
cumstances, but on the heat being continued for some time, a precipitate

Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina. 303

was formed anew, which appeared from a qualitative analysis to be the
monosulphate of alumina and potash,

KO,SO; + 3(Al,0,, SO5)

the substance which is formed when hydrate of alumina is boiled with
alum. The same substance is found native, under the name of alum-
stone, at La Tolfa, the seat of the celebrated manufacture of Roman
alum, near Civita Vecchia; and was ascertained, by Collet Descotils, to
be formed of—

KO, SO; + 3(A,0,, SO;) + 9HO

SotueLte Acetates oF ALUMINA.

Soluble Binacetate of Alumina. Al,0s, 2A + 4HO. Notwithstanding
the tendency of a concentrated solution of the ter- acetate of alumina
to deposit the insoluble salt, it may be evaporated, with certain precau-
tions, to a dry substance soluble in water. For this purpose it must be
spread very thin over sheets of glass, or of porcelain, exposed to a heat
not exceeding 100° Fahr., and, as it runs together into drops, like water
upon an oiled surface, it must be constantly rubbed with a thin platinum
or silver knife. If these precautions are neglected, a mixture is obtained
of the insoluble with a soluble acetate.

The soluble salt is thus produced in scales, having the appearance of
gum when moistened, and leaving no residue when dissolved in water.

For analysis it was reduced to powder, and dried in the air twenty-four
hours, at the temperature of 100° Fahr. The alkalimetric method was first
employed, and it indicated 54:8 per cent. of acetic acid; but the more
accurate method, by oxide of copper, gave 55-82 per cent. of acid. In
experiments for the alumina 26-4 per cent. was obtained. The composi-
tion of the substance was thus—

AN COGIE ACTOS asrctacics sits cactasas'e =o tes 55°82
PALLY sie ae hee eres ohereerens sees 26°40
AVALON cy. Wey unraphun oasebe yeaset svete 17°78

100-00

But the solution from which this subtance was obtained was a terace-
tate, and contained for the same quantity of alumina,

COLIC AGIs ay'nusnmn at oars eae then ee 78°58

It lost, therefore, during gentle evaporation, nearly one-third of its acetic
acid, and was reduced almost to a binacetate, the formula of which—

Al,O,, 2A + 4HO—requires—

304 Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina.

Acetic acid,..... por tideesedhs ve 23 52°38
Alumina, ......... Waseca steak oe 26°40
Wate isotc veh abiveivss ectesivat 18-49

97°27

The excess of acetic acid = 3:44 per cent. over the proportions. of a bin-
acetate, was presumed to be free acid adhering to the product. To
remove that excess, a portion of it was heated in a water bath, and after-
wards treated with water. A considerable quantity of insoluble matter
was left, and the solution on being evaporated to dryness, at a gentle
heat, produced a soluble acetate, of which 100 parts contained—

OL acetic acid, ............ 49°55
and of alumina, ........... 82°47

corresponding, therefore, in composition, to a sesquiacetate; but it can
only be looked upon as an accidental mixture, for every fresh portion
that was produced in a similar way gave a different result—the amount
of acid depending upon the extent and duration of the heat.

The binacetate of alumina may be produced at once in solution; and
as it is the most suitable combination from which to form the dry soluble
binacetate, as well as other bodies, I shall describe particularly the
manner of obtaining it. Dissolve 24 parts of precipitated binacetate of
alumina in 15 of rectified sulphuric acid, and 40 of water. Dilute
further with 80 parts of water, and add carbonate of lead (about 44
parts) to precipitate the sulphuric acid.

Al,05, 2 A + 280, + 2(PbO, CO,)
= Al,0,;, 2A + 2(PbO, 80,) + 200,

Filter the solution, and pass sulphide of hydrogen through it until it
ceases to precipitate lead, and then add acetate of baryta, so long as it
is precipitated by the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of lead which had
remained in solution. When in this state, if the mixture be well agitated
for half an hour in an open vessel, the excess of sulphide of hydrogen will
be removed, and it may be filtered without the danger of the filtrate
becoming afterwards milky, from the effects of the sulphide.

A solution of binacetate of alumina is thus obtained, containing about
5 per cent. of alumina, and a minute portion of iron; the last traces of
which it was, for along time, difficult to remove from these acetates.
Tron is found in all the solutions, and in both of the insoluble binace-
tates. Traces of it exist even in the binacetate which has been freed,
by a second precipitation, from all its other impurities. It was at last
observed that a solution of binacetate of alumina, at 5 per cent., which
is strong enough to form, after some time, a crust of the binacetate,
deposited its iron along with the first portions of the crust, and left the
solution altogether free from that impurity. The teracetate of alumina

Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina. 305

does not deposit its iron in like circumstances; a difference which may
be accounted for from the fact that the binacetate of the sesquioxide of
iron is more readily decomposed than the teracetate of that base.

Spread very thinly over a sheet of glass, it evaporates at 60° or at
100° Fahr., without running into large drops so much as the teracetate,
and without having an equal tendency to produce the insoluble binacetate.
The scales into which it forms in drying are transparent and soluble in
water.

Burned with oxide of copper for acetic acid, and calcined for alumina,
100 parts were found to contain—

PCAC BOIG> oc nacendend<vesiass 55°21
ZAIN s aiae sone detesicis a Aine 81°31

But the alkalimeter had shown, that in the solution the same quantity of
alumina had been combined with—

A CORE. ACIO sia -atod¥en Gels. 59°13

More than 4 per cent. therefore had been lost by evaporation at 100°
Fahr.

After some other attempts, I was obliged to conclude that the only
way to obtain the dry soluble binacetate in something like atomic pro-
portions, was the unsatisfactory one of evaporating in the air a solution
of binacetate, mixed with such a proportion of acetic acid or of teracetate
as is found by trial to produce it.

On the question, as to which of the soluble acetates of alumina
can be considered as a definite compound, it has already been stated of
the teracetate, that when evaporated rapidly enough, and at a heat just
low enough to prevent the formation of the insoluble salt, it leaves a pro-
duct whose composition is nearly that of a binacetate. It may be added,
that the solution of teracetate gives off acetic acid as freely in the cold,
as if a third part of its acid were free. On making an experiment with
two solutions of acetate of lead—one of which was decomposed by sul-
phuric acid, and the other (which was three times as strong) by tersul-
phate of alumina—it was found that the aluminous solution gave a smell
of acetic acid considerably stronger than that in which the acid was
known to be free. It may be doubted, then, whether there exists a com-
bination of acetic acid with alumina corresponding to the tersulphate of
alumina. The solution of binacetate has no smell of acetic acid at ordi-
nary temperatures.

BiaypRate or ALUMINA SOLUBLE IN WATER.
Al,O; + 2H0.
Hydrate from the soluble Binacetate.—By the continued action of heat on

a weak solution of binacetate of alumina, a permanent separation of the
constituents of the salt takes place, although no acid escapes, and no

306 Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina.

alumina is precipitated. The properties of the alumina are at the same
time materially changed.

A solution of binacetate of alumina, diluted so as to contain not more
than 1 part of alumina in 200 of water, was placed in a close vessel which
was immersed to the neck in boiling water, and kept in that state day
and night for ten days. It had then nearly lost the astringent taste of
alum, and acquired the taste of acetic acid. The liquid was now placed
in a wide and shallow vessel, where it was kept at a uniform depth of a
quarter of an inch; and on heat being applied to make it boil briskly
over the whole surface, the acetic acid was driven off in about an hour
and a-half, so as to be no longer sensible to litmus paper. The liquid in
this operation should not contain more than 1 part of alumina in 400 of
water, and the loss from evaporation is supplicd by continual additions
of water. ;

The solution thus obtained is nearly as transparent and limpid as
before the loss of its acid. By longer boiling, and particularly by concen-
tration, it becomes more and more gummy; a quality of which it is
partially deprived by acetic acid. It is altogether tasteless.

When one grain of sulphuric acid (SO;) in 1000 grains of water, is
mixed with 8000 grains of the solution, containing 20 grains of alumina,
the whole is converted into a solid transparent jelly. By pressure in a
bag the liquid part of this jelly is readily separated from the solid; whose
volume in the compressed state, is not more than ,/, or -\; of the volume
of the jelly. On examination it was found that the solid part of the
coagulum contained almost the whole of the sulphuric acid which had
produced it—about one equivalent of sulphuric acid to fifteen of alumina.

One atom of citric acid (tribasic) coagulates as powerfully as three
atoms of sulphuric acid; and tartaric acid (bibasic) as much as two.
Two atoms of oxalic acid are required to produce the same effect as one
of sulphuric acid. Of muriatic and nitric acids not less than 300
equivalents must be employed to produce an effect equal to that of one
equivalent of sulphuric acid.

Of the other acids which have been tried, the chromic, molybdic,
racemic, suberic, salicylic, benzoic, gallic, lactic, cinnamic, butyric, valer-
ianic, carbazotic, camphoric, uric, meconic, comenic and hemipinic acids
all coagulate the solution ; but their exact power has not been ascertained.

The acetic, formic, boracic, arsenious, and cyanuric acids do not
coagulate, at least when moderately concentrated; and, of the opium
acids, for a supply of which I am indebted to Professor Anderson, the
pyromeconic and opianic acils also do not coagulate.

One grain of potash in 1000 grains of water coagulates 9000 grains of
the solution—a proportion which gives about 1 equivalent of potash to
20 of alumina. The mixture has a slight alkaline reaction. Soda,
ammonia, and lime have an equally powerful effect. The coagulum they
produce is partially re-dissolved when the alkali is saturated by acetic or
by muriatie acid. The salts which are thus formed render the solution
somewhat oily.

Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina, 307

A boiling solution of potash or soda dissolves the coagalum, and at
the same time changes it into the ordinary alumina, which is thrown
down in the state of terhydrate when the alkali is saturated by an
acid.

Oil of vitriol also dissolves the solid part of the coagulum, and the
same substance dried; especially when assisted by heat. Strong muri-
atic acid, at a boiling heat, does the same, though with greater difficulty ;
and the products are the ordinary sulphate and muriate of alumina.

Large quantities of the acetic salts may be added before they coagu-
late the aluminous solution.* When the solid part of the coagulum
produced by a strong solution of acetate of soda was afterwards freed
from that salt by pressure, it re-dissolved in pure water, and the solu-
tion was again coagulated by a fresh addition of the salt. An experi-
ment with acetate of lime gave the same result.

The nitrates and chlorides coagulate also with great difficulty.

Solutions of sulphate of soda, magnesia, and lime coagulate as readily
as a liquid containing the same quantity of sulphuric acid in the free
state. On examining one of these mixtures, the sulphuric acid was found
in the solid part of the coagulum, as before; and the mixture remained
neutral.

A small spoonful taken into the mouth becomes immediately solid from
the effect of the saliva.

The digested solution of alumina which has not been deprived of its
acetic acid by boiling, requires about twice as much sulphuric acid to
coagulate it as does the boiled solution.

One of the most characteristic properties of the digested and altered
acetate of alumina is its loss of the power of acting asa mordant. The
ordinary acetate, as is well known, forms a yellow opaque precipitate with
decoction of quercitron. ‘That which has been thoroughly digested is
merely coagulated by that decoction,—the colour of which is but little
_ altered, and the coagulum is translucent. The same effect is produced
with decoctions of logwood, brazil-wood, &c.

A quantity of the solution of hydrate of alumina was evaporated to
dryness at the heat of boiling water. After being pulverised and again
submitted to the same heat, it was moistened with sulphuric acid as
before described, and heated to whiteness. It lost 25:67 per cent. of its
weight. '

Hydrate from the Insoluble Binacetate.—It has been already mentioned
that when the precipitated binacetate is kept for an hour or two in
200 parts of boiling water, it is changed into the soluble binacetate.
It must be constantly agitated during that time. The substance so pro-
duced may be converted, like the original solution into the peculiar
bibydrate. Thirty to thirty-six hours digestion is sufficient to complete

* Hence, in preparing the binacetate of alumina which is to be used in obtaining the

bihydrate, it is better to employ an excess of acetate of baryta, than to leave in the
solution the slightest trace of sulphuric acid.

308 Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina.

the change, for after that time the solution has no longer any taste of
alum, and the power of coagulating with acids does not increase.

6:93 grs. of this hydrate, which had been dried at a steam heat, were
moistened with sulphuric acid, which was then gradually expelled by a
spirit-lamp, and the residue, when kept forty minutes at a white heat,
left 5:20 grs. of alumina, indicating 24°97 per cent. of water. The
mean of this and the previous experiment gives for the composition of the
hydrate—

POUR t es as kee esp sisavi eva iqvartacceseraassaaees 74:68
NRE CR tre cicspccaere tec tcsisadeeneeetecea sane 25°32
100-00

A bibydrate requires—
Ataninad 06. Cae OR. Re Ea, Ae 74:06
VERA BESS ROM Ae ee as os ot 25°94
100-00

ACETATES OF SESQUIOXIDE oF IRON.

The analogy between the salts of alumina and those of the red oxide
of iron, induced me to inquire whether there might not exist allotropic
acetates of iron, corresponding with those of alumina.

A solution of sulphate of iron, to which was added half an equivalent
of sulphuric acid, was acted upon by strong nitric acid, and the tersul-
phate so obtained was converted into the teracetate by decomposition
with neutral acetate of lead. A binacetate was also produced by decom-
posing with a mixture of acetate and carbonate of lead. Both solutions
had the same intense red colour which is peculiar to the peracetate of
iron,

The teracetate of iron, whether concentrated or weak, is little liable to
decomposition in the cold. Boiling causes the deposition of a hydrated
peroxide, but the decomposition is only partial, and the hydrate difficult
to collect.

The binacetate soon begins to let fall an oxide in the cold; and at the
heat of boiling water a complete separation takes place. A rich deep-
coloured hydrate goes readily down, and the whole of the acetie acid
remains in the liquid, which is perfectly colourless. No allotropic acetates
of iron, corresponding to those of alumina, appear therefore to exist.

Breasic SULPHATE oF ALUMINA.
2A1,0;, SO; + 10HO.

It is well known that when teracetate of alumina is boiled along
with sulphate of potash, a gelatinous precipitate is formed, which re-
dissolves when the solution becomes cold. M. Keechlin-Schouch* found
it to be a subsulphate of alumina,

* Sur le Mordant Rouge, &c. Bulletin de la Societé Industrielle de Mulhausen
J. 299.

.

Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina. 309

When alum, dissolved in six times its weight of water, was treated
with three equivalents of acetate of lead—enough to decompose its
tersulphate of alumina, but not the sulphate of potash, a large propor-
tion (74 per cent.) of the sulphate of potash was found to be carried
down by the sulphate of lead formed in the process. To a solution so
prepared, the loss was restored by an addition of sulphate of potash, and
a mixture formed of—

KO, SO, together with Al,O3, 3A

This solution, diluted so as to contain about 0°3 per cent. of alumina,
(from 5 oz, of alum per gallon,) was exposed to heat. At about 90° Fahr.,
the gelatinous precipitate began to form; and after two hours boiling, when
scarcely a trace of alumina remained in solution, it was thrown upon a
filter of calico, which was kept hot within a steam pan until the filtrate
passed through. The collected precipitate was pressed between numerous
folds of bleached calico, and brought gradually to the state of a stiff clay
occupying not more than ; of the volume of the original solution. It
was then divided into portions which could conveniently be shaken
and thoroughly mixed in bottles with quantities of water equal in all to
the original solution. The mixture was filtered as before, at nearly a
boiling heat, and pressed between folds of calico; and another repetition
having been made of the same process, the precipitate was deprived of
every admixture of soluble matter.

A portion being dissolved in nitric acid and filtered, gave an abun-
dant precipitate with nitrate of baryta. Exposed to a white
heat, and the residue pulverized and boiled in water, the filtered
liquor gave no longer a precipitate with nitrate of baryta, and no
indication, or a very doubtful one, of alkali to litmus paper; proving
that the sulphuric acid indicated by the first test had been combined,
not with potash, but with alumina. Mixed with sulphuric acid the
substance gave no smell of acetic acid, and when burned with oxide of
copper it yielded no more carbonic acid than could readily be accounted
for by the few fibres of cotton wool that were to be distinguished in the
liquid. The substance dried into a hard, whitish, semi-transparent
matter, easily pulverized.

For analysis 33-93 grains dried at 100° Fahr. were dissolved in muriatic
acid, and the solution was exactly decomposed at a boiling heat by 15:25
grains of chloride of barium.* ‘This indicates 5'867 grains, or 17-29 per

* The heat in this case greatly facilitates the arrival at the nearest point of
decomposition, particularly by enabling the filter to furnish, immediately, clear
portions, from time to time, for testing.

Where nitrate of baryta is employed for decomposing a sulphate, it was
observed by Mitscherlich that a quantity of the nitrate was taken down unaltered
by the sulphate of baryta. This source of error, which amounts to not less than
5 per cent. of the quantity of sulphuric acid when the experiment is performed in
the cold, is entirely obviated at a boiling heat.

Boiling, however, does not render the decomposition of a sulphuric’salt by a

310 Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina.

cent. of sulphuric acid. 19-715 grains mixed with 16 grains sulphuric acid
in a platinum crucible were first heated with a spirit lamp, and then
exposed to a white heat. It left 8-51 grains = 43°16 per cent. of alumina.
Another experiment gave 42°94 per cent. The mean is 43°05. The
composition of the substance is therefore—

Sulphuric acid, .......... 17:29 SOs icsnseoitentt 17°18
Alama, © ash gs. obeyase 43°05 DATOS csedeare 44°16
Whatericacitacen tae sls oe 39°66 AtlOHO:H...ce 38°66

100:00 100-00

When the solution from alum and sugar of lead was heated before the
restoration of its sulphate of potash, a very slight precipitate was formed.
The addition of that salt completed the precipitation, but the substance
thrown down was more transparent, and dried into a brownish, horny-
looking matter. Its analysis, however, gave nearly the same results.

Sulphtrie’ wordt 4.10. LR BEE. IAG coke 17°23
ALGAAS 5 os ca00'c smog ace vaateatt seca tire she TER eTRORER 43°51
WW BACT, dre sb gun sone acd snnsscasaines saree vet se gees 39°26

100:00

But when the solution was boiled for two hours before the addition of
the sulphate of potash, a quantity of alumina seems to have gone down
with the sub-sulphate, for its analysis gave in 100 parts

Ra PERM OREN (coc pu sna dese annsas sa cthenegne regia ss 13°73
[ALTA he ala A ON aie PER Rts, Pee bat hie 50°71

It had an appearance similar to the preceding product. In the moist
state the sub-sulphate is soluble in cold acetic acid, as well as in the
mineral acids. It dissolves in three atoms of sulphuric acid to form two
of the bisulphate, which, on the addition of water is resolved into the
tersulphate of alumina, and the insoluble monosulphate.

2A1,0;,803+ 380; = 2(Al,0;, 2803.)
= Al,0s, SO;+ Al,Os, 3803.

The same mixture of teracetate of alumina and sulphate of potash,
which in a diluted state produces subsulphate of alumina on the applica-
tion of heat, gives a precipitate of binacetate of alumina when heat is
applied to it in a concentrated state. A quantity of sulphate of potash,
however, adheres to the insoluble binacetate even after abundant washing.

salt of baryta complete without a considerable excess of the barytic salt, and vice
versa. The point sought for in the present instance is that at which an equal pre-
cipitate ts formed on adding an excess of either salt.

Mr, Crum on the Acetates of Alumina. 311

PRECIPITATE FROM ACETATE OF ALUMINA WitH CHLORIDE OF Sopium.

A solution of teracetate of alumina was produced from 1 pound acetate
of lead in 10 pounds water, decomposed by tersulphate of alumina. After
purification, common salt was added to it in the proportion of one equiva-
lent to one of tersulphate of alumina. The solution, when heated in
the water bath, became of an opaque white from the deposition of a
powder so very fine that the mixture passed through the filter almost
without change. Neither heat, nor any other application could alter
this character. It was left at rest, and after some weeks, the liquid
having become nearly clear, was poured off, and the precipitate, which
had contracted into 1-64th of the bulk of the liquid, was mixed again
with fresh water 11 times its volume. After several weeks more, the preci-
pitate fell again to the bottom of the vessel, when it was mixed with a
third portion of fresh water, which again, after four weeks, was decanted,
and the precipitate dried in a capsule at 100° Fahr.

On analysis it yielded the following results—I do not give the details
of the experiments, not having made out a formula which can be stated
in atomic proportions :—

JNUTITOUNE aaa aeR a: Sena 44°66
PR CAUICAOED ws ctiocs cahcsslnaadenaaes 21:96
Hydrochloric acid,............... 551
Wheater wes! ort. au. boliod 20m 4 25:90
98:03

Chloride of sodium, .............. o7
100-00

Nitrate of potash forms a precipitate when heated with acetate of alu-
mina, similar in appearance to that from common salt, but it was not
particularly examined.

ConcLusions.

1. The aluminous solution obtained by decomposing pure tersulphate
of alumina with the neutral acetate of lead consists, I believe, of a mix-
ture of binacetate of alumina, with an equivalent of free acetic acid. No
true teracetate of alumina appears to exist.

2. When means are taken to evaporate the preceding aluminous solu-
tion at a low temperature with sufficient rapidity, a dry substance is
obtained, which may be redissolved easily and entirely by water. This
is the binacetate of alumina, (Al, O,, 2 C, Hy O; + 4 HO), in which the
alumina retains all its usual properties,

8. When the first aluminous solution, containing not less than 4 or 5
per cent. of alumina, is left for some days in the cold, a salt is
deposited in the form of a white crust, which is an allotropic binacetate
of alumina, insoluble in water. Heat effects the same change in the

312 Mr. Crum on the Acetates of Alumina.

aluminous solution more rapidly, and the new acetate then precipitates
as a granular powder. At the boiling temperature the liquid is thus
deprived, in about half an hour, of the whole of its alumina, which goes
down with two-thirds of the acetic acid; leaving one-third in the liquid.

4, The red acetates of iron treated in a similar manner do not pro-
duce corresponding isomeric binacetates. By heating the binacetate of
the sesquioxide there is a total separation of acid and base. The facility
with which the binacetate is decomposed, even in the cold, furnished the
means of freeing the solution of binacetate of alumina of traces of iron
which could not otherwise be separated from it.

5. The soluble binacetate of alumina is decomposed by heat, and
affords a new and remarkable product. When a dilute solution of that
salt is exposed to heat for several days, the whole acetic acid appears
to become free, and the alumina to pass into an allotropie condition, in
which, although it remains in solution, it ceases to be capable of acting
as a mordant, or entering into any other definite combination. When
the acetic acid is expelled by boiling, the alumina, in its altered state,
remains alone dissolved in pure water. It is more soluble, however, in
acetic acid. The allotropic hydrate of alumina retains two equivalents of
water when dried at the heat of boiling water. Its solution is coagulated,
more or less powerfully by the mineral, and most of the vegetable acids
and their salts; by the alkalies, and by decoctions of dyewoods. The
coagulum which is formed by the various acids, is not re-dissolved when
they are added in excess. The solid part of the coagulum yields,
however, to the continued action of oil of vitriol, especially if assisted by
heat, and the result is the ordinary sulphate of alumina. Boiling potash
also dissolves it, and changes it into the ordinary terhydrate. Its coagulum
with dyewoods has the colour of the infusion, but is translucent and entirely
different from the dense opaque lakes which ordinary alumina forms
with the same colouring matters.

6. The insoluble binacetate of alumina, when digested in a large
quantity of water, is gradually changed into the soluble binacetate; of
which a part, however, becomes decomposed during the process into
acetic acid, and the allotropic bihydrate of alumina.

7. The precipitate which is formed on the application of heat to a
mixed solution of acetate of alumina and sulphate of potash, andjwhich
is soluble in cold acetic acid, is a bibasic sulphate of alumina.

The Society, on the recommendation of the Council, agreed to meet
next Wednesday night for the purpose of overtaking arrears of business.

May 4, 1853.—TZhe Preswent in the Chair.

Tue concluding meeting of the session was held this evening.

Mr. NAPIER on Sandstones used for Building. 313

Mr. Thomas Dawson and Mr. Matthew Bell were’ requested to audit
the Treasurer’s Accounts before the opening of next session.

The Librarian laid on the table a copy of Memoirs of the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Manchester, presented by the Society.
Thanks voted.

Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine described a contrivance named “ A
Railway-Train-Signal-Rope-Slack Gatherer.”

Mr. James R. Napier read a paper “ On the Saving of Fuel in Fur-
naces.”

The following paper was read :—

XLI.— Remarks upon Sandstones used for Building, &c.
By Mr. J. Napier, Chemist, Partick.

Tuer are few but will have observed, while walking along our newly-
formed streets, that many of the buildings that have been erected within
these ten or fifteen years, have stones in them, especially on the ashlar
fronts, that are rapidly corroding and destroying materially the beauty
and appearance of the structure. There will also be observed that
this decay or corrosion is very general under projections, or in such
circumstances as keep them entirely in the shade.

A few months ago, having occasion to superintend some erections in
the neighbourhood, curiosity led me to inquire of the practical men
whether it were not possible to detect stones that were liable to
corrode previous to being put into a prominent part of a building, and
so save the heart-burnings a proprietor must feel on finding that here
and there upon the front wall, and many times on expensively-wrought
work, are certain stones or parts of a stone that begin to moulder ere
his house is tenanted. But my inquiries led to the conclusion that
nothing could be done nor any good reason given as to the cause of the
decay, although not a few assured me they could tell by the mere feel
whether a stone would last or not; but this means of testing, I was
told, could not be communicated to any person not practically acquainted
with the trade, and was seldom put into practice in erecting houses.
Such were the circumstances that suggested the idea of endeavouring to
find if a chemical examination would assist in determining the cause, and
lead to any remedy. In this inquiry I have experienced much the want
of data for comparison. Although making analyses of stones from all the
various quarries about, I could not find specimens of tried stones, of
stones that had been in buildings and exposed, and the quality either
good or bad determined: hence my investigations are far from satisfac
tory, but I am thus bringing it forward in the present unfinished state as
a call upon builders or architects to send me specimens of known qualities,
so that the experiments may be more thoroughly carried out, and see if
it is within the range of chemical or mechanical testing.

Sandstones are of considerable variety both in the sizo of the grains
Vor. III.—No. 5.

3l4 ' Mr. Napier on Sandstones used for Building.

which compose them and the cireumstances in which they have been
deposited. Sometimes they have a laminated structure, and between these
lamin are deposits of mica in very fine scales. Stones of this class are
often placed into a wall with their laminz in a vertical position. When
this is done such stones are found to scale in flakes, and should therefore
always be laid upon bed; but even in stones that have no apparent
laminze, but seem one solid mass, still they have a stratified structure,
and when not built into the wall in what is termed their natural bed—
having the strata in a horizontal position—they are always more liable to
decay.

Freestone being simply sand particles cemented together under

pressure, and corrosion or decay being the dissolving or loosening of this
cement, my first inquiry was to find out what the cementing material
was. I had formed an opinion that this in all probability was either
lime or iron, and that the carbonate of lime being soluble in water impreg-
nated with carbonic acid, the lime would be liable to be dissolved out by
rain water, which generally contains that acid, or the acid might be ab-
sorbed from the air by water in the stone. These ideas were strengthened
a little by finding that some of the stones contained iron as a carbonate,
which by exposure was converted into a peroxide, and which might thus
yield its carbonic acid to the lime, and by converting it into a bicarbonate
render it soluble in water; but subsequent inquiry brought out so many
circumstances to be looked to as made these suppositions not so promi-
nent.
It often happens that stones most exposed stand best, or what is the
same thing, the same stone will decay most where least exposed, as
for instance pillars are often found to corrode most rapidly on the inside,
or least exposed parts. Sometimes it is observed that a stone wasting
away is very red in colour, and a conclusion come to that it is the iron,
which being oxidised loosens the particles, an idea very tenable, but then
probably in the same building are stones equally red, and containing more
iron than the other, which has also peroxidised, and no decay taking
place; and there may be also a stone a few feet off of marked whiteness,
mouldering so rapidly that if the hand be drawn over it, a shower of sand
particles fall, while the hand is stained as if by clay. These facts
render the inquiry interesting, and increases the difficulty.

Sandstone, as I have already intimated, is not a chemical compound,
such as slate or felspar, but a mechanical mixture, composed of the
debris of chemical compounds mixed and cemented together. And to
take the mass and analyse them as one compound, would be to give a
false data to reason from. I therefore endeavoured first to separate this
mixture mechanically.

In looking at a piece of sandstone through a lens, every particle of
silica seems coated over with some white, opaque matter, resembling clay
or lime. If this is connected with the binding of these sand particles,
then, what under ordinary circumstances will dissolve this away? I

Mr. Napier on Sandstones used for Building. 315

suspended several pieces of stone on the surface of distilled water for
several days, agitating the water occasionally, and at the termination of the
experiment found a good quantity of sand particles had loosened from the
stone and fallen off, and the water afterwards contained a trace of
lime and magnesia, and was white by a clay being suspended in it.
Repeating this experiment with water containing carbonic acid, the dis-
integration of the stone was more, and so was the lime in the water,
but the magnesia was not perceptible: there was also clay present. I
then took a piece of dry stone, ground it fine in a mortar, and placed the
powder in water, the sand particles sunk rapidly to the bottom, while the
clay remained suspended, and by several washings and decantings the
sand and clay could be approximately separated ; but there being also
mixed up in the stone, a great quantity of mica in fine scales, part of
which floated with the clay, a perfect separation of sand and clay could
not be made in this way. I then took the finely ground stone and placed
it upon a stout piece of flannel cloth as a filter, and poured water over it
until the water passing through was clear; by this means the clay was
easily separated, and the remaining powder when dried had no longer the
dusty appearance referred to, the quartz being transparent and mixed
with scales of mica; and the dusty portion washed off and passed through
the filter is mostly all China clay, finding in this way that the clay is
often upwards of twenty per cent. of the weight of the stone; I have no
doubt it may form an important part in the tear and wear of the stone.
I have as yet found no easy means of separating mechanically the mica
from the sand grains, and therefore cannot give their relative propor-
tion, but they are variable. ,

Knowing that practical men consider that the best stones are generally
found at the lowest part of the stratum or seam, I conceived that stones
found at different depths might contain different quantities of clay, and
so lead to some data, but the few trials I had on this head did not give
any regularity in the variation, as in some quarries the greatest quantity
of clay was found in the stone at the bottom of the stratum, and in others
at the top part of the seam, as, for instance, in one quarry a piece 2
feet down gave 20 per cent. of clay, and a piece 8 feet down gave only
14°6 per cent. of clay; while in another quarry not above half a mile
distant from that referred to, a piece 2 feet down gave 8°5 per cent. clay,
and a piece 8 feet down gave 20 per cent. clay. However, my experi-
ments upon this part of the inquiry have not extended beyond these two
trials. Another question suggested itself.

In washing out the clay, were the lime, iron, and other binding ingredi-
ents in the stone also washed out? In answer to this I found that in
general a great quantity of the lime and iron were washed away, but in
no case was the whole of either lime or iron washed out with the clay ;
the following analyses will give the general character of these washings,
taking the average composition of the stone before washing :—

316 Mr. NaPiER on Sandstones used for Building.

Silica and smica, der. devesweretevsetecteres 774
Olay, JA eiaderarenive adem Madan: 156
PiMO Ms Pee eeeeeiete sean hizacaethoschen 38
Protoxide iron,........++ Wihccadedvewetecees 2:2
Magnesia,.......ssseseeeee aeiaee Fee 1
100:0
After washing these are—

Sanp WASHED. Cray SEPARATED.
Silica and Mica,......... 94-6 Claysiee scans ...88°6
Protoxide iron, .......... 1:2 Protox. iron,... 5°3
Wane eects cesccigessies 38 raNes ee seas 40
Magnesiay.ssscs.csssis-000 “4 Magnesia,...... 2°1

100-0 100-0

All this lime is not from the mica, and shows that lime adheres to the
quartz with great force, and gives cause for suspecting that the clay
may have a tendency to prevent the proper binding of the quartz par-
ticles; and this idea is somewhat borne out by the statement made by
the Commissioners appointed to inquire into building stones for the
New Houses of Parliament. They say in reference to Edinburgh :—

‘¢ Modern buildings erected from the Craigleith quarry, none of them
exhibit any appearance of decomposition, with the exception of ferruginous
stains which are produced upon some stones. Amongst the oldest is the
Registry Office, which is of Craigleith, and built above 60 years since : it
is in a perfect state.”

Now in turning to the analysis given of this stone by the late Professor
Daniell at the time the Commissioners made their inquiry, it stands as
under :—

RSME, aah cosas ceases sass dunescasan tease 98°3
NGI G Se aera cs toctenaeicalatd taleesaineuate an ihe)
Tron and-aIMMINd,... sinc sas sinecermanas 6

100:0

Here we have no clay mentioned, and although the quantity of lime is
very small, still as nothing intervened it may have formed a perfect
cement along with the iron present. And we may here mention, while
treating of this particular stone, that the Craigleith quarry seems to
produce a different quality now than it did 14 years ago, when the above
analysis was made, that stone, according to the specimen I have from
Craigleith, has almost none of the characters of a sandstone; it is more
compact than granular, and has a vitreous crystalline appearance, and
possesses every character of a lasting stone. Its composition is nearly as
under :—

‘Mr. Napier on Sandstones used for Building. 317

Ue SC Re CE Bear oe eee agen alee’:
1 oo sae ee Seer EOP CREE ey ot.
iithie? eae teehee deka ds 2428. 88 .--19°8
Protoxidejirobpaey iors ices wh eshe ate led
Wis mriesints Oe ope esenadeiius .aeitaaes trace.
Winiterkcgentereratitren ae tauk ava... sata (ORL

98-1

From the fineness of the grain of this stone, the washing out the clay is
not so perfect, but washed as carefully as I could, to see if lime was
washed off, the results were—

The washed portion left Clay portion passing
on filter, through filter.
Insoluble,...............88°8 Insoluble,............50°
ORAM OPTON 0 cles cece 8 Oxide irony ss..-ce05 1 6
MANE casa tenia cae cos ens EO MUM G ciao vacate 2-550
99°6 99°6

I will now give the chemical character of the sandstone from the prin-
cipal quarries in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, premising, that although
I have made several analyses of stones from every quarry, their sameness
renders it unnecessary to give every result, and will therefore only give
the average of each kind or quality, with the uses for which each stone
is more especially applied, and there being few remarks required on
individual analyses, I will subjoin them in’a tabular form. I must
remark that in these analyses the clay was separated in the manner
stated above, the only chemical testing was for lime, iron, magnesia,
and sulphur. Many stones contain seams and thread-like fibres of carbon- .
aceous matters, which were avoided in the testing in the following table :—

Absorb-
Mica “pee ” = ing
Carb. | Oxide | Carb. |Natural
Locality. Used for sane Clay. Lime, | Iron. | Magn. | Water. ee REMARKS,
cub. ft
Garscube,...| Founds,| 77°38 | 82 | 6:4 | 2:8 16 | 32 |4gal.| Hard cl. gra,

i Ashlar, | 81:2 | 13: 21 8 3 | 2:5 | 1-2 —| Fine grain.

me Ruble, | 80°3 | 11-4 | 2-4 2°8 ‘8 | 2:3 | 1:3 —) Black veins

through it,
Netherton,..| Founds,| 77° | 15° 24 | 2 28 | 4 |107—

“f Ashlar, | 78:5 | 15°" | 2°8 | 16 | 2 & 108 —

6 Ruble, | 85° | 12°6 | 1:6 8) — 4° | 1: —| Black veins.
Kenmuir,....| Ashlar, | 83°3 | 11°8 2:3 16 nS 4: | 15 — Fine grained.
Gifnock,.....| Ashlar, | 79°8 | 12:9 4: 2°8 *b 3 1:2 —| Fine grained,
Hillhead,.... 75°6 | 20° 2 1:2 8 64 | 1: — Top of seam

coarse gra,

. 795 | 146 | 32 | 1:6 ‘8 | 4: | 1+ — Bot. of seam.
New Bridge,| Ashlar, | 83° 10° 3°6 13 10] 55 |14—

Partick,...... 88°5 85 16 8 ‘2 | 7 |1:3—| Top of seam
as 73°4 | 20° 82 2° 1:2 6° | 1:5 —| Bot. of seam
coarse gra.

‘

318 Mr. Narter on Sandstones used for Building.

In the above table no notice is taken of sulphur. I have often found
traces of sulphur in the ordinary stone, and in particular pieces of stone
a considerable quantity, but I have not in general found it in such pro-
portion as to make me suspect it having anything to do with the destruc-
tion of the stone, being a mere trace in 100 grains. Sulphuret of iron
in the stone might cause decay by efflorescence, but I have generally
found the iron to exist as a carbonate. :

The application of these analyses to useful purposes, or to the wearing
quality of a stone, is as yet unknown to me, owing to the want of data.
T was, however, kindly supplied by a builder with four specimens, from a
house he was taking down. Two of these were from stones that had
corroded very much, the other two had stood the wear well, all having
been placed under the same circumstances for upwards of 20 years.

The first sample tried has not corroded all over, but in lines, forming
deep ruts or furrows in the stone. This gave by analysis—

Diligarang pled. s.eeceese oe ai seeeets os scloro
CIR evaceaecaseataveataaneterccts reneae 22:0
PCIORIGG- ION, . os; sve, eee taeda fe a 2:8
MAGNE, .2-- ageuvcica seston ces con cout ett 1:2
Magnesia,......... eaadsbeveis wail dew trace
99°6
No. 2 had corroded all over, mouldering into sand. It gaye—
Diliew audi mndayit: A3, WES. yk 77:0
lay iste. An ctnctvadeds seve eerea tisk cases 20-0
Peroxide! iron, \..y0s02--scds00 Oars Ra SEE 1-4
Damage ats Se arceerk ts iee ees ola 16
Mapinesias sy. Aud cisads Metind aiete trace.
100:0
No. 3 stood well, and was a slight reddish colour. It gave—
BANGA, Sih IMIR Snes 2. cuaesgrcGee, 2 c8Ohac 90:2
Ray jens etaidintea’ ve ct nsf anual. eatvenaeee 6-8
Lrimeeectsaveee) satis: 4dame saeeee ds aes: 2:2
Peroxide dramyish va tydches eens va cots 8
100-0
No. 4 stood well, was white, gave—
Silica and: mica,siv. +0. lecsheeeidedewbebe 89.2
A ey, 02s. Wass teas beac een eee 83
Weim. «5.00. 22 ae ee 1:8
PGEGRIAS indn, &.40-.screeeeeecee ate 4
99°7

¥¢

Mr. Naprer on Sandstones used for Building. 319
-
Were we warranted in drawing any conclusion from these few analyses

there is but one to make, namely, that the presence of a great quantity of
clay with little lime prevents the proper adhesion of the sand particles. *

As regards the probable cause of stones decaying more rapidly in the
shade than exposed to a free current of air and sunshine, the general
opinion is that it is caused by want of evaporation. A good stone ina
few days’ exposure takes upon it a sort of skin, the iron on the surface
peroxidises, and the face of the stone is clean and apparently washed-like ;
but it is otherwise with a bid stone, if the hand be drawn over it in dry
weather it seems, and really is, dusty, the particles falling off by the
friction of the hand, and this often in exposed parts where evaporation
is the same as with other good stones. Nevertheless, the constant state
of moisture that stones are kept in, when placed under a cornice or pro-
jection, and the absence of sunshine, have a bad effect upon our sandstones.
And the fact is sufficiently apparent to any one who will give the slightest
attention in passing along the streets; and I may mention in connection
with this that sandstones having much clay in them absorb moisture
rapidly from the atmosphere, so that such stones are not only longer in
drying, but a damp atmosphere will moisten them nearly as much as if
they were in contact with water. Two thin pieces, one having 20 per
cent. of clay, the other none, exposed to a damp atmosphere over night,
the former had absorbed 5 per cent. of its weight of water, the other
only 1. This tendency to absorb and retain water may facilitate their
decay.

I do not as yet offer any definite solution of the chemical cause of the
rapid corrosion of some sandstones. My experiments, however, excite
suspicions that the clay which is only mechanically diffused through the
stone, has something to do with preventing the adhesion of the siliceous

* Since making these experiments, I have tried the following specimens. Two
pieces of stone from Blair Logie Old Church, which had decayed regularly, but not
rapidly, gave—

No.1. Silica and mica, ...... 80°56 No. 2. Silica and mica, ....... 823
Olay oes eneetc once tye 15°5 SHAY ce-tsersasstert ait 110
Peroxide iron, ........ 16 Peroxide iron,.......... 27
Carbonate lime,....... 2°4 EAMG; spender. dacteseeps 2°6
oe Magnesia, ............ trace.

100-0
98°6

No, 2 was finer in the grain than No. 1.
A piece from an old castle near Stirling that had stood well; the surface of the
stone from which the sample was taken seemed little worn, gave—

Silica and mica; \<5i13<:et, sede hee 90-5
OY st 350 daccaeias Sedan ee 4-6
TYONAORIO: -oaatecune suaswikeee eee 2-0
TAMMIG, soe sounticavercdciter meee One 2°6

97:0

Looking at this specimen through a lens the silica was transparent and washed like.

320 Mr. NAPIER on Sandstones used for- Building.

particles where there is a paucity of lime, and may be less or more dele-
terious, from the source of the clay and the position of the stone in the
strata, that is, whether the clay has infiltrated into the stone from water
passing from the surface, or whether from the felspar in the fine debris
of granite decomposing, leaving alumina or clay, which is an ordinary
occurrence. As to the position of the stone in the seam the density
increases as we go down. A cubic inch 2 feet down weighed 19}
drachms, and a cubic inch 8 feet down weighed 22 drachms. ‘The only
remedy against decay I am aware being ocedSionally tried is to saturate
the surface of the stone with boiled oil. When care is taken to have
the stone thoroughly dry previous to adding the oil, this remedy has
been very successful, but it is not the most convenient. If the cause
of the decay be found to be a paucity of lime and too much clay, then
a simple remedy may be found in drying the stone, which could easily
be done by means of heat, and then saturating it with the milk of lime,
by which means the surface to a considerable depth would be protected,
and the appearance of the stone improved. When a bad stone is placed
in ruble work, where it is surrounded by a layer of lime, it will be
observed that for about one inch round the stone where the lime has
penetrated it there is no corrosion, and the stone compact, and lighter
in colour.’ There are some stones that are found to effloresce in dry
weather, and become damp in moist weather, which is no doubt caused
by chemical decomposition of some ingredient in the stone; but this is
not the characteristic of the decay Iam referring to, which is a mere
mouldering down, or loosening of the sand particles. The efflorescence
of stone is distinct, and may be caused by the presence of sulphuret
of iron, which will have that effect, and which I intend to consider on
some other occasion on damp walls.

In these experiments there is one thing worthy of remark, namely,
the great quantity of water which the stone contains. It is said to
require years before a house is properly dry, but it will be seen that
this will depend much upon the quality of the stone; but even under
the best circumstances when it is considered that every cubic foot
of the stone contains at least one gallon water, it will give some idea
of the enormous quantity that has to be evaporated before a house be
thoroughly dry, but it is also seen that to be thoroughly dry is almost
impossible, as the stones absorb water from the atmosphere, more
especially if the stone has much clay in its composition. But inde-
pendent of this absorption from the air, there is also a great
quantity taken up by capillary attraction, more indeed than by plunging
it into water; taking a cubic foot of stone perfectly dry, it will absorb
about one-sixth part more by placing one part in water and allowing it
to rise by capillary attraction, than to plunge it overhead in water, the
air in the latter case not casily escaping. ‘The presence of clay in the _
stone makes this attraction more rapid, but does not increase the
quantity that a stone will absorb, as the following table will illustrate :—

Mr. NAPIER on Sandstones used for Building. 321

Per centage of Water absorbed per
Clay. cubic foot of stone,
14 per cent. 1°8 gallon.
17. — 15 —
1g — 13 —
HAs i ie
8 — 130 —
20 hy
133 i
14 — TT —
145 — 8 —
20 — 10 —
1b — 10 —

Being an average of nearly one gallon and a quarter of water per cubic
foot of stone.

The time necessary for the water to rise up from the foundation by
capillary attraction is, however, considerable, And it varies much with
different qualities of stone, depending a good deal upon the physical
structure of the stone. I have witnessed the water rising up one
portion of a stone in less than half the time it did in another portion
of the same stone, and these different parts by testing give no chemical
difference. Taking a 6-inch cube, the following rate is an average of
that I obtained; the lower part of the stone was merely allowed to
touch the water and did not dip into it above an eighth part of an inch.
Taking—

1 minute to the 1st inch, it required,

3 — 2d _

6 _ 3d —
10 — 4th —
20 _ 5th _
35 — 6th.

75 minutes to rise 6 inches.

This is no doubt a slow rate when we come to several feet, still from a
damp found it is certain, and the only limit to it is when the evaporation
from the surface is equal to the supply by absorption, and this in damp
weather takes it often above one storey of a building; it is no doubt
increased by the absorption from the weather outside, and this often to
such an extent that I have seen stones inside of a house, two storeys up,
become wet, and literally sweat from the water filtering through them.
We believe the only preventive yet tried for the capillary attraction
rising from the found, is a layer of Caithness slate; common slate I have
found equal, if not superior, to Caithness, and cheaper; but which-
ever be used it ought to be laid above the surface of the ground, other-

wise the use of such precautions is neutralised.
Vol. III.—No. 5. 6

322 Proceedings of the Glasgow Philosophical Society.

Into the subject of damp walls in general, it is not my intention
in the meantime to enter, as that may be better taken up separately.
I may mention, however, in connection with this subject, that bricks are
generally as absorbent as stone. The average absorption in those I have
tried is about 10 per cent. of their weight.

I have now only to refer to one or two other characteristics of our
building stones, arising ina great measure, I think, from the clay they
contain. First, the rapidity with which they become black by exposure.
The cause is no doubt the smoke, but the clay in the stone makes this
colouring much more rapid from the great attraction which alumina has
for colouring and organic matters. A house built of such stone as
Craigleith, and one with a sandstone containing 20 per cent. of clay in
the same locality, the one would become much sooner coloured than the
other.

Another tendency which sandstone has is to become covered with a
vegetable growth, and the question has often been put where the seeds
of such vegetable matter may have come from. Now, there could hardly
be a better condition for the growth of vegetable mould than a sandstone
having diffused through it mechanically from 15 to 20 per cent. of clay,
with a little lime and magnesia, and capable of absorbing within a few
hours several gallons of the moisture of a soil, and no doubt the sporules or
seeds of such vegetables either in soils or floating about the atmosphere,
are either drawn up by and with the water from the soil, or they attach
themselves to the surface of the stone, and find there ample means for
their development.

Such, then, are a few experiments and observations upon a subject, I
think, deserving a more thorough investigation. I have been induced to
bring it before the Society in this unfinished state by a strong desire
that those who may be interested in this matter, and who have oppor-
tunities of furnishing specimens old and new, so that unquestionable data
may be obtained, will be kind enough to let me have them, with any
particulars they may consider necessary, with a view to bringing the
results before the Society at a future time, should health be granted.

Mr. Ure exhibited an improved form of his Model illustrating the
Principle of Ventilation.

Minute of Council.
Andersonian University Library, November 3, 1852.

Present, Mr. Crum, Dr. Allen Thomson, Dr. A. K. Young, Mr. Liddell,
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Mr. Gourlie, Mr. Bryce, Mr. Harvey, Mr. Cockey,
Mr. Murray, Dr. Mitchell.

Dr. Arthur Mitchell, after some explanatory remarks, produced the

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society. 323

following statement, which the Council agreed to record in their minutes,
instructing the Secretary to insert it in the next number of the printed
Proceedings of the Philosophical Society, and transmit a copy of the
publication to M. Bernard, Paris :—

“To the Councit of the Gutascow Paimosopnicat Society,

“ GenTLEMEN,—My attention having been called to the possibility of
misconception as to a paper ‘On the Occurrence of Sugar in the Animal
Economy,’ (read by me to the Glasgow Philosophical Society, on 20th
February, 1850, and printed in their proceedings for that session), in
consequence of the omission of certain oral statements which I made to
the Society, I have to state, that I never claimed, and do not claim,
originality for that communication, which I read to the Society as an
account of the researches of Bernard and of the experiments which I had
repeated in confirmation of them; that I accompanied the reading with
such extemporaneous and interspersive remarks as rendered this fully
evident at the time (as appears from letters on the subject from the
Secretary, Editor of the Transactions, and Dr. Stenhouse, one of the
members of Council, which letters are herewith produced); that the
paper was printed on request, with a postscript hastily added to supply
the place of these oral remarks; and that I regret that the manner in
which the paper has been expressed has been such as to lead to miscon-
ception.

“Tam, Gentlemen,
‘** Your most obedient servant,

“ Grasaow, 3d November, 1852. “ ArtHor Mrrcne.y.”’

GLASGOW:
PRINTED BY BELL AND BAIN, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.

rrr 7
Di bat AT A
ae. -

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FIFTY-SECOND SESSION.

November 2, 1853.

Tue Fifty-Second Session of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow was
opened this evening,—Walter Crum, Esq., President of the Society, in
the Chair.

A framed artist’s proof of the portrait of the late Dr. Thomas Thomson
was presented by Messrs. James M‘Clure and Son, for which the Society
voted thanks.

The President read papers on the following subjects: viz.,—‘‘ On the
Acetates and other Compounds of Alumina.” (Recapitulation.) ‘ Pro-
fessor Graham’s Discoveries on the Diffusion of Gases and of Liquids.”

November 16, 1853.—The Prusipent in the Chair.

Mr. Henry How, College Laboratory, and Mr. Daniel Fraser, Phar-
maceutical Chemist, 113 Buchanan Street, were elected members.

Mr. Liddell, the Treasurer, gave in the following abstract of his
Account for Session 1852-53 :-—

- 1852. Dr.
Nov. 1.—ToCash in Union and Savings Banks, £123 0 10
18538.
— Interest on Banks’ Accounts,....... & 0, 4
£128 0 11
Nov. 1. — Society’s Transactions sold,..........sseesesessees 1 2 6

Carry forward, £129 3 5
Vor. IIL—No. 6. B

326 Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

Brought forward, £129 3 5
To Entries of 18 new Members, at
Dike Neacheaeedeentereedsess sce vess £18 18 0
— 11 Annual Payments from Original
Members; at 55)......000..c000e 215 0
— 263 Annual Payments at 15s.each,197 5 0
218 18 0
— Rent from Sabbath School Teachers, for use
BE MN 5 sista sis OOM Wen cy one mastnsbonnstontene 210 0
£350 11 5
1853. Cr. SS
Nov. 1.—By New Books and Binding,..........ssssesessersees £100 14 10
— Printing Transactions, Circulars, &c.,........- 22 14 6
— Repairs on Hall,..........scsscsoeeseeeecececscees 0 8 0
— Rent of Hall, One Year,......... B15 Og
—— Hire Insurance, a.2sscecseensseaces 2) LGW LO
— Society’s Officer and Clerk,....... S. 20
— Postages and Delivering Letters, 1110 2
— Stationery, ..cceccessscceeseeeseeees et
— Gas and Candles,...............0008 1. 018070

— Librarian’s Salary, One Year,.... 260 0
— Do. for Poundage Collecting Dues, 618 0
——. 382 18.0

— Subscription to Ray Society,.... 1 1 0
— Do. to Paleontological Society,. 1 1 0
— 22 0

— Cleaning the Hall,.......ccscsscceeeecees BS thon 1 14 10
— Balance—
Cash in Union Bank,............ 148 5 9
Do. in Savings Bank,........... 6 Got
i 149 11 10
£350 WI 5

Tae PHILosopHicaL Society Exuisrrion F'unp.
1852.
May 15.—To Balance, as per deposit receipt, from the Cor-
poration of the City of Glasgow,...........-....-£573 1 6

1853.
May 15. — Interest till this date,......s.cssee sesssessceeeeees 22 18 5

———-

£595 19 11

Librarian's Report. 327

Guasseow, 31st October, 1853.—We have examined the Treasurer’s Account, and com-
pared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there are in the Union Bank of Scotland
One Hundred and Forty-Three Pounds Five Shillings and Ninepence, and in the Savings
Bank Six Pounds Six Shillings and One Penny—together, One Hundred and Forty-Nine
Pounds Eleven Shillings and Tenpence sterling—at the Society’s credit at this date.

The Treasurer has also exhibited to us a Voucher which he holds for money lent to the
Corporation of the City of Glasgow from the proceeds of the Philosophical Society’s Exhibi-
tion in 1846, with Interest thereon to 15th May last, being Five Hundred and Ninety-Five

Pounds Nineteen Shillings and Elevenpence.
THOMAS DAWSON.

MATTHEW P. BELL.

REPORT BY THE TREASURER, 3D NOVEMBER, 1853.

The Furniture and other moveable property of the Society, with exception of printed
Books, remain the same as last year, and a Proof Engraving, in gilt frame, of the late Dr.
Thomas Thomson, which has been presented by the Publishers. The Funds in the Bank, as
shown in the above Account, are £21 more than at the same period last year. Reference is
now made to the Librarian’s Catalogue for the list of Books, the property of the Society as
at this date.

The number of Members at commencement of Session 1852-538.........cccsecsseeseesseee os 281
New Members admitted durimg the Session,.............sssescssssescossessevecsurssereeaseeeeeses 17
298
From this fall to be deducted from the Roll at commencement of Session 1853-54,
viz.,—
Premipuedmpmpership, Dy lehbetsss.ccere-checacceveracoaveesecssevscenesessaspsenuedsonessnpuciees 9
In Arrear of Dues for two years, and held as resigned by Law XI.,.........s01:000+-00e 13
By request placed on Non-Resident List, having removed from Glasgow and
paid Dueg,.:...0..0 000.020 ees eta eke tee ee se eee els Gene ae CL DCE ERIC ChOCE SEY ise. 0 fO
In Arrear of Dues for one year, but have left Glasgow for foreign countries, or
places unknown,......... eancueader ats aden sedeswsnranatcHaseteed ac decccs ss <ooiiaees Seana Cawesrere 5
DRAM oi sccani-e inane aelign sy atpa=ds dus ovcaasne tne taseet taeseaeer es sy osesioe Ratbocanenetnectacstsate sents 2
— dt
On List for 1853-54,........00008 « iecseesercitesececsbers sane 1000. 264.

In the above-named list of 264 there are 14 Members in Arrear of Dues for one year, but
as they all reside in Glasgow or neighbourhood it is hoped that these will be recovered.

Mr. Cockey, the Librarian, gave in a Report on the state of the
Library,—from which it appeared that there had been an increase of
130 volumes during the year, the total number being 2200 :—

Volumes in 1852, Volumes in 1853.

Case No. 1 327 “ 835
Pr 2 319 < 377

a 3 279 ; 281

* 4 ; 170 7 274

7 5 245 " 262

pe 6 5 302 Pp 834

1 if 137 ‘ 238

ee 8 191 7 199
2070 2200

Increase, 140 volumes,

328 Election of Office-bearers.

The Society then proceeded to the Fifty-Second Annual Election of
Office-Bearers.

Mr. Liddell moved the re-election of Mr. Crum as President.
Seconded by Mr. Bryce.

Mr. Murray moved the re-election of Dr. Allen Thomson as Vice-
President. Seconded by Mr. Harvey.

Dr. Walker Arnott moved the election of Mr. William Gourlie as the
second Vice-President. Seconded by Dr. A. K. Young.

Mr. Robert Blackie moved the re-election of Mr. Liddell as Treasurer
—Mr. Cockey as Librarian—and Mr. Hastie and Mr. Keddie as Joint-
Secretaries. Seconded by Mr. Smith.

Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine proposed a list of five new Members of
Council in room of those retiring, and moved the re-election of the
remaining Members. Seconded by Professor William Thomson.

The names of the members so nominated having been written on the
black board, the Society proceeded to vote by ballot in the ordinary
manner ; and Mr. Michael Connal and Mr. John Jeftrey were appointed
scrutineers of votes.

The scrutineers having retired to examine the vote-papers,—

The President read a paper ‘‘On Dr. Thomson’s Lives of the Che-
mists.”

Mr. John Thomson, C.E., described the methods of constructing and
laying down the Submarine Telegraphic Wire.

The scrutineers afterwards gave in their Report, when the result of
the election was found to be as follows :—

resident.
Mr. WALTER CRUM.

Vice-Jresivents.
Dr. ALLEN THOMSON. | Mr. WiLiiaAM GouRLIE,

Treasurer.
‘Mr. ANDREW LIDDELL.

Joint-Secretarics,

Mr. ALEXANDER HAsTIE. | Mr. Witit1AmM Keprie. ‘
Librarian.
Mr. Wit11Am Cockery.
Council.
Mr. JAMES Bryce. Dr. STRANG.
Mr. Witi1Am Murray. Proressor Wn. Tuomson.
Dr. THoMAS ANDERSON. Mr. Joun Conprie.
Mr. ALEXANDER Harvey. Mr. Joun ERsKINE.
Dr. A. K. Youne. Mr. JAmrEs NAPIER.

Mr. J. R. Napier. Mr. JAs. P. Fraser.

Minutes of Meetings. 329

November 80, 1853.—Mr. Gour.is, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. ArcuripaLtp Morrison, Commercial and Mathematical Teacher,
57 St. George’s Place ; Mr. Robert Hill, 41 West George Street ; and Mr.
John Leslie, Merchant, 68 Hutcheson Street, were elected members.

Professor William Thomson read a paper, giving an account of Caven-
dish’s Electrical Investigations.

December 14, 1853.—The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

Tue following members were elected, viz: —Mr. Thomas Lester, M.E.,
Heriothill, 137 Stirling’s Road; Mr. Thomas Hoey, Engineer, 93 Pitt
Street; Mr. George Martin, C.E., 107 Hope Street.

Dr. Anderson read a paper “ On the Chemistry of Opium.”

Dr, Walker Arnott gave an account of the Diatomaceze.

January 11, 1854.—— The PRestDEntT in the Chair.

Mr. Joun Kennupy, 146 Buchanan Street, and Mr. James Anderson,
36 Surrey Street, were elected members.

Dr. Walker Arnott continued his account of the Diatomaceze; and
Dr. Allen Thomson described some of the lower tribes of the Animal
Kingdom.

January 25, 1854.—The Presipent in the Chair.

Dr. Drummonp, 80 Bath Street, was elected a member.

The President called the attention of the Society to the improved
arrangement of the Seats in the Hall, and proposed that a grant be voted
to the Council out of the funds for the purpose of increasing the comfort
of the seats and introducing a plan of lighting better fitted for the exhi-
bition of pictures and diagrams.

Mr, Cockey, the Librarian, took occasion to mention that it would be
necessary to procure an additional Book-case without delay. He pro-
posed that the sum of £40 be voted for this purpose, and for completing
the improvement of the Hall.

Mr, William Brown having seconded the proposal, and recommended
that the Seats should be furnished with Cushions,

The Society voted, for the first time, that a sum of £40 be granted to
defray the expense of Book-case and improvements.

Allen Thomson made a communication on some of the most recent dis-
coveries in Embryology.

330 Minutes of Meetings.

February 8, 1854.—The Preswwent in the Chair.

Mr. Antuony Inexis, Whitehall Foundry, Anderston, and Mr. Alex-
ander Mackenzie, Upholsterer, Buchanan Street, were elected members.

A vote of £40 for a new Book-case, Seat-eushions, and Gas-fittings,
was unanimously agreed to for the second time.

Mr. Andrew Liddell moved that the Council be authorized to invite
the British Association to visit Glasgow in 1855, and stated that if this
was done he had reason to believe that the invitation would be cordially
accepted.

This motion was seconded by Mr. William Murray, and unanimously
agreed to.

Mr. Bryce gave an account of the recent Geographical discoveries in
Africa, after which Mr, Alexander Ferguson was requested to prepare
and lay before the Society an account of his visit to Egypt and the Nile.

A letter to the Secretary, from Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, was
read, calling attention to the circumstance of the Town Council having
acquiesced in the limitation of the Ordnance Survey to a scale of five feet
to one mile, instead of a scale of ten feet, in favour of which the Society
formerly memorialized the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury.

Bailie Harvey and Dr. Aitkem explained, on the part of the Town
Council, that the Council would be glad to have the Maps laid down on
a ten feet scale, but that Government insisted that the City should pay
the difference of expense (estimated at about £2000) betwixt the five and
the ten feet scale, which the Council unanimously refused to do,

After a discussion, in which Mr. Bartholomew, Mr. Liddell, Dr. Watson,
and others took part, Mr. Liddell moved that the Society should again
memorialize the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury to the same effect as
before, which was seconded by Bailie Harvey, and agreed to.

Mr. Murray moved that the Society should memorialize the Town
Council also to reconsider the matter, and endeavour to make some
arrangement to secure a ten feet scale; seconded by Mr. Liddell and
agreed to.

A Committee, consisting of Professor W. Thomson, Mr. Liddell, Mr.
Bartholomew, Mr. M‘Kain, Mr. Bryce, and Mr. Rankine, were appointed
to carry these resolutions into effect.

February 22, 1854.—Wittram Govrutn, Esq., Vice-President, in the
Chair.

Mr. BarTHOLOMEW was appointed Convener of the Committee on the
Ordnance Survey, appointed at last meeting.

Memorial on Ordnance Survey. 331

Mr. William Murray having taken the Chair,
Mr. Gourlie read an account of a short visit to Switzerland, &c., in
last September, illustrated by Drawings and specimens of Plants.

March 8, 1854.—The PRrEstDENT in the Chair.

Mr. Rozert GARDINER was elected a member.

The Committee on the Ordnance Survey gave in the following draft of
Memorial to the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury, and, mutatis mutandis,
to the Lord Provost, Magistrates, and Town Council of Glasgow, in
favour of the Ordnance Survey of the city being laid down to a scale of
ten feet to one mile :—

“ To the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s
Treasury.

“The Humble Memorial of Tar PHiLosopHicaL Society or GLASGOW,
Sheweth—

“ That your Memorialists feel a deep interest in the
completion and publication of the Ordnance Survey of the City of Glas-
gow, as being essential to the easy, efficient, and economical planning and
execution of improvements in the said city, whether public or private.

“That your Memorialists are satisfied that it has been proved by expe-
rience, that in cities such as Glasgow, where the ground is intricately and
minutely subdivided, and of great value, and where the buildings and
underground works are of a very complicated character, no scale is suf-
ficient for such purposes which is much less than ten feet to one mile.

“That your Memorialists beg leave to express their satisfaction at the
intention which they have been given to understand is at present enter-
tained by your Lordships, of causing the Survey of the City of Glasgow
to be laid down to a scale of ten feet to one mile, or one nearly approxi-
mating to that ratio, and their conviction, that any immediate saving
which might accrue from a departure from that intention, would be
immensely exceeded by the ultimate loss which would arise from the
additional expense and inconvenience in planning and executing im-
provements.”

[The following clause was added to the Memorial to the Town Council.)

“That in these circumstances, your Memorialists would respectfully
express their hope, that the Lord Provost, Magistrates, and Town Coun-
cil will reconsider their former Resolution, and give their support to a
survey upon the scale of ten feet to one mile.”

The Society unanimously agreed to adopt the draft of the Memo-
rial, directing the copy to the Lords of the Treasury to be confided to

332 Volumetrical Method for the Estimation of Yellow Prussiate of Potash.

Mr. Alexander Hastie, M.P., and requesting Mr. Murray to present the
Memorial to the Town Council, and Dr. Aitken and Bailie Harvey to
support its prayer.

Mr. Bryce described, with the aid of various maps prepared for the
occasion, the geography of the Seat of War.

March 22, 1854.—The Presipent in the Chair.

Mr. Rosert,GarpDINERiwas admitted a member.

Mr. Cockey, the Librarian, laid on the table, No. 7 of the Proceedings
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, presented by the
Society. Thanks voted. ,

Mr. Alexander A. Fergusson read ‘“ Notes of a Two Months’ Sojourn
in Egypt.”

- April 5, 1854.—The PRESIDENT in the Chazr.

Mr. WaLtAce read a’notice “On Red Prussiate of Potash.”
Mr. Cockey read a paper “* On a Decimal Coinage.’

April 19, 1854.—The PresiDent in the Chair.

Ir was agreed, on the recommendation of the Council, that an extra
meeting of the Society should be held on the 3d of May, to overtake the
arrears of business.

Mr. Macadam read “ Observations on the Comparative Purity of
Waters in use for Domestic and Manufacturing Purposes in different
parts of Scotland ; with recent Analyses of the Mineral Wells of Moffat.”

Mr. Wallace read a paper “ On the Oxidizing power of Red Prussiate
of Potash ;”’ after which he described the following

Volumetrical method for the Estimation of Yellow Prussiate of Potash.

The following process was proposed some years ago, but was not con-
sidered of sufficient general interest or importance for publication in a
separate form. The author was led to search for such a process, in con-
sequence of having been requested by an extensive manufacturer of the
salt in question, to find a simple and available method of testing what
are technically called the prussiate cakes.

The process is thus conducted. 100 grains of the salt are dissolved in
two ounces of cold water and a quarter of an ounce of concentrated
hydrochloric acid is added to the solution. An alkalimeter of one hun-

Mr. J. Napier on Damp Walls. 333

died measures is made up in the usual manner with 21'4 grains of pure
and dry bichromate of potash. The chromate solution is then added to
that of the yellow prussiate until a blue tint is no longer produced with
a solution of perchloride of iron, spotted on a white slab. The number
of divisions consumed multiplied by two, gives the per centage amount
of pure crystallized yellow prussiate.

The author has not yet been able to explain the action in a satisfactory
manner. Red prussiate is undoubtedly one of the products (for it can
be obtained in crystals by evaporation), yet the amount of chromic acid
consumed by experiment, shows that the action is more complex, and
that some other compound is likewise formed. When a caustic alkali
is added in slight excess to the mixture obtained as above, the chromic
acid and yellow prussiate are reproduced, so that the oxide of chromium
cannot be separated by this means. From numerous and careful experi-
ments, it was found that 100 grains of crystallized yellow prussiate are
invariably decomposed by 10:7 grains of bichromate of potash.

When the “ prussiate cake,”’ or a liquid containing alkaline sulphide,
is the subject of experiment, a modification of the process is required,
but it is not considered necessary to enter into the details in the present
communication.

May 3, 1854 (the Concluding Meeting of the Session was held this
evening).—Zhe PRESIDENT in the Chair.

Tue Council was authorized to appoint in due time delegates to attend
the next meeting of British Association in Liverpool, and present the
Society’s invitation to visit Glasgow in 1855. |

Mr. J. Napier then read a paper on—

DAMP WALLS.

In the paper I had the honour of reading to the Society last session
upon Sandstones used for building purposes, I stated my intention of
bringing the subject of damp walls in houses under your notice. The
subject of damp walls was so closely connected with the investigations in
last paper that I could not avoid having my attention specially drawn to
it, and I therefore resolved, from the importance and probable bearing
upon the health of the community, or, at all events, the health of those
who are living in damp houses, to devote a little time to its consideration.
And in communicating to you the results of these inquiries, I will
do so in jthe order in which I conducted the inquiry, first, by con-
sidering the nature of the materials used in the construction of houses,
and second, the question of damp walls. ‘The materials used in building

334 Mr. J. Narrer on Damp Walls.

may be stated shortly, as stones, bricks, and mortar. Stones employed
for building purposes may be comprised under two sorts, sandstone and
limestone; trap and granite are not in general use for this purpose.
Where sandstone can be had-plentifully it is most generally used; never-
theless many erections are built by preference of limestone; but the
choice obviously depends upon which is most easily and cheaply obtain-
able. In and around Glasgow sandstone is universally used.

In my former paper I showed that sandstones differ materially both
in their physical and chemical structure, and in nothing more than in
their power of absorbing, retaining, and giving out moisture. As for
instance, stones containing much clay become sooner wet when ex-
posed to a damp atmosphere than those having little clay: that two
stones containing different quantities of clay being equally wet, that
having the least clay will be soonest dry when exposed to a dry atmo-
sphere : that sandstone brought into contact with water, absorbs it
rapidly, and in great quantity ; and that if only a small part of a stone
be in contact with water, it is soon diffused through the stone by capillary
attraction ; nay, if placed upon a wet substance, such as clay or wet earth,
it will absorb the water from these freely, but this capillary attraction
differs in rapidity with the structure of the stone. The rate at which
this takes place I have made the subject of a few laboratory experi-
ments, most of which have been borne out by observations made
upon houses during last winter. The first experiment was with three
pieces of stone of different structure, one fine grained, the other coarser,
and the third still coarser, all from one quarry, and having about equal
quantities of clay. The stones were dried and laid in water to the depth
of ha‘f an inch, there being 4 inches above the water ; the water rose in
these at the following rate :—

1st Inch, | 2d Inch. | 3d Inch, | 4th Inch. Total.
Fine Grain, ....ss.scs00 17 min. | 51 min. | 72 min. | 127 min.| 267 = 43 hours.
Coarse Grain, ......... D2 cc Ad sos) [iO sengh|elOOMrenn || 229) oe
Coarsest Grain,......... Giles UC tesa OO. Goer | ae

Here there is a vast difference in absorption. The next trial was with
two pieces of equal fineness from different quarries, the one had 14 per
cent. of clay the other 12 per cent. These were treated in the same
manner, but there were seven inches above the water.

ist In. | 2d In. | 3d In. | 4th In. | 5th In. | 6th In. | 7th In. | Total. | Hours.
No. 1 Time,...| 21 83 85 165 170 150 180 854 14}
No. 2 Tine ar 17 60 65 130 145 230 263 910 | 15

Mr. J. Narrer on Damp Walls. 335

From these it appears to be the physical structure that causes different
rates of absorption. The rate of progression we think worthy of further
notice.

A piece of Craigleith stone, of the sort referred to in my last paper, was
tried along with these, but the water did not rise one inch in twelve
hours.

Placing one of these stones in the position above described, the dimen-
sions of the stone being seven inches high and six inches thick, and
dropping upon one face of the stone a little water so as to imitate a
shower of rain falling upon the walls of a house, the stone very speedily
becomes wet all over, the capillary attraction seems increased, and the
absorption goes on somewhat like the dotted line in the following figure :

In this experiment the stone was wet all over in less than half the time
required to do so by capillary attraction alone, so that when a house is
built upon a wet foundation, the water will rise up the walls by capillary
attraction, and during rain this rise will be greatly increased.

The height to which the water will rise in the wall of a house will
depend somewhat on the state of the atmosphere. When the evapora-
tion from the surface of the wall is equal to that drawn up by capillary
attraction, that will form the point to which it will ascend; but this is
by no means a small height. I have observed in a good many houses
built within these five years, where the stone is not yet so black as to
hide the damp, that the line of damp has reached from five feet to seyen
feet above the surface of the ground, and upon pillars at the sides of
doors, the water generally rises in these from one to two feet above that
of the ashlar wall, no doubt from its being one stone, showing how putty
between stones helps to retard the rise of the water. Where the found
has been laid upon sand or gravel the wet does not ascend so high by
nearly two feet. The whole length of time required for the water to
ascend the height of seven feet I have not positively ascertained, but,
when once it is up a wall, the drying is a slow process. In two instances
that I have strictly watched, the wet did not descend more than six inches
during six weeks dry weather.

I would suggest a very simple remedy against the capillary attraction
from the foundation, by putting one or two courses of common house

336 Mr.' J. NApreR on Damp Walls.

slate embedded in Roman cement above the surface of the ground,
Were one layer put below, and another above the base course, no damp
would penetrate them.

LIestToNe

differs entirely from sandstone in its constitution: the latter is a rock
composed of siliceous particles cemented together by lime under pres-
sure, Limestone is a mineral chemically combined; nevertheless its
physical structure is exceedingly varied, including from the marl to the
marble. It in general absorbs water much more slowly than sandstone,
and the capillary attraction is very slow, requiring, according to several
experiments I made with compact limestone, several hours to ascend one
inch; nevertheless, although requiring more time to become wet, it in
many instances absorbs more water than some sandstones, and is much
longer in drying. I have not had the same opportunity of experimenting
or making observations upon limestones used for building purposes as
upon sandstones, and must therefore refer to the experiments and obser-
vations of others. The report of the commissioners upon building stones
for the New Houses of Parliament supplies a good deal of information
upon this question; and from that report it appears, that limestone, when
thoroughly dry, and then put into water, absorbs a great quantity of it,
varying from half a gallon to two gallons per cubic foot of stone, equal
to that which I obtained in the sandstone. It may be stated in general
terms, that the oolite and magnesian limestones are most absorbent,
averaging 14 gallon per cubic foot of stone, and the common compact
limestone least absorbent, averaging not more than # of a gallon per
cubic foot of stone. Analyzing the same class of limestones that differ in
this absorbing property, I found nothing to suggest a chemical cause for
the difference, and think it depends upon the physical structure.

The slowness with which lime absorbs water is a feature I wish to be
remembered, as it has a peculiar bearing on damp walls to be after-
wards noticed.

Bricks.

The next building materials to be considered are bricks. I need hardly
say that they vary much in their character, as the most casual observer
cannot fail to notice ; both their physical and chemical constitution, their
property of absorbing moisture, and the rapidity with which they do so
varying very greatly. This, however, depends much upon their baking.
When the brick has been so situated in the kiln or oven, that a partial
glaze has been formed upon the surface, such bricks absorb little
water, and slowly and almost wholly by parts not so glazed According to
a number of experiments made upon different qualities of bricks, I found
them to absorb from 5 to 13 per cent. of their weight of water, being

Mr. J. Narrer on Damp Walls. 337

from ? to 2 gallons per cubic foot ; and these experiments were made with
what are termed good outside bricks, there being often used in building
partitions, soft, coarse bricks, which imbibe water like a sponge. In some
trials the water passed up the whole length of a brick by capillary attraction
in eight hours; in other bricks it took twenty hours, which may be stated
as the two extremes. The absorption and ascension of the water in well
burned and partially glazed bricks, was often confined to one or two faces
of the brick that had escaped the glazing; so that, if means could be
adopted to partially glaze the whole surface of the brick, the absorbent
property would be removed. The application of a glaze to bricks I am
afraid would not do, the low heat at which it would require to fuse would
render such glaze liable to decompose in the air. Bricks, from the poverty
of the ‘clay used, fuse at a low heat, so that I think a different mode of
baking or firing so as to produce the partial fusion over the whole surface
of the brick that is now confined only to one or two faces, would do much
to improve the quality of brick, so far as the protection from damp
is concerned, although it would be against their binding by lime, as a cer-
tain amount of absorption is necessary for this purpose.

PLASTER OR Mortar.

The next substance to be considered is plaster. If a little plaster be
taken after hardening and drying, and put into water, or if water is
allowed to drop upon it till saturated, it takes up fully two gallons per
cubic foot. Its capillary attraction is very rapid for two or three inches,
after which it becomes slower than the average of brick or sandstone.
It gives out any excess of water easily when brought into contact with
other absorbents in a drier state, thus evaporating and communicating
moisture freely to everything around it. Plaster, however, must be
considered in its different ingredients, lime, sand, and water, all of which
play important parts in damp walls.

Lime used for mortar differs altogether from the limestones used in
building, having been subjected to the operation of burning, where its
property is altogether changéd, and then to slacking, when it absorbs or
combines with from one-third to one-half of its weight of water. If the
limestone has contained any acid or alkaline salt, which is often the case,
these are affected by the heat and slacking. If the water contains any
salts or acids, which is universally the case, then there will be formed in
the mortar ingredients subject to decomposition, and also, which is not
uncommon, the sand mixed with the lime contains matters subject to
decompose, such as common salt or organic matter, all of which in a
short time become a source of perpetual annoyance, showing itself either
in the form of damp or efflorescence upon the plaster, which I will notice
presently. Such, then, are the principal materials of our walls, which

338 My. J. Naprer on Damp Walls.

are likely to produce damp. Wood, no doubt, forms an important item
in the building of a house, but wood is generally seasoned before being
put into a building, so that, of itself, it is not a source of damp. Never-
theless, new wood absorbs moisture rapidly, either from a damp atmo-
sphere, or when in contact with wet substances ; so that the wood about
a house, from contact with damp, very soon becomes a source of mois-
ture in newly-built houses, and that it is no mean source of supply by
increasing the evaporating surface, will be evident when I mention that
it will absorb from a damp wall fifteen per cent. of its whole weight of
water, and give it out very easily by evaporation or contact, as may be
amply verified in wall presses of newly-built or otherwise damp houses.

We have now to consider the general question of damp walls, both in
new and old houses; and, being guided by the data obtained, let us first
consider the state of a new house finished for a tenant, both those built
for the labouring classes and for the middle classes.

The stones naturally contain, on an average, 1} gallon per cubic foot.
They never lose all this water, retaining about 3 even under the most
favourable circumstances for drying. The quantity they lose the first
year varies according to these circumstances ; but under the most favour-
able conditions, and where there was good ventilation, according to one
experiment, the loss amounted to fully half a gallon per cubic foot.

The bricks used for partitions, although not wet of themselves, become
saturated by the mortar and plaster put upon them, and therefore may
be said to contain 1} gallon per cubic foot.

The plaster in a condition fit to work I have found by several trials
to be by weight—

ADs ssaeesens sand,
Deasssensases lime,
D0 see adetasars water,

so that one hod of this contains about 5 gallons water, which go over but
a small surface of wall, being sufficient to supply either brick or stones not
previously saturated. After a few weeks in dry weather the plaster
hardens and seems to sweat, probably from taking up carbonic acid.
When the excess of this sweating is evaporated, and the plaster perfectly
hard, the house is, in general, ready to be occupied, more especially
those for the working classes. I have often seen such houses tenanted
before this, and before the plaster had properly hardened, and when
it could not contain less than 20 to 30 per cent. of water—a prac-
tice most reprehensive, and against which the law should be enforced
upon landlords. Workmen’s houses have no lining or battening, but are
plastered upon the stone walls, so that when they are considered fit for
occupation the walls must contain about 1} gallon per cubic foot.
So that if we take a room 12 feet square and 10 high, and if only

Mr. J. Napier on Damp Walls. 339

two inches of the depth of the wall lose half this moisture the first year,
then there will be upwards of 100 gallons water evaporated in a house
unprovided with proper means of ventilation, subjecting the tenants to
an incipient vapour bath, in which are dissolved the noxious gases gene-
rated in the family. Clothing in such an atmosphere also imbibes mois-
ture, and becomes damp, so that to contemplate the whole circumstances
only increases surprise that fevers, consumptions, and other diseases are
not more prevalent, and instead of the rate of life of that class being 20
years less than the upper classes, the wonder is that they can rear their
own offspring at all.

The new houses built for the wealthier class, are constructed so that
the damp is not so great during the first and second years. The stone
walls are battened, leaving a stratum of air between the wall and plaster,
so that the plaster dries sooner. Brick partitions are however in the
same state as common houses, the plaster being put on the wall. Such
houses are all papered, which renders the evaporation less apparent and
slower, but withal the plaster absorbs the moisture from the walls ; not-
withstanding the very thin stratum of air intervening, the paper and all
upon it absorb damp and evaporate freely, except those parts covered,
as will be manifested by mould and damp under places where pictures
hang close upon new walls, and this constant evaporation is not good,
especially in sleeping apartments. The damp causes decomposition of
paste and paper, producing a bad smell, and a very unhealthy atmo-
sphere. The damp walls I have just described originate from the natural
moisture in the materials used, and are cured by time as the matters dry.
But there is a class of damp walls very common and destructive to
health, which no time cures. These are mostly in first floors of houses,
and originate from the foundation and the absorbing property of the
materials. After the drought of summer these walls become compara-
tively dry, but whenever wet weather sets in, immediately the damp begins
at the floor and ascends gradually until it reaches from four to six
feet high, and there it comes and goes for several inches up or down
according to the weather, until the return of the summer. In the work-
ing man’s house this is visible by a dark line along the plaster, and we
have often seen that line fringed by a slight efflorescence. Such apart-
ments always feel cold. In the winter, fires are increased, and so is the
moisture, producing to an unlimited extent all the evils I have referred
to in new houses. In a papered house the evils are the same as formerly
described, although not so great as on walls without paper, except
smell. In a short time the paper loses its attachment to the plaster, and
falls off. Canvas is often used under the paper to prevent the loosening
of it, but that will not prevent the evils of damp. We have already
referred to layers of slate being put above the foundas a good preventive

340 Mr. J. Napier on Damp Wails.

of this kind of damp walls. I have been informed of a mixture of
lime with oxide of iron, and a certain kind of ashes ground, which soon
hardens so as to become impervious to moisture. I have not seen the
mixture, nor houses where it was used, but, if effective, it is to be
regretted that it is not more generally employed.

Damp also penetrates through the side walls of a house, from the
thinness of the wall and the porous nature of the stone. I have several
times witnessed this on the second floor of a three and four storey house
so great as to loosen the paper and be visible upon the plaster inside, and
to appear in every continuance of wet weather. I believe that this is a very
prevalent source of damp in houses exposed to the weather, although it
may not be so great as to attract notice. Now prevention from this
source could be effected cheaply and easily. I have seen houses on the
coast tastefully painted over by a sort of pitch and tar, and have often
considered it a lesson that might be applied beneficially to the outside of
our porous walls, and any colour could be given to such cheap matters
as would throw off and resist the wet penetrating the stone or brick.

Houses under the level of the ground, and especially where the ground
abuts upon the wall, are never dry, and should never be inhabited by
any person, and especially never used as sleeping apartments.

There is another cause of damp on walls, which affects a certain class
of houses very much, such as those having bare walls. This is caused
by sudden changes of temperature, and moisture in the air. When the
temperature has been cold for some time, and suddenly becomes warm,
the plaster and stone being bad conductors of heat, remain for a long
time much colder than the atmosphere. The consequence is, a conden-
sation of the watery vapour of the air, and in great quantities, for the
condensation sets up a current of air towards the wall, and the water so
condensed is often very considerable. If the walls be of non or slow
absorbent materials, the moisture collects and runs down in drops, and
attracts notice, and should be removed by a cloth or sponge. Lime-
stone walls are very subject to this from their slow absorbent property ;
hence people get an impression that limestones are more liable to damp
than sandstone, while of all kinds of damp this is the least to be dreaded, it
being easily removed. Lighting a fire in a room upon a cold day will pro-
duce the same effect upon such walls, and give rise to the common notion
that the fire is drawing out the damp. The same condensation takes place
upon plaster and sandstone walls, but the moisture is absorbed and does
not become visible. We have seen a dry plaster under these cireum-
stances become saturated with moisture, and penetrating to the depth of
two inches, and the room being damp in consequence for weeks after, and
this is a condition and result always occurring, especially in spring-time
and harvest. Papered walls are affected in the same way, but probably
not to the same extent; but this damp imbibed and retained in a room

Mr. J. NAPIER on Damp Walls. 841

where there is seldom a fire kindled and little ventilation may cause de-
composition of the paste and paper, and produce other evils. At all
events, paper upon damp walls always has a heavy disagreeable smell.
Another and very annoying kind of damp occasionally seen upon
walls, is caused by certain ingredients in the stone, brick, or plaster,
undergoing decomposition. In dry weather the wall seems as if covered
by hoar-frost, owing to an efflorescence, and in wet or damp weather
this either disappears or seems to run into water, and the wall becomes
damp. In other words this efflorescence is very soluble, and when the
moisture becomes condensed on the walls, as we have just noticed, if the
wall be absorbent, the whole seems to disappear ; but if of limestone or
other slow absorbent substance, the wall becomes wet. ‘This efflores-
cence upon walls depends, as I have already stated, upon the presence of
certain salts in or upon the materials forming the wall. Sandstones
occasionally contain sulphuret of iron, which by exposure to air and
moisture becomes oxidized, the sulphur being converted into sulphuric
acid, which readily combines with some ingredient in the stone, and
forms salts, soluble in water, and soon affects the surface of the stone, as
described as a fine hoar frost, mixed with sand from the disintegration of
the siliceous particles of the stone. Bricks often effloresce from the same
cause from the clay or fuel containing iron pyrites, which, during burn-
ing, if tae heat be not very high, becomes converted into sulphuric acid,
which readily combines with one of the ingredients in the clay, and
forms salts which are dissolved by the moisture absorbed by the brick,
and ultimately brought to the surface. The plaster also is subject to
effloresce from the lime, water, or sand containing matters that will form
soluble salts. As an illustration, I will suppose the plaster made from
the waters of the city wells. According to Dr. R. D. Thomson, the
acid in these wells, taking the average, stands thus in each gallon:—

13 grains sulphuric acid,
10 grains muriatic acid,
2°7 grains nitric acid,

in all 25-7 grains,

either in combination with bases, or subject to combine with bases, and
form salts, giving at least twice its weight, or 67 grains per gallon. Now
every 100 pounds of plaster, as put on the walls, contains 50 lbs. or 5
gallons water, having in it 255 grains soluble salts. This no doubt
seems, and really is, exceedingly little, when diffused through 100 lbs.
plaster, covering about one yard of wall; but it does not remain diffused
through the plaster, but is brought to the surface by the water which on
being evaporated leaves the solid salt exposed. It is therefore of impor-

tance to pay attention to the quality of the water used in mixing lime,
Vor. III.—No. 6. c

342 Mr. J. NAPIER on Damp Walls.

and should the water or any of the substances used have organic matters
in them, these, with damp, are subject to decay, and produce salts that
will affect a wall.

The analyses of these efflorescences have verified these statements.
The white coating upon bricks has been found to contain sulphuric acid,
alumina, magnesia, soda, and iron. Upon a brick wall near to where I
live, one side of the wall seems whitened over, leaving, generally, the
centre portion of the brick. I collected some of this, which was a fine
powder, resembling effloresced soda. This was tested, and gave sul-
phuric acid with a small proportion of hydrochloric acid, no alumina or
iron, but magnesia, soda, and a trace of lime—all which I consider to
come from the lime between the bricks, which had been absorbed;
and the true source, the water used in mixing the lime when building.
Kuhlmann and Vogel have analyzed efflorescence upon walls, and give
as their general composition sulphate of soda and potash, carbonate of
soda and potash, and chloride of sodium and potassium, and their opinion
is, that these salts are from the lime, taking no notice of the water used.
Whichever be the source, we have found the composition of the efflores-
cence to vary according to circumstances. A snowy efilorescence grow-
ing out from plaster to the depth of half an inch, a sample of which is
exhibited, I found to be almost wholly composed of sulphate of soda,
having a mere trace of magnesia, lime, and chlorine. Another sample,
upon a different wall, different lime being used, but in the same locality, I
found to be of the same composition, and also, that mostly all the spring
waters in the locality (Partick) contain soda. In a house built last
spring, the walls of which outside were pretty well dried during sum-
mer except the two first courses of stone from the ground, they
have been damp all along, mostly, in my belief, from the found; but
during the late dry weather these stones have become coated over with
a white floury efflorescence. I washed off some of this, and found by
testing that the water was slightly alkaline, and gave soda, magnesia, and
a little lime, with sulphuric and muriatic acids. These salts I believe to
be mostly from the water absorbed from the found.

In a house I occupied in Swansea, there had formerly been a rent in
the side wall, of nearly two inches wide, which had been filled up by
lime. Against this wall a wing had been erected, so that when I occu-
pied it this wall was not exposed to the weather ; nevertheless, all along
this rent, and for 12 inches of the plaster on each side, no paper would
adhere for any length of time. In damp weather it became damp, in
dry weather it effloresced; and though brushed off again and again,
the source seemed inexhaustible. I collected ten grains of this efflor-
escence, and submitted it to analysis, and obtained the following, in
100 parts :—

Mr. J. Naprer on Damp Walls. 343

Sulphuric acid . - 33°1
Muriatic acid . A : 5:3
Carbonic acid . ‘ : 14:7
Potash 3 10°9
Soda . ; ‘ * 25°3
Magnesia : : ‘ 2-0
Lime . £ : 2 33
Water and loss é . 5:4

100°0

This analysis corresponds somewhat to the circumstances. Swansea is
upon the sea-shore, and in the immediate neighbourhood of extensive
copper-works, which are constantly sending into the atmosphere sulphur-
ous acid, often enveloping the town in a dense fog, which condenses
and deposits during chilly and dewy evenings sufficiently to destroy
vegetation. By inquiry I learned that some time before I occupied the
house, the guttering along this wall had got out of repair, so that rain
was admitted into the wall. Now after a short time of dry and calm
weather, the smoke from the copper-works having been over the town,
the first rain occurring after, coming off the roofs of houses, always con-
tained sulphate of soda, and very little chlorine, although, no doubt, the
soda was from sea-salt that had been decomposed—hence, this no doubt
was the source of the efflorescence and damp in this crack. Although
this analysis may not represent the general composition of efflorescence
on walls, the whole circumstances are suggestive of causes that may
produce these effects.

Nitrates in plaster have been long known as a source of efflorescence
on walls; and although I found none in the samples I tested, I have no
doubt they are often present, being very easily formed when organic
matters are present ;,and, as I have mentioned, such salts may be absent
in one locality and prevail in another. Nitrates are always found to pre-
vail upon the walls of stables, &c., no doubt from the soluble organic
matters absorbed by the wall or plaster after being built or used as a
stable or cowhouse, ‘There is a practice of workmen urinating upon the
inside wall of a house being built: this, when continued in one place for
any length of time, is reprehensible, and often requires years to get quit
of the consequences.

In speaking of the efflorescence and diliquescence upon walls, it is
often supposed that these effects are caused only by the presence of such
salts that have by themselves efflorescent or diliquescent properties.
This is a mistake. Every substance, soluble in water, that is either put
in or formed within a wall, produces these effects, ‘They are brought to
the surface by the water, and there left dry, giving the appearance of
efflorescence ; and, when a more moist atmosphere occurs, the salt is
again dissolved, giving the appearance of deliquesence and damp.

344 Mr. J. Napier on Spurious Coins.

Such, then, is a brief statement of the several causes and circumstances
attending damp walls, which, I think, ought to suggest precautions
against these effects, so far as practicable. And were the question of
health, comfort, and economy to form an element in the calculation
in building a house, the evils referred to should be avoided; but I
am afraid that in most of the houses constructed of late, especially for
the working classes, such questions are seldom proposed; and should
they occur, the fear of half a per cent. less interest is an effective
negative.

I wish I could enter into the questions as to what is the maximum of
moisture in the air, a healthy person may live in, sleeping and waking,
and how far his system can resist the effects of his being surrounded
within a few feet by an evaporating surface, absorbing rapidly the heat
given off by the body. Such questions may not be easily answered, and
probably no fixed standard could be given; but I am afraid that a con-
tinuation of these conditions would be at a risk to the constitution of the
most healthy. I have, however, endeavoured to give some data to
those whose knowledge and means of inquiry may extend to the ascer-
taining of these important points, which I think of some importance to
a community such as ours, when the fact of not being able to pay a rent
of £20 or £30 will place a family under circumstances where the aver-
age rate of life will be shortened by 20 years, and where the chances
are, that the family receive a moral taint difficult to overcome, as the
circumstances have a strong tendency to weaken the influence of either

moral precept or example.

Mr. J. R. Napier exhibited a Vacuum Gauge for Steam Engines.
Mr. J. Napier also read a paper on “ Spurious Coins.”

MR. JAMES NAPIER ON SPURIOUS COINS.

The present inquiry into the character of spurious coin, originated
with my friend Mr. Arch. M‘Laren of the Glasgow Stamp Office, who,
in the course of a number of years, had collected a great many, and felt
curious to know their general character and if they possessed any in-
trinsic value. This inquiry, like most others, soon became interesting to
us both, and with Mr. M‘Laren’s consent, I shall now read the results, in
which some members of the Society may also be interested.

Goxp Corns.

As may be anticipated, spurious gold coins are not so plentiful as
either silver or copper; this may be accounted for by gold being more
difficult to imitate in all its general qualities as a coin, than the other
metals, and also in much more care and attention being bestowed upon

Mr. J. Napier on Spurious Coins. 845

accepting of gold coin than on those less valuable, especially in Scotland,
where gold is comparatively scarce. The only spurious gold coin ex-
amined was a half sovereign: it was beautifully finished, and resembled a
new coin; but was much lighter, weighing only 43 grains, while the gen-
uine coin should weigh about 61 grains. It was gilt by the electrotype
process so perfectly that when the spurious metal was dissolved out, the
gold gilding remained as a skeleton coin with all the impressions upon
it, and the whole weight of which was only 0°3 of a grain. The spuri-
ous metal was a rich brass; the composition of the coin was

Copper, f r c ; . 28°8
Zine, “ : : a ° 13°2
Iron, A : : ; 07
Gold, “1 . 5 : 7 03

43°0

This coin was evidently the work of a tradesman, and the use of such a
rich brass enabled him to use a thinner coating of gold than would have
sufficed for copper or any white coloured metal to obtain the real colour
of a gold piece, as the metal shines through a thin coating of gold.

Sitver Corns.

The number of spurious silver coins in our possession for examination
was considerable, and of the several values from a sixpence to a crown.
When a quantity of these spurious coins are put together it is at once
apparent that there have been no great variety of materials used in their
manufacture; probably from the metal most resembling silver, viz., tin,
being abundant, and within easy reach of the coiner, is easily fused and
well adapted for casting, and a very little experience teaches what are
the metals best adapted to mix with tin for the purpose of coining.

The whole currency of spurious silver is by stealth, and whenever
discovered, which is very easily and soon done, the honest possessor,
rather than defraud his neighbour, stops them. Yet, when we take into
consideration the number constantly being detected, it shows that their
manufacture must be in great quantity, and that society suffers severely
from this source,

The whole variety of these coins may be divided into three. The
first, and not at all a very common coin, and mostly confined to half.
crowns and shillings, are made of brass, and then washed over witha solu-
tion of tin in the same manner as they whiten pins. This sort very soon
become yellow round the edges and prominent parts, stopping their
circulation ; but even when new they are easily detected by their weight
as well as by the sound, the ring being sharper and of shorter duration
than silver.

se

346 Mr. J. NAPIER on Spurious Coins.

The most of these examined were George III., dated 1819; their
average weight was 186 grains. One analyzed gave in the 100 parts—

Copper, : ; - ! : 61:0
Zine, 2 . 4 4 ~ 313
Tin, , : ° . ° 67
Lead, ‘ : ‘ F : 05
Tron, 5 4 ‘ : : 0-4
Silver, 3 : : : - trace

* 99:9

This trace of silyer may have been originally in the copper, which often
contains that metal. I do not suppose it was applied by the coiner.

The next variety, and by far the most common, are made of com-
mercial tin without any artificial alloy or coating. These are not gene-
rally so well got up as the next sort, and are apparently the produce of
several hands. Tin is nearly the same colour as silver, is easily melted
in an iron ladle or spoon over the fire, and is not subject to tarnish by
exposure to the air, qualities fitting the most ignorant coiner,—however,
tin coins are easily detected: when compared with silver they have a
bluish tint,—the sound, when thrown upon wood, being more of a clink.
The metal is soft, so that the coin is easily bent by the teeth, and when
bending gives a crackling sound; indeed, this is the most simple and
effective test, to give them a bite; even when not bent the teeth makes
an impression, and the crackling is felt instantly, and may in this way
be as easily detected in the dark as in the light. The weight of these
coins is about three-fourths that of silver. The average of the sixpence
was 31 grains—the average of the shilling was 57-5—that of the half-
crown was 158. They are mostly cast from coins of old date; 1816,
1819, and 1827, were common dates.

The analyses of these several coins gave no more difference than is to
be found in different lots of common block tin for sale in the market, so
that no alloy seems to be employed in their manufacture. The average
composition may be stated as

Tin, : 3 : = : 97°7
Tron, : - : : : ick
Lead, uM : A - o's
Copper, - ; E ‘ ; O-4

100°0

The third class of spurious silver coin is the most improved. They
are generally well got up, and are composed of an alloy that in appear-
ance comes closer to silver than pure tin, not being so blue. They are
heavier than the tin coin, but still a full fifth lighter than silver, and the

Mr. J. Napier on Spurious Coins. 347

ring is much improved, but still sharper and of shorter duration than
silver. They are easily marked by the teeth, and give the crackling
sound of tin but slightly.

A shilling of this sort analyzed gave in 100 parts—

Tin, - : = : - 90
Copper, A - . - ; 10
100

A crown piece, of which there were recently a good many in circula-
tion, gave in 100 parts—

Tin, - - - : ? 87°4
Copper, - - : : : 12°3
99°7

This latter was the best alloy for the purpose. These sort are often cast
from models of a late date, and when they are newly made, and before
the air has had any effect upon them, they are a most perfect counter-
feit so far as appearances go. However, there are many also cast or
stamped from coins of old date. The shilling analyzed was dated 1836,
and the crown 1820. In general spurious silver are made from partially
worn coin, no doubt to take the advantage of the impression that if a
coin is worn it is more likely to be good, and a worn coin is not so easily
detected by the weight in the hand. As a great deal of our silver coin is
very much worn, I have had them nearly one-fourth lighter than a new
coin by abrasion. We may remark that there is one general feature in the
whole of these silver coins that may be easily taken advantage of where
there is any dubiety of their genuineness, namely, the weight. Selecting
a good coin of the same wear and putting them against others in the
balance, the spurious will be found wanting from one-fifth to one-fourth
of the whole weight, when there need be no hesitation in rejecting or
retaining the bad article. Or if rubbed a little between the fingers, they
have a heavy smell which genuine coin have not got.

The following paragraph has been printed and circulated, showing a
new alloy in use for spurious silver coins, and marks a quality I have
not yet seen :—

“NewLy Isventep Spurious Corx.—Within the last few days Mr. Webster,
the Inspector-General of Coins to her Majesty’s Mint, has received some counter-
feit shillings, bearing date of those issued in 1852, and which more perfectly re-
present the genuine coin than anything ever yet put in cirenlation. Their differ-
ence from the ordinary bad money is, that they are struck with a beautifully
executed die from a hard white metal, which is subsequently strongly electro-
plated. Their being struck from dies renders them to all appearance perfect in this
respect, that the rim and nerling is cut quite sharp and complete, whereas in the

348 Mr. J. Napier on Spurious Coins.

Britannia metal base coin hitherto circulated, that being cast in moulds and poured
in from the edge of the mould, the outer rim of the coin is always faulty, and a
very cursory inspection of that part would suffice to detect it. The component
parts of the metal from which they are struck are copper, nickel, and zinc, in the
following proportions,—copper, 64°26 per cent., nickel, 15-71, and the rest zinc;
which is, in reality, German silver. The shilling weighs 5 grains light of a genuine
one of the same year, and three grains heavy of a George III., of 1822. The
metal being so hard, the coin detectors will not expose the fraud, but they may
be known by the ring, which is very bad. It is believed that they came from
Birmingham.”

Copper Coms.

The copper spurious coins may be divided into four sorts, although
there is a great variety of the first two sorts. And, upon the whole,
copper coining appears to be the most extensive, probably because there
seems to be little or no risk attending it, and the profits, as we shall
presently see, are very considerable.

The first and worst sort are composed of brass, and afterwards bronzed
by acids to give them the appearance of tarnished copper. ‘This sort
does not maintain its circulation, the bronze soon wears off and the brass
is detected. This sort I do not think numerous, many of them are often
the production of thoughtless youth in brass foundries, although, no
doubt, there are many made by the worthless to maintain a life of idle-
ness. The most of those I have seen are cast from Irish pennies. One
analyzed was George IV., 1823, and weighed 276 grains, and gave per

cent.—

Copper, . 2 : : . 59:2
Zine, : a = : 32°9
Tin and antimony, .« 5 - : 41
Lead, E c : = 22
Tron, : . 3 » . 16

100°0

This, I need hardly say, is inferior brass.

The next sort is a little better, being made of bronze and afterwards
darkened by acids. These were mostly all in the form of old penny-
pieces, the bronze colour is only visible round the rim; these maintain
their circulation, although under suspicions. The one analyzed weighed
323, and gave per cent,—

Copper, 2 - 5 2 s 83°5
Tin, ? - Z ‘ 2 HS |
Zine, F s : 5 7 10:0
Lead, . : 5 ? : 2°4
Tron, é : F A . 1°8

99°8

eS 4

Mr. J. Napier on Spurious Coins. 349

The next two sorts are composed of good copper, and differ only in
the one having been cast and the other stamped by hand. The first of
these are not numerous, and mostly moulded from the old penny. They
feel light, and have a light sharp sound compared to the genuine coin,
and smaller in diameter,—their average weight was 297 grains, fully
one-fourth lighter than a good coin of the same wear. The analysis
gave

Copper, : : : . . 98.9
Silver, A F = ; 3 0°5
Tin, c : : . 01
Tron, 2 5 - 04
Lead, > é ‘ ' - trace

99°9

which is most excellent copper.

The next sort is by far the most numerous, and are composed of
equally good metal; but they are a most miserable coin as respects their
make, and if found by some future antiquarian numismatist would give
him a very poor and unfair impression of such an art in this age,—these
are made resembling pennies of various dates, some of them the most
recent, and I have no doubt form a very important branch of manufac-
ture to some parties, and as no one objects to take them their manufacture
is without risk.

The commercial and political aspect of this state of our copper coinage
I do not here consider, but from the information I have obtained I believe’
there can be no less than from 25 to 30 per cent. of the spurious copper
money in constant circulation in this part of the country which no doubt
originates in and is maintained by the scarcity of genuine copper coin.
From a parliamentary paper recently printed, it appears that only about
830,624 pennies and 455,616 halfpennies have been made yearly these
last six years by Government, certainly far too little for the requirements
of this country, and the equivalent of this supply not reaching distant
places, causes or rather necessitates a far greater and easier circulation of
spurious copper coins here than in London, which is a well known fact.
The scarcity of copper coinage and the great inducement to parties to
manufacture to supply this deficiency will be best stated by showing the
profits to be made by such manufacturers. Take copper at the average
price these three years back, it does not exceed £100 per ton. Thus

112 lbs. copper cost . . * £5 0 0
112 ]bs. coined at the Mint . . F 11 4 0
112 lbs. made into cast pennies as above . 1412 0
112 ]bs. made into stamped pennies as shown . 17 0 0

Here is a source of a comfortable living to a few Brummagem garret men,
and, as we have said, without risk.

350 Mr. J. R. Narrer on Velocity of Ships.

Should we take the silver coining in the same way, it seems vastly
superior as a commercial speculation,—l1 Ib. of the tin alloy will not cost
more than ls. 6d., and will produce about 96s. These, however, are
often disposed of to venders at three and four for 1s., thus reducing the
profits —this, along with the risks of detection, imprisonment, &c.,
necessitates the silver coiner to belong to the lowest class of society; but
both the copper coin and coiners of them maintain their position in
society, it only requiring that he keep his trade secret, the name coiner
not being legal as a private manufacture.

The following is the standard weight of each coin when new :—

Sovereign, : : E - - 123 grains.
Half-sovereign, . : - : 6l- —
Crown, . ‘ : ; : 436 —
Half-crown, . : : , : 218 —
Florin, . F - : . i
Shilling, : ; : é : 87 —
Sixpence, : - : 2 : 43 —
Fourpence, - : : : d 29 —
Penny, - - - - - 292. —
Halfpenny, - - - : ‘ 146 —
Farthing, : : : : C 73 —

Description of an Instrument for Measuring the Velocity of Ships,
Currents, §c. By Mr. James R. Napier.

A bent tube with its orifice exposed to the passing water will, by the
height to which the water rises in the tube, indicate the velocity of the
vessel or current.

Tubes of this description have been tried, but the difficulty of ascer-
taining the zero point, or the level of the surrounding water from which
to measure the height, especially in a boisterous sea and with every vary-
ing immersion of the vessel, has hitherto rendered this simple construc-
tion unsatisfactory.

In the instrument now submitted, I overcame this difficulty by using

Mr. J. R. Napier on Velocity of Ships. 351

two bent tubes, the one having its orifice looking forward, and the other
its orifice looking aft, and their other extremities connected with a bulbed
glass tube containing a little mercury.

The velocity of the ship is indicated by the height to which the mer-
cury rises, and, as when the vessel is at rest or moved vertically, the
pressures on both the exposed orifices are, and always continue equal,
neither the varying immersions nor boisterous seas can have any influ-.
ence on the heights to which the mercury will rise.

Fig. 1 shows a reduced view of the instruments I have used. The
bent pieces L' and © are fastened to the side of the vessel well under
water, and, I believe, may be fixed at any part, though I have hitherto
had them placed about the middle, in the engine compartment of steamers.
The instrument itself, I had thought, might be placed in any situation
where it could be most conveniently seen,—as, in the captain’s cabin, for
instance. I now find that it is most effective when placed below the
external water level, as when placed above this level the indications be-
come uncertain from the accumulation of air which then separates from
the water. The stop-cocks B and M, and the short tubes at c and N, are
for the purpose of allowing air to escape if such is suspected to be present ;
and the stop-cocks a and x for regulating the size of the orifice, so as to
prevent the oscillations of the mercury. The pieces r' and 1’ were con-
nected with the instrument at © and L by block tin and Indian rubber
tubing. A scale of tenths of an inch placed alongside the glass tube,
with its zero level with the mercury in the bulb, shows the heights to
which the mercury rises, when the vessels are propelled at different
speeds.

I imagined that the velocity would be indicated by the usual formula

=n 4 h, h being the height of the mercury, and that when v is taken
in knots per hour, and / in inches, n would be a constant quantity, if
not for all ships and at all velocities, at least for the same ship at all
velocities, and, if constant, its value would be nearly 5, found by reduc-
ing the formula v’ —= 2 gh from feet per second to knots per hour, and
to h inches of mercury instead of feet of water. The results I have re-
corded, however, do not exactly corroborate this; but the experiments
are perhaps too few, and some of them not taken with sufficient care,
as in the first experiments I was not sufficiently acquainted with the
working of the instrument to take the necessary precaution for freeing it
of air, as in these trials it was generally placed above the water-level.
In the Fiery Cross these objections are removed,

352 Mr, J. R. Napier on Velocity of Ships.

Hereuts or Mercury. ScALE aru Incu = 1 Incu.

— ,16

14

lo Lancefield,

% 13

@|K+e SAN

ol : We i ale

CB IN I\ 12
we

ee int

9 Vulcan, ® Emeraid.

“|

@ Queen.

1
Fig. 3, ® Emerald.
any a
N elfel \\ 4
ae calls \ e

Fig. 2.

s Knots ~ per » Houn

WV]

INSTRUMENT SHOWN ?rus OF FULL SIZE.

Mr. J. R. Napier on Velocity of Ships. 353
Values of » in] Knots observed. Height of
the formula Velocity in Mercury.
v=na/h | knots per Hour. | Inches,
River Steamer VULCAN.........5.-| 4°61 10°05 4-75
Donieecsneters=c 480+ 14:32 8-9
Screw Steamer QUEEN..........+0++ 88 3-5
DOiss Geccuwecenss not observed. 4:5
Screw Steamer EMERALD.......... 5°63 7°54 1.8
DOns iecsenaaswate 5:86 10:48 3-2
Screw Steamer LANCEFIELD...... 74
Screw Steamer Frery Cross...... 5°44 13°66 63

The curves on the accompanying sheet are drawn for different values

of n from the formula v = 2 Ah to facilitate the formation

of scales.

The working of the instrument on board the Fiery Cross, a screw
steamer of about 1100 tons, on a recent voyage from the Clyde to Car-

diff is shown in the following abstract from her log :—

FIERY CROSS—FROM THE CLYDE TO CARDIFF.

Here; P Velocity calculated
SS re rat a Height of Mercury by the formula
Time. Screw | Boiler. in Speed Indicating v= 54a/h.
per Ibs. Inches. Knots per Hour.
Minute.
9.30 P.M 52 awe 5°2 12°3
11.50 ,, “a gi | 4: rs full steam. 11-5
WAY Wy 51 12 5:15 expansively.
12.25 ,, 54 15 5°5
i ies 55 16 5°55 12°7
12.45 ,, 50 4°85 calm weather. 11-8
1.5 am. 52 515
2 PA 49 4:5
9.55 ,, 49 42 ship rolling. 11
10 of 483 4:2 blowing fresh.

2 pm. | 48h 3-95 with heavy seas. 10-7

rowing srustey

*%
“ se
‘a ve a
yits

at ie
‘ . oO 'D ase
shere\it psa sit sere oi

il
*

ee iy pe ae =
i, alk Agta caliente
ade adaghn seine Fes

x pith ae a

'etv?. Sh Cee

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW.

FIFTY-THIRD SESSION.

1st November, 1854.—W ater Crom, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the
Chair.

Dr. Joun Tayxor, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Anderson’s Insti-
tution, was elected a member, having been proposed in the last session.

Mr. Liddell reported that the deputation appointed by the Council to
proceed to the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, in the
month of September, and invite that body to hold its next Annual Meet-
ing in Glasgow, had fulfilled its instructions, and that the Association had
agreed to accept of the invitation, and resolved to hold its next meeting
in Glasgow, in September 1855,

A letter from the Secretary to the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury
was read, dated July 11, 1853, acknowledging receipt of the Society’s
memorial on the subject of Patents.

The President read “ Minutes of the Life and Character of Dr. Joseph
Black,” and afterwards communicated a Notice from Professor Liebig of
a discovery in Cholera Prevention, which has been made in Munich by
Professor Thiersch and Professor Pettenkofer, The latter paper called
forth some remarks from Dr. Crawford as to the imperfect nature of the
observations described.

November 15,—The Society met this evening. On taking the chair,
the President communicated the melancholy intelligence of the death of
Mr. Liddell, the Treasurer, which had occurred on the morning of that
day ; and concluded some remarks on the great personal worth and
usefulness of Mr. Liddell, and on his services to this Society, by moving
that it be remitted to the Secretaries to prepare a memorial of that gentle-

356 Death of ANDREW LIDDELL, Esq.

man, to be inserted in the Proceedings; and that as a mark of respect to
the memory of its Treasurer, and an expression of sorrow for the loss it
has sustained, the Society do now adjourn till the next Ordinary Meeting.

Mr. Hastie, in seconding the motion, followed up the remarks of the
President in the same spirit; and the Society accordingly adjourned
without proceeding to business,

DEATH OF ANDREW LIDDELL, ESQ.

Glasgow has lost one of its worthies by the death of Mr. Andrew
Liddell. This mournful event took place at his residence, Bardowie
House, on Wednesday morning the 15th of November. He became in-
disposed on Monday week, but his illness, which was a bilious fever, did
not assume an alarming aspect till Sabbath. His strength continued
gradually to sink till a few minutes after two o’clock on Wednesday
morning, when he expired.

Mr. Liddell was born in 1786 in the village of Bainsford, near Falkirk,
where his father was a schoolmaster. He received the elements of his
education in that village and in Falkirk. When about thirteen years of
age he went to assist his father at Carron iron-works, where he had been
appointed a clerk, Here he remained till he was about eighteen years of
age, when he removed to Edinburgh, and obtained a situation as clerk
in a foundry. He next held a similar situation in the employment of
Robert Anderson & Co., metal merchants, Leith. At this period, he
commenced to study for the medical profession, and through the con-
siderate kindness of his employers, to which he often reverted with
pleasure, he was allowed to write up his books at night in order that he
might have time for attending College during the day. He was diverted
from his purpose of becoming a surgeon, after he had attended one or
two of the classes in the University, by visiting Glasgow, where he was
offered a partnership in an ironmongery establishment in Coach Court,
Gallowgate. He closed with the offer, and settled in Glasgow about
1814 or 1815. In a few years all the partners retired, and his half-
brother, Mr. Robert M‘Laren, advanced capital, and went in as a sleep-
ing partner, under the firm of Andrew Liddell & Co. In 1826, Mr.
Liddell removed his place of business to 102 Argyle Street, his workshop
being behind the front shop; but when the Arcade was projected in
1828, the workshop was removed to Washington Street, where the
business of iron and brass founding was carried on, together with the
manufacture of malleable iron pipes, the most extensive in Scotland. He
had been making iron pipes in the usual way, when a new mode of
welding was patented by Mr. Russell of Wednesbury in Staffordshire.
Mr. Russell commenced a process against Mr. Liddell; but, by the inter-
ference of friends, the connection which began with a law-suit ended in

Death of ANDREW LIDDELL, Esq. 357

giving Mr. Liddell a right to the new process, and he carried it on until
he retired from business. Next to the sturdy common sense, the practical
sagacity, and energy of purpose which formed the prominent features of
Mr. Liddell’s mind, he was remarkable above most men for methodical
habits and punctuality. These qualities, added to a good knowledge of
machinery, rendered him a first-rate man of business ; and the promptitude,
energy, “ push,”’ and punctuality, which he exercised in his early career,
characterized him through life. His success in business was equal to his
wishes, and he was able to retire in 1844, with a respectable competency,
and a large heart and liberal mind to enjoy the well-earned fruits of his

‘toils, and employ a due share of his substance in doing good to others.

Mr. M‘Laren died in 1830, and Mr. Liddell continued sole partner in the
business till 1844, when he surrendered the iron manufactory to his
nephew, Mr. Robert M‘Laren, Globe Foundry. Mr. Liddell was ex-
tensively employed, on the introduction of gas-light, as a fitter of gas-
pipes and machinery. In addition to various towns in Scotland, he in-
troduced gas into Armagh, Dungannon, Dundalk, and Kilkenny in
Ireland; and sent apparatus for the same purpose to Nova Scotia and
Canada.

Both before and after his retirement from business, Mr. Liddell took
an active share in public affairs, for which his habits admirably quali-
fied him. He served for several years in the Magistracy with great
acceptance to the public. Amidst his busiest years, he never lost the
thoughtful habits of his youth. He was a well read man in general
literature; and was quite an authority on the subject of patented inven-
tions, possessing in his valuable library one of the few complete copies
of the “ Repertory of Inventions,’’ which he appeared to have thoroughly
studied. He took a great interest in the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, enjoyed the confidence of its leading men, and
was a principal means of bringing that learned body to Glasgow in 1841,
as well as of preparing, by a year of extraordinary personal labour in
correspondence and otherwise, for its reception. He was one of the
deputation who went from this city to the Liverpool meeting of 1854 to
invite the Association to visit Glasgow next year, and had again pro-
mised his invaluable services in the way of rendering that visit interest-
ing, useful, and creditable to our town. Some years ago, Mr. Liddell
devoted much of his attention to reviving the public utility of Stirling’s
Library. His latest service of a literary kind was to write a biographical
sketch of the celebrated David Dale, for the supplementary volume of
Messrs. Blackie’s “Lives of Eminent Scotsmen.” Mr. Liddell was a
man of a kindred mind with the philanthropic Dale, and undertook and
completed the task con amore.

Mr. Liddell was one of the founders of the Night Asylum for the

Vor, IITI.—No. 6. D

358 Death of ANDREW LavpELL, Esq.

Houseless, which will remain a permanent monument of his indomitable
perseverance and practical benevolence. When the institution had
commenced its operations in an old granary in St. Enoch’s Wynd, he
could scarcely obtain as many coadjutors as were required to give the
experiment a trial. Nothing daunted, however, he resolved that the
plan should succeed; and bated nought either of heart or hope, when,
as he used to tell with glee, one of the public meetings about this
period, consisted of himself in the chair, from which he proposed the
resolutions, and his clerk or shopman, brought up for the occasion to
second them. The success of the experiment, and its manifest benefits
to homeless wanderers, arriving friendless in the town, and to poor
people suddenly deprived of work and lodgings, and turned out into the
streets, became speedily apparent. Mr. Liddell at length surrounded
himself by a numerous and energetic body of fellow-labourers, whom he
induced to embark in the building of the extensive and commodious
house in North Frederick Street; and he was mainly instrumental in
raising the funds for its erection. The additional feature of an indus-
trial department was now added to the institution, for the protection and
employment of females; and from the moral and economical advantages
of this part of the system, Mr. Liddell derived peculiar satisfaction.
This was his favourite topic at the annual meetings, when he delighted
to expatiate upon individual instances which had come to his knowledge,
of respectable females having been put in the way of maintaining them-
selves in comfort and independence by means of the encouragement
afforded by this department of the institution.

As a Magistrate he dispensed justice with inflexible impartiality. He
set his face sternly against vice in every form. He was literally a terror
to evil doers, During his incumbency of office, he employed all his
influence in diminishing the temptations to intemperance. In the young
brought before him he felt a tender interest; and we have known him
leave the Bench, where he had been investigating into a case of incipient
juvenile delinquency, and proceed in quest of the parents of an erring
boy to advise them as to his future conduct.

His early scientific education and practical knowledge of mechanics
disposed him to take a warm and active interest in the Philosophical
Society of Glasgow. He was admitted a member in 1819; was re-
peatedly elected President; and for many years held the office of
Treasurer greatly to the benefit of the Society. Twenty years ago, when
the Society had fallen to a low ebb, he and one or two other members
preserved it from becoming extinct; and not unfrequently the meetings
consisted only of himself and another, who, however, duly entered their
sederunt in the minutes. It was principally through his influence that
the Society was revived, and became, as it still continues, the centre and

> EEE

Death of ANDREW LIDDELL, Esq. 359

rendezvous of the theoretical and practical science of the city and neigh-
bourhood. It was in connection with this Society that Mr. Liddell took
a leading part in organizing the great popular exhibition of the opera-
tions and products of the arts and sciences during the holidays at the
close of 1846 and the beginning of 1847, to which nearly a hundred
thousand visits were made, and which, after paying expenses, left a
surplus which has fructified under his care into the sum of £619 for
future use.

Mr. Liddell was brought up in the Scottish Baptist connexion; and
when he retired from business in 1844, was invited to become the
pastor of the church assembling in Brown Street, and of which he has
been the scle pastor for the last three years. The chapel in Brown
Street was originally built for an Independent congregation, but was
purchased by Mr. Liddell for the use of the Baptist church. He off-
ciated for the last time in his pastoral capacity on Sabbath the 5th of
November. His attachment to the congregation led him, when residing
at Plean, near Stirling, to come to Glasgow every Sabbath to join in
its worship. Although conscientiously attached to his own denomina-
tion, he always cherished a most catholic feeling towards evangelical
Christians of every name. His conversation on religious subjects was
grave, earnest, and edifying. His Christian profession was humble,
childlike, and self-questioning. His pious counsels to others were
tendered with singular modesty and affection, and an utter absence of a
dictatorial or overbearing spirit. His deeds of active benevolence, done
in secret, but sometimes revealed by the objects of them, abounded in
the neighbourhood of Plean and of Bardowie, in Glasgow, and wherever
he went. Heart and hand were open to relieve distress and to do good.
The wealth with which Providence had blessed his industry and skill
in business, he held as a trust, to be administered as a faithful steward,
Those who knew him most intimately will have observed, of late years,
that his desire was to withdraw himself more and more from the en-
gagements of active public life, and spend his declining years in the
enjoyment of the elegant taste and warm affections of his happy home,
and in the society of his attached friends, in a manner becoming the
great change for which he was manifestly ripening, and to which he was
often reaching forward in fond expectation. He has gone at last, to
his own unspeakable gain, but to the heartfelt sorrow of his friends,
who revered him for his sound judgment, his common sense, and
practical sagacity,—who loved him for his genial kindness of heart,
—who will miss his portly form, his radiant smile, his cordial greet-
ing, and his ready pleasantry; and who will long cherish the memory
of Mr. Andrew Liddell, as a fine example of a consistent Christian and a
true man.

360 Minutes of Meetings.

November 29,1854.— Wi11am Gourue, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Dr. Joun TaYLor was admitted a member.

The following gentlemen were elected members, viz. :—Mr. Alexander
Sinclair, Teacher, 25 St. George’s Road; Mr. James Hunter, Iron-Master;
Newmain’s House, Motherwell; Mr. Charles O'Neil, Civil Engineer, 66
South Portland Street; Mr. Robert Calvert Clapham, Chemist, Ardeer
Chemical Works, Stevenston, Ayrshire; Mr. James Murdoch, Phar-
maceutical Chemist, 143 Sauchiehall Street.

The Society then proceeded to the election of its Office-bearers. It
was agreed that the election to the vacant offices of President and Vice-
President be by open vote,

Mr. Gourlie moved that, in accordance with the unanimous recom-
mendation of the Council, Dr. Allen Thomson, Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Glasgow, be appointed President.

The motion was seconded by Mr. William Murray, and carried by
acclamation.

Dr. Thomson having taken the chair, and returned thanks for the
honour conferred upon him, proposed that a resolution in reference to the
retirement of Mr. Crum from office should now be entered upon the
record.

This proposal was unanimously agreed to, and the following Resolutions
expressing the sentiments of the Meeting is entered accordingly, and
ordered to be communicated to Mr. Crum :—

“On Mr. Crum now vacating the President’s Chair, which he does
in consequence of the recent law of the Society which makes the tenure
of that office biennial, the Philosophical Society feel themselves called
upon to enter upon their record, and to convey to Mr. Crum, the ex-
pression of the deep obligation under which the Society has been laid by
his long-continued and able exertions in forwarding its interests and
welfare. ‘They would also express more particularly their cordial approval
of the zeal, judgment, and affability with which Mr. Crum has adminis-
tered the affairs of the Society, not only during his recent short tenure
of the office of President, but also for the longer previous period in
which, through the infirm health of the late Dr. Thomas Thomson, a
large share of the duties of the Chair devolved upon Mr. Crum as Vice-
President.

“Tn conveying this resolution of thanks to Mr. Crum, the members of
the Society would also desire to express the sincere regard and esteem
which they entertain for his personal character, and the high respect in
which they hold his scientific attainments, together with their earnest
hope that Mr. Crum will continue to manifest the same interest as here~
tofore in the welfare of the Philosophical Society.”

™)

~ — ==

aie

Abstract of Treasurer's Account. 361

It was then moved by the President, that Mr. Gourlie and Mr. Alex-
ander Harvey be appointed Vice-Presidents, which was agreed to by
acclamation.

The President also moved that Mr. Cockey be appointed to the con-
joint offices of Treasurer and Librarian; and that Mr. Hastie and Mr.
Keddie be re-elected Secretaries; which motions were unanimously
agreed to.

The Society then proceeded to elect by ballot the members of Council.
Mr. Michael Connal and Mr. William M‘Bride were requested to act as
Scrutineers, who accordingly retired to examine the votes.

Mr. Cockey made a verbal report on the state of the Library, and
announced the presentation to the Society, by Mr. Hastie, M.P., of a
complete set of the Census Reports for 1851. Thanks voted.

The following abstract of the Treasurer’s Account, Session 1853-54,
was given in :—

1853. Dr.
Noy. 1.—To Cash in Union and Savings Banks, £149 11 10
— Interest on Banks’ Accounts, ........ 4 0 6
——£153 12 4
1854.
Noy. 1.—To Society’s Transactions sold, .......s..seeseeceeseeeee 0.10 6

— Entries of 14 new Members, at 21s. 14 14 0

— 11 Annual Payments from Original
Members) abiosiges.ccsnesccusecsses 215 0

— 246 Annual Payments, at 15s.......184 10 0

201 19 0

— Rent from Sabbath School Teachers, for use of
Hall ranaadeiseownnsn aie via > ii Gatinn pac cpenecsd!y! ena
£358 11 10
1854. Cr. See
Nov. 1.—By New Books and Binding, ........... ee: .£106 2 9
— Printing Transactions, Circulars, Kc. ...... ies Oe 2/0
— New Bookcases, Upholstery, &e. ...... oseuaveacen 53 3 5

— Rent of Hall, 1 year, .............00- £15 0 0

— Fire Insurance,.............ceeccscecee ». 419 0

— Society’s Officer and Clerk, ....... Pees a hers

— Postages and Delivering Letters,... 714 0

— Stationery,......... cones shovesedsesnndus 119 6

anes AH ANG Candles, |, iccselassstsaseacss 1) DO
—— 37 2 0
Carry forward, £288 2 0

362 Abstract of Treasurer's Account.

Brought forward, £288 2 0
Noy. 1.—By Librarian’s Salary, 1 year,...........£29 18 0
— Do. for Poundage Collecting Dues, 7 6 0

37 4 0
— Subscription to Ray Society,......... 1 1 0
— Do. to Palzontological Society,.......1 1 0
—— 22 0
— Cleaning the Hall and petty charges,............ 1 0 0

— Balance—
Cash in Union Bank,............0.. 80 0 0
Do. in Savings Bank, .............. 915 8
—— 8915 8

_

£358 11 10

THE PHILOSOPHICAL Society Exuteition Funp.
1853.

May 15.—To Balance, as per deposit receipt, from the Cor-

poration of the City of Glasgow, ..........60e4595 19 11
1854,

May 15. — Interest till this date,..........cesssesseeeceeeeseee 23:16 9

£619 16 8

Guascow, 25th October, 1854.—We have examined the Treasurer’s Account, and com-
pared the same with the Vouchers, and find that there are in the Union Bank of Scotland
Eighty Pounds, and in the Savings Bank Nine Pounds Fifteen Shillings and Eightpence
—together, Eighty-nine Pounds Fifteen Shillings and Eightpence sterling—at the Society’s
credit at this date.

The Treasurer has also exhibited to us a Voucher which he holds for money lent to the
Corporation of the City of Glasgow from the proceeds of the Philosophical Society’s Ex-
hibition in 1846, with Interest thereon to 15th May last, being Six Hundred and Nineteen

Pounds Sixt Shillings and Eightpence.
je’ Gat, pM ah Baar THOMAS DAWSON.

MATTHEW P. BELL.

REPORT BY THE TREASURER, 3p NoVEMBER, 1854.

The Furniture and other moyeable property of the Society, with exception of printed
Books, a new Bookcase, and Floor Cloth, remain the same as last year. The Funds in
the Bank, as shown in the above Account, are £64 less than at the same period last
year, caused chiefly by new Furniture got for the Hall. Reference is now made to the
Librarian’s Catalogue for the list of Books, the property of the Society as at this date.

The number of Members at commencement of Session 1852-3 was........+ sea 1260
New Members admitted during the Session, 14
Old Member replaced on Roll,..... ......ssseeeee sonceeentsarey Beene vere caari te ree!

278

Election of Office-bearers. 363

From this 19 fall to be deducted from the Roll at commencement of Session
1854-5, viz. :—

Resigned Membership by letter, «...........00 Sads¥scatsuccesanacevadysereNwarand ee
In arrear of Dues for two years, and held as resigned by Law XI. ....... 4
By request placed on Non-Resident List, having removed from Glasgow
and paid Dues,...... Bios ees een Ger caneensessace See ceneccesconcncvonsese 2
In arrear of Dues for one year, but have left Glasgow for foreign coun-
tries, or places UNKNOWN, ......ecseeeceeseceeeeees Sentneestcecannasehaeses Seatoseca 4
DEH icc veutsscee butvsbetetens Selec leterebe Reacuuadebeeetabs cecsvevs sof ttsetosecvercccdes de 4
— 19
On List for 1854-5; .......c0s-ce0.0s Manwqaaqutencapl temedeasgacese 259

In the above-named list of 259, there are 16 Members in arrear of Dues for one year,
but as they all reside in Glasgow or neighbourhood it is hoped that these will be recovered.

Mr. John Thomson, C.E., described the process of Laying Down the
Submarine Telegraph Cable in the Mediterranean.

The Scrutineers having given in their report, the following were
declared to be the Office-bearers of the Society for the year 1854-55,
viz. :—

JBrezivent.
Dr, ALLEN THOMSON.

Dice-Wresivents.
Mr. WILLIAM GOURLIE. | Mr. ALEXANDER HARVEY.

Treasurer and Dibrarian.
Mr. WILLIAM CockeEY.

Secretaries,
Mr. ALEXANDER HASsTIE. | Mr. Witt1am Keppie.
Council.
Dr. Tuomas ANDERSON. Dr. A. K. Youne.
Mr. WALTER Crum. Mr. W. J. Macquorn Ranxinz.
Mr. Rogert BLAckin. Mr. J. P. Fraszr,
Mr. James NAFIER. Mr. Water NEILson.
Mr. James Bryce. Mr. JAMES CoupER.
Mr. Joun Conpiz. Mr. Witiiam Ramsay.

December 13, 1854.—The Prestpent in the Chair.

On the reading of the Minutes of last meeting, Mr. Crum returned
thanks for the kind sentiments expressed towards him in the Resolution

placed on the Society's record, on the occasion of his retiring from the
Chair,

364 Minutes of Meetings.

The following gentlemen were elected members, viz., The Hon. An-
drew Orr, Lord Provost of the City of Glasgow; Mr. William Euing,
Insurance Broker; Dr. William Aitken, Demonstrator of Anatomy in
the University of Glasgow; Mr. John H. Swan, Commission Agent;
Mr. William Smith, Soap-maker; Mr. N. Mathieson, Soap-maker ; Mr.
Thomas King, Engineer; Mr. John Wardrope, Merchant; Mr. David
Sutherland, Goldsmith; Mr. James L. Duncan, Surgeon-Dentist; Mr.
Alexander Lister, Engineer; Mr. James Wilson, Merchant.

Donations to the Library of their Proceedings were received from, and
thanks voted to, the Royal Scottish Society of Arts and the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Liverpool.

Mr. Paul Cameron read a paper “On the Deviations of the Compass
in Wooden and Iron Ships; illustrated by Models and Experiments bear-
ing on Dr. Scoresby’s paper at the British Association, and Professor
Airey’s reply.”

January 10, 1855.—The PrestpEnt in the Chair.

Tue following gentlemen were elected members, viz., Mr. Robert Wil-
liams, Government Inspector of Mines, 126 West Campbell Street; Mr.
Robert Mansel, Ship Draughtsman, Govan; Mr. Walter M‘Farlane,
Tron Founder, Saracen Foundry ; Mr. Alexander Whitelaw, Soap Manu-
facturer, 41 Sydney Street; Mr. Thomas B. Dalziel, Manufacturer, 99
Mitchell Street; Mr. James Reid, Banker, 23 Blythswood Square.

A letter was received from Messrs. M‘Clure and Sons, presenting to
the Society a framed copy of the engraved portrait of Professor Thomas
Graham, after the original in the possession of the Society.

On the motion of Mr. Crum, seconded by Mr. Gourlie, the thanks of
the Society were voted to Messrs. M‘Clure for their gift.

A letter from Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, addressed to the Sec-
retaries, was read, recommending the adoption of measures for having
the manufactures of Philosophical Instruments in Glasgow and elsewhere
adequately represented in the approaching Universal Exhibition at Paris.

Mr. Rankine was heard in support of his recommendation, and moved
the following resolution, which was seconded by Professor William
Thomson, and approved of :—

“That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Members of the Society
who are interested in or producers of Philosophical Instruments, with
power to add to their number, in order to take into consideration the
means of securing an adequate representation at the approaching Uni-
versal Exhibition in Paris of the manufacture of Philosophical Instru-
ments in Glasgow, and in Scotland generally, and to communicate and
co-operate with Committees, Societies, or other bodies or parties who
may have a similar object in view.

Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses. 865

“ Mr, Walter Crum, of Thornliebank ; Dr. Thomas Anderson ; Prof.
W. Thomson; Mr, J. R. Napier; Mr. W. Gale; Mr. Neil Robson; Mr.
James Thomson, C.E., Belfast; Mr. W. Gardner; Mr. Paul Cameron ;
Mr. Alexander Mitchell; Mr. D. Mackain; Dr. John Macadam; Mr.
Thomas R. Gardner; Mr. James King; Mr. Hughes; Mr. Robert Hart,
Govan; Mr. John Finlay, 46 Buchanan Street; Mr. Malcolm M‘Neill
Walker, 24 Clyde Place; Dr. Strang; Professor Eadie; Mr. Simpson ;
the other Members of Council of the Society not named in the above
list; Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Convener.”

Mr. Hart described two luminous spots he had recently observed on
the Moon’s disc.

The President read a paper “On some Recent Discoveries with re-
spect to the Impregnation of the Ovum in Fishes and other animals.”’

Mr. James R. Napier read “ Remarks on Ships’ Compasses,” and was
requested by the Society to recapitulate his paper at next meeting, in
order to its being discussed on that occasion.

January 24, 1855.—The Prestvent in the Chair.

Tue following gentlemen were elected members :—Mr. William Neil-
son, Insurance Agent, 69 Glassford Street; Mr. James King, Hurlet and
Campsie Alum Co., Glasgow; Mr. Thomas Henderson, Merchant, 45
Union Street; Mr. James Greenshields, Chemist, 110 Peel Terrace.

Mr. Rankine reported the progress of the Committee on Philosophical
Instruments for the Paris Industrial Exhibition.

Mr. Hart produced a letter from the Astronomer Royal, stating that
he had no doubt that one of the spots observed on the moon by Mr,
Hart was an occulted star. As to the other, it was in a region of the
moon which the Astronomer Royal had often studied as an amateur, but
he had never seen the phenomenon described.

Remarks on Ships’ Compasses. By Jamus R. NarPier.

It will be admitted by most persons, that all other things being equal,
the best compass is that which has the strongest magnetism in its
needles, or the most directive power in proportion to the whole weight of
card and needles; for, by having this superior directive power, it is en-
_ abled to overcome pivot friction and other causes, which render useless
less powerful compasses.

Compass makers evidently aim at developing in their needles as much
magnetism as possible, and Dr. Scoresby’s principle of making them hard
in order to retain this development is, I believe, generally admitted and
adopted. I conceived, therefore, that after the numerous experiments.

366 Mr. J. R. Navrer on Ships’ Compasses.

published in his “ Magnetical Investigations,” there could be no doubt
that a compass with a number of thin needles would be much more
powerful than if the same weight of steel formed one solid bar needle.
I was surprised, however, at finding it stated in Sir Snow Harris’s “ Rudi-
mentary Treatise of Magnetism” (page 147), that no sufficient reason can
be assigned for the employment of from three to five compound magnetic
bars of costly and difficult construction, supposing it were proved from
the evidence of experience as well as theoretically, that a single and
simple edge-bar needle is even more than adequate to any required
practical purpose. The object in using more than one needle (as noticed
in page 141) is evidently a greater directive force, &c. This advantage,
however, as Professor Barlow considers, ‘‘ cannot be obtained without an
increase of weight of steel, and, as a necessary consequence, a greater
amount of friction on the pivot of suspension. Unless therefore the directive
force increase in a greater ratio than the loss by friction and wear of the
centre, little advantage is gained.”

To satisfy myself I had a compass made, which I conceived would
combine the good qualities of most of the compasses I had read about.
I adopted Scoresby’s compound needles made of clock springs, placed
them for economy flat on the card in two sets, four in each set, as the
objection to the use of one needle on the flat is I conceive much diminished
where there are four, and still more so where there are eight needles.
I placed these two sets of needles at the distances calculated by Mr.
Archibald Smith, viz. 60°, shown by him to be the position (of the
needles) in which the compass card might pitch or roll in all positions
without affecting its direction. I tested the power of the card, with its
needles complete on it, by the torsion balance, as I did not know how to
apply Scoresby’s deviation method where there were two sets of parallel
needles. This method, when the torsion of wire is divided by the weight
of card, gives I conceive a true measure of the powers which different
cards would have of indicating correctly by overcoming friction, &c.,
when placed on their proper pivots.

The card with its needles was nearly of the same weight as one of Sir
Snow Harris’s, made by Lilley of London. The result of trials made in
January, 1853, was as follows :—

Sir Snow Harris’ssingle . 5 om :
PiciALealeheniaaan at 840 ers. was deflected 90° by 292° torsion of wire.

Stati ais 838 ers. was deflected 90° by 483° torsion of wire.
needle and card of

So that as the weights of the cards are about equal, their relative powers

are about 29? to 48%, or 100 to 162. This compound needle card has

therefore about 62 per cent. more power than Sir Snow Harris's single bar

needle card. A recent trial with a different torsion wire of the same ex-

——

Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses. 367

perimental card newly magnetized, compared with another of Sir Snow
Harris’s, also newly magnetized, gave the following results :—

Single bar needle, ....932 grs. deflected 90° by 82° torsion of wire.
Scoresby’s principle,..838 grs. deflected 90° by 121° torsion of wire.
And the comparative powers found after dividing the torsion by the
weight are consequently 888 to 1453, or 100 : 164, so that the experi-
mental Scoresby needle card has here about 64 per cent. more power
than Sir Snow Harris’s single bar needle. A comparison of other cards
on the apparatus which Mr. Walker (a member of this Society) has kindly

supplied me with, gives the following results :—

Weight, Power.

Grains, Torsion Weight.
Experimental card, compound needle, ........... 838 ...06- 1330
Captain Walker’s card, T shaped needle, ........ 989i; seeusi. «208
Sir Snow Harris's azimuth card, edge bar needle, 820 ...... 1090
Admiralty card, compound needles, ...........+6 2023 (sweat 1000
Sir Snow Harris’s steering card, edge bar, .....06 932 ...... 794
Gray’s (Liverpool) card, two dipping needles,... 1708 ...... 515

Keen’s (Liver.) patent card, two edge bar needle, 2040 ...... 442

Therefore, in regard to this particular card, at least sufficient reason can
be given for the employment of even eight magnetic bars, viz., with cards
of equal weight, the compound needle card has about one-half more
power; or if, as Sir Snow Harris says, the extra power is not needed,
then a much lighter card with less pivot friction, and consequently more
durability, will be as powerful and sensitive as Sir Snow Harris’s. If,
indeed, the cost of the latter article, as supplied to the public, is any in-
dication of the difficulty of its construction, it would appear that this
particular arrangement of Scoresby’s needles is much less difficult.

Sir Snow Harris, however, evidently here refers to the Admiralty
compass card, which certainly does not appear of very easy construction.
But, I am not aware that Dr. Scoresby in any of his works recommends
this particular arrangement ; and, when on a visit at Torquay about three
years ago, I called on him, and he showed me his compasses and magnetic
machines, and the needles of the former instruments were much more
simply arranged.

The method he recommended to me was to bend the steel plates two
or more on each side round the cap, and bring them nearly together,
say within about } of an inch, at the extremities or poles. I had a card
or two fitted up on this plan for one of our steamers. The result of an
experiment on it, however, was not so satisfactory as anticipated. I
ascribed the failure to bad steel, or defective hardening, which Dr,
Scoresby shows must have been the case, besides the fittings being too

368 Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses.

heavy. Hence, the method already described has suggested itself as
being simpler and more economical, and by experiment more powerful
than any I had tried. I have preferred it. I therefore recommend this
particular arrangement of needles for its simplicity, 1ts economy, and
its durability; for this same experimental card, after lying about for
two years in every direction without any care being taken to have its
poles protected, yet retains about twenty per cent. more power than one
of Sir Snow Harris’s recently magnetized. I presume from this example,
therefore, that neither Mr. Cameron, who at the last meeting objected to
compound needles on account of their tendency to lose their power, nor
Captain Walker, who objects for the same reason, have literally followed
Dr. Scoresby’s instructions, or they would not have failed to make
powerful and enduring compound needles.

So far from the compound needles of Dr. Scoresby losing their power,
I have reason to know, from information received from that gentleman,
that they are decidedly the most enduring of all others, of which he
favours me with the following evidence :—

A compound needle of his construction, comprising six plates of thin
steel, six inches in length, was put up in July, 1836, which was then
found to have about double the power of any compass needle of the same
weight which, at that time, he could meet with. Another of four plates,
the same length, weighing altogether 579 grains, was put up August, 1839,
which was considerably stronger than the other. These needles were
placed in a case near to each other, mutually protecting, but were many
times taken out for examination or experiment. After about sixteen
years they were tested as to their residual powers, when the former was
found to have lost only 6°6 per cent. and the other /ess than 6! Another
needle of four plates was attached to a card, in February, 1839, and placed
in a box quite unprotected, and exposed to various magnetic influences from
magnets lying about. In May, 1841, the power (which had not been well
recorded) was examined, and it was then singularly powerful. It was
re-examined in the beginning of the present year, 1855, and was found,
though entirely unprotected, to have lost only 74 per cent. in 132 years!

The Liverpool makers, Gray and Keen, seem to consider weight a
necessary element of a steady card, if not of a powerful one, for their cards
have a great weight of brass, paper, and talc, and very little magnetic
steel in their construction. It will be allowed, however, that if weight
alone, without much directive power of magnetic steel, is all that is
necessary to make a steady card, a much less complex arrangement of
parts could easily be contrived. Gray’s card is about the same weight as
the Admiralty standard card, and has only about half its power. In
other words, Gray’s card might be pointing steadily one or two points
from the truth on account of its want of power to overcome the friction,

Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses. 369

when the Admiralty, and all the more powerful cards, would be indicat-
ing correctly.

Many, if not all, compasses are said to be very unsteady at sea in heavy
weather. The causes of these oscillations appear to me to be correctly
described by Captain Walker in his “ Magnetism of Ships,” and also by Dr.
Scoresby. One cause arises from the influence of the induced magnetism
of the iron used in the construction of the ship, especially when the vessel
sails in an easterly or westerly direction and rolls heavily, for then iron
(the sides of an iron ship perhaps, or the iron davits of a wooden ship),
which at one roll or lurch becomes nearly parallel with the dip, and con-
sequently powerfully magnetic, attracts or repels the north end of the
compass needle; by the opposite roll, may become nearly at right angles
to the dip, and therefore less magnetic, thereby causing the oscillations.

The following experiments, made some years ago on a small iron boat
about 8 feet long by 4% broad, will serve to illustrate these views :—

Inclined to Starboard.

Boat’s Head Magnetic. Horizontal. To Port.
ee Quart tosoaaisits tes BOL cviaeweiisad — 20
PARAL tiaoaind dotted cneisniven BDA. els a wii tet +b ind
a oo ee AnsMdk 3 cnswreyenes + 21
Gia esaciacecn + 12h - wees alos Bos !Uneabbeces + 16
8. wees Bete eoBainyetad. odd: Seer gesagt shel
ae Rhodesia esd vodeess sah ecb AR siete ae oe
ee re ahs ep ecBen yee 14
IW esl ocsieands ceil Fety S38 sheers ee eee — 231
ena inda-inivee parol Greiianas Ay 20k msubanesis —i22

Many remedies have been suggested for preventing these oscillations.
The most simple and effective, however, is that proposed and practised by
Dr. Scoresby, so long ago as the year 1822, viz., to elevate the compass
out of the reach of these troublesome attractions, and this method is now,
though for a different object, frequently adopted.

Soft iron bars placed in the small iron boat horizontally on each or
either side of the compass, reduced the errors when inclined to port and
starboard, and it is presumable therefore would have diminished oscilla-
tions at sea from that cause ; but, the practice is, I conceive, objectionable
from the great care that I found necessary to preserve the iron from what
is called retentive or retained magnetism, as slight knocks entirely altered
the deviations.

The other cause of the oscillations, described by Captain Walker, is in
the construction of the compass itself. ‘The dip of the needle is counter-
acted generally, or always, in horizontal compass cards by a weight on
the opposite end; and this weight by its inertia, Captain Walker says,

370 Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses.

produces oscillations,—the more violent according to the power ofthe
needles,

This I believe to be the case. The remedy for this appears to me to
be very ingenious. The card traverses on an axis fixed to the top of a
brass bell, which bell is placed on an ordinary pivot.

The weight which prevents the needle from dipping is here transferred
to the bell, and the rotation or oscillation of the bell, he says, causes little
or no oscillation of the needle itself, except what is communicated to it
from friction against the axis and pivot. I do not know any simple
method of testing the correctness of Captain Walker's views, but the re-
ports of the Admiralty, and other trials of the compass published in
Captain Walker’s work, and also in the late Captain Johnstone’s, prove it
to be at least equal to the best.

While reading Dr. Scoresby’s letter addressed to the Liverpool Under-
writers’ Association, on the subject of the Compasses of Iron Ships, I was
startled by the remarks regarding the loss of the “‘ Tayleur,” when, from the
evidence, he says it appeared that the compasses were all correct on leaving
Liverpool, and all wrong after getting to sea, This recalled to my mind a
singular change in the compass deviations of the iron brig “ Haiti;’’ the
change, however, was fortunately discovered before the vessel put to sea.
She was built on the Clyde, near Glasgow, with her head about south-west,
was swung as an experiment at the Broomielaw and the deviations noted,
then was towed to Gourock Bay in order to be again swung and to have
the errors reduced by soft iron correctors, but it blew a gale, which pre-
vented the errors from being observed till the second day.

The deviations shown by the curve were then observed and noted, the
results, as will be observed, differ considerably from those taken at Glas-
gow, (vide diagram, brig “ Haiti.’’)

Though the observations at Gourock are evidently not so correct as
could be wished, the curves passed through those that were thought to
be the most so, show a great and decided difference, whatever may have
been the cause of this change of the deviations, a compass placed up one
of the masts, or on a mast, or staff of its own, would in all probability
have avoided it; for, in the first place, there would have been little
or no error in a compass placed at a proper height. Such changes,
however, if arising, as appears to be very probable, if not certain, from
the causes mentioned by Dr. Scoresby in his letter to the Liverpool
Underwriters, viz., from the soft iron when hammered in a given
direction, becoming highly penetrated with retentive magnetism, and so
retaining its magnetism when the iron is turned quietly in any other
direction, but being liable to change its character when vibrated in new
positions, such change seems more likely to happen at Liverpool than
on the Clyde, where vessels are fitted out in dock, and where the com-

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Mr. J. R. NAPriEeR on Ships’ Compasses. 871

passes are adjusted. And as in sailing vessels an experimental trial
seldom takes place, there is no opportunity for the magnetism retained
while building or outfitting to be duly shaken or knocked into its natural
position.

On the Clyde, on the contrary, our want of conveniences for swinging
ships for compass deviations may have been the means of preserving our
iron ships from those very sudden changes, as a voyage to Gareloch
behind a tug steamer for two or three hours may have wrought the
necessary change in the retained magnetism. With our steamers the
effect of vibration could be more easily applied. And finding from Dr.
Scoresby’s experiments, that a mere slap of the hand is sometimes sufficient
to change the polarity of a bar or plate of iron, I presume that the
working of our engines for three hours or more on their way to Gare-
loch, and making more thumping and knocking perhaps than they ought
to do, would be considered quite sufficient to redistribute the retained
magnetism, so that when the ship was swung there would be less risk
of any sudden change when first proceeding to sea.

The following letter from Dr, Scoresby renders Mr. Cameron’s state-
ments about forging, hardening, and magnetizing steel bars in various
directions doubtful, and suggests an interesting experiment which I shall
now describe :-—

“ Torquay, Jan. 3d, 1855.

hel

2 “My DEAR Srr,—I was interested by several of Mr.Cameron’s statements
in the letter he sent me, and, had I had time, I could have explained the
reason (partially) why no change was known to take place in the com-
passes of certain ships which had been struck by the sea and returned to port.
The change, if it occurred, would be upset on the ship’s putting about and
labouring by the sea with the head in a different direction. But Mr. C.
altogether mistakes’ the effects of forging, hardening, and magnetizing, in

the direction of the magnetic dip. I never found any (sensible) difference
betwixt the magnetic force of a bar or needle, whether magnetized in
the direction in which it had been hardened, or in the contrary. As to

magnetizing, it is of no consequence, the direction, if the magnet used be
sufficiently strong; for a much greater power is communicated than the
steel can afterwards retain.

“Pray, is the ship you have to launch shortly with her keel north and
\ south, magnetic, or nearly so? my impression is that it will probably be
so. If so, an interesting and easy experiment could be made, viz., to
ascertain where (or at what height) on the stem and stern the ship ceases
to act on the compass? Or where, on either side of the bow and stern
(say 6 to 10 feet from either, towards the middle of the ship) the line of
attraction runs?

372 Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses.

“ Theoretically, in one point of view, all the head would have s polarity,
and all the stern N. But my impression is, that in such a case, the
equatorial line will be modified and brought within the vessel, so that the
upper works, both forward and aft, might possibly have s polarity, and
the keel forward and aft, north. Pray do try this.

S

Q

“ But with such a modification I should expect that the line of no-attrac-
tion would run obliquely through the ship, something like the dotted
line e g, and so as, if not running out, to be highest aft, and lowest
forward? The line of no attraction on the two sides (keel N or s mag-
netic) should be the same.

“T have just heard of another case of compass change by a shock, in
the case of a collision, where a change of about 23 points took place in

the compasses!
“Yours very faithfully,

“W. SCORESBY.”

Description of the Curves of no Deviation on the S.S. ‘* Fiery Cross :”—

Fig. 1 represents the sheer plan of the 8.5. “ Fiery Cross” lying at the
inclination in which she was built, and with her head pointing south 32°
west.

The curved lines drawn from the fore foot to the quarter, denote the
heights of the curves of no deviation, on either side, as indicated by a
small 2} inch compass needle, held with its centre 2 feet from the vessel’s
side. The small circles denote points of actual observation, and are
those from which the curves are laid down. Thwartship, sections of the
vessel are also shown at the points a, B, ©, and D, and the positions of
the centre of the needle, in respect to them, denoted by a small cross.

The small needle being moved upwards or downwards from the above
indicated positions, experiences the rapidly varying resultant action of
the induced magnetism of the iron of the vessel, in virtue of which
arise large horizontal deviations in its direction. In the case of the
needle being carried round the inside of the bulwarks, at a height of 2
feet above the iron gunwale, the magnitude and character of these
deviations are exhibited by the curves drawn in figure 2. The line in
the sheer plan, denoting the height at which the small compass was
carried round the gunwale, has been repeated higher up, so as to form
the axis for the curves, upon which axis the observed deviations have

Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses. 373

been laid off to a scale of 1 inch, equal to 120°. As in the former case,
two sets of small circles denote actual observations, and are placed
exactly over those places in the sheer plan at which the observations
were taken in the vessel; further, where the curves lie above this axis
the south end of the needle was attracted towards the
side of the vessel, when under the north, was the at-
tracted end; a second set of dotted circles represent a
<I ]|°] > second set of observations made on the vessel after
her launch, and when lying at Lancefield Quay, with
her head pointing south-east, show a great change in

the deviations.

While on this subject, I may mention a method suggested to me some
time ago by Mr. Archibald Smith for finding the deviation of a steamer’s
compass. Its simplicity and the speed with which it can be executed
are favourable to its adoption, and there can, I believe, be little or no
oblique retained magnetism to interfere with the results, as the shaking
of the vessel from the motion of the machinery must tend to bring it to
its natural position.

The steamer is supposed to be in sight of a prominent object as far off
as possible, and the bearings of this object taken; while the vessel steams
steadily on each of the 32, 16, 8, or even 4 points of the compass by
which the bearings are taken. The mean of these bearings measured all
in one direction will give very nearly the true magnetic bearing of the
distant object, and of course the difference of each bearing from the
mean, is the error or deviation of the compass, which has to be properly
allowed for.

As an example, I have taken the bearings from the deviation curve of
the iron brig “ Haiti” (vide diagram), for 4 and for 8 points.

: Let the bearings of the distant object be N.
when the ship’s head by her standard com-
peas is N.W. The other bearings will be as

ollows :—
Ship’s Head by Standard Compass. Ship's Head. Bearings of Dist. Object.
2 le ae + 15 WW sdsesones ;
i ina ore INO RTI BER of N. 21° W.
0. — 28 N.E. Bakes obs N. 51 W.
BERRA A Fessicze0. — 24 ere re N. 64 W.
RE teks ony dt —10 Be oy bes asian Pe Sag
a + 10 inh te ts ie N. 46 W.
are + 81 sts ot coecetete N. 26 W.
Mee + 36 Wie Pog, eeik N. 5 W.
8 ) 273
N. 84°125 W.

Correct magnetic, ...N. 36 W.
Vou. III.—No. 6, EB

374 Mr. J. R. Naprer on Ships’ Compasses.

Showing a difference of only 1°;8, from the correct bearing. When the
bearings are taken on only four pivots these are best to be the diagonal
points.

NW, ue eta. sitll: Hoe
Nae De th a tad ee
Ore ket ON ED ee
Se rare ies as We ea
4) 187
N. 34:25 W.

Showing a difference of only 1°2 from the truth.

Care must be taken that the deviations thus found be correctly allowed
for, as Sir Snow Harris and the late Captain Johnstone have both erred
in their directions for steering given courses.

The most simple and at the same time correct method of showing and

_ applying the deviations, is the graphic method, suggested by Mr. Archi-
bald Smith, and described in his “‘ Supplement to the Practical Rules for
Ascertaining the Deviations of the Compass, &c.,” and also in the late
Captain Johnstone’s work on Compasses. (Vide diagram.)

I am not prepared to enter upon the subject of correcting compasses
by magnets, as recommended by Professor Airy. Trustworthy observa-
tions have shown that in some instances compasses so adjusted have been
correct in all the latitudes into which the vessel has sailed, while other
observations have shown that the magnetic corrections have altogether
failed. The accompanying remarks, with which Mr, Smith has kindly
furnished me, puts the subject in a clearer and more satisfactory light :—

“ Lincoun’s Inn, January 22, 1855.

“My pear Naprer,—The results I have got are these :—In wooden
ships the magnetism is almost entirely that of soft iron, which only
becomes magnetic by induction, but on a wooden ship changing her
latitude it requires some weeks for the iron to get into its new magnetic
condition. In such ships the principal part of the deviation varies as the
tangent of the dip, and therefore becomes nil at the magnetic equator,
and changes its sign on a change of hemisphere.

“In iron ships the greater part of the deviation seems to arise from
permanent magnetism, and the deviation in the south to be in the same
direction generally as in the north; but then the ships whose deviations
I have examined had not been long in the south, and it may be that in
time, and with blows or strains, the magnetism would have changed.

“The following considerations seem to show, conclusively, that no con-
fidence can be placed in any prediction as to the changes an iron ship
will undergo on a change of latitude.

Curves Sheuing the Derratians expend by a sid

the Lines *marked thus, , denote the Curves onthe
yy, ele the Vessels head South 32° West
The Lines marked: thus». — denole the Curves on the Larbho
ayy, Wile the Vessels head South 32° West. -,
The Lites tarked this. represtMl the same obstrvalan
E at Lancefield (uay, With the es ts head Stuth ;
he

Sy

vali, * —>—

fiyure 2.

——@—-«
a SS ee

a i. ~—H Oo

Sa = eee

Se
Sal = ae

North end of the Needle attracted
towards the Vessels stde

: 6 Khery Cross, whe
- fase ay on full of Ske A as

Lines of “No Denation ¢ 2 40° Wes

oe as built with her head poling South

SHE WE

LY hs

Bulwarks of Wood _

eight ab te 2 mpass was carried round
3 y 1s Cary

ht al which ya small Com u

Hey 5

Line _df Iron Gurawatle

Tnolination of Keel to the Horizon

Horizontal line

Cnced by a yl! \ecd le placed iste of he Bulwark.

ig Gres only Starboard stile when tytig on the Ste Ks,

i Clarvies on yh jatoard. side when lying en the Stocks

tthe Scarres ppyriations taken @fter launching, uhen lyirg

Mid Staite. Fast
L the same “Me Palins taken after launching, when ying 1 at Govan. r ”
| ss aa + Se Peo a ee OT Needle attracted
Howards the Vessels stile

tt eres Orie

Laneadicls

parkourd.

A

ee)
eT ie ei
Marvourd abt a u
inca = 120 Decrees

ave FOR DEVIATIONS

ei

; ‘ om h
Fiery CAS when lying WM the position WM which
] South a West (magnetic)
Fe Bulwarks = 7
sy uns COTTE mound the Bula. : =
7 a = } I

ee ere

no, Deviation. on Starboard
} hit facing North ah? Whst”

| : \ |

8 Otten

‘Vis Deviation. on a sirall Needle

clase infront of stern

'Weh= 12 FEET

reer

; te a f
QOSah WAY BeBe «ky Vr Pes,

ae 7 a : me Aes ' fh -, ‘ 1 ,
yet ’ , ¢ ? Foc ets A Wa A Age eae

es fe
= ,

p a
a a * ‘
oF oa a" = .

a Se Rear
bi “oe

aie ly
3°
mA: y \*
iB = t ae
nih, ,
4 a i
=f <
. ss ~ Viepeeus
i
Do tS end pa o-
'
'
a
_ f
:
4 -
.
£

———_————

+ ee

Mr. J. R. Napier on Ships’ Compasses. 375

“Suppose all the iron to be as to part perfectly hard, as to the rest
perfectly soft. The true result must be between the extremes ; and it is
quite certain, that even in an iron vessel, there is a great deal of iron
approaching to soft iron. We may have several cases.

“1. The compass may happen when placed where the deviation caused
by the soft iron compensates itself, and where, therefore, the whole de-
viation is caused by the permanently magnetic iron. In this case, Airy
will appear to be right, and the correction by magnets will answer.
Curiously enough, I find that this was very nearly the case with the
‘Trident,’ the iron vessel which he selects as a test of his theory.

‘2. The compass may be placed where the permanently magnetic iron
compensates itself, and then the deviation would appear to be that of
soft iron, and would change its sign on a change of latitude, and if cor-
rected by magnets the error in the south hemisphere would be doubled.
I have not found an instance of this.

«3. The compass may be placed where the deviation is small, from the
hard and soft iron compensating each other. In this case, when the ves-
sel goes to the south, the two magnetisms will act in the same direction,
and there will be a large deviation. I think this is the explanation of
the deviation of the ‘ Bolivia’ which you sent me.

~“4, The two deviations may, in England, act in the same direction, that
from hard iron being the greatest. In this case, in a southern latitude,

_ the Cape for instance, the deviation will have the same direction, but be

diminished in amount. This was the case with one iron steamer, whose
deviations I got from the Admiralty, I think the ‘ Birkenhead.’

“5. The two deviations in England may act in opposite directions, that
from hard iron being the greatest. In that case in the south, the de-
viation will remain the same in direction, but will be increased. This
was the case with another iron steamer, whose deviations I got from the
Admiralty, I think the ‘ Vulcan.’

“Other causes may easily be imagined, and all show how uncertain any
corrections by magnets, or even by soft iron pillars, which I was once
inclined to, must be; and that the best thing to do is to keep the |
compass as far as possible from all iron, and make frequent observa-
tions, &c.

“ ARCHIBALD SMITH.”

Though many captains of vessels still adhere to the principle of having
their compass errors corrected by magnets, the custom of placing a com-
pass on a mast or pole high above the vessel to be free from the influ-
ence of iron, as urged by Dr. Scoresby and implied by Mr. Smith, is
becoming more frequent. It is to be hoped this custom will soon
become universal.

376 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Magnetic Meridian.

Note on the Determination of the Magnetic Meridian at a Distance from
Land. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.E., F.R.SS. L. & E.

The principle of the following method of approximately finding the
magnetic meridian on board ship when at a distance from land, and some
of the results of that principle, were communicated to the Royal Society
in 1853, and an abstract of them published in the Proceedings of that
body. In the present note the theoretical investigation is somewhat
simplified, and the resulting formula is put into a shape more convenient
for practical use; and a method is also explained of substituting a geo-
metrical construction for some of the calculations. :

The principle in question is this:— When a ship performs a complete
rotation, her head returning exactly to the point from which it started, the
sum of the mechanical work performed by the horizontal rotative forces
acting between the compass-needle and the earth, between the earth and the
ship, and between the needle and the ship respectively, is equal to nothing.

Let the following symbols denote angles, measured in the direction of
motion of the bands of a watch, 7.¢., from north to east :—

3, the angle from the north end of the needle to the magnetic north = =
the westerly deviation of the needle, when positive.

¢, from the magnetic north to the ship’s head = true magnetic bearing of
the ship’s head.

¢ = 2+%, from the north end of the needle to the ship’s head = apparent
magnetic bearing of the ship's head.

Let the horizontal couples, or rotative moments, tending to vary the
above angles, be denoted as follows :—

P, the couple acting between the needle and the earth
(=m X sin 3, where m is the magnetic moment of the needle, and
X the earth’s horizontal force) ;

Z, the couple acting between the earth and the ship ;

— P, that acting between the needle and the ship (being equal and op-
posite to that acting between the needle and the earth).

Then the principle stated above is thus expressed :—

— fPdds— fi Zag t+ fo" PAY =O wreseesesens (1.)
Now the first term of this equation, ip P d3, being obviously null, it is

reduced to :
[or ZagHfo Pav amX fo snd-d¢
or, set both sides by os m X,

Qe : : hae
eh Zat== 5 sm. d-dg=A ..... aseassel
A denoting, as in Mr. Coates Smith’s notation, the mean of the sines

Mr. W. J. MAcquorn RANKINE on the Magnetic Meridian. 377

of all the deviations of the compass-needle (positive when westerly)
observed in swinging the ship.

Now, it is probable that the mean value of Z, the rotative force acting
between the earth and the ship, varies simply in proportion to X, the
earth’s horizontal force; and, consequently, that A is a constant for a
given ship, for all positions on the earth’s surface, which may be ascer-
tained once for all, when the ship is in port.

The symbol = ye ay sin 6 d ¢ denotes the taking of the mean of the sines

of the deviations of the needle with the ship’s head on an infinite number
of equidistant apparent bearings. In practice, only a finite number of
such deviations can be observed. Let the mean of their sines be denoted
by.

ai aie) SS A Sa eee aileee (B.D

This quantity having been ascertained, once for all, let the ship be
supposed to be at a distance from land, and let it be required to find the
magnetic meridian. Let the ship be swung round, and let the apparent
magnetic bearings of any fixed distant object be taken, with the ship’s
head on each of the thirty-two points, or on sixteen equidistant points,
as the case may be. A star will answer for an object, if its apparent
motion be allowed for by calculation. It is required to find the true
magnetic bearing of this object,

Let « denote this true magnetic bearing, «’ any one of the apparent
magnetic bearings, then the corresponding deviation of the needle is

= a’ —a,
and consequently
sin. 6 = cos. # sin. # —sin. @ . Cos. a’
Therefore, let S denote the mean of the sines of the apparent bearings
of the distant object, and C the mean of their cosines; then
A =S ‘cos, @—C ‘Sin, o......+0+000(4.)
the solution of which equation gives, for the true magnetic bearing of the
object,
@ = are. tan. -— arc. sin. Worpaer et)

The true magnetic bearing of a visible object having been thus deter-
mined, the magnetic meridian is known, and also the deviations of the
needle for all those positions of the ship’s head at which apparent bear-
ings of the object were taken.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that in taking the means of the sines
and cosines, sines of easterly bearings and cosines of northerly bearings
are to be considered as positive; and sines of westerly bearings and
cosines of southerly bearings as negative,

378 Mr. W. J. MAcquorn RaAnkINE on the Azimuth of a Star.

The following is the geometrical construction corresponding to the
equation 5. Fig. 1:—
i
B

Cc S

Draw a straight line, om, to represent the magnetic meridian, in
which take any point, 0, From 0, set off on the line om, 0c = ©, the
mean of the cosines of the apparent bearings of the object. At c erect
€ 8 perpendicular to 0 M, and make c s = 8, the mean of the sines of the
apparent bearings. Jound the point s, with a radius = A, describe an
are of a circle, to the left of s if a is a positive quantity, to the right if
A is a negative quantity. From o draw oB touching that arc. Then is
the angle Mo B the true magnetic bearing of the object.

Note on the Approximate Determination of the Azimuth of a Star by Geome-
trical Construction, its Declination and Altitude, and the Latitude of the
Place of Observation being given. By W. J. Macquorn Ranxine.

To solve this problem geometrically, it is necessary to have a gra-
duated circle drawn on a large flat piece of card-board. The drawing
instruments required are a large pair of compasses, and a long and
accurate straight edged ruler. The larger the circle, and the more
minute the graduations, the more accurate will be the result.

Let En’ £ a be the graduated circle, whose centre is ato. This circle

Minutes of Meetings. 379

is to be conceived to represent an orthographic projection of the celestial
sphere on the plane of the meridian. Let the straight line, EB, be the
projection of the equator.

Set off the arcs H = EB’ = the co-latitude of the place of observa-
tion; then will HoH’ be the projection of the horizon of that place.
From the equator set off the two arcs ED = the declination of the star,
and draw the straight line, DD, which will be the projection of the
parallel of declination, From the horizon set off the arcs HA = H' A =
the altitude of the star, and draw the straight line A A, which will be the
projection of the parallel of altitude. Then s, where a a intersects DD,
will be the orthographic projection of the star.

Round 0, with the radius 0 c = 3 A A, describe a circle, or part of a
circle. From s let fall s 8 perpendicular to the horizon H 0 H’, and pro-
duce this perpendicular till it cuts the last mentioned circle. Let o be
the point of intersection. Draw the straight line 0 c, and produce it till
it cuts the graduated circle in F. Then will the are H’ F be the azimuth
of the star, measured from that pole which is above the horizon.

This method answers best when the star observed is at a distance
from the meridian without, being so near the horizon as to be much
affected by refraction, or so near the zenith as to make its azimuth
uncertain.

A geometrical construction analogous to this has been used by the
author to determine the apparent solar time from an observation of the
sun’s altitude.

Professor Gordon gave “ An Account of New Formulas for Calculating
the Strength of Pillars of Cast and Wrought Iron.”’
Mr. Ure exhibited a Lamp of a new construction.

February 7, 1855.—The Prusipunt in the Chair.

Tux following were elected members :—Mr. James Ferguson, Mining
Engineer, Gas-Coal Works, Lesmahagow; Mr. James M‘Intosh, Tanner,
129 Stockwell Street; Mr. Daniel Macnee, Painter, 132 West Regent
Street; Mr. Wm. Robertson, C. and M.E., 97 Union Street.

On the recommendation of the Council, the Society agreed to grant
a sum not exceeding £6 for the purchase of a new Black Board: The
first vote was taken, and the motion was carried unanimously.

Mr. Bryce read ‘Notices of the Natural and Civil History of the
Crimea—its Geology and Climate.”

380 Minutes of Meetings.

February 21, 1855.—The Preswent in the Chair.

Mr, Jouy Bawnen, Engineer, was elected a member.

The Society, by its second vote, finally agreed to grant a sum of £6
for Black Boards.

Mr. James Elliott, Teacher of Mathematics, Edinburgh, at the request
of the Council, read a paper “‘ On certain Mechanical Illustrations of the
Motions of the Planets, accompanied by theoretical investigations relating
to these, and, in particular, a new Explanation of the Stability of Equi-
librium of Saturn’s Rings.”

The reading of the paper was followed by a discussion, in which Pro-
fessor Nichol, Professor William Thomson, and Dr. Taylor took part.

March 7, 1855.—The PRestDEnt in the Chair.

Proressor Nicuor read a paper, entitled, “Saturn's Rings—a chap-
ter of Scientific History.”

March 20, 1855.—The Presipent in the Chair.

Mr. Bryce proposed that a Committee should be appointed to collect
observations illustrative of the extreme severity of the late winter.

The suggestion was also recommended by the President, and approved
of by the Society.

The following Committee was accordingly appointed, viz., Mr. King,
Windsor Terrace; Mr. Hart, Cesnock Park; Mr. Thomas Gardner,
Buchanan Street ; Dr. Anderson, College; Mr. Bryce, Convener.

Dr. Strang read Statistical Memoranda connected with the recent
Social Progress of Paris.

Mr. Bryce gave an account of the general Geology and Glacial Phe-
nomena of the Lake District of Cumberland and Westmoreland.

April 4, 1855.—The PresiDEnt in the Chair.

Mr. James B, Murpocn was elected a member.

The President intimated that arrangements had been made by the
Council for the delivery of a lecture on the Attack and Defence of For-
tified Places, by Captain Maclagan of the Bengal Engineers, in the
Merchants’ Hall, next Wednesday evening; that invitations would be

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 381

sent to the Magistrates and other municipal authorities; and that the
members of the Society would be furnished with tickets for their friends.

Dr. Taylor, Professor of Natural Philosophy, Anderson’s University,
read a paper “ On the Nature and Causes of Hurricanes,”

April 18, 1855. —The PresiDEnt in the Chair.

PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON gave an account of ‘“‘ Recent Experi-
mental Investigations in Thermo-Electricity.”

May 2, 1855 (the Concluding Meeting of the Session was held this even-
ing).—WILLIAM GOURLIE, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. J. Narrer read a paper “On the Chemistry of Trap Dykes in
Arran.”

Mr. W. J. Macquorn Rankine read a paper “On the Science of
Energetics.”

Outlines of the Science of Energetics. By Wrii~1am Joun MacQuorn
RanxkinZ, Civil Engineer, F.R.SS. London and Edinburgh, &e.

I. WHAT CONSTITUTES A PuysicAL THEORY.

An essential distinction exists between two stages in the process of
advancing our knowledge of the laws of physical phenomena; the first
stage consists in observing the relations of phenomena, whether of such
as occur in the ordinary course of nature, or of such as are artificially
produced in experimental investigations, and in expressing the relations
so observed by propositions called formal laws. The second stage con-
sists in reducing the formal laws of an entire class of phenomena to the
form of a science ; that is to say, in discovering the most simple system
of principles, from which all the formal laws of the class of phenomena
can be deduced as consequences.

Such a system of principles, with its consequences methodically de-
duced, constitutes the pHysicaL THEORY of a class of phenomena.

A physical theory, like an abstract science, consists of definitions and
axioms as first principles, and of propositions, their consequences ; but
with these differences :—first, That in an abstract science, a definition
assigns a name to a class of notions derived originally from observation,
but not necessarily corresponding to any existing objects of real pheno-

382 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RAnxINE on the Science of Energetics.

mena, and an axiom states a mutual relation amongst such notions, or
the names denoting them; while in a physical science, a definition states
properties common to a class of existing objects, or real phenomena, and
a physical axiom states a general law as to the relations of phenomena;
and, secondly,—That in an abstract science, the propositions first disco-
vered are the most simple; whilst in a physical theory, the propositions
first discovered are in general numerous and complex, being formal laws,
the immediate results of observation and experiment, from which the
definitions and axioms are subsequently arrived at by a process of rea-
soning differing from that whereby one proposition is deduced from
another in an abstract science, partly in being more complex and diffi-
cult, and partly in being to a certain extent tentative, that is to say,
involving the trial of conjectural principles, and their acceptance or
rejection according as their consequences are found to agree or disagree
with the formal laws deduced immediately from observation and ex-
periment,

IL. Tae ApsTRacTIVE MeTHoD OF FORMING A PHysicaL THEORY, DIs-
TINGUISHED FROM THE HyPoTHETICAL MeEtTHOD.

Two methods of framing a physical theory may be distinguished,
characterized chiefly by the manner in which classes of phenomena are
defined. They may be termed respectively the ABSTRACTIVE and the
HYPOTHETICAL methods.

According to the aBsTRACTIVE method, a class of objects or phenomena
is defined by describing, or otherwise making to be understood, and
assigning a name or symbol to, that assemblage of properties which is
common to all the objects or phenomena composing the class, as perceived
by the senses, without introducing anything hypothetical.

According to the HYPOTHETICAL method, a class of objects or pheno-
mena is defined according to a conjectural conception of their nature, as
being constituted in a manner not apparent to the senses, by a modifica-
tion of some other class of objects or phenomena whose laws are already
known. Should the consequences of such a hypothetical definition be
found to be in accordance with the results of observation and experiment,
it serves as the means of deducing the laws of one class of objects or
phenomena from those of another.

The conjectural conceptions involved in the hypothetical method may
be distinguished into two classes, according as they are adopted as a pro-
bable representation of a state of things which may really exist, though
imperceptible to the senses, or merely as a convenient means of expressing
the laws of phenomena; two kinds of hypotheses, of which the former
may be called objective, and the latter subjective. As examples of objec-

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 383

tive hypotheses may be taken, that of vibrations or oscillations in the
theory of light, and that of atoms in chemistry; as an example of a sub-
jective hypothesis, that of magnetic fluids.

III. THe Scrmncr or MECHANICS CONSIDERED AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF
THE ABSTRACTIVE METHOD.

The principles of the science of mechanics, the only example yet exist-
ing of a complete physical theory, are altogether formed from the data of
experience by the abstractive method. The class of objects to which the
science of mechanics relates,—viz.,—material bodies,—are defined by
means of those sensible properties which they all possess, viz., the pro-
perty of occupying space, and that of resisting change of motion. The
two classes of phenomena to which the science of mechanics relates are
distinguished by two words, motion and force ; motion being a word de-
noting that which is common to the fall of heavy bodies, the flow of
streams, the tides, the winds, the vibrations of sonorous bodies, the revo-
lutions of the stars, and generally to all phenomena involving change of
the portions of space occupied by bodies; and force, a word denoting that
which is common to the mutual attractions and repulsions of bodies, dis-
tant or near, and of the parts of bodies, the mutual pressure or stress of
bodies in contact, and of the parts of bodies, the muscular exertions of
animals, and, generally, to all phenomena tending to produce or to pre-
vent motion.

The laws of the composition and resolution of motions, and of the com-
position and resolution of forces, are expressed by propositions which are
the consequences of the definitions of motion and force respectively. The
laws of the relations between motion and force are the consequences of
certain axioms, being the most simple and general expressions for all that
has been ascertained by experience respecting those relations.

IV. MecuanicaL HypPotTHests IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF Puysics.

The fact that the theory of motions and motive forces is the only com-
plete physical theory, has naturally led to the adoption of mechanical
hypotheses in the theories of other branches of physics; that is to say,
hypothetical definitions, in which classes of phenomena are defined con-
jecturally as being constituted by some kind of motion or motive force
not obvious to the senses (called molecular motion or force) as when light
and radiant heat as defined as consisting in molecular vibrations, thermo-
metric heat in molecular vortices, and the rigidity of solids in molecular
attractions and repulsions.

The hypothetical motions and forces are sometimes ascribed to hypo-

384 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RAn«kINE on the Science of Energetics.

thetical bodies, such as the luminiferous ether; sometimes to hypothetical
parts, whereof tangible bodies are conjecturally defined to consist, such as
atoms, atomic nuclei with elastic atmospheres, and the like. _

A mechanical hypothesis is held to have fulfilled its object, when, by
applying the known axioms of mechanics to the hypothetical motions and
forces, results are obtained agreeing with the observed laws of the classes
of phenomena under consideration, and when, by the aid of such a hypo-
thesis, phenomena previously unobserved are predicted, and laws antici-
pated, it attains a high degree of probability.

A mechanical hypothesis is the better, the more extensive the range
of phenomena whose laws it serves to deduce from the axioms of me-
chanics; and the perfection of such a hypothesis would be, if it could,
by means of one connected system of suppositions, be made to form a
basis for all branches of molecular physics.

V. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYPOTHETICAL THEORIES.

It is well known that certain hypothetical theories, such as the wave
theory of light, have proved extremely useful, by reducing the laws of a
various and complicated class of phenomena to a few simple principles,
and by anticipating laws afterwards verified by observation.

Such are the results to be expected from well-framed hypotheses in
every branch of physics, when used with judgment, and especially with
that caution which arises from the consideration, that even those hypo-
theses whose consequences are most fully confirmed by experiment, never
can by any amount of evidence attain that degree of certainty which be-
longs to observed facts.

Of mechanical hypotheses in particular, it is to be observed, that their
tendency is to combine all branches of physics into one system, by making
the axioms of mechanics the first principles of the laws of all phenomena;
an object for the attainment of which an earnest wish was expressed by
Newton.*

In the mechanical theories of elasticity, light, heat, and electricity,
considerable progress has been made towards that end.

The neglect of the caution already referred to, however, has caused
some hypotheses to assume, in the minds of the public generally, as well
as in those of many scientific men, that authority which belongs to facts
alone, and a tendency has consequently often evinced itself to explain
away, or set aside, facts inconsistent with these hypotheses, which facts,
rightly appreciated, would have formed the basis of true theories; thus

* Utinam cetera nature phenomena ex principiis mechanicis eodem argumen-
tandi genere derivare liceret.— (Phil. Nat. Prin. Math, ; Pref.)

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 385

the fact of the production of heat by friction, the basis of the true theory
of heat, was long neglected, because inconsistent with the hypothesis of
caloric; and the fact of the production of cold by electric currents, at
certain metallic junctions, the key (as Professor William Thomson recently
showed) to the true theory of the phenomena of thermo-electricity, was,
from inconsistency with prevalent assumptions respecting the so-called
“electric fluid,’’ by some regarded as a thing to be explained away, and
by others as a delusion.
Such are the evils which arise from the misuse of hypothesis.

VI. ADVANTAGES OF AN EXTENSION OF THE ABSTRACTIVE METHOD
or FrRaMiIneé THEORIES.

Besides the perfecting of Mechanical Hypotheses, another and an en-
tirely distinct method presents itself for combining the physical sciences
into one system ; and that it is by an extension of the ABSTRACTIVE PRO-
CESS in framing Theories.

The abstractive method has already been partially applied, and with
success, to special branches of molecular physics, such as heat, electricity,
and magnetism. We are now to consider in what manner it is to be
applied to physics generally, considered as one science.

Instead of supposing the various classes of physical phenomena to be
constituted in an occult way of modifications of motion and force, let us
distinguish the properties which those classes possess in common with
each other, and so define more extensive classes denoted by suitable
terms, For axioms, to express the laws of those more extensive classes
of phenomena, let us frame propositions comprehending as particular
cases, the laws of the particular classes of phenomena comprehended
under the more extensive classes, So shall we arrive at a body of prin-
ciples, applicable to physical phenomena in general, and which being
framed by induction from facts alone, will be free from the uncertainty
which must always attach even to those mechanical hypotheses whose
consequences are most fully confirmed by experiment.

This extension of the abstractive process is not proposed in order to
supersede the hypothetical method of theorizing; for in almost every
branch of molecular physics it may be held, that a hypothetical theory
is necessary as a preliminary step to reduce the expression of the phe-
nomena to simplicity and order, before it is possible to make any pro-
gress in framing an abstractive theory.

VII. NatvuRE OF THE SCIENCE OF ENERGETICS.

Energy, or the capacity to effect changes, is the common character-
istic of the various states of matter to which the several branches of

386 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics.

physics relate; if, then, there be general laws respecting energy, such
laws must be applicable, mutatis mutandis, to every branch of physics,
and must express a body of principles as to physical phenomena in
general.

In a paper read to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow on the 5th
of January 1853, a first attempt was made to investigate such principles,
by defining actual energy and potential energy, and by demonstrating a
general law of the mutual transformations of those kinds of energy, of
which one particular case is a previously known law of the mechanical
action of heat in elastic bodies, and another, a subsequently demonstrated
law which forms the basis of Professor William Thomson’s Theory of
thermo-electricity.

- The object of the present paper is, to present in a more systematic
form, both these and some other principles, forming part of a science
whose subjects are, material bodies and physical phenomena in general,
and which it is proposed to call the Screncr or ENERGETICS.

VIII. DerrniTIons oF CERTAIN TERMS.

The peculiar terms which will be used in treating of the Science of
Energetics are purely abstract; that is to say, they are not the names of
any particular object, nor of any particular phenomena, nor of any par-
ticular notions of the mind, but are names of very comprehensive classes
of objects and phenomena. About such classes it is impossible to think
or to reason, except by the aid of examples or of symbols. General terms
are symbols employed for this purpose.

Substance.

The term “substance” will be applied to all bodies, parts of bodies,
and systems of bodies. The parts of a substance may be spoken of as
distinct substances, and a system of substances related to each other may
be spoken of as one complex substance. Strictly speaking, the term
should be “ material substance,’ but it is easily borne in mind, that in
this essay none but material substances are referred to.

Property.

The term “ property” will be restricted to invariable properties ;
whether such as always belong to all material substances, or such as con-
stitute the invariable distinctions between one kind of substance and
another.

Mass.

Mass means “ quantity of substance.” Masses of one kind of substance

may be compared together by ascertaining the numbers of equal parts

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 387

which they contain ; masses of substances of different kinds are compared
by means to be afterwards referred to.

Accident.

The term “ accident” will be applied to every variable state of sub-
stances, whether consisting in a condition of each part of a substance,
how small soever, (which may be called an absolute accident), or in a
physical relation between parts of substances, (which may be called a
relative accident). Accidents to be the subject of scientific inquiry, must
be capable of being measured and expressed by means of quantities.
The quantity, even of an absolute accident, can only be expressed by
means of a mentally-conceived relation.

The whole condition or state of a substance, so far as it is variable, is
a complex accident ; the independent quantities which are at once neces-
sary and sufficient to express completely this complex accident, are inde-
pendent accidents. To express the same complex accident, different
systems of independent accidents may be employed; but the number of
independent accidents in each system will be the same.

Ezxamples.—The variable thermic condition of an elastic fluid is a com-
plex accident, capable of being completely expressed by two independent
accidents, which may be any two out of these three quantities—the tem-
perature, the density, the pressure—or any two independent functions of
these quantities.

The condition of strain at a point in an elastic solid, is a complex acci-
dent, capable of being completely expressed by six independent accidents,
which may be the three elongations of the dimensions, and the three
distortions of the faces of a molecule originally cubical, or the lengths
and directions of the axes of the ellipsoidal figure assumed by a molecule
originally spherical; or any six independent functions of either of those
systems of quantities.

The distinction of accidents into absolute and relative is to a certain
extent arbitrary ; thus, the figure and dimensions of a molecule may be
regarded as absolute accidents, when it is considered as a whole, or as
relative accidents, when it is considered as made up of parts. Most kinds
of accidents are necessarily relative, but some kinds can only be consi-
dered as relative accidents when some hypothesis is adopted as to the
occult condition of the substances which they affect, as when heat is
ascribed hypothetically to molecular motions; and such suppositions are
excluded from the present inquiry.

Accidents may be said to be homogeneous when the quantities express -
ing them are capable of being put together, so that the result of the com-
bination of the different accidents shall be expressed by one quantity.
The number of heterogeneous kinds of accidents is evidently indefinite.

388 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RankINE on the Science of Energetics.

Effort, or Active Accident.

The term ‘effort’? will be applied to every cause which varies, or
tends to vary, an accident. This term, therefore, comprehends not merely
forces or pressures, to which it is usually applied, but all causes of varia-
tion in the condition of substances. |

Efforts may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Homogeneous efforts are compared by balancing them against each
other.

An effort, being a condition of the parts of a substance, or a relation
between substances, is itself an accident, and may be distinguished as an
“ active accident.”

With reference to a given limited substance, internal efforts are those
which consist in actions amongst its parts; external efforts those which
consist in actions between the given substance and other substances.

Passive Accident.

The condition which an effort tends to vary may be called a “‘ passive
accident,’’ and when the word “accident” is not otherwise qualified,
“passive accident’’ may be understood,

Radical Accident.

If there be a quantity such that it expresses at once the magnitude of
the passive accident caused by a given effort, and the magnitude of the
active accident or effort itself, let the condition denoted by that quantity
be called a “radtcal accident.”

[The velocity of a given mass is an example of a radical accident, for
it is itself a passive accident, and also the measure of the kind of effort
called accelerative force, which acting for unity of time, is capable of
producing that passive accident. ]

[The strength of an electric current is also a radical accident. ]

Effort as a Measure of Mass.

Masses, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, may be compared
by means of the efforts required to produce in them variations of some
particular accident. The accident conventionally employed for this pur-
pose is velocity.

Work.

“ Work” is the variation of an accident by an effort, and is a term
comprehending all phenomena in which physical change takes place.
Quantity. of work is measured by the product of the variation of the
passive accident by the magnitude of the effort, when this is constant ;

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 389

or by the integral of the effort, with respect to the passive accident,
when the effort is variable.

Let x denote a passive accident.

X an effort tending to vary it.

W the work performed in increasing a from x, to ,, then,

Wwe f "| Xda, and
(1) :
0

W= X (#;—«,) if X is constant.

Work is represented geometrically by the area of a curve, whereof the
abscissa represents the passive accident, and the ordinate, the effort.

Energy, Actual and Potential.

The term ‘ energy’? comprehends every state of a substance which
constitutes a capacity for performing work. Quantities of energy are
measured by the quantities of work which they constitute the means of
performing.

“ Actual energy”? comprehends those kinds of capacity for performing
work which consist in particular states of each part of a substance, how
small soever ; that is, in an absolute accident, such as heat, light, electric
current, vis-viva. Actual energy is essentially positive,

“* Potential energy’’ comprehends those kinds of capacity for perform-
ing work which consist in relations between substances, or parts of sub-
stances; that is, in relative accidents. To constitute potential energy
there must be a passive accident capable of variation, and an effort tend-
ing to produce such variation ; the integral of this effort, with respect to
the possible variation of the passive accident, is potential energy, which
differs in work from this—that in work the change has been effected,
which, in potential energy, is capable of being effected.

Let # denote an accident, w, its actual value; X, an effort tending
to vary it; a, the value to which the effort tends to bring the accident;
then

“i “0 Xdx = U, denotes potential energy.

Dy

Examples of potential energy are, the chemical affinity of uncombined
elements; the energy of gravitation, of magnetism, of electrical attrac-
tion and repulsion, of electro-motive force, of that part of elasticity which
arises from actions between the parts of a body, and generally, of all
mutual actions of bodies, and parts of bodies.

Potential energy may be passive or negative, according as the effort
in question is of the same sign with the variation of the passive accident,

Vor. IIl.—No. 6. ‘ E

390 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics.

or of the opposite sign; that is, according as X is of the same sign with
dz, or of the opposite sign.

It is to be observed, that the states of substances comprehended_under
the term actual energy, may possess the characteristics of potential energy
also; that is to say, may be accompanied by a tendency or effort to vary
relative accidents; as heat, in an elastic fluid, is accompanied by a ten-
dency to expand; that is, an effort to increase the volume of the recep~
tacle containing the fluid.

The states to which the term, potential energy, is especially applied,
are those which are solely due to mutual actions.

To put a substance into a state of energy, or to increase its energy, is
obviously a kind of work.

IX. First Axiom.

All kinds of Work and Energy are Homogeneous.

This axiom means, that any kind of energy may be made the means of
performing any kind of work. It is a fact arrived at by induction from
experiment and observation, and its establishment is more especially due
to the experiments of M. Joule.

This axiom leads, in many respects, to the same consequences with the
hypothesis that all those kinds of energy which are not sensibly the re-
sults of motion and motive force are the results of oceult modifications of
motion and motive force. t

But the axiom differs from the hypothesis in this, that the axiom is
simply the generalized allegation of the facts proved by experience, while
the hypothesis involves conjectures as to objects and phenomena which
never can be subjected to observation.

It is the truth of this axiom which renders a science of energetics
possible.

The efforts and passive accidents to which the branches of physics
relate are varied and heterogeneous; but they are all connected with
energy, a uniform species of quantity, which pervades every branch of
physics.

This axiom is also equivalent to saying, that energy is transformable
and transferable (an allegation which, in the previous paper referred to,
was included in the definition of energy); for, to transform energy, means
to employ energy depending on accidents of one kind, in putting a sub-
stance into a state of energy depending on accidents of another kind; and
to transfer energy, means to employ the energy of one substance in
putting another substance into a state of energy, both of which are kinds
of work, and may, according to the axiom, be performed by means of any
kind of energy.

Mr. W. J. MAcquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 391

X. Seconp AXIOM.

The Total Energy of a Substance Cannot be Altered by the Mutual Actions
of tts Parts.

Of the truth of this axiom there can be no doubt; but some difference
of opinion may exist as to the evidence on which it rests. There is ample
experimental evidence from which it might be proved; but independently
of such evidence, there is the argument, that the law expressed by this
axiom is essential to the stability of the universe, such as it exists.

The special application of this law to mechanics is expressed in two
ways, which are virtually equivalent to each other; the principle of vis-
viva, and that of the equality of action and reaction. The latter principle
is demonstrated by Newton, from considerations connected with the
stability of the universe (Principia, Scholium to the Laws of Motion) ;
for he shows, that but for the equality of action and reaction, the earth,
with a continually accelerated velocity, would fly away through infinite
space.

It follows, from the Second Axiom, that all work consists in the transfer
and transformation of energy alone; for otherwise the total amount of
energy would be altered. Also, that the energy of a substance can be
varied by external efforts alone.

XI. Exrernat PotentraL EQuinisRivum.

The entire condition of a substance, so far as it is variable, as explained
in Article VIIL, under the head of accident, is a complex accident, which
may be expressed in various ways by means of different systems of
quantities denoting independent accidents; but the number of inde-
pendent accidents in each system must be the same,

The quantity of work required to produce any change in the condition
of the substance, that is to say, the potential energy received by it from
without, during that change, may in like manner be expressed in different
ways by the sums of different systems of integrals of external efforts, each
integrated with respect to the independent accident which it tends to
augment; but the number of integrals in each system, and the number
of efforts, like the number of independent accidents, must be the same;
and so also must the sums of the integrals, each sum representing the
same quantity of work in a different way.

The different systems of efforts which correspond to different systems
of independent accidents, each expressing the same complex accident,
may be called equivalent systems of efforts; and the finding of a system of
efforts equivalent to another may be called conversion of efforts.*

* The conversion of efforts in Physics, is connected with the theory of lineal
transformations in Algebra,

Sa

392 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RankrNe on the Science of Energetics.

When the law of variation of potential energy, by a change of condi-
tion of a substance, is known, the system of external efforts corresponding
to any system of independent accidents is found by means of this principle:

Each effort is equal to the rate of variation of the potential energy with
respect to the independent accident which that efort tends to vary; or
symbolically

dU

(2.) =

EXTERNAL PoTENTIAL EQuiniprium of a substance takes place, when
the external effort to vary each of the independent accidents is null; that is
to say, when the rate of variation of the potential energy of the substance
with the variation of each independent accident is null.

For a given substance, there are as many conditions of equilibrium, of
the form

(3.) ros 0,

as there are independent accidents in the expression of its condition.

The special application of this law to motion and motive force consti-
tutes the principle of virtual velocities, from which the whole science of
statics is deducible.

XII. Internat PotTentiat EQvinisRium.

The internal potential equilibrium of a substance consists in the equili-
brium of each of its parts, considered separately ; that is to say, in the
nullity of the rate of variation of the potential energy of each part with
respect to each of the independent accidents on which the condition of
such part depends.

Examples of particular cases of this principle are, the laws of the
equilibrium of elastic solids, and of the distribution of statical electricity.

XIII. Turep Axtom.

The Effort to Perform Work of a Given Kind, Caused by a Given Quantity
of Actual Energy, is the Sum of the Efforts Caused by the Parts of that
Quantity.

A law equivalent to this axiom, under the name of the “GENERAL
Law oF THE TRANSFORMATION OF Enerey,” formed the principal
subject of the previous paper already referred to.

This axiom appears to be a consequence of the definition of actual
energy, as a capacity for performing work possessed by each part of a

Mr. W. J. MAcquorn RANEINE on the Science of Energetics, 393

substance independently of its relations to other parts, rather than an in-
dependent proposition.

Its applicability to natural phenomena arises from the fact, that there
are states of substances corresponding to the definition of actual energy.

The mode of applying this third axiom is as follows :—

Let a homogeneous substance possess a quantity Q, of a particular
kind of actual energy, uniformly distributed, and let it be required to
determine the amount of the effort arising from the actual energy, which
tends to perform a particular kind of work W, by the variation of a par-
ticular passive accident a.

The total effort to perform this kind of work is represented by the rate
of its increase relatively to the passive accident, viz.,—

Divide the quantity of actual energy Q into an indefinite number of in-
definitely small parts Q; the portion of the effort X due to each of those
parts will be
dX
sQ aoe
and adding these partial efforts together, the effort caused by the whole
quantity of actual energy will be ae
dX ?
‘Z Pan eS iam
If this be equal to the effective effort X, then that effort is simply pro-
portional to, and wholly caused by, the actual energy Q. This is the
case of the pressure of a perfect gas, and the centrifugal force of a moving
body.
If the effort caused by the actual energy differs from the effective effort,
their difference represents, when the former is the less, an additional

effort
(seg)

(5.) <and when the former is the greater, a counter effort
( on — =A
due to some other cause or causes.

XIV. Rare or TRANSFORMATION; METAMORPHIC FUNOTION.

The effort to augment a given accident a, caused by actual energy of
a given kind Q, may also be called the “ Rate of Transformation” of the

394 Mr, W. J. Macquorn Rankine on the Science of Energetics.

given kind of actual energy with increase of the given accident; for the
limit of the amount of actual energy which disappears in performing
work by an indefinitely small augmentation dz, of the accident, is

aw
Tanai

(6.)
dz = F os
= 29%

The Jast form of the above expression is obviously applicable when the
work W is the result of the variation of any number of independent acci-
dents, each by the corresponding effort, For example, let a, y, z, &c.,
be any number of independent accidents, and X, Y, Z, &c., the efforts to
augment them; so that

adW = Xdx + Ydy + Zdz + &c.
Then

(7.) dH= 0} a0 dx et BW +5 IO D de + St, j

= qa? Aim as before.

The function of actual energy, efforts, and passive accidents, denoted

by
dW fd _
8) pet

whose variation, multiplied by the actual energy, gives the amount of
actual energy transformed in performing the work dW, may be called
the ‘“‘Mzramorpuic Function” of the kind of actual energy Q relatively
to the kind of work W.

When this metamorphic function is known for a given homogeneous
substance, the quantity H of actual energy of the kind Q transformed to
the kind of work W, during a given operation, is found by taking the
integral

(9.) = foar.

The transformation of actual energy into work by the variation of
passive accidents is a reversible operation; that is to say, if the passive
accidents be made to vary to an equal extent in an opposite direction,
potential energy will be exerted upon the substance, and transformed
into actual energy: a case represented by the expression (9.) becoming
negative.

The metamorphic function of heat relatively to expansive power, was
first employed in a paper on the Economy of Heat in Expansive Ma-

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RAnKINE on the Science of Energetics. 395

chines, read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in April 1851 (“ Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edin.,” vol. xxi.)

The metamorphic function of heat relatively to electricity was employed
by Professor William Thomson, in a paper on Thermo-Electricity, read
to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in May 1854 (“Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edin.,” vol. xxi.), and was the means of anticipating some most remark-
able laws, afterwards confirmed by experiment.

XY. Equrniprium or ActuaL Ennrey; Metasatic Fonction.

It is known by experiment, that a state of actual energy is directly
transferable ; that is to say, the actual energy of a particular kind (such
as heat), in one substance, maybe diminished, the sole work performed
being an equal augmentation of the same kind of actual energy in another
substance.

Equilibrium of actual energy of a particular kind Q between substances
A and B, takes place, when the tendency of B to transfer this kind of
energy to B is equal to the tendency of B to transfer the same kind of
energy to A.

Laws respecting the equilibrium of particular kinds of actual energy
have been ascertained by experiment, and in some cases anticipated by
means of mechanical hypotheses, according to which, all actual energy
consists in the vis-viva of motion.

The following law will now be proved, respecting the equilibrium of
actual energy of all possible kinds :—

Theorem.—IF EQUILIBRIUM OF ACTUAL ENERGY OF A GIVEN KIND
TAKE PLACE BETWEEN A GIVEN PAIR OF SUBSTANCES, POSSESSING RE-
SPECTIVELY QUANTITIES OF ACTUAL ENERGY OF THAT KIND IN A GIVEN
RATIO, THEN THAT EQUILIBRIUM WILL SUBSIST FOR EVERY PAIR OF
QUANTITIES OF ACTUAL ENERGY BEARING TO EACH OTHER THE SAMB
RATIO.

Demonstration —The tendency of one substance to transfer actual
energy of the kind Q to another, must depend on some sort of effort,
whose nature and laws may be known or unknown. Let Y, be this
effort for the substance A, Y, the corresponding effort for the substance
B. Then a condition of equilibrium of actual energy is

(10.) SR

The effort Y may or may not be proportionate to the actual energy Q
multiplied by a quantity independent of Q.

Case first.—If it is so proportional, let

1
Y= 79,

n

396 Mr. W. J. Macquorn RAnkINE on the Science of Energetics.
K being independent of Q; then the condition of equilibrium becomes
1 1
=) A Or
K.° K, me

Q,__K,

See et

Q,. K,
a ratio independent of the absolute amounts of actual energy.

Case second.—If the effort Y is not simply proportional to the actual
energy Q, the portion of it caused by that actual energy, according to
the principle of article 13, deduced from the third axiom, is, for each
substance,

dY
270°

and a second condition of equilibrium of actual energy is furnished by
the equation
dY
id, —_— =
(1) ® 55
In order that this condition may be fulfilled simultaneously with the con-
dition (10.) it is necessary that
dQ, dQ,
Q. Qs
that is to say, that the ratio of the quantities of actual energy in the two

substances should be independent of those quantities themselves; a con-
dition expressed, as before, by

*dYs
2770,

(11.) Date
Q.E.D.

This ratio is a quantity to be ascertained by experiment, and may be
called the ratio of the SPECIFIC ACTUAL ENERGIES of the substances A
and B, for the kind of energy under consideration.

The function

(12.) QS. 45
K, &«K,
whose identity for the two substances expresses the condition of equili-
brium of the actual energy Q between them, may be called the “mera-
BATIC FUNCTION” for that kind of energy.

In the science of thermo-dynamics, the metabatic function is absolute
temperature ; and the factor K is real specific heat. The theorem stated
above, when applied to heat, amounts to this: that the real specific heat
of a substance ts independent of its temperature.

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKEINE on the Science of Energetics. $97

—

XVI—UseE or THE Merapatic Function; TRANSFORMATION OF
ENERGY IN AN AGGREGATE.

From the mutual proportionality of the actual energy Q, and the me-
tabatic function 4, it follows that the operations

@2ferpa8

dQ’ dé

are equivalent ; and that the latter may be substituted for the former in

all the equations expressing the laws of the transformation of energy.
We have therefore

aX dX aw
13. Rs SF ence it scala
St dQ dé dédx
for the effort to transform actual energy of the kind Q into work of the
kind W, when expressed in terms of the metabatic function; and

(14.) du — 0a 2W
dé
for the limit of the indefinitely small transformation produced by an in-
definitely small variation of the accidents on which the kind of work W
depends.
There is also a form of metamorphic function.

aw dH
1 ri => —__—— KF
( se i? dé sf 0

suited for employment along with the metabatic function, in order to find,
by the integration

(16) n= [sae

the quantity of actual energy of a given kind Q transformed to the kind
of work W during any finite variation of accidents.

The advantage of the above expressions is, that they are applicable,
not merely to a homogeneous substance, but to any heterogeneous sub-
stance or aggregate, which is internally in a state of equilibrium of actual
and potential energy; for throughout all the parts of an aggregate in
that condition, the metabatic function @ is the same, and each of the
efforts X, &c., is the same, and consequently the metamorphic function
@ is the same.

“ Carnét’s function” in thermo-dynamics is proportional to the reci-
procal of the metabatic function of heat.

398 Mr. W. J. Macquorn Ranxine on the Science of Energetics.

XVII. Erricrency or ENGINES.

An engine is a contrivance for transforming energy by means of
the periodical repetition of a cycle of variations of the accidents of a
substance.

The efficiency of an engine is the proportion which the energy perma-
nently transformed to a useful form by it bears to the whole energy com-
municated to the working substance.

In a perfect engine the cycle of variations is thus :—

I. The metabatic function is increased, say from 4 to 41.

If. The metamorphic function is increased by the amount A 9.

III. The metabatic function is diminished from 4, back to 6).

IV. The metamorphic function is diminished by the amount A 9.

During the second operation, the energy received by the working sub-
stance, and transformed from the actual to the potential form is 6; 4 9.
During the fourth operation energy is transformed back, to the amount
6,49. So that the energy permanently transformed during each cycle
is (0; —60) 4 9; and the efficiency of the engine ats

1

XVIII. Dirrusion or AcTuAL ENERGY ; IRREVERSIBLE OR FRICTIONAL
OPERATIONS.

There is a tendency in every substance or system of substances, to the
equable diffusion of actual energy ; that is to say, to its transfer between
the parts of the substance or system, until the value of the metabatic
function becomes uniform.

This process is not directly reversible ; that is to say, there is no such
operation as a direct concentration of actual energy through a tendency
of the metabatic function to become unequal in different parts of a sub-
stance or system.

Hence arises the impossibility of using the energy re-converted to the
actual form at the lower limit of the metabatic function in an engine.

There is an analogy in respect of this property of irreversibility, be-
tween the diffusion of one kind of actual energy, and certain irreversible
transformations of one kind of actual energy to another, called by Pro-
fessor William Thomson, “Frictional phenomena,”’ viz., the production
of heat by rubbing and agitation, and by electric currents in a homo-
geneous substance at a uniform temperature.

In fact, a conjecture may be hazarded, that immediate diffusion of the
actual energy produced in frictional phenomena, is the circumstance
which renders them irreversible ; for, suppose a small part of a substance
to have its actual energy increased by the exertion of some kind of work

ee a

Mr. W. J. Macquorn RANKINE on the Science of Energetics. 399

upon it; then, if the increase of actual energy so produced be imme-
diately diffused amongst other parts, so as to restore the uniformity of
the metabatic function, the whole process will be irreversible. This spe-
culation, however, is, for the present, partly hypothetical; and, therefore
does not, strictly speaking, form part of the science of energetics.

XIX. MEASUREMENT oF TIMe.

The general relations between energy and time must form an important
branch of the science of energetics; but for the present, all that I am
prepared to state on this subject is the following DEFINITION OF EQUAL
TIMES :—

Equal times are the times in which equal quantities of the same kind of
work are performed by equal and similar substances, under wholly similar
circumstances.

XX. ConctupIne REeMARKs.

It is to be observed, that the preceding articles are not the results of a
new and hitherto untried speculation, but are the generalized expression
of a method of reasoning which has already been applied with success to
special branches of physics.

In this brief essay, it has not been attempted to do more than to give
an outline of some of the more obvious principles of the science of
energetics, or the abstract theory of physical phenomena in general; a
science to which the maxim, true of all science, is specially applicable—
that its subjects are boundless, and that they never can, by human labours,
be exhausted, nor the science brought to perfection.

INDEX.

PAGE
Alumina, the Acetates and other
Compounds Of,........sceeeseceeeeeees
Anderson, Dr. T., on the Natro-
Boro-Calcite, or ‘Tiza’ of Iquique,
Arnott, Dr. Walker, on Piassava,
OTPEACADS. wcnassredsancbwrcsccnscnaaee eu
Notice regarding the Mea-
surement of Heights by means of
the Boiling Point of Water, ...... 8
on the Species of Salva-

BUSES 5 siiita. at tsvesessTocnaencuodsdeelvs 155
Arsenic, on Reinsch’s Process for

PPI GEO CHIN Or eeieeii cate ceine satan ax sasse 77
Atmosphere, ..........+++. Sis aececsistnee 1
PSE CHROLCINIC) «dads ae- nasa vane aseeoadslssierests 33
Botanical Excursions,.............+000. 51

Botanical Section, Reports from, 50, 132
Brown, Mr. G. W., on the Estima-

tion of the Value of Black Oxide

of Manganese, .....5:..s+ssce00s Reno Weis
Chemical Examination of

Drift Weed Kelp,............ cuasendean/20G
Bryce, Mr. J., Jun., on the Struc-
ture of Staffa and the Giant’s

SSUBDWHY (snags seatsaaessssscaens Pree mh)
a on the Altered Dolomites

at TRU Os ss /nisarep pat enon be tnedaone ls case 20
———— on the Parallel Roads of

UNE DON j zoeecauksseanevseduuntcar> acc 99
on the Geological Struc-

ture of Roseneath, ......ceccccsoeeee 118

sete e eee nwenneeee

Buchan, Geology of,

Cameron, Mr. P., on the Force of
Vapour from Saline Water,.........

PAGE

Chloropicrine, ...... daanecreencdtce Seaver 32

Chromic Acid, on Two New Salts of, 7

Coins, Spurious, ........-....08 euecoucen ae

Copper Sheathing, ............006 sansa llon
Cotton, a Peculiar Fibre of, Inca-

pable of being Dyed, .......... veree Gl

Crum, Mr. Walter, on a Peculiar
Fibre of Cotton Incapable of

being Dyed, ......-.+++. Ppeceerececoe | it
—-— Life of Dr. Thomas Thom-

BOD) | hadvaccecebsenees adae Buble scece ean 250
——-— on the Acetates and other

Compounds of Alumina, ......... 298
Currie, Mr. John W., Composition

cf some Fermented Liquors, ...... 109
Wamp Walley oces-c.coccnsnercosanconeae 333
Dead Sea, Examination of the Wa-

LEYS(OG i easaccnyeesesmeas oulvaades eee 242
Dolomites of Bute, .......... <ecadoumeed 20
Duncan, Mr. A., Jun., on Two New

Salts of Chromic Acid, ..... nsicuse 7
Electric Light,....... scan tenet as peraeaia 22
Electric Telegraph, on the, ......... 112
Electricity, Magnetism, and Galva-

nism, on the Mechanical Values

of Distributions Of, ........ssseseeves 281 .
Electric Current, on Transient...... 285
Energy, the General Law of the

Transformation Of, ...s.sceeseeeeeere 276
Energetics, Outlines of the Science

ht teen, ert esas inc dienicyairancamie 381
Erythro-mannite, ....ssseeseeseveeseee 33

Evaporation of Water in Copper,
Lead, and Iron Vessels, ............ 291

402
PAGE
Ferguson, Mr. W., the Geological
Features of Buchan, .............. 3s

on a Marine Deposit con-
taining Shells lately Discovered in

Sauchiehall Street, .............0008 . 147
Fermented Liquors, Composition of
BOHI Ge cane aces esse “oppose ahwavesncasnd 109
Giant’s Causeway and Staffa, their
PIRMUGEIIC. cass sepsecisasccscsnaccsesdses 19
Glassford, Mr., on the Electric
LENS Veeeerere Secewneenaeetiessaaanaaee 22
Gordon, Prof., on Locomotive Car-
WEAGQES, venesscceenoccccesessccetesscetes 24
Gyrophoric ACid,.........s00sccesseeeres 32
Hart, the late Mr. John, ........ Pes
Heating and Cooling Buildings by
Currents: of Am) <. deiucctecsssesdscs 269
Heights, the Measurement of by
means of the Boiling Point of
IWistheromcedenareceuclter ss devon swocexseee 8
Himalaya, the Climate and Vege
LIQHC OL puec verse sudessancssreasercsccsesoe 193

ing,

King, Mr. J., Thermometric Obser-

vations at Glasgow .........sssscee0e 204
Kelp, Drift Weed, Analysis of,...... 208
Library Report, ...... 219, 266, 296, 327
Liddell, Mr. A., Biographical Notice

of the late Mr. John Hart,......... 222
——— Notice of his Death, ...... 356
Lightning, Remarkable Effects of,... 69
Lochaber, Parallel Roads of,......... 99
Locomotive Carriages, .....-.....00++ 24

Macadam, Mr. J., on Paper Manu-

HACEUEC oc co-cacacecces cas Soecadestttae 127
Magnetic Meridian, Determination

of, at a Distance from Land, ...... 376
Manganese, Black Oxide of, on the

Estimation of its Value,............ 185
Mineral Veins and Water-worn

HONE endanwcaesacs Pdnccccecevaccsuccan 231

Mitchell, Dr. A., on the Occurrence
of Sugar in the Animal Economy 85
————-on Spartine andScoparine, 173

Index.

PAGE

Mitchell, Dr. A., on the Electric
Telegraph, ese
Murray, Mr. R. M., on the Waters
of the Dead ‘Sea; <<. 0.<ccssenetaccctcs

lll

see ceeeeeeeee feweeee

242
Napier, Mr. J., on Copper Sheathing, 161
on the Effects of Inhaling
Hydrocyanic Acid, ........... cevease
on Mineral Veins and
Water-worn Stones,
— on Sandstones used for
Building,
on Spurious Coins,...... rick

Napier, Mr. J. R., on the Evapora-
tion of Water in Copper, Lead,
and Iron Vessels,.........+++ seuaceers
on Water-tight Compart-

ments in Iron Vessels, ......... ae
—— on an Instrument for Mea-
suring the Velocity of Ships, Cur-
TCUIES AcCrsrOeeners ese seeee eee eee
—— on Ships’ Compasses,......
Natro-Boro-Calcite, or ‘Tiza’ of
Iq tiiques;’ "30.220 css catenatecees pisces

188

231

ee weaneenee see

313
344

291

293

Office-bearers of the Society, 2, 328, 363

Ordnance Survey of Glasgow, 330, 331
Paper Manufacture,........... acer seg 274
Parallel Roads of Lochaber, ......... 99
Paterson, Mr. James, Analysis of
thenYam? 27% ot. sa ccseacatmeere 30
Piassava, or Piagaba, ............c0008- 6
Potash, Prussiate of, Volumetrical
Pstimation;: .5.025.s:4eeenceee Sratwes wheres
Potato, its Introduction into Scot-
Wand, ascvesssaveestoueeeecccouseeeeeees -» 226
Quinto-nitrated Erythro-mannite... 33
Rain’ at) Glasgow): si2¢s-.isescconesteoere 26
Jbrozholm, «:...2s:«<tcaeeees 26
———— Greenock;.:...csserseev 26, 27, 30
Gilmourton, Avondale,...... 30
Rainy, Prof., on Reinsch’s Process
for the Detection of Arsenic,...... 77
Rankine, Mr. W. J. Macquorn and
Mr. J. Thomson on Telegraphic
Communication between Great
Britain and Ireland, ............+4. 265

—————

Index, 403
PAGE PAGE
Rankine, Mr. W. J. M., on the Ge- Telegraphic Communication be-
neral Law of the Transformation tween Great Britain and Ire-
SSTIEBONG Lace ncanccssaeeeactsensie sce ZUG. land isi svccsoucesceeceee Seco sceeecre 265
—— on the Determination of Thermometric Observations at Glas-
the Magnetic Meridian at a Dis- BOW jf esecksccsss> cs ocsevaaedee ote Sconce 204
tance from Land,,.......0.0s..sess-- 376 | Thomson, Dr. R. D., on the Vinegar
—-—- on the Azimuth of a Star, 378 ANG Wi oosweiennscsccvesseccccdotrecere 238
— on the Science of Ener- Thomson, Dr. T., on the Climate
PERCH Ww dncnonsvusenvunssse<scasecnnsees 381, and Vegetation of the Himalaya, 193
Robb, Mr. C., on a new Portable on the Atmosphere, ...... 1
Smith’s Forge, Furnace, and Life of Wollaston, ......... 135
Ventilating Apparatus, ...........+ 68 | LISTEN Ae secon eesodsoc sooere 200
Roseneath, Geological Structure of, 113 | Thomson, Prof. W., on Heating mn
Cooling Buildings by Currents of
Salvadora, the Species of, ............ WD |! AGT testis teee Geeeees aewaldvskusvaboues 269
Sandstones used for Building, ...... 313 on Transient Electric Cur-
Sanitary Reform,........--.sssseeseeee IS.) Raya cedciannseaddvtiden tte t eee 285
Sauchiehall Street, a Marine Depo- on the Mechanical Values
sit containing Shells in, ............ 147 of Distributions of Electricity,
Scouler, Dr. J., Notes on the Intro- Magnetism, and Galvanism, ...... 281
duction of the Potatointo Scotland, 226
Sewage Water of Towns, .......... -- 73) Ure, Mr. J., on a Ventilating Appa-
Ships’ Compasses, .....++sccceseseeee eaigOrmi|- TALUR, Soc. cofarcadecse<svertas auctessteeds 272
Smith, Mr. James, on Sanitary
Reform and the Use of Sewage Vapour, the Force of, from Saline
Water of Towns,..... bra dajenswanvas eee Ne NV ALOT ix ataiecws ses coeenisncentanecodee <osea LG
Smith’s Forge, a new Portable, 68 | Velocity of Ships, Currents, &c., an
Spartine and Scoparine,.............+. 173} Instrument for Measuring,......... 350
Staffa and Giant’s Causeway, their Vinegar Plant,.....<..c-000000. iivesdcosatans
Structure, ......... boat teades ae 19
Star, the Azimuth of a, ............. .. 878 | Wallace, Mr. W., Volumetrical Esti-
Stenhouse, Mr., on Chloropicrine, mation of Prussiate of Potash, ... 332
Gyrophoric Acid, Beta-orcine, Water-tight Compartments in Iron
Erythro-mannite, Quinto-nitrated. Viesseliye cs .caeve serad nae pvddneeee coors 289
Erythro-mannite,........ssecssessevee 32 | Wollaston, Dr. W. H., Biography of, 135
Sugar, its Occurrence in the Animal
Economy,...... Sageneeust AE feeewas 85! Yam, Analysis of the,.......... sigettuaene

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