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{
x

Tux Acavemy desire it to be understood, that they are not
answerable for any opinion, representation of facts, or train of
reasoning that may appear in the following Papers. The
Authors of the several Essays are alone responsible for their

contents.

LIST OF THE CONTRIBUTORS,

WITH REFERENCES TO THE SEVERAL ARTICLES CONTRIBUTED

BY EACH.
meee ee

Apams, A. Lerrn, M.D., F.R.S.

On a Fossil Saurian Vertebra (Arctosaurus Osborni), from the
Arctic Regions (with Illustrations), . :

ARCHER, WILLIAM, F.R.S.

On Apothecia occurring in some Scytonematous and

Sirosiphonaceous Algw (Plate vi.),

On Chlamydomyzxa labyrinthuloides, nov. gen. et sp., a New
Freshwater Sarcodic Organism (Plates xiv. and xv.),

Batty, W. H., F.G.S.
On Fossils from the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Kiltorcan
Hill, in the County of Kilkenny (Report No. I.),

Baker, ARTHUR WYNDOWE WILLERT, B.A.
On the Ligamentum Mucosum (with Illustrations),

Baker, J. G., F.L.S.
List of Seychelles Myrtacew, with Bescon of two New
Species (Plates xvi. and xvii.), 5
Batt, Ropert 8., LL.D., F.R.S.
On an iilemen tary Proof of ‘ Lagrange’ S eHaunbens of Motion
in Generalized Co-ordinates,”’
Brapy, Henry B., F.R.S.
On some Foraminitera from the Loo Choo Islands, .
Burton, C. E., B.A., Member of the Rodriguez Transit of Venus
Expedition (British).
On a Spectroscope of the Binocular Form, for the Observation
of Faint Spectra (with Illustrations),

Note on the Spectrum, Polarization, and Form of fle Z iter
Light, as observed in the years 1874and 1875 (Plate xxy.),

PAGE.

193

160

463

589

v1 List of the Contributors.

Casey, J., LL.D., F.R.S.
On the Heaton of the Sau aee of the Differences of a
Biquadratic, :

Davy, Epmunp, A.M., M.D.
On some newly-observed Properties possessed by certain Salts

of Fulminic Acid, —.
On a Ready Means of Detecting Arsenical Compounds,
On a New Chemical Test for Alcohol, :

Donovan, M.
On some Further Improvements of the Comparable Self-
Registering Hygrometer, > . . : .

_Dreyer, Joun L. E., M.A.
On Personal Errors in Astronomical Transit Observations,

‘Harpman, Epwarp T., F.C.S.
On two New Deposits of Human and other Bones, discovered
in the Cave of Dunmore, Co. Kilkenny (Plate xviii.),
Analysis of Coals and Iron-stones from the Dungannon Coal-

Field, Co. Tyrone, Ireland, :
A Contribution to the History of Dolomite (with ‘Plates xli.

and xlii.),
Haveuton, Rev. SaAmMve., M.D., TT pee my

JELLETT, Rev. J. H., B.D., 8.F.T.C.D.
On the Chemical Giharees which take pe in the Potato
during the progress of the Disease,

Kexty, J. EK.
On a Case of Rees Coe XXXV1., XXXVll., XXXVIll.,
and xxxix.), : jays : : :

Kinanan, G. H.
On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. Report No. I.—
Ingenite Rocks (Plates vii. and viii.), .
On Granite and other Ingenite Rocks of Yar- -Connaught and
the Lower Owle (Plates i LEK 9 Ko ERT EM EXITS) Sy
Report on the Microscopical Structure of Rocks. No. II.

(Plate vii.), : :
Report on the Microscopical Structure of Rocks. eebart
IN@s 1OULS : ;

On Ingenite Rocks. Report No. IV., .
The Drifting Power of Tidal Caimenis versus sant of Wind-
waves (with Illustrations), . F

Leeper, G. L.
On Retro-peritoneal Cavities (Plate v.), .
Macaristpr, ALEXANDER, M.D.—(See also PLUNKETT, T.)

On some Points in Bird Myology (with Ilustrations),
On the Presence of Lachrymo-jugal Suture in a Human Skull,
and its Comparative Anatomy (Plate i.),

PAGE,

40

183
225
579

166

484

Iust of the Contributors.

MACALISTER, ALEXANDER, M.D. (continued).

On Two New Species of Pentastoma (Plates ii. and ii1.),

On a Few Points in the Cranial Osteology of Sloths (Plate xiii.),

On some Forms of eee en Persp gee Cae sabe
and <x.), .

On Two Dissimilar otihs of Perityphlio BoueHes (Plate XXIv. ),
Notes on some Anomalies i in the course of Nerves in Man,

Macxintosa, H. W.., B.A.
Notes on the Myélogy of the Coati-mondis (Nasua.narica and
NV. fusca) and Common Martin (Martes foina), .
~ On the Muscular Anatomy of Cholepus didactylus (Plate Iv. ),
On a Malformed Corona oF Echinus esculentus (Plates xxi. and
Xxli.), : . : : : . :

Moorg, Davin, Ph. D., F.L.S.
Report on Irish Hepatice (Plates xliii., xliv., and xlv.),

Morg, A. G., F.L.S.
Report on the Flora of Inish-Bofin, Galway, .

Moss, RicHarp J., F.C.S.
Report on the oon of Oa ca Bog ae Tlustra-
tions),

,

M‘Axrine, ARCHIBALD NICHOL.
The Detection and Eaegpuaton of Poses Acid ry
Ammonic Molybdate, .

M‘Nas, W. R., M.D., Edinburgh.
Remarks on the Structure of the Leaves of certain Conifers

(Plate xxiil.),
A Revision of the Species ‘of Abies (Plates xlvi., svi,

xlyili., and xlix.),

O’Mrara, Rev. EueGene, M.A.
Report on the Irish Diatomacew. Part I. (Plates xxvi. to
XXXIV.), . : , : : :

PLUNKETT, T.

On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. With an
Account of the Animal Remains, by Rey. Professor
Haveuron, M.D., F.R.S., and Professor MacatistEr, M.D.
(with Illustrations),

PLUNKETT, WILLIAM, F.C.S.—(See see ee LL.D.)
PortE, GEORGE.

Remarks on the Recent Discovery of Remains of the Cervus
Megaceros at Ballybetagh, : : :

Reynotps, J. Emerson, M.D.
On Glucinum : its Atomic Weight and Specific Heat,

Vil

PAGE.

62
139

202
214
426

vill List of the Contributors.

Rogrinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., F.R.S.

On the Theory of the Cup Anemometer, and the Determina-_
tion of its Constants, ; j : ;

StgERson, GrorcE, M.D., F.L.S.
On Heat as a Factor in Vital Action (so called), - .
On Changes in the Physical Geography of Ireland,
On a Cause of the pupyency of Bodies of a greater Density
than Water,

StuppERT, Lancetot, LL.D., meee AG, and PLUNKETT,
Wi11ay, F.C.S.
On the Constituents of the two principal Mineral Waters of
Lisdoonvarna, County of Clare, 3

StuppERT, Lancetot, LL.D., Ex-Sch., T.C.D.

An Estimation of the Free and Albuminoid Ammonia yielded
by the Stagnant Waters of the Dublin Streets, as compared
with the quantities of those Substances obtained from the
Liffey Water, after receiving the Sewage,

TicHBoRNE, C. R. C., Ph. D.
Laboratory Notes,
On Further Researches of the Wieencintion of Molecules in
Solution, : ;

Wricut, Epwarpd Perceval, M.D., F.L.S.

On a New Genus and Species belonging to the Family
Pandarina (Plate xxxv.),

Notes on a small Collection of Foraminifera from the
Seychelles, .

Description of a New Genus and Species of Sponge—
Kallispongia Archer? (Plate xl.), . ‘ : :

Youne, J. R., M.A.
On some General Formule for the Solution of Algebraical
Equations of the Third Degree, &c., bs
On a certain relation between the Quadratic “Expression
Q?-3PP’ and the Product of the paouee ot the Differences
of the Roots of a Cubic Equation,

189

459

26

744

PROCHEDINGS

OF

THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.

SCIENCE.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY.

T.—On Hear as a Factor ry Vrrat Action (so CALLED). By Guorex
Sterrson, M. D., Ca. M., F. L.S.

[Read June 24, 1872].

ve opinions have been expressed concerning the nature of Life.
Some regard it as a peculiar agency, essential to the development
of organized creatures, giving to them the first impulse and guiding their
development, until the close. With them it is an entity, incompar-
able with any forces manifested in physics, and inscrutable from a
physicist stand-point. Others are content to use the word to cover the
total phenomena displayed by an organized Being, from end to end of
its career; while a third party employ it to designate a mode of activity,
peculiar to such beings, and distinguishing them from inanimate bodies.
Such views, however hypothetical, influence those who entertain
them, to no small extent, and, perhaps, occasionally make those
partizans who would otherwise be inquirers. Although theories may
sometimes be of much advantage, it can do little harm when we find
them clashing to put them aside, and leave the question in dispute an
open question, whilst we give freedom to a search after facts, waiting
for their aid to form an opinion. The process is less attractive, and
much slower, but it may possess the qualities of greater solidity and
permanence.
For these reasons, I have ventured to invite attention to a portion
only of the many phenomena whereof Life is made up—though this
portion, it is true, has been held to be highly characteristic and remark-

_ R.I, A, PROC,—VOL, II., SER. II., SCIENCE, B

2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ably distinguishing,—I refer to certain of those movements which have
been termed vital movements.

“One characteristic of every kind of living matter,” Dr. Beale
observes (Protoplasm, pp. 402), “‘is spontaneous movement.” It
requires to be noted that there the term ‘‘ spontaneous” implies a fore-
gone conclusion. In order that the question should be an open one,
it is necessary to amend this, and say—‘‘ One characteristic of every
kind of living matter is movement, the causes of which are unknown,
and which therefore has been called ‘ spontaneous movement.’ ”

‘‘ This,” he adds, ‘‘ unlike the movement of any kind of non-living
matter yet discovered, occurs in all directions, and seems to depend
upon changes in the matter itself, rather than upon impulses communi-
cated to the particles from without.”

Now, from facts which have been under my observation during the
space of two years, I have been brought to believe that similar move-
ments take place in matter which would be called non-lWing, and that
they, occurring in all directions, are due to a transformation of heat
into a propulsive force.

Dr. Beale describes the alterations in form to which he has thus
alluded as characteristic of vital matter: and as they to a considerable
extent simulate those alterations in non-vital matter, it is desirable to
give his words:—‘‘ The alteration in form,” he remarks, speaking of some
minute amcebze—the most minute he could discover—‘‘ was very rapid,
and the different tints in the different parts of the moving mass, result-
ing from alterations in thickness, were most distinctly observed. The
living bodies might, in part, be described as consisting of minute
portions of very transparent material, exhibiting the most active move-
ments in various directions in every part,” ... ‘‘and,” he adds, ‘“‘ca-
pable of absorbing nutrient materials from the surrounding medium.”
That we must eliminate, as not being simply the manifestation of so-
called vital motion. He proceeds: ‘‘A portion which was at one
moment at the lowest point of the mass would pass in an instant to the
highest part. In these movements one part seemed, as it were, to pass
through other parts, while the whole mass moved now in one, now in
another direction, and movements in different parts of the mass occurred
in directions different from that in which the whole was moving.”
‘‘ What movements in lifeless matter,” he asks, ‘‘can be compared
with them? The movements above described,” he adds, ‘‘ continue as
long as the external conditions remain favourable; but if these alter,
and the amcebe be exposed to the influences of unfavourable circum-
stances—as altered pabulum, cold, &c.—the movements become very
slow, and then cease altogether.”

Now, my attention was called to movements, very like these, which
take place in non-vital matter by certain phenomena which fT observed
to occur under the microscope, in the minute globules of pyrogenic oil,
which float about in the tobacco smoke. These globules, as I stated,
at the time seemed twirling about like so many monads—but more
than this, they seemed to alter their form. Conscious that rapid

Sigkrson—On Heat as a Factor in Vital Action. 3

changes of plane might account for some of this, and might be a source
of error, I pushed my inquiries further—though here, I may observe,
that if such change of plane were remarked when taking place in living
matter, they would run a risk of being called vital movement.

To represent the consistency of the amcebe a somewhat viscid body
is requisite, say an oleaginous fluid. By bringing drops of this into
contact with a heated fluid, at various temperatures, I found that—
1st, when the subjacent fluid was cold no motion took place; 2nd,
when it was very hot, no movement occurred.

8rd. There is a stage, differing for different substance, at which
rapid movement is given to the globule. At this stage, certain alter-
ations in the colour of parts seem to mark a change in density, then
various alterations of form occur. Thus the globule may alter into a
ring, this globule divide at one portion or at several portions of its cir-
cumference, and re-form rapidly into globules, and these changes may
proceed for some moments; then they will cease. That this stoppage
is due to some acquired tolerance of the heat, is shown by the fact
that a new drop will undergo similar changes at this temperature.

If the temperature be lower, the motions will be slower. Some-
times no eversion may take place; then we may note simply various
protrusions from different parts of the periphery, and the globule may
change its rounded to an angular form. ‘To accomplish these changes,
there must of course be transference of particles, and some of these may
at times be noticed passing their neighbours.

There is sometimes a movement of the globules from one part of
the surface of the fiuid to another; thus the first contact of the heated
fluid occasionally scatters its component parts in all directions.

In such cases as these, it is manifest that the alterations, transfor-
mations, and changes of locality as well as of shape, are due to the con-
version of heat into a motor-force acting through the physical basis of
the viscid globule. Theacquired tolerance of external influences is not
unknown in vital matter.

The description which Dr. Beale gives of the movements in a
mucus corpuscle, applies to the non-vital movements, to a considerable
extent. ‘‘ No language could convey,’’ he remarks, ‘‘a correct idea of
the changes which may be seen to take place in the form of the
living mucus or blood corpuscle: every part ofthe substance of acorpuscle
exhibits distinct alterations within a few seconds. The material
which was in one part may move to another part. Not only does the
position of component particles alter with respect to one another, but it
never remains the same: there is no alternation of movements. Were
it possible to take hundreds of photographs, at the briefest intervals, no
two would be exactly alike, nor would they exhibit different gradations
of the same change; nor is it possible to represent the movements with
any degree of accuracy, because the outline is changing in many parts
at the same moment. I have seen an entire corpuscle move onwards
in one definite direction for a distance equal to its own length or
more. Protrusions would occur principally at one end, and the general

4 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

mass would follow. . .. From time to time some of the pear-shaped
protrusions are disturbed from the parent mass, and become independent
masses of germinal matter, which grow until they become ordinary pus
corpuscles. Are these phenomena, I would ask, at all like any known
to occur in lifeless material ?”

if we abstract the questions implied in the words “germinal,” and
*‘ srowth,” I think our answer may be in the affirmative.

We can follow him into his examination further. ‘‘ A bulging may
occur” in lifeless as well as in living matter ‘‘ at one point of the cir-
cumference, or at ten or twenty different points at the same moment.”
But he cannot prove that ‘“‘the moving power evidently resides in
every particle of a very transparent, invariably colourless, and struc-
tureless material.’ It seems to do so; but it would also seem to
reside in every particle of the lifeless matter, when changing, if we
were not well aware that the change is due to a differ ence of tempera-
ture.

It appears to me that various kinds of organized matter have what
I might term specific temperatures, the limits of which vary in different
substances—below the lowest as above the highest they are motionless.
This holds good of lifeless as well as of living matter.

The objections which Dr. Beale raises, justly enough, to certain
theories do not here apply. He says, ‘‘ because molecules haye been
seen 1n some of the masses of moving matter, the motion has been attri-
buted to them. It is true, the molecules do move, but the living
transparent material in which they are situated moves first, and the
molecules flow into the extended portion.”

This may be likewise noticed in a fluid in which are granules, hee
it protrudes under the influence of heat. The fluid is acted on; the
granules are drawn with it.

“The movements,’ he adds, ‘‘ cannot therefore be ordinary mole-
eular movements. It has been said that the movements may result
from diffusion, but what diffusion or any other movement with which
we are acquainted at all resembles them? Observers have ascribed
them to a difference of density of different parts, but who has been able
to produce such movements by preparing fluids of different density ?
Nor is if any explanation of the movements to attribute them to inherent
contractility, unless we can show in what this contractility essentially
consists. Some dismiss the matter by saying that the movements
depend upon the property of contractility, but the movements of
biological matter are totally distinct from contractility, as manifested
by muscular tissue.

He adds: ‘‘T have often tried to persuade the physicist, who has so
long prophesied the existence of molecular machinery in living beings,
to seek first in the colourless, structureless, living matter. But he
contents himself with asserting that such machinery exists, although he
cannot see it or make it evident to himself or others.”

The instinct of the physicist, even if it were no more than an in-
stinct, was, I think, right in this matter. 7

Siqmrson—On Heat as a Factor in Vital Action. 5

For:—

First. By the action of heat we can produce various alterations in form
of lifeless matter, similar to those which are seen occurring in liying
matter in the cases quoted.

Second. In order that such changes should occur in living matter,
heat is absolutely necessary. Cold delays and stops them, as in the
ease of the lifeless matter. A certain quantity of heat isneeded. Too
much as well as too little heat causes cessation of movement; there is
a maximum as there is a minimum limit.

We come now to another class of movements which have lkewise
been termed vital. I refer to circulatory movements, such for instance
as intra-cellular rotation, and cyclosis. In a given cell, we may occa-
sionally observe its fluid contents in motion, made visible by a number
of little granules that are carried along with it. This movement may
be simple rotation, or it may take place in a spiral direction; though
different courses may be taken in adjoining cells, the movement usually
keeps on, in one direction inthe same cell. Various ingenious theories
have been devised to account for this.

If, now, we takeadrop of oil and approach it to the flame of a candle,
it can be seen that the oil, first at rest, 1s set in motion, slow or quick
in accordance with the less or greater degree of heat exhibited. A
little dust shaken into it allows the rotation of the granule-bearing
currenis to be easily observed by those who have a keen vision for mi-
nute cbjects. A slender baton of wax may be used: approaching the
flame, the point melts, a drop forms, and then rotation is set up. If
instead of having a rounded drop, we confine a fluid in a glass vessel
shaped like a long cell, the fluid inside, by approximation to the flame,
can be caused to move longitudinally. In a free fluid the particles are
caused by heat to describe an ellipse—they seem to return in their
courses, and this appears tobe the case where heat impinges on the
surface, so that we might expect to find a kind of circulation or ro-
tation set up in water under the influence of the sun, apparently similar
in kind to the motion of the celestial bodies.

To return to rotation in cells :—

First. Heat is capable of causing rotation in fluids.

Second. The rotation observed in cells absolutely requires heat. It
chilled, the motion is slackened; if set under a certain degree of cold,
it is stopped altogether.

Movement displaying different phenomeua is that which has been
termed cyclosis. ‘This is shown in a plexus of latex-bearing vessels;
it has been described as analogous to the capillary circulation in animals.
There is no organ to make a wis a tergo, and yet there is movement
through vessels in which there is no contraction; neither can it be
attributed to a vis a fronte. It seems to take place in all directions,
and has been considered a peculiar vital movement connected with
formative functions.

If now we bring a heated body over the surface of a fluid, we will
find that currents will be formed in all directions. In one case, under a

6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

heated point, I noticed an instance of perfect rotation. Usually, how-
ever, the currents are formed and proceed in all directions, carrying with
them any grains of dust that may be in the fluid. The net-work of
laticiferous vessels, anastomizing with each other, lies under the in-
fluence of the sunlight, as an exposed plane.

First. Heat is capable of producing various currents, moving in
diverse directions.

Second. Heat is absolutely required in order that the movements
in the latex vessels shall be produced: under little heat they delay ;
more heat quickens them.

I].—On Cuances In THE Puysicat Grograpoy oF Iretanp. By
GroreE SicEerson, M. D., Cu. M., F. L.S.

[Read June 23, 1873.]

Iv is impossible to read the first pages of our ancient annals without
being struck by the frequent mention of certain singular phenomena,
the periods of whose occurrence are referred back to the earliest com-
mencement of our history. With great sobriety of diction, and cir-
cumstantial precision of statement, we are told that in certain years
there burst forth certain lakes, which are duly named, and that in
other years there were eruptions of other lakes, and also eruptions of
rivers. The dates and names are set down for every case.

Now, at first sight, these things seem so improbable, that the
reader is inclined to believe the record to be erroneous, either fundamen-
tally in fact, or superficially in the misstatement of ordinary incidents.
Floods, it might be argued, have been magnified into the eruption of
rivers, and the overflow or inundation of a lake into the outbursting
of a new lake. There is another view also which is seemingly
shrewd and very plausible. It is that the first discovery of lakes and
rivers was marked down as the period of their first appearance. The
historian O’ Halloran may be allowed to state this view, as he does it
with much earnestness. In reference to the recorded eruption of some
lakes and rivers, he says: ‘‘It is recorded that at this time there
were found in Ireland, but three lakes and nine rivers, whose names
are particularly mentioned; but from this it appears probable that the
parts of the country in which these lakes and rivers appeared were
only what were then known; and, that as their successors began to
explore and lay open other parts, the rivers and lakes then appearing,
were entered into the national annals as they were discovered; but, as
no previous mention could have been made of them, and that the dif-
ferent periods at which they were found out were distinctly marked,
succeeding annalists have dated the first bursting forth of each from the
time of its discovery. Our writers are very exact in the times in
‘which these rivers and lakes appeared ; it cuts a conspicuous figure in
our history, and proves the extreme accuracy of our early writers; .

by

Sterrson—On the Physical Geography of Ireland. i

but a very unjustifiable credulity in their successors, who could sup-
pose the first discovery of them to be their first rise. . . But as it
appears to be almost a certainty, that (with a very few exceptions)
rivers and lakes are nearly coeval with the creation, the reader will,
I hope, excuse my taking no further notice of this part of our history.”

Now, I confess, that on first giving attention to these records iden-
tical speculations presented themselves as ingenious and satisfactory ;
they accounted for everything by explaining all away. Fortunately,
the language of the annals is not ambiguous, and it is impossible not
to perceive that when the word eruption is employed, something is
meant quite different from inundation, a term also used. Again,
O’Halloran’s hypothesis falls before the fact that those lakes and rivers
which, from their position and size, were most readibly discoverable,
are not mentioned first, some of them not atall. Oftwo neighbouring
lakes, the larger and more accessible may be left unnoticed, whilst the
eruption of the smaller is chronicled. Finally, if his hypothesis were
valid, it would follow from the data given, that Ireland was first co-
lonized in that part which is now the county Mayo, that the newcomers
soon discovered Lough Conn and Lough Mask, but never found Lough
Corrib; that they afterwards proceeded to prospect a few small lakes
in what is now the county Monaghan, without ever having observed
the Shannon’s spreading sea.

It may, perhaps, be possible to account for the formation of a few
lakes by some of the changes operated on the face of the country, by
the progress of colonization. Here there is repeated mention of the
clearing away of forests. Fire as well as the axe was doubtless em-
ployed in this work, and the charred remnants may occasionally have
helped to block the path of flowing waters and bar the drainage of
small areas. The removal of a forest from a given space itself removes
a drainage organ of no inconsiderable power. Hales found that a sun-
flower with a leaf surface of thirty-nine square feet exhaled twenty-
two ounces of water in the twenty-four hours; Knop, that a plant of
maize, in three months and a half, exhaled thirty-six times its own
weight of water. When we consider how extensive is the leaf-surface
of trees, and how great the transpiration, a forest might almost be re-
garded as an engine for draining up a river from the earth and dissi-
pating its‘waters through the air in the form of insensible vapour.
Thence, it descends againin showers. The first effect of felling forests
in Ireland, under the circumstances of the period alluded to, might
have been therefore the formation of pools, streams, and lakelets—the
secondary effects would be shown in their gradual drying up, when
the land was exposed to the full rays of the sun.

But, although we may possibly account for the formation of some
water courses and lakes in thisway, we do notaccount forthe emphatic
employment of the term eruption, nor for the successive pheno-
mena chronicled. It is to be noted also, that the clearances are not
coincident in space, nor always in time, with the formation of lakes
and rivers.

o Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The eruptions recorded in the annals may be divided into two
groups (which might be subdivided into minor groups), between the -
occurrence of which a long lapse of six centuries and a half is related
to have taken place. However improbable may be the pre-Christian
chronology here, as respects the events attributed to particular years,
it seems reasonable to suppose that a succession of epochs might have
been noted accurately. I am inclined to credit this, in the present
case, for the following reasons: Following on a map the chronicled
eruptions of lakes, I united the latter, so far as identified, by straight
lines. To my surprise I found these lines arranging themselves north and
south, in a direction parallel to the lines of longitude. Thus it was
with respect to Lough Conn and Lough Mask in the west, to Loch
Laighline in east Meath; and Loch Eochtra, or Muenama, in Monaghan;
to Derryvaragh and Ennel, in Westmeath; and toa fewothers. About
four lines, running north and south, each including two or more lakes
in their course, appeared on the map.

From the end of the Nemedian period, during all the Firbolgic and
De Dananian days,* until the Milesian epoch had begun, no outburst
of lake or river is recorded. A long interval of six centuries and a
half, therefore divides the first great group of lake eruptions from the
second group, in which the eruption of both lakes and rivers is
mentioned. Now, it struck me as curious that the lines connecting
the principal lakes enumerated lay in a different direction. Instead
of running north and south they run obliquely from south-west to
north-east. Thus, a line drawn from Clare to Belfast will fall more
or less near eight lakes, whose eruptions are recorded, Anno Mundi,
3503—they are Lochs Graney (Co. Clare); Cimbe (now Hackett, Co.
Galway); Loch Baah (Co. Roscommon); Ren and Garadice (Co.
Leitrim) ; and Loch Laegh, now Belfast Lough. At this period, cer-
tain rivers break forth; and of these the Brosnac, the Soes (now Suck),
and the Inny, flow towards this line from west and east, whilst others
in the north, such as the Una in Tyrone, and the Callan m Armagh,
and (perhaps), the Fregrabail (now the Ravelwater, in Antrim),
appear related to it.

The next oblique line runs almost parallel to this on the north-
west; it covers in its course the recorded eruptions of Loch Foyle,
Loch Erne, and an irruption of the sea, forming what is now Drum-
cliffe Bay. Towards this line tend the three Finns, whose eruption is
there recorded, and perhaps, some other streams named by the anna-
lists, but not identified by recent writers. Here again, we find some
isolated cases; and rivers are mentioned as having burst forth in the
south-west.

Bearing in mind the evidences of change of levels which some of
our beaches present, and the proofs of depression and elevation in the

* Lough Corrib [Loch Oirbsen] was formed in the Dananian period, according to
the Book of Leinster.

Sicerson— On the Physical Geography of Ireland. 9

Erne district, to which I drew attention in a former paper, it appeared
to be highly probable, that in these lines we had indications of meso-
seismal areas. Their directions seem to point out the directions of
selsmic energy, in the most ancient days of our history. It has been
frequently found, where noted in latter times, to runin the directions
of those lines. The apparent change from a vertical to an oblique
direction, coincidently with the chronicled change from the first great
group to the second group of phenomena, tends to confirm the state-
ments of our annals, as far as they relate to remarkable natural events.
That being so, it next became requisite to see whether earthquakes
had been known to occur in Ireland; and necessary to ascertain
whether such occurrences as those chronicled were such as seismical
force would produce, and alone produce.

First: Earthquakes in Ireland.

In 1820, the shock of an earthquake was felt in Cork and neigh-
bouring towns.

In 1534, the Anglo-Norman chronicles, state that an earthquake
was felt in Dublin. The Four Masters make no mention of it.

In 1490, according to the Four Masters, ‘‘ There was an eruption
of the earth (Maidm-talman) by which a hundred persons were de-
stroyed, among them the son of Manus Crossagh O’ Hara. Many horses
and cows were also killed by it, and much putrid fish were thrown up,
and a lake in which fish is now caught, sprang up in the place.”

In 1452, it is related, that the Liffey was dry for over two miles.
The Four Masters say: ‘‘A very wonderful presage occurred in this
year, some time before the death of the Karl (of Kildare), namely part
of the Liffey was dried up, to the extent of two miles.” [Although
this does not prove the occurrence of an earthquake, it may indicate
seismical action, as several such phenomena are on record, all more or
less closely coincident with the occurrence of earthquakes near or at
a distance. |

In 1266, mention is made by Anglo-Norman writers in Ireland of
an earthquake, which is stated to have been felt in all parts of Ireland.
The Four Masters, however, do not chronicle it.

In 1191, the river of Galway (according to the Annals of
Kilronan) dried up, and a hatchet and spear were found in its bed.

In 1178, the same river, the Four Masters relate, was dried up
for the period of a natural day; all the articles that had been lost in
it from remotest times, as well as its fish, were collected by the in-
habitants. O’Flaherty, in his account of Iar-Connaught, states, that
ancient annals describe the river as having dried up from Friars’ Isle
(in the lake whence it issues) to the sea, from midnight till noon. It
seems probable that there must have been an upheaval of the bed
to account for such a phenomena.*

* In several cases where earthquakes have been recorded inrecent times, asin Mr.
Mallet’s catalogue, the temporary drying up of rivers has also been observed to occur ;
sometimes the connexion may not be considered quite proven, as when, in 178d, the

R.1I, Ay PROC.—VOL. IJ., SER. II., SCIENCE,

10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In the fifth century, it seems that a remarkable earthquake took
place which affected Tara. It occurred (it is said) when Odran, St.
Patrick’s charioteer, was assassinated. -‘And the cleric was angered,”
says the author of the Senchus Mor, ‘‘ and raised up his hands towards
his Lord, and remained in the attitude of prayer with his hands crossed,
and there came a great shaking and earthquake at the place, and dark-
ness came upon the sun, and there was an eclipse; and they say that
the gate of hell was then opened, and that Teamair was in danger of
being overturned, and then it was that Teamair became inclined.”

It thus appears, not only that we have had earthquakes in this
country, but that the farther we go back in authentic history, the
more striking seem to have been their effects. This constant increase
in selsmical energy appears to point to the occurrence of still more
vehement action in preceding periods—in those periods, for instance,
to which so many eruptions of lakes and rivers are attributed.

Secondly : Are the phenomena recorded in our annals such as would
have been produced by seismical action, and by that alone? We have
seen that no other imaginable cause was competent to produce such
results; it now remains to prove that seismical energy can produce
them, and to giye cases showing it to have wrought out analogous
effects.

At the outset, it is noticeable that almost all the lakes and rivers

river Teviot dried up suddenly, and remaiued dry for two hours, within a short time of
the occurrence of an earthquake at Messina. Again, however, the same river suddenly
dried up for four hours, nineteen days after a shock had been felt in 1786, at Campsie
and Strathblaine, north of Glasgow. In other cases, however, the connection is un-
mistakeable. Thus, in 1802, whilst the ground moved “like waves of the sea,” and
partial subsidences and upheavals were noted, it is related that ‘the waters of the
Orinoco rose so high [apparently] as to leave a large part of the river dry,” correctly
speaking, the river bed was upheaved. In 1820 asmall riverin east Gothland, Sweden,
stopped at a certain spot, so that its bed was crossed dry-shod. In 1830, the Douro, in
_ Portugal, suddenly dried, between Roa and Aranda, at 2 o'clock in the morning, and
resumed its course at 10 A.m.. The river Alba de 'Tormes was interrupted in like
manner. Garnier, in his Meteorologie relates, that, in 1833, after an earthquake had
been felt at Linkoping in Sweden, on the following night the river near the bridge of
Montala stopped, and was raised up like a kind of sea. The bed could be passed dry-
shod, although in general 60,000 tons of water pass under the bridge per minute.

If it be also remembered that, owing to earthquake action, the sea has, at times,
retired from bays and the coast, rushing up again toa great height, it seems possible that
the passage of the Israelities on dry ground through the Red Sea was assisted (physically )
by seismical action. A strong east wind is mentioned as having caused the sea to go
back, and pillars of cloud and fire were seen. It is to be remarked that clouds, flashing
of fire, fire-balls, fiery red vapours, as well as thunder and lightning, frequently accom-
pany earthquakes. In 1802, at Cahors (in France), and for forty leagues around it, a
loud explosive noise was heard, preceded by a flame, directed from west to east, and
accompanied by a southerly wind. At Beauvais, simultaneously with a shock, a globe of
fire was observed moving from east to west, which disappeared with a loud explosion.
At Albugnol, in 1804, the heavens were obscured by a dark mist, which resolved itself
into a cloud, when in ten minutes five terrible flashes of fire issued, and after each flash
a shock took place.

SicErson — On the Physical Geography of Ireland. Jit

whose eruptions are chronicled, are situated, or arise in limestone dis-
tricts. It is known that the strata of limestone may, and often do
include subterranean reservoirs and channels of water ; an instance of
the latter is found in the case of the underground river near Cong.
With, perhaps, an exception, the lakes found in districts from which
limestone is absent, as Lough Foyle, Belfast Lough, are loughs which
communicate with the sea, and may have received their waters from
it. I now proceed to give parallel cases for those mentioned in the
Trish Annals.

Eruptions of lakes constitute the first category of observed pheno-
mena. The Irish Annalists chronicle the eruption or bursting forth
of the following lakes :—

A. M. 2532. The eruption of Loch Conn and Loch Techeat.

A. M. 2533. The eruption of Loch Mask.

A. M. 2535. Loch Laighline sprang forth. The eruption of Loch
Kachtra also.

_ A. M. 2859. Loch Derryvaragh and Loch Enneil sprang forth, and
about this period sprang forth Loch Gall and Loch Ramor.

A.M. 3506. Eruption of the following lakes: Cimbe, Buadaig,
Baad, Ren, Finnmaige, Greine, Riach, Da-Chaech, and Loch Laegh.

A.M. 3581. Eruption of nine lakes: Uair, Iarn, Ce, Sailean,
Ailleann, Feabail, Gabair, Dubloch, and Loch Daball.

A.M. 3790. Death of the monarch Aengus. These are the lakes
which burst forth in his time: Aenbeite, Saileach, and Na-ngasan.

~A. M. 4694. Loch Melvin burst forth over the land in Cairbre.

Parallel cases. These have oceurred usually but not necessarily
coincidently with earthquakes, though the shock may not have been
felt.

The cases recorded are compiled from Mallet’s catalogue :—

A.D. 1790. Terra Nova, Sicily. The gradual sinking ofa piece of
ground, three Italian miles in circumference, to a depth of thirty feet,
took place. From fissures in the soil burst forth vapours, petroleum,
sulphur, het water, and finally a stream of salt mud.

A.D. 1790. South America. A piece of forest land, resting on
granite between the villages of San Pedro de Aleantara and San Fran-
cisco de Aripao sank eighty or one-hundred feet, and produced a lake
four-hundred toises in diameter.

A.D. 1792. The ground opened about Tureguraqua, and lakes
were found.

A. D. 1802. South America. A piece of ground. one-hundred feet
long and forty feet wide sank down, and a pool of water appeared in
its stead.

A. D. 1805. Earthquake at Naples. At Bojano a lake made its
appearance.

A.D. 1806. Siberia. A mountain, distant twelve versts from
Krasnojarsk was replaced by a lake of three hundred feet in circumfe-
rence, and one-hundred and eighty feet in depth, in some places; the
water in which had the taste and smell of sulphur.

12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

A.D. 1806. Italy. At the mountain of La Fajola a lake of sul-
phurous water was formed.

A.D. 1810. San Miguel, Azores. The village of Las Casas, con-
sisting of twenty-two houses, disappeared, and a lake of boiling sulphu-
rous water appeared in its place.

A.D. 1811. Earthquake felt in the valley of the Mississippi,
Ohio, Arkansas. During the shocks, great clefts appearedin the ground,
from which quantities of water, sand, and pieces of coal were thrown
out. Large lakes were formed in many places The level of the
ground was permanently raised and depressed in various localities.

The second category of cases includes irruptions of the sea. Of
these, the Irish Annalists record the following :—

A.M. 2545. Rury, son of Partalon, was drowned in Loch Rury
[the estuary of the river Erne], the Loch having flowed over him ;
and from him the Loch is named.

A.M. 2546. An inundation of the sea [sea-flood] over the land
at Brena, this year, and this [loch so formed] is named Loch Cuan
[now Strangford Lough}.

A.M. 3506. The eruption of Loch Da-Chaech, now Waterford
Harbour.

A.M. 3581. The eruption of Lough Foyle.

A.M. 3790. The eruption of the sea between Eaba and Loch Cetle,
forming the creek of Drumclifte.

Parallel cases: A.D. 1812. Marseilles. The sea retired, leaying
the port dry, and rushed in again, inundating the quays.

A.D. 1817. Athens. The shock of an earthquake was felt,
accompanied by an inundation of the sea.

A.D. 1820. Acapulco. The sea retired from half the bay, and
returned, rising to a church on the highest side of the town.

A.D. 1821. Zante, Morea. The waters ofthe Alcyonic sea (a part
of the Gulf of Corinth), rose suddenly, inundating the country and
carrying away houses.

A. D. 1822. Chili. The sea rose to an amazing height, fell, and
rose again, and thus continued for a quarter of an hour

The third category includes the sudden overflowing of lakes. The
Trish Annalists chronicle but one, I think of such occurrences :

‘© A.M. 3751. A battle was fought against the Ernai, a sept of the
Firbolgs, where Loch Erne is. After the battle was gained from them
the lake flowed over them.” It would appear then that this was not
an eruption but the sudden overflowing of an already formed lake.

Parallel cases: A.D. 1789. Iceland. Lake Thingvallevate became
dry in places where it had formerly been twelve feet deep, and over-
flowed its eastern shore.

A. D. 1817. The waters of the Lake of Geneva were momentarily
raised.

A.D. 1820. Shock at Port Glasgow. The waters of Loch Lomond
were agitated, and rose somewhat so that persons crossing it were
alarmed by the sudden rippling of the waters.

9

SIGERSON—On the Physical Geography of Ireland. i

A. D. 1823. The waters of Lake Erie rose suddenly to the height
of nine feet on the Canadian shore, carrying men and boats inland with
uresistible force. The waters then fell but rose again twice toa height
of seven feet. It was reported that the shock of an earthquake had
been felt.

In the fourth category I have placed the eruptions of streams and
rivers. The Irish Annals enumerate several such outbursts, which
all are ineluded in the second and later group.

A.M. 3508. The eruption of the seven Brosnas—now two, the
other seven being tributary streams; of the nine Righes, in Leinster ;
and of the three Ninsionns, in Tirerril.

A.M. 3510. The eruption of the Inny, in Westmeath ; of the three
Soes; the Suck and its affluents, in Connaught; and the Fregabail,
now Ravelwater, Antrim.

A. M. 3520. Ivial son of Heremon died. During his reign took
place the eruptions of the Suir, the Feil, the Ercere, in Munster; the
three Finns in Ulster, and the three Corindes.

A. M. 3656. The three black rivers of Ireland burst forth, the Una,
Tyrone; Forann and Callan, Armagh.

A.M. 8751. The monarch Fiacha died. It was in his reign the
springing of these rivers first took place, namely, the Fleasg, the
Mang, and the Labrann, in Kerry.

A.M. 4169. The monarch Sirna died. In his reign of a century
and a half, took place the eruptions of the rivers, Skirt, Doailt, in
Monaghan; the Nith (river of Ardee, Louth); the Laune, in Kerry ;
and the Slaine, a tributary of the Boyne.

Parallel cases: A.D.1797. Quito. The ground opened about Tun-
guragua in enormous clefts, from which volumes of water and stinking
mud issued, forming lakes in many places, of considerable extent.

A.D. 1802. The earth opened at Bucharest, and greenish water
was poured forth, diffusing an odour of sulphurthrough the whole city.

A, D. 1804. At Badisen, Silesia, springs suddenly burst from the
mountain, and the Elbe and neighbouring rivers inundated their
banks.

A.D. 1804. Spain. Near Albugnol the mountain was cleft, and
a stream was poured forth on the lower part of the town. Springs
disappeared and new ones appeared.

A. D. 1809. Capetown. In Blanweberg’s valley fissures appeared,
and muddy water was thrown up to a height of six feet through holes
in the sandy soil.

A. D. 1812. At Caraecus, South America, an immense torrent of
water burst forth.

A.D. 1828. Peru. At Surras, streams of water burst forth from
the earth.

A.D. 1828. Caucasus. Three large springs burst forth, fissures
and other springs appeared.

A.D. 1829. Spain. At Murcia, fissures opened, and from some
small holes sand was spirted out, from others water.

14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

A.D. 1840. Ararat. Water spouted up from holes in the ground;
new springs flowed, and old ones dried up.

Whilst in all the categories of general phenomena we find parallel
phenomena—the results of seismical action—thus produced, there are
certain special phenomena which, though apparently incredible, find
also their analogies in the eifect of seismic force. Take for example,
the incidents of the eruption of the earth which resulted in the for-
mation of Meem Lough, a.p. 1490. Many men and cattle were
destroyed, and putrid fish werethrown up. Destruction, according to
evidence of modern’ cases, may be worked by the opening of chasms
which swallow up houses and men, by the sudden outburst of water,
or by the expulsion of suffocating vapours, such as burst forth from
the lake of Quilotoa, South America, in 1797, and which proved fatal
to herds of cattle grazing on its shores. The death of fish is a frequent
incident, under such circumstances, in any adjacent or previous formed
pools: thus in 1824, a lake near Lucca was observed to be greatly
agitated, a sulphurous smell came from it, and many dead fish were
seen floating upon it. At Manilla, one of the Philippine Islands, the
earth opened in 1844, and dead fish were observed immediately after
floating on a neighbouring river. Similar occurrences marked the
disappearance of Lake Telchef, in Lithuania, which I described in a
previous paper (Proc. R. Irish Acad. Science; Vol. I., Ser. 11., p. 224,
foot note).

Other special pltenomena which I consider to be explicable, by
the supposition of seismical action—the prevalence of which im ancient
times is now, I hope, proved—-form an extremely curious and inter-
esting group. They are interwoven with the legends, the superstitions,
and the poetry of the people.

Some legends refer to lakes. At times, it is said, these sheets of
water appear troubled without apparent cause; whilst all is still,
ripples and waves break over them, and vaporous forms ascend from
the depth, whose embrace sometimes carries the gazing mortal away
from this world to the mysterious pleasures of another. Now, when
we become conversant with the phenomena of seismical action, nothing
can seem more obvious than that all these legends had their foundation
in the fact that the waters of lakes do become greatly agitated without
apparent cause, and emit vapours of a kind often sufliciently powerful
to relieve man from the anxieties of this life. Knowing of such
vapours and finding that some who had been subjected to their influ-
ence lay dead when they had passed, the poetic imagination of the
people figured that the spirits had been stolen to fairy land.

In other cases, there is not only strange commotion observed, but
unwonted sounds, as of the bellowing of monstrous animals and the
hissing of serpents are heard. In our Ossianic poems, and elsewhere,
these are mentioned and attributed to the convulsions and writhings
of the terrible Piast, supposed to inhabit such lakes. Reading those
romances, one is inclined to believe them baseless—nevertheless, they
have a foundation in fact. Thus, coincidently with the Lisbon earth-

Siczrson—On the Physical Geography of Ireland. 15

quakes of 1755 and 1827, an extraordinary noise was heard in the

lake of Salungen, in Saxony; and in 1799, at Cumanas, in South

America, the waters of a lake became exceedingly troubled, and a
strange subterranean noise was heard proceeding from it, comparable to
a ‘‘ prolonged bellowing,”’ and at other times to ahissing sound. Toa
pastoral people hearing such sounds, nothing could be more natural
than that they should consider that some animal infested the lake,
troubled it by its movements, and terrified them by its roaring.

Some legends refer to wells. It is usually said that a well was
laid under a magic spell of some kind, which to break insured destruc-
tion. Ina hapless moment the warning is forgotten ; a damsel omits
to replace a cover or perform some stipulated act; forthwith the waters
arise, overflow, inundate the valley, and overwhelm perhaps, a town.
This, for instance, is the tradition of the origin of Lough Neagh, and
Giraldus Cambrensis relates that the fishermen used, in clear weather,
frequently to point out to strangers the submerged ruins. Moore has
commemorated the incident in verse, since which time it has been taken
as a purely poetical fiction. Nevertheless, it may have been founded
upon fact. Under seismical action, wells have frequently attracted at-
tention; sometimes the water fails, and they dry up, sometimes it arises
and overflows. In 1809, in the Abruzzi Ulteriora, at Aquita, some
springs appeared to boil up. In 1882, at Foligno, aman going to draw
water at a well found it filled and overflowing, then came a shock, and
when he returned it was empty. Ancient dry wells, on the other
hand, have suddenly filled up, and the eruption and outbursting of new
springs and considerable torrents are not infrequent incidents. At
the time the occurrence happened in an Irish district, the overflow
of the well doubtless indicated seismical action, and was accompanied
or followed by shocks and subsidence of the soil, such as we have seen.
Villages have thus been occasionally overwhelmed with waters, but I
find a curiously parallel case to Lough Neagh, in Italy. There, whilst
an earthquake was felt in north Italy and Switzerland, the castle of
Manguin, situated on the shore of a small lake, sank down and was
covered by the water. There, also, the fishermen might have pointed
out to strangers, “ the towers beneath them shining.’’*

It only remains to consider the phenomena which gave rise to the
fable of the Land of Youth, Hy-Brasail, the Land of the Blest.f An

* The sudden subsidence of the foundation, and the vibration of shocks would scarcely
fail to shatter buildings thus affected. But their rwins would exist. It is certainly
curious that Giraldus Cambrensis should be able to state that the fishermen, at that time,
frequently showed the submerged towers to wondering strangers on clear days. ‘ Pisca-
tores aque illius turres ecclesiasticas, que more patrie arcte sunt et alte, necnon et
rotund, sub undis manifeste sereno tempore conspiciunt, et extraneis transeuntibus,
reique causas admirantibus, frequenter ostendunt.”

t ‘ The inhabitants of Arranmore are still persuaded that, on a clear day they can see
from this coast Hy-Brasail or the Enchanted Island, the Paradise of the Pagan Irish,
and concerning which they relate a number of romantic stories.” Beaufort, Ancient
Topography of Ireland.

It has been stated that a similar ‘‘ Enchanted” island was observed off the coast of
Donegal.

16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy

enchanted island has been supposed to exist beyond our western shores,
which became visible on some rare occasions of old, and to some pri-
vileged persons. Now, however beautiful and improbable the tradition
may be, it has become plain to me that there really was such an island.
The legend may have been perfectly accurate as to the statement that
at one time it was seen, and at another it became invisible.

There are several instances on record, even in recent times, when
islands have been raised through the disparted waters of the sea,
remaining for a time above its surface, but finally disappearing.
Thus, in 1707, after a shock, there was seen from Santorine a floating
rock, which stoutly arose above the waters, forming anisle. In 1803,
an island rose in the Claveezer See, in Holstein; it was afterwards
washed away by the waves. In 1814, after an earthquake shock had
been felt, it was noticed that a small islet in the Greek Archipelago,
named Salomon’s Island by the Turks, had suddenly disappeared. In
the same year, ‘a small islet made its appearance in the Sea of Azov,
but was afterwards washed away.

From the Irish records it appears that some formerly known islands
have disappeared from off our western coasts; and from what we may
infer from legendary lore it appears probable that the story of Hy-Bra-
sail is based upon subsidence of islands due to earthquake action. It
is possible that, in ancient times, an archipelago of scattered islands
may have stretched out towards the American continent, and if this
were so, it is possible to conceive of such adventurous voyages as that
of St. Brendan, without greatly straining the imagination. The ocean
desert would then have had its oases.

The conformation of the bottom of the Atlantic basin lends support
to the supposition, and strengthens the opinion that Ireland must have
lost ground to the encroaching waters of the west. Even off the east
coast, 1t appears also to have ceded portions ofitsterritory. On Keith
Johnson’s Physical Map a tract is marked out, with the observation
that ‘‘this region was probably land during the period of the Irish
El haz

It would be a curious question to investigate how far the ancient
Trish legends of Hy-Brasail, and the classic legend of Atlantis, might
bear upon the former existence of that supposed submerged continent,
which now produces nothing but forests of sea-weed.

Geological evidence: The labour of collecting geological evidence
for each case mentioned, would, as may be supposed, be quite beyond
the limits of my present purpose and opportunities It may suftice,
however, to call attention to certain acknowledged facts which tend,
unmistakeably, to corroborate the statements made with regard to the
action and influence of seismical energy, in former times.

North and south, along the coast-line of this country, the presence
of raised beaches gives proof of permanent upheavals; evidence of
subsidence may also be found, whilst the character of the strata in
certain districts confirms the view that alterations of level, resulting
in the eruption of water, have taken place.

Sicerson—On the Physical Geography of Ireland. 17

In the west, whilst local tradition relates that off the west coast of
Achill there is a beautiful land sunk beneath the waves, with its fields
and city, the physical appearance of Sliay Cruachan is’ such as to
suggest partial subsidence. ‘‘ There are evident indications here of
Sliay Cruachan having been sliced down,” writes the Rev. Cesar
Otway,* ‘‘ and left as it were the palpable remnant of some great con-
vulsion ; for just behind the precipice where it is highest, and about
twenty feet from the brow, an anterior chasm is seen, forming an
enormous and rugged fissure for hundreds of yards along—in some
places hundreds of feet deep; and this shows that when the mighty
blow was given, and while half the mountain was falling down, this
erack took place. It was but a chance that this great slice did not go
down along with the rest.”’

That subterranean waters exist, which, under the influence of
earthquake action, may be brought to light is a proven fact. In the
neighbourhood of Cong, the curious tourist may even now, by descend-
ing into a deep cavern, behold a subterranean river—one of several
streams, which, percolating through the limestone strata, convey the
waters of Lough Mask to mingle with those of Lough Corrib. In
Nimmo’s reportupon the geological structure of Connemara, he, writing
of this district, says: ‘‘ The fletz limestone, passing under Lough Corrib,
occupies the greater part of the provinces of Connaught and Leinster.”
The boundary of this rock runs nearly in a straight line to Oughte-
rard, from Oughterard it turns to the north, and, crossing the lake,
appears on the opposite, a little to the west of Cong, and occupies the
southern margin of Lough Mask. The boundary nowis lostin Lough
Mask, but reappearing at the upper or northern extremity, turns off
towards Westport; about three miles short of that town, however, it
turns north-east to Castlebar. ‘‘Itis particularly worthy of remark,”’
he adds, ‘‘ that along the borders of the fletz limestone there are series
of vast caverns usually with subterranean rivers traversing them.
Though this be a common occurrence in the limestone countries, there
are few instances, I believe, so remarkable as in this tract. A suc-
cession of lakes having no visible outlet occurs in the same situation;
of these, Lough Mask is by far the most considerable. The drainage of
a country of two-hundred and fifty square miles sinks here in a basin
of forty square miles, and after a subterranean course of two miles rises
in several magnificent fountains to join Lough Corrib. On the south
of Lough Corrib also, the Ross Lake has no visible outlet, though it
receives the waters of a large tract of mountain. The waters of Lough
Mask are visible on the passage in several large caverns near Cong, but
those of Ross probably rise in Lough Corrib, by an inverted syphon.
There are two or three other smaller lakes, to the east of Ross, and
probably of a similar description.”

From their geological situation, Loughs Corrib, Mask, and Conn

* Tour in Connanght.

a

Ke I-A. PROC.—VOL, lI., SER. 1I., SCIENCE.

18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and minor lakes—lying north and south—seem to have been produced
at the same period, by earthquake action running in a direction almost
due north and south.

Proceeding northwards, the record which relates to the eruption of
Lough Erne appears, also, corroborated by certain physical facts.
According to the chronicle, the breaking forth of the water drowned
some of the Ernaitribe, then upon its plain. The aspect of the locality
indicates ancient changes of level; thus, Dr. O’ Donovan, when describ-
ing it whilst on the Ordnance Survey, wrote: ‘‘I passed over the great
cliffs that overhang the plain of Fweealt of Toorad. This Fweealt
is a level district running about five miles along the north-west bank
of the great Lough Erne. The name ( Faoi alt) signifies ‘ under the
height,’ ‘subrupian.’ It is grand and beautiful, and seems to have
been formed when the awful commotion took place that formed Lough
Erne. It was by a depression of the earth, occasioned by some sub-
terranean commotion similar to the one that in later times destroyed
the city of Lisbon.”’* Distinct proof of a former upheaval is found in
the remarkable discovery, which Professor W. K. Sullivan has commu-
nicated, of a dolphin’s skull, which lay twenty feet beneath the surface
of a bay, at Pettigo, near Lough Erne. It follows from this that the
locality was once submerged, that the sea ran in as far as the site of
the present town of Enniskillen, and that it was probably continuous
with the Foyle, at Strabane and Derry. Thus, at that period, Donegal
would have been isolated. Afterwards, there was a great and extensive
upheaval, which raised this district so much that the surface of the
Lough is now about one-hundred and fifty feet above the level of the
sea at low water.

As there are raised beaches along the northern coast, it appears
likely that they were elevated about the same period, and that the in-
fluence of earthquake action extended over the north of Ireland. It
is recorded that the late Mr. Du Noyer discovered some flint weapons
amongst the gravels of the raised beaches of Down and Antrim. If,
therefore, we hold, as seems most probable, that the various upheavals
in the province took place about the same period of time, we may come
to the curious conclusion that those who fashioned and used the flint
weapons, so discovered, may have been the contemporaries of the
Ernai.

That there should be raised beaches at or near Lough Foyle is
what we would anticipate from its seismical connexion (so to speak)
with Lough Erne. Nor arethey wanting. Instances of elevation may
be detected on the west or Innishowen shore, from Movyille to Port-a-
dorus; on the eastern, or Derry shore, the effects of upheaval assume
larger dimensions. Evidence of subsidence is also present.. Thus, on
the west strand, near Portrush, there has been found a large quantity
of hard flaky bog, which, lying below high-water mark, is laid bare by

* Ordnance MSS., Fermanagh, Letters, p. 41.

Sicrrson—On the Physical Geography of Ireland. 19

the waves. ‘‘ Every storm,” writes Captain Portlock, ‘breaks up a
new portion of it,” covered though it be with sand and gravel, where
not denuded. The presence of such a bog, which must have been formed
free and above the waves, proves that the land here has sunk. As it
contains leaves, nuts, rotten wood, and the elytra of beetles, it is plain
that both animal and vegetable life abounded where now nothing
is heard but the roar of falling billows.

Evidence of elevation is scen in the calcareous clays, containing
marine shells, which have been found at heights varying from one
hundred to four hundred and fifty feet above the sea. One curious in-
stance is the bowl-shaped hollow, north of Portrush, explored by Mr.
James Smith; it is ten feet only above sea-level, and contains a large
quantity of sand mixed with various marine shells. ‘‘ This shelly
deposit,” writes Mr. Smith, ‘‘ seems to have been a sheltered bay, into
which the shells have drifted, with a small admixture of land shelis
washed down by floods.” In the letters descriptive of Magilligan,
which its rector, the Rev. Robert Innes, published in 1725, the peculiar
physical appearance of the locality was noted. Although he wrongly
cited the Deluge as the cause of what he described, his description is
accurate and valuable. The evidence of upheaval was recognised by
him. ‘‘ That this land,” he wrote, ‘‘ was formerly sea, I think there
is sufficient reason to believe ; for along, at the foot of the mountain and
all the coast, is the old bank to be seen, to which the sea hath
formerly flowed, at the foot of which everywhere there is sea-sand and
shells to be dug up.” ‘The lowland of Magilligan,” he adds, ‘is
divided into ridges, or, as we call them, dryms| properly druim ] of sand,
from one hundred to five hundred yards broad, highest in the middle
and sloping on each side to marshy ground, which we call misks, com-
monly as broad as the dryms; the dryms are generally from six to
twelve feet higher than the misks, but on the north side (next the
ocean) the dryms and misks are narrower, and some of the dryms thirty
or forty feet higher than the misks. - Both the dryms and misks are
parallel almost.” The cause of these (the result of the action of sea
and winds and of seismical elevation) he considered to be the Deluge.
He notes that, owing to water-action as then going on, land had lost
a hundred yards within a man’s memory. And he reports an interest-
ing local tradition, saying, ‘‘if we can make anything of Irish fables,
the flats of Lough Foyle, which extend in some places a full league,
have been formerly part of this land.”

If the ‘‘ eruption” of Lough Foyle, recorded in the annals, were
an irruption of the sea, much, if not all, of its present basin may have
been dry land. It would seem necessary that the river Foyle should
have followed its present direction ; but, in fact, that need not have
been. The valley of Pennyburn, which crosses the isthmus of Innish-
owen, a little to the north of Derry, and which Captain Portlock accu-
rately reports as ‘‘exhibiting a channel so natural and well-defined
that it is impossible to resist the feeling of being in (the bed of) a river
or strait ’’—this valley I proved to have been a water-passage in recent

20 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

times. Within three hundred years, the waters of the Swilly and
Foyle were connected by it: What I would here add is, that in
remote times the river Foyle itself (going partly or wholly by the
western side of Derry Hill) has passed through this valley into Lough
Swilly. Though farther geological investigation* is required to de-
termine the accuracy of this supposition, it receives support from the
physical appearance of the district, and from the gradual drying up of
the valley-channel, when the Foyle found another vent. The most
ancient map of Ireland shows only one lough (Swilly) in this district,
and the ancient chronicles do not notice the existence of that great
sheet, now known on the map as Lough Foyle. They did, indeed,
make use of the name, but it was applied to a large lake (now obli-
terated) which I proved to have spread out its waters between Strabane _
and Derry. ‘The river which passes through the alluvial deposits that
filled the lake, like a current through a frozen sea, still retains the

name of Lough Foyle, and when swollen by floods resumes some of its
former sway over the submerged flats.

Passing to another question, the eruption of Lough Neagh, there
is here also to be found geological evidence in support of the
statement of our ancient cimomles, which asserted that it was formed
suddenly and (to them) mysteriously. ‘‘ Lough Neagh,” Captain
Portlock remarks, ‘‘ is itself apparently the result of a great crack or
subsidence of the strata.”

It only remains to say that evidences of upheayal are visible
in the deposits reaching up the Dublin Mountains, in the levels
along the Lee above the.City of Cork, and southwards in the raised
beaches of Kerry; whilst proof of subsidence is found in the fact,
communicated by Professor W. K. Sullivan, that ancient bog and
forest stretch out beneath the sea, off the coast of Waterford.

The more the question is investigated, therefore, the more do
proofs abound to demonstrate that, im ancient times, this island was

= Having established, iu a Paper entitled ‘‘ Discovery of Fish Remains in the alluvial
clay of the River Foyle, &ec.,’ the insulation of Innishowen, I pointed out that the
escheatment map of 1609 showed another channel connecting the Foyle and Swilly,
running from “ Cargan” (now Carrigan) to ‘‘ Kilmacatrem Castle,” and that Malin was
insulated. This was but briefly noticed, as corroborative evidence was not then accessi-
ble. Since that time I have gone over the locality, and found confirmation of the map
in the conformation and character of the soil. The former insulation of Malin is very
evident, though at present the water channel is occupied by a great bog. The substratum,
however, is either potter's clay or gravel. The ancient channel or strait ran between
Culdaff and Malin town, a distance of about three miles in a direct line, being somewhat
shorter than the isthmus at Pennyburn. Interspersing the vast bog which has now
largely occupied its place, are oases of clay land, formerly islands, and about midway
on the moor is a village whose name, Aughnaclea, signifying ‘‘Ford of Hurdles,”
indicates the former presence of water. As the channel must have existed in 1609, when
the escheatment map was made, aud as a great bog has since been formed, we have here
desirable and valuable data for arriving at the rate of bog growth, Plainly this great bog
cannot be many centuries old.--Jide Proc. R. Irish Acad., Vol. I., Ser. 2, Science,
p. 212.

Sicerson—On the Physical Geography of Ireland. 21

greatly subjected to the influence of seismical action. The following
conclusions may be drawn :—

Ist. The descriptions given in the annals, or woven into legends,
of the various physical. phenomena mentioned coincide closely
with what we know, in a sure manner, of the results of earthquake
action in modern times.

2nd. The evidence of earthquake action in Ireland, given thus
unconsciously as to cause by our ancient annalists, is doubly valuable
because of its proven accuracy and undoubted antiquity.

8rd. Our ancient records form, probably, the largest collection of
ancient seismical indications and results now in existence.

4th. Ireland was, of old, extremely subject to the influence of
earthquakes within historical times.

5th. By comparing our ancient with our modern records, we have
a means—wanting in most, if not all, countries besides—of noting
with approximate accuracy the increase or decrease of seismical energy
im a given area.

When the great convulsions, tailing off, gradually diminished in
frequency and intensity, the principal physical changes which after-
wards took place were those attributable to common causes usually
seen in operation. In some cases, by the gradual silting up of straits
and channels, and by the growth of bog, islands have been united to
the mainland. Instances may be found in the case of Malin, formerly
insulated; of Innishowen, formerly insulated; of the Isle of Doagh, and
of the Isle of Inch (both in Lough Swilly); of Horn Head, the Isle of
Derry, and of several islets on the north-west coast. According to
the observations of Professors Sullivan and O’Reilly, the Hill of
Howth was also formerly insulated.

Alterations in the physical geography of the country have also
taken place by the obliteration of lakes, wrought by deposit of allu-
vium, by evaporation, or by migration of the waters of the lake
rupturing their boundary (of which America offers recent instances).

The following are the names of the lakes whose former existence
J have traced, and whose places are now occupied by bog or dry land:
Loch Burran, now called ‘‘ Loughaverra,” in the parish of Ballintay,
Antrim; Loch Cre, the island of which now occupies the centre of a
bog in the townland of Monahinsha (bog of the island), in the parish of
Corbally, Tipperary ; Lough Foyle, now represented by a river (still
called ‘‘ Lough Foyle’), extending between Strabane and Derry;
Loch Gabair, now Logore, in Meath; Loch Gair, now Lough Gur,
Co. Limerick, still a lake, but of diminished size, as its island has be-
come attached to the mainland; Loch Laeghaire, south of Strabane.
These lakes became effaced, quietly, by evaporation and deposit ;
others burst bounds and ran off. Thus the Four Masters, and Nennius,
relate that, 4. p. 848, Loch Laeigh, in Mayo, ‘“‘ migrated,” and “ ran
off into the sea.” Again, a.p. 1054, Lough Syorun, in Cavan, ‘‘ mi-
grated in the end of the night of the Festival of Michael, and went
into the river Feabail, which was a great wonder to all.’ Finally,

J

22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

having searched in vain for a Loch Monann, mentioned in the Annals,
a. D. 1544, I discovered a townland of that name on the Escheatment
map, 1609. The lake no longer exists, but the ravine known as Stra-
bane glen, which extends from the townland (whose ancient name is
now obsolete), appears to furnish the channel by which it, also,
‘“ migrated.”

IIJ.—Own a Cause or tHe Buoyancy or Bopies or 4 Greater Den-
sity THAN Water. By Grorcr SicErson, M. D., Cu. M., F.L.S.

[Read June 23, 1873.]

In considering the phenomena attendant on the buoyancy of bodies of
a greater density than water, observers appear to have confined their
attention exclusively to the relations of those bodies and the fluid on
which they were placed. In other words, they limit their observation
to the visible substances. From certain facts which have come under
my notice, the results of some experiments, it seems to me that a dis-
tinct and important part is played, in the causation of such phenomena,
by an agent hitherto unsuspected, because invisible to the eye, namely,
the atmospheric air.

It is known that when small bodies, such as needles, grains of
sand, seeds, and so forth, are placed gently on the surface of water,
they will float, although their density is greater than water.

On examination, it is found that they rest partly in the water,
partly in a depression of the surface, which surrounds them with a
convex ridge. ‘To explain their buoyancy in such circumstances, refe-
rence has been made to the viscosity of the fluid, or tenacity of molecular
cohesion, to a repulsive force supposed to be exerted in some way by
the floating body which repels the water, and to capillarity. When we
admit the viscosity, for whatever it is worth, it is found insufficient to
account for the buoyancy; as for the others, they are explanations which
require themselves to be explained.

What is the actual physical condition of the floating object ?

Firstly: It is partially immersed in water. It loses thus part of its
weight, equal to the weight of liquid which it displaces. Two forces
are recognised in action: its weight acting vertically downwards, and
the resultant of fluid pressures acting vertically upwards. ‘There is, I
allege, another force. Secondly: The body is also, be it remarked, not
only partially immersed in water—it is also partially immersed in air.
Now, to the forces which come into action through this medium, in co-
operation with those described, I attribute the buoyancy of such bodies.

The adhesion of the air to a body surrounds it, as it were, with an
atmosphere of itsown. ‘This film of air remains in intimate contact _
with it until replaced, as it may be, by some other medium of greater
adhesive power. To describe this air-wetting a word is required, if aera-
tion will not serve: it seems, however, a condition perfectly analogous
to hydration or water-wetting. To a body wetted in water a layer -

Sigzrson— Buoyancy of Bodies Denser than Water. 23

of water attaches with an adhesive force greater than the force of
cohesion which keeps the molecules of water together; for, if we raise
such a bedy out of the fluid there is rupture of this force, as a film of
water will still adhere strongly to the removed body. The adhesion
of air to an aerated, air-wetted, or (as commonly said) dry body is
likewise strong, in many cases, though not so open to remark. Toa
large number of bodies, which come easily under our notice, water
adheres more vigorously than air; they are readily water-wetted.
But there are also some to which the air appears to adhere with greater
tenacity.

When an aerated body is placed on the surface of water, its atmo-
sphere, that is to say, the film of air which surrounds it, tends to
increase its volume without increasing its weight. Being much lighter
than water, the adhering air will, therefore, co-operate with other
causes to prevent the body from sinking and to keep it buoyant, as long
as the force of air-adhesion endures.

In order to demonstrate that air-adhesion supplies a force potent
enough to act in the manner alleged, it is only necessary to take some
small bodies, whose density in relation to size shall not be very great,
but amply sufficient to cause sinking when water-wetted. In experi-
menting, I have found it most convenient to use seeds, taking different
kinds and sizes, generally round in form, such as the seeds of Everlast-
ing Pea (Lathyrus latifolius), of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus), of
mustard, turnips, &e. If water-wetted, any of these objects will sink
at once, but when placed on the surface, dry (or aerated), they float.
There they illustrate all the phenomena of “capillarity”’ and ‘ attrac-
tion” known in such cases.

Whilst the under surface and sides have become water-wetted, there
is a dry patch above—in other words, to a portion of the upper surface
the air still adheres. A comparatively smart blow may be given here,
without causing such a body to sink—it will go down a little and re-
bound; but if it be lightly touched (say a turnip-seed by a flat-ended
pencil), so that the water cover it, it sinks at once. Thatis to say—
the air-adhesion has been broken, the complementary cause of its
buoyancy.

If we now take some dry or aerated seeds and drop them into the
water from various distances, say about a foot high, the force of the
air-adhesion becomes strikingly and beautifully manifested. It wiil
be immediately remarked that numbers of the seeds as they sink in the
water have small globes of air adhering to them. We may have the
following cases occurring :—

1. The body, falling from a height, may retain a globule of air ad-
hering to it, insufficient to counteract its own weight and the water-
pressure. It remains, therefore, at the bottom, and with it remains
the air-globule. The force of adhesion here manifested is stronger than
that which solicits the air to ascend to the surface.

2. The body may carry down with it a globule sufficiently large to
raise it from the bottom, assisted perhaps by the rebound, if the shock
be not strong enough to sever the adhesion and set the globule free.

24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

3. The body may take with it adhering air sufficient to serve as
counterpoise (if [ may use the words) to its own weight in water, and
thus it may float completely immersed in the water, surmounted by an
air-globule.

4. The amount of air adhering may be so great as to prevent the
complete descent of the body, to hinder it from diving much below the
surface, and to rapidly draw it up again to the surface. In sucha
case, the adhesion of the air to the object is evidently strong enough
to completely resist the weight of the object in water, and to partially
resist the force acquired by a fall from a distance, relatively con-
siderable.

The air-adhesion may be broken in, at least, three ways. First,
by the blow the object receives on striking the surface in its descent,
so that it may go down without any globule, or if the effect be partial,
with a smail one. Second, by the blow received on reaching the bottom.
Third, by the shock when, rising to the surface, the air globule suddenly
expands. On account of the narrowness of the base of connexion, in
some cases, the adhesion may be quietly severed, by water-pressure. ~

In cases where a body is quite buoyant in the water, on account of
the attached globule, it may be readily shown that the base of con-
nexion forms an adhesion area large enough to sustain this body at the
surface, when the upper air shall replace the globule. This is demon-
strated, as in case 2, by gently elevating the body to the surface, and
allowing the globule to open into the upper air: or, by observing, as
in cases 3 and 4, the ascent of bodies drawn up by their globules to
the surface, where, if the shock of the expansion of the globule do not
sever the adhesion, they will float. In such cases, the area of aerated
space remaining the same, the adhesion of the upper air now manifestly
sustains the body in a buoyant state.

In this condition buoyant bodies, whose density is greater than
water, present themselves usually to observers. From the facts related,
it follows that they are sustained in this position, partly by the ad-
hesion of the atmospheric air.

The incidents of this demonstration suggest some remarks and infe-
rences. When we withdraw a glass rod or a wetted body from water,
the drop which adheres shows that in such cases the force of adhesion
between the liquid and solid is greater than the force of cohesion be-
tween the molecules of the liquid. Conversely, when we let pass an
aerated body from the air into the liquid, the globule or drop of air
which adheres to it, proves that, in such cases, the force of adhesion
between the gas and the solid is greater than the force of cohesion
between the molecules of the gas. We have seen that it is also strong
enough, in certain cases, to sustain a weight as great as, or greater
than, the weight of a given body, mznus the weight of the volume of
water displaced, and that it is potent enough to resist the action of the
forces which, when a body is let fall from a height into water, tend to
separate globule and body, sending the former upwards and the latter
down.

The force of adhesion between air and solid is, therefore, for many

Stcerson—Buoyancy of Bodies Denser than Water. 25

reasons, a very tangible and noteworthy force, which cannot be elimi-
nated from consideration, in such and similar problems, without inac-
curacy.

This being so, it may become necessary to revise certain definitions
or statements of laws in physics, in order that the presence of this force
may be recognised where it exists. Thus, it is mentioned that a float-
ing body is acted on by two forces—its weight, and the resultant of
fluid pressure. To this it may be necessary to add, that a third force,
adhesion of air, exists, and becomes a perceptible agent in the case of
small floating bodies.

Again, in the curving of liquids in contact with solids, the presence
of air is altogether unrecognised, and only the forces acting through
the visible media are mentioned. Thus we are told that when a solid
is placed in a liquid which wets it, the lquid, as if not subject to the
law of gravitation, rises against the side of the solid and becomes con-
eave. Itis added that where the solid is not wetted by the fluid, the
latter is depressed and becomes convex. Now, it appears to me, from
the foregoing facts, that this should be re-stated in the following manner:
When an aerated solid is placed in a liquid whose adhesive power is
greater than the adhesive power of air, as regards such solid, the air
is partially displaced, the fluid becoming concave and the air convex.
But when an aerated solid is placed in a liquid whose adhesive
power is less than the adhesive power of air, as regards such solid,
then the water is partially displaced by the air and becomes convex,
whilst the latter grows concave. The concave, in either case, bounds
the outward side of a wedge of advancing substance, whose inner side
is applied to the solid.

It follows that it would probably be well to modify the manner in

which the first law of Gay Lussac is expressed, in order to recognise
the presence of air-adhesion as a power. As it stands, the law is:
““When a capillary tube is placed in a liquid, the liquid is raised or
depressed according as it does or does not moisten the tube.”” I would
read it thus: ‘* When a capillary tube is placed in a liquid, the liquid
is raised or depressed according as its adhesive’ power is greater or less
than that of the air.”
. These suggestions are offered, with diffidence, to the consideration
of physicists, as there may, in such cases, be forces operative which
have not yet come under review. But, lest I should be supposed to
have overlooked the obvious objection that Gay Lussac’s law is said to
hold good in vacuo, and therefore in the absence of air, I must add
that it is confessed that the air-pump gives no absolute vacuum.

The air becomes exceedingly rarified, but a perceptible quantity is
left. And, when it is remembered that, from the facts now experi-
mentally demonstrated, it was shown that the adhesion of air to a
solid, in a given case, is greater than the adhesion of air-molecules
between themselves, it will be admitted that the instruments used in
an air-pump may be covered with an adhering film of air, until dis-
placed by water, operative in causing the phenomena recorded.

R.1I, A. PROC.—SER, II., VOL, Il., SCIENCE, E

26 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

1VY.—ONn soME GENERAL FoRMUL® FOR THE SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAICAL
Eavations or THE Tuirp Decrees, &c. By J. R. Youne, for-
merly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College.

[Read May 25, 1874. ]

A erneraL formula for the solution of any equation of the second de-
gree is readily obtained by means of the well-known expedient of
completing the square. Iam not aware that any algebraist, as yet, has
investigated a like general formula for the solution of an equation of
the third degree; that is, by the similar preliminary expedient of
completing the cube. It is the main purpose of the present Paper to
establish such a general formula; previously, however, to which, it
will be necessary to dispose of the two following special cases, that
is to say, to prove that— 2
(1) Whenever in an equation of the third degree,

A + Ax + A,x GP Ay = 0,

either the first triad of the coefficients, A;, Az, A,, or the second triad,
A,, A,, A, furnishes the relation of equality

3A; “aly > AR or BAe vA = A; OO 0n6 [1]

the first member of the equation can easily be converted into a complete &
cube, and thence a general expression for the root x be deduced.

1. Let it be the first of the conditions [1] which has place;“and let
a quantity & be so determined that, by the addition of & to Ag, the
second condition also may be satisfied ; namely, the condition _

3A, (A, +h) =A; |

in order to which, the value of & must evidently be

so that this quantity being added, there results the equation
2

A
A, + Aa’ + Aye foe

and, consequently, dividing by A;, and taking account of the stipulated
condition, we shall have

3 pSteal at) a a oe
inch alan Ay) ie

Younc—Algebraical Equations of the Third Degree, &c. 27

the first member of which equation is a complete cube. Hence,

ZAR Bo dG A, 3, kh
(2 +2)- SURI. ane Nt
A

: Aye hae es 1 Ao\
ae ae
or,
AAAs 9)
ee Vue [2]

2. Suppose now that it is the second of the conditions [1] that is
satisfied ; then the first condition also will be satisfied, provided a
quantity p be so determined, as that, when it is added to A,, the con-

dition
3( A; + p) A, =
may be satisfied ; that is to say, provided we make
A?
eae he

since this value of », when added to the coefficient of 2°, will convert
the proposed equation into

A?
ve +A x + At Ay = px’.

3A
Hence, multiplying by TE —, and observing from the stipulated con-

dition [1] that A, is the same as ae we have
2

A {A,\? Ate eA
3 1 29 1 1 = 1 ;
x eT ees +3(2)a+(2) cate

. the first member of which equation is acomplete cube. Consequently,

A, 7 A, A A, 3 A, C
( Fr) = 8 Gp0h 0G =2 8 qe?

a A ( 38A,A3\
Bf 1/3 Apa et fe,
2 ee 2 ( oak A} |
or,
A ,, Ag - 8A,A ¢
ee ee =| a

28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(2) I have shown in a formercommunication to the Academy ‘ Pro-
ceedings,” vol. x., p. 378), that if any cubic equation be represented by
P= O, and the first and second functions derived from P, by Q and
P’ respectively, the equation Q? - 83PP’ = Owill always be a quadratic
equation. Let one of the roots of this equation—either root indifferently
—be represented by 7; and let each root of the proposed cubic equation

P= Ay + Aj.z?+ Ajawt+A,= O
be diminished by r.. The resulting transformed equation will be
Aga’? + (3 Ag+ A,) 0? +(8Ayr?4+2 Aort+A,) 2’ + Ay?+Ar?+ Ay + Ao=O,

the second triad of coefficients of which fulfils the sécond of the two

conditions [1]; and, consequently, by the formula[3], we have for
x’ the expression

3A 7 ee | (3A,r + -A,)f

Therefore, multiplymg numerator and denominator of the fraction
under the radical sign by 3Ayr+A,, and remembering that c=r+2’,
we shall have for x, the expression,

5 ai dA? + 2A r+ A,
4 3Ar + A,-K/ {( A? = 3A,A,)(3 dar + As} (4)

And this is a general symbolical formula for the three roots of the
cubic equation P= 0.

(3). Whenever 7, determined as already explained, is real, we may
be certain that only one of the three roots of the cubic is a real root,
since a cube root has but one real value ;* and this real root the for-
mula (4) will enable us to determine, by introducing into that formula

the seal cube root only of the number under the sign ~/; and the two
imaginary roots of the equation will be expressed by introducing into
the formula the two imaginary cube roots of the number under the

sign </, after the real cube root of that number has been determined.
But whenever 7 is imaginary, then, although we know, in that case,

* Andin this manner is the truth of the second of the general properties, noticed
at Article 5 following, otherwise proved: the jist of those properties showing that,
if + be imaginary, the above expression for x, notwithstanding its being then so
encumbered with imaginary quantities, must have all its values real values. More-
over, this first of the properties at (5) may also be deduced from the general for-
mula above; for since, as just seen, two roots of the equation must be imaginary
whenever 7 is vea/, the roots must all be real when, and only when, 7 is imaginary.

Youne—Algebraical Equations of the Thard Degree, &c. 29

that all the roots of the cubic equation must be real roots (‘‘ Proceed-
ings,’ vol. x., page 374); yet we have no means of extricating these
real values from the imaginary forms under which they lie concealed.
(See Nors at the end of this Paper).

The more restricted formula of Cardan is in the like predicament.
For the application of this formula, the equation must be reduced to
the form

a4 A,a+Ay=0.

The expression for x, as furnished by the formula (4), when the pro-
posed equation takes this more simple form, is

3724+ A, / -9Ar + A,
bate er ee)
Be) SOLES | A/G! Bp,

This expression is ‘irreducible’? under precisely the same circum-
stances that the expression of Cardan is; namely, whenever 27A,?
+44 <0; or, which is the same thing, whenever

This may be easily proved by deducing the equation Q’-3PP’=0,
and thence the expression for r, from the incomplete cubic equation
e102 CIs:

ie Ara Ag ail

Q = 32? + A,

J = SiG,

from which we get the quadratic equation,
Q-~3PP' =—3A,2°- 9A t+ AZ=0;

i -9A tv {[(94,)?+ 12A4;3}

us 6A, ,

showing that r is imaginary, and, therefore, all the roots of P= 0 real
whenever, and only whenever

8142+ 12A,3<0; or whenever 274,’+4A°<0;
under which condition the formula (5), lke that of Cardan, is irre-

ducible to a finite numerical expression for the real roots of the equa-
‘tion R=0, which shall be unencumbered with imaginary quantities. [It

a ln Se

30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

is obvious that the foregoing condition can never be satisfied unless the
coefficient 4, is negative. |

Whether, in the reducible cases of the equation 2° + A,z + A,=0,
that is, in the cases in which 274,?+4A,° is not less thfan zero, the
formula [5] may, or may not, advantageously replace the old formula
of Cardan, must be left for the discrimination of algebraists to deter-
mine. Few persons, however, are likely to prefer a formula to the
method of continuous approximation, whenever the numerical values of
the roots of an equation of higher degree than the second degree are
the only objects of search.

(4.) Whenever it happens, in this case of an incomplete cubic equa-
tion, that (9A,)? + 124,°, or, which is the same thing, that 27A,?
+4A,° is zero, the two values of 7, as expressed in the foregoing for-
mula, will be equal values ; and, as already proved in the Paper before
referred to, these are also two roots of the cubic P=0 ; hence, when-
ever this condition has place, the incomplete cubic equation has a pair
of equal roots, each of these being,

Qe S5 ==—

GWAR ee Onze

It may be well to observe here that the case of equal roots in any
cubic equation, is excluded from the general investigation at article (2).
The transformed equation, in 2’, of which the first three terms are

Azo + (8Ay + Ayla? + (3Aor? +2Ayr + Ara’,

is there considered to have a significant coefficient for its third term;
since if the expression

3A,r*+24.r+ A,

were zero, the first member of this transformed equation could not be
made a complete cube by merely modifying the coefficient of 2’, as,
in the investigation alluded to, is assumed to be practicable.

When the indicating quadratic (Q?-3 PP’ = 0), as we may call it,
has two equal roots, and, therefore, the cubic P=0 has the same two
equal roots, the above-written coefficient must be zero ; in which case
the transformed equation becomes simply

A,x + (8Asr + A)v? = 0,
of which the three roots are

”
3.Asr + Ao
=; ha 0, a aa =

A;

Youne—Algebraical Equations of the Third Degree, Gc. 31

and, therefore, those of the original equation are

_ 8dr +A, 2A + Az

*2=Pr, L=T, C=
? ? A, Al r)

the sum of which roots is

oe 2Ar+Az _ e A,
a I 7 hie

as we know it ought to be. In the case of the incomplete cubic, con-
sidered above, in which A;=1, and A2=0, this sum is, of course, zero.

(5.) It was sufficiently shown in my former Paper (Article
33), that, if any cubic equation P=0, be written in the form,

P = (ax? + bx+c)(e+p) =0,

in which a, 0, ¢, and p, have any real values whatever, and that the
quadratic equation Q*- 3PP’=0, be

Az? + Be+ C=0,

the following relations necessarily have place; namely,

If B?<4AC, then 6?>4ac;

eB LA Oe Ot <i4ae
and conversely ; from which relations it follows that

If B?=4AC, then 6?=4ac;

5p PRI, 45, UEP SZUAGL
The determination of the indicating quadratic,

Q?- 3PP' =Azx’?+ Be+ C=0,

in any individual instance, involves but very little calculation ; because,
since we know that the first two terms of Q’ are always the same as
the first two terms of 3PP', we need not take the trouble to compute
them ; it is sufficient that we preserve, in the multiplications, only the

terms beyond the first two terms of each product.
In order to illustrate this by an example, let the proposed equation be

P= —427 +32+2=0
», Q= 327-8243
P'= 32-4

32 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

32? —824+38 a — 42? 4+ 3x42
bar —8et+3 bz —4
1822+ 642°-48r+9 9a7+ 1622-1204 6r- 8, x3-

or
822? — 482+ 9
= 752°—- 18x-24 = 3(252?- 6z- 8)
~. Q- 38PP'= 7x? - 30x+33=0,

the indicating quadratic.

And since the roots of this are seen to be imaginary, the equation
tndicates a pair of real roots in the cubic P=0; and, consequently,
that all the roots are real.

(6.) But the indicating quadratic may always be arrived at in
another way. This other method of proceeding consists in extracting
the square root of the product 3PP’; taking care, however, that the
successive terms of the root be the successive terms of the quadratic
function @* Under this condition, the remainder, at which we shall
arrive, when taken with changed signs, and equated to zero, will always
be the indicating quadratic. Thus, taking the example just given,
where the complete product 3PP’ is

38PP’= 9x4 — 4823+ 75z* — 182 - 24,

and extracting the square root in such way that the terms put one
after another, in the root-place, may be 327- 8x +8 ; we shall find the
remainder, at the end of the operation, to be - 727+30z2-—33. This
remainder, after changing the signs of its terms, will be 7z? —- 30x+33;
which, equated to zero, will be the indicating quadratic.

That the indicating quadratic may always be arrived at in this
manner will appear from considering that if we put g=0 to denote this
quadratic, that is, if Q?-3P/P’=g, it will follow that 3PP’= Q@_4q.
But in the square root operation described above, 3PP’ is equal to
Q plus the remainder; consequently, g is this remainder taken with
changed signs.

Since all the roots of the foregoing cubic equation are shown by
the indicating quadratic to be veal roots, we know that the two roots
of the derived quadratic equation, Q=3z?-—8r+3=0, must be sepa-
rators of those three roots; the middle one of the three lying between
the two real roots of @=0. In order to the actual determination of
the numerical values of the three roots, the shortest way of proceeding

* There is, however, no necessity to revert to the expression Q ior the first two
of the root terms; these same two terms may be arrived at by following the ordi-
nary rule for the extraction of the square root. @ need be referred to only for the
third term—the absolute number.

Youne—Algebraical Equations of the Third Degree, Se. 33

will be this. Develope the middle root by continuous approximation :
we shall thus arrive at a quadratic equation, the roots of which, when
each of them is increased by the root previously developed, will be the
other two roots of the proposed cubic.

(7.) When each triad of the coefficients of a cubic equation fails
to satisfy the condition of imaginary roots, and that the roots 7, 72,
of the indicating quadratic equation Q? - 3PP’ = 0, are real and
unequal, the roots of the derived quadratic Q=0 will necessarily be
real roots. One of these roots, and one only, will be situated in the
interval [r,, 7]; and if the roots of the cubic be each of them di-
minished by that root of Q@=0, the third coefficient of the trans-
formed equation will vanish between like signs.

For 7,, 72, are either both positive or both negative, inasmuch as
that the first and third terms of the quadratic Q’-—3PP’=0 are then
both positive ;* and, therefore, if 7, be that one of these two roots which
is the nearer to - ©, the quadratic expression Q’? — 3PP’ will be
positive for every value of x, from the value x=— up to the value
x=f,; and also for every value of z, from the value z=+« down to
the value z=7,, And since the expression changes sign immediately
after the passage of a root, and that the changed sign remains perma-
nent till the other root passes, it follows that for every value of x,
within the limits [7,, 7.], the expression Q’-3PP’ must be negative;
whilst for every value of x, outside those limits, it must be positive.
This is the same as saying that for every value of , within the limits
[7,, r,], the condition of imaginary roots is satisfied, whilst for every
value of z, outside those limits, the condition fails to be satisfied. At
either of the limits, that is, for z=7,, or for z=r., the condition of
imaginarity is still satisfied; since, for either of these values of z,
3PP’= Q. But when the roots 7, 7, of the indicating quadratic are
equal roots, then we know that these same equal roots belong also to
the proposed cubic P= 0—the imaginarity disappearing with the dis-
appearance of inequality between the roots [7,, 72].

It isimpossible, therefore, that Q can vanish between like signs of
P and P’ outside the limits [7,, r,], seeing that if @ could so vanish,
@? —3PP’, for the value of which causes Q thus to vanish, would be
negative,

But one of the two roots of Q=0 must cause Q to vanish between
like signs of P and P’; consequently, this root of Q@=0 must lie be-
tween r, and 7.

It is plain that Q cannot vanish a second time between like signs
of P and P’; since such second evanescence would imply a second pair
of imaginary roots in an equation ofonly the third degree. Hence, the
other root of Q=0 must cause Q to vanish between wnlike signs of P
and P’; so that when this evanescence takes place, the expression
@—3PP’ must be positive.

* See the expression marked (1) at page 473 of the former Paper.
R. I. A. PROC.—SER II., VOL. II. SCIENCE. I

o4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(8.) If we agree to call that particular root of Q=0, which lies in
the interval [7, 7.], the indicator of the two imaginary roots of the
cubic equation P=0, we may infer, from what is shown above, that
when the two roots of the indicating quadratic are real, if they be
positive (they must always both have the same sign), the zndicator is
a positive number ; andif they are negative, the indicator is a negative
number ; that is to say, the region in which the real roots of the indi-
cating quadratic le is the region in which the indicator itself hes.
And we have seen that that root of the derived quadratic equation
@=0, which is the indicator, is the only one of the two roots of that
equation which lies between the roots 7,, 7: of the equation @?-3PP’
=(Q, the other root of Q = 0 being excluded from that interval.

The real root, however, of the proposed cubic equation P=0 must
lie outside the interval [7, 72]; for, as shown above, every value of z,
within this interval, causes the expression Q*?-3PP' to be negative ;
whereas the value of x, which satisfies the condition P=0, reduces
that expression to Q*, which is positive; and, for a similar reason, the
root of the simple equation P’=0 must lie without the interval.

That the real root of the cubic equation lies without the interval
[7,, 72] is a conclusion that might have been immediately deduced from
the foregoing truth ; namely, that that root of Q=0, which is not the
indicator, does itself lie without the interval. For, since this root
separates the real root of the cubic from the imaginary pair, or rather
from the z#dicator of that pair, the zeal root of P=0O must occupy a
place more remote from the interval [7,, 7,] than is the place of that
root of Q=0, which is not the indicator of the imaginary pair.

(9.) It thus appears that, without any preliminary analysis of the
cubic equation P =0, we can always ascertain, from an examination of
the quadratic equation Q@*-3PP' =0—

First, whether the equation P =0 has a pair of imaginary roots or
not.

Second; if it have imaginary roots, which of the two roots of the
derived quadratic, Q=0, itis that is the zmdicator of the pair; it is
that one which lies between the two roots of Q@?-3PP’=0 ; and only
one of the two can so lie.

And, thirdly, we learn that the real root of the cubic always lies
outside the interval between the two roots of the equation last men-
tioned ; and from thus knowing the interval from which it is excluded,
the first figure of it becomes the more readily determinable, whenever
all three of the roots are indicated, by the signs of the terms of the
equation, in one and the same region.

We may further observe here, that whenever we seek to deter-
mine the character of a pair of doubtful roots in a cubic equation
P=0 (and which roots are indicated in an interval comprehending
also a real root of Q=0), by the process of continuous approximation,
we may be sure, if the roots be imaginary, that the indication of 1ma-
ginarity will not be arrived at till the approximating number reaches
one or other of the values r,, or 72; after arriving at which, the condi- _

Youne—Algebraical Equations of the Third Degree, Fc. 35

tion of imaginarity will be satisfied, but not before; and that the con-
dition wili continue to be satisfied for every subsequent transformation,
throughout the interval [7, r.], but not after that interval has been
passed over.

It will have been noticed that the foregoing discussion concerns
those cubic equations only of which the given coefficients do not
themselves supply the required information as to the character of the
roots; that is to say, those equations only in which neither triad of the
coefficients satisfies the condition of imaginary roots,

(10.) In the case in which the first triad of the coefficients of the
cubic equation P=0 satisfies the condition of imaginarity, the roots of
the derived quadratic equation, Q=0, will beimaginary ; and the root
of the simple equation, #’=0, will then be the indicator. But if the
condition of imaginarity be satisfied by the second triad of the coeffi-
cients, and not by the first also—under which circumstances Q=0
will have real roots—the roots of the indicating quadratic will be real
roots; and, as already noticed (Art. 6), one of these roots will be posi-
tive, and the other negative ; and, as before, the condition of imaginarity
will have place throughout the interval between those roots, and will
fail to have place for all values outside that interval. But if both
triads of the coefficients satisfy the condition of imaginarity, then the
first and last terms of the indicating quadratic, the terms

(4;- 34,A,)z?, and (A? i 34,4),

will each be preceded by the negative sign ; so that a pair of imagi-
nary roots in the equation P=0 would be implied, even should the
roots of the indicating quadratic, Q?-3PP’=0, be themselves imagi-
nary; because, then, the first member of this quadratic would be
always negative; that is to say, the quadratic expression, 3PP' — Q’,
would be positive for every real value of x. As before, the indicator
of the pair of imaginary roots would be the root of the simple equation
FP’ =0, this root being the value of x, for which a derived function.
vanishes between like signs of the two adjacent derived functions.

(11.) It is well known that each of the two roots of an equation of
the second degree, whenever these roots are unequal, always consists
of two distinct parts—the one being a rational number, and the other
part being a number, either positive or negative, under the radical
sien, with, usually, a real factor prefixed to the radical quantity; the
rational part of each root is always the root of the derived simple
equation.

But when the quadratic is raised to an equation of the third degree,
by the introduction of a new simple factor, it is not the case that a
root of the equation of the second degree, derived from this cubic
equation, will be the rational part of each of the two roots of the

36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

quadratic equation which enters into the composition of the cubic.
For, let az?+b2+c=0 represent any quadratic equation, then the
derived simple equation will be 2az+6=0; and if

P= (ax? + be + c)(x+p),
then,
Q= ax +be+e+(2ax+b)(x+p).

New, if the value of x, which makes 2az + b = 0, namely, the value

eee = makes also Q=0, then we must have for that same value

of x
ac’ +be+c=0,

which can be the case only when this latter equation has equal roots ;
that is to say, only when the first member of it is a complete square ;
under which circumstance the equation P=0 must have two equal
roots. Hence, that root of Q=0, which is the ¢ndicator of a pair of
imaginary roots in the cubic equation P=0,—the value of x, that is,
which causes Q to vanish between hke signs of P and P’—can never
be equal to the real part of the imaginary pair thus indicated.

[In an equation of degree higher than the third degree, ¢t 7s possible,
when the first member of it has a quadratic factor, the roots of which
are imaginary, that a root of the first derived equation may be equal
to the real part of the imaginary pair ; but this can happen only under
peculiar circumstances. Let /f=0 be an equation of degree higher
than the third degree, and of which fis a quadratic factor, such that
the roots of f=0 are imaginary. Then, writing #", /', for the first
derivees of //, the first derivee of Ff will be

Ff + fF" ;

and if this be zero, for the value of x, which is the root of the simple

equation f! =0, then #” must be zero also ; since fis not zero for that
value of x, but is necessarily a positive number. Hence, the value of
x, which satisfies the equation f1=0, cannot possibly also satisfy the -
derived equation

F f+ fF =0,

unless, under the special condition that # is a root of #'=0, as well as
a root of f!=0].

(12.) The conclusion in the last Article, namely, that the value of
z, which causes Q to vanish between like signs of P and P’, can never
be equal to the real part of the pair of imaginary roots indicated, may
be easily generalized; and the more comprehensive proposition be stated
thus :

Younc—Algebraical Equations of the Third Degree, &c. 37

If two roots, whether real or imaginary, of a cubic equation be ex-
pressed in the form p+q (and any two numbers may be so expressed),*
it is impossible that, by diminishing the three roots, each by p, the
resulting equation can ever be of the form

24 Aa? +02+A,=0.

For, putting @ for the diminished third root of the equation, the three
roots of the transformed equation will be

Gatg-q;
and, therefore, the coefficient of «, in that transformed equation, will be

+aqg—aq-agv=- 9;

and, consequently, this coefficient cannot be zero, so long as g is a
significant quantity—whether real or imaginary.

[If ¢ be zero, that is, if the cubic equation have two roots, each
equal to p, then, of course, not only is the coefficient of x, in the
transformation by p zero, but the absolute term in that transformation
is also zero |.

(13.) It is deserving of remark, finally, that—

If the same pair of imaginary roots enter into two different equa-
tions, that pair may be indicated, by the signs of the coefficients of one
of those equations, as belonging to the positive region of the roots, and
by the signs of the coefficients of the other equation, as belonging to
the negative region.

For, first, let there be the equation

(x? + a?)(x + b) es hat ax +a7b=0... [1];
and, next, the equation

ita) ct) Sa =r? ae 07610) 2),
in which equations 6 and ¢ are both positive numbers. Then the
three roots of [1] will all belong to the negative region of the roots,

and the three roots of [2] will all belong to the positive region; and
yet the pair of imaginary roots, namely, the two roots of the equation

v+e=0

are the same in both equations.

* For r, r’, being any two numbers, if we put p for $7 +4’, and q for 49 - 4)”,
we shall have r=p+q, and?” =p—q.

38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Let now each of the roots of the equations [ 1 ] and [2] be diminished
by any positive number é ; then the signs of the terms in the trans-
formed equation deduced from [1] will. all be positive; but in the
transformed equation deduced from [2] it is plain that 6 may be suf-
ficiently small to cause the signs of the terms to be alternately positive
and negative, as in the equation [2] itself. The same pair of ima-
ginary roots must, however, enter into doth of the transformed equa-
tions; though, in the first of these, the signs of the terms imply that
the imaginary roots belong to the negative region; and in the second,
the signs imply that these same roots belong to the positive region.

We thus see that the region in which a pair of imaginary roots is
indicated by the signs of the terms of an equation, supplies no sufii-
cient clue as to whether the real part, common to the two imaginary
roots, is positive or negative, whenever the equation is of a higher de-
gree than the second degree. In a quadratic equation, of which the
roots are imaginary, the case is different; the sign of the real part is
always indicated ; it is the opposite of that prefixed to the coefficient
of the middle term, whenever such middle term is present. If the
middle term be absent, the real part of each imaginary root will then,
of course, be zero; but in a complete quadratic equation, not only is
the region to which each of the two roots belongs indicated—whether
these roots be real or imaginary—but the part of the pair of roots which
is free from the radical sign is also indicated ; it is always half the co-
efficient of the middle term, taken with changed sign—the coefficient
of the first term being unity. In other words, as before stated, the part
which precedes the radical sign is always the root of the simple equa-
tion derived from the quadratic, whether the other part of the expres-
sion for the pair of roots of the quadratic be real or imaginary.

In the foregoing discussion, I have frequently spoken of a pair of
imaginary roots as being in, or belonging to, the positive region, or
the negative region. This phraseology, though in conformity with
general usage, 1s objectionable. An imaginary quantity cannot have
any place in a series of positive numbers, nor yet in a series of nega-
tive numbers; because it is entirely out of the range of every series of
numbers. The phrase should be taken to mean merely that the indicator
of the pair is in the positive, or in the negative region, as the case may
be; or, still more explicitly, that the indicator is a positive or a nega-
tive number. We have seen above that the same pair of imaginary
roots may have just as much claim to a place in a series of negative
numbers, as to a place in a series of positive numbers, and to a place
in a series of positive numbers, as to a place in a series of negative
numbers; and this is the same as saying that the pair itself is not en-
titled to a place in either series: it is the ¢ndicator only of that pair,
which can be said, in strictness, to range with positive or with negative
numbers, or which can occupy any place among them.

Taking the derived functions in reverse order, commencing with
the function of the first degree, if the value (7) of x, which causes

Youne—Algebraical Equations of the Third Degree, &c. 39

this function to vanish, causes it to do so between like signs, then is
r,, with its proper sign, the zndicator of a pair of imaginary roots in
the contiguous quadratic function, when this is equated to zero. If
a value (7) of x, which causes this quadratic function to vanish, causes
it to vanish between lke signs, then is 72, with its proper sign,
the indicator of a pair of imaginary roots in the contiguous function
of the third degree, when this is equated to zero, and so on; the
sign of 7, r,, &c., denoting the region in which the pair of imaginary
roots is—not situated, but indicated. And what, in this case of a pair
of imaginary roots, is the indicator, becomes, in the case of a pair of
unequal real roots, a separator of those roots.

A pair of roots indicated in any interval [a, 6], if they turn out
to be imaginary, will be equally indicated in the indefinitely narrow
interval [r-6, r+ 6], be 6 ever so small, 7 being the indicator. The
modification which the coefficients of that quadratic factor of the
function to which these imaginary roots are due (in order that the
two roots indicated between the above narrow limits may be real
roots, the other roots of the function remaining undisturbed) must
evidently be such as to make the quadratic factor the complete square,
ip PES
oe course, the same pair of equal roots (r, r) would replace the
pair of imaginary roots by making a suitable modification of the final
term of the function alluded to, without any interference with the
other coefficients ; but, then, all the remaining roots of the function
would be changed ; since, for no one of the values of x, for which the
unaltered function vanishes, would such evanescence take place when
the final term, or the absolute number, only, was changed.

NOTE.
On the formula [4], in Article (2).

The general expression [4], for the three roots of a cubic equation, is entirely
free from superfluous values. The values there symbolized are just three in num-
ber, the cube root being the only item in the formula which involves multiple
values. The symbol r represents one only of the two roots of the quadratic equa-
tion Q?—3PP’=0; which one of the two is entirely matter of choice. If after the
root selected has been employed, the other root be introduced into the formula, in its
place, we shall get a second expression for x, differing from the first one only in
appearance; and, symbolizing the same three values, the analytical investigation of
the formula sufficiently shows such to be the case.

* The quadratic factor, alluded to above, is that which enters the derived equa-
tion of Jowest degree, into which imaginarity is transmitted from the primitive
equation ; the quadratic factor spoken of belongs to the primitive equation only when
the imaginarity so enters that it is not transmitted to a derived equation.

40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

V.—On tHe Eauation oF THE SQUARES OF THE DIFFERENCES OF A
Brevapratic. By Joun Cassy, LL.D., M. R.1.A., Professor of
Mathematics in the Catholic University of Ireland.

[Read April 13th, 1874.]

Tue following method of finding the equation whose roots are the
squares of the differences of the roots of a biquadratic given by its
general equation, with binomial ccefficients, has been in my possession
for some years. It occurred to me, while reading Professor Roberts’
solution of the same question, published in Tortolini’s “ Annali di
Matematica.”” As it is, I believe, shorter and more elementary than
the solutions hitherto published, it may be deserving of the attention
of mathematicians.

I. Notation.
Let (a, 4, c, d, ¢, ¥ , 1)*=0 be the quartic, then we shall denote
b? — ac, the discriminant of
(DO NLS My yy 1803
a’d + 2b? —3abe by & ;
etapa dA ; eae os
G is evidently =4 7a’ when A is the discriminant of the cubic
a
(a, 5, ¢, d, w, 1)°, and the vanishing of G is the condition that the
roots of this cubic may be in arithmetical progression ; we shall also

denote the quadratic invariant of the quartic, ae—4bd + 3c by Z,, and
its cubic invariant or catalecticant

ace + 2bed — ad’ - eb? -¢ by I; ;
then, since G, H, J, J, are functions of the differences of the roots, we
have at once, by taking a=1 and 6=0, the well-known theorem

(@?=4H - L,-hH. (1)

Il. Luler’s Reducing Cubic.

Let the quartic (a, 6, ¢, d, ¢, (x, 1)* = 0 be deprived of its second term,
and it becomes, making a=1,

ot—6He'+4Gr+lL-3H°=0, (2)
and Euler’s reducing cubic is
yp-any+3(m- 2 \y- <0. (3)
7 / v5) 4

This becomes by changing y into y+-H, that is, by taking away the
second term, and making use of (1)
Ts

L
UE gees ae eae (4)

Casey—On the Biquadratic. 41
Ill. Equation of Differences.

If %,, 22, 3, ©, be the roots of (2), and v,”, v,?, v.” the roots of (3), we

have by Euler’s solution,
(@, — %_)? = 4(v,.” + 03") + 8005.

ake if z be a root of the required equation, and a,, a,, a, the roots
of (4

2 z= 4(a,+0,+2H)+8/ (a, + H)\(a,+ H)

». {2-4 (a, + a3) — 8H }? = 64 { a,0,+ (a, + a;) H+ H?}.

Now, by equation (4)
t
: 4a,
Hence, making these substitutions, and putting y for a,, we get

162,
(2 + 4y)? — 16Hz + ie =0. (5)

dp + d3= — a and a,a3, = —

The question is now reduced to the elimination of y between (4)
and (5), which is easily performed, as follows. From (4) we have

J EM EO
Pie es age (6)

and eliminating in succession
IG
5 and y? from (5) and (6),

we get the two quadratics,
48y? — 8zy - (2? - 16Hs + 16/,) =0 (7)
82y? + (22 -16Hs+47,) y+ 122; = 0. (8)
Again, eliminating y* from (7) and (8) we get

sy Oe WOES ce (9)
y= 7 CECE OA Y

and substituting this value of y in (7) we get the required equation—
2° -— 48 H2° + 8 ([,+ 96 H?)z4
— 32 (32G? + 48 LH + 451s)2
~ 18 (71,7 - 3841, 7? + 28813H)z"
— 384 (67,°H4+4/,H + 5L,/;)z
+ 256 (1,3 -271,?) = 0.

In the preparation of this Paper, Professor Ball’s Memoir on the
Solution of the Biquadratic, published in Volume vir. of the ‘‘ Quarterly
Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics,”’ has been of much use to me.

R. I, A. PROC., SER, Il., VOL. II., SCIENCE. G

42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

V1I.—Own 4 SpecrroscoPE oF THE BryocuLaR Form FoR THE OBSERVATION
oF Farnt Spectra. By Cuanrtzes E. Burton, B. A., F.R.A.S.

[Read May 25, 1874.]

Tue instrument described in this notice was constructed at the in-
stance of Mr. Stoney, out of a grant of money entrusted to me for the
purpose by the Royal Irish Academy. Owing to the pressure of other
business upon Mr. Grubb and Mr. Spencer, on whom deyolved the
carrying out of the details of the construction, the instrument has
only come into my hands within the last few days, and its capabilities
must, therefore, be considered as not yet fully tested.

The binocular form was adopted at Mr. Stoney’s suggestion, in
order to secure that great increase of power and comfort in observa-
tion of faint and difficult objects which results from the co-operation of
both eyes. JI append an outline sketch of the spectroscope, of which
the following is a description.

The same parts are designated by the same letters in both plan
(Fig. 1.) and elevation (Fig. 2.), and are drawn to the same scale,
namely, one-sixth of full size. The working parts are sustained and
connected by a mahogany frame-work £, which protects the internal
arrangement, and gives support to the recording table, marked Slider.

r
aN ee Susp

7
iH

| ISPENCERESON

jit DUBLIN WOODER BASE PIECE

Collimators. The collimators C C’, which carry the slit S are
fixed upon a mahogany base-board, movable in a vertical plane about
the axis a a’, and capable of being fixed at any required inclination
to the line h by means of a binding screw s, which passes through a
circular slot in B into the wooden base-piece.

The Prisms. P and P’ are the prisms, worked as nearly as possible
to the same form. The three faces of each prism are polished, so that
any one of the three angles may be employed to form a spectrum.
In each prism the three angles are not equal, but subtend respectively
58°, 60°, and 62°. The range of dispersion obtainable with a single
prism is, therefore, very considerable, if the three angles are made
use of in succession.

Burton—On a Spectroscope of the Binocular Form. 43

This property of each prism is made available by mounting it on
a circular wooden disc, centrally perforated to admit a binding screw,

which secures it to the inner side of B, and when tightened prevents
the disc from rotating. The discs and binding screws attached to the
prisms are shown att’, VN’.

The observer can readily turn round the wooden disc with the
attached prism, after slackening J, and he can fix the prism again in any
position he pleases by once more tightening VV. The two prisms are
perfectly independent of one another.

Telescopes. The telescopes 7 7” are fixed, like the collimators, to
a single mahogany base-board, and move also in a vertical plane about
the axis of the spindle a” a,’ which moves with the base-board. One
extremity of this axis, that marked a”, is enlarged for the reception
of the clamp of the recording apparatus, to be mentioned presently.
The adapters, carrying the eye-pieces, are connected together by a pair
of cross bars 6, 6’, which are secured to them by screws passing
through the slots in the outer tubes shown in the plan,

Focussing of eye-pieces. The focussing moyement is communicated
to the eye-pieces simultaneously as follows. A piece of flat linked
chain, c, is fastened at one extremity to the cross bar nearest the object
glasses, passed twice round the spindle W, which is fixed to the
wooden base plate, and secured by a clip arrangement to the cross
bar above the eye-pieces. On turning W, the chain is wound one
way or the other, and the adapters move with it.

Each of the eye-pieces has an independent sliding motion in its
own adapter. In the focus of each eye-lens is a pointer, of a wedge
form, borne by a split tube, fitting moderately tight into the eye-piece
adapter. ‘These pointers are capable of adjustment in every direc-
tion.

44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Recording apparatus. The recording apparatus is a modification of
that devised some years since by Mr. Grubb, and found by those
who have employed it to combine a very considerable amount of
accuracy with great facility in use, dispensing also with the necessity
for a reading lamp at the time of observation, and thereby preventing
that loss of time which is inevitable if micrometric apparatus of the
ordinary construction be employed for the measurement of extremely
faint spectra.

The bar m (Fig. 1.) is thickened and split at one extremity to
Teceive the end a” of the axis on which the base-board carrying the
telescopes moves.

The two prongs of the fork thus formed can be brought together
so as to grip w’ tightly, by means of a small capstan-headed screw.

The link 2 connects the free end of m with the recording arm 2.
The two ends of x are perforated with square holes, the diagonals of the
squares being longitudinal and transverse to the link.

Through these square holes pass screws into m and 2, in which
they are fixed. Owing to the position of the holes, these pins
work practically in V bearings, and steadiness of movement is thereby
secured.

? moves on a fulcrum at f, and carries near its free extremity a
pin p, directed inwards towards the slider. By pressing the finger
gently on the outer side of the arm 7 near the end, a dot may be made
on a card, and a record thereby made of the position of the arm at the

time. The slider moves in either direction readily, parallel to the ~

line Ak. If m be changed to a’, and the telescopes be raised, m will
be constrained to rise also, and by means of the link z will raise +
and p with it.

Since the distance from the object glass of the telescope to the

final image is 9 in., m being 4 in. long, xf 14 in., and fp 15in.,
any motion of the pointer, if small, will be multiplied at p by the
improper fraction

4x15

= 4-4;
9Exo1co

an amplification which is found to be practically sufficient.

The slit is formed of two long long brass rules, jomted together
in exactly the same manner as for a parallel ruler.

The links are perforated at their centres for two screws, one for
each, on which they severally turn. To each extremity of the lower
rule is fastened one end of a piece of flat linked chain, the central
portion of the chain being coiled twice about a spindle, on which is
fixed a lever about 6 inches in length.

By altering the position of this lever, the chain is drawn one way
or the other, and causes the rules to move.

As the axes on which the links turn are situated in the centre of

their length, the approach of the jaws of the slit to a line between.

Batty—On Fossil Plants of HKiltorean, 45

them will be the same for each of them, and the desired fixity of the
centre of the slit opening, and therefore of the spectral lines, with re-
spect to the pointer, is thereby secured.

It is hoped that this instrument may be useful in the study of the
spectra of the Aurora and Zodiacal Light, which are not yet thoroughly
known ; the first on account of its caprscious variableness, the latter
by reason of its extreme faintness. The last-~mentioned difficulty,
it is hoped, may be overcome, by the use of this special instrument,
which brings both the eyes into use, and by the improvement of an
opportunity which now offers for the study of the Zodiacal Light
under favourable circumstances, as regards climate, in the Mauritius.

In conclusion, I have to thank Messrs. Stoney, Grubb, and Spencer
for numerous suggestions and improvements in the design of the in-
strument, and to apologise for the unavoidable haste with which this
notice has been drawn up, previously to my departure to Rodriguez as
one of the expedition to observe there the transit of Venus.

ViI.—On Fossrts From THE Upper Ontp Rep Sannpstone or Kit-
TorcAN Hitz, in THE CouNTY oF [UEEROE Report No. 1. By
Wu. ‘inna Batny, F.G.S., &c.

[Read February 9, 1874.]

Great interest in the fossil plants of Kiltorcan has been shown by
eminent scientific men, especially those of foreign countries, who have
made fossil botany their study; and among those latter, with whom I
have corresponded on the subject, I may mention Professor Geinitz, of
Dresden; Dr. Schimper, of Strasbourg; Professor Heer, of Zurich;
Principal Dawson, of Canada; Professor De Koninck, of Liége; and
M. Crepan, of Brussels— all of whom testify in their communications
to the scientific importance of investigating the subject.

Additional interest arises not only from the perfect state of preser-
vation in which these fossils occur, but from the fact that they, with
their associated fossil fauna, assist in a material way to determine the
fresh water, or marine origin, of the great mass of old red sandstone
strata developed in the British Islands, as well as on the continent of
Europe.

Although this report relates more especially to the fossil plants, it
will not perhaps be thought irrelevant to allude to the associated animal
remains of mollusca, crustacea, and fish discovered at the same place.

The quarry from which the specimens now exhibited were collected,
in consequence of its remote situation, has not been much excavated,
except for scientific purposes; it is situated between Kilkenny and
Waterford, near the Ballyhale railway station, on an elevated ridge

46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of Old Red Sandstone (‘‘ yellow sandstone”’ of Sir Richard Griffith),
which rises gradually trom beneath the limestone plain to heights of
400 or 500 feet, and in some places, as near Jerpoint, to as much as
800 feet above the sea level.

The beds of fine grained greenish sandstone dip at a very slight
angle, and separate easily into slabs of large size, some of them being
covered by plant remains; the surfaces of these slabs are sometimes
stained quite black, probably with manganese or iron, and are very
disappointing when found in this state. The most frequent plant is
Paleopteris Hibernicus ; first noticed by the late Professor Edward
Forbes at the Belfast meeting of the British Association in 1853, under
the provisional name of Cyclopteris, afterwards referred to Adiantites
by M. Adolphe Brongniart, and now placed by Professor Schimper in
his genus Paleopteris—that eminent authority, in his valuable work,
“ Traité de Paléontologie Végétale,” stating that it differs from Cy-
clopteris in the arrangement of its leaflets, and from Adiantites in its
mode of fructification.

Magnificent fronds of this, the most ancient fern, are impressed upon
the slabs with remarkable distinctness, so much so that even the vena-
tion on the leaflets is clearly discernible. Some of these fronds are
between four and five feet long and three feet broad. The peculiar
mode of fructification by a transformation of sterile into fertile pinnules
is well shown in some specimens, and so also is the basal portion of
the frond. Two additional species of fossil ferns have been described
by me from this place under the names of Sphenopteris Hookert and
S. Humphrestanum, both of which are comparatively rare.

Another plant, frequent at Kiltorcan, having a fluted or ribbed
stem, its upper portion branching, I formerly considered to be identical -
with Sagenaria Velthiemiana. Professor Schimper, however, who had
frequent opportunities of comparing its fruit with that of S. Velthtemiana,
assures me that it differs greatly from that species; believing it to be
an undescribed plant, he has named it Sagenaria Bailyana. The central
axis of this plant is seen in some specimens, indicating its loose texture
and its alliance to Sigillaria.

A fine example of this plant was discovered by me and Mr. Alex.
M‘Henry, who assisted me in these explorations. After excavating to
a depth of about four feet, we uncovered a portion of the stem and
traced it out as far as possible; it rested on the surface of a bed which
was much jointed, consequently it was not possible to preserve it
entire. Careful sketches and exact measurements were however made
by me on the spot. Unfortunately we could not get at the termination
to see if the stigmaria-like roots were attached; this must remain a
problem until further excavations can be made.

The total length of this specimen was 20 feet 4 inches, the stem at
its lowest portion being six inches in diameter. It commenced to
branch at 15 feet from the visible termination; after the first division
the branches are one and a half inches broad, continuing to diminish
until they became reduced to a quarter of an inch in breadth.

Batty—On Fossil Plants of Kiltorcan. 47

The upper portion of its branches corresponds with Cyclostigma or
Lepidodendron minuta of Dr. Haughton.

A central axis traverses the whole of the plant, composed of soft
tissue, with an open cellular structure, as in Sigillaria and Stigmaria.

What I believe to be the roots and rootlets of this species permeate
certain beds beneath, just as Stigmaria does the clay immediately under
the coal.

Cone-like bodies are frequent in the same bed; they somewhat re-
semble Lepidostrobus of the coal strata, and are composed of elongated
scales, terminating in long linear processes; these scales show large
and very distinct sporules. They are evidently the fruit of a Lycopod,
but have never yet been found attached to the Sagenaria, to which it
is presumed they belonged.

A third description of plant, extremely abundant at this place, has
been described by Dr. Haughton under the name of Cyclostigma.
They usually occur in a fragmentary state, and are much compressed.
One of the most important additions to our knowledge of these
plants is a specimen in the collection now obtained; this I believe to
be a young example of Cyclostigma Kiltorkense. It was found ina layer
with Paleopterts Hibernicus, about two and a half feet below the
commencement of the rock; it shows what has never been met with
before, the rounded base, with attached rootlets. The total length of
this specimen is two feet three inches, its greatest diameter being one
inch and one-eighth. The widely distant stigme, absence of longitu-
dinal rib-like markings, and different character of root, distinguish it
essentially from the Sagenaria, or from AKnorria Bailyana, with which
some Paleophytologists have sought to identify it. This plant appears
to have been less cylindrical than the Sagenaria. I am inclined to
believe that the fine specimen in the collection of the Royal Dublin
Society, named by M. Adolphe Brongniart Lepidodendron Griffithsit, is
the terminal portion of this species. In the collection made by the
Geological Survey, also from this place, there is a similar portion,
showing the blunt brush-like apex, the stigmz becoming more closely
arranged towards the top, and the rigid linear leaves, three or four
inches long, spreading out on each side at regularly decreasing intervals
from a half to the eighth of an inch.

The associated animal remains are, of mollusca, one example only,
the large bivalve shell named by Professor Forbes Anodonta Jukesii.
Its close resemblance to the recent Anodonta cygneus, the large fresh-
water muscle, common in some of our lakes and rivers, sufficiently
justifies its generic alliance, and assists materially in proving the fresh-
water origin of the deposit.

Several species of crustacea have from time to time ‘been added to
the list of fossils found at this place. The late Mr. Salter first indi-
eated the probable existence of Eurypterus from a very fragmentary
specimen ; this indication I have been enabled to confirm by the dis-
covery of better specimens, and have named a species Pterygotus
Hibernicus. This Mr. Woodward has since referred to Eurypterus.

<

48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In addition to this, we collected a Limuloid form, which I have
called Belinurus Kiltorkensis, and a Phyllopod, Proracaris MacHenrict.

The fish remains are also of considerable interest, and are eminently
characteristic of Old Red Sandstone strata. They consist for the most
part of detached portions, comprising a few conical teeth, resembling
those of Dendrodus or Bothriolepis, jaws with teeth most probably
belonging to Coccosteus, and osseous plates of the same fish, these being
the most numerous. A small species of Pterichthys also occurs, and
numerous scales of Glyptolepis. Only in one instance were we suc-
cessful in obtaining anything like an entire fish ; it belongs to the last-
named genus, and I believe it to be identical with Glyptolepis
elegans.

Othe great importance of the fossils of this locality cannot, I feel
convinced, be overrated, and it will doubtless yield still more valuable
results. Duplicate sets of these fossils have already been supplied to
various scientific institutions both in our own country, on the Conti-
nent, and in America. The letters received in acknowledgment sufii-
ciently testify as to the appreciation in which they are held.

Professor Oswald Heer, in a paper read before the Geological
Society of London on the Carboniferous flora of Bear Island (lat.
74° 30’), enumerates 18 species of plants, indicating, according to the
author, a close approximation of the flora to that of Tallow Bridge and
Kiltorcan ; also to the Greywacke of the Vosges and the southern Black
Forest, and the Verneuiler shales of Aix, and St. John’s, New Bruns-
wick. He refers this flora to the Lower Carboniferous, and therefore
argues that the line of separation between the Carboniferous and Deyo-
nian must be drawn below the yellow sandstone. ‘The prevalence of
fishes of Old Red Sandstone type in the overlying slates he regards as
an argument to invalidate the conclusion.

Sir Charles Lyell, in the discussion which followed, remarked that
the yellow sandstone of Dura Den in Fife, and of the counties of Cork
and Kilkenny in Ireland, contain fish exclusively Devonian, and others,
such as the genus Coccosteus, which are abundantly represented in the
Middle Old Red Sandstone, and by one species only in the Carboniferous
formation. Theevidence derived from these fish inclined him, there-
fore, to the belief that the yellow sandstone, whether in Ireland or
Fife, should be referred to the Upper Devonian and not to the Lower
Carboniferous.

VIII.—Norss on THE Myonocy or THE Coatt-monpr (Nasva Narica
anv N. Fusca) and Common Martin (Mantes Forva). By H. W.
MacxintosH, B.A.

[Read April 13, 1874.]

Tue following remarks are founded on the dissection of one specimen of
Nasua narica, one of NV. fusca, and two of Martes foina. They all formed
part of the collection in the Dublin Zoological Gardens, and having

Mackintosu—— Votes on the Weel y of the Coati-Mondi, Se.

died during the summer of 1873, were forwarded for examination to
Professor Macalister, who kindly gave me the opportunity of assisting
him in dissecting them.

We noticed the following points of general anatomy :—

There was no recessus pharyngeus, a rudimental bursa pharyngei,
small Eustachian tubes, and black lymphatic glands in WV. nariea ; in N.
fusea the platysma is very strong, running upwards and inwards to
the middle line ; Martes foina resembles JV. nariea in having black lymph
glands.

The facial muscles in NW. narica are ;—

Orbicularis palpebrarum simple, arising from the definite ocular
tendon; levator labii superioris large, arising from the maxilla in front
of the orbit and running dlommamiends and forwards to be inserted ten-
dinously into the upper lip ; levator ale nasi, a very large muscle aris-
ing just above the intra- orbital foramen, and running forwards under-
neath the last-named muscle to be inserted by an expanding tendon
into the dermis of the end of the elongated snout, which it elevates
and lateralises ; its tendon is slightly united to levator labil superioris,
and the large infra-orbital nerve runs parallel to and underneath it ;
levator anguli oris consists of vertical fibres attached underneath the
eye; depressor alee nasi, from the alveolus vertically upwards to the
sides of the alar cartilage; retrahens aurem, very large, with a detached
slip from the fascia of the middle line of the neck; transversus auri-
cule is also large, and atrahens aurem is a strong round bundle of
fibres from the zygoma. ‘The tongue has the usual muscles.

In JV. fusca levator alee nasi and levator labii superioris form a single
muscle ; retractor nasiis enormously developed; there isa double retra-
hens aurem, a single zygomaticus; mandibulo-auricularis is strong ;
there is a transversus depressor auris, and a normal masseter.

The muscles of the head and trunk in J. narica are ;—

Rectus capitis anticus major arising from the five upper cervical
vertebree, and inserted directly into the bulla tympani; rectus capitis
anticus minor is very small, arising from the atlas, and inserted as
usual; digastric, arising from the post-tympanic and paroccipital pro-
cesses, covers the bulla tympani, has an inscription (which is long in
LV. fusca), and is inserted into the posterior third of the mandibular
ramus. ‘The parts of longus colliare not separable. Scalenus anticus
is small and normal; scalenus posticus extends from the four lower
cervical transverse processes to the eight upperribs. The sternohyoid,
sternothyroid, thyrohyoid, and cricothyroid are as usual. In J. fusca,
sternocostalis arises from the two upper sternebers and is inserted into
the first rib; the brachial artery overlies and the brachial nerve
underlies the supracondyloid foramen; the muscles of the back of the
neck are of the ordinary carnivore type; scalenus posticus runs from
the third cervical vertebra to the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
ribs; scalenus medius extends from the sixth cervical vertebra to the
first rib. None of these muscles were examined in the Martin.

R. J, A. PROC., SER. I1., VOL. IL, SCIENCE. H

50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In the fore limbs :—

Trapezius consists in all of three parts, clavicularis (-08*), scapu-
laris superior (-07), and scapularis inferior (05); the first of these arises
from the occiput in the coatis, and from the spine of the axis as well
in the martins, and is inserted into the rudimentary clavicle in NV. narica
and Martes; in WV. fusca it joins cleidomastoid at its insertion into the
clavicle, is united to brachialis anticus, and sends a slip to the humerus;
the superior portion of scapular trapezius arises from the spines of all”
the cervicals except the atlas and from those of the ten upper dorsals ;
it has the usual insertion into the scapular spine, quite separate from
the inferior division ; in WV. nariea it is united at its origin to the clavi-
cular trapezius, but separated at its insertion by trachelo-acromial.
Trapezius scapularis inferior varies somewhat in position in all. In
IV. narica it arises from the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth dorsals, and
is inserted into the posterior edge of the scapula; in NV. fusca the origin
is from the six upper dorsals, and the insertion is into the root of the
scapular spine; finally, in Martes it arises from the second, third,
fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh dorsals, and is inserted into the lower
border of the posterior half of the scapular spine.

Sternomastoid (-08) arises from the presternum in all, is inserted
into the paroccipital process in WV. fusca, and into the paramastoid in the
other three; the two sternomastoids are mesially connivent in the
martins. Cleidomastoid (04) extends from the paroccipital to the
clavicle in JV. fusca, and from the paramastoid to the same place in J.
narica and the martins. Omohyoid was absent in the coatis and ex-
ceedingly slender in Martes. Trachelo-acromial (:05) presents nothing
of importance.

Rhomboid (:07) is indivisible in Nasua and arises from the occiput,
all the cervicals, and the five upper dorsals; the insertion is as usual.
In Martes the occipital is distinct from the major portion at its origin,
which is very far out on the occiput; the latter part arises from the
six lower cervicals and from the two upper dorsals, and is inserted
into the scapular spine along with the occipital segment. eres major
(08) is united at its insertion with the latissimus dorsi in the coatis,
but separate from itin Martes. Teres minor (-01) is small but distinct
in all, with a long tendon of origin and insertion in JV. narica; 1t is In-
serted behind and above scapular deltoid in WV. fusca.

Latissimus dorsi (*23) arises from the dorsal spines (from the sixth
to the tenth in JV. narica, from the eighth downwards in JV. fusea, and
from the third downwards in Martes), from the three lower ribs and
from the lumbar fascia, and has the usual humeralinsertion. Pectoralis
minor was absent in all. Pectoralis major (30) hasa presternohumeral
slip inall; the rest of the muscle (bilaminar in JV. narica, unilaminar in
Martes) arises from the whole length of the sternum, and is inserted into

* The Numbers refer to the weights in V. marica in decimals of an ounce ayoir.

ay =

°

Mackintosu—WNotes on the Myology of the Coati-Mondi, §e. 51

the humerusas usual. In JV. fusca it consists of three parts—one extend-
ing from the entire sternum to the pectoralridge of the humerus, a second
going from the six anterior mesosternal sternebre to the greater
tuberosity of the humerus and tendon of supraspinatus, and the third
arising from the abdominal parietes, inserted below the last, and united
with pectoral quartus. Pectoralis quartus (-14) arises from the cati-
lages of the lower ribs and from the fascia over them, and is inserted in
the axilla in close contiguity with latissimus dorsi (and pectoralis major
in Martes).

Subclavius was absent in all, unless represented by the prester-
nohumeral slip of pectoralis major, which is very constant in carni-
vora. Coracobrachialis was very small, and represented only by the short
variety in the coatis; but in the martins both longus and brevis existed,
arising by a common tendon from the coracoid process; the former was
inserted by a tendinous sling extending from the latissimus dorsi tendon
to the lower third of the humerus, and the latter into the same bone,
above latissimus and separate from it.

Deltoid consists of three parts, clavicular (-07), scapular (-04), and
acromial (-03), as usual. The first of these is only remarkable for its
very low humeral insertion in JV. narica ; the second arises in WV. fusca
from the fascia along the inferior border of the infraspinous fossa, and
in Martes from the outer half of the scapular spine; the third has some
of its fibres continuous with those of brachialis anticus, and shows a
distinct inscription at the point of junction of the two, in UN. narica.
Supraspinatus (-10) and infraspinatus (-9) are normal in all, the former
being the larger. Subscapularis is also normal, and has respectively
three, four, and five tendinous planes in JV. narica, Martes, and LV. fusca.
There was no separate pre-scapular slip in the first two, but in WV. fusca
it was quite distinct, passing down over the tendon of the rest of
the muscle. :

Serratus magnus (‘16) arises from eight ribs and six cervical trans-
verse processes in JV. narica, from nine ribs in JV. fusca, and from seven
ribs and five cervical transverse processes in Martes, and is inserted as
usual. The cervical origin was not recorded in JV. fusca. Serratus
posticus superior arises from the fascia of the back, and is inserted into
the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth ribs in J.
narica, and into the fifth to the fifteenth in JV. fusca. Serratus posticus
inferior is inserted into the three lower ribs in WV. narica.

Biceps (06) is glenoradial in its attachments as usual. Brachialis
anticus (-06) arises from the whole of the external aspect of the hu-
merus, and is inserted into the ulna. ‘Triceps longus (-10) not very
separate from externus in the coatis, though perfectly so in Martes, has
two heads in JV. narica—one from the edge of the glenoid cavity, and the
other from the axillary border of the scapula; the insertion is ole-
cranal as usual; it is fused with triceps externus in the JV. fusca. Triceps
internus and externus (‘!0) are fused in JV. narica, but moderately
separate from one another in the other animals; externus is the larger
of the twoin Martes. Dorsi-epitrochlearis (:05) arises in JV. narica from

52 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

latissimus dorsi and by an inscription from teres major, and from the
former of these two muscles alone, in V. fusca and Martes, it is inserted
as usual into the olecranon. The anconei are united to biceps in JV.
naried; anconeus internus arises from the supracondyloid process in
LV. fusca.

Pronator radii teres (-03) arises from the usual place in all, but
presents a slightly different insertion in each; in WV. narica it is inserted
into the lower three-fourths of the radius, in JV. fusca into the middle
third, and in Martes into the distal half of the same bone ; it was thick
and slightly bilaminer in JV. narica.

Flexor carpi radialis (015) is normal in all. Palmaris longus
(-015) has two heads—one fleshy and the other tendinous in WV.
narica; the insertion is into the palmar fascia in all, and in the
marten it is connected with the superficial abductor minimi digiti ;
in JV. narica there is an accessory palmaris, arising from the upper
third of the forearm, overlying the ulnar flexor of the wrist, and
inserted into the fascia of the palm by a slender tendon. Flexor
carpi ulnaris (03) is bicipital, and is inserted into the pisiform as
usual. The two heads are united at the middle third in WV. fusea.
Flexor digitorum sublimis arises from the flexor digitorum profundis
(just above the annular ligament in Martes), and is inserted by four
tendons into the fascia of the four digits, the pollex not being supplied
by it. Flexor digitorum profundus and flexor pollicis longus (condyloid
part -06, radial -08) are united, have the usual five heads (three
median, one olecranal, and one radial), and send a tendon to the pollex
and to each of the digits; in Martes the pollex receives its tendon from
the central olecranal head. There are four lumbricales in all, one on
the pollical side of each digit tendon. Pronator quadratus occupies
the lower fourth of the fore arm in all.

Supinator radii longus (-04) is a large muscle in all, arising from the
external ridge of the humerus and inserted into the distal end of the
radius. Extensor carpi radialis lengior (-02) and ex. carp. rad. brevior
are quite separate in WV. fusca, and partly soin NV. narica and Martes,
aud have the usual insertions. Supinator radii brevis occupies the upper
two-thirds of the radius in Nasua, and the upper half in Martes, and
has no sesamoid bone in its origin. Extensor digitorum longus (:02)
arises as usual from the outer condyle of the humerus, and is inserted
into the dorsal aspect of each of the four digits. Extensor minimi
digiti (‘01) is in reality an extensor of the third, fourth, and fifth
digits in JV. fusca and Martes, sending a tendon to the dorsal aponeurosis
of each of those fingers; but in JV. narvea there is a separate extensor
tertil et quarti digiti (015), lying in the same groove as extensor
minimi, but distinct from it. Extensor carpi radialis (‘02) has a very
small olecranal origin, and no ulnar one in JV. narica, but is large
and flat in Martes with the usual origin and insertion. Extensor
ossis metacarpi pollicis (about 02) arises in all from the whole length
of the ulnar and interrosseous membrane, and is inserted into the
radial sesamoid of the carpus; it is a large muscle in WV. fusca.

Macxinroso—Wotes on the Myology of the Coati-Mondi, &c. 58

Extensor secundi internodii pollicis et indicis is single-headed in
the coatis and bicipital in the martins, the tendons in the latter uniting
and then diverging to be inserted (as in JV. nasua) into the pollex and
index. In W. fusca the index tendon sends a very fine tendinous slip to
the middle finger; there is also in this animal a thin palmaris brevis
extending over the flexor tendon of the thumb.

The muscles of the fore foot in WV. fusca are—a short abductor pollicis;
an adductor from the front of the carpus; a double abductor indicis,
one head arising from the carpus, and one from the metacarpus, both
uniting to form a single tendon ; a bicipital adductor indicis; a single-
headed abductor and adductor medi; an adductor minimi digiti arising
from the pear-shaped pisiform, and by a slip from the unciform; a
flexor brevis; an abductor minimi digiti, as usual; an abductor and
abductor annularis, also normal. The interossei are normalin JV. narica.
In Martes there are an abductor pollicis, extending from the radial
sesamoid and annular ligament to the pollex; an abductor pollicis and
flexor brevis pollicis, both normal; an abductor minimi digiti, arising
from the pisiform; and an adductor minimi digiti, from the front of
the carpus; a flexor brevis minimi digiti, from the unciform; and an
opponens minimi digiti, which is a dismemberment of the abductor;
there are besides two interossei for each digit.

In the hind limb :—Sartorius (08) in the coatis has a wide origin
from the anterior superior spine of the ilium as usual, and a double
insertion—one the ordinary tibial insertion, and the other into the
patella and border of the condyle of the femur; in JV. fusea the tibial
portion has its upper part attached to gracilis. In Martesit arises from
the angle of the crest of the ilium and from the inferior edge of that
bone, and is inserted into the patella and fascia of the upper extremity
of the tibia along with gracilis.

Psoas parvus (03) is small in JV. narica, and sends a slip to the
lumbo-sacral articulation ; in WV. fusca it is wide and strong, with the
usual attachments, and in Martes it arises from the bodies of the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth lumbar vertebre, and is inserted as usual into
the pectineal line. Jliopsoas (12) is normal in JV. narica; in N. fusca
it is a psoas major, with a small iliac origin; in Martes it arises from
the three lower lumbar vertebrae, is inserted fleshy into the pectineal
line, and by a tendon into the lesser trochanter.

Pectineus (‘04) has the usual origin, and is inserted into the upper
half ofthe femur in the coatis, and into the upper fourth in the martins.
Adduector primus ('09) is normal and quite distinct in Nasua; in
Martes there is a second slip arising from the posterior half of the
horizontal ramus of the pubis, and inserted into the back of the femur
just above the condyles. Adductor secundus (+ adductor tertius -22)
is distinctly bilaminar in WV. narica, but not in the others ; itis attached
as usual. Adductor tertius is separable with difficulty from adductor
secundus, arising in JV. fusca from the spine of the pubis, and having a
narrow insertion into the middle point of the femur. In Martes it isa
small slip arising just in front of the pectineus, and behind the pecti-

io

54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

neal tubercle; its insertion overlies that of pectineus. Quadratus
femoris (:04) arises as usual from the tuber ischii anterior to
the origin of biceps, and is inserted into the intertrochanteric line.
Obturator externus (07) and iuternus (:05) are both present and
separate in all; the superior gemellus is large in WN. narica, but the
inferior is absent; both are present and distinct in JV. fusca, and they
are fused with obturator in Martes.

Agitator caudee (:06) in VV. narica arises from the first caudal ver-
tebra, and is inserted into the lower two-thirds of the outside of the
femur ; it is represented by the caudal origin of the biceps in Martes.

Pyriformis (-05) arises from the third and fourth sacral vertebra,
and is inserted as usual just behind the tendon of the gluteus medius.

Gluteus maximus (07) arises from the gluteal fascia and first cau-
dal vertebra (and from the side of the sacrum as well in Martes), and
is inserted into the great trochanter, and more especially into its pro-
minent lower part in the coatis. Gluteus medius (‘15) is large and
normal. Gluteus minimus (+ gluteus quartus 03) is fused with gluteus
quartus in WV. narica, though separate from it in JV. fusca ; the latter is
absent in the martins. Tensor vagine femoris (-05) is small and normal
in JV. narica, arises from the anterior superior spine of the ilium in J,
fusca, and from the inferior edge of that bone in Martes, and is inserted
into the fascia of the thigh as usual ; it is scarcely separable from gluteus
maximus.

Biceps femoris (°17) arises in Nasua from the tuber ischii, and in
Martes from the first and second caudal vertebree as well, and is inserted
in JV. narica into the upper two-thirds of the leg; in JV. fusca into the
upper half, and in the martin into the fascia of the thigh and upper
half of the tibia. Biceps accessorius (-02) arises along with agitator
caude, and is inserted along with biceps in JV. narica ; it arises along
with the caudal head of semitendinosus, and is inserted into the middle
of the fibulain JW. fusca ; it was not distinct from biceps in the martin.

Semimembranosus (‘11) 1n the coatis is united to adductor primus
except at its insertion, which is tibial as usual; in Martes it is quite
separate, extending from the tuber ischii to the top of the tibia.
Semitendinosus (*11) arises in Nasua by two heads—one from the
tuber ischii as usual, and the other tendinous from the first caudal
vertebra; they unite at the inscription, which is about halfway down
the muscle, and are inserted as usual into the tibia close to sartorius.
There is only the single ischial head in Martes, and the insertion is
into the tibia at the point of junction of the upper and middle thirds.
Gracilis has a wide origin from nearly the whole of the horizontal
ramus of the pubis, and is inserted into the tibia, inseparably from
sartorius in WV. narica, but distinct from, although closely applied to, it
in LV. fusca.

Rectus femoris (:10) has one head, and is moderately separate from
vastus externus (*14), which is normal and distiact from vastus inter-
nus (+ crurzus ‘06), the latter being inseparable from crurzeus. Qua-
driceps extensor cruris presents no feature of importance in Martes, all

Mackintoso— Votes on the Myology of the Coati-Mondi, §e. 5d

its parts being more or less fused. Popliteus (-03) is normal and devoid
of a fabella in NV. narica, with an insertion into nearly the upper half
of the tibia in NV. fusca ; in Martes there is a sesamoid in the tendon of
origin, the insertion is into the upper half of the tibia in one
specimen, and into the upper third in the other (smaller) one.
Gastrocnemius externus (:06) has a fabella, and is inseparable from
the next muscle at its origin in the coatis; there is a fabella in the
origin in the larger of the two martins. Gastrocnemius internus (-07)
has no sesamoid in JV. nartca and Martes, but there is a small one in NV.
fusca. Plantaris (05) has the usual origin and insertion (plantar
fascia) ; there is a sesamoid in its origin in the coatis, but not in the
martins, in which animals this muscle is surrounded by gastrocnemius
externus.

Soleus (-05) is fibular in origin and caleaneal in insertion as usual ;
it is entirely fleshy in Nasua and in one of the martins, in the other,
however, there is a tendinous origin becoming fleshy about half way
down the leg.

Flexor digitorum longus (-04) and flexor hallucis longus (-08) are
both normal, the latter being as usual the larger. They unite to form
a single tendon, which again subdivides to send one tendon to each of
the five digits. Tibialis posticus (-04) arises as usual in Nasua, and is
inserted into the astragalus, scaphoid, and internal cuneiform bones; in
Martes the origin is very high up on the tibia, and the insertion is into
the scaphoid only. Fiexor digitorum brevis (-01) arises from the tendon
of plantaris, and is in fact the fleshy part of that muscle on the sole or
the foot; it sends a tendon to each of the four digits. Flexori longo
accessorius (*02) arises from the calcaneum, and is inserted into the
side of the tendon formed by the union of flexor hallucis and flexor
digitorum.

Tibialis anticus (17) is single and normal in Nasua, but in Martes
there are two separate muscles—one arising a little behind the other
from the top of the tibia; the two tendons are inserted side by side.
Extensor hallucis (-02) arises from the upper half of the tibia, and
has the usual hallucal insertion in Nasua, but is absent altogether in
the martins. Extensor digitorum longus (‘03) arises as usual from the
external condyle of the femur, and sends a tendon to each of the four
digits. Peroneus quinti (-01) brevis (:03), andlongus (-04), present
no deviation from the ordinary carnivore type. Abductor ossis
metarsi minimi digitiis large in all, arising from the under surface
of the caleaneum, and inserted into the base of the fifth metatarsal.
Extensor brevis minimi digiti (:01) is normal in the coatis. In J.
Jusca there is an abductor and an adductor for each digit, adductor
indicis being bicipital. In WN. narica the muscles of the hind foot
are—Adductor hallucis, extending from the head of the middle
metatarsal to the outer sesamoid bone; abductor and flexor brevis hal-
lucis, normal; and interosseous abductor and adductor, each for index;
medius and annularis, and the latter of the two, for minimus, which
has a special abductor ; there is also a special abductor for the hallux.

Or
(ep)

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

1X.—On some Pornts In Brrp Myotocy. By A. Macarisrer, M.B.,
Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Dublin University.

[Read April 27, 1874.]

Tue difficulties in the classification of birds have led many recent
zoologists to seek for special principles of classification whereby to
subdivide that exceedingly compact and natural class; but, except the
skull-classification of Professor Huxley, there has not been anything
proposed more satisfactory than the old Cuvierian arrangement.

The active and observant prosector of the Zoological Society of
London, Mr. A. H. Garrod, has proposed two new points as bases of
classification—one, the arrangement of the nasal bones and their sur-
rounding parts ; the second, the varieties in the muscular system.

The author of the ‘‘ Ornithologiskt System’”’ has used some of these
muscular characters as of taxonomic value; but Mr. Garrod, from an
extensive range of dissections, has tried to use the presence or absence
of some muscles as elements in classification.

The muscles used thus by Mr. Garrod are: Ist, the caudo-femo-
ralis—a muscle which passes from the tail to the linea aspera; 2nd,
the quadratus femoris, which extends from the ischium to the femur,
above the last (this muscle Mr. Garrod calls accessory femoro-cau-
dal; but it is most probably the homologue of the quadratus femoris,
as its nerve arises high up from the roots of the nervus tibialis); 3rd.
the semitendinosus; 4th, the femoral head of the semitendinosus; 5th,
the long muscle (called rectus by Meckel, gracilis by Cuvier, Owen,
and Huxley, but named ambiens by Mr. Garrod).

Mr. Garrod divides birds into two great groups—those with and
those without a rectus femoris. Those with he calls Homalogonati ;
those without he calls Anomalogonati. Among the Homalogonati,
however, he includes the Stork, Pelican, Jabiru, and Ardeide, as well.as
the Owl, Grebes, and Auks, none of which possess such a muscle.

Among the Anomalogonati there is not much of myological varia-
tion. Macrochires have no quadratus nor semitendinosus, and this
Mr. Garrod has noted. Coccygomorphe and Passerinze resemble each
other in having no quadratus but a semitendinosus; but while Cu-
culus has a rectus, and belongs to the next group, the others of the
order do not. If the rectus be of true taxonomic value, the Ardeidee,
Podicipide, Alcide, and Phcenicopteride should be introduced here.

The Homalogonati are more variable. The femoro-caudal is absent
in the Ostrich, Grebe, Otis, and Flamingo; in the last-named we failed
to find a rectus femoris, though Mr. Garrod has found one; so this
muscle appears to be subject to variety. The Pelican, likewise, we
found to have no femoro-caudal, though Sula has one, and also Phala-
erocorax. The quadratus femoris is absent in Parrots, Pelicans,
and Storks, according to Mr. Garrod; but here there are also ele-
ments of variety; for in Pelicanus onocrotalus and Ciconia alba I haye-

MacaristeER—On some Points in Bird Myology, 57

found it present, and while in Seagulls it is absent, in the Albatross it
is present, and it also exists in Sula.

These are but specimens of the result of the application of myolo-
gical varieties for primary taxonomic purposes.

Muscular characteristics have undoubtedly a very great secondary
importance in classification, and as subordinate order and family cha-
racters, none are more important; but they seem to fail utterly when
we take them primarily or alone, and try to frame a system by them.

There are other muscles which may be utilized for these secondary
classificatory purposes, as variable among birds. The iliacus, which is
absent in the Phasianidee (probably in all the Rasores), but present in
Pelargomorphee, Cecomorphe, Aetomorphe, Geranomorphe, &c. A
separate gluteus minimus, distinct from gluteus quartus, is a rarely
present muscle (Lophophprus). The second vasti are also important
bird muscles, and the popliteus, which may be femoro-tibial or fibulo-
tibial. The soleus is also variable in its existence, present in Sula
Mycteria, Ciconia. The plantaris is a constant muscle, and only varies
in the distribution of its extended tendons, which may go to the
second, third, or second, third, and fourth toes. The flexor digitorum
sublimis is very constant in all birds, with its two perforating ten-
dons. The tibialis anticus is also constant, with its two parts, femoral
and tibial. The peroneus longus, which is so constant, winding
round the outside of the knee, and extending into the perforating
flexor of the middle digit, may rarely have no digital extension (Crax) ;
Peroneus brevis is variable; present in the Albatross, Eagle, Rhea,
Heron; but absent in the Stork and Pelican.

Among the forelimb muscles, the infraspinatus is the most variable
in its presence, the muscle usually called such being the teres major ;
it is small, distinct, and ribbon-hke in Lophophorus, Crax, Ithaginis,
and Sula; absent in Tetrapteryx.

The homologues of the shoulder muscles in birds can only be deter-
mined with accuracy by a study of their nervous supply. Those of
the hip muscles are little less difficult.

As Professor Selenka has, in his admirable part of Bronn’s Thier-
reichs, figured the brachial plexus of a bird, I have endeavoured to
do the same for the lumbar and sacral plexus of Zetrapteryx Stan-
leyanus in the woodcut on next page.

R. I. A, PROC., SER. -IJ., VOL. II,, SCIENCE. I

= ee

58 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Lumpar anp Sacra Prexus or Tetrapteryx Stanleyanus.

Us

( POSTERIOR TIBIAL, FROM
LUMBO-SACRAL & 157 SACRAL

TO ISCHIO-FEMORALIS

TOSEMITENDINOSUS

X.— THe Presence oF A Lacnrymo-suGaL Surur® In A Human SKULL,
AND ON ITS CompaRaTIVE Anatomy. By A. Macatisrer, M. B.,
Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Dublin University. (With
Plate 1.)

[Read November 9th, 1874. ]
Tue relation of the processus maxillaris of the jugal bone to the
supraorbital edge of the maxillary is subject to a considerable amount
of variety. In the largest number of ordinary European crania this
process ends at a point vertically over the infra-orbital foramen, or
over the space between the first and second premolar tooth. The fol-

lowing Table shows accurately the relationships of this process, as -

noted in connexion with collateral points in 204 skulls :—

MacatistER—Lachrymo-jugal Suture in a Human Skull. 59
} = les aS r
| ry ote 282 S25 2s 32 st.
| Gee | eas | eas ae 27° Rese
a s- SEs BIS & a ay ae os
lishoore Sak Bas ae BEC Sse
Ss RES aa 53 £8 SEE
i S33 rane ese ) 52 Cas
| Res a = OR BS =
1 = aS
+ |
| Indo-Germanic Skulls 93 24 19 qi i4 7
{
| Turanian 3 5 0 1* es Bas: Bes
|
|
African Pane ea tO 18 Oo 402 = — —
| Australian » | 0 10 Oo a = — --
| American = 9 17 oO |; — — —
| Polynesian and 4
Malay 5 1 11 0 — = =
ee yer | SPE Se SOE TT Te ae ae eT
ToTaL 118 80 11 / 14 7
}

In only one skull of all those examined have I seen the arrangement
referred to in the title of this Paper. The specimen is a male British (?)
skull which I found in the Museum of the Dublin University. There
is no history of the specimen, which is numbered 29 in the collection,
and which, in the late Dr. Ball’s manuscript catalogue, is marked
** Skull purchased.—J. Abell’s.” The skull is a strongly marked one,
with prominent supra-orbital ridges, having on the left side a supra-
orbital foramen, and on the right a groove. From these pass up-
wards and outwards, on each side, deep grooves, wherein lie the
supra-orbital nerve and artery, and this vessel, on the left side,
seems to have ended by dipping into the bone. The nasal bones are
very large and prominent, and there is a high Wormian bone on each
spheno-parietal suture. The exoccipital, on its lower side, sends out flat,
paracondyloid spurs on each side, which overlap the groove for
the occipital artery; but they have no cartilage encrustations, as
in the case described by Uhde (Archiy fiir Klinische Chirurgie,
yui. 1). The alisphenoid has on each side a foramen in the
middle of its temporal crest. The processus tubarius of the ento-
pterygoid (Rebsamen, Monatschrift fiir Ohrenheilkunde, 1868,
No. 3) is unusually extended as a thin lamella, backwards and out-
wards, and projects sharply on the lower surface of the hinder acces-
sory root of the great wing. The side of the spina angularis completes
the articular cavity for the mandible which it has touched. The pala.
tine surface shows some irregularity of suturation; the left horizontal

* A Japanese skull, with an approach to the arrangement here described, but
the hamulus lachrymalis is yery short, and hence there is 0°25” between the malar
and jugal bones.

60 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

plate of the palate at the median suture is only three lines long, from
before backwards, while the right exceeds four lines. There is also a
trace of premaxillo-maxillary suture on this aspect. The ethmoidal
spine of the sphenoid is trefoil-shaped, with two ale minime
(Luschka). There is a carotico-clinoid canal on the right, but only a
stumpy middle clinoid process on the left.

The right malar bone has an exceedingly long maxillary process
extending as far as over the canine tooth, and four lines internal to
the infra-orbital foramen. The root of the process is slightly concave
below, excavated for the orbital head of the levator labii superioris.
Its anterior end is separated from the outer hamulus of the lachrymal
bone by a slender isthmus of the margo-lachrymalis of the maxilla 0°7
of a line broad. This margin directly behind the tip of the malar has
a transverse suture and a small foramen. On this side there is no
sutura infra-orbitalis transversa, but the nasal process of the maxilla
has an oblique vascular groove. The malar is excluded on this as on
the left side from forming the anterior boundary of the spheno-maxil-
lary fissure, as there is a sphenoidal process of the maxilla. On the
left side the processus maxillaris is still more extensive, and stretches
over the whole infra-orbital edge of the maxilla; crossing the margo-
lachrymalis to join internally the end of the crista lachrymalis, it
bridges over an imperfect sutura infra-orbitalis, and stretches in front
of the large external hamulus of the lachrymal bone, with which it
forms a suture of about a line and a half in length. The lachrymal
and malar thus form a complete belt, excluding the maxilla from
forming any part of the brim of the orbit. (Plate 1, fig. 1.)

As will be seen from the Table, such an extreme case of inward
extension seems to be unique; at least I know of no record of such a
condition.

Turning to the comparative anatomy of the processus maxillaris,
we find that in the anthropoids the processus does not extend even as
far inwardsasinman. In the Gorilla (3 skulls) the process falls short
of the infra-orbital foramen. In the Orang (1 skull) it falls still farther
short. Inthe Chimpanzee (1 adult and 5 young skulls) it also falls short.
In Hylobates Siamanga (1 sp.) it extends to the level of the foramen. In
Inuus, Cercopithecus, &c., it falls short considerably, or else stretches
nearly to the level. The only one of the Quadrumanous Primates
wherein I found a lachrymo-jugal suture present was a Rhesus, spe-
cies unknown, in which the large lachrymal bone forms the entire
circumference of the depression for the lachrymal sac, and the long
square malar sends in on each side a processus maxillaris to articulate
with the edge of the former. (Plate 1, fig. 2.)

Among the Platyrrhines there is no trace of such a suture in Ce-
bus, Mycetes, Ateles, or Callithrix. The Marmosets (Hapale) have
the short wide processus maxillaris far from the lachrymal, and
among the Lemurs there is no union or lachrymo-jugal contact in
Tarsius, Lepilemur, Stenops or Lemur.

Among Chiroptera there is no lachrymo-jugal suture in any genus

Macarister—Lachrymo-jugal Suture in a Human Skull. 61

which I have examined. I have failed to find it in Chiromys and
Galeopithecus, as well as in the other Insectivores.

Among Carnivores and Cetaceans no such suture exists ; and, in the
order Rodentia, the lachrymal bone shows a facial as well as an orbi-
tal surface; but the zygomatic process of the maxillary, which in
these is largely developed, intervenes, and no suture occurs in any
form.

In the allied order Proboscidea the lachrymal is small, ento-orbital,
with a tubercle; but the small malar does not reach near to it. In
Hyracoidea the lachrymal is similarly arranged. ;

Among Ungulates the Rhinoceros has the suture very distinct,
superficial. The Tapirs have a very well marked but-shorter suture.
The Horses are similarly but more fully provided.

All Artiodactyles have an extensive facial surface of the lachrymal,
and a long lachrymo-jugal suture; largest, proportionally, in the.
Bovide, smallest in the Deer.

Tylopoda possess a similar suture, but usually shorter and nar-
rower.

In the Pigs the same arrangement obtains, the suture being
largest, proportionally, in the Phacochoerus, smallest in the Peccaries.
In the Hippopotamus the large, thin-walled lachrymal bone unites
by a moderately extensive suture, and sometimes anchyloses to the
malar.

Among the Sirenia the large rough malar rests internally on the
seale-like, small, imperforate lachrymal in the Manatee, or on the
cubical, solid lachrymal in the Dugong.

In Myrmecophaga the slender malar styles have a wide lachrymo-
jugal suture ; indeed, this is the chief attachment of the malar bone.
The Pangolin (Manis and Pholidotus) have the lachrymal fusing so
early with the maxilla as'to be lost in distinctness; but in young
skulls the lachrymal is well above the level of the imperfect zygoma.

Armadillos have a very distinct and wide union of this bone, and
the large lachrymal in Orycteropus expands on the face for a con-
siderabie extent. Bradypus has a distinct lachrymo-jugal suture, as
also is the case in the two species of Cholcepus and in Chlamydophorus.
The lachrymal bone in Sarcophilus has a distinct lachrymo-jugal
union. In Thylacinus it is not so large, but arranged as in the former.
Phascolomys, Didelphys, Macropus, Petaurus, Phalangista, Halma-
turus, &c., all agree in the presence of such a suture.

In my skulls of the Monotremes, Echidna and Ornithorhynchus,
sutural marks have been obliterated, but in Ornithorhynchus I think
I see traces of such lines, indicating a lachrymo-jugal contact.

Thus among Mammals the suture is present in all below the
Hyracoids, absent in all above. In man there is even less tendency
towards its occurrence in lower and aboriginal races than in the
higher ; thus in the Veddahs, Negroes, Esquimaux, Fuegians, Austra-
lians, the maxillo-jugal suture is much more vertical than in the
skulls of more civilized races, and the termination of the malar is
‘almost invariably external to the infra-orbital hole in all these. .

62 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

/ XI.—On two New Specrzs or Pentastoma. By A. Macattster, M.B.,

Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Dublin University. (With
Plates 2 and 3.)

[Read November 9, 1874.]

In dissecting a specimen of Boa tmperator brought home by Dr.
Armstrong (of the Army Medical Service) from South America, |
found in the lung and peritoneal cavity about six specimens of a Penta-
stoma. It resembles the P. proboscrdeum of Rudolphi, which has been
found in the allied species Boa constrictor as well as in Epicrates
angulifer, Lachests sp., and a species of Bothrops, but differs specifically
from the type of P. proboscideum, as wellas from the subtypical varieties
of that species, P. clavatum of Wyman and P. subcylindricum of Diesing.

The specimens measure—the females 45-57mm, the males
19-22mm in length. In breadth the females are 3-3mm at the head,
1:27-2°28mm at the narrowest point which is the hinder fourth, and
about 1°30-2°5mm at the tail. The males in width area little less. The
body is annulated posteriorly, but for the cephalic half the rings are
not very clear; each ring consists of a wide flat belt of surface, with
a slightly chitinized epidermis, and a thicker hypodermis, than that in
the intersegmental zone. The head is convex, rounded posteriorly and
flattened below ; in front and below it projects forward as an anterior
firm ridge, with a thick chitinous integument, a little under whose
edge are the two pairs of hooks. The surface of the body is finely and
rather irregularly ridged in some places, but is devoid of either pro- —
cesses or bristles. On the back of the vertex, 7mm from the front, there
is a small, raised, flatly-conical, median wart, slightly radially ridged
around its margin, but imperforate; in front of this are five or six
other smaller wartlike surface-eminences.

The two pair of hooks are sharply curved, acute, hollow, the inter-
nal cavities extending to near their points: they have each an inferior
basal spur, elongated anteriorly for muscular attachment; each has also
a bilaminar basipodal process, to which also the muscular lamellz are
attached. These hooks are dark brown, and finely longitudinally
striated in some places; each hook is about 0°6-0°28mm in length.

The mouth is elongated, elliptical, with a smooth chitinous peri-
stomial ring, on the level of the bases of the median hooks; it leads
into the scarcely subdivided digestive tract. The cesophagus is thin-
walled, with no proper glandular wall, other than its thin lining
epithelium; it passes over the receptaculum seminis, and between the
two cirrus pouches. It dilates feebly into the stomach, an elongated
sac with longitudinal glandular ridges on its wall, and here and there
papillary processes. The gland cells are spheroidal, deep brown in
colour, and give the digestive canal a deep hue, rendering it visible
through the body wall. The lowest part of the digestive canal, vr the

MacatistER— On two New Species of Pentastoma. 63

intestine, is nearly colourless, thin-walled with slight ridges, slightly
dilated before its anal end, but with no accessory gland. The whole
canal is nearly straight, and the anus is apical. The average diameter
of the intestine is 0°6mm. In none of the specimens was it enclosed
in the tortuosities of the oviduct, nor of the male accessory organs, but
these lie on its ventral side. There is an outer connective coat feebly
separable, and containing a few scattered stellate connective corpuscles ;
then a longitudinal muscular coat of striped fibres, but I could detect
no trace of circular fibres, such as Dr. Harley found in P. multicinctum.*
The mucous membrane has a thin structureless basement raised into the
ridges, and covered with the surface stratum of glandular epithelium.
There was no sign of a corpus adiposum in any of the specimens.
In all the intestinal tract was empty or nearly so.

The body wall consisted of—I1st, an outer structureless chitinous
wall, which showed no traces of pore canals, nor stigmata. 2nd, a very
fine and irregularly distributed hypodermis, containing cells with
branched processes. 3rd, a thick longitudinal stratum of striped fibres;
and mixed with the deeper layer of this, and within it are, at
the extremities, circular fibres. The body cavity within this is lined
by a soft reticular membrane, but I could not detect the pavement
epithelium within, which Harley noticed.

The nervous system consists of a bilobed epipharyngeal nerve
ganglion sending down two longitudinal nerve cords parallel to the
digestive tubes. These seem to send off branches into the body walls,
supplying the muscles. I saw no trace of a hypopharyngeal ganglion,
nor of the double ganglion described and figured by Blanchard in
P. proboscideum. There was no trace of a metameric series of gan-
glia. Thereis no heart nor circulatory system, but a milky corpuscu-
lated fluid lies in the perivisceral cavity. There is no respiratory
system, nor trace of tracheal tubes, so the breathing process is evi-
dently dermal in site.

The hooks appended to the head have muscular bands inserted into
their basipodal processes. Each hook has also a fan-shaped depressor
muscle, which is only a specialized part of the longitudinal muscular
layer of the body wall. . Other fibres from the same source, but forming
with them an angle of 55°, serve for the elevation of the hooks.

The reproductive organs are the only complex structures in these
animals. In the female there is a vulva situated immediately in front
of the anus; sometimes these orifices are so close together, that they
appear to have a common integumental lip around them, but usually
the vulva has a slightly protruding lip of its own. From this ascendsa
slender vagina of 6-12mm in length, ending in the slightly dilated
fusiform uterus, which measures 25-30mm in length, and 3mm at its
widest point. This is thin-walled, and ends above in a narrow oviduct
which ascends at first directly nearly to the head, and there turning back-
ward twists on itself, forming along tortuous closely coiled tube, about

* Proceedings, Zoological Society, 1856, p. 115.

64 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

six times the length of the entire body (not ten times as in P, multi-
einctum). This tube, like the uterus, is transparent, whitish when
empty or faintly cream-coloured when filled with eggs, contrasting
thus strongly in colour with the dark brown digestive tract. It hasa
thin basement layer, a very thin muscular coat of mixed cireular and
longitudinal fibres, not in separate laminee, aud these fibres are striped
(not smooth as Harley found them in P. multicinctum). The tortuous
tube in some of the females was so full of eggs as to distend the entire
body, so that on a section being made, the whole perivisceral cavity
appeared full of eggs. In one specimen, at least 16,500 eggs
existed.

The tortuous oviduct, when traced back to its origin, begins as a
fine tube attached to the medio-ventral wall of the body ; at the second
distinct ring behind the mouth, and on each side of it, is a roundly
ovate sac, full of spermatozoa and granules. The former, are arranged
in bundles or spermaphores, but with no traces of thickened cases.
These sacs have a thin proper wall, and open directly into the oviduct
at its commencement. This commencement is really the point of coa-
lescence of two fine tubes; the ovarian tubes, which arise from the
cephalic end of the ovary, and running a short course, end by uniting
between the ovate receptacula seminis to form the oviduct. The ovary
is a thick-walled single tubular gland, extending from near the tail to
the head, containing material which posteriorly appears simply granular,
but which nearer the ducts becomes more differentiated into rounded
or oval masses attached to a central axis.

The smaller males have a still more highly complicated apparatus.
This organ consists of a large bilobate testis stretching on the dorsal
wall of the body cavity as far as the tail, and lying over the alimentary
canal. Its duct or vas deferens appears at the upper end of the gland,
runs backward towards the tail for a very short extent, and then turns
forwards again looping under the duct of one of the accessory glands.
The vas deferens then divides into two lateral branches, right and left,
which pass outwards and forwards, each ending in an intromittent
organ. The divided extremity of the vas deferens is known as the
annular canal whose relation can be seen in Plate 2, fig. 6. Into each
limb of the annular canal posteriorly there opens an accessory gland.
These are long, tortuous, tubular glands placed one on the right and
ene’ on the left, ventrad of the testis, thick-walled and lying one on each
side of the vas deferens. The right of these crosses over the loop of the
vas. These glands secrete the glutinous material which unites the
filamentary spermatozoa into spermaphore clusters. The concavity in
front of the annular canal is occupied by two lateral elliptical pouches,
contiguous in the mesial line, lying under the digestive tract, and
opening on the surface ventrally in front; these are the cirrus pouches
which contain the intromittent organs. These are tubular, the pro-
longed extremities of the vasa deferentia, and are nearly equal in length
to half the animal’s body. Each of these having preserved a uniform
calibre for most of its extent, ends by suddenly dilating, then narrow-

MacatisteER—On two New Species of Pentastoma. 65

ing to a fine point; by these organs the spermatozoa are conveyed
upward on their long journey to the spermaphores of the female.

As anterior diverticula from these are two lateral thick-walled sacs
each lined with a ridged and processed chitinous membrane. These
accessory sacs are hollow, and their chambers communicate with each
other by a transverse, anterior, annular canal over the cesophagus.
The use of these sacs is unknown. These cirrus pouches and their
accessory parts are much larger than in P. teniordes, where these organs
are small and limited to lateral areas beside the chitin sac- -organs.

The ova were found in several stages of development in some of the
females, from the perfectly undeveloped egg with germ-spot and
vesicle to the bi or multipartite cleft yelk of the fertilized egg. In
some of the latter the spherules were very disproportionate in size,
some six times the size of the others, and the larger always had a ten-
dency to one side or surface of the ovum. The eggs are holoblastic,
and segmentation ends in the formation of a blastoderm. There are
polar groups of cells visible in some ova and a trace of primitive streak,
subdividing the tail end of the egg into two lateral parts. When the
body forms as a granular mass six lateral lobules project downwards
and outwards, two of which unite to form the basis of the antennary
jaws of the head, two form the larval forelimbs, and the hindmost pair
form the hind legs. The first and second pair of these form first, the
hindmost afterwards. In several of the hundreds of ova which I
examined I saw a faint trace of annulation, one or two transverse fur-
rows, indication of a metameric growth. In one embryo which is
obliquely shown (Plate 3, fig. 11) these are indicated (and rather exag-
gerated), and two of the limbs are shown, armed with paired claws. In
the earlier stages before the claws appear the knobs look hike the para-
podia of worms, but a middle transverse joint in each of these limb
knobs is indicated in some of my specimens. ‘Two free embryos fur-
ther developed than any of those enclosed in the egg membranes are
shown Plate, figs. 12and13. In these the larval form is easily recognis-
able. In no stage nor specimen did I see a trace of the simple salivary
gland which exists in P. tenvoides.

The adult hooks are not the descendants of the embryonic limbs,
but seem to indicate segments anterior to the three hmb-bearing
segments of the larva. The extremely complex subsequent-develop-
mental stages I had no means of investigating.

In the above observations I have refrained from quoting from the
classical memoir of Leuckart on the Pentastomide, our chief source
of information on these aberrant arthropods, as I wish to make this
Paper only a record of direct observation.

We may summarize the specific characters of this species thus:
Pentastoma imperatoris, body with 40-45 rings, clearly annulated
behind, more indistinctly in front; head acutely wedge-shaped with
no lateral stigmata, but with several median dorsal warts; hooks
simple with slender basal processes; vulva very clese to the vent; pos-
terior end dilated pyriform, with its narrowest end terminal; stomach

R, I, A. PROC., SER. Il. VOL. II., SCIENCE.

66 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

searcely dilated ; males slightly incurved at the tail; dimensions as
above. i

The other species, P. Aonyeis, of which I have only obtained two
specimens, both females, occurred in the peritoneal cavity of the large
Indian Otter from the river Indus (Aonyx leptonyx var. Mayoi) sent home
by the late Earl of Mayo to the Dublin Zoological Gardens (whose
anatomy I have described in the Proceedings of this Academy, Vol. I.
Series II., Science. p. 539). These parasites measured 17-20mm. in
length, and were straight, elongated, acuminated, with nearly conical
apex and an obtusely truncated head which is 25mm.in width. It is
closely annulated with 30 rings, each of which is sharply defined and
separated from its neighbours by a sharp-edged, square-profiled furrow.
These rings, from being very wide (0‘7mm.) posteriorly, beeome very
narrow in front and cease to be distinct at the head. The mouth has two
lateral chitinous lip-ridges, one on each side. The two pair of hooks are
elongated, acute, with longer basal fulcra than in P. ¢mperatoris (four
times the length of the exserted portion of the hook), but with a much
shorter basal process. There is a single bilobed epipharyngeal nerve
ganglion, and the oviduct, ovary, and digestive tract are arranged on
the same plan as in P. imperatoris.

The surface of the skin is covered over with numerous, irregularly
arranged circular dots with depressed edges ; these are most numerous
about the head and forepart, but become fewer posteriorly. There
were no ova in any forward state of development.

XII.—On tHe Muscutar Anatomy or Cuoormpus Dipacryius. By
H. W. Macrinrosu, B. A. (With Plate 4.)

[Read November 9, 1874. ]

Ty the month of January last, Professor Macalister having purchased* a
fine specimen of Cholepus didactylus from Mr. Gerrard of London,
kindly afforded me the opportunity of studying its anatomy. Notwith-
standing the peculiar habits of this animal, it does not seem to have
received much attention from myologists. The fullest description is that
of Professor Humphry (Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, November,
1869), and even that is incomplete in many points, which, however, is
easily accounted for from the fact of many of the muscles having become
decomposed ; Mr. Galton, in his Paper on Dasypus (Transactions of the
Linnean Society, XXVI.), mentions four of the muscles, and Professor
Meckel is stated by Professor Humphry to have alluded to the muscular
anatomy of this animal, but I have not been able to corroborate this. With
a view to supply this defect as far as possible, we made a thorough ex-
amination of our specimen, and were surprised to find in it many points
of difference from its congener Bradypus, although the identity of

* Ont of the grant of money given to him by the Council of the Royal Ivish
Academy for procuring specimens for examination.

MackintosH—Museular Anutomy of Cholepus didactylus. 67

habits of the two creatures led us to expect a close correspondence in
the arrangement of their muscles. The weights of most of the muscles
are given in decimals of an ounce, in a tabular form at the end of the
Paper (vide p. 78).

In the head, we noticed the Eustachian tube opening as an oblique
pit just in front of the external pterygoid, and placed in front of it was
a distinct depression leading upwards, the termination of which we en-
deavoured to find, but in vain, and hence were unable to surmise its
function. The mucous membrane of the cheek was studded with
rows of papille ; the parotid and submaxillary glands were united, but
no trace of a sublingual existed. Other points of interest in general
anatomy were—the well-developed condition of the stylomaxillary fold
of fascia, which extended along the whole length of the hyoid arch;
the very strong spinoglenoid ligament; the well-developed condition of
the ligaments of Flood and Humphry; a remarkable fibrous band
passing from the front aspect of the humeral trochanter to the anterior
ulnar attachment of the orbicular ligament; the very deep supra-
olecranal pit in the humerus; the limited degree of rotation of the
radius (one-fifth of a circle); the absence of the round hgament of the
hip joint, as is usual in sloths ; the strong mucous ligament of the knee
joint; and the curious arrangement of the ligaments in the ankle joint.
Of these the external lateral extended from the fibulain three slips, an
anterior attached to the outer tubercle of the astragalus, a middle at-
tached to the body of that bone, and a posterior to the calcaneum, a
deep slip of which dips into the base of the astragalus; a large number
of fibres extend between these two bones and form an astragalo-
ealcaneal ligament; the internal lateral is strong and thick, running
from the inside of the internal malleolus to the astragalus; the anterior
ligament is weak.

‘The principal muscles of the head were :—

Massetericus clothes the descending process of the jugal, and be-
comes fused near its insertion with temporalis, which was normal.

Buceinator had its fibres running mainly in an anterior direction.

Zygomaticus arises from the front of the jugal process.

In the neck and trunk we found the following arrangements :—

Splenius, with an occipital insertion, has its origin from the trans-
verse processes of all the cervical vertebrae, and from the front of com-
plexus, which has a similar cervical origin, but includes the first
dorsal also, and is inserted into the occiput.

Longus colli is remarkable only for its strength.

Obliquus colli superior arises from the transverse processes of the
four upper cervical vertebra, aud is inserted into the front of the atlas,
whilst its inferior part extends from the first three dorsals to the trans-
verse process of the seventh cervical.

Rectus colli stretches from the second and third dorsals to the
atlas.

Rectus capitis anticus major was curiously arranged, taking origin

68 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

from the three upper dorsals and four lower cervicals, and being in-
serted into the basioccipital.*

Rectus capitis anticus minor extended from the transverse process
of the atlas to the lateral ridges of the same bone, close beside the in-
sertion of major.

Rectus capitis posticus major and minor were both normal in their
attachments, but feebly developed, the latter being the stronger of the
two.

Rectus capitis lateralis was moderately strong.

Obliquus capitis inferior was enormous, a condition, probably, to
be correlated with the necessity for combined lateral and downward
motion of the head.

Scalenus medius, with scalenus posticus inseparable from it, arises
from the transverse processes of all the cervical vertebre except the
atlas, and is inserted into the first and second ribs, some of the fibres
belonging to the former being continuous with the fibres of origin of
rectus thoracicus lateralis, which from this origin passes down to be
inserted into the eighth and ninth ribs; it is placed anteriorly to ser-
ratus magnus and externally to rectus abdominis, which is inserted
into the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth sternal ribs, and has its fibres
directed upwards and slightly outwards, overlapping the normal inter-
nal intercostals.

Sternocostalis arises from the presternum and four upper mesosternal
sternebre, and is inserted into the second, third, fourth, fifth, and
sixth ribs.

Iliocostalis sends a tendon to every rib, and has a cervical prolonga-
tion, as has longissimus dorsi, which is very large.

Serratus posticus inferior arises from the lumbar fascia, and is in-
serted into the ribs, from the thirteenth to the twenty-third inclusive.

Sternomastoideus and cleidomastoideus are curiously related to one
another ; they are both inserted into the paramastoid process, separated
only by the spinal accessory nerve; the former arises from the an-
terior surface of the sternum, and from the mesoscapular segment
between the clavicle and the sternum. On its way upward it detaches
a slip from its hinder border, which runs into the cleiodomastoid
(origin middle of clavicle), which in turn gives off a slip to the superior
trapezius.

Thus it will be seen that both muscles are distinctly represented
here, the only trace of union being the transverse band. In Arctopi-
thecus a single muscle exists arising from the sternum, but betraying its
compound nature by its two slips of insertion into the paramastoid; in
Bradypus there is manifestly a sternocleidomastoid, for here the origin

* A somewhat similar, but more restricted origin (sixth, seventh, and eighth
eervicals) exists in Arctopithecus Blainvillei. Vide Proceedings Royal Irish Aca-
demy, Vol. I., Series II. (Science), page 619.

+ This muscle was also well developed in Arctopithecus (Coc. cit.).

MacxintosH—Wuscular Anatomy of Cholepus didactylus. 69

is from sternum, first rib, and clavicle. Unfortunately this muscle was
destroyed in Professor Humphry’s specimen, so that we were unable
to determine whether the above peculiarity was an individual or a
generic one. There was no trace of the slip from the cleidomastoid to
the trapezius in either Bradypus or Arctopithecus.

Omohyoideus was absent, and trachelo-acromialis (omo-atlanticus of
Professor Haughton), though it shares the same fate in Bradypus and
Arctopithecus, is represented in Choleepus by a very slender band of
muscle arising from the paramastoid process, and inserted, not into the
acromion process of the scapula, but into the fascia over the supra-
spinatus muscle in front of the insertion of the occipital rhomboid.

Sternohyoideus and sternothyroideus were separate from one
another (as in Bradypus, but not as in Arctopithecus), the former aris-
ing from the presternum and first rib, the latter from the presternum
alone, underneath the sternohyoid, which is inserted into the ten-
dinous inscription of the digastric fusing with its anterior portion ;
the sternothyroid is inserted as usual into the side of the thyroid car-
tilage.

Digastricus, which, as in Arctopithecus, only merits its name from
the tendinous inscription placed opposite the angle of the mandible,
arises from the stylohyal bone (tympanohyal in Arctopithecus), and is
inserted into the lower jaw as usual.

Mylohyoideus extends along the whole length of the mandible.

Geniohyoideus is normal.

Hyoglossus runs from the ceratohyal and thyrohyal to the tongue,
and styloglossus to the same organ from the former of those two bones.

The muscles in connexion with the Fore limb were arranged as
follows :—

Trapezius was with difficulty separable into superior and inferior
portions; .the former, which included the clavicular segment as well,
arose from the middle line of the neck and from the occiput, and was
inserted into the lower border of the scapular spine as far down as the
origin of deltoid; the inferior part extended from the four upper dorsal
spines to the spine of the scapula.

Rhomboideus is divisible into three parts, (a) major, arising from

_the two lower cervical and three upper dorsal vertebree, inserted into
the whole vertebral edge of the scapula, and completely covering the
small thin (b) minor, which extends from the sixth and seventh ceryi-
cal vertebree to the scapula opposite to the spine; (c) occipital, quite
separate from the other two, arising, as its name imports, from the
occiput and inserted into the superior angle of the shoulder blade.*

Teres major is a large muscle which arises, as usual, from the sea-
pula, and has the normal humeral insertion separate from, but close to
the attachment of latissimus dorsi, which has an extensive origin from
the spines of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh dorsal vertebra,

* This portion was absent in Arctopithecus and Bradypus.

70 Proceedinys of the Royal Irish Academy.

from the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth ribs, and from the lumbar
fascia.

Teres minor is inseparable posteriorly from infraspinatus.

Pectoralis minor is not represented, but its absence is compensated
for by pectoralis major, which consists of three parts; the first of these
arises from the presternum, and is inserted into the pectoral ridge,
which occupies about the upper two-fifths of the humerus ; the highest
fibres of origin are the lowest fibres of insertion, and the whole hume-
ral attachment is about four times as long as the sternal; the second,
or bicipital part, arising from half an inch of the sternum below the
last, runs parallel to it, and is inserted into the inner border of the
flexor of the forearm, opposite the level of the supracondyloid foramen;
the third segment, arising from the whole length of the sternum, is
composed of two lamine, the superior being inserted underneath the
attachment of the first part, and equalling it in length, the deeper layer
going to the outer part of the head of the humerus and to the capsule
of the shoulder joint, with the anterior thoracic nerve crossing its
upper border and distributed to its superior aspect. No trace of this
remarkable arrangement seems to exist, either in Bradypus or Arcto-
pithecus, for the great pectoral in both is merely bilaminar, not even
presenting the presterno-humeral slip, though in the latter genus the
deep lamina of the third part sends a slip to the capsule of the shoulder
joint. It will be interesting to know if the curious insertion of the
second part be constant in Cholospus; Professor Humphry was not able
to determine its arrangement in his specimen.

Pectoralis quartus (brachio-lateralis, Professor Humphry) arises from
the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs, and is inserted into the
head of the humerus.

Coracobrachialis presented voth the long and short varieties, the
former arising from the coracoid process and being inserted into the in-
ner edge of the humerus, behind the supracondyloid nerve; the latter,
with a similar origin, is inserted into the humerus, below and behind
the tendons of latissimus dorsi and teres major. Mr. Galton describes
it as being thin, cord-like, and of uniform size, but does not say to
which variety it belongs.

Subclavius extended from the first rib to the inner border of the
sternal end of the clavicle and to the acromion process, as was also the
case in Mr. Galton’s specimen.

Deltoideus is divisible, as usual, into three parts: scapular, acro-
mial, and clavicular; the first and largest of these arises from the spine
of the seapula, and is inserted into the deltoidal crest on the humerus;
the second part arises from the acromion process and outer border of
the clavicle, and is inserted into the radius along with the superficial
part of the biceps; the third has a similar origin to the second, and is
inserted along with, but free from, the first. Here again we have a
considerable difference from the arrangement in Ai, where the muscle is
not tripartite at all, though in Arctopithecus it supphes an accessory
head to the biceps.

Mackintosu — Muscular Anatomy of Cholepus didactylus. 71

Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and subscapularis presented no fea-
tures of interest, except that the weight of the latter equalled the com-
bined weights of the two former; a nearly similar condition occurred
in Arctopithecus.

Subscapulohumeralis was very long and quite distinct.

Serratus magnus, which had no separate levator scapule portion,
arose from the upper six and from the eighth ribs, as well as from the
three lower cervical transverse processes, and was inserted into the
scapula, as usual.

Biceps humeralis is a curious muscle, but by no means so complex
as in Arctopithecus. It has a simple, long tendon of origin from the
scapula, which expands into two bellies, the superior of which joins
the acromial deltoid, and is inserted into the tubercle of the radius, as
usual; the deeper segment is inserted into the coronoid process of the
ulna, along with, and inseparable from, brachialis anticus, which arises
from the outer aspect of the humerus external to the insertion of the
deltoid, and extending half-way up the bone. This arrangement
appears to present us with anothcr variety in the already numerous
modifications of attachment of biceps in the Edentata.

Dorso-epitrochlearis (Tricipiti accessorius) is a large muscle arising,
as usual, from triceps, and inserted entirely into the supracondyloid
process. Mr. Galton describes it as being thin, cylindrical, rolled on
itself, and inserted chiefly into the anterior ridge of the supracondyloid
foramen, but slightly into the humerus above the foramen and below
the insertion of coracobrachialis; there was no forearm prolongation.

Triceps longus, externus, and internns, are all normal, their heads
being more or less fused.

Anconeus externus is small, and can only be artificially separated
from triceps longus, and anconeus internus (epitrocles-anconeus) is
in the same condition with regard to its insertion, though quite dis-
tinct at the origin. It was present in Mr. Galton’s specimen, but is
not described.

Pronator radii teres had a similar origin in our specimen and in
Professor Humphry’s, viz., above the internal condyle of the humerus,
but the insertions differed considerably. Professor Humphry found it
to be attached to the lower end of the radius opposite to the insertion
of supinator longus, whereas, in our specimen it fused with the lower
part of that muscle, which consists of two parts—a superficial which
arises from the deltoid, but is distinguished from it by a tendinous
inscription, and was inserted into the fascia of the front of the wrist,
and a deep segment which is enormously developed, arising from the
humerus outside the musculospiral ridge and extending as far down as
the condyle, and inserted into the radius for the lower four-fifths of its
length. Professor Humphry’s specimen resembled ours in being
double, in the insertion of the superficial portion, and the origin of the
deeper ; he describes the origin of the former part as being high up on
the humerus, not from the deltoid, whilst the insertion of the deeper seg-
ment was into the end of the radius, much as in man; this arrange-

72 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ment agrees more closely with that found in Arctopithecus than it does
with the condition in our specimen.

Pronator quadratus has a broader attachment to the ulna than to
the radius, the reverse apparently obtaining in Professor Humphry’s
specimen, though it is not quite clear whether his description refers to
Unau or to Ai.

Flexor carpi radialis extends in both specimens from the inner
condyle of the humerus to the scaphoid and flexor digitorum profun-
dus and sublimis, and palmaris longus presented the same features in
the two. The two latter muscles are fused for the upper part of their
course, but near the distal end the former of the two becomes separate
as a small muscle ending in two tendons to the two digits; the main
part of the muscle ends also in two tendons to the digits. The first
named of the three is quite distinct, arising from the outer condyle of
the humerus, from the forearm bones, and from the tendons of the radial
and ulnar flexors of the wrist, as well as from the tendon of palmaris ;
it also sends two tendons to the terminal phalanges of the digits.

Flexor pollicis longus was not represented in our specimen, and
Professor Humphry makes no mention of it.

Flexor carpi ulnaris is a curious muscle, consisting of two parts;
the upper one of these arises from the back of the internal condyle and
from the hinder border of palmaris (?), becomes tendinous at the mid-
dle of the forearm, and is inserted into the outer border of the radius
posterior to and confluent with the insertion of supinator longus, and
covering over the attachment of extensor carpi radialis; it is also in-
serted into the fascia of the back of the forearm; the deep part, which
appears to be the normal ulnar flexor, arises from the olecranon, from
the lower border of anconeus, and from the whole inner edge of the
ulna, and is inserted into the pisiform bone. Professor Humphry also
describes it as consisting of two parts, but the upper one, whilst in the
main agreeing as to its origin with the foregoing description, becomes
fused with supinator longus, and is inserted into the palmar fascia, pisi-
form, and margin of the ulna.* The deep part had the same arrange-
ment as in our specimen. The separation into two parts of this muscle
in Cholospus is foreshadowed in the Three-toed Sloth, where the origin
is bicipital and the two parts remain separate for a long distance, but
there is no tendency to union between it and supinator longus.

Supinator brevis is large, inserted into the upper one-third of the
radius, and pierced by the posterior interosseous nerve, which forms
much the larger part of the radial nerve.

Extensor carpi radialis is single, arising from the outer humeral
condyle and from the radius, and ending in two tendons, one being at-
tached to the upper two-thirds of the second metacarpal bone, and the
other to the proximal end of the third metacarpal, Professor Humphry

* It is possible that this may be a clerical error, as the ulnar attachment of sup.
long. is not mentioned by Professor Humphry.

Mackintosn—Muscular Anatomy of Cholepus didactylus. 73

only found the condylar origin, and the insertions of both tendons was
into the proximal parts of the metacarpals.

Extensor digitorum longus presented no feature of interest, extend-
ing from the onter condyle and from the ridge on the back of the
radius to the terminal phalanges of the digits. The radial origin is not
mentioned by Professor Humphry.

Extensor minimi digiti (auricularis) arises from the intermuscular
septum on the back of the forearm, being traceable as far as the upper
third; the tendon runs through a separate sheath in the annular liga-
ment, expands on the ulnar side of the third digit, and joins the. ten-
don of the long flexor. This muscle is not described by Professor
Humphry.

Extensor carpi ulnaris arose in both specimens from the iol
condyle, olecranon and ulna, and divided into two parts, one of which
becomes tendinous and is inserted into the proximal dorsal aspect
of the first phalanx of the third digit; the second segment, which is in
fact an ulnaris quinti, ends in atendon which joins that of the extensor
of the little finger at its insertion. In Professor Humphry’s specimen
the muscle ended in two tendons running to the third and fourth
digits.

Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis (extensor pollicis primus) arose
in both from the greater part of the posterior surface of the ulna, and
was inserted into the trapezium.

Extensor secundi internodii pollicis was absent.

Extensor indicis was normal, running in both animals from the
middle of the ulna to the rudimentary second digit.

Interossei are arranged somewhat similarly in both. In our spe-
cimen the first and second act as abductor and adductor annularis, re-
spectively; the third placed between the third and fourth metacarpals
runs to medius; the fourth and fifth between the second and third me-
tacarpals go to medius and index, respectively; the sixth, which is
bicipital and placed between the first and second metacarpals, goes to
index, whilst an additional one, which does not seem to have existed
in Professor Humphry’s specimen, extended from the pisiform bone
to the ulnar side of the second metacarpal.*

Lumbricalis single, arising between the tendons of flexor di-
gitorum, divides into two parts, one going to the radial and one
to the ulnar side of each digit, the latter attachment apparently not
existing in Professor Humphry’s specimen.

We found a tendinous band passing from the tip of the rudimen-
tary fifth digit to the first phalanx of the fourth.

* Professor Humphry arranges them thus:—One between Met. J. & II. to the
radial side of the extensor tendon of digit II.; one between Met. IV. & III. to
ulnar side of extensor tendon of digit III.; one between Met. II. & III. on palmar
aspect passing to ulnar side of extensor tendon of digit II.; and one on the dorsal
aspect to the radial side of the extensor tendon of digit III. There is also an ad-
ductor of digit II. from pisiform to ulnar side of first phalanx (which seems to
represent the ‘‘ additional’? muscle mentioned above). ‘There is also a second set
of ‘‘phalangeal” interossei, two in number, from the apposed sides of the two
second phalanges to the apposed sides of the two extensor tendons.

R, I. A. PROC., SER. II. VOL. Il., SCIENCE. L

74 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In the hind limb :—

Sartorius consists of two parts, primus and secundus; the
former arises from the anterior superior spine of the ilium, and by a
few fibres from the abdominal parietes, and is inserted into the
inner side of the femur for the third one-fourth of its length ; it is sup-
plied by the external cutaneous nerve of the lumbar plexus. Secundus
arises from the middle of Poupart’s ligament and from the abdominal
wall, and runs to the upper point of quadrisection of the tibia. This
latter portion was not found at all by Professor Humphry, though his
description of the former division agrees closely with the above arrange-
ment. In Bradypus and Arctopithecus there is but a single origin,
which, however, takes in both the parts above mentioned (ilium and
Poupart’s hgament), but the insertion is double, into femur and tibia,
though the latter insertion did not exist in Professor Macalister’s
specimen.

Psoas parvus presents nothing remarkable, arising from the five
lower dorsal vertebre, and being inserted into the pectineal tubercle.

Psoas magnus is separable with difficulty from the normal Ilacus,
and has a coextensive origin with psoas parvus.

Pectineus stretches from the pectineal tubercle to the upper half of
the femur. The arrangements in Professor Humphry’s specimen are
substantially the same as these.

The three adductors are also normal and correspondingly arranged,
primus being quite separate, secundus not divisible into two lamine, and
inserted into the middle of the femur, and tertius, extending from the
horizontal ramus of the pubis to the lower point of trisection of the
femur, or to the condyle, as in Professor Humphry’s specimen.

Quadratus femoris is normal, agitator caude absent, as is the case
also with obturator internus, but its non-appearance is compensated
for by obturator externus, which consists of two parts, the upper aris-
ing from the horizontal ramus of the pubis near the acetabulum, the
lower, which is penniform, taking origin from the whole obturator mem-
brane, and both the inside and outside of the horizontal ramus of the
pubis.

The gemelli are present and distinct.* Gluteus maximus is a fan-
shaped muscle arising from the fascia over the side of the sacrum and
of gluteus medius, and from the tuber ischii; it is inserted half way
down the outside of the femur.

Pyriformis is very separate, arising from the front of the sacrum
inside the pelvis, and inserted into the great trochanter, fused with
that of gluteus medius, which arises as usual from the iliac fossa, and
is overlapped by gluteus quartus both at origin and insertion.

Gluteus minimus exists as a very fine band crossing the back of
the capsule of the hip joint, from the margin of the acetabulum to
the great trochanter, underneath pyriformis.. Gluteus quintus is

* There was a double obturator externus in Arctopithecus, but a single one in
Bradypus.

~

MackinrosH—Wuscular Anatomy of Cholepus didactylus. 75

absent as is tensor vaginse femoris, but iliocapsularis is present as a
small muscle, extending from the anterior inferior spine of the ilium
to the capsule of the joint. None of these muscles are alluded to by
Professor Humphry.

Biceps femoris agrees with what appears to be its general condition
among Edentata, in consisting of two parts, one, representing the nor-
mal muscle, arising from the tuber ischii and inserted into the head of
the fibula, and upper third of the tibia, the other taking origin from
the whole length of the femur, and inserted into the second and third
fourths of theinner edge of the tibia. Professor Humphry found some
fibres running from the latter portion to join semitendinosus aad
gracilis, while the rest of it formed a sheath for the calf of the leg, and
was inserted into the edges of the two bones of the fore leg, a condition
which approaches very closely to that obtaining in our specimen, as is
shown in Plate 4,* which represents more particularly the relations
of biceps to the double insertion of gracilis; the pannicle is also well
seen running in behind the origin of iliacus.

Bicipti accessorius is absent.

Semimembranosus is large, running from the whole internal border of
the tuber ischii to be inserted into the tibia, above the attachment of
semitendinosus, which has no inscription (as was also the case in Pro-
fessor Humphry’s specimen), arises along with the ischial portion of
biceps, and is inserted along with the inner half of gracilis, which con-
sists of two parts arising in common from the symphysis pubis; the
external portion is inserted into the internal aspect of the tibia; the
second joins the ischial biceps, and is inserted into the fibula and fibular
fascia, connected also with semitendinosus. In Arctopithecus this
muscle is single, but the insertion embraces all the parts described
above; in the specimen of Bradypus, dissected by Dr. Macalister, it
was also single, but the insertion was only into the tibial condyle,
whilst in the Ai, examined by Professor Humphry, the main details
corresponded to the arrangement in Unau. A considerable degree of
coalescence obtains in quadriceps extensor cruris rectus, being but
slightly separable from the two vasti and crureeus, which are completely
fused.

Popliteus is normal with a large fabella in its tendon of origin,
with which in Professor Humphry’s specimen soleus is connected by
a thin muscular slip, the rest of the muscle arising from the upper part
of the fibula; we could not find any trace of the former head, and the
latter pereuded over the whole fibula ; the insertion in both was into
the calcaneum.

Gastrocnemius externus arises rather higher up than usual, has no
fabella, and is inserted by two (?) tendons into the calcaneum ; its ten-
don is crossed by that of gastrocnemius internus at the lowest point of

* Which is a camera lucida copy of Professor Macalister’s ad naturam sketch.
Similar arrangements exist in Arctopithecus, Bradypus, Manis, Cyclothurus, Myrme-
cophaga, Tamandua.

76 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

quinquesection of the leg, the latter tendon going to be inserted into
the os calcis external to the former, and quite separate from it; the
origin of internus is from the lower back portion of the femur and is

devoid of a fabella. A similar arrangement is described by Professor

Humphry, with the exception of the two tendons of insertion of
externus.

Plantaris is not represented in either, though Professor Humphry,
judging by the arrangement in Cyclothurus, seems to think that it is
involved in gastrocnemius externus, and regards the popliteal slip of
soleus as correspoding to the external portion of the gastrocnemius in
Cyclothurus. It was largely developed in Arctopithecus.

Flexor digitorum longus and Flexor hallucis longus are fused, but
divide into three tendons - before reaching the ankle joint ; ; one tendon
goes to each digit and receives the tendon of the combined tibialis
anticus and extensorlongus. Professor Humphry in his description of
flexor digitorum says that it arises from the tibia, fibula, and slightly
from the popliteal sesamoid, the tibial portion being deep and covered
by the fibular part, as well as by tibialis posticus ; the former of these
represents the flexor of the fingers and the latter that of the thumb.
The arrangement is more complex in Arctopithecus, where we find flexor
digitorum existing as a tricipital muscle taking origin from the upper
and back part of the tibia, from the middle of that bone, and from the
greater part of the fibula and external lateral ligament of the knee, and
receiving the tendon of plantaris; flexor hallucis arises from the fibula
and interosseous membrane, and unites with it, the two subsequently
dividing into three tendons. The first of these origins of flexor digitorum
is alone described by Professor Macalister in Bradypus, and Dr.
Humphry found in that animal that it consisted of three parts repre-
senting respectively plantaris, flexor digitorum, and flexor hallucis.

Flexor digitorum brevis arises from the caleaneum, and is inserted
into the sheath of the flexor tendon of the middle digit. Professor
Humphry found a totally different arrangement, for this muscle in
his specimen was in three parts, one bicipital from entocuneiform and
os calcis, the other two from os calcis; they all terminate in the
sheaths of the flexor tendons.

Flexori longo accessorius is very large, arising from both sides of
the calecaneum and inserted chiefly into the tendon of the outer toe ;
it was continuous with soleus in Professor Humphry’s specimen.

Tibialis posticus is arranged quite differently in the two specimens.
In ours it was perfectly normal, extending from the tibia to the
entocuneiform ; in Dr. Humphry’s it consisted of two parts, the ten-
don of the larger of which runs behind the wmner malleolus, sends a few
fibres to the entocuneiform, but is mainly attached to the second meta-
carpal ; the tendon of the smaller internal portion runs in a separate
channel in the malleolus, and passing over the inner cuneiform, becomes
continuous with a portion of the short flexor of the fingers, whose ten-
don blends with that of flexor brevis to the fourth digit. The arrange-
ment in Ai agrees in the main with that in our specimen. Tibialis

by A>
4

MackxinrosH—IJuscular Anatomy of Cholepus didactylus.

anticus and extensor hallucis occupy a very curious position; their
origins, which are slightly separable from one another, extend down the
whole front of the tibia. and the lower two-thirds of the anterior bor-
der of the fibula, and becoming perfectly fused in front of the leg; the
tendon formed by the two bellies winds round the ankle joint and is
inserted into the front of the flexor of the middle toe, thus converting
these two powerful muscles into flexors. Here again Dr. Humphry’s
description, so far at least as the origin is concerned, differs largely
from ours. He found the former of the two to consist of three parts,
one arising from the upper half of the tibia, one from the middle of the
fibula (extensor hallucis), and a third from the lower front part of the
fibula and from the malleolus ; this latter crosses the ankle to be in-
serted into the entocuneiform bone and base of first metatarsal, but
apparently quite separate from the rest of the muscle, whose two parts
unite into a tendon which subsequently divides into three going to the
flexor tendons of the three digits; the two latter segments appear to
represent in their origins the entire fibular part in our specimen, but
we found no trace of the curious insertion of the third portion, nor yet
of the threefold attachment of the tendon from the first and second.
The tricipital origin also obtains in Arctopithecus and Bradypus, but
the insertion is into the entocuneiform and metatarsals.

Extensor hallucis brevis is a small muscle extending from the
lowest one-tenth of the fibula to the rudimental hallux.

Extensor digitorum brevis arises from the front of the tarsal
bones, and its three tendons are inserted into the deep surfaces of the
tendons of extensor longus. The origin in Professor Humphry’s
specimen included the proximal parts of the metatarsals, as well as the
tarsals; the insertion was into the terminal phalanges of all the digits.

Transversalis pedis extended from the external metatarsal to the
base of the first phalanx of the inner toe, to which Dr. Humphry adds
a second insertion into the distal end of the first metatarsal.

Extensor digitorum longus is a small muscle sending one tendon
to each of the three digits; it supplied only the third and fourth digits
in Professor Humphry’s specimen.

Peronzus longus arises from the back of the fibula, and from the
popliteal sesamoid in our specimen, and is inserted into the base of the
fourth metatarsal, with slight attachments to the other three;
peroneus quinti was absent, and we could find no trace of p. brevis,
though it is described by Professor Humphry as extending from the
malleolus to the base of the fifth metatarsal; p. tertius is well deve-
loped in both, running from the front edge of the fibula to the fifth
metatarsal, with fibres to the fourth, as well as in Professor Humphry’s
specimen.

Abductor interni digitiin our specimen stretches from the internal
plantar sesamoid to the sheath of the flexor tendon of the inner digit.

The interossei are well developed, but present no modification of
any great importance, two being attached to each extensor, one on
each side,

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

Table of Weights of Muscles of Cholepus didactylus.

HEAD AND TRUNK.

Massetericus ne
Temporalis t ; poe
Digastricus .. sen . 0:09
Splenius . . SS ESS . 0:06
Sternomastoideus . 0:08
Cleidomastoideus. . - . 0.05
Tracheloacromialis. . . 0°02
Sternohyoideus . . 0:09
Sternothyroideus . 0:04
Fore Lins.
Trapezius inferior . . 0:09
Trapezius clayicularis } 0-20
‘Trapezius superior Lous
Rhomboideus major . 018
Rhomboideus minor = 20:08
Rhomboideus occipitalis - 0°03
Hlerespia|OLuacsten s-tite, S5) dented seats Olle
latissimus dorsi . . . . . «© 1:24
Teres minor . 3°05
presternohumeralnot weighed
Pectoralis ) bicipital slip. . . . 0°12
major ) superficial rd part. . 0°51
deep 3rd part. . 0°23
Coracobrachialis longus . 0°02
Coracobrachialis brevis 3 0:01
Subclayius : not weighed
Deltoideus acromialis . 3 0720
Deltoideus scapularis . . 0°26
Deltoideus clavicularis . 0:03
Supraspinatus EOL
Intraspinatus. 0212
Subscapularis . 031
Subscapulohumeralis . ; . 0:07
Serratus magnus, superficial . . 0°38
Serratus magnus, deep . 10211
Biceps brachii : . 0:08
Brachialis anticus . 0:10
Dorsoepitrochlearis . 0-16
Triceps longus 0°20
Triceps internus \ 0°37
Triceps externus
Anconeus externus. . 0-02
Anconeus internus . 0.03
Pronator teres 0°17

Supinator longus, deep ; 0
Supinator longus, superficial 0
Pronator quadratus a (9 ve O
Flexor carpiradialis . . . . . 0°
Flexor digitorum profundus. . . 0
Flexor digitorum sublimis 0
Palmaris longus . 0

HMOondosoor
bo b Or Gy OF Or bo

Flexcr carpi ulnaris . 006
Supinator brevis . 0-68
Extensor carpi radialis . 0-09
Extensor digitorum longus . 0:07
Extensor minimi digiti - 0:05
Extensor carpi ulnaris . 210509
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis - O-OL
Extensor indicis . : so 0 WADE
Hinp inne
Sartorius primus . 0°26
Sartorius secundus . - 0:09
Psoas parvus. - 0-13
Psoas magnus - 0-24
ta Cusseteme renmes . O44
Pectineus . ‘ 020
Adductor primus. = Jie OZ
Adductor secundus. . . . . . 0:17
Adduetor tertius. . 0:17
Quadratus femoris . . . - 0°04
Obturator externus . - 0:23
Gemelli eater 0°04
Gluteus maximus . , 0°41
Gluteus medius . 0°27
Gluteus quartus . . 0710
Gluteus minimus not weighed
Pyriformis sere) eemOmlall
Ilocapsularis 7 eaee oe - 0-01
. -_) ischiatic part ORT
Jenga) suman: femoral part - 0°51
Semimembranosus . - 0°28
Semitendinosus . . 6:08
s7:. | inner part . 0718
Gapailts j outer part . 0°20
Rectus femoris - 0:23
Vastus externus
Vastus internus . 0°26
Crurzeus
Popliteus . . 0:07
Soleus . . 0:14
Gastrocnemius externus ¢ . 0°08
Gastrocnemius internus 5 Wale
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexor fielines : 2 WES
Flexor digitorum brevis . not weighed
Flexori longo accessorius . . 0:08
Tibialis posticus . . 0:07
Tibialis anticus :
Extensor hallucis longus } eee
Extensor hallucis brevis : . 0.05
Extensor digitorum longus . . 0:08
Extensor digitorum brevis . 0-08
Transversalis pedis. not weighed
Peroneus longus . 0:06
| Peroneus tertius , 0:09

LrrrER—On Retro-peritoneal Cavitics. 79

XIIJ.—On Rerro-peritoneat Cavities. By Groner Recrnatp Lerper,
Student in Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin. (With Plate 5.)

[Read 14th December, 1874. ]

Tue subject of retro-peritoneal pouches when taken in connexion
with the occurrence in them of intra-abdominal hernie is a very in-
teresting one, especially as so few of these fosse exist. Only three
such cavities have as yet been described, which are as follow :—

1°. The “‘ Fossa Duodeno-Jejunalis” on the left side of the 38rd
lumbar vertebra.—This fossa has been fully described by Huschke,*
and has been found the seat of an intra-peritoneal hernia by Treitz,+
Chiene,t Peacock,§ and Gruber.||

2°. The ‘‘ Recessus [leo Ceecalis” (fig 1).—This concavity is very
constant and is frequently a deeply-excavated hollow. It may be
from 0°25 of an inch to 1:25 inches in depth, and may be seen lying
between the mesenteriolum of the vermiform appendix, the plica, ileo-
ceecalis, and the cecum. This fossa has been described by Professor
Luschka of Tubingen ] ; it may (not unfrequently) contain a cyst.**
Hernia has been found herein by Engel.t

3°. The “ Subccecal Fossa” figured in the sketch (fig. 2) has been
described by Luschka.tt No example of hernia has as yet been de-
scribed as occurring in this fossa, as its mouth is always very wide in
proportion to its depth. It only exists when the mesoccecum is im-
perfect.

Through the kindness of Dr. Macalister, who pointed it out to me, I
now bring forward another as yet undescribed form of these retro-
peritoneal fossee which came under my observation on the 16th of No-
vember last in the Trinity College Dissecting Room.

On opening into the abdominal cavity of a man of about 55 years
of age, in the right iliac fossa, an abnormal fold of iliac fascia was dis-
covered bounding a sac or pouch of moderate size. It consisted of a
thin, strong semi-transparent arch extending outwards from the bor-
der of the psoas magnus muscle to the crest of the Ilium, part of the

* Lehre yon den Eingeweiden des Menschlischen Kérpers. Leipzig, 1844,
p. 216.

+ Hernia retro-peritonealis. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte imnerer Hernier
Prag, 1857.

t Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 2nd Series, No. 2, 1868, p. 218.

§ Trans: Pathological Society of London, Vol. 2., page 60.

|| St. Petersburges Med. Zeitschrift, 1831, Bd. 1.

‘| Ueber die peritonzeale umhiillung des Blinddarmes und wber die fossa ileo-
cecalis. Virchow’s Archiy, Vol. 21, 1861. s.285. This sac is really a portion of the
visceral, and not of the parietal peritoneum.

** Schott, Wiener Wochenblatt, No. 44, 1862.
tt Wiener Med. Wochenschrift, 1861, No. 10.
tf Die Anatomie des Menschlischen Bauches, s. 154.

lett iene adie ea sani

80 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

fascia covering the muscle; the mouth of the sac or fossa thus formed
looked upwards towards the ececum.

The peritoneum lay on the fascia, to which it was only loosely con-
nected, and was easily separable from it, but part of it was involuted
and tucked into the fundus of the sac. The subserous tissue was lax
and could be separated without difficulty.

The measurements of the fascial fold were as follow :—

Its crescentic free border arose from the fascia over the psoas at a
part 34 inches above Poupart’s Ligament.

The measurement across from the border of the psoas magnus to
the crest of the ium was 2°7 inches.

Its attachment extended 3 inches behind the anterior superior
spine of the ilium. i

The sac itself was ‘7 of an inch in depth.

The fascia was quite free from the tendon of the psoas parvus,
which was inserted as usual. A branch of the anterior crural nerve
lay on the margin of the fascial fold ferming its superficial edge.

The cecum had not descended nearly as far as usual, but lay loose
in the right lumbar region, attached by a mesoccecum four inches
broad, and which was continuous with*the mesentery. The vermiform
appendix lay within this mesoccecum, posterior and inferior to the
ececum, and with no trace of a mesenteriolum ; it was moderately long
and bent on itself at the lowerend. There was no nerve on the free
edge of the smaller left ‘‘ Fossa retro-sigmoidalis.”” There was a
cicatrix-like mark on the left side below the peculiar fold, but no
sign of inflammation.

This sac which we are considering may be called the ‘‘ Retro-
ececal Recessus;”’ it might easily become the seat of an hernia, and,
therefore, is of some importance. It differs from the sac described by
Luschka in that the opening of the fossa described by him looked down-
wards, whereas that before us looked upwards. .

This abnormality is remarkable from the fact of its not haying
been described before. It may, therefore, fairly be considered unique.

TicHBorNE—Laboratory Notes. 81

XIV.—Laxsoratory Notrs.* By Cuartes R. C. Ticnzorneg, Ph. D.,
1s (On te haacaer
[Read December 14, 1874.]

3.— On the Solution of Alloys and Metals by Acids.

Havine to form a number of estimations of tin, in alloys of tin and
lead, I found it necessary to effect solution of the mixed metals in
Hydrochloric Aeid, and to devise a quick and expeditious method of
bringing this about without loss ofsubstance. The alloys were dissolved
in the ordinary manner and according to the usages of laboratory
experience, that is to say—in each case a weighed quantity of the
alloy was coarsely rasped by a clean plumber’s file, and placed into
a rather capacious flask, with the necessary quantity of pure Hydro-
chloric Acid; an Indian-rubber stopper was inserted, through which
passed a short tube. The flask was placed upon a sand bath at an
angle of about 45 degrees, so that no loss from spitting could take place
up the neck. Platinum was introduced for the purpose of making an
energetic voltaic circuit and to assist the solution. The action with
the alloy itself is energetic enough at first, but it gradually subsides and
becomes languid after the Hydrochloric Acid has become in any degree
saturated. If the platinum, however, be introduced, this sluggishness
is avoided. From the nature of the experiment time was an object of
considerable importance, and yet a great excess of acid was not
desirable. The introduction of platinum foil to facilitate solution of
other metals is no novelty, but I found it convenient to use a modifi-
cation, which I consider sufficiently important to note.

From the electrical condition of the platinum foil and its great
attraction for the electro-positive hydrogenium, an intermittent and
rather curious reaction is set up in the flask where solution is effected.
The platinum foil sinks on its introduction until it touches the particles
of metal lying upon the bottom of the flask, when it instantly becomes
covered with the electro positive hydrogenium, and the foil rises to the
surface of the liquid, and there discharges the hydrogen gas, and then
sinks again until it comes in contact with the alloy, when the pheno-
menon is repeated, as long as any alloy remains. It is therefore self-
evident that this intermittent process must greatly retard the consumma-
tion of perfect solution.

To remedy this, I substitute small spheres of platinum about the
size of swan shot. The rounded particles of platinum act perfectly, the
hydrogen being much more readily illiminated from the spherical
surface, and in no case does the platinum float. If the operation is
performed in a flask as recommended, from the shape of the vessel these
particles of platinum are also in actual contact with the alloy during
the whole of the process.

Solution is effected in nearly half the time, and the loss upon the

* Continued from Ser. II. Vol. I. Science, p. 108.
R. 1. A. PROC., SER. Il. VOL. I., SCIENCE.

82 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

platinum shot (probably from attrition) was found to be only 0:0001
per cent. during the solution of four grammes of alloy. I may mention
that the platinum shot referred to can be procured at any of the
metallurgists who produce the fused platinum in this form.

4.—On Fluorescence as a Means of detecting Adulteration.

The following note will be interesting as illustrating how the fluor-
escence of any substance may be used for its detection in the presence
of a non-fluorescent substance :—

About seven years ago, I made use of this phenomenon for the
detection of turmeric when present in mustard in a report upon the
commercial aspect of that substance.*

Lately it has been referred to by one of the public analysts in
England, as a method by which turmeric may be detected, and as it is
so extremely delicate in its results, and yet so easy of application, I
have thought it desirable to draw attention to the general principles
upon which this phenomenon of fluorescence may be used for such
purposes, and also with the view of laying claim to the idea.

If the adulterant is fluorescent, and the substance into which it is
introduced is non-fluorescent, we have at once a ready means of
examining any number of samples with much more delicacy than the
usual chemical reactions will give. Thus, let us take the one to which
we have already referred, the “mustard of commerce.

The seeds of the black or white mustard yield a yellow, colouning
matter soluble in spirit of wine which is devoid of fluorescence.
Turmeric is always present in the inferior qualities of this condiment
because the actual adulterant is wheaten flour or rice, the turmeric
being necessary to bring the white adulterant up to the same shade
as the ground mustard seeds, therefore the samples vary from 0°5
per cent. to 0°05 per cent. of turmeric. Now, with such minute
quantities of turmeric the alkaline test is very unsatisfactory—in fact,
all chemical reactions are unsatisfactory when dealing with such a
minimum of adulteration,

But the great elegance of this fluorescent test consists in the fact
that within reasonable limits, the more dilute the solution the more
strongly does the fluorescence test come out. The non-fluorescence of
the colouring matter of all substances that are adulterated with a
fluorescent substance should, in the first instance, be exactly and
scientifically determined. This is easily done by any one who has the
necessary arrangements. In the case of the mustard yellow, Mr. H.
Draper kindly examined it for me, by the light of the spark formed
between two steel wires (such a spark being the best for the
purpose).

* Medical Press and Circular.—Report on the Adulteration of Mustard. Vol. 8.
New Series.

TicHporneE—Laboratory Notes. 83

The steel points were placed in connexion with a four-inch inten-
sity coil and a small leyden jar was interposed in the circuit. The
battery used consisted of three Groves elements. In examining by this
method, ordinary glass vessels must be discarded, because even the
strongly marked fluorescence of turmeric is more or less masked by the
blue fluorescence of the glass.

In a quartz cell (two plates of quartz in a frame of gutta percha),
these observations can be carried on with the greatest accuracy. Mr.
Draper’s observations prove that, whilst the colouring matter of. the
true seeds gave no fluorescence, the presence of so small a quantity of
turmeric as 005 per cent. could be readily detected.

Before we are justified, however, in using this phenomenon as the
test for the presence of any substance, it is necessary to put it toa
crucial examination, such as that detailed above to find out how far
the particular substance under examination is capable of giving fluor-
escence. But it is not at all necessary that we should submit it to
the light of a spark in the practical application of the test. The
fluorescence of an ordinary white glass flask is not observable under
the ordinary diffused light of a laboratory, but the ordinary fluores-
cent substances (so called), are easily recognized under such condi-
tions. It is only necessary therefore to form a tincture of the sub-
stance to be examined. The observation of Mr. Horner* who finds ©
that fluorescence is wonderfully developed by castor oil, may be
made use of with great advantage. A drop of castor oil that has been
passed through adulterated mustard, upon a filter, appears green
when dropped upon a black plate in ordinary daylight. If
the mustard is pure, no coloration will be perceived. I have
met with some specimens of ‘“ Saffron,” (the stigma and style of
Crocus sativus), which give a fluorescence. They were evidently
adulterated because the flowers of saffron give no fluorescence. This
saffron is a most expensive drug, and is therefore very lable to
adulteration.

5.—On the Printing Inks of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.

The Printing Inks of the present century differ somewhat from
those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and as this differ-
ence may affect the preservation of valuable works of art, I have
thought it desirable to embody my observations upon this subject in a
short note.

The present ink used in printing books and valuable works of art,
essentially consists of Carbon in a fine state of division, ground
up with a mixture of oils, soaps, and a substance called printer’s
varnish.

This last named substance may be viewed as the important vehicle
by which the Carbon, or pigments, is bound to the surface of the

* Philosophical Magazine, September, 1874.

84 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

paper. The printer’s varnish is in all good printing ink linseed oil,
more or less oxidized—but the oxidation may vary in degree from its
first stages, known as ordinary drying oil, and made by the action of
acetate of lead upon linseed oil, or it may be burnt until it becomes -
a stringy varnish that can be drawn into threads.

The first is a fluid linseed oil hardly changed in its properties,
whilst the last is a tough resinous mass scarcely soluble in oils, and
quite altered in character from the original compound. This last may
be considered as a glyceride of lineolic acid.

I have found that the older printing inks are more easily saponi-
fied and washed off by alkalies, than those of the last century, and
that in this respect there isa marked difference. In their general
character they agree, as carbon seems to- have been the basis of
printing ink from the time of Johann Faust, and from this reason
printed matter will bear the action of acid oxidizers, or bleachers, with
impunity; but many, if not all, the printing inks of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries are more or less sensitive to the action of
alkalies. Some specimens are so extremely sensitive to this alkaline
influence that on introducing them into a weak solution of ammonia,
the characters instantly float off the surface of the paper, although
they may have previously withstood the action of a powerful acid
bleaching bath. The only explanation that I can offer is that the oil
or oils used as vehicles were not formerly submitted to the boiling
process, which in the more modern inks has thoroughly resinified
them.

It is also probable that copaiba or other balsams were freely used
in the more ancient inks. These balsams are easily acted upon by
diluted alkahes.

It will be seen by the following details that this peculiarity was

not confined to one country. ®
Ink insoluble, or nearly insoluble in | Ink soluble in diluted ammonia.
alkalies. ‘Agricola. De re metallica,”

Various pamphlets published in Basileze, 1561.
England and Ireland, 1720 to | Some of Albert Durer’s plates.

1780. “Libri Solomonis,”’ Paris, 1542.
Modern English Inks, all the | ‘Titi Livii Historiarum Libri,”
specimens tried. Amsterdam, 1635.
Modern Leipzig Ink. “Le Martyrologe Romaine,”

Lyons, 1636.
“Portraiture of his Sacred
maiestie,”’ London, 1648.

ol
a

‘Git

ARCHER—On Apothecia in Alge. 85

XV.—On ApoTHECIA OCCURRING IN somME ScyTonEMATOUS AND Srrost-
“PHONACEOUS ALGH, IN ADDITION TO THOSE PREVIOUSLY KNown. By
Witt Arcuer, M.R.I.A. (With Plate 6.)

[Read December 14, 1874. ]

It is now some years since, upon examining some examples of the by
no means uncommon plant, long (and by some still) accepted as algal,
Stigonema atrovirens, Ag., that I was attracted by the peculiar en-
largements of the branches, and was much interested in perceiving that
this plant showed, imbedded in these swellings, distinctly lichenous
fructification—apothecia, as well as the so-called spermogonia. Upon
searching out the literature of the subject, I found from Bornet’s valu-
able paper* that my discovery had been previously well known, and
that my specimens fully bore out the description he gave, with the
exception of the hyphe subsequently discovered by Schwendener.
Bornet, indeed, argued from the fructification which he had proved to
belong to this form, that it should no longer be accounted an alga, but
relegated to the lichens as Ephebe pubescens.

But it occurred to me that Bornet’s supposition, at the period of
his writing the memoir on Ephebe, that other forms of apparent affi-
nity (Stigonema mamillosum, St. mammiferum and others) were of
another and different nature—that is, ‘‘alge,” whilst 2. pubescens
was a “‘lichen,’”’—could not be borne out.t It struck me, indeed, that
if Stigonema atrovirens were no alga, but a veritable lichen, that then
the other Strosiphonacee and Scytonemacea, if likewise patiently ex-
amined, must prove themselves of the same nature. Stigonema mamil-
losum and Sirosiphon- and Scytonema-forms, I thought, could hardly
be less lichens than Ephebe pubescens itself ; nor was I then aware that
such in some cases had, since Bornet’s paper referred to, been actually
accepted as a fact.

Having at that time more frequent opportunity of finding, amongst
the Wicklow hills, the commoner representatives of the class than more
recently, [ then made a considerable number of gatherings and ex-
amined them as closely as I could for ‘‘ apothecia.”’ I found it a more
tedious labour than might be supposed, for, though I by and by found
apothecia in three genera, I had to make very many hundred gather-
ings and examinations in order to be successtul in encountering even |
a few ‘‘fertile”’ specimens; for, though possibly more frequently
“fruiting”? than one might suppose from that fact, the opacity and

* Bornet, “‘ Recherches sur la Structure del’ Ephebe pubescens,’ in “ Ann. des
Sci. Naturelles,”’ 3 ser., tom. xviil., p. 155.

+ Bornet, loc. cit., p. 167.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II. VOL. I1., SCIENCE. N

86 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

‘closely tufted habit of most of these forms contribute to rendering the
little dark lateral tubercles usually formed by the apothecia somewhat
readily overlooked, whilst they might in some forms be even passed
over under a low power (the only useful way of searching) as merely
rudimentary ‘“ branches.”

It is matter of regret to me now that I did not at the time bring
forward some notes upon these forms before the preparations I had
made had become spoiled; and it is also a matter of still greater regret
that I did not secure some drawings more in detail than the rough
sketches I am able to offer. But as even a chalk drawing on a black
board is better than none, so the accompanying figures (Pl. 6) may serve
a temporary, purpose until better are forthcoming from some source,
whilst the figures of the spores themselves may be accepted as accurate.

I at once assumed from our knowledge of Ephebe pubescens, coupled
with the additional fact of having found apothecia in Scytonema, Stirost-
phon, Stigonema (mamillosum), that these genera and probably the
whole of the Scytonemacee and Sirosiphonacee, could be no longer
properly accounted alg, but should be relegated with Zphebe to the
lichens.

But another and a different solution is put forward now-a-days by
Professors de Bary and Schwendener, and those (Reess, Bornet, Treub,
and others) who accept the new doctrine of the nature of lichens. It
has, as is well known, been previously long supposed that, assuming
the gonidia to be really organs of the lichens, these may here and there
(and by no means unfrequently) become detached from the parent plant,
and, under conditions unfavourable to their forming a new lichen,
carry on an independent (probably abnormal) alga-like existence; and
hence that many of the so-called unicellular and some of the filamen-
tous algal growths, which may have been regarded as specifically dis-
tinct organisms, should really be expunged the list of independent
plants. On the other hand, Schwendener and the new school hold that
the ‘‘ lichen-gonidia”’ are veritable unicellular, or, as the case may be,
according to the type of lichen, filamentous alge which vegetate within
the lichen-thallus as the serviceable (assimilating) host plants of a
parasitic ascomycetous fungus, the ‘‘lichen-hypha.” <A resumé of
the whole question, of the views put forward and the arguments
adduced, so far as the discussion has reached, both for and against,
I have recently endeavoured to bring together,* and it is hence super-
fluous to attempt here to recapitulate the particulars and points of his
hypothesis, except as they bear upon the group immediately in question.

In his able and interesting work on the ‘‘ Gonidia-forming Algal-
types,” and beginning with the ‘‘ Phycochromaceous”’ series (WVosto-
chine, Nag.), Schwendener places the Strosiphonacee in the front rank.

* “Quart. Journal Mic. Science,” vol. xiii., N.S., p. 217; also vol. xiv., p. 115,
in which places the refer ences to the various authors are giv en.
+ Schwendener: “ Die Algentypen der Fiechtengonidien,” Basel, 1869.

EEE Ee

Arcuer—On Apothecia in Alge. 87

He justly observes they should begin the series, amongst the bluish-
green filamentous forms, by reason of the well-expressed contradistinc-
tion offered by them between apex and base, also by reason of their
being marked by a formation of true branches, as well as, in their
higher representatives, showing an evident accession to their thickness
by subsequent growth. Possessing these specialities, they at the same
time, however, show an unmistakable affinity on the one hand to the
Scytonemee and Rivularice mm the common possession of ‘‘ heterocysts”’
and an apical growth, and on the other to the Wostochaceea, which,
wanting apical growth, form a transition to the Osccllariee.

Prior to the propounding of the new hypothesis, however, certain
of these forms, which, if met with without apothecia, would have been
referred to the genus Scytonema, had been found with apothecia and
thereupon new genera were formed for them by Itzigsohn and Nylander
under the names Hphebella, Itzigsohn, and Gonionema, Nyl. (or Ther-
mutis, Fr.?). In fact, they seem to have regarded the ‘‘ barren” and
the ‘‘fertile’’ plant as each belonging to distinct genera, even as ap-
pertaming to different classes—that is, that the ‘‘ barren”? was to be
accounted an ‘‘alga”’ and the ‘‘ fertile” a ‘ lichen.”

Of course, had Schwendener’s view, but comparatively lately put
forward, been then current, and had it been adopted by the discoverers
of those apothecia-bearing Svrosiphonacee and Scytonemacea, the case
would have been different: the new name would in that case have
been, as [ take it, understood to be applied to the ‘‘new ascomyce-
tous parasite,” within the Svrosiphon, or the Scytonema—the double
names should still pass current, for, in that case, they would stand for
essentially distinct things, and no less so because these occur sometimes
living in consort and in a state of mutual physiological dependence.

The present communication, therefore, loses much of the signifi-
cance it might have been at least temporarily held to possess, from not
bemg brought out at the time the observations were made, but after
the new theory had been not only propounded, but had gained a large
amount of currency.

Nevertheless, although more superficially put forward than if I had
made the matter public at the time of the observations, and when these
were fresh in my mind, this will, I think, be the first record of ‘ apo-
thecia”’ being noticed in at least five fresh forms or species referrible to
separate ‘‘genera”’ (Scytonema, Sirosiphon, Stigonema) in the algal point
of view. If this record had been brought out at that time, indeed, it
would have pointed, as I should have taken it, to the assumption that
these, in place of genera of alge, were in truth genera of lichens—not
“new” lichens, but lichens not taken previously ‘in fruit.”

With respect to Lphebe and Spilonema, Schwendener argues, that
a genetic connexion between the hyphe and the gonidia is impossible.
For the whole chain of gonidia leads onwards to the apical cell, by the
unlimited subdivision of which new cells continuously originate, which
are themselves again to be regarded as mother-cells (in those genera) of
so many groups of gonidia. The assumption of a new formation of
gonidia by growing-off from the hypha has no justification whatever ;

88 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

those who hold such a view must take refuge in the assumption of the
formation of the first gonidium in the germination of the spore—a
process which has not yet been observed in any lichen, and, a prior?,
never will be.

But it must be pointed out that, according to Schwendener and
others, Scytonematous and Sirosiphonaceous alge are claimed as form-
ing ‘‘gonidia”’ under two distinct circumstances or conditions: they
are, according to their researches, to be found in certain lichens, ether
as mere accidentally detached portions of filaments wholly surrounded
and involved by the hyphe, and caught up. bodily in the substance of
the lichen-thallus in a completely disorderly manner, or they exist as
perfect plants of their type as alge, the alga-thallus quite unaltered in
outward configuration, but permeated along the length of the filaments
by the hyphe, which run between the rows of green cells. When the
algee, as is assumed, are in the former way compelled to become the
‘‘ ponidia-formers,”’ it is the hyphe (not the algse) which must be held
to control the configuration of the thallus and determine the character-
istic build-up of the ‘‘lichen;”’ when the algve serve in the latter way
as gonidia to the intruding hyphe, the former (not the hyphe) retain
their proper ‘‘ specific”? exterior, the build-up of the (algal) thallus is
not externally altered, and it is only a microscopical examination which
would reveal anything unusual or offer any ‘‘ lichenous’’ indication.
It is as regards this latter gonidial condition that Schwendener’s argu-
ments, as to the impossibility of the genetic relationship of the hyphe
and the young apical gonidia, by reason of the latter being formed
prior to the arrival at the apex of the hyphal filaments, are directed,
and to this condition it is that the notes here brought forward apply.

One of the most common of the Scytonemacee is the Scytonema myo-
chrous, forming silky cushion-like tufts on wet rocks, when dry, of
mouse colour, when wet, more of an olive hue; it seems to love best a
pretty constant trickle, and if the force of the little current be some-
what strong, the mass may form a rather long drawn-out pad, stretch-
ing down the inclination of the surface over which the little flow de-
scends. Very often in my searchings I gathered little portions from
various sites, sometimes very wet, sometimes, indeed, dried up by
drought, and once only was I so fortunate as to find examples showmg
apothecia. I regret I have mislaid my rough drawing of the apothe-
cium itself, but fig. 1 is a sketch of the spores within an ascus. The
general appearance of the apothecium, however, is like that of Svrose-
phon. The asci were accompanied by linear paraphyses ; the spores were
four in an ascus, nearly colourless, broadly elliptic, simple, with two
bright corpuscles, each with a minute dot in its centre immersed
therein, one towards either end. Length of the spore, ~.”, breadth,
am (figs. 1, 2).

Another Scytonema, whose precise identity seems difficult to deter-
mine, also presented apothecia. This too I found on only one occa-
sion; the contents usually formed a thin, somewhat irregular, central
strmg up the middle of a somewhat thick striated sheath, except near

|
i
}

—

—

ArcHER—On Apothecia in Alge. 89

the apices of the ‘‘ branches’ (which sometimes were given off singly)
in which they were thicker and quadratic (figs. 3-6). In this Scyto-
nema the nearly mature apothecia were globose, smooth, shining, of a
dark brownish-chocolate colour, usually placed somewhere along the
length of the filament, but might be occasionally terminal (figs. 3-6).
Sometimes they seemed almost to form an interruption of the continu-
ity of the filament, or as if inserted into a special rounded excavation
in it, and separated from it by a sharp line of demarcation (fig. 4).
Certain of the filaments showed here and there what seemed to be
agglomerations of brownish-coloured granules, which by their quantity
caused a distension of the filament and an interruption of the string of
contents; these I took to be incipient apothecia, judging from their
position; but this is of course not certain (figs. 9-11). The more
mature apothecia seemed somewhat depressed at the top where the
opening occurs (fig. 6). Like the apothecia of all these forms the
present were very tough and intractable, the only plan to obtain the
asci separate with their spores, on account of their minuteness, being to
cause them to become ejected by (very forcible) pressure. In the
present instance this was of more than usual difficulty, and I was un-
able to press out an ascus intact to discover if it was 4- or 8-spored ;
I believe, however, the latter. The paraphyses were slender, linear.
The separated spores themselves were somewhat readily obtained, and
they are different from the preceding, bemg much longer and nar-
rower, of lanceolate outline, simple, colourless, with a minute dot-
like corpuscie towards either end; length of spore, ,4,”, breadth,
an (fig. 8).

Coming to Scrosiphonaceea, another case is offered by S. alpinus.
Here the apothecia were smooth but not shiny, blackish, globular,
variously situated, sometimes in the axil of a branch (fig. 13), some-
times along the length of the filament (fig. 12), or even terminal.
Here, as elsewhere, it was only by pressure that the asci and spores
could be ejected. The asci, as elsewhere, at first filled with a grumous
granular substance (figs. 16, 17), were, when mature, 8-spored
(fig. 18). Sometimes I saw asci with the contents contracted to a
broadly fusiform figure, and then divided transversely, thus pro-
ducing two conical bodies as if base to base (fig. 15). The para-
physes seemed to be of two lengths, the shorter about half the length
of the asci, linear, pointed, the longer about one-half longer than the
asci, nearly twice broader than the former, with truncate end (fig. 17).
The spores here were different from either of the preceding, being uni-
septate, oblong, somewhat constricted at the middle opposite the sep-
tum, each end broadly rounded, colourless, each cavity showing a single
central bright minute corpuscle ; length, .,,”, breadth, ,-,’’ (fig. 14).

Another Sirosiphonaceous form, S. pulvinatus or S. Heufleri, showed
apothecia. They appeared in a young condition to be hemispherical,
when mature, globose, sometimes as if somewhat produced upwards,
and truncate at the opening (fig. 20). Unlike the previous, they did
not appear smooth when young, but as if slightly hirsute externally

9) Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(fig. 19). The clavate asci sometimes appeared somewhat truncate
(fig. 21); paraphyses very mconspicuous—indeed I am more inclined
to think there were none; the asci were densely crowded. Many ex-
amples showed asci filled with granular contents, the spores not yet
formed. The asci when mature were 8-spored (fig. 22), the spores
resembling in size and figure (but were very slightly longer than) those
of the second form of Scytonema referred to, but they differed in not hay-
ing the two bright corpuscles immersed therein, and in showing a pale
green colour. They were long and narrow-lanceolate, greenish ; length,
aa, breadth, —” (fig. 28).

The last form which rewarded my search in showing apothecia was
the form recorded in ‘‘ Flora Hibernica”’ as Stigonema mamillosum, but
the distincticn which may exist between the plant in question and
Stigonema mammiferum, Thwaites, or Szrosiphon coralloides, Kiitz., are
not very apparent. Our plant grows in running water, attached to
stones at the bottom of mountain streams. It is much more rare,
seemingly, than any of the previous species, and is a very pretty plant
under a moderate power of the microscope, especially a young and
flourishing one, studded by the curious short and blunt branches,
giving the ‘‘mamillate ” appearance, with the phycochromaceous con-
tents bright im colour. The apothecia resembled those in the Szro-
siphon above alluded to; they were blackish, globose (fig. 24); para-
physes linear, somewhat longer than the asci (fig. 25); spores four in
an ascus, greenish, uniseptate, oblong, the septum appearing like a
pale and hyaline slender transverse band, and somewhat constricted
at the middle opposite the septum: thus the halves ovate, somewhat
tapering to the bluntly-rounded ends, each cavity showing a bright
corpuscle immersed in it ; length, *+.", breadth Ui (figs 26)

In all these forms I searched as well as I could for so-called sper-
mogonia, but was unable to detect any. These are comparatively so
readily perceived in Ephebe (I myself found them before I was aware
of Bornet’s published account of them, or of the apothecia in that plant)
that my non-success was the more disappointing.

Nor, after many trials by boiling in caustic potash, was I able to
satisfy myself of the presence of hyphe, as can be so readily done in
Ephebe, as first pomted out by Schwendener; there can, however, be
little reasonable doubt but that they must exist, though the seeming
nascent apothecia in the second form of Scytonema referred to gave no
indication of their presence ; but that in itself would prove nothing, as
the hypha cannot be seen in Lphebe without boiling in potash. Most
probably my experiments were not conducted sufficiently long or care-
fully, for Bornet has shown the existence of the hyphe in his Spz/o-
nema paradoxum,* and in his Lichenospheria Lenormandi.t

* Dr. E. Bornet: ‘ Description de Trois Lichens Nouveaux,” in ‘‘ Memoires de
la Soc. Imp. de Cherbourg,” vol. iv., p. 224, t. 1., 11.

+ Dr. E. Bornet: “ Recherches sur les Gonidies des Lichens,’ in ‘ Ann. deg
Sci. Naturelles,”’ 5 sér., tome xvul., (of reprint, p. 57).

ArcHER— On Apothecia in Alge. 91

But does it not appear somewhat inconsistent when Bornet, in describ-
ing his Lichenospheri za Lenormandi, makes use of the following language
in the generic character :-—« Thallus tenellus, ramosus, fruticulosus,
fere omnino stigonematoideus, basi corticatus;” and as ‘descriptive of
the specific characters—‘‘ Thallus fusco-niger, tomentoso-intricatus
(altitudo vix 2 millim.), ramulis divaricatis subsecundis” ? For, in
fact, these words simply describe the thallus of Svrosiphon divaricatus,
Kiitz., which alga forms the host-plant for the peculiar lichenal para-
site in question. But when he goes on to describe the apothecia, the
thee, the spermogonia, the spores, he is giving the characters of the
latter, which is the real. ‘‘ new species.”’ In accordance with the new
theory, besides the hyphe, this has no thallus of its own; the hyph
merely push into the thallus of the Szrosiphon, scarcely distorting it or
causing any outward alteration, beyond the occasionally exserted apo-
thecia. If it were possible—and there is seemingly no great reason to
the contrary—that the spores of this self-same Lichenospheria Lenor-
mandi should afterwards grow upon and into another species of Szrosi-
phon, or, say even into a Scytonema, then some of the ‘‘ specific charac-
ters’? as giyen, nay, even probably some of the “ generic,” would
disappear and others take their place. It is to be granted, indeed, that
on the new theory, when a WVostoe becomes invaded by the parasite
which conyerts it into a Collema, a very considerable alteration is pro-
duced on even the outward aspect of the Wostoc ; instead of a rounded,
lobed, ‘‘ blobby,” and soft lump, it becomes more or less foliaceous,
less watery, and more subdivided ; but it is the a/ga all the time which
submits to this alteration: the true lichen is inside, only evincing itself
externally by its apothecia and by its action on the alga (like a gall
causing even greater modifications on a higher plant), inciting those
changes of external aspect, whilst it is at the same time making use of
the assimilating power of the alga to do for it what it cannot do by
itself.

There can be little doubt but that amongst these Scytonematous and
Sirosiphonaceous algze quite distinct forms occur; but, on the other
hand, there can be almost as little doubt but that Kiitzing has vastly
over-
tinguishable. Now, it is hard to conceive that one and the same para-
site would care very much which of forms so closely resembling it in-
vaded in order to pursue its course of life. Svrosiphon divaricatus
seems not to differ much from S. alpinus ; it is more fruticulose, the
cells in the central stems seem to occur in more than double series :
what very perceptible barrier is there to the supposition that the para-
site, which invades the former to form Lichenospheria Lenormandi,
Bornet, might not at another time invade the latter? Would it not
then fructify in the same way, show spores alike, &c.? But the para-
site which does really invade the latter is not the same, as the figure
herewith will show, not to speak of the paraphyses, so prominent
a feature in the latter, being absent in Bornet’s plant. Are these Scy-
tonemicolous and Sirosiphonicolous parasites, then, so extremely parti-
eular in their choice ?

92 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

See again the two Scytonemata, resembling in themselves so much
and yet with ‘‘ parasites”’ so distinct; the spores could not be con-
founded for a moment (see figs. 1, 2, and fig. 8). Again, see the
great resemblance (but certainly not identity) between the spores in
the second Seytonema and in Svrosiphon pulvinatus, algee mutually
sufficiently unlike (see Figs 8 and 23).

It might again be asked whilst the new theory is, as it were, on
its trial, at what period of the life of the Scytonema or Sirosiphon does
it become invaded by the parasite? At what part of the thallus does
it make its entry? It must be near the base, or at least not very high
up, for the hypha is found growing pretty nearly par? passu with the
growth of a branch of the alga, and in the same general direction.
But what is to prevent the hypha growing in the opposite direction ?
Might it not sometimes enter near the apex and grow backwards ?
Might we not expect sometimes to find hyphe sticking out from
broken-up or distorted examples of these alge, and then revealing
themselves (without the whole mass being boiled in potash) whilst on
their way to invade other examples of quite the same alga? Or must
the hypha appertaiming to a particular plant have had its commence-
ment from a spore which found its way to and alighted ‘somewhere ex-
ternally upon the particular Scytonema or Sirosiphon ?

The account given by Itzigsohn of Ephebella* is incomplete; he.
met with apothecia in his species of ‘‘ Scytonema,”’ containing asci, but
they had not as yet developed spores. The plant he had in view may
certainly be said to be quite distinct from Scytonema myochrous. It is
probable the fructification would also have been seen, if fully mature,
to have been also specifically different. So also are my two forms, both
in thallus and fructification. These, proceeding on the new theory,
would, perhaps, be relegated as ‘‘ new lichens” to Ephebella, Itzigsohn,
or to Gonionema, Nylander; but neither is identical with Gonzonema
velutinum, Nyl. (of which I haye seen examples in the late Admiral
Jones’s Herbarium), either as regards thallus or spores. The three
other forms would probably be referred as ‘‘new species” to the
‘‘lichenous”’? genus Spilonema, or that referred to Strosiphon pulvinatus,
wanting paraphyses, might possibly be relegated to Lichenospheria.

An experimental decision of the ‘‘ gonidia-question,” so far as it
relates to these Scytonematous and Sirosiphonaceous forms, is sur-
rounded by not a few practical difficulties. A sowing of spores upon
the alge (as Reess did with WVostoc) in a natural condition could only be
carried out by an observer residing in or close to the subalpine situ-
ations where these plants flourish, as they could not be ‘‘ cultivated” else-
where. In order to obtain the spores he would further have, very
probably, a troublesome preliminary search, and, on the other hand,
there would hardly be a certainty of the plants selected for cnoculation
being themselves previously destitute of hyphe or apothecia. Of course
small portions from various places in a tuft of any given alga could be

* Ttzigsohn, in “ Hedwigia,” 1857, p. 123.

ArcHER—On Apothecia in Alge. 93

previously well examined, which, though if indeed found to represent
the alga ‘pure and simple,” would not render it absolutely conclusive
that some other portion of the tuft might not already have been invaded
by the ‘“‘parasite.”’” However, having selected some plants fur experi-
ment, they should be well inoculated with spores and portions removed
from time to time for examination and experiment. If found satisfactory,
it would be interesting to try to ‘‘ cross”? spores from the same and
from different species (as, for imstance, such as fig. 5 and fig. 26, or
fig. 2 and fig. 19), in order to see the result, and whether the apparent
fixity of the forms and the apparently extreme exclusiveness of the
‘‘narasites’’ be true or not, or ultimately whether the theory be true
itself or not. Whether, for the time being, the truth of the new theory
be previously assumed, or its untenability be presupposed, would
matter very little, if the suitable opportunity and ready field of opera-
tions were at command of the observer. It would seem as if in this
way only can either presupposition be justified or negatived.

Pending the ultimate decision at which the great lichenists who
are at work on the broad question may arrive as to the true nature of
these interesting plants, and pending, too, the discovery of the sper-
mogonia of the forms here referred to, as assisting to throw a light
on their mutual affinities and relative position, I may well leave to
more skilled hands the desultory notes brought forward in this com-
munication, touching their general bearing and ultimate application
as regards one of the most interesting and problematic botanical ques-
tions of the day.

R. 1. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. O

94 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

X VI.—MicroscoricaLt StructurE oF Rocks. Revrort No. 1.—INGENITE
Rocxs. By G. H. Kryanan, M.R.1.A., &. (With Plates 7
and 8).

[Read June 8, 1874.]

In these reports on the microscopical structure of the Ingenite Rocks
it is proposed to describe each rock under the names adopted by me in
‘© A Handy book of Rock Names,’’* while all the minerals will be called
by Dana’s names. With each specimen, prior to entering into its micro-
scopic structure, will be given a description of the rock, as it appears
when examined in the field, with the naked eye or with a pocket lens.
In this report the felspars will be principally treated of—the power
used, except when specially mentioned, being 42.

In a paper read November 13th, 1871, before the Academy, ‘‘ On
the Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks of Yar or West Connaught,”’t
I pointed out that the granitic rocks seem capable of being divided
into Intrusive granite (Highly siliceous granite), Granite for the most
part non-intrusive (Basic or oligoclase granite), and Hlvanyte (Quartz-
porphyry ;{ the latter rocks being the passage-rocks between the typi-
eal granites and the plutonic rocks. It was also shown that between
the typical Highly siliceous granites and the Basic granites, there are
granites partaking of the nature of the former in being intrusive and
of the latter in containing as essential constituents, such minerals as
oligoclase, amphibole, and the like. Moreover, it was shown that
typical Basic granite seems to be always more or less of metamorphic
origin, and that it graduates into the Intrusive oligoclase granite,
while the typical Highly siliceous granite is intruded in independent
masses. Suggestions were also given as to the probable formation of
the granites, but to enter into that subject now, would be foreign to the
purpose of this report; we will, therefore, refer those interested, to
that paper and to the Handy book of Rock Names, pp. 37 to 39.

The first rocks to which we shall draw attention, belong to the
second group of granitic rocks or Granite for the most part non-intrusive
(Basic or oligoclase granite), the specimens having been collected in
the Co. Galway.

B.! Porphyritic granite from Knockanavoddy (Galway sheet 93).—
This rock, examined in the field, seems to contain flesh-coloured,
greenish, and dull white felspars, glassy quartz, dark coloured amphi-
bole, black mica, and pyrite. There are also small spangles of white

* Published by Robert Hardwicke, London.

+ Vide next paper and also Handy book of Rock Names.

¢ A fourth group, Protogene, is also given provisionally in the Handy book.
Protogene I now believe ought to be included among the sub-groups of the Basie
granite.

Kinanan—On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. O5

mica and widely disseminated crystals of titanite. The dull white is
the most abundant felspar in the rock, but the flesh-coloured appears in
large crystals, often twins, and gives the porphyritic character to the
rock mass. Most of the black mica, the amphibole, and the pyrite,
occur associated together in nests, the quartz forming the skeleton of
the rock. Of this rock two slices were cut, one containing one of the large
flesh-coloured felspar crystals, the other being from a portion of the
rock showing its ordinary character. In the latter slide we find the
felspars are principally represented by the white variety, only one or
two small pieces of the flesh-coloured being present, while the green is
scarcely represented, but in the other slide all the minerals mentioned
in the field list are represented.

No perfect crystals of any of the felspars appear in the portions
of the rock from which the slices were cut, but the flesh-coloured seems
to be nearest perfection, and we know that in other portions of the rock
mass, perfect crystals of this kind of felspar can be procured. The
dull white and the green felspars seem to be jumbled together, the
white predominating. In the nests, containing pyrite amphibole and
black mica, these minerals seem to have crystallized out in the order in
which they are mentioned ; indeed, in places, the pyrite and amphibole
seem to have crystallized out prior to the felspars, as perfect crystals of
both occur in them, but the mica seems to have been formed sub-
sequently, as flakes of both black and white mica are found in places
margining the felspars. The mass of the quartz fills the vacancies left

- after the other minerals were formed, but blebs of quartz occur in the

felspars. The titanite when it occurs is always in well formed crystals.

Elesh-coloured felspar.—This according to Haughton is orthoclase.
It seems, however, to be very irregularly constituted and to contain
many impurities. When we examine a slice of white orthoclase from
Ytterby, Sweden, for a specimen of which I am indebted to my col-
league, F. Rutley, F.G.8:, we find it to consist of nearly parallel
transparent and semitransparent lines (see fig. 1, Pl. 7) alternating,
which under a higher power (288) shows the lining to be due to sys-
tems and lines of minute gas bubbles. This structure is traversed
obliquely by lines of fracture, (?) and when examined with the polar-
izer the matrix of the mineral appears mottled in places with more or
less irregular specks and patches ; it is sometimes marked with irregu-
lar lines, and in some places exhibits a tendency to a structure parallel
to the lines of fracture (?). Under the low power (42) few included
minerals were observed, the most remarkable being small crystals ot
pyrite (?) and minute blebs of quartz.

In one of the slices of the Knockanayoddy granite, there is a large
twin crystal of flesh-coloured orthoclase, in which the junction of the
crystals is most marked. In the left hand crystal at the top there is a,
wavy oblique lining that does not appear in the rest of the portion
under examination, but the most conspicuous structures in both crystals
are irregular and irregularly placed lincs rudely parallel or nearly so
to the junction of the twins, and this structure under a power of 296

96 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

is found to be due to systems of minute gas bubbles, while the oblique
lining seems to be due to lines of shading caused by transparent and
translucent layers.

In this mineral there are numerous inlying minerals or mineral
secretions, the most conspicuous being blebs of quartz which usually
have translucent nuclei, but a few have similar characters to the blebs
of quartz characteristic of the Elvanytes—other minerals observed were
amphibole, mica, pyrite, and magnetite. In fig. 3, Pl. 7, 1s shown a
bunch of three crystals of amphibole associated with a flake of mica.
In the associated orthoclase was observed a faint lining parallel to the
longer axis of the amphibole crystals, but the most conspicuous struc-
ture is that of the lines due to the systems of minute bubbles, some-
what similar to those mentioned when describing fig. 2, Pl. 7. In the
neighbourhood of the amphibole crystals, are many foreign particles
scattered about, some being roundish, but a few haying irregular crys-
talline forms, all have translucent centres but some are surrounded by
crystalline rims of quartz. A remarkable crystalline mass observed in
the orthoclase is represented in fig. 4, Plate 7. The dull grey por-
tions are slightly iridescent and of similar appearance to the dull white

-felspar hereafter to be described. In the orthoclase are also subvi-
treous, opaque black crystals; two of which are represented in fig.
2 PPL.

Under a power of 288 some of the minute opaque specks appear to
be magnetite while others are probably pyrite (fig. 5, Pl. 7).

In the smaller crystals and masses of the flesh-coloured orthoclase,
the structure appears to be more regular; as we find the crystals
crossed by wavy lines (fig. 6, Pl. 7) which under a higher power (238)
are found to be due to clouds of minute gas bubbles which lie in irre-
gular, more or less parallel planes. These smaller crystals of the
orthoclase seem to contain only a few imbedded minerals principally
blebs of quartz and pyrite (?).

Dull white felspar (Adularia?).—This mineral in the Knockanavoddy
erenite seems generally to occur massive ; there are, however, in places
well developed crystals, sometimes of considerable size. Under the low
power (42) this mineral seems to be irregular in its structure. Some
masses are nearly opaque, but in them, irregularly scattered, are
numerous iridescent specks, while in some are translucent portions,
seemingly of a triclinic felspar, as they transmit ribands of light (fig.
7, Pl.7). In a crystalline mass (fig. 8, Pl. 7) was detected a lined
structure ; under polarized light, opaque lines, more or less regular,
alternating with subtranslucent iridescent broken hnes. With a high
power (886) the cause of the lining is very obscure, as the constituents
are not found to be in layers. An opaque constituent, however, has a
tendency to he in long irregular patches, parallel to the lining, while
the iridescent spots form groups in short lines.

The peculiar appearance of some of the masses of felspar appears
to be due to opaque, subtranslucent and translucent particles that are
irregularly associated together. In one mass was observed what seems

Kinanan—On Microscopical Structure of Bocks. 97

to be small gas bubbles of the same class as those mentioned when
describing the flesh-coloured orthoclase, but in no other of the masses
could they be detected, and they do not appear to affect the structure
of the mineral. Very few inlying minerals were observed in this
felspar, the most marked being minute blebs of quartz, and black
specks that may be pyrite or magnetite. This felspar is evidently one
of the orthoclases, probably adularia.

Greenish waxy felspar (Gligoclase ?).—This triclinic felspar is not
very well represented in either of the slices that were cut from the
specimen of the Knockanavoddy granite, as in one it scarcely appears,
while in the other only portions of crystals occur; but in other places
in the neighbouring rock we know it wasmore frequent. This felspar
we suppose to be oligoclase, and we will, therefore, first describe the
appearance of oligoclase from Ytterby, Sweden (F. Rutley). A slice of
the latter mineral under the low power (42) is found to have originally
consisted of regular lines of darkish and ight colours, which are now
broken up by long but irregular spaces, that appear to have been due
to shrinkage fissures after the mineral was formed, while scattered
about are inlying crystals, blebs, and particles of quartz and small
opaque specks (fig. 9, Pl. 7). In fig. 10, Pl. 7, is represented por-
tions of the green waxy felspar of the Knockanavoddy granite. In them
the riband of colour is well developed which gives a vivid change of
colour when the polarizer is turned, especially if viewed through a
plate of selenite ; at (a) are irregular flakes of mica, at (4) a crystal that
appears to be titanite, as it is similar to a large crystal, part of which,
with two inliers of the same mineral, is represented in fig. 11, while
at (c) a portion of a roundish but irregular mass of felspar (orthoclase ?)
appears. When the riband at (d) (fig. 10) is magnified (386) the
mineral is found to be in places full of minute cavities, some round,
others vermicular and sinuose, while the rest have irregularforms. In
» places these occur in lines parallel to the riband, but the mass of them
cross it in clouds and, therefore, can have no connexion with the
structure of the rock as seen with the low power (42), but to the
clouds crossing the structure, may be due the faint transverse play of
colours. The oligoclase from Ytterby, when viewed under the high
power (886), is also found to be affected by similar cavities, but in it
they have a tendency to run in lines parallel to the riband. These
cavities appear to be due to minute gas bubbles attached to the sides
of minute vacancies, and these cavities in the Swedish specimens are
in general, but not always, nearly parallel to the riband, while in the
Knockanavoddy granite they run very irregularly.

Be Porphyritic granite from Ballynahown (Galway sheet 93).—This
rock, when examined in the field, seemed to consist of flesh-coloured
felspar, dull or olive green felspar, quartz, black mica, amphibole,
pyrite, and white mica. The flesh-coloured felspar appears principally
in large crystals, often twins, which are imbedded in a matrix princi-
pally made up of the green felspar and the quartz. Most of the
amphibole, black mica, and pyrite are associated together in nests,

98 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

while the white mica occurs in minute spangles. In places in this
rock are isolated crystals of titanite.

Of this rock only one slice was cut, being taken from a portion
showing the ordinary appearance of the rock in which the dull green
felspar predominated. This mineral was very similar in aspect to the
greenish waxy felspar of the Knockanavoddy granite (B.’). However,
on being placed under the low power of the microscope (42), it was
found that the colour and appearance in the field were deceptive, as the
mineral now presented characters similar to those found in the dull
white felspar of the Knockanavoddy rock (figs. 7 and 8, Pl. 7), while
mixed up with it, although not detected in the field, was a tri-
clinic felspar, and associated with them a few small crystals and masses
ot flesh-coloured orthoclase. Here also as in the Knockanavoddy rock,
most of the mica, amphibole, and pyrite occur associated together,
while the mass of the quartz forms the skeleton of the rock. No titan-
ite occurs in the slice.

Fiesh-coloured felspar (Orthoclase).—None of the large crystals were
examined but the small crystals and masses showed exactly similar
characters to those found in the small crystals examined in the Knock-
anavoddy granite (fig. 6, Pl. 7).

Dull green soapy felspar (Adularia ?).—This mineral gives the cha-
racter described for the dull white felspar of the Knockanavoddy rock,
and in it are found portions of crystals and small masses that show the
ribands of colour characteristic of the triclinic felspars.

Triclinic felspar.—Vhis occurs in a few isolated masses, and as parts
of crystals in or associated with the adularia (?), the structures they dis-
played being very similar to those already described as characterizing
the triclinic felspar of the Knockanavoddy granite.

B2 and B.! A slightly foliated porphyritic granite-—This rock was
collected by the late Mr. Jukes, and is marked from Furbogh (Galway).
It is similar to the rocks 7m situ on the 8. KE. and 8. W. of Furbogh
demesne. In the rock, the most conspicuous constituent is the flesh-
coloured felspar, the large crystals of which give the porphyritic
character to the rock, but the principal constituents are the dull white
and waxy greenish felspars and black mica; irregular leaves of the
latter associated with amphibole, giving the foliated structure to the
rock. There are also present quartz, white mica, and pyrite, with
thinly disseminated crystals of titanite. At Furbogh it was observed
in the field that some of the large flesh-coloured crystals had an envelope
of dull white felspar.

Of this rock two slices were cut, one containing a portion of one
of the large flesh-coloured orthoclase crystals, and the other being from
a portion showing the ordinary character of the rock. In both the dif-
ferent felspars are represented.

Flesh-coloured felspar.—The large crystals, as in the Knockanavoddy
rock, are generally twins, and in the slice that was cut through one of
them, the junction between the twins is a sharp line not an irregular
vacancy as was described in connexion with the Knockanavoddy

———

KinaHan—On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. ug

granite. These large crystals, as in the Knockanavoddy rock, contain
many inlying minerals, those most conspicuous being quartz and
pyrite; while the characters of the small crystals and masses of the
flesh-coloured felspar, as in both the rocks previously described (B.!
and B.”), are very regular and similar to those already figured and
described (fig. 6, Pl. 7), and contain very few inlying minerals. All
these, however, in this and the other granites according to the portion
of the crystal exposed to view give remarkable changes of colour.

Dull white felspar (Adularia?).—This felspar when examined is
similar in structure to the dull white felspar of the Knockanayoddy
eranite and the dull green soapy felspar of the Ballynahown rock.
In one of these crystals that had a lined structure when viewed with
a power of 386, the lining appears to be due to broken and more or
less irregular walls of quartz, that give shades of violet when the
intervening spaces appear a translucent yellowish white, that had
inlers consisting of irregular large white spots, minute black specks,
and long black crystals. A group of crystals of felspars in one of the
slices (B‘) under a low power (42) appear to be similarly constituted,
but each had a character of its own when viewed with a power of 238
(fig. 12, Pl. 7). The upper crystal on the right hand is of the
ordinary character belonging to this dull white felspar, being more or
less opaque, and spotted over with iridescent particles. The crystal to
the left hand has an irregular lining, somewhat similar to that just
now described, consisting ‘of walls of quartz separating whitish spotted
portions, except that the quartz walls are thicker and more con-
spicuous than the intervening portions ; while the lower crystal to the
right hand is traversed by minute dark parallel lines, that m places in
the lower portion of the crystal are associated with partial walls of
quartz, all being crossed somewhat obliquely by newer minute parallel
whitish lines. In the latter crystal, under a still higher power (386),
the dark nearly horizontal lines are found to be principally due to more
or less regular lines of probably oblique sections of minute oval
tubes (fig. 13, Pl. 8), with which are associated short black lines,
that seem to be vacancies, while the slightly oblique les crossing
them appear to have been shrinkage fissures that subsequently were
filled by some white substance. All these crystals seem to be the same
felspar, with different appearances, due to different structures.

The triclinie felspar (Oligoclase ?).—This felspar in these slices is
always more or less associated with the dull white felspar, but in the
slice with the twin crystal of orthoclase (B+), there are some good
exposures of crystals and irregular masses, which change from faint
ribands of shades of grey and yellowish grey, to shades of violet,
purple, and blue. Fig. 14, Pl. 8, represents a portion of one of these
crystals under a power of 238. These crystals contain little black
inliers (pyrite?) while scattered through the oligoclase (?) are other
similar black crystals. In one place in this slice (B*), under a power
of 196, was detected a mass having a peculiar structure, as the riband
takes an irregular semi-radiating form, in places being somewhat

100 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

plumose (fig. 15, Pl. 8). As the power is increased it becomes
evident that the appearance is due to five crystals being tangled up
together; and with a power of 296 the ribands appear to be regular,
the curled aspect being due im part to refraction at the junctions of
the crystals. Under a power of 386 the whole is seen dotted over with
minute black specks, with some short black lines; the specks in some
places being more numerous than in others (fig. 16, Pl. 8). Some of
these specks, especially those in the upper crystal, are evidently gas
bubbles, but more than three-fourths in the whole mass seem to be
minute crystals or bunches of crystals.

Fig. 17, Pl. 8, represents another crystal, showing under a power
of 296, a somewhat similar construction. In the upper portion the
layers are slightly crumpled and crushed up, especially the lower ones.
In the small portion to the left hand the lamina run obliquely, while
in the crystal to the right hand there was seen by polarized light, a
whitish mass traversed most irregularly by blue walls and roundish
masses. Under a higher power (386) the composition of the upper and
left hand crystals seem similar to that of the five just described, the
mass being all dotted over with black specks and gas bubbles; and the
irregular mass to the right hand seems to be inclined to have a con-
centric structure.

B>. Porphyritic granite—Kirkullen (Galway sheet 81). In the
field it seems to contain flesh-coloured felspar, light green waxy
felspar, quartz, amphibole, black mica, pyrite, small spangles of white
mica; crystals of titanite are rare. The flesh-coloured and the light
green felspars seem to occur in about equal quantities, but large,
usually twin crystals of the first, give the porphyritic character to
the rock mass, but some of the light green felspar crystals are large
also. The micas, amphibole, and pyrites, occur in nests usually
associated with thé quartz skeleton, but the micas also occur margining
some of the crystals of the green felspar.

Of this rock one slice was cut showing its ordinary character, and
from it we learn there are at least three kinds of felspar in the rock,
although only two were observed in the field.

Elesh-coloured felspar (Orthoclase). .None of the large crystals were
examined, but the small crystals and masses seem to be quite different
from those observed in the previously examined rock (B', B‘, B, and B*),
as they contain numerous inlying minerals, similar to the twin crystals
in the Knockanavoddy (B') and Furbogh (B* and B*) granites.

Pale greenish felspar. This, as it appeared in the field, seemed to
be similar to the greenish waxy felspar of the Knockanavoddy granite,
but under the microscope we find the mass of it has characters similar
to those of the dull white felspar of that rock, but with it are
associated crystals and portions of crystals of a triclinic felspar. Under
a power of 63, one crystal of this kind of felspar was found to be
enveloped in triclinic felspar, and another crystal has a centre and
semi-envelope of triclinic felspar,while enclosed portions of crystals of
triclinic felspar are not uncommon. Many of the crystals and_masses of

Kananan—On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. 101

this felspar are so opaque that their structure cannot be properly seen;
this is probably due to the slice not being cut thin enough. Enough,
however, can be seen to know that the felspar is similar to those pre-
viously described and supposed to be adularia.

Tricline felspar. This felspar, when the rock was examined in
the field, could not be distinguished from the preceding. In the
portions of the crystals associated with the adularia (?) the lines of
structure are straight and parallel, and the play of colour regular, but
this is not the case in the individual crystals and masses. In one
crystal, with a power of 196, there are straight, sharp, but not per-
fectly parallel, lines, while the play of colours is faint. . Under
a power of 396 the straight sharp lines seem to be due to cleavage
or shrinkage lines, and are now filled by thin films of a black
mineral ; they probably are accidental adjuncts to the crystal. In a
second mass of triclinic felspar we find, with a power of 196, that the
layers of structure are not parallel, some being inclined to be lenticular,
the lines of green and white being short, of different thicknesses, or
joining into one another; yet the play of colour is very regular.

k.I, A. PROC., SER. II., VON. II., SCIENCE. P

102 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

XVII.—Granitic AnD oTHER IncEenrTE Rocks or Yar-ConNAUGHT, AND
THE LowER OWLE; OR THE MOUNTAINOUS TRACT OF COUNTRY WEST OF
Loveys Mask anp Corrrs. By G. Henry Kinanan, M.R.LA.,
F.R.G.S8.1., &c., with Plates 9, 10, 11 and 12.

[Read November 13, 1871].*

Object of the Essay.

Dvurine an examination extending over seven years on the part of
the Irish branch of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom,
of the rocks in the mountaimous country west of Loughs Mask and
Corrib (parts of the counties Mayo and Galway), certain facts as to
their age, position, and relations to one another were gradually
developed, and certain convictions as to their origin formed.

In this paper it is proposed to lay before the Academy an epitome
of the facts observed ;} also some suggestions in regard to the origin of
the granites and other ingenite rocks.

The latter are specially put forward in the hope that they may be
examined and criticised by more competent judges than the author, and
thereby their value proved.

In the first part of the paper it is proposed to enumerate and give
a general description of the rocks; while in the second part will be
found suggestions to account for their origin and relations one to the
other.

* The publication of this paper has unavoidably been delayed by the MSS.
having been mislaid after it was referred to Council for publication.

t+ The details relating to these rocks will be found in the published memoirs of
the Irish branch of the Geological Survey.

~ Mr. D. Forbes has proposed to divide all rocks into two great classes. First,
Ingenite rocks (born, bred, or created within or below); and second, Derivate rocks,
“ since directly or indirectly they are all derived from the destruction of the former.”
(The Microscope in Geology, by David Forbes, F.R.S., page 6), reprinted from
the Poputar Scrence Review, October, 1867. In the first are included all
granitic, metamorphic and igneous rocks, while the second contains all sedimentary
and other subaqueous or subaerial accumulations. The geological terms neces-
sary for a description of the ingenite rocks have been used by some authors in
most conflicting senses, while many rock-names are unintelligible on account of
their being given by the many writers to rocks of different characters. In this
essay all words of one class will have the same signification. Thus, words ending
in ic or ose, will signify ‘ belonging to’; as, Granitic, belonging to granite ; Schistose,
belonging to schist; and words ending in oid will signify ‘like’; as granitoid,
granite-like ; gneissoid, gneiss-like, &e. Rock-names, except when absolutely
objectionable, will be used for the rocks to which they were originally given, but at
the same time, to prevent confusion, the ordinary composition of the rock will be
stated. Dana’s suggestion for an ending of yte instead of ite for rock-names will
be adopted, also his name for minerals.

KinaHan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 103

Part I.
Rock-names and general description.

The ingenite rocks of this area include Plutonic rocks (Basic and
highly Siliceous) ; Metamorphic rocks (Sedimentary and Igneous), and
Granitic rocks.

General Table of the Rocks.

Prurontc Rocxs.— Carboniferous (?) Whinstones; Post-silurian’
Whinstones; Llandovery Whindstones ; Pre-Llandovery Whinstones ;
Cambro-silurian (?) Whinstones (Metamorphic) ; Post-selurian Fel-
stones; Silurian Felstones (Llandovery age); Pre-Llandovery Felstones ;
Cambro-silurian (?) Felstones (usually Metamorphic).

Meramorpuic Rocxks.—Schist, meluding schistose-limestone, schis-
tose-dolomyte, ophyte, and steatyte; Gneiss; Hornblende rock* (meta-
morphic whinstone); Joliated Felstone or Gneissyte and Granitoid
Felstone (metamorphic felstone).

Granitic Rocks.—Lilvanyte or Quarts Porphyry ; Oligoclasict Gra-
nite; Orthoclasic or Highly Siliceous Granite.

Prorontc Rocxs.t—In the foregoig list the oldest whinstones and
felstones, except a few of the latter, are more or less metamorphosed ;
consequently they do not now belong to the plutonic rocks and cannot
be described among them, but their descriptions will be found among
the metamorphic rocks, under the names, Hornblende rock, Gneissyte,
and Granitoid Felstone. They are enumerated in the list to show
their age and origin.

Whinstones.—The term whinstone is here used in preference to
greenstone on account of the varied significations given to the latter.
Naumann confines the name to diabase ; Brongniart to dioryte (amphi-
bole + felspar, not orthoclase) ; Cotta includes in his greenstone group,
diabase and dioryte; while Jukes and many other British geologists
included not only all the basic-plutonic rocks or whinstones but also
many of the basic felstones (Eurytes of Daubuisson), especially if the
latter are of a green colour.

Pre-Llandovery Whinstone.-—These rocks seem principally if not
wholly to belong to the group of rocks that are included under the
general name of diabase | pyroxene (diallage generally) + felspar (not

* This term is used as Macculloch used it.

+ These granites were originally called oligoclasic granites, as the waxy felspar
was supposed to be oligoclase; now, however, by microscopical examination, it is
found to be in part orthoclase, probably adularia. The names, however, may still
stand, as oligoclase seems to be an essential element of the rocks, while it is rare
in the orthoclasic granite. [Note while in press. |

~ From Plutus, the god of the infernal or lower regions, the name haying been
given to these rocks in contradistinction to the volcanic rocks or those formed at or
near the present surface of the earth.

104 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

orthoclase) + ripidolite]. They are light greenish or purplish to bright
green in colour; tough but weather more or less freely ; generally have
a scaly or mealy aspect ; some, however, are compact (dzabase-aphanyte).
They break with an uneven to a subhackly fracture, and fuse mere or
less readily before the blowpipe. Some diabase is magnetic, due to the
rock contaiming pyrrhotite as an essential (magnetic or pyrrhotitic
diabase); a common variety is highly micaceous (mzcaceous-diabase), while
others are both micaceous and pyritic, the latter often weathering into
a mica-ferruginous sand which may be magnetic.

Llandovery Whinstone—Bedded dolorytes in the Toormakeady con-
glomerates.

Post-silurian Whinstone—Some of these rocks apparently are very
similar to the diabase already described, while im others uralite replaces
the diallage (wralitic-diabase). Some of the uralitic-diabase seems in
places to graduate into a rock apparently a euryte or basic felstone.

Carboniferous (?) Whinstone—The age of these rocks has not been
positively proved,* nevertheless, it is evident that they are newer than
the rock just described, as in all places where rocks of both groups are
associated together the diabase is displaced and cut by these whinstones ;
moreover, they seem to be newer than all the felstones. They are
dolerytes, probably melaphyres [pyroxene + felspar (not orthoclase) with
or without some amphibole]. These dolerytes are from granular to
compact, have a glistering resinous lustre, are dark-coloured (blackish,
blackish-brown, and dark olive), and tough. The compact, homo-
geneous varieties (melaphyre-aphanyte) have a conchoidal fracture,
while the granular rocks break from uneven to subhackly. Some
of the melaphyres are porphyritic, while others are more or less
micaceous (micaceous-melaphyre). In a few were observed siliceous
blebs (opal ?); all fuse readily before the blowpipe. When in mass the -
outside shell of these dolorytes has a peculiar tuffoid aspect and con-
tains few or many zeolites.t All the melaphyres, but especially the
aphanytes, usually weather freely, the latter nearly always beimg im
narrow dykes. The free weathering seems in part due to the structure
of the rocks, many being very jointy, causing them to break up into small
angular fragments. This reticulated structure appears to be caused by
a rude columnar structure perpendicular to, anda platy structure
rudely parallel to the walls of the dykes. In some of these rocks there
is a spheroidal structure combined with the platy (fig. B, Pl. 9), while
in others the fragments into which the rock breaks, are found to con-
sist of consecutive layers. In one locality, part of a dyke was found to
be amygdaloidal ; this structure occurred along a joint in the dyke (see

* My colleague, R. G. Symes, F.R.G.S.1., &., &., has proved that whin-
stones in the neighbourhood of Castlebar, Co. Mayo, exactly similar to those now
being described, are of carboniferous age.

+ These tuffoid portions may be due to the rock mass being protruded into
water; consequently, the outer part would be liable to be pulverised and disinte-
grated (see page 113).

KanwaHan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 105

fig. A, Pl. 9). These whinstone dykes often occur associated with older
intrusive rocks, coming up alongside or in them, on which account in
some places rocks of quite different ages are found associated together.
A whinstone in a granite vein, and this granite vem in hornblende
rock, has been observed in various places.

Felstones of post-silurian age-—These felstones are newer than the
rocks of Llandovery age ; they come up through the silurian, the meta-
morphic, and the granitic rocks. They are blue, greenish-blue, or grey
im colour, from compact to splintery, often more or less granular, and
with a fracture from semiconchoidal to uneven. In places when
traversing certain argillaceous rock there are no walls to the dykes, the
two rocks merging into one another as if the adjoiming part of the
derivate rock had melted, and thereby been amalgamated with the fel-
stone. Some, if not all, these rocks belong to the ewrytes or basic fel-
stones (one of the hybrid-rocks of Durocher), as splinters fuse on the
edge before the blowpipe, some even seeming to graduate into a
urilitic-diabase. Others are porphyritic merging into porphyrite; the
latter more generally being found as small dykes or as thin portions
alongside the walls of large dykes. In the latter case although the
major portion of the dyke may be grey or green in colour, splintery
or granular in texture, and breaking with an uneven fracture, yet a
few inches in thickness alongside the walls will be of a clear blue
colour with distinct felspar crystals (a porphyrite), compact and break-
ing with a conchoidal or subconchoidal fracture. Some of these fel-
stones are so jointy that they break up into an angular shingle or
gravel—in some there is a platy arrangement parallel or nearly so to
the walls of the dykes, while in others or in parts of others there is an
oblique structure, and often between the oblique lines are others per-
pendicular to them, as shown in fig. C, Pl. 9. At or near the ter-
mination of dykes a spheroidal structure is common, more or less
combined with a platy arrangement.

Felstones of upper silurian age (Llandovery ).—These felstones occur
as bedded masses among the rocks of upper Llandovery age and as dykes
in the granitic and other hypogene rocks. Among the Llandovery rock
they are associated with tuffs, agglomerates, and such lke mechanical
accompaniments; in places the basal-bed of the Toormakeady and
Mweelrea beds is one of these felstones. Among the hypogene rocks
the dykes sometimes graduate ito amphibolic-elvanyte.

These rocks are usually very compact, eften cornoid; some, however,
are scorious and amygdaloidal ; they may be porphyritic or pass into
porphyrite. In places when in bed-like masses they have a columnar
structure. They are from green to purple in colour ; often are quartzitic,
especially the purple rocks, containing blebs, globules, and crystals of
glassy quartz that usually have a dull pellicle. Before the blowpipe
they fuse with greater or less facility, the purple varieties on the edges of
splinters, but some of the green rock readily into a bead. All the green
varieties are very basic, some indeed appearing to graduate into whin-
stone. One variety is maculated, roundish and oval dark blue patches

106 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

occurring in a light purplish blue matrix; these maculee decompose
freely, and give the weathered surface of the rock an irregular honey-
comb aspect ; they also fuse easily before the blowpipe, but the matrix
only slightly on the edges of splinters. There is also a variolitic green-
ish variety, dark green small concretions in a light green base; this
rock is very friable and possibly may be a compact tuff and not a nor-
mal igneous rock. All these felstones are basic varieties, the evrytes of
Daubuisson.* In some of the dykes of micaceous-euryte there is a fine
platy structure that unless carefully examined may be mistaken for
foliation. In different places in this area, but very numerous in the
west part of the barony of Ballynahinch, are dykes of basic-elvanyte ;
these in places seem to graduate into these eurytes, and probably were
the roots or deep-seated portions of the upper silurian felstones.

Pre-Llandovery felstones—The rocks of this age only occur as dykes
and intrusive masses in the hypogene rocks. For the most part they
seem to be petro-silex or the rocks called felsyte by Dana, Cotta, Forbes,
and others. Some are cornoid, others saccharoid in appearance ;
usually the constituent are undeveloped, save the quartz, which appears
in some as blebs, globules, and crystal often very minute (quartzitic-
petro-siler). Some of the saccharoid varieties graduate into a rock very
similar in aspect to the fe/stic-granite described hereafter. Either
kinds may become porphyritic and micaceous, and through that graduate
into elvanyte. In some of the cornoid petro-silex there is a riban of
different colours or of dark and light shades of one colour (7zban petro-
siler), while along the riban the rock has a tendency to split into
plates or slabs; these rocks are often quartzitic. A common variety of
petro-silex is of a whitish pink, greenish blue or greyish colour, sub-
translucent, homogeneous, compact, breaking with a conchoidal fracture,
and weathering with a thick white crust. This variety, although com-
pact, is often effected by three or more systems of close jointing that
cause it to break up into angular shingle, often partaking more or less
of acubical form. When not jointed this variety weathers with a remark-
able smooth even surface.

Cambro-silurian felstones.—In the country north of Killary Harbour,
associated with partially metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are fel-
stones (also in places partly altered) occurring in protrusions and im
dykes. The rock when unweathered is usually of a bright green
or grey colour ; it, however, weathers easily into a dirty cream-coloured
rotten rock. In the dykes this felstone often has a peculiar breciated
structure having an appearance more like a coarse tuff or a fault-rock
than a normal felstone ; nevertheless, in other parts its true character is

* Naumann and Cotta propose to call these varieties Porphyrites. It, however,
is a most inappropriate and confusing name; for in the first place, as Cotta himself
points out, “the name of porphyrite refers to a texture which is not an essential
feature of these rocks, because the porphyrites are not always in fact porphyritie ;”
and in the second place, porphyrite and porphyry are used synonymously by many
petrologists, Cotta even so using it.

— + eee

Kinanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 107

indisputable. When in protrusion a considerable portion of the mass
will be a scaly or mealy, friable, tuffoid rock; some parts, however,
will be compact, and all will be more or less unctuous as if the rock
was merging into steatyte. These rocks must be very ancient compared
with the rocks last described, as they were intruded prior to the meta-
morphism of the associated rocks.

Hyvocrné Rocxs.—The hypogene rocks include the metamorphic
and granitic rocks given in the general table. In the country west of
Loughs Mask and Corrib the development of these different rocks is
well shown, as normal sedimentary, or derivate rocks first become
partially metamorphosed (schzst serves) ; secondly, the alteration becomes
more decided (gneiss series); and thirdly, they are entirely changed
(metamorphic and intrusive granite). Intervening between the
typical granites and the plutonic rocks are found the elvanytes. It
has previously been shown that the plutonic rocks graduate into
elvanyte and hereafter it will be pointed out that the latter rocks
graduate into the intrusive granite, and through that into the meta-
morphic granite. The rocks composing the schist-series are for the
most part schist; nevertheless, in them are subordinate beds of gneiss,
on account of some rocks being more susceptible of change than others,
while in others the constituents of gneiss (quartz + mica + felspar or
felsite*) already existed. The latter, however, are seldom typical
gneiss, that is, having these constituents arranged in leaves or plates,
but rather the minerals are more or less irregularly mixed together,
only an incipient foliation beg developed. Similarly in the gneiss-
serves there are subordinate beds of schist, as some rocks on account of
their constituents are less susceptible of change than others; while
associated with the rocks of both the schist and gneiss-series are meta-
morphosed igneous rocks.

‘When the rocks begin to be altered, the “Stans: of the most marked
structure in the original rock are more or less glazed or micacised, and
the mass indurated. In argillaceous rocks the surfaces of joint lines,
breaks, or fissures are hardened and in some cases these, originally open
lines, are sealed; or the sides, varying from a film to two or three inches
in width, are hardened, seemingly by being impregnated with some such
substance as silex in solution. On the surfaces of some rocks, crystal-
line lines about the size of whipcord form, sometimes straight but often
vermicular ; moreover, such minerals as phylite, chiastolite, pyrite, and
the like, are developed indiscriminately through the mass of the rock or
on the structural planes, beg most conspicuous under the latter cir-
cumstance. A primary change, prevalent in arenaceous rocks, 1s a more
or less scaly or fissile structure being developed, while others become
variolitic or maculated, all being more or less indurated and glazed on

* Felsite is the mineral, an amalgamate of felspar and silex, while the rock will
be called Felsyte.

108 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

the structural planes.* Gradually the rock becomes typical schist, when
in some of the micasyte, talco-micasyte, and tale-yte, a peculiar
frilled or sharply crumpled struction is developed. This structure
is very remarkable, as no structure similar to it occurs in the unaltered
- rocks. Moreover, it seems to disappear in the last stage of meta-
morphism as it has not been remarked in any of the rocks of the gneiss- *
series. In some of the quartzytes or quartz-schist there is also a
peculiar structure, having an aspect scarcely distinguishable from the
planed, polished, and etched surfaces due to ice action. This, how-
ever, always occurs only on the original planes of stratification, and
if the rock is flaggy and is split into plates the surface of each plate
will be a counterpart of that above it, from which it would appear this
structure is probably due to a cleavage in the original rock. If this
was the case all other traces of the cleavage have now disappeared, as
the present rock has no tendency to split except along the planes of
deposition.

The schists graduate into gneiss and the gneiss through granitoid-
gneiss or gneissoid-granite into typical granite.

The granitoid-gneiss has a foliation peculiar to itself. In all
the other rocks belonging to both the schist and the gneiss series the
foliation appears always to follow the most prominent structure in the
original rock, let it be fine-jointing, cleavage, or lamination, whether
the latter is parallel, oblique, curled, spheroidal, concretionary,
nodular, or conglomeritic.t, In granitoid-gneiss other laws seem

* The partially altered grits and sandstone called by Macculloch “ Primary
Sandstone,” (4 Geological Classification of Rocks, &c., by John Macculloch, M. D.,
F.R.S., &., page 331), are largely represented in the country west of the northern
end of Lough Mask. Associated with them are subordinate beds of micasyte
argillyte and clay-slate, while towards the west they graduate into quartzyte. The
clay-slate and argillyte are due to the metamorphism of argillaceousrocks, whilein this
locality much of the micasyte was originally a micaceous, obliquely laminated
sandstone, and in the schist it is quite apparent that the foliation has been induced
by the oblique lamination. The ‘ Primary Sandstones”’ are, for the most part, mas-
sive, compact, and hard, generally very arimaceous, but sometimes felsitic; rarely
are they gneissoid. As they graduate into quartzyte a fissile structure is developed
parallel to the stratification planes; they are generally of a reddish or purplish
colour.

+ The frilled or sharply crumpled structure previously mentioned, in some
micasyte and talcytes, is the only exception to this general rule that I have detected.
A crumpled lamination occurs in some unaltered argillaceous rocks, to which,
in another place, I drew attention (On Craunpled Lamination in Shales, Journal Geol.
Soc., Dublin, 1868); but that has its representative among the foliation. This
also I have previously pointed out (Notes on the Foliation of the gneiss and
Schist of Yar-Connaught, Journal Royal Geol. Soc., Dublin, 1866). Moreover, it has
not an aspect analogous to this structure; furthermore, it is rare, while this is not
uncommon. In schistose-limestone, schistose-dolomyte, and ophyte, there are very
complicated foliations, and at one time I was inclined to suppose they must be due.
entirely to the metamorphic action. This, however, I find not.to be the case, for, on
a careful examination in many places of unaltered limestone, I find that, as a general
rule, it is always more or less affected by all sorts of irregular structures not

Kinanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 109
to be in operation. The foliation is linear, parallel, and perpendi-
cular, or nearly so, and in general the only original structure
that seems to affect it, seemingly, is the strike of the stratification. As
the gneiss became more and more granitoid, and perhaps also granitic,
the original structure gradually became obliterated, and the foliation
more and more perpendicular.* The only other structure that in
places seems to resist the change is that of the conglomeritic gneiss.
Usually the contained blocks in the latter, as the rock changes from
schist to gneiss, become elongated, with the foliation curling more or
less regularly round them (fig. F, Pl. 9); and as the rock graduates
into granitoid-gneiss a linear parallel foliation is developed, obliterating
the conglomeritic foliation, the matrix becoming a more or less fine
gneiss, and the contained blocks coarse gneiss, the margins of the
latter, as shown in the sketch (fig. D, Pl. 9), being still traceable ;
but eventually one kind merges so completely into the other that, ex-
cept on very minute examination, no. difference will be observed.
This, however, is not always the case, for, in some places, the enclosed
blocks will remain distinct in both composition and aspect; moreover,
these will deflect the foliation in their vicinity, it curling round them.
Furthermore, these blocks, although generally more or less elongated,
will not always be so modified, as in a few rare instances they were
remarked to be more or less angular, the latter even having been
observed in the intrusive oligoclasic-granite (see fig. HK, Pl. 9.) In
the common gneiss of the gneist series, felspar and felsite, or even only
felsite, may be present associated with the mica and quartz; but in
the granitoid-gneiss all the constituents seem to be developed in
regular crystalline particles, no felsite matter remaining, it all having
been developed into quartz and felspar, and hereafter the microscopist
may prove that the granitoid-gneiss ought not to be kept in the gneiss-
series, but rather included among the granites, and called Foliated or
Gneissord-granite. Nevertheless the granitoid-gneiss, or the gneissoid-
granite, will always be the passage rock between the gneiss and the
typical granite. The accompanying section (fig. R, Pl. 12) shows
the passage from the schist into typical granite.

Meramorpuic Dertvate Rocxs.—Schist.—The most conspicuous
rocks of this class that were noted in the area to which this essay
refers are :—Argillyte, or Argillous-schist, Micasyte, or Mica-schist,
Quartzyte, or Quartz-schist, Hornblendyte, or Amphibole-schist, Chlorityte,

generally con&picuously developed, but sufficient to induce foliation, and similar
in their sinuosity and vagaries to those found in the schistose-limestone, schistose-
dolomyte, and ophyte.

* In the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia, p. 169, Blanford calls special atten-
tion to the regular and nearly perpendicular foliation in the gneissic rocks, not only
of that country but also of western India. That observer suggests that it is
due to cleavage in the original rock. 'This, however, to me seems improbable, as
one and the same cause probably affect both the Irish and the African rocks, and
in Ireland it was not cleavage.

Xk. I. A. PROC.—SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. Q

110 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeniy.

or Ripidolite-schist, Talcyte, or Taleschist, Felsityte, or Felsite-schist,
Schistose-Limestone, Schistose-dolomyte, Ophiolyte, or Serpentine, and
Steatyte.

Argillyte.—Typical argillyte is an argillous rock, in which the
planes of lamination are more or less glazed, and also often the planes
of cleavage, but not always, as some slates belonging to the meta-
morphic series have a more or less earthy cleavage surface. The most
common of the varieties in this area seems to be Chloritic-argillyte,
Clay-slate, Steatitic-argillyte, some of which might be called Stea-
tityte, or WSteatite-schist, Hornblendic-argillyte, -Arenaceous-argillyte,
Caleareous-argillyte, Dolomitic-argillyte, Ophiolitic-argillyte, Pyritic-
argillyte, and Chiastolitie-argillyte. Structural varieties are coarse,
jine, crumpled, spheroidal, coneretionary, nodular, conglomeritic, knotty,
full of small nodules or concretions, giving the rock a knotty aspect,
erregular, oblique, and rvbaned, the latter variety being rather common.*

Micasyte.—This rock is par excellence the typical schistose rock of
the country, its varieties in composition being nearly innumerable, and
some one or other of these varieties graduate into one or other of
every kind of schist. In composition the principal varieties are
argillous-micasyte, two-micasyte, quartzitic-micasyte, hornblendic-micasyte,
chloritic-micasyte, talcose-micasyte, garnetiferous-micasyte, _felsitic-
micasyte, calcitic-micasyte, dolomitic-micasyte, ophiolitic-micasyte, and
pyritic-micasyte. Any of these varieties may graduate in one of the
schists hereafter enumerated ; moreover, two or more of these varieties
may be combined, forming endless sub-varieties.

Micasyte has similar structural varieties to argillyte, and in addi-
tion to these the peculiar frilled structure previously described is
common; also, it may be gneissoid, through which it graduates into
eneiss. Two subvarieties of quartzitic-micasyte deserve special
mention and description. One is fibrous-micasyte, in which the quartz
is arranged in thin stalks or layers, giving the rock a woody aspect.
In some the stalks are long and irregular, while in others they are more
or less ovate. When the inliers of quartz are oval, a cross section of the
rock has a marked character forming a more or less regular net-work.
In the second there are small, thin, round, slightly elongated discoid
pieces of quartz scattered through the rock, sometimes sparingly but
often thickly together. The rock when weathered has the appearance
of being scattered over or stuck full of small pieces of money from the
size of a silver penny to that of a sixpence, from which the rock might
be called nwmmord or money-schist. The fibrous and nummoid-schists
eraduate into one another.

Quartzyte or Quartz-schist—Quartz-schist to me seems to be
given a prominence to which it is not entitled, as quartz-schist among

* Other varieties may occur, but in this and all other lists only the rocks
observed are mentioned. Particular descriptions of the varieties are unnecessary,
as they will be found in the different works on Petrology; therefore, in this essay,
the only varieties that will be minutely described are those that are peculiar.

Kinawan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. lil

other schist is not even analogous to grits or sandstones in a group of
sedimentary rocks, for all grits and sandstones are not metamorphosed
into quartz-schist, many changing into mica or other schists. In this
area the quartzyte has no true boundary, as both in depth and length
it graduates into other kinds of schist, and no matter how cha-
racteristic some portions of a series may be, other parts will be so
micaceous or felsitic, &c., &c., that except for thei associates they
would never be classed as quartzyte.*

The quartzytes generally are pale-greenish or white in colour, but
some are greyish, blueish, reddish, or blackish ; compact, hard, but
brittle ; when fractured, often have a saccharoid aspect, and usually have
a glimmering vitreous lustre. Few of these rocks are without flakes or
plates of mica, generally white, on the surface of the stratification or
lamination planes; some, however, are more or less massive, and in
them the mica is not very conspicuous. Many of the quartzytes are
affected by irregular joint system, on which account, when exposed to
atmospheric influences, they break up readily into angular shingle.
Some are ribaned, bands of different colours alternating ; many of them
seem capable of being split into flags, which is rarely practicable, on
which account they are locally called /ack-avrea, i. e. tangled flags.

In places in this area, a not uncommon variety of this schist is
felsitic-quartzyte, an ageresate of quartz andfelsite. This often occurs
as a massive or thick-bedded rock, and sometimes, as will hereafter be
more fully stated, it may possibly not be a metamorphosed derivate-
rock (see page 130). Felsitic-quartzyte may graduate into felsityte,
while ordinary quartzyte generally merges into quartzytic-micasyte.
It has been pointed out that usually a series of quartzytes graduates
into one or other of the different groups of schist; there is, however,
one remarkable exception, as lenticular masses and subordinate beds of
hornblendyte are not uncommon among the quartzytes of Yar-Con-
naught, and between these two kinds of rock there is nearly always a
hard abrupt boundary. These subordinate beds of hornblendyte will
again be mentioned.

Hornblendyte or Amphibole-schist —Hornblendic-micasyte graduates
into hornblendyte, while the latter often merges into chlority yte
or taleyte. The most interesting of all the schistose rocks in Yar-
Connaught are the hornblendytes, as they for the most part must
originally have been tuffs or tuffose rocks, as they are intimately asso-

* There are some rocks called quartzyte (the Quartz-rock of Jukes) such as those
at Bray Head, Co. Wicklow; to these, however, I do not refer, as I believe that they
and ordinary quartz-schist belong to quite different classes of rock. From my above
remark I do not mean to say that in mapping a country the quartzyte ought to be
ignored ; on the contrary, I always advocate that any remarkable beds, no matter
how insignificant, ought to be traced out if the geology of the area is to be properly
ascertained. But I do object to hypothetical boundaries being laid down; and if
quartzyte is to be given a hard boundary and a separate colour on geological maps,
so ought micasy te, hornblendyte, felsityte, &c., and every bed of sandstones or
grits among sedimentar y rocks ; the absurdity of ‘which must strike everyone.

112 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ciated with bedded and intrusive masses of hornblende-rock. Of such
rocks Jukes says: ‘‘It is very possible that many hornblende-schists,
actinolite-schists, &e., are metamorphosed tuffs.”* Of tuffs and tuffose
rocks Forbes thus writes—‘‘ Subaerial or subaqueous outbursts may
force into the sea irruptive rocks, which, being at once broken up into
a state of division, more or less fine in pr oportion to the greater or
lesser cooling power of the water-mass in immediate contact, may be
spread out into beds by the action of the waves. The texture of these

rocks may vary from that of the coarsest breccia down to the finest
mad, and, as is usually the case, such deposits may present themselves
as alternating beds of coarse and fine character. Upon the consolida-
tion of such formations, rocks are formed identical in chemical and
mineralogical composition with the original irruptive rock from which
they were derived, and which, particularly when close-grained, often
present an external appearance so like the original rocks as to be fre-
quently undistinguishable from them by the naked eye.’’+ Scrope and
the other historians of the volcanic regions mention the accumulations
ot agglomerates and other tuffose rocks often associated with voleanie-
rocks, while in various places in Ireland, such as the plain of Limerick
and the vicinity of Valencia Harbour, Kerry, there are similar accumu-
lations associated with plutonic rocks; therefore, it does not appear at
all improbable that these ancient exotic rocks of Yar-Connaught should
also have had associated tuffs and other such mechanical accompani-
ments.

The hornblendytes of Yar-Connaught range from a fine, almost
compact, rock to a massive conglomeritic rock contaiming enclosed
masses or bloeks often yards in width.

The conglomeritic-hornblendyte is always more or less associated
with protrusions or beds of hornblende-rock. In places they graduate
into one another through a nodular or spheroidal variety of the latter,
while the conglomeritic-rocks, on the other hand, gradually loose all their
blocks and merge into ordinary schist. In others, the hornblende-rocks
and the conglomeritic are intermingled together irregularly, and the
mass formed of both combined, will be surrounded by the regular
stratified rocks of the country. This would seem to be additional
proof if any more is wanted, of these rocks originally being tuff and
agelomerates; for such a mass as that represented 1 in figs. xy Ppaleie
and R, Pl. 12, may well be considered the remains of an accumulates
formed around a subaqueous plutonic vent.

In the immediate vicinity of a mass or tract of hornblende-rock the
enclosed blocks in the conglomerate will be, for the most part, some
one or other variety of igneous rock, some having an aspect like
scoria or pomice. Farther away they will be mixed with blocks of one
or more other kinds of rock, and eventually all the blocks will gradually
disappear and the rock graduate into an ordinary schist. In one locality

* Manual of Geology by J. Beete Jukes, M. A., F. R.5., second edition p. 82.
+ The Microscope in Geology, p. 10.

Kixanan—On Granitie and other Ingenite Rocks. 113

blocks of felstone were observed in a conglomeritic schist; these were
not only remarkable but highly instructive, for they not only proved
that felstones must have existed prior to the formation of this sedimen-
tary rock, but also that some felstones are less susceptible of change than
whinstones, for while the matrix was a well marked schist, and in the
associated blocks, mostly hornblende-rock, there was more or less folia-
tion, these were very similar to ordinary felstone, the only alteration
that was evident being an almost microscopic foliation, obscurely
visible to the naked eye, on weathered surfaces.

The foliation in the conglomeritic-schists is irregular. That in the
enclosed blocks may run in various directions, while that of the matrix
has a greater or less tendency to curl round the blocks, but in some
cases it is very irregular (fig. F, Pl. 9).

The fine hornblendyte is often more or less associated with
hornblende-rock. Sometimes the latter rock at the margin graduates
into it, when it is impossible, except pieces of the rocks have been
subjected to microscopic examination, to say where one rock ends and
the other begins; while at other times it occurs as lenticular patches
or layers enclosed in the mass, or as thin partings. In such cases it is
probable they were formed from the disintegrated portions of the or1-
ginal igneous rock due to its contact with water, the enclosed layers
and patches marking the limits of different flows or beds.* Fine horn-
blendyte may also occur as independent beds when it often gra-
duates into chlorityte, talcyte, steatityte, or hornblendic-micasyte,
but it is most remarkable when it appears associated with quartzyte,
for, as previously remarked, in such places it rarely graduates mto
that schist, such masses apparently being due to showers of tuft
falling on water and settling down in one place, forming a distinct,
small, but independent, patch of rock. All the fine hornblendytes are
more or less epidotic or they may change into a rock that might be
called epidoticyte.

The weathering of these fine schists and also many other varieties
of schist that are more or less basic should be noted, for in them the
old joint lines seem to have been cemented or sealed, while layers of
rock in juxtaposition to the joint lines have been hardened, thereby
causing on weathered surfaces more or less angular figures (figs. G, H,
Pl. 9, and P, Pl. 10). Inthe more siliceous rocks the old lines are
not so often cemented or sealed, but it 1s not uncommon even in
granites to find, adjoining to the joint lines, layers indurated, appa-
rently silicified (fig. H, Pl. 9).

Chlorityte, Talcyte-—These rocks seem to be very much allied,
as one rarely occurs without the other. ‘Some were observed to be
tourmalinic, others garnetiferous. They graduate into varieties of
micasyte and into hornblendyte.

Felsityte—This schist has, besides others, two marked varieties,

* Tuffose layers between flows or beds of plutonic rocks are found in Cork,
Kerry, Limerick, and other places.

114 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

namely, the fine compact and the scaly friable. The fine rock has an
aspect very similar to quartzyte, but distinguishable from that schist
by its always weathering with a white crust similar to felstone. The
scaly or friable felsityte seems for the most part to be an aggregate
of minute felspathic flakes or scales; nevertheless, it is very tough and
hard to break across, but along the grain can be split with greater or
less facility ; across the grain it breaks with a hackly fracture. It is
always more or less steatitic. This variety of felsityte sometimes
occurs as a stratified rock, but in the country north of Killary
Harbour it undoubtedly is in places part of an intrusive mass, being
the tuffoid portion of the hereafter mentioned felstone protrusions,
which rock having been metamorphosed is changed into these schists.
It may be here suggested that all the felsitytes and perhaps also
the felsitic-quartzytes are probably metamorphosed felsitic tuffs and
tuffose rocks. These rocks, however, will hereafter be more fully
considered.

Subordinate schists which claim separate descriptions are pyrrho-
tityte or pyrrhotite-schist and rhetizityte or magnesian-schist on account
of their remarkable composition, the former also having been worked
for the minerals it contains.

Pyrrhotityte, when typical, is a crystalline aggregate of quartz,
pyrrhotite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite, with a little mica. As the mica
increases in quantity the sulphides decrease until eventually the rock
passes into mica-schist. In some varieties the mineralogical metals
predominate to the nearly total exclusion of all others; however, it is
very variable in its composition, having many accessories, and changing
rapidly from a highly metalliferous to a non-metalliferous rock.*

Rhetizyte or Magnesian-schist—This was only observed in one
locality (Cannaver Island, Lough Corrib). Of specimens of the rock
Mr. Forbes says—‘‘ Very identical with one described by me in Nor-
way.”

Cee eo Schistose-dolomyte, Ophiolyte, and Steatyte-—These
rocks, although different in aspect and composition to all other schistose-
rocks, must be classed among them, as they graduate into some one or

* Here it may be mentioned that in connexion with these schists there are
metalliferous lodes evidently older than the associated granite-veins, and apparently
of metamorphic origin. These consist of a crys stalline aggregate of pyrrhotite,
pyrite, chalcopyrite, “quartz, mica, orthoclase, and oligoclase, “with marcasite, amphi-
bole, &c., as accessories. Adjoining such lodes more recent lodes usually occur.
There are also veins of garnet-rock which seem to be connected with the metalli-
ferous strata, as they were not noted in any other parts of the country. This yein-
rock is a more or less crystalline mass of brown garnet; when very crystalline it
usually contains crystals of pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, quartz, oligoclase, &e.,
with the interstices filled with epidote and ribaned pearl-spar. Some fine crystals of
the epidote have been observed. The garnet crystals vary in size, some being over
an inch in diameter.

+ For the description of the Norway rock, see Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Lond.,
August, 1858.

Kanwanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 115

other of the previously described schists, and eventually when more
highly metamorphosed they appear to lose their individual character.

All the limestones and dolomyte* to be described are more or less
schistose, yet in many, the calcareous or dolomitic ingredients seem to
predominate to the nearly total exclusion of all others. This, however,
may be more apparent than real, and in such rocks the different foreign
substances may be amalgamated in the mass; for the purest of these
limestones, as compared with the carboniferous limestones, give in the
proportion of 1-5 to 2-5 or 3 of lime, equal quantities of both being
burnt.

The lmestone may be white and of a saccharoid aspect. This is
sometimes a handsome stone, but in many cases it is impregnated with
pyrite or marcasite, and consequently, when exposed to atmospheric
‘influence, it becomes discoloured. These white varieties occur in
various places, but the common colour of the schistose-limestone are
shades of blue and grey. The magnesian-limestone is usually white
or pale doye-colour; the white rock is sometimes dolomyte, but not
always, as many are calcitic-dolomytes. The pale dove-colour rocks
seem generally to be a mixture of calcityte and dolomyte. Some-
times the calcityte will occur in streaks, layers, specks, or patches in
a dolomitic mass, or the dolomyte will similarly occur in relation to
calcityte. One variety of the dolomyte is a milk-white, compact,
homogeneous fine-stone, breaks with a conchoidal fracture, has exter-
nally the aspect of alabaster, takes a fine polish, but is hard and some-
what difficult to cut.

The pale dove-coloured dolomyte and the calcitic-dolomyte appear
to be the parent rocks of the ophiolytes and ophicaleytes, commonly
known as ‘‘ Connemara serpentine or marble ;”? both of these rocks in
places occur in mass. At the surface of the ground the purest rock
seems always to occur ; some, apparently, answering Dana’s description
of precious serpentine. This rock m depth seems to graduate into dolo-
myte and calcitic-dolomyte. Similarly at the surface ophicalcyte may
occur, while in depth it seems to merge into calcitic-dolomyte. The
colours of the serpentines are various, dark green, nearly black, pale
green, greenish yellow, streaked, ribaned, variegated, maculated, and
variolitic varieties having been observed, the combinations including
different shades of green, yellow, white, grey, and blue, with, on rare
occasions, red, separately or combined.t}

Associated with the ophiolytes and ophicaleytes are ophitie and
steatitic-schists, and in some places steatyte ; these sometimes are of con-
siderable thickness. There are also green unctuous schists that may
possibly be smaragdityte or smaragdite-schist.t -

* Dolomyte is the rock, dolomite the mineral.

+ Ophytes also are found in Yar-Connaught. They, however, are pseudomorphose
igneous rocks and will be described with them.

{ These latter rocks seem to be described by Corra asa variety of eklogyte, but
typical eklogyte seems to be a pseudomorph ingenite rock.

i116 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Gneiss—Gneiss, as previously stated, ranges from schistose to
granitoid in structure. They may be fine, plat ty, vibaned, compact, coarse,
fibrous, granitoid, porphyritic, nodular, or conglomeritic. The four first
varieties usually are characteristic of the schist-series, In which they
occur as subordinate rocks. In the ribaned all the constituents are of
small sizes and form thin even layers; the fibrous has a structure some-
what similar to fibrous schist; the granitoid and porphyritic varieties
seem generally to occur together, while most of the nodular and con-
glomeritic gneiss seems to-be metamorphosed agglomerates.

In composition, gneiss may vary from highly siliceous to basic.
Rarely is it typical, that is, being composed only of plates or layers
of quartz, felspar, and mica, as various other minerals will also be pre-
sent, sometimes only as accessories, but generally as essentials in addi-
tion to or in part replacing the typical constituents. On this account
the varieties and sub-varieties are numerous, the following being the
most remarkable—quartzitic, felsitic, micaceous, hornblendic, chloritic,
and pyritic, the rock being named after the mineral that is more
developed or more conspicuous than the others, giving a character to
the mass.

ee ie rock is found as a bedded rock also in dykes
and intrusive masses. Associated with it are schist and gneiss, the
rocks from which it was formed evidently having been intruded con-
temporaneously with the deposition of the original sedimentary rocks.
Also associated with these rocks are granites that are supposed to be
metamorphosed felstones; consequently, it would seem that some of
these granite veins are older than some of the hornblende rock. This,
however, is more apparent than real. Both kinds of rock (whinstone
and felstone) seem to have been ejected at different intervals during
the accumulation of the sedimentary rocks, but all were metamorphosed
at the same time, the basic igneous rocks being changed into horn-
blende-rock, and the highly siliceous rocks into granitic or granitoid-
rocks, on which account it 1s evident such granites cannot be older
than the hornblende-rock, while the rocks from which the latter were
formed must have been intruded prior to the granite that was intruded
during or subsequent to the metamorphism of all the rocks.

Hornblende-rock varies much both in structure and composition,
apparently according to the nature of the original rocks ; still, how-
ever, all the varieties may conveniently be grouped under this old
name of Macculloch.* ;

Large protrusions of plutonic rocks in other localities, especially
if in part bedded masses, vary much in composition, part being
eurytes (basic felstones), and part whinstones, both often. occurring
associated together. Such would also seemingly have been the original
condition of the igneous rocks of Yar-Connaught, in part occurring
as outbursts and dykes, in part as bedded masses, and the latter

* See Handy Book of Rock Names, by the writer (Hardwicke, 1873), p. 61,
eft seq.

KinaHan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 1,

associated with tuffs and agglomerates, while in composition they
varied from felstones (probably as in the Co. Limerick and elsewhere
more cr less basic) to whinstones, and the different varieties of the
original rocks are now recorded by the variations in the metamorphic
rocks. The most common rock of this class in Yar-Connaught appears
to be an aggregate of crystals of amphibole, bluish or greenish felspar,
pyrite or marcasite, and a little ripidolite, mica, or such like as acces-
sories. It may be from finely to coarsely crystalline. Some are so
fine and compact that they might be called hornblende-aphanyte.
Others are an aggregate of crystals of amphibole, often apparently to
the nearly total exclusion of all other minerals. When very coarse
the crystals vary from two to four or five inches in length. These
rocks seem to be the typical hornblende-rock of Macculloch, Haughton,
Dana and others. <A variety not uncommon has well developed crys-
tals of felspar, not orthoclase (dzoryte) ;* while in another variety
the felspar is orthoclase (syenyte), quartz also often being present, not
necessary as an essential but rather as an accessory ingredient. One
sub-variety of the syenyte is remarkable, the orthoclase being devel-
oped to the nearly total exclusion of the other minerals, the rock being
a whitish or flesh-coloured mass through which crystals of amphibole
are scattered; this sub-variety (felso-syenyte) was only observed in
very subordinate quantities. Some hornblende-rock has orthoclase in
addition to the other felspars; in a variety, Messrs. Forbes and King
(India) called hyperyte, hyperstene replaces the amphibole. As some
of these hornblende-rocks are metamorphosed diabase [ pyrovene (dial-
lage) +felspar (not orthoclase) + ripidolite |, portion of the diallage may
remain unaltered, or portions may be replaced by hyperstene or an
allied mineral, thereby forming various complicated sub-varieties of the
rock.

In some varieties of hornblende-rock mica occurs as an accessory,
but in others as an essential (m2co-hornblende-rock). Commonly it is
a small black or blackish brown mica occurring more or less abundantly,
but besides black, white, pale sea-green, bronze, and reddish violet
have been observed.t| Some of these rocks seem to answer the descrip-
tion for kersantyte of Delesse. The white and the pale sea-green mica
generally occurs in large flakes, while the bronze and reddish violet

* (Gr. dioras, a clear distinction). I would suggest that it was to rocks of this
class the name was originally given, as in them the minerals are always quite dis-
tinct.

+ Mico-hornblende-rock is called by some “micatrap.” This classification
appears to be very vague, and evidently the group is not a petrological division.
Under this name they include minnette or micaceous-felstone and micaceous- elvanyte,
kersanton or micaceous-dioryte kersantyte, or micaceous-diabase, micaceous-
melaphyre, micaceous-doleryte, &c., &c., rocks belonging to quite different groups.
Moreover, part of a dyke in ac cordance with this classification might be a mica-trap,
while the rest of it belonged to a different class, or, what is not uncommon, the
margins of the dyke might be mica-trap, while the centre was doleryte or dioryte or
felstone or euryte or elvanyte.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. I., SCIENCE. R

118 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

usually is developed in small pockets, distributed regularly and abun-
dantly through the mass. As the mica decomposes more readily than
the other constituents, weathered surfaces of these mico-hornblende-
rocks have peculiar appearances. If the mica occurs in pockets or
nests, the rock surface becomes coarsely pitted (see fig. I. Pl. 9), while if
it is developed in large flakes, the rock when weathered presents sur-
faces on which are rude characters having a more or less angular arrange-
ment, as represented in the accompanying sketch map (fig. J, Pl. 9)
of a portion of a rock containing large flakes of silvery white mica.
Such varieties of the hornblende-rock are easily recognised on account
of the peculiar weatherings.

The varieties of hornblende-rock in places graduate into a granite
similar to the rock called Galway-type granite in the memoirs of the
Irish branch of the Geological Survey. Its description will be given
hereafter.

Actinolite or tremolite, wholly or in part, may replace the other
amphiboles, and the rock may consist of numerous hyaline acicular
erystals mixed with a felspathic paste, or numerous nests of such crys-
tals may occur in an amphibolic-felspathic matrix.

The actinolitic and tremolitic-hornblende-rocks are more or less
ophitic, or graduate into ophyte, steatyte, and such like rocks, the gra-
dation being very apparent among the rocks of the previously men-
tioned Cannaver Island.

The ophyte of this area, due to the decomposition of igneous
rock, is usually of adark leek-green, approaching black, colour, never-
theless a few subordinate patches of a light green were noted; always
it is more or less associated with hornblende-rock in places having sub-
ordinate beds or layers interstratified; the passage-rock between the
two may be called ophitie hornblende- rock or amphibolic-ophyte, according
to the mineral predominating. In some of these passage-rocks crystals
of amphibole occur in an ophitic matrix, or blotches or macule of
ophyte may be developed in an amphibolic base, or ophitic and amphi-
bolic particles may be more or less intimately mixed together. In some
it is evident that a hornblendic mineral has produced the ophyte, while
in other rocks it seems to be a pseudomorphism of a felspar. In some
of these rocks, flakes of a mineral, in aspect lke diallage, were
observed.

Massive ophyte is divided by Dana into precious and common. The
first ‘‘is of a rich oil-green colour, of pale or dark shades, and translu-
cent even when in thick pieces.”” The second ‘‘is of dark shades of
colour, and subtranslucent. The former has a hardness of 2°5—3 ; the
latter often of 4, or beyond, owing to impurities.” In west Galway,
among the rocks of intrusive origin, no precious or noble serpentine was
observed.

A rock allied to those just described, and evidently a pseudomorph
of hornblende-rock, has a bright green colour, and an unctious, com-
pact, homogeneous, tough matrix, im which are imbedded more or less
uregular crystals or crystalline patches of garnet, flakes of mica, with

KINnAHAN

On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 119

erystals of cyanite ; pyrite may also be detected in it. A specimen of
this rock was determined by Mr. D. Forbes to be eklogyte, while Mon.
A. Gage says it does not present the physical characteristics of that
well-known rock, but properly belongs to the serpentine series.

Steatyte occurs as subordinate quantities associated with the ophyte,
usually at the margin of masses, or in lenticular patches or irregular
veins; however, in other places it appears in mass. When freshly
broken it is of a pale greenish grey colour, but becomes a pale bluish
grey shortly after being exposed to the air; and subsequently decom-
poses into a rusty white or dirty cream-coloured substance. It is more
or less fissile, very unctious, tough, splits along the grain, but across it
breaks with a hackly fracture.

Steatyte in mass in places graduates into felsityte or hornblend-
yte. In the country north of Killary bay, the previously men-
tioned tuffoid portions of the protrusions of felstone (p. 114) graduate
through felsityte, and steatitic-felsityte into steatyte, while on Bofin
and Sharke islands the steatyte is associated with hornblendyte and
taleyte, and the mass formed of these rocks combined appears to come
up as a protrusion among the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, while
in the protrusion are peculiar irregular pipes, and bomb-shaped masses
of compact hornblende rock (Hornblende-aphanyte). (See fig. K, Pl. 10.)

‘From these circumstances I am led to suggest that the steatyte was
originally fine tuff, either basic or felspathic, in which were pipes and
irregular veins of igneous rocks, the remains of an accumulation
formed in the vicinity of a subaqueous plutonic outburst, similar
to that previously mentioned when describing the hornblendytes
(p. 116). These masses would seem not to haye been intruded up
among the sedimentary rocks, but rather to have been protrusions, that
subsequently were in part denuded away, while round them the
sedimentary rocks were being deposited, till eventually the latter
enveloped them.*

* In favour of this suggestion it should be stated that, in the places where horn-
blende rock, in combination with hornblendyte and conglomeritic-schist, form
masses that are protrusions in the associated gneiss and schists, the latter rocks
seem to be allied to them, having originally been formed of somewhat similar
materials. In the neighbourhood of the protrusions of steatyte on Bofin and
Sharke, the schists are, more or less, hornblendic and talcose, andin the country north
of Killary harbour the schists in the neighbourhood of the felspathic mass are,
more or less, felspathic, many of them being felsityte. This should be expected if
the above is correct; as part of the accumulation of tuff would remain as an irregu-
lar mass, while the portions destroyed by denudation should be deposited around
the residue; and, although not exactly similar, yet, in a great measure, par-
taking of its nature. To account for the rocks north of Killary harbour, we
might suppose a protrusion of felstone somewhat similar to one of these in
Auvergne, except that, instead of being subacial, it was subaqueous; the outside
portion of such a mass would be, more or less, disintegrated, and pulverised,
during the cooling process, by the water-mass in contact, and thereby produce
materials that, when deposited around, would form rocks very similar in com-
position and aspect.

120 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The hornblende-rock often merges into a nodular variety, or,
as previously stated, it may graduate into hornblendyte. (See figs.
Me rand IN, Pl. 10).

Often between it and the hornblendyte there is no rigid boundary,
their mineral composition apparently being identical, on which account
the derivate rock would seem to have been formed from fine particles
abraded off the mass, or from the outer portion having been pul-
verised, and disintegrated from its contact with the water into which
the rocks were protruded, while subsequently they were re-arranged
or stratified.*

Nodular, or spheroidal hornblende-rock, 1s made up of blocks, or
irregular spheroids, from the size of a man’s fist to five or six feet in
diameter, irregularly heaped together, the interstices being filled with
a schistose substance, which is sometimes more or less curved round
the blocks, or with a felsitic-schistose rock, or even with quartzitic
stuff, or a mixture of their substances. A very peculiar variety of
this rock, only observed in one or two places, had a felsitic-schistose
matrix, very like felspathic-dioryte, except that it is folated, in
which the blocks of hornblende-rock were enveloped. This rock merged
into the hornblende-rock, but not into the associated gneiss and
schist.

Usually, as previously stated, the nodular-hornblende-rock merges
into conglomeritic schists or gneiss (metamorphosed agglomerate) so gra-
dually, that no boundary can be drawn between the two kinds of rock ;
for which reason it would appear that this variety is not originally a
normal igneous rock, but rather represents the broken up portions of
the flows, rounded by abrasions against one another, or by weathering,
while the interstices were filled by the abraded and disintegrated por-
tions, sometimes combined with foreign substances. Many lava flows
have margins of loose blocks, that are thus described by Smyth :—
‘Cooling and hardening on the surface, cracking, breaking up, and
falling forward in clinkery masses of rattling cinders and stones—such
must have been the mode of progression of these black streams, as
with many of the Vesuvian lavas under ocular inspection.’”’+ And
if such had been the margin of the ancient flows in West Galway,
we could well imagine that now they graduate mto a nodular
rock, not a normal igneous rock, or yet a typical tuff. Scrope,t how-
ever, and others, allude to the spheroidal and concretionary structure
of some basalts, and some of these rocks might possibly have so
originated.

The nodular hornblende-rocks graduate into the previously de-
scribed conglomeritic-schist and gneiss.

* Forbes has microscopically examined one of these schists, and proved that it
belonged to the derivate rocks. Microscope in Geology, pp. 13 and 16.

t “‘ Teneriffe,’ by C. Piazzi Smyth, F.R.S., p. 249.

t “ Volcanos,” p. 111, and pp. 184, &e.

KiInaAHAN—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 121

Foliated felstone or gnerssyte and granitoid felstone.—These rocks may
occur cutting across the stratification of the metamorphic sedimentary
rock as dykes, or they may be in masses or beds. The most common
variety of the foliated-felstone is a gneissoid-rock consisting of layers
or leaves of quartz, felspar, or felsite and mica, apparently similar to
the rock described by Cotta, and called gneissyte or irruptive gneiss.*

In varieties, amphibole or ripidolite may partially or wholly replace
the mica; pyrite also is often present. Some foliated-felstones are
schistose ; usually the rock consists of layers of felsite and mica, amphi-
bole or ripidolite; there Ea, however, rocks that are aggregates of
eneissoid
and schistose varicties depending altogether on ‘the composition of the
original rocks.

The lines of foliation usually are parallel, or nearly so, to the walls
of the dyke, but at other times they are oblique or even spheroidal. The
most prevalent structures in felstones were enumerated when describ-
ing those rocks; and on a comparison of the foliation in gneissyte with
the lines of structure in felstones, a remarkable similarity will be found,
consequently it does not appear unreasonable to suppose that the folia-
tion in the gneissyte has been induced by the most prominent lines of
structure in the original rocks. In places, the foliated rocks can be
traced until they graduated into rocks in which folation has not been
developed. Gneissyte was principally noted as dykes among the gneiss
and schist, but in the neighbourhood of Barna there is a foliated felstone
in the porphyritic- -oligoclasic- eranite ( Galway-type-granite). Its occur-
rence in such a place seems to be remarkable, and hard to explain, never-
theless, the writer of this essay on a former occasion has suggested an
explanation for the phenomena.t

Others of the metamorphosed felstones are devoid of foliation. These,
may be called granitod-felstone from their appearance.t They are a
granular compound of felsite and quartz; or of felsite, quartz, and mica; or
of felsite, quartz, mica and felspar, and from the latter the rock graduates
into a granite. In afew localities amphibole, or a mineral that appeared
to beripidolite, was noted in addition to the mica. In more than one place
these rocks can be traced until they graduate into a felstone, very little
if at all altered. Most of these rocks seem to have been originally highly-
siliceous-felstones (petro silew) ; therefore, they for the most part have
orthoclase for their felspar ; there are, however, other granitoid-felstones
that appear originally to have been basic-felstones (ewryte), and these
were changed into rocks in which oligoclase, amphibole, and such like
minerals are essentials.

* Cotta, 1. c., p. 234.

t Journal of the Roy. Geol. Soc., Ireland, 1871, vol. i., p. 1. They may,
however, be foliated normal felstones, as normal foliated intrusive granites (as at
Newry, Co. Dow yn) occur in places.

t Macculloch describes rocks among his granites that evidently are similar to
these rocks.

122 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The gneissyte and granitoid-felstone that occur in bedded masses
are more or less hard to determine, as some, especially among the
gneiss, are very similar to many of the metamorphosed sandstones
and grits. They, however, generally weather with a white crust some-
what like a felstone, which weathering among the metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks is unusual only on felsitytes and felsitic-quartzytes.
Moreover, in some cases a rock that apparently is bedded, when care-
fully traced will be found to cross or intrude into some of the associated
bedded rocks.

Granitic Rocxs.—The granitic rocks may be highly siliceous, or
more or less basic; both of these groups contain rocks that are intru-
sive, the latter others that have been formed 7m s¢¢u by extreme metamor-
phic action. Previous to entering into the description of the typical
granites, the elvanytes or quartz-porphyrites should be enumerated
and described, as they are the granitic-rocks next in order to the
plutonic-rocks.

Elvanyte or quarts porphyry. these passage-rocks between the plu-
tonic-rocks and the typical granites are always more or less granitoid.
They seem to belong to the granitic-rocks, as they are hypogene, and
consequently never are associated with tuff or any other such mechani-
cally formed accompaniment. Nevertheless, in part they are allied to
the plutonic-rocks as they graduate into them; moreover, at the
extreme margin of wide dykes, also in small dykes, branching from a
large one, a rock often occurs that in aspect is undistinguishable from
a plutonic- rock. These compact portions at the walls of dykes are never
more than a few inches in thickness.*

Elvanytes range from highly siliceous to basic,} according as they are
the passage-rocks from felstone or whinstone to granite.

Elvanyte has a more or less crystalline felsitic or felspathic
base, usually with globules, bleds, or crystals of quartz, crystals
of felspar, and flakes of mica or ripidolite or crystals of amphibole ;
pyrite also is often present, beside other minerals, generally as
accessories, but sometimes locally as essentials. In all elvanytes
some of the quartz seems to have crystallized out first, but some-
times only sparingly. In the highly siliceous varieties this quartz
is characteristic of the rocks, while in the more basic varieties
it is often scarcely perceptible. Scheerer excludes from his true
granites rocks in which part of the quartz crystallized out before the
other constituents, as will be seen from the following epitome of this
eminent ceologist’s definition for granite :—‘‘ The crystals of felspar, and
others not containing water, crys stallized out first ; the mica, which con-

* The compact portion is called by Cotta the base or mother-rock. Rock classi-
fication, l. c., p. 214.

t There are eranitoid-basic-rocks very similar in appearance to some of the pre-
viously mentioned varieties of hornblende: rock ; some of these probably belong to this
group ; however, in the country to which this essay refers this could not be “proved.
There are, however, as will be hereafter stated, rocks that might be called syenyte,
which belong to this group.

Kinanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 123

tains much water, probably next; and the silex, which the heated
water would longest hold in solution, last.’ Nevertheless, this
opinion does not seem to be universal, as Cotta and others place such
rocks as elvanyte among the granitic-rocks.*

The base may be green, grey, purple, brown, blue, or even yellow-
ish; the latter colour, however, seems generally, if not always, to be
due to weathering. The base usually gives the colour to the rock, but
it may be more or less modified by the colour of some of the contained
minerals. All the highly siliceous varieties, and some of the basic,
weather with a more or less smooth, flowery outline, so characteristic
of the felstones, and not with the rugged, rough aspect of a granite ;
some amphibolic or pyroxenic varieties, however, weather rough.
The quartz bleds, globules, or crystals, scattered through the mass,
range from mere specks to the size of peas, or even larger, in some of
the ‘highly siliceous varieties being so numerous as to ‘give the rock a
pisolitic appearance. They internally have a glassy appearance and
fracture; on some of the blebs the crystal faces can be recognised,
while others appear to be minute coated balls. The latter often have
a radiated structure, and in some there is a minute hollow in the
centre. f

The varieties in composition of the elvanytes that were observed in
this country are highly-siliceous (quartzitic-elvanyte), having numerous
orthoclase crystals (orthoclasic-elvanyte), or, perhaps, oligoclase crys-
tals (oligoclasic-elvanyte) ; mica i some may be so abundant as to give
a character to the rock (micaceous-elvanyte), or that mineral may be
wholly or partially replaced by amphibole or ripidolite (hornblendic-
elvanyte and chloritic-elvanyte).t The highly-siliceous elvanytes have
orthoclase for their felspar. The basic elvanytes usually have a
trialinic felspar or the lime orthoclase (adularia), with which are
associated such basic minerals as amphibole, pyroxene, and the Like.

In some of the elvanytes in the neighbourhood of Galway, and also
in the island of Lettermullan, many of the orthoclase crystals (flesh-
colour) are enclosed in an envelope of light green felspar (oligoclase ?),
somewhat similar to the Finland rock that has been called Rapakivi
granite (Rapakivi-elvanyte).

* Jukes classed in his elyanytes the rocks called by Cotta “ granitic-porphyry”’
and ‘“‘quartz-porphyry.” In the latter group Cotta, as well as Jukes, seems to include
some rocks that evidently are quartzitic-felstones; but as such are not hypogene-
rocks, they do not properly belong to this group.

+ The latter can be seen with a pocket-lens. I have tried to get a section of
one to examine under the microscope, but as yet have not succeeded, as out of
numerous slices of elvanyte none contained this peculiar form of the quartz.—[ Note
in press.

f Sea elyanyte would be called by some geologists mica-trap ; this further
shows that the term is not a class-name. Elomi elvanyte would, by some,
be called syenyte ; this, for those in which the felspar is only orthoclase, is correct ;
in many of them, however, orthoclase is not the felspar, consequently, for such rocks
the name would be incorrect.

124 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In structure elvanytes vary ; some are finely crystalline, so as to be
nearly compact, while others are granular or granitoid, the latter gra-
duating into typical granite. Elvanyte graduating into granite is well
exemplified in the neighbourhood of Kylemore. Here, south and south-
west of Bengooria or Diamond Hill, are protrusions, in part scarcely
distinguishable from typical granite, nevertheless, in all of it blebs or
crystals of quartz that were developed before the other rock consti-
tuents can be detected, more or less, while toward the margins of the
masses the rock is a typical granitoid-elvanyte. Moreover, from the
tracts extend numerous dykes, some being large and others small; all
the former are more or less granitoid, while the latter are finely crys-
talline or nearly compact, some apparently merging into quartzitic-fel-
stone. Part of the rock in mass, although granitoid, has the typical
weathering of elvanyte, which seems due to allthe quartz and felspar
not being crystallized out, parts of these remaining undeveloped ; and
from this peculiar weathering the Cornish name seems to be derived
(el, oil rock, ban or van white), asthe white smooth crust has a marked
contrast when compared with the rough weathering of granite.

Some rocks like elvanyte are gneissoid. This structure may possibly
be due to metamorphism ; as in the neighbourhood of Galway, in one
or two instances it has been proved that some of the elvanyte is older
than some of the typical granite, but as a general rule the elvanytes
are newer; and in the country north of Killary Harbour, where the
rocks are only slightly altered, there are large dykes of foliated
elvanyte ; moreover, they were only observed in the neighbourhood of
protrusions of granite, and may possibly be connected with them.*

My friend and colleague, R. G. Symes, F. R.G.8.1., &c., seems
to have been one of the first who pointed out the graduation of granite
through elyanyte into felstone. While examining the rocks adjoming
the north shore of Galway bay, I suspected such must be the case,
and mentioned my opinion in the Geological Survey Memoirs. Since
then I have seen the gradation in various localities.

Granite.—Of typical granite the principal varieties in composition
will be found in the following list. There are others, some being very
remarkable, not only in composition, but also in structure ; however,
they are only varieties of the rocks enumerated.

Typical Granites.

Metamorphic (Galway-type-granite).

Basic oligoclasic-granite 3 c
8 2 Intrusive Omey-type-granite).

Highly siliceous ortholasic- ( Metamorphic.
granite. Intrusive (Oughterard-type-granite).

* The country between these dykes and the granitic masses is covered with
dnft. It appears remarkable that these foliated rocks should only have been found
hereabout associated with other granitic dykes. This foliation can scarcely be due
to metamorphism, on account of the unaltered condition of the associated rocks.

Kowanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 125

Haughton divides the granites of Ireland into three groups, viz. :—
I. The granites of Leinster ; I. The granites of Mourne and Carling-
ford; and Ill. The granites of Donegal, Mayo, and Galway. These
belong to two classes, first, zntrusive, containing the first and second
groups; and second, non-intrusive, containing the third group.*

Mr. Deleese ‘‘ also distinguishes two kinds of granite, one irruptive
and the other metamorphic ; the latter taking often a gneissoid struc-
ture.’’}

Haughton’s first group seems to be nearly identical with the ortho-
clasic intrusive-granite, while the oligoclasic metamorphic-granite
represents his third group.

Metamorphic oligoclasic-granite (Galway-type-granite).—These are of
metamorphic origin or formed in situ ; that is, the granite is due to the
extreme metamorphism of derivate and igneous rocks in the place, in
relation to the associated rocks that it now occupies, and was not
intruded or thrust up into its present position.

This rock, the ‘‘ Galway-type-granite”’ of the Memoirs of the
Geological Survey, is a crystalline porphyritic aggregate, having as
conspicuous essentials pink or flesh-colour felspar (orthoclase), greenish
or yellowish waxy felspar, white felspar,{ quartz, black mica
(lepidomelane ?), white mica (muscovite ?), and pyrite or marcasite.
The common accessories are amphibole, titanite, ripidolite, epidote,
chalcopyrite, galenite, flourite, talc, and garnet. The first three of these
accessories seem locally to be also essentials. Thus in the Furbogh-
type-granite (called after Furbogh, six miles west of Galway, where this
variety is the prevailing rock), amphibole and titanite are essentials;
in other localities amphibole and ripidolite, also epidote, are not uncom-
mon: the latter, however, is believed to be due to decomposition.
Pyrite is mentioned among the essential, as it seems never, or on very
rare occasions, absent.

The orthoclase usually occurs in large crystals, often twins, some
being over two inches in length; they usually give the porphyritic
character to the rock; however, in a few places, the white felspar
may do so. In one locality (Murbogh) some of the large flesh-colour
erystals (orthoclase) are enclosed in a white felspar envelope.
The amphibole in places is accompanied by titanic, or ripidolite, or by
a green epidotic-looking mineral, the hornblendic-granite occurring as
uregular subordinate masses—the variations in the composition of
metamorphic granite, as pointed out by Haughton, being due to
the different rocks from which it was formed. In places, there are
irregular and vagrant patches, and veins of a variety, ‘‘ very coarsely

* For a resume of Doctor Haughton’s conclusions on the granites of Ireland,
see W. W. Smyth’s, F. R.8., &c., Presidential Address to the Geol. Soc. Lond.,
Quar. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. lxxiy.

t Volcanos, by G. P. Scrope, F. R.S8., &e., second ed., 1862, p. 800, foot-note.

{ Some of the waxy felspar is triclinic, but usually it is more or less amalga-
mated with a variety of orthoclase, probably adularia; the white felspar also is
probably adularia.—| Note added in the press. |

R. I. A. PROC , SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. S

126 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and irregularly constituted, of orthoclase, quartz, and silvery white
mica,’ answering Cotta’s description for the rock he calls pegmatyte.*

In some places the crystal of felspar are very large, they being two
inches or more long. This class of rockt in places may have been
formed subsequent to the associated granite; in others it has not, as
will hereafter be pointed out.

Veins of segregation (Granityte), always fine, are not uncommon,
and two or more systems may occur together, their different ages being
known by their entering and displacing each other.

These are more or less regular, generally having an angular
arrangement, apparently occupying lines of joints, and they seem to
be due to matter which has segregated from the liquid or semi-
liquid portions near the interior of the mass having been pressed up
into the shrinkage fissure formed in the consolidated portion, as the
latter cooled, each successive system of cracks having their own
veins.

When looking over an explance of the Galway-type-granite, it is
not unusual to find the large crystal of felspar lying in iwregular
parallel lines, while towards the north-east and north margin of the
great tract that bounds Galway Bay on the north, the rock is found
gradually to become more and more foliated (gneissord granite or grant-
toid gneiss), until eventually it graduates through gneiss into schist
(see Section, Figure 8, Pl. 12). Towards the south, however, in the
vicinity of Galway Bay, another change takes place, as here the rock
graduates into a more or less even-grained granite, in which, as a rule,
none of the felspar is porphyritically developed. This even-grained
granite seems to extend as courses into the porphyritic granite, while
associated in places are many elvanytes. It may be here remarked
that, in the immediate neighbourhood of Galway, there are many
elvanytes, as a rule, in large dykes, that are associated with courses or
dykes of granite, all nsually running with a general north and south
bearing.

The conspicuous essentials of the even-grained granite are in
general very similar to those in the porphyritic variety, but not
always; as in places, courses of this granite vary not only in texture
and structure, but apparently also in composition: and what may
perhaps be more important, in one place, where gneiss overlies these
granites, the dip and strike of the courses seems to be similar to
the dip and strike of the stratification of the gneiss. In the neigh-
bourhood of Furbogh were observed patches of a very hornblendic
and titanitic granite, in which there is none of the flesh-coloured
orthoclase, or white mica, and only a little black mica. Toward
the west and north-west, the Galway-type-granite graduates into the
Omey-type-granite.

* Cotta, l. c., p. 206.
+ These veins probably belong to the class called Endogenous by Hunt. See

p. 181.

Kinanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 127

To the north and north-east, the gneissoid-granite seems to have
similar constituents to the typical rock; but the mica and quartz,
with part of the felspar, are arranged in leaves or plates, while the
large crystals of felspar are generally arranged rudely parallel to the
layers, but not always, as they often cut across them; schistoid-beds
also occur init. The foliation, irrespective of the dip of the original
rocks, is perpendicular, or nearly so; but the strike seems always to
correspond with that of the stratification of the associated gneiss.
However, as the rock loses its granitic character, and becomes more
and more gneissose, the original dip of the rocks becomes apparent.

Among the metamorphic derivate rocks of the barony of Ballyna-
hinech or Connemara, there are large and small tracts of granitoid-
eneiss, the rock being identical with the gneissoid-granite, forming
the north and north-east limits of the great tract of Galway-type-
granite. These tracts always occur in, and naturally might be consi-
dered a portion of, the gneiss-series ; nevertheless, in some places the
rock loses all traces of foliation, and becomes a eranite undistinguish-
ble from the Galway-type-rock, the essentials, accessories, structure,
and aspect beimg identical.

That these tracts of granitoid-gneiss, or gneissoid-granite, are
highly metamorphosed parts of the gnevss-series, and not accidental
intrusions of granite, to me seems proved, as the one rock not only
graduates into the other, but also in places schistoid layers will
traverse the granitic rock, these layers having a strike and dip agree-
ing with those of the stratification of the associated gneiss and schist.
Such changes in isolated portions seem due to portions of the derivate
rocks, on account of the materials composing them being more easily
changed than the associated strata. This is very conspicuous at
Forlorne Point, Co. Wexford, where beds of granite are found associated
and interstratified with beds of incipient micasyte, hornblendyte and
talcyte.

The change from gneiss into granite is most remarkable in the con-
glomeritic and nodular rocks. As previously pointed out, all former
structure, except the strike of the stratification, is generally oblite-
rated in the granitoid-gneiss, the only exception apparently being,
that some of the blocks im conglomeritic gneiss, more or less modified,
may still appear. This, however, is not generally the case, for, as the
rocks become more and more gneissic, the blocks usually become elon-
gated, with the foliation curling more or less round them, but subse-
quently the foliation becomes parallel in lines, the matrix haying a fine
_ texture, while that of the blocks is coarse (Fig. O, Pl. 10) ; the boundary
between each being still apparent; and as the change progresses, all
seem to differ very little in texture, or rather one merges so gradually
into the other, that there is no difference discernible, till eventually all,
or all conspicuous foliation, disappears, and the rock becomes a typical
granite.

Associated with the tracts of hornblende-rock (metamorphosed whin-
stone and euryte) are smaller or larger masses of granite, similar to the

re

128 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Galway-type-granite. In some places it is possible, although not
very probable, that outburst of granite may have occurred in these
places; this, however, appears rarely, if ever, to haye happened, as in
all cases one kind of rock seems to graduate into the other. This
granite has the same essentials and accessories as the Galway-type-
granite, is similar in texture to the coarse varieties, and to me it appears
probable that similarly, as the sedimentary rock, change into granite,
so may also the whinstones and eurytes. If such may happen, these
masses of olicoclasic-granite may only be extremely metamorphosed
portions of the original outbursts of plutonic rock.

Intrusive-oligoclasic-granite (Omey-type-granite).—Although some
of the oligoclasic-granite may have been formed 7m situ, part is
undoubtedly intrusive, such as the masses at Omey, Roundstone, &c.,
which appear as protrusious. To the large tract near Galway, and
also to the small tracts since mentioned, there are regular bound-
aries, while to these protrusions the boundaries are more or less irregu-
lar; besides, instead of the granite graduating into gneiss, it may
be associated with either gneiss or schist, breaking up through them;
consequently the metamorphic sedimentary rocks may dip at or
oblique to it, but can never le conformably on it. Moreover, it sends
veins into those rocks, proving that this variety must be a true intru-
sive rock. :

In some places this oligoclasic-granite is in juxtaposition with the
gneiss and schist, but in many cases, more especially if the boundary
is very regular, veins and masses of the orthoclasic, or highly-sili-
ceous-granite, intervene. In such cases the adjoining gneiss and
schist are usually cut up, displaced, and traversed in all directions by
regular and irregular veins of the latter granite, from mere strings to
yards in width, sometimes forming such a close irregular network
that it is impossible to draw an exact boundary between the granites
and the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks.

The intrusive-oligoclasic-granite is very similar in aspect and com-
position to the oligoclasic-granite of metamorphic origin ; nevertheless,
after the rocks are studied and known, certain peculiarities will be
learned, that are always distinctive marks between the two varieties.

Oligoclasic-granite.
(Metamorphic. )

Amphibole, titanite, and such
like minerals, are locally essen-
tials, while often they are acces-
sories. |

Gneissoid, or schistoid layers
or courses, sometimes occur in the
mass of the rock, while lentels
and irregular patches are not un-
common.

Oligoclasie-granite.
(Intrusive. )

Amphibole, titanite, and such
like minerals, seem ever to be es-
sentials, and sometimes are not
accessories.

Gneissoid, or schistoid layers or
courses, never occur, while lentels
and irregular patches are rare.

Kinanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks.

The granite graduates through
gneiss into schist.
A foliation more or less con-

129

The granite never graduates
into gneiss or schist.
No foliation.*

spicuous is often present, or, if
it is absent, the large crystals of
felspar are often arranged in lines,
not perhaps visible in small pieces,
but often very conspicuous when
the rock is viewed in mass.

Nearly always porphyritic and
coarsely crystalline. The felspar
that is usually conspicuously de-
veloped being the pinkish or flesh-
colour, rarely the white.

Often more or less evenly crys-
talline, none of the felspars bemg
conspicuously developed. When
porphyritic, the white felspar
(adularia) often gives the charac-
ter, and sometimes the green.

May graduate imto elvanyte,
and through elvanyte into felstone
(euryte), or perhaps even whin-
stone. :

Never graduate into elvanyte.

Metamorphic-orthoclasic, or highly-siliceous-granite—The rocks be-
longing to this group may occur as masses, dykes, or beds, according to
the position the plutonic rocks, from which they were altered, occupied.
Usually they are of a fine even texture, and in some it is probable all
the felspar and quartz have not crystallized out from the original
felsitic mass, such a rock being the passage-rock into granitoid-
felstone. These rocks, when weathered, have not the well-marked,
rough, rugged aspect of a typical granite, nor yet the smooth weather-
ing of a felstone, but rather a mixture of both, like the weathering of
a felspathic sandstone. When typical, the principal minerals they con-
sist of are quartz, orthoclase, and mica, pyrite also being usually
present ; such rock being metamorphic-petrosilex, or orthoclase-felstone.
From being highly-siliceous they may graduate into a metamorphic-oligo-
clasic-granite, or a hornblendic-granite, following the different grada-
tions of the plutonic rocks, from which they originated. In rocks of
this group it is not unusual to find lines, or a riban, haying an
aspect somewhat like stratification due to bands of different colour,
texture, and perhaps also composition. ‘The bands, or layers, may be
coarser or finer than the rest of the rock, or they may be more
micaceous, quartzitic, or felsitic, or they may contain minerals,
not essentials otherwise, of the rock. They are probably due to a
structure in the original rock, perhaps the lines of viscid-fusion, or

* Tn this area there seems to be no foliation, or trace of foliation, nevertheless in
certain oligoclasic granites, north-east of Castlebar, county Mayo, and apparently
belonging to this variety (as they occur in dykes and large sewers), there is a distinct
foliation. As I never carefully examined these Castlebar rocks I cannot give par-
ticulars about them.

130 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

such like. In the vicinity of Galway, the late Mr. J. Beete Jukes
pointed out that, in some wide courses or dykes, the outside portions
were granitic rocks, while the interior was a felstone, seemingly prov-
ing that the change must be due to metamorphic action.

This variety of granite oftenisfound associated with felsitic-quartzyte
and quartzitic-felsityte, and often appears to graduate into the former.
For which reasons it seems probable that some at least of those rocks
originally were either felstone or felsitic-tuffs.*

Mac Culloch seems to have classed together this granite and grani-
toid-felstone as different varieties of one kind of rock.t Of the latter,
he says, ‘‘ This variety is never perfect, as it contains the same
minerals” [ quartz, felspar, and mica], ‘‘ without form ;” while in his
first division of the granite, he includes a rock, the description of
which would answer for felsitic-quartzyte or quartzitic-granitoid-
felstone.t

Intrusive-orthoclasic, or highly-siliceous-granite ( Oughterard-type-
gramte)—This rock only occurs as intrusive masses, dykes or pipes.
Jukes pointed out that, in West Galway, when in mass, it always
occupied low ground, while in the adjoining high ground, when it
appeared, it was as dykes, pipes, or small protrusions. This pecu-
larity he had also observed in Newfoundland, and other places, from
which he concluded that, bemg a deep-seated rock, it was exposed
only in low ground, when the superior rocks had been denuded away ; it,
however, also extended under the adjoining high ground, as was
proved by the dykes or off-shoots from it, but was still unexposed,
denudations having failed to remove the covering rocks. According
to this view, the deeper and more extensive the denudation, so much
larger ought the tract of this orthoclasic-granite to be.

The rock, as just stated, has two characters—one massive, and the
other a vein-rock, and, when found in these different positions, its
composition seems to vary. Under all conditions the rock appears
never to contain oligoclase as an essential, and when in veins or pipes
it appears usually to be a crystalline aggregate of orthoclase, quartz,
and a greenish mineral, which is probably an earthy mica, or perhaps
ripidolite, with more or less pyrite or marcasite. The greenish
mineral im places is undoubtedly a mica; but in other places it has
very much the aspect of ripidolite, and possibly both minerals may be
present. When in tracts, and wide veins or courses, the conspicuous
constituents seem to be orthoclase, quartz, black mica, white or green
mica, and pyrite or marcasite, while the principal accessories are
ripidolite, galenite, chalcopyrite, barite, calcite, flourite, molybdenite,
&c. These often occur in nodules, lentils, and geodes, with lenticular

* It was previously mentioned that some of the rocks classed as felsitic-
quartzyte originally may not have been sedimentary rocks.

t Mac Culloch, pp. 235 and 237. Granite. Second division. A. a. and A. d.

foldsp: 204. Bias

Kryanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 131

patches of a green mineral, called by the miners peach ;* also with
drusy cavities, or small yugs, lined with crystals of quartz.

The rocks in the veins may vary. In some places, so siliceous as
to look like quartzyte, and in a few it is a finely crystallme white
rock, in which the quartz and mica are so minute that they can scarcely
be detected by the naked eye. Ina dyke on Shaunaunnafeola, the
centre is a finely crystallime aggregate of quartz, orthoclase and
black mica, while the outside portions near the walls are coarsely
crystalline compound of quartz, orthoclase, white mica, and pyrite, the
latter constituent being conspicuously abundant. This vein was in a
neighbourhood where there are granites that are evidently metamor-
phosed felstones, and possibly it may also belong to that class. In a
few veins, part of the mica, white probably muscovite, has a plumose
arrangement, as if plumes of feathers were pasted down on surfaces of
the rock. The surfaces in those places where this arrangement was
noted were parallel, or nearly so, to the walls of the vems. This
variety appears to be similar to the rock described by Jukes, and called
plumose-granite.

North-east of Recess, in the townland of Derrynea, there is a vein,
having in the centre a coarsely crystalline rock, while towards the
walls the rock is of a fine texture. In the hill called Lisoughter, and
also in other places in the barony of Ballynahinch, peculiar veins were
observed, being very coarsely crystalline, the quartz and the felspar
occurring in masses often the size of a man’s fist, while the mica is
proportionally large. In these rocks usually the mica is of a silvery
palish olive-green or a whitish colour, but black mica may also occur
in small flakes. The large mica is sometimes most peculiarly arranged,
so that on weathered surfaces the edges of the flakes have angular
forms, as if the rock was inscribed with some kinds of written charac-
ters. In other veins, that appear allied to. those last described, and
always when they traverse or are in juxtaposition with limestone,
patches may lose all their mica, while the quartz and felspar are arranged
like Hebrew characters, answering the description of the rock that has
been called graphic granite.t The granite veins last described are eyi-
dently different to the first, and seem to be newer than them. Possibly
they may belong to the class called endogenous by Hunt, while tke
others belong to his exotic rocks.t

The granite in mass may also have varieties. In some places it

* The true blue peach of the miner is ripidolite, and the mineral in these nests
is very like it in aspectand feel, but it has not been analysed.

+ Hunt mentioned veins of graphic granite associated with limestone among the
American rocks. (American Journal of Science and Arts, Third Series, vol. i.,
No. 3, p. 183). ,

t These veins I -believe not to be true granite dykes, but rather to belong to the
class called “‘ granitic-veinstone’”’ by Hunt. I, however, here describe them, as
other authorities class them with the true granites. The vein rock just described
in Derrynea may also belong to Hunt’s “ endogenous rocks.’”’—Report Geol. Survey,
Canada, 1865, p. 192.

132 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

appears to lose all its quartz and mica, and to merge into a crystalline
felspathic mass ( felsttie granite).* The aspect of this rock is well
described by Cotta—‘‘a rock of compact texture, about the hardness
of felspar, with dull or smooth conchoidal or fissile structure; colour,
yellowish, reddish, grey, greenish, or bluish, weathering white.”” The
loss of the quartz and mica is, however, more apparent than real, for
on a close examination with a lens both may be detected, always very
minutely and often sparingly developed. In another variety the rock
appears to lose its felspar and to become a crystalline granular compound
nearly solely of quartz and mica (quartz¢tic granite).t This rock undoubt-
edly is very quartzose, and perhaps, although closely allied to them,
ought to be excluded from the true granites; for although in general a
little felspar can be detected, that mineral often appears to be absent,
and when present, presents more the appearance of an accessory than an
essential. In some places even the mica also is unapparent, the rock
being very similar to the rocks at Bray Head, Co. Wicklow, and called
quartz-rock by Jukes. These quartzose-rocks are peculiar, and hard to
explain. At Curraun, immediately south of Maam Bay, the N. W. arm
of Lough Corrib, and im other places, the quartzose rock undoubtedly
graduates into the intrusive highly-siliceous or orthoclasic granite, but
in some places the relations between the quartzose-rocks and those
associated with it are very obscure. At Canrower and Croaghna-
cloosh, both in the vicinity of Oughterard, masses of this rock occur, seem-
ingly in connection with the Oughterard-type-granite, but the coat of
bog that covers so much of that country prevents them from being pro-
perly examined. In both of these places the quartzose-rock is foliated,
and apparently identical with quartzyte that in other parts of this
country is undoubtedly metamorphosed sedimentary rock. However, in
these two places the quartzose rock quite disagrees, as to strike and
dip, with all the schists and gneiss in its vicinity, and as the exposures
are in irregular patches, they scarcely could have been brought imto
their present positions by faults.

* Felsite-rock of Cotta, p. 220.

+ Seemingly the rock called greisen by Cotta, pp. 207 and 321.

{ All the details im relation to these exposures of quartzose-rock are given in
the Geological Survey Memoir, ex-sheet 105, pp. 33, 39, to which the reader may
be referred.

Kryanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 133

Parr II.

Suggestions to account for the Origin of the Granitic and other Hypogene
Rocks.

In the preceding part of this essay it was demonstrated that the
whinstones may graduate through euryte into felsyte (petro-silex or
highly siliceous felstone), while these plutonic rocks (whinstones and
felstones) graduate into the granitic rock and through elvanyte into
typical granite; the granitic rocks being of different types, some being
more basic than others ; and as there are basic and highly siliceous plu-
tonic rocks, so also in the granitic rocks some elvanytes and granites are
basic, while others are highly siliceous. It has also been shown that
all normal rocks, whether derivate or igneous, may be metamorphosed ;
at first becoming schistose, second gneissic, and finally granitic, the
granites varying in accordance with the nature of the constituents
composing the rocks previous to their bemg metamorphosed.

Before proceeding further, and for the convenience of reference
hereafter, the ingenite rocks in this area may be divided into seven
groups, namely, 1., the schist-series; U., the gneiss-series; w1., the non-
intrusive-oligoclasic granite; Iv., the intruswve-oligoclasic granite; v., the
orthoclasie granite ; v1., the elvanyte; vu., the plutonic rocks*.

It seems to be now generally allowed, that all granitic and other
ingenite rocks were formed from previously-existing rocks, the hypogene
at a depth beneath the earth’s surface, but the volcanic and plutonic
rocks at or close to the present or a former surface of the globe.

Some of the hypogene rocks (granitic rocks) must at one time have
been more or less fused and liquified, while others (gneiss and schist)
were never fused or liquefied, but were more or less changed by heat,
either wet or dry. Wet heat, judging from the rocks of West Galway
and Mayo, would seem to be the more probable; for in all the schist,
gneiss, and non-intrusive granite, the original joint-lines, as previously
mentioned, are either sealed, or a thin portion of the rock adjoining the
joint walls is silicefied and indurated, as if by being percolated by steam
charged with silex or some such substance (figs. G. H. Pl. 9 and P.
Pl. 10).

Ibe e suppose that at a certain distance beneath the surface of the
earth all rock becomes fused and liquefied, the rocks in the zone above
the melting point would be fully mineralized, but not liquefied, while

* In this table the metamorphosed plutonic rocks might be ignored, as they
do not affect the following arguments—neyertheless, all of them, excepting the
metamorphic orthoclasic granite, are included in the above classification. The
hypogene rocks, as the name implies, were formed at a depth beneath the surface of
the earth, and under a pressure more or less great; the granitic rocks having been
fused and subsequently cooled, and consolidated, prior to their being exposed by
denudation at the present surface of the earth.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. fv

134 Proceedings of the Royal frish Academy.

each successive stratum would in general be less and less affected ;*
and if the rocks while in these conditions began to be raised,
or in any other way removed out of the influence of the heat, appa-
rently there would be conditions to account for the formation of all
kinds of ingenite rocks.}

The stratum that included all the rocks which were altered, but
not fused, would contain the metamorphosed rock; the upper portion
of the rocks belonging to the schist-series, and the lower part to the
gneiss-series. Below this stratum, in the zone where the rocks were
fully mineralized, but not liquefied, there would be a non-intrusive granite
rock formed, which would remain in its original position as regards the
overlying rocks, but its nature and constituents would be quite
changed. Below the melting pomt would be a mass of fluid, from
which all the intrusive rocks would come. Furthermore, rocks formed
under such conditions would, as in nature, have no hard lines of de-

marcation, the lowest members of each graduating into the upper por-

tion of the group next below it.

The formation of the non-intrusive groups of hypogene rock has
been suggested, but there still remain the intrusive rocks to be
accounted for. As the heat became less, the liquified portion would
cool and consolidate under various conditions, consequently forming
rocks not only different in aspect, but also in composition. At the
first, two magmas would form—a basic above, and a highly siliceous
below. As the superincumbent rocks cooled, cracks and other fissures
should form, into which portions of these magmas ought to be forced
by the pressure of the overlying mass, and also by the escape of pent-
up gases and steam. These intrusions, according to the magma from
which they came, ought to be basic or highly siliceous, and, if forced to
the earth’s surface, they would cool and consolidate, under little or no
pressure, forming the different varieties of plutonie and volcanie rocks,
while the portions that solidified between their source and the earth’s
surface would become elvanyte, a granite and hypogene rock, but not a
typical granite, as some of the silex crystallizes out before the other
rock constituents.

There now only remains the intrusive granites to be formed from
the residue of the fluid magmas, and the conditions under which these
would cool have to be considered. The more acid magma should cool
slower than the basic; therefore, there ought to be two distinct rocks
forming the magma; that cooled first becoming a basic rock (oligoclasie
granite), while the other, that took longest to cool, would form the
orthoclasic, or highly-stliceous granite.

* In some rare instances, as previously mentioned, beds or portions of beds
might be changed into granite while the associated rocks above, below, and
around were only changed into gneiss or even schist.

+ Since this essay was read, Professor le Conte has published a most instructive
paper on the “ Features of the Earth’s Surface” (American Journal of Science and
Art, third series, vol. iv.), which bears on this subject, and to which the reader is
referred, [Note in press. |

Kananan — On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. — 180

Kither of these kinds of granite would, at any time prior to their
final solidification, be lable to form intrusive masses or veins, bemg
forced up into fissures, cracks, or any other kind of ‘‘ shrinkage fissure,’
or vacancy tormed durimg the cooling of the overlying rocks, the
resulting rocks beimg respectively oligoclasic or orthoclasic granite,
Recordin to the magma from whence they came. Furthermore, after
the mass of either the oligoclasic or orthoclasic granite had cooled,
there would still be centres containing unsolidified portions, that at any
time would be liable to be forced up into the shrinkage fissures as the mass
cooled. The veins, Granityte, thus formed would necessarily be more sili-
ceous than the associated rock-mass; but in the oligoclasic granite,
although different from the associated rock, they might be nearly similar,
and scarcely distinguishable from the orthoclasic squatttte 6 ; however, auch
veins in the orthoclasic granite would be quite distinct, bemg more
siliceous than the mass. In this way a solution for the formation of
the quartzitic granite might be suggested; for, if we could imagine a
fluid centre becoming more and more siliceous as zone after zone
cooled, the residue finally might be so siliceous as to be similar, or
nearly similar, in composition to quartzyte.

It the eranitic and other ingenite rocks were formed under cireum-
stances similar to those above suggested, all the relations between the
different rocks could be easily explained. In West Galway, and
South-west Mayo, these all graduate through other rocks into each
individual rock, yet none of them pass suddenly into a different class
rock—each must graduate through the intervening passage-rocks. A
schist must graduate through a gneiss into a non-intrusive oligoclasic
granite; a gneiss through a non-intrusive oligoclasic granite into an
intrusive oligoclasic g granite—a non-intrusive oligoclasic granite through
an intrusive oligoclasic eranite into an intrusive orthoclasic eranite,
and the latter rock through an elvanyte into a plutonic rock, while
among the latter class of rocks a petrosilex must graduate through an
euryte into a whinstone; all the other graduations are similar, there-
fore, 1t appears unnecessary to enumerate them, and such changes are
all accounted for by the above suggestions.* The volcanie and plutonic
rocks would have to range from basic to highly-siliceous, according to
the zone and time from and at which they were intruded; so would
the elvanytes, and so would the entrusive granites. The granite formed
im situ would be very varied in its composition, on account of the
various rocks from which it originated; yet it would graduate into
intrusive granite, and so form one ot the connecting links: between the
plutonic and the metamorphic sedimentary rocks.

The plutonic and voleanic rocks, being surface-formed, should only
be found among surface-rocks; but as all may at some time or other be
at the surface of the earth, they are found breaking up through all

* In another place a list is given of the changes remarked in the rocks of this
country.—Journal Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, vol. 11., 1871, p. 8.

136 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

varieties, but only interstratified with those that are surface-formed.
Elvanyte, on the other hand, is a hypogene rock, and, as its natural
place is near the granite, it should more frequently occur among the
metamorphic rocks. This seems to be the case; for, years ago, while
reading different accounts of tracks of metamorphic rocks, but espe-
cially Logan’s reports on those of Canada, I was struck with the
frequent occurrence of elvanyte among them. .They do, however,
range into other strata. In Yar-Connaught, although they all occur
associated with the metamorphic rocks, yet many of them apparently
have no connection with that group, or the Galway type granite,
as for instance those previously mentioned as occurring in the vicinity
of Kylemore, south and south-west of Bengooria, also many in the
country to the eastward of Clifden. These may be of Silurian age, as
they graduate into eurytes identical with the eurytes interstratified with
the rocks of Upper Llandovery age. If this surmise is correct, we have
data on which to calculate the depth beneath the earth’s surface at
which a felstone or other plutonic rock will graduate into an elvanyte.
The mass of euryte at Benchoona is about 2000 feet above the base of
the Silurian rocks; but if we suppose a thickness of the metamorphic
rocks equal to half of this was denuded away in the neighbourhood of
Ballynahinch lake and Clifden, where these rocks are so numerous,
these would be a total thickness of 3000 feet. There is, however,
another locality in Ireland, namely, the county Limerick, where an
estimate also can be made. In that county there are bedded
dolerytes, melaphyres and eurytes in the carboniferous rocks, at the
junction of the lower and middle limestone, and at the junction of
the limestone and the coal measures; while in lower rocks, near
the base of the carboniferous limestone, are pipes or protrusions of
basic elvanyte, evidently the roots of some of the rocks that at
higher zones were irrupted among and bedded with the derivated rocks.
Between the rocks where these roots occur and the junction of the
lower and middle limestone there is a thickness of about 1000 feet,
and to the base of the coal measure of about 2300 feet. If, therefore,
these roots belong to the igneous rocks of the lower zone, elvanyte
may form at a depth of about 1000 feet, while if to the upper, at a
depth of 2300 feet.

It was previously stated, that between the intrusive oligoclasic
granite and the metamorphic sedimentary rocks intrusions of the
orthoclasic granite were not uncommon. This, if the above sugges-
tions are correct, might naturally be looked for. For as the mass of the
oligoclasic-granite cooled, it would shrink from the adjoining rocks,
thereby causing vacancies into which the non-consolidated orthoclasic
granite should be intruded, and also into all the cracks and fissures in
the associated gneiss and schist formed during their cooling, they
necessarily haying been heated and expanded while in contact with
the oligoclasic granite.

It seems to be a very generally-received opinion that all granites
metamorphosed the rocks with which they come in contact; to me,

Kinanan—On Granitic and other Ingenite Rocks. 137
however, it appears that granite is the result of metamorphism, and not
metamorphism of granite, and that the rocks associated with granite
formed zz situ must be metamorphosed; but that rocks, even in con-
tact with intrusive granite, may only be slightly altered, not more so
than often happens to rocks in contact with large dykes or masses
of plutonic rocks.*

In the islands north of the mouth of Galway Bay (Gorumna and
Lettermullan), the rocks are very little altered, yet they are adjomimg
or in close proximity to a large tract of intrusive granite. North of
Killary Harbour, the rocks forming the hills north of Doolough are
scarcely changed, so that if met with in any other locality the altera-
tion would be passed over unnoticed; yet immediately to the north of
them is a large tract of intrusive granite, while in the neighbourhood
of the Oughterard tract of granite, the sedimentary rocks are less
altered than in many other places in West Galway. Here limestone is
found in contact with the granite, and often caught up in it, yet the
limestone is not much changed; that caught up in it, or in immediate
contact, has lost all its cclour and become highly crystalline; but
these changes only exist for a few yards, as limestone not 200 feet
from it was found to be scarcely altered, compared with other places
in the district. On the other hand, an observer can always know
when he is approaching granite formed im situ, by the remarkable
changes that take place not only in the aspect, but also in the structure
of the rocks.}+

* In the country north of Killary Harbour there are shales adjoining dykes of
felstone altered into hornstone. At Curraghrevagh, on Lough Corrib, there are silu-
rian rocks micacised and indurated by a protrusion of diabase, and in many other
places in Ireland similar alterations could be pointed out; the rocks in each case being
more metamorphosed than any of the rocks that I saw associated with, or even in
contact with, the Dartmoor granite, Devonshire. From the circumstances associated,
when derivate rocks in contact with plutonic rocks are altered, I am inclined to
believe such alterations are not due to the plutonic rocks, but to heat, either wet or
dry, that came up in the divisional plane or the fissure between the different classes of
rocks.

t In some places, as for instance Killiney, the rocks in contact with the mass of in-
trusive granite of Dublin, Wicklow, Carlow, and Kildare, are much altered; but in
other places, such as the neighbourhood of Castledermot, Co. Kildare, they are not.
To account for this, I would suggest that some of the intrusive masses of granite
cooled under such circumstances that the heat from them had to percolate the
associated rocks, while in such masses as that at Dartmoor, Devonshire, where the
rocks in contact are scarcely changed, the rock must have cooled under such
circumstances that the heat all escaped without affecting the associated rocks. This
pent-up heat, if it escaped along the walls of a plutonic or voleanic dyke, would more
or less alter the rocks it passed. Every fresh locality for granite that I visit, the
more I am convinced that granite is the result, not the cause of metamorphism. Since
this essay was read I have more carefully examined the rocks in the vicinity of the
granite exposure north of Doolough, county Mayo, and find some of the rocks so
little altered that their fossils are quite perfect; while at the extreme S. E. end of
the county Wexford there is granite due to metamorphism that graduates through
gneiss into schists, while to the N.E. of the same county, and in the county
Wicklow, the rocks in juxtaposition with the intrusive granite are less altered

138 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

If the suggestions that we have been considering are correct, the
granite that first cooled ought always to be less siliceous than the
granite intruded into it; while the veins of segregation or cooling
(granityte) ought to be more siliceous than the rock in which they
appear, and from which they separated ; and this seems to be allways
the case in West Galway.*

than those farther away. In the north of Ireland, at the Mourne intrusive granite
district, county Down, the rocks next the granite are only very slightly altered, and
appavently this metamorphism is much older than the intrusion of these post. -car-
boniferous granites ; while in the Carlingford district, county Louth, the carbonite-
rous rocks (limestone), through which a large mass of granitoid elyanyte protrudes,
are apparently unchanged. To the north of these districts the older intrusive
granite of Newry and Slieve Croob, as proved by my colleague, W. A. Trail,
F.R.G.S.1., has alongside in places rocks more metamorphosed than is general in the
county Down, but this alteration is always very small, and does not appear to be
general round the mass. It is also so slight, that all the metamorphic rocks in the
vicinity of the Newry and Sleve Croob granite belong to the class called ‘“‘ Sub-
metamorphic rocks’ by the officers of the Indian Geological Survey. Trail has also
pointed out that in those places where the derivate rocks are thus additionally
altered, the adjoming granite is foliated; as if subsequent to the intrusion
of the granite a strip of country had been invaded by heat (wet or dry),
which had developed a foliation in the granite, and slightly increased the meta-
morphism of the adjoining derivate rocks ; and this, he thinks, seemsto be suggested
by the action decreasing both ways as we ‘leave the j junction of the granite and the

schist, at which line, naturally, the heat might be expected to be most intense.
[vote added in the press. |

* This remark can only refer to a system of granites formed at one time; for if

one system of granites were formed in the silurian period, and another in the

carboniferous period, the basic granites belonging to the latter might occur breaking
up through the highly- siliceous granites belonging to the former. Two quite diffe-
rent classes of veins are known as “veins of segregation ;” one kind, which is
always more or less regular, is due to a portion of the fluid rock segregating from
the rest, and filling the shrinkage fissures and such like vacancies; to such veins the
above remark applies. The other class is always most irregular, often lenticular,
and appears to be due to minerals in solution, which subsequently crystallized,
filling regular vugs or cavities in the rock mass; to such veins belongs the rock
previously ‘described under the name of pegmatyte. Hunt, as previously mentioned,
has suggested the name of endogenous for these vein-rocks or “ granite vein-stones,’
to distinguish them from true granitic-dykes.—‘ Report, Geol. Surv. of Canada,” 2
p. 192.

MacanistER—On Cranial Osteology of Sloths. 139

XVIII.—On a Few Points iy tHE Crantan Osreonocy or Siorus.7
By Avex. Macarisrer, M.B., Professor of Comparative Anatomy,
Dublin University. (With Plate 13.)

[Read January 24, 1875.]

In the Museum of the University of Dublin there are several very
good specimens of Sloths, some of which were brought home from
South America by the Rev. J. M‘Gregor Ward, lately Chaplain to
H. M.S. Egmont, and some by Dr. Newton. In one of these, a very
young specimen of Bradypus gularis, measuring only 10 inches in
length of body, the skull exhibits several curious points.

Ist. A vertical medial supra-occipital suture, extending from the
middle of the back of the foramen magnum to the back of the sagittal
suture. Then the supra-occipital consists of two lateral symmetrical

1eces.
: 2nd. There are three wormian bones, two to the right, and one to
the left of the median line in the place of the interparietal bone.

ord. The post premaxillary tooth (Caniniform molar of Choloepus)
is very sharp-pointed, directed backwards and inwards.

4th. Owing to the absence of the frontal sinus (which in the adult
B. torquatus occupies the whole of the frontal bone), the skull narrows
from the parietal eminences forward. ‘There are two slight fissures,
one on each side of the middle of the frontal suture.

5th. The pterygoids have even so early a trace of the ‘ Arcto-
pithecus” thickening. The weak intermaxillaries are very faintly
discernible, with a sight bony nucleus. In the accompanying Plate,
figure 1 shows the back of the skull with the vertical occipital suture.
figures 2 and 4 show the peri-orbital bones, and the relation of the
lachrymal to the malar. Figure 3 shows the group of wormian bones.
Figure 5 shows the solid stapes resembling the columella of birds,
characteristic of the sloths.

140 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XIX.—On CHIAMYDOMYXA LABYRINTHULOIDES, NOV. GEN. ET sp., A
New Fresowater Sarcoprc Oreanism. By Wr1am ARcHER,

7 M.R.LA. (With Plates 14 and 15.)

[Read February 22, 1875.]

Some short time after the appearance of Cienkowski’s memoir on a
new type of Sarcodic existences, met with by him in the sea (at
Odessa), which he named Labyrinthulez, I was not a little surprised
and interested on meeting with a form from the freshwater so wonder-
fully resembling those described by him, as, notwithstanding one
circumstance, hereafter to be adverted to, even still to render it a
matter of considerable question whether it may not truly belong to
that group, even though it should not be congeneric with the typical
Labyrinthula (Cienkowski).*

I regret indeed that, after repeated efforts to learn more of its
development or history, I have but little succeeded, except so far as
knowing that it is an endoparasitic growth, at least for a portion of its
existence.

It will, perhaps, be the best course to endeavour first to give an
idea of this curious production as it exists, before referring to
Cienkowski’s forms, which would, indeed, be necessary previous to
comparing or contrasting it therewith, or with any other simple
organisms evincing any similarity in minute specialities.

The component elements of the present form, broadly taken, are
primarily divisible into two—the inner soft sarcodic body-substance, or
contents, and the outer rigid cyst, or envelope, which nearly constantly
surrounds the former.

But neither of these is quite simple, especially the latter, which
presents a variety of constituents.

To advert briefly in the first place to the latter, the outer coat or
envelope, its complexity consists, indeed, only in the number of similar
layers of which it is composed, and its great irregularity of outline.
It is often very thick, according to the numbex of laminze of which it
is made up, but even the thinnest, or such as possess but a single lamina,
would, on the whole, be called ‘‘thick-walled”’ as compared with many
vegetable cells. This wall is hyaline, and when viewed superficially it
is colourless, or nearly so, but when viewed edgeways or at the margin
of a many-laminated example, where a considerable density is therefore
seen through, it appears of a pale straw colour or brassy hue, and ex-
tremely shiny and glossy. Its consistence is tough, requiring strong

* Cienkowski: ‘‘ Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung der Labyrinthuleen,”
in Schultze’s “ Archiv fiir mikr. Anatomie,” Bd. iii., p. 274.

ArcHER—On Chlamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 141

pressure on the coyering-glass to burst it (Plate 15, fig. 4). As men-
tioned, its outline is most varied; globose or broadly oval might, per-
haps, be called the typical form, but examples lobed in a variety of
ways are extremely frequent. Nearly always, from one, two, or more
places, are given off neck-like extensions, of greater or less width,
terminating in a lacerated manner; these are produced, as it were, by
the prolongations laterally of a certain number, greater or less, of the
laminze composing the wall, and then as if abruptly torn off. (Plate
14; Plate 15, figs. 3, 4, 5.)

Leaying the outer envelope for the present, and passing to the
inner soft and plastic ‘‘ living” portion, this is not a simple or homo-
geneous plasma or sarcode, but is itself composed of several seemingly
distinct elements. The first of these is the basic substance of hyaline
character, forming the common connecting medium of every other
element (except, of course, the outer cyst or envelope alluded to) when
the organism is in what may be called its state of repose—a state in
which seemingly by far the greatest portion of its existence is passed.
But at times a far more striking and remarkable phase presents itself,
when further structural elements of the ‘‘ living” portion or contents
come to view, and to which I shall advert in the order in which they
would most probably attract the attention of an observer examining an
example of this production in ‘‘ good order”’ for the first time.

Since I met with this organism, on the first occasion in a single
pool in the Co. Westmeath, I have found it in several not very distant
sites In Connemara, having since then learned to detect its presence in
quantity by the reddish colour presented to the eye in the mass when
it is in the dormant or encysted condition, so abundant does it even-
tually become in pools where it occurs. Upon the earlier occasions of
taking it, imdeed, the red colour was by no means so prominent a
characteristic as it seemed to have rendered itself subsequently, but it
was still a sufficiently striking feature.

In examples (especially as more lately taken) it is just this reddish
colour which would likewise first attract notice under the microscope.
This is due to a number of granules of varying magnitude, often rather
large, but mostly very minute, with a dark outline and of a bright red
colour. (Plate 14, fig. 2; to the right; fig. 4.) These may be often
present in some examples in great abundance, sometimes in others
more sparse, sometimes very few, or they may be in some specimens
all but or quite absent.

Of the granular or solid contents, besides the red granules, others of
a yellowish-green colour will attract attention. These are usually more
minute than the larger of the red granules, but ordinarily surpass them
in quantity, the red ones only rendering themselves more conspicuous
at first and in the mass by their brighter and therefore more striking
colour. The fewer the red granules the more abundant the green, and
vice versd. ‘These green granules resemble much the chlorophyll-
granules of certain alge, though they are never of a grass-green, but
are always of a yellowish hue. I suppose it to be very probable that

R. 1. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. U

142 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the red granules are in reality produced by change of colour of the
green. (Plate 14; Plate 15, fig. 2 to the left; fig. 4.)

But in the formation of the ‘‘ contents” yet another granular con-
stituent has a part. Besides the above-mentioned red and yellowish-
green granules, minute homogeneous-looking rounded little granules
occur, of a pale bluish tint. (Plate 14.)

When wholly encysted, and now in a completely dormant and
quiescent condition, the organism appears very densely filled, and
hence the larger examples are quite opaque.

The first and second year of my noticing this organism, In ex-
amples from the Co. Westmeath pool, quite. frequently —since then
from that site, as well as Connemara, very rarely—did I succeed in
obtaining a view of the condition now to be described. It was there-
fore well to have secured the accompanying drawing, when the ex-
amples were readily found in suitable order.

Notwithstanding the seemingly tough consistence of the wall, or
envelope, in manipulation, the contents have the power to burst or
force their way outwards through it, and the basic plasma pours itself
forth, bearing with it the granular contents as described, but not any
of these escape or become scattered, for they are held together by the
common medium, but, on the contrary, they pass onwards with it, and
soon a remarkable sight presents itself. The plasma, thus become ex-
tended and spread out over a space so much greater than when it
occupied the cavity of the envelope, now shows the contained granules
mutually much further apart, rendering the hyaline connecting basic
medium in itself more apparent. This does not seem to form a border,
or any ‘‘ectosarc’’ region; the contained granules stand close up to
the outer contour, leaving no hyaline margin. In examples presenting
this condition in a well-expressed manner (Plate 14), I think I see
yet another constituent of the basic substance, different from the com-
mon hyaline matrix—a kind of greenish, plastic, amorphous substance,
as it were comparable to ‘‘ diffused” chlorophyll, seemingly distinct
from and yet, as it were, combining at the margins (if one may use the
word) of the patches of it, with the hyaline matrix, than which, how-
ever, this substance appears to be of a less fluent or yielding nature.
I do not think it would be capable of detection unless in examples s0,
as one might say, ‘‘on the stretch.” Now, a beautiful play of quite
globular pulsating vacuoles is seen to take place in the basic mass;
these vacuoles, though very numerous, never become very largely dis-
tended. It is very interesting to watch their alternate diastole and
systole, now here, now there, distributed all over the extended mass ;
but, to see this properly, attention should be confined to a single
vacuole. It is curious to observe a vacuole originate in the middle of
a layer of the greenish substance adverted to—the vacuole expands for
a time in the usual manner, but, as if the expansion took place too
vigorously in proportion to the yielding capacity of the surrounding
substance, the latter becomes somewhat suddenly, as it were, cracked
or split at opposite sides of the globular vacuole, the rift extending to

ArcuER—On Chiamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 143

a length, perhaps, as great as the diameter of the vacuole ; anon the
contraction abruptly sets in, and the divided surrounding substance re-
unites, and the rift becomes obliterated (as it were re-fused), perhaps
not to return, even should the vacuole reappear in the same place.
(Plate 14. See the vacuole in centre of the subtriangular outlying
portion of plasma to the left.)

But, as we watch, attention will soon be drawn off from the
vacuoles. The first issuing portion of contents, upon bemg some time
advanced into the surrounding water, forms, as it were, a primary
trunk, which soon subdivides into a number of branches which taper
off, or after tapering a little may again become expanded, forming a
‘peninsula’? of the extended body-substance; or the connecting
“isthmus” may disappear, leaving an ‘‘island”’ formed of the sarcode-
substance lying apart. Presently, issuing from various parts of the
“trunk” and principal ‘“‘ branches,” as we have seen abounding in
vacuoles, are soon noticed ramifications, extending far and wide in the
most complex manner, of filiform, hyaline, quite colourless threads of ex-
traordinary tenuity. These extremely delicate processes are flexible,
but do not seem spontaneously to alter much in position as first de-
veloped, or at least very slowly, but only to grow in length and num-
ber. But, further, part passu with their own appearance, occur at
various distances upon them mnute fusiform bodies of a pale bluish tint,
their longitudinal axis posed in the direction of the length of the filament.
At first glance these might momentarily be taken for so many fusi-
form expansions or enlargements of the delicate filament itself, offer-
ing a degree of (bluish) colour, owing merely to their greater thickness. .
But a closer inspection at once dispels this idea: the fusiform bodies
are seen to be in motion, though slow, along the hair-like filaments. (Pl.
14, passim.)

A very few minutes’ examination suffices to prove this. I regret
1 have not a note of their rate of progression; but if attention be be-
stowed on any few spindles (four, five, or six), at any given place on
one of these capillary filaments, their relative distances will be noticed
to have considerably altered in afew minutes. The little spindle, now
in advance of several others, may slacken its pace as compared with
those behind, or, what comes to the same thing, the hindermost may
become accelerated; the natural result is that the foremost spindle is
overtaken ; it may then act as a temporary stop or barrier to the ad-
vance of those behind, and the little group may come to a standstill.
They may then remain in linear sequence, or become, as it were, hud-
dled together, and form a little cluster, but by-and-by they may resume
their movement. But in such a case of a spindle now im advance be-
coming checked, what is more singular may sometimes happen—the
hindermost may actually creep over the lazy one in front, and, this
accomplished, then, nothing baulked, quietly pursue its way, leaving
the spindle previously in advance of it far behind.

It is natural to speak of these minute travelling bodies as spindles,
for that is their usual shape, but this can vary. In such a curious

T44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

case as that just mentioned, of one of these bodies passing right over
another in advance of it, sooner than allow it to remain a barrier to its
progress, the former may assume a rounded or even a globose figure
during the accomplishment of the act. (Its sluggish motion, and its
often somewhat s/ug-like figure, as it slowly passes up and over its pre-
decessor, seemingly at a standstill, might fancifully suggest a pair of
slugs, unable to do more than creep, making an effort to accomplish
between them but at best a very tardy game of ‘‘leap-frog!”) But
when the little travelling body has passed over the other, the fusiform
figure is resumed. But normally, during progression, these bodies
may sometimes represent rather a semi-fusiform figure, that is, one
side may be rectilinear, this latter, when presented, being the side
apphed to the capillary filament upon which it travels, and the con-
vex side raised up therefrom. Durimg progression a still greater
alteration of figure from the ordinary fusiform may present itself when
one of these bodies arrives at a fork of the filament; then, as if it were
uncertain as to which route it ought to take, it becomes itself bifur-
cated, and one leg follows one branch of the filament, the other leg
the other branch, and so the little body, now triradiate, may for some
time remain stationary, as it were, astr7de upon the bifurcation.

These little eminently plastic bodies (one might roughly compare
one to a piece of glazier’s putty, or to dough) are, in fact, vdentical with
the little rounded or globular bluish homogeneous-looking little granules
in the central mass to which attention was at first directed, and which
are distinctly fusiform only when upon the capillary filaments, although,

- Indeed, before they arrive there they may, some of them, appear

elliptic or subfusiform. That they are really one and the same thing,
notwithstanding the difference of figure between them as arule, is seen

_ by watching the rounded granules deliberately proceed out of the

general central mass and pass up along one of the filaments; as soon
as it has done so and begins to travel upwards, the globose figure is
lost and the fusiform outline is assumed. Soon follows another and
another, in just the same manner, and a more or less long cortége be-
gins its curious procession. By-and-by some of the little bodies may
retrograde, remain stationary, or again advance, or all may become
drawn in, capillary filaments and all, and the whole become reabsorbed
into the great central mass. When one of the little spmdles returns
from its journey it passes down from off the capillary support and reas-
sumes a globose figure, and joins the rest of the similar granules within
the central mass.

It is when a great ramified tree is thus formed, under the observer’s
eye, perhaps in ten or twenty minutes, and numerous capillary fila-
ments spread in every direction, up and down and laterally and round
about, these well laden with spindles and the central mass thus thinned
out and wide spread and relieved of so great a proportion of the gra-
nular contents, that the beautiful play of vacuoles referred to can be
seen, and the whole object presents a spectacle, in its way, of unusual
and exceeding beauty. (Pl. 14.) It must be borne im mind that the

ArcHER— On Chlamydomyra Labyrinthuloides. 145

example figured, amply furnished with ramifications, and with a tortuous
‘‘Jabyrinth”’ of filaments, as it is, and well laden with spindles, as it
appears, after all merely represents what could be seen in a single
focal plane, whilst, perhaps, ramifications sufficient to make up several
such complex ‘‘ trees’’ occur in different planes between the slide and
the covering-glass, and which can be made out by focusing up and
down, all appertaining to the single main trunk, and derived in a
brief period from the great common central head-quarters ; nay, some-
times a secondary colony may be carried outwards and left apart at
some remote point of the field, this latter now itself giving off minor
branches and filaments back towards the metropolis. (See the more
distant portion of Pl. 14.)

We have seen that these little bodies are of a homogeneous consist-
ence, of a highly plastic nature, and of a bluish hue; they further
appear to have no wall or envelope, that can be detected; still they do
not mutually coalesce, and, however intimately they may be temporarily
applied, a close examination will show their individual contours. I
have not been able to see any subdivision of them. Their motion is a
gliding one, and, as has been seen, it is always very gradual and easy,
though sometimes slower, sometimes quicker, without any apparent
rule or reason. Just as little rule or reason is evident in the course
taken by the individuals, now of one and the same file—one may go
the ‘‘ main road,” the other following it may take a ‘‘ byway.”’ Some
reason, so far as it goes, appears why some should travel up the fila-
ments and others remain behind in the general mass, in that it is seem-
ingly just those which are most external, therefore nearest the place
of origin, that is the base, of the filaments, which betake themselves
thereon for the journey.

But if the variable rate and direction of the movement of these
bodies be inexplicable, even still more enigmatical appears the cause,
or the modus operandi, of the motion itself. One might suppose,
indeed, that, once upon the filament, its elongation would cause the
separation of the bodies and give rise merely to a seeming progression
one from another. But we have seen their motion is a real one, and,
in fact, automatic. They ‘spontaneously’ leave the general mass,
and, ascending the filament, commence their onward progress, and
the latter, when once projected, seems to be even somewhat rigid, and
incapable of imparting to them any impetus. The cause of the motion
would seem, therefore, to reside in the spindles themselves: they are
very plastic—they must seemingly be very contractile. But as they
gently and smoothly glide onwards, as if without effort, and free from
interruption, no very perceptible change of figure from the spindle-
form is usually seen, except the flat form occasionally, or the furcate
form more rarely, as before adverted to. In the case of two flattened
spindles, they may sometimes be seen gliding at opposite sides of the
filament, and one may pass the other with the filament between, and
now without any change of figure, unlike what occurs when two or
several meet at the same side and cluster together.

146 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Not less curious is it again, seemingly, how these little bodies
remain upon the filament. What power keeps them there? They never
seem to glide off or to be met with in the water around. In fact,
these little performers on the ‘‘slack rope” seem to hold on admirably
—but then their action is very deliberate !

I have sometimes supposed that, surrounding doth spindles and
filaments, a very subtle and delicate sheath, or envelope, must exist,
of some amount of contractile power, whose action might exercise a
propelling force to urge the spindles along the median axis, or, at
least, to act as an auxiliary in conjunction with their inherent con-
tractile locomotive power. Under a very high amplification indeed, I
have thought to have seen such a delicate envelope, but I cannot say
that the appearance might not have been due to an optical illusion.

However, such a structure would not be without parallel in certain
Helizoan Rhizopoda, for instance, <Actinospherium LHichhornii, im
which the radiating pseudopodia possess a central axis of firmer con-
sistence (surely not comparable to a spicule), covered by a softer
sarcode envelope, certain granules passing between, evidently carried
passively by the latter. But the movement of the spindles, consisting,
as it does, of a quiet and smooth glide, is of different character. The
axis of the pseudopodium of Actinospherium, comparatively speaking,
is a much coarser object than the delicate filament upon which the
spindles travel in the present organism, and the soft involving gra-
nular sarcode of the former is indeed a very palpable thing as com-
pared with the very subtle sheath assumed to possibly exist in the
latter.

There exists a certain minute rhizopod, of which I have seen but
very few examples, and have therefore had by far too restricted
opportunity to study it, to give an account of or to describe it. L¢ 2s
there, however, and even, as is probable, I may not myself be so for-
tunate as to re-encounter it, it will most likely be found by other
observers, and far better treated of. For the present purpose it is
enough to mention that this form is of an orange or buff colour, glo-
bose its ‘‘ normal” figure, but is capable of much alteration of outline,
and it is furnished with numerous linear pseudopodia. Now, the point
worth mentioning here is, that it possesses the power to eject with
force, and rapidly, a considerable number, or (one might say) to ‘‘ fire
off”? a simultaneous ‘‘ volley” of its own orange granules, from all
round its periphery, to a distance equal to the length of its pseudo-
podia, and with an amount of energy and consentaneousness which is
truly surprising; no sooner, however, have the granules reached a
tolerably equidistant limit from the periphery, than they begin to
return, but, by comparison, much more slowly, and they become re-
absorbed into the general central mass. This curious action I have
happened to see on only two or three occasions, and under only a low
power; I, of course, immediately turned on a higher power, but the
performance so rapidly accomplished was over, nor would the perverse
thing repeat it. Other similar forms evince comparable phenomena in

ArcHER—On Chlamydomyxra Labyrinthuloides. 147

a less pronounced degree. But the question comes up, how was this
remarkable action effected? The little balls were suddenly ejected
and gradually retracted, each in a quite straight radial line; they
must have been held in by something, or they would have been shot off
beyond recovery, either by a minute special cord of sarcode, rapidly
evolved and again gradually retracting, or they must have passed either
in or along the linear pseudopodia. If they passed up the middle of the’
pseudopodium, it must be capable of great distension, or, if upon the
pseudopodium, they would seemingly be thrown off beyond retrieval,
unless (like Actinospherium) there were a subtle enclosing sheath
over a central axis to keep them m. Whether then it is possible to
compare the modus operandi of the rapid movement of the round
orange granules of the rhizopod alluded to, if on the pseudopodia,
with the slow gliding action of the ‘‘ spindles” on the filtiform threads
in the present organism, may be a matter of question.

Not less singular and curious than the spindles are the filamentary
tracks upon which they travel. There is no perceptible differences in
their width, or rather tenuity, either near the great main trunk, or at the
remotest extremity, or after a ramification. The main trunk and the
branches differ in size, as has been said, and a branch may become so
small as to show the contained granules, evidently within ct, in single
file, and even of that degree of slenderness it is still recognisable as a
branch, and it is at least as wide as a single granule or spindle. But
the filamentary tracks proper are (by comparison) much narrower
than the spindles, appear like delicate ‘‘ silvery”’ lines (eluding obser-
vation sometimes, owing to being out of focus), and they do not give
the idea of having the spindles 77 them (as does the finest branch),
but ov them, even when doubtless they are upon its upper or lower
side, in relation to the observer. They are given off from all parts,
even from the hinder portion of the mass still within the envelope,
and it was not unfrequent to see a few spindles travellmg from the
margin of the body-mass to the wall. Further, it used not be unfre-
quent to see in a well-stretched out example that the granules remain-
ing behind embedded in the mass, still in the head-quarters, showed
more or less of a reticulated arrangement in rows, as if due to the pre-
sence of some of the filiform tracks permeating the interior of the un-
issued mass. (Pl. 14.) Still my impression would be that these
remarkable linear tracks are comparable rather to pseudopodia, that is,
that they are sarcode prolongations evolved pro tempore, and that there
does not pre-exist a store of them, as it were, coiled up inside, waiting
the occasion ; on ‘‘ squeezing’ one of these no trace of them is seen in
the mass. Unlike the axis of the pseudopodia of Actinospherium, I
have not seen that they penetrate downwards into the portion of the
mass whence they emanate, and hence one of the most singular puzzles
is that the little globular body about to travel, which without doubt
is distinctly 7 the general mass, when it passes to the base of the
filamentary track, ascends it, becomes fusiform, it now appears on it.

I have repeatedly tried in a variety of ways, by reagents, &c., to

148 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

make out any structure of the nature of a xucleus in this organism, but
in this I have failed. I could neither find a nucleus (as in Ameba,
Pamphagus, Plagiophrys, Diaphoropodon, &c.) imbedded in the general
mass, nor in the spindles themselves. The general mass is made up of
the structures alluded to, and the spindles appear only as bluish
plastic and quite homogenous bodies, as described.

Foreign incepted bodies, generally, if not always, alge, were not
infrequent. Sometimes one can see through even a densely filled and
thickly enveloped and hermetically closed-in example the ‘‘ digested”
and defunct remains of perhaps a Cosmarium or Euastrum, &c., or
an Oocystis or some such organism. (Pl. 14). The large example
figured shows a brown and dead Cosmarium cucurbita, in another place
an Oocystis Naegelii, equally brown and dead (but the characteristic
arrangement of the endochrome not wholly lost), whilst next the ex-
tremity has been incepted an as yet scarcely altered example of a new
and minute Spirotenia.* Around this has been consolidated the
sarcode mass, which all the time gives off its filamentary tracks and
spindles, the Spiroteenia embedded in its midst.

Several times I have kept such glorious examples, as that figured,
on a growing slide; after some hours the ramifications were drawn in,
and there remained nothing but a ‘‘shapeless” mass sticking partially
out of the torn opening of the envelope, or all had wholly disappeared.
I never succeeded in directly tracing it, but there can be no doubt
such can wholly retract and again secrete a wall, and completely shut
itself up. Indeed it appears probable that an isolated or detached
portion of the mass left apart also can so encyst itseli—one might
almost say indeed that this organism appears to have an abhorrence
to remain long without a cyst; nay, even though seemingly the
sarcode portion may not have emerged and offered the grand arbores-
cent condition at all, still the contamed mass will keep secreting a new
coat, and adding yet another lamina to its perhaps already many strati-
fied and much thickened envelope. And so, seemingly, after several
egresses, retractions, recoatings, or subdivisions inwardly, and fresh
recoatings, are brought about the numerous and manifold, often outré,
shapes, in the encysted and dormant state assumed by this organism.

Anxious to find anything to indicate a reproductive process, I have
delayed to bring forward even this so crude an account of this form ;
but in that hope I have failed. The only thing pointing thereto is a
subdivision of the contents, sometimes noticed, into a considerable
number of generally equal parts, sometimes a variation in size is
noticeable. (Pl. 15, fig. 3.) These are globular in figure, and seem at
first to be without any wall. Such, kept for a time on a slide, by-and-
by collapse shapeless; if they had a wall they would not do so. But,

* Spirotenia gracillima (n. s. mihi), very minute, linear, extremely slender, very
slightly tapering, apices blunt, spiral turns very numerous; a remarkable form, from
its extreme slenderness. Breadth g900 tO rod00", about twenty to thirty times
longer than broad.

ArcHER—On Chlamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 149

true to the idiosyncrasy of this organism, in a normal state, each of the
balls is not long without forming a special wall (as in the figure), and
a number of globular, smooth, simple-walled, secondary individuals
are produced in the cavity of the large multilaminated primary one.
One sees before one an object something like an oogonium of a Sap-
rolegnia, but there does not appear any analogy between them.

Such is an attempt to convey an idea of this organism, which may
perhaps stand for the present as Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides, as 1t
presented itself in the natural condition, especially the first and
second seasons of my making its acquaintance. A word or two is
requisite as regards the appearances under the application of
reagents.

I was surprised, on applying iodine and sulphuric acid, to find that
this curious multilaminated coat, so conspicuous a portion of the make-
up of this organism, gave a brilliant indigo b/we colowr, accompanied by
a great swelling up of the constituent lamine, the outer of which took
somewhat of a violet colour. (Pl. 15, fig. 6.) In other words, this
coat gave in a marked manner the cellulose reaction. At same time
the inner basic substance acquired a pale, homogeneous, somewhat ver-
digris green hue, and the granules, a brassy or yellowish colour, and
shiny appearance, and became simultaneously of quite a spherical
figure, and rather small and regular size, each with a dark contour.

Boiled in caustic potash, a great swelling up and separation of the
outer lamin of the coat took place; to some extent, the same in cold
potash; the basic substance assumed a yellowish, sometimes faintly
greenish, hue, and the granules became perfectly globular, more varied
in size than under the iodine and sulphuric acid, but quite oily and
shiny in appearance, and of a greenish-yellow colour. (Pl. 14,
fig. 5

In Beale’s carmine solution no very marked change ensued, and, as
before mentioned, no portion showed itself anywhere as a nucleus, nor
did any portion take indeed any extra dye.

Alcohol deprived the red granules of their colour, and changed the
whole contents to a somewhat greenish-yellow.

Such were the results of reagents on this curious organism, as it
presented itself, the first and second season of my meeting with it.
Since then, much to my yvexation, I have failed to encounter, except
very rarely, examples displaying the active condition described; but
it always now presents itself closely wrapped up in its coat, and
densely filled with a preponderance of red granules. In that condition
it is prone to occur, in considerable quantities, on the submerged surface
of aquatic plants in the pools which it affects. The very first
examples I met with were free at the bottom of the pool; and I there-
fore tried to examine this, to me, new phase more closely.

The first plant on which I noticed this was Sphagnum, but I soon
found that this was only because other aquatics were more scarce in
the pool; for the submerged leaves of sedges, of Eriophorum, &c., and

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. I1., SCIENCE. x

150: Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

more lately still, I noticed, in Connemara, that Hrzocaulon septangulare
also suited this organism as a host.

On examining a piece of Sphagnum, or other plant bearing this
production, it may be often seen that the individuals are attached,
sometimes in crowds, sometimes singly, by one of the before-mentioned
neck-like prolongations, forming, as it were, a broad isthmus or neck,’
joining the great globose or lobed portion to the plant, but at other
times they seem to lie thereon without any evident union with it.-
They are of variable size, and, as mentioned, of most variable shape.

But on closely scrutinising some of the Sphagnum-leaves (ulti-
mately other leaves), I was still more surprised to find very small
examples, with a simple wall, or perhaps with a wall of two lamine,
- unmistakably isede the large hyaline eells, with annular and spiral
fibre. (Pl. 15, fig. 2.) These little examples were in every respect
(except size and number of lamine of the coat) like the external
larger ones; very small ones were of an ellipsoidal or subglobular
figure, but larger ones, not uncommonly, showed an elongate torulose
figure, simply due to the example, now enlarging so as to fill the cell,
becoming at intervals cinctured about, and by reason of its expan-
sive growth being constricted, by the recurring annular fibres of the
Sphagnum-cell. (Pl. 15., fig. 2, middle and left.) Other cases could
be found where such little examples protruded, hernia-like, on the
surface of the leaf. Thereupon the ‘sarcode,” with the granular
colouring contents, seem to pass up into the protrusion; then, true to
its propensity, to form a fresh coat, leaving behind the original one,
and thus seemingly explaining how these bodies come to cover the
leaf here and there, attached thereto. (Pl. 15, fig. 2, to right.) No
clue whatever have I been able to obtain as to how these bodies origi-
nally get into the cavity of the leaf-cell, or how their ‘‘ germs” can
enter. No doubt, in Sphagnum, one could suppose small germs could
enter through the pre-existent openings or foramina in the wall of the
hyaline cells, and through the same openings the hernia-like protru-
sions could make an exit without any material injury to the Sphagnum ;
for it is true that, for a length of time, it can thus harbour this
organism without seeming itself to suffer. But though this is so, it is
no less true that when this organism at last grows to excess, the
Sphagnum succumbs, gets eventually broken up, the tissue of the
‘‘leaves”’ disappearing, and nothing left but the ‘‘stem”’ and
‘‘branches”’ covered by this growth, and such portions seem to be at
last utterly ‘‘ killed.”

But if it were supposed that in Sphagnum ‘“ germs” could make
their way through the foramina in the cells of the leaves, the same
supposition would not hold good as regards other plants, without such
normal openings in the cells. Of such, none offers a more striking
example than the cells (of the roots) of Eriocaulon. Of this curious —
plant, small specimens are sometimes found floating on the surface of the
water, and though defunct, their tissues seem not in any way injured
or disturbed. Inside the cells of this plant small examples of this

ARcHER—On Chlamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 151

organism are sometimes to be found, to all appearance hermetically
closed in, and without any evident mode of ingress. But it would be
unreasonable to suppose that it could be self-generated in the plants it
inhabits. Other endoparasites, penetrating from without, as is well
known, exist. In other leaves, where it can be seen occupying inter-
cellular spaces, the marvel becomes, of course, very much diminished.
It may be found (in Connemara) covering Batrachospermum vagum,
and lodged in numbers between the cortical layer of filaments depend-
ing from the nodes, which become dislocated, and portions of the plant
distorted ; but such is not very surprising. But as to how this produc-
tion gets into cells of several diverse plants, inhabiting the same pool,
is a mystery to which I regret I have no clue.

In certain leaves of Sphagnum in which unmistakable young in-
dividuals occur, and again in others in which such did not reveal
themselves (not always, however, absolutely critically examined),
certain growths can be seen, generally somewhat to one side of the
hyaline cell, and sometimes pressing in upon, and distorting, the inter-
mediate chlorophyll-bearimg cells. These form elliptic, greenish,
coarsely granular masses, surrounded by an irregular, colourless hya-
line, indistinctly bounded, roughly striate covering. (PI. 15, fig. 1.)
Sometimes two of these may occur in one cell, and if at the same level,
or side by side, they together may press more upon the adjacent cells,
and cause somewhat more marked distortion. I have not been able to
satisfy myself that these have a genetic relationship to the subject of
this paper, but I am inclined to think they may have.

Although, then, no ‘reproductive’ condition or development of
“germs”? of any kind has ever rewarded my repeated collection and
examination of this organism, at different periods of the year, so far as
T am aware, nothing essentially agreeing with its general and special
characteristics has before been described. But one cannot look at
Cienkowski’s figures of his Labyrinthula-forms, or read his account of
them (loc. cit.), without being struck with the strong resemblance, if,
indeed, it may not turn out to be more.

It becomes necessary, then, to refer to the description given by
Cienkowski (/oc.cit.), of the two forms for which he founded the genus
Labyrinthula, and the only one of the new group “‘ Labyrinthulez.”

Labyrinthula vitellina, Cienk., forms little brick-red, or orange-
coloured patches, about the size of a pin’s head, upon seaweeds cover-
ing the piles in Odessa harbour. Placed under the microscope, and
allowed to repose for some hours (say twenty-four), three principal
constituents catch the eye of the observer: the ‘‘ central mass,” the
“spindles,” and the ‘filamentary tracks” (‘‘ Fadenbahn,” Cienk.).
The ‘‘ central mass”’ consists of globules (0-012 mm. in diam.), with a
very delicate contour, and of a brick-red or yelk-yellow colour, which
in the aggregate are held together by a delicate, finely granular, basic
substance, often presenting, externally, a thin colourless margin.
Passing off therefrom in various directions are seen numerous slender,
mostly very thin, anastomosing strmgs, the “filamentary tracks.”

152 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Towards the periphery of the mass the little orange-coloured globules
acquire a more elliptic figure, and they can be watched passing up,
one by one, upon the tracks, where they assume a fusiform figure, and
gradually, but very slowly, glide onwards. In the course of several
hours, the greater part of these little bodies have ascended the tracks,
and slowly pursued their way to the margin of the drop of water. It
is therefore clear the little globules at first seen, and the ‘‘ spindles”
afterwards found travelling on the slender tracks, are identical. Their
contour is very delicate, they never become fused, though do not seem
to possess any evident membrane. The middle of each is occupied by
‘“q nucleus, appearing like a clear vacuole, enclosing a strongly refrac-
tive nucleolus;” they imerease in number by self-division, and are
hence to be regarded as true ‘‘cells.”” Treated with tincttfre of iodine,
a sharply circumscribed contour makes its appearance on their surface,
becoming brown, and standing off, more or less, from the contents.
Alcohol dissolves the pigment, leaving the globules deprived of colour ;
the spindles so treated do not become blue by iodine, which at once
takes place when tincture of iodine is added to fresh material; allowed
to operate longer, the whole spindle becomes dark brown. The beha-
viour of the pigment under sulphuric acid shows it belongs to the
category of colouring substances, forming the red specks (‘‘ eye dots’’)
of Euglene, Rotatoria, the orange-yellow contents of Uredines. They
are very contractile, altering their figure on contact as they glide
along. Their main direction is centrifugal, towards the margin of the
drop of water in which they are under observation, but they do not
always take the shortest course; they appear also capable of gliding
over one another; some of them thus delayed en route may preserve
their original globular figure but having passed the obstacle, upon at
fresh start the fusiform figure is reassumed. Sometimes, says the
author, a backward motion may take place, ‘‘though indeed the final
exit from the water appears to be the purpose of this curious wander-
ing.” As to the cause of the movement, the author knows of no fact
capable of leading to an explanation, being of opinion, however, that,
‘owing to the rigidity of the track, the cause is to be sought in the
spindles, though the latter, away from the track, have not the power
to move.”

Touching the ‘“‘ tracks”? themselves, the author seems to regard
them as not differing except in tenuity from the general hyaline basic
substance. He was able, by the application of acetic acid, to perceive
that the previously seemingly uniform substance now showed a very
fine fibrous structure, and pressure on the covering-glass enabled him
to detach the strings from the central body. When, however, the
whole fabric becomes fully evolved under the microscope (that is, the
whole ‘‘tree”’ or ‘‘ labyrinth” developed), 1t seems to possess no con-
tractility, evinces no movement on the surface or in the interior, no
projection or retraction of processes or rays comparable to the pseudo-
podia of the Rhizopoda: the whole is now a rigid, motionless structure
(except, of course, the wandering spindles). The author would leave

ArcHER—On Chlamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 153

the question an open one as to ‘‘ whether the tracks represent a system
of communicating tubes, or solid interwoven threads.”

The principal difficulty in his arriving at a conelusion is due to the
extreme minuteness of the threads, which scarcely allows of the
mutual relation of these to the spindles being observed. The author
could not satisfy himself as to whether the spindles executed their
movement 7 a single thread or between two of them; as he regards
the passage of a spindle, from the main filament to branch, as being
compatible with either interpretation. Also, he says the fact that,
upon the application of iodine, the contour then seems as standing off
from the spindles, directly continued above and below into the fila-
ments, may be used in fayour of either view; this contour, with its
dependent threads, may be interpreted as the expression of a ‘‘ tube
in which the spindle moves, or as that of two threads in contact
longitudinally.”’ The author himself leans to the latter view.

Notwithstanding the seeming fibrous nature of the mass under
certain circumstances, and occasional tuft-like pencils of short linear
prolongations making themselyes sometimes apparent, Cienkowski
thinks there is not thereby afforded a reply to the query whence
properly the material to form the tracks proceeds; is it the basic sub-
stance of the central body which breaks up into the interwoven
threads, or is it the spindles themselves which directly build up the
whole framework? He replies, that naked clusters of spindles, or
even isolated spindles, without combining basic substance, are so
capable, and that the latter takes no share in forming the aggregate
framework; but whether only the apices of the spindles or their whole
surfaces contribute to emit it, he expresses himself as uncertain.

The other species described by Cienkowski, LZ. macrocystis, agrees in
all essential points with the foregoing. Its spmdles are larger (0°018
to 0°025 mm.), of firmer consistence, the nucleus more sharply
marked, the contents more granular, than in ZL. vitellina, and they are
colourless, or a pale yellow tint. Neither iodine nor sulphuric acid
produces a blue colour. As in the previous species, the spmdles in-
erease by self-division. This form occurs on the piles at a higher
elevation than the preceding, therefore not submerged except by the
surf. Hence it is regarded by the author as explicable why, in this
form, the spindles are more prone to pass into a ‘‘ cyst”? or ‘‘ spore.”
Preparatory thereto, the cells enlarge, become more richly granulate,
darker in colour, the spindles become oval, and each acquires, besides
its own membranous covering, a thick-walled smooth envelope; the
basic substance possesses a glassy, rather firm, consistence, retaining
the outline, like a ‘‘ mould” or matrix, of such ‘ cysts” as are ejected
by force; on the surface of the cluster there is formed a granular layer
of darker colour than in the interior. After a pause, the contents of
the encysted ‘‘spindles” become divided into four portions, the coat
disappears, and they remain free, as motionless globules. This taking
place, in many instances produce numerous closely lying little groups,

154 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the little bodies soon assuming the fusiform figure, already accom-
panied by the ‘ tracks,’’ indispensable for their movements.

Such is a very much epitomised abstract of the author’s memoir,
and he sums up the conception of the Labyrinthulez as follows :—

1. Clusters of nucleus-containing cells, increasing by division,
possess a certain degree of contractility, at times becoming enclosed in ~
a basic substance.

2. These cells give off a fibrous substance, which becomes formed
into a rigid structure, forming reticulations and arborescent ramifica-
tions.

3. The cells leave the clusters, gliding away, by manifold cir-
cuitous routes, to the periphery of the drop, but the Labyrinthula-
cells can carry on their wandering only when supported by these
filamentary tracks. :

4..The wandering cells combine anew in clusters, and pass over
into an encysted state, each cell acquiring a firm envelope, all held
together by the common basic substance.

5. From each cyst, after a rest of some time, four globules are
formed, which extremely probably become changed into young Laby-
rinthula-cells.

Thus, notwithstanding the great resemblance, there are some
points of difference, of such seeming great importance as possibly to
forbid the present organism being subordinated to the Labyrinthulez.
In the first place, the ‘‘ spindles” are not nucleated; in the next, they
do not (seemingly) ever become themselves encysted, but the aggregate
group, matrix, colouring granules and all, become repeatedly so, and
that in a cellulose coat; in the third place, Cienkowski’s Labyrin-
thuleze do not possess other colouring granules besides the spindles—
in the present form there are green and red alternating; and, in the
fourth place, the former do not show contractile vacuoles, a con-
spicuous feature in the latter, under certain conditions; nor did
Cienkowski see any organisms incepted into their mass; and, lastly,
Cienkowski’s forms did not evince any parasitic nature.

The first objection seems to be the most important. Might it,
however, possibly be met by assuming the spindles in the present form
to be, as it were, all nucleus? Cienkowski offers no conjecture as to
any seeming or probable purpose of the strange wandering of the
spindles, save ‘‘to reach the periphery of the drop, or to get out of the
water ;” still he says they can recede. Their object would naturally
seem to be to transport to a distance from the primary mass, and to
distribute around, the spindles, in order to lay the foundation of a
number of new centres. Quite in a similar manner, the spindles in
the present form tend to pass away from the original centre, and
masses, accompanied indeed by a greater or less quantity of the basic
matrix, are sometimes left apart to form new centres. I cannot say,
indeed, whether or not a single spindle would have the power to lay
the foundation of a new and independent centre of growth, like to

ARcHER—On Chlamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 155

that which it left behind; but it might not be unreasonable to suppose
that in this way the slender filamentary tracks, reaching far and wide,
may be simply the medium of transporting to, and depositing these
spindles within, the tissues of the adjacent submerged plants, in the
way which we have seen it to occur, there to develop.

As to the second objection, that the individual spindles do not be-
come specially encysted, but the whole of them, along with the other
granular structures in common, might be only of secondary import-~-
ance; more cogent, indeed, is it, perhaps, that they have not been seen
to divide, but after all it is a probable way of their increase.

The remaining objections seem rather to relate to questions of
habit, or might be considered in themselves as touching upon points
rather of mere ‘‘ specific’? signification than of higher import.
Cienkowski’s forms might yet prove to be parasitic; they at least
grow upon and surround the adjacent alge. Cienkowski’s forms took,
some twenty-four hours on a ‘‘ slide” to grow up into a “tree” like
that shown in his figures; the present form has often presented a.
spectacle ike that shown in Pl. 14, in less than as many minutes.

If the spindles in my form were nucleated, 1. e. uf they represented
‘“cells,” not merely plastic, homogeneous, little masses, the present
organism would seem to be necessarily relegated to the Labyrinthulee,.
apart from the other points of difference.

The ‘‘filamentary tracks” in Cienkowski’s forms and in the present.
organism seem wonderfully to resemble each other, so much so that,
whatever be their mode of evolution, it is probable this is alike in all.
As has been seen, Cienkowski ascribes the origin of the filamentary
tracks to the spindles themselyes—in other words, a spindle must exist
before a track; the former must first exude or give off the filamentary
substance (‘‘faserige Substanz’’), then pass along (2), or im (?), or
between (?), the threads so produced, but which the author leaves an open
question. But this does not, seemingly, quite coincide with his
description of the basic substance, a. ‘‘zarte, femkornige Rinden-
Substanz,”’ often forming at the periphery a thin enveloping layer,
where again its substance is spoken of as either ‘‘ ganz hyalin, einfor-
mig”’ or as showing a ‘‘sehr feime faserige Structur,’’ and where it has
the power to give off branches, of a glassy appearance, gradually
tapering off; these may be of a uniform appearance, or show a very
fine fibrous (faserig) structure, and at the margin sometimes running
off into very thin, scarcely perceptible rays, sometimes fringe-like, at
others tufted, and all this seemingly without the direct presence of
any of the spindles. These fine linear threads seem to be nothing
more nor less than the ‘“ tracks,” as yet very short. In one form the
tracks, if I mistake not, are given off independently of the spindles,
but they are no sooner there than spindles are seen thereon (or there-
in?). As I mentioned as regards my form, and as will be seen*in the
figure, a more or less reticulated arrangement of the ‘‘ spindles’ (not
now ot fusiform figure) may be seen in the interior of the central mass,
suggesting their arrangement along ‘‘tracks” enveloped by the general

i

156 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

substance; but thisis only conjectural. (Pl. 14.) In both Cienkowski’s
and the present form the tracks give off branches, and incorporate
with others which they cross, admitting of the spindles taking very
circuitous routes.

In Cienkowski’s forms he mentions that the tracks (rigid as they
seem at first) by-and-by take on ‘‘a mucous consistence, more or less
enveloping the spindles,” and they form ‘“ knot-like expansions, in which
vacuoles occur;” but notwithstanding these facts, the author regards
the tracks in such condition as only ‘‘ most deceptively presenting the
appearance of a protoplasm-plate ;”’ does not this seem somewhat con-
tradictory ? In our form the tracks seem to be given off from the
central mass (pseudopodium-fashion), and can be wholly or partially
retracted.

Cienkowski denies to the spindles any power of motion except in
connection with the tracks, but in both of his and in the present form

‘these have the power spontaneously to leave the general crowd inside

the central mass, at first without apparentcontact with a track, then,
proprio motu, to mount the one along which it is to make its journey.

But, further, in connection with a fungal, the identity of which
was unknown to the author himself, Cienkowski had previously drawn
attention to a filamentary form of plasmodium, with ‘ spindles”? moy-
ing along the threads.* This he describes thus (curtailed) :—‘‘ Upon
culture of these for some time upon a slide, I found the entire field
covered over by a branched network of threads, which here and there
showed fusiform thickenings. Upon following the course of these
threads for certain distances, large differently-shaped colourless proto-
plasma-masses were encountered, from which the whole structure
drew its material as from a reservoir—so to say, budded out from it.
Upon attentive examination of the plasma-aggregates, it rendered
itself apparent that, at any place thereof, a projection or prominence
first makes its appearance. This prominence becomes constricted at
its base, assumes a fusiform figure, then, removed from the principal
mass, drawing a thread with it. In the same way sprouts out from
the protoplasm a new spindle, which likewise thins off at its base into
a thread, and follows the one first formed. Whilst thus continuously
new spindles and threads proceed from the main reservoir, and become
earried along the ‘track’ (‘ Fadenbahn’), the whole thread creeps
forwards, the end spindle directed foremost. The filaments proceeding
from the reservoir are to be identified with the basic substance of the
plasmodium, the spindles and strings with the granular substance.
The movement of the thread is extremely slow, scarcely directly per-
ceptible, that of the spindle much more noticeable.

‘« En route the spindles may not be equally mutually remote; here
and there one becomes accelerated, and lays itself longitudinally on
the one preceding it; this is followed by another, and so on. In this

,

* Cienkowski; “Das Plasmodium,” in Pringsheim’s ‘“ Jahrbiicher ftir wiss.

Bot.” Bad. iii., p. 408.

ArcHER—On Chlamydomyzxa Labyrinthuloides. Yd7

way originates a cluster of spindles which fuse together in a string,
continuing its way; the thread, however, keeps its own position and
extension. We are thus here compelled to distinguish between the
less motile basic substance and a second gliding one. Another inter-
pretation, that the spindles are but enlargements of the threads, which
~ become moved up and down, is inadmissible, because the spindles, as
we have seen, considerably alter their figure en route, coalesce, become
divided, and proceed from the main reservoir.”

The author, at the conclusion of his memoir* on the Labyrinthulee,
again refers to this curious ‘‘ Fadenplasmodium”’ appertaiming to the
unknown fungal (taken by him, he now mentions, from the earth of
some flower-pots), and he regrets that he was never able to refind it
for further examination, with the fresh light and new experience
derived from the study of the two marine forms constituting his new
group named Labyrinthulee. At that time, as is seen, he regarded
‘the central balls as protoplasmic bodies, from which each spindle
upon beginning its wandering was produced by constriction. That the
spindles pre-exist in the central clusters as such, or in the form of
globules, was then a fact unknown to him, whether it were that this
differentiation in the filamentary plasmodium (Fadenplasmodium) was
not really existent at all, or that the delicacy of the object and the
difficulty of observation concealed from him the true state of facts.
The filamentary plasmodium observed under a covering glass always
perished, for at that time he had made no use of the ‘moist chamber.’”’

There is thus pretty evidently a considerable resemblance in this
organism, whatever it be, to that herein described.

The author alluded in his previous memoir on the Plasmodium to
this ‘‘enigmatical”’ production, in order to compare it with certain very
similar, though not seemingly at all identical conditions of the plasma
of certain Mycetozoa.| Referring to certain filamentary forms assumed
thereby, he draws attention to the ‘‘ formation of lenticular enlarge-
ments of the basic substance of the threads. The number and size of
these of course depend upon the persistence of the interruptions of
the current, as also upon the quantity of the substance flowing on-
wards after each interval of pause. These isolated masses of the
granular substance can glide along the thread up and down, approach,
coalesce into a larger expansion, or become removed from one another;
the basic mass of the thread remains also here motionless.”

Now, I am much inclined to think that a comparison of the
phenomena as here described by Cienkowski for the Fadenplasmodium
in Mycetozoa, with those evinced by the organism brought forward by
me in this communication, still less a determination of these as but the
expressions of similar structures, would not be tenable. The appear-
ances and characteristics evinced by my form seem more to admit of
comparison with the fungal (from the flower-pot) referred to by

* Loc. cit., p. 808. t Loc. cit., p. 405.
R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. I., SCIENCE. NYG

i

158 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cienkowski; but there appear, so far as can be judged, general points
of difference—of course no one could for a moment regard them as
identical. If we judge aright from Cienkowski’s figure,* the
‘‘spindles” in his unknown organism (from the flower-pot) do not seem
of differentiated character from the tracks; they seem to be composed of
the basic substance, and to contain the same extremely minute granules,
notwithstanding that they have an independence of movement. Unlike
the marine Labyrinthulex, they do not seem to be nucleated, and in
that respect would agree with those of my organism. But in the
latter the ‘‘ spindles”? are undoubtedly pre-existent in the central
mass, and are of quite different colour, consistence, and character from
the basic substance containing them, or the ‘‘ tracks” on which they
travel.

’ We have thus to do with an organism singular in its details, and
highly puzzling as to its real nature—one which offers but few re-
semblances to recognised and described objects. Its outward ‘‘facies”
and its most striking resemblances doubtless suggest affinity to the
Labyrinthules, especially Z. vitellina, Cienk., but this may be a mere
resemblance, nothing more, if we were acquainted with its develop-
ment. It, like the marine forms, has a resemblance to Cienkowsk1’s
as yet, even to him, enigmatical fungal (from the flower-pot); it has a
less striking resemblance to conditions of Mycetozoa, as pointed out
also by Cienkowski. In the absence of a ‘‘nucleus” it agrees with
Monera (Hickel). But, whilst it as yet shows no ‘‘fructification,”’ no
reproductive process, in any more strict sense of the word, a decision
as to its real nature must remain in abeyance. Meantime, in itself
and its specialities, it is an existence quite distinct from any other
hitherto described, at least so far as I have noticed.

I am myself very strongly inclined to hold by the view that
Sarcodic existence (at least those of the fresh waters), that is ‘‘ Rhizo-
poda,” in a broad sense, embracing various types, simple as they are,
are, in fact, very fixed and permanent organisms. Bound up with
certain ‘‘forms” seem to be their own inherent specialities of structure
and of texture, their peculiarities of temperament (if one might be
allowed to usethe word in relation to so lowly organisms), their idiosyn-
crasies of behaviour, of manner, of habit, their peculiarities of colour,
or its changes, their greater, or less, predilection for crude ‘‘ food,” or
seeming totalabstinence. Although, indeed, the present organism cannot
be looked upon as belonging to Rhizopoda, it is, at least, not less
strongly marked than any of the not very numerous but yet multifari-
ous Sarcodic existences which the fresh waters, more or less abundantly
or scantily, offer to notice. But still any generic or specific ‘‘ charac-
ters” that could be ascribed to it would seemingly be of but a tem-
porary or artificial nature, pending its further history. Since I first
met with it, it has pertinaciously refused to present any additional

* Q . ~ a
Loe. cit., T. xix., f. 5 and 6.

ARrcHER—On Chlamydomyxa Labyrinthuloides. 159

particulars as to its development. The nearest site at which I know
it to occur is some sixty miles from Dublin; but I am inclined to sup-
pose it will not turn out to be very uncommon; and at other seasons,
or other localities, to other observers, it may unfold more of its history
and afford further data, to throw a light on its true nature.

Ad interim, it may perhaps be well to epitomise its description,
without attempting to refer it to any special class or order for the
present, under the name of

Chlamydomyzxa labyrinthuloides, n. g. et sp.

Generic characters :-—

' Body substance enclosed in a multilaminated cellulose envelope,
whence, through an apparently lacerated aperture, the non-nucleated
eranule-bearing protoplasmic contents now and again emerge, irregu-
larly giving off at the same time in an arborescent manner gradually
tapering ramifications, and emitting numerous extremely slender
hyaline ramifying threads (‘‘ filamentary tracks’’), occasionally coa-
lesemg and forming a more or less complex ‘‘ labyrinth,” along which
proceed from the central mass (as from a reseryoir) numerous little
therein pre-existent, non-nucleated globular, but plastic, bodies, which
during progression assume a fusiform figure (‘‘ spindles”’).

Specific characters :—

Very variable in dimensions, in an early stage endoparasitic, that
is, living within the tissues of aquatic plants; general mass, with or
without subdivision, becoming periodically repeatedly encysted ; en-
veloping coat hyaline, glossy, of a pale, yellowish colour, when viewed
at margin (or through its greatest thickness); remaining thus long
dormant, and in that condition the ‘‘ spindles” globular; pigment-
granules yellowish-green or bright red, rounded, or irregularly shaped,
very dense; now and again putting on the energetic condition, and
forming a highly ramified, arborescent structure, the central mass then
presenting numerous rounded pulsating vacuoles; the ‘filamentary
tracks” extremely slender, quite hyaline, the “ spindles” bluish in
colour, homogeneous in appearance, plastic, their progression slow,
eradual, gliding; when in motion, about 3355 to apo of an Inch in
length, and about half as broad.

160 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XX.—Lisr or SrycHertes Myrtacex, with Descriptions oF Two NEw
Species. By J. G. Baxer, F. L.S8.- Assistant Curator of the Kew
- Herbarium. (With Plates 16 and 17.)

[Read February 8, 1876.]

Genus Evernra, Linn.

Sub-genus Jossrnra.

1. FE. uniflora, Linn. Sp. Plant 673, E. Michelii, Lam. D.C. Prod.
3, 263, Plinia pedunculata, L. fil. Suppl. 253, Bot. Mag. t. 478, Steno-
calyx Micheli, Berg. A native of Tropical America, now widely
naturalised in the Old World.

Sub-genus Syzyerum.

2. FE. Wrightii, Baker, Pl. 16. Branches straight, grey, terete,
moderately stout. Leaves distant, distinctly stalked, ovate or oblong,
4-6 inches long, 23-3 inches broad, cuspidate, broadly rounded at the
base, rigidly coriaceous, shining, with the veinlets raised. Cymes
copious, lax, stalked, lateral and terminal, 4-6 inches broad, with as-
cending main branches. Flowers stalked or sessile. Calyx 2-3 inch
long, narrowed into a false pedicel in the lower half above the joint;
lobes twice as broad as deep; tube not produced beyond the ovary.
Petals round, } inch deep. Stamens and style } inch long. Fruit not
seen. Common in Mahé and Praslin. Professor Wright! Horne !
Endemic. :

3. E. Sechellarum, Baker, Pl.17. Branches terete, moderately slender.
Leaves distant, distinctly stalked, oblong, acute or acuminate, cuneate
at the base 4-5 inches long, 13-2 inches broad, rigid, with the veinlets
raised. Cymes short-stalked,; terminal and lateral, 3-4 inches broad,
with spreading main branches; the flowers sessile at the end of the
branchlets. Calyx 3 inch deep, turbinate, as if narrowed into a short
pedicel above the joint, the lobes twice as broad as deep. Expanded
stamens 3-3 inch long.

Seychelles, described from a specimen in the herbarium of the late
Judge Blackburne, now at Kew. Resembles the common Asiatic #.
Jambolana in leaf and general habit, but differs entirely in the flowers.
Endemic.

Genus Barrrvetonta, Forst.

Sub-genus Buronica, Juss.

1. B. speciosa, L. fil. Seychelles on the shores, Bojer. Horne /
(Common on the Mahé side of Praslin. Professor Wright.) Polynesia
to Comoros, not Continental Africa.

Sub-genus Srravapium, Juss.

2. B. racemosa, Roxb. Seychelles on the shores, Horne! Spread
through Tropical Asia and Africa.

3. B. acutangula, Gaertn. Seychelles, Boyer. Tropical Asia, not
Africa.

KinaHan—On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. 161

X XI.—ReEport on THE MicroscopicaL SrructuRE oF Rocks. No. 2.
By G. H. Krvanan, M.R.1.A., &. (With Plate 8.)

[Read February 8, 1875.]

On the Quartz contained in the Granites from Knockanavaddy (B'),
Ballynahown (B’), Furbogh (B® and B*), and Kirkullen (B°), County
Galway.

The quartz in these granites occurs principally as the meelaton of
the rocks; but a small portion is found as inlying blebs and crystals,
principally in the orthoclase. The latter variety is very similar to the
quartz blebs so characteristic of the elvanytes (PI. 8, fig. 19).

The blebs of quartz in the elvanyte as a rule are in crystalline
forms, or coated particles; some, however, are in irregular pieces,
partaking more of the character of the skeleton quartz of typi-
eal granite. When typical they have sharp outlines, but in some
the margin seems to graduate quickly into the surrounding minerals.
Many of them contain a well-developed complete crystal of a
foreign mineral (Pl. 8, fig. 19). All are affected more or less
by gas specks or labecule. These, however, as a rule, are not
numerous; and in those blebs in which many are found, the quartz
occurs in a more or less irregular form. Short gas tubes, or tubwl7,
seem to be characteristic of the quartz of the elvanytes. In the right-
hand quartz crystal (P1. 8, fig. 19), under a power of 169, very few dabecule
appear, nor are they much increased in number under a power of 386.
In the left-hand crystal, under a power of 169, there are also very few
labeculze to be seen; but under the higher power (386), about double
the quantity appears, some of the latter being so small as to be scarcely
visible, while in two places they form short strings of minute beads.
In both erystals short thick tubuli occur. These, under a power of 196,
appear as short thick lines; but with higher powers (from 250 to 400)
they are seen to be minute tubuli, probably formed by gas. Fig. 28,
Pl. 8, represents a group of them that occurs in the right-hand crystal.
The two sharp cones are tubuli which le oblique to the plane of the
section. Some of the labecule, especially most of those that are com-
plete spheres, seem to be gas bubbles; but many of the others,
especially those that are oval and irregular in outline, would appear
to be cross sections of the tubuli; their different shapes being due to
the angles at which the tubuli are cut, and the reflection of the light
against the walls of the tubuli. The crystals without sharp margin
(left-hand fig. 19, Pl. 8) usually have more or less regular fringes of
prismatic colours.

The skeleton quartz in the granites B', B’, B*, and B* has no
crystalline forms, and gives a gorgeous change of colour when
the polarizer is turned, the different masses of colour generally

162 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

having irregular finely serrated thin fringes of other colour; while
some have the irregular lines of that colour running through
them. In specimen JB’ very little quartz appears in the slice,
while in specimens B* and B* the fringes are very marked, and
every group of quartz forms a patchwork made up of many ‘small
irregular portions. In the granite of Kirkullen (B*), as represented
in the slice, some of the quartz skeleton seems inclined to occur in
crystalline forms, and in part to partake of the nature of the quartz of
the elvanytes. Its quartz, when the polarizer is turned, is inclined
to give more a play than a change of colours, while each piece usually
has a fringe of prismatic colours. From this it would appear that the
specimen of the rock was taken from a locality in which the rock had
lost the true normal character of typical granite.

Fig. 18, Pl. 8, represents two small masses of quartz in the Kirkullen
granite magnified to 42 diameters. In the right-hand one a erystal will
be found with a power of 196 (see fig. 20, Pl. 8). In it are numerous
labecule, some lying irregularly about, the rest more or less in lines or
zones ; there are also continuous lines, two of which are represented in
the figure. With a still higher power (386), these lines are found to be
strings of minute beads, apparently along shrinkage or fracture fissures.
With the high power we also find that in places the labecule are
systematically arranged, although with a power of 196 they appear to
be irregularly g erouped. This is apparent in fig. 21, Pl. 8, which repre-
sents the place marked a@ in figure 20, magnified 386 diameters, and
shows there at least three distinct systems of labeculee, which probably
have relations with different facets of the crystal. The higher power
also explains the elongated, pear-shaped, small, shaded spots in figure
20, which are found to be pointed clouds of minute labecule. In two
places at the margin of this crystal there are clouds of small labecule.

The left-hand mass of quartz (fig. 18, Pl. 8) is different from that
just described, as the labecule in it seem to be irregularly scattered
about. Associated with them in places are short thick lines, few
perfectly straight or symmetrical, like those in the quartz of the
elvanyte (fig. 23, Jule, 8), but usually more or less curved or crooked,
as represented in fig. 22, Pl. 8, which represents the place marked 6
in fig. 18, Pl. 8, magnified 296 diameters. There is also a peculiar
feather-like arrangement, which is also shown in fig. 22, Pl. 8. Under
a power of 386 the crooked and curved lines are found to be gas tubes
or tubuli, while the feather-lke arrangement is due to a line of oval
spots which are the oblique sections of a system of minute tubuli.
Five of these tubuli magnified 386 diameters are represented below, in
figure 22, Pl. 8.

The labeculee in the quartz are rarely visible when viewed with a
less power than 50, while some are so small as only to be visible with
a power of 400. <A crowd of labecule occur at some of the margins of
the masses of quartz, while the irregular lines, seen under polarized
light, seem to mark the junction of two masses, or to be due to film
filling a line of fracture. In the quartz of B' the labeculee are some-

KuwanHan—On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. 163

times in lines, but more usually they are irregularly scattered about.
A well marked example of the feather arrangement (fig. 22, Pl. 8) was
observed in one place, which under powers ranging from 300 to 400
showed distinctly the connection between this appearance and a system
of tubuli; the feather on the right hand being the oblique longitudinal
section of the tubuli, while the feather to the left was formed by re-
flected light, and disappears as the power is raised.

In the quartz of B® and B* some picces have the labecule scattered
about as in the quartz of B', and in them the tubuli appear to be
rare; but in most of the others the labecule are in lines or systems,
while the tubuli are not uncommon. These tubuli are usually more
or less curved (fig. 22, Pl. 8), and rarely straight and symmetrical, like
the tubuli in the typical quartz of the elvanytes (fig. 23, Pl. 8). In some
of this quartz there are thin hair-like or capillary lines, not visible under
a power of 230; these are long and short, straight and curved, and
cross or branch from one another, a group being shown in fig. 24, Pl. 8.
Some of these capilloids, under powers ranging from 300 to 400, are
seen to be tubuli, while the nature of others, especially some of the
long ones, may be different. The labecule associated with the
capilloids, as shown in fig. 24, usually run in more or less regular
systems. Some of these labecule, as previously mentioned in describ-
ing the quartz of the elvanyte, are undoubtedly bubbles, but some of
them represent the cross section of the tubuli, the larger ones being
sections of the short, thick tubuli, and the minute ones the sections of
the capilloids.

In specimen Bt a few of the pieces of quartz give a play instead
of a change of colour.

In specimen B? the non-crystalline pieces of quartz, the labecule are
very similar, and similarly arranged to those in the skeleton quartz of
specimen B'. Tubuli are usually scarce; those principally observed
being capilloid.

The inlying blebs and secretions of quartz found in the felspars,
but principally in the large twin crystals of orthoclase, are usually
margined with a prismatic fringe, apparently due to a minute coated
structure. They rarely have. well defined margins, but usually
graduate quietly into the envelope of felspar; many of them have a
centre or nucleus of a foreign mineral. They contain more or less
labecule, some being full of them, and in some were observed the
capilloids and the short thick tubuli.

164 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XXI1.—Reprort on THE MicroscoricaL StRucTURE oF Kooks. No. 3.
By G. H. Kivanan, M.R.I.A., &., &e.

[Read February 8, 1875.]

Carnsore Granite, Co. Wexford.

Tue granite from which the specimen was procured occupies a
small tract on the 8. E. shore of Wexford, in the neighbourhood of
Carnsore Point. The mass of the rock is evidently of metamorphic
origin, but in the vicinity of the Point there appears to be an intrusive
mass of slightly different granite. The typical rock is of a reddish
greyish colour, containing large crystals, usually twins, of flesh-
coloured or pink felspar, a dull white felspar, some greenish felspar, two
micas, quartz, and pyrite. Of this granite, four slices were prepared
by Mr. Jordan, of the Mining Record Office, two (B. 18 and 18*) from
a block of granite near Castletown, and two (B. 22 and 28) from the
rock at Crossfintan Point.
B. 18. This slice is principally occupied by one of the large crystals
of flesh-coloured felspar. In the slice, the minerals observed with a
power of 17 are: an irregular skeleton of quartz, three varieties of
felspar, one crystal of amphibole, secretions of
mica, and a few opaque crystals (pyrite ?).

YY YY,
y ty Sp The large flesh-coloured crystal, which is pro-
LL AYE, rly orthoclase, has a lining structure that
AYE GY r

eg yy runs obliquely from right to left (see woodcut),
QE iy but having darkly-shaded Nae that aed
Cys GIy irregularly from left to right, while scattered
Shy “iy Ys yf over it are numerous secretions of quartz. The

Z VY) Uff second felspar [dull white] is semiopaque, but

US G4 contains numerous iridescent spots; this evi-

dently is a variety of orthoclase, and probably adularia. The third
felspar only appears in small crystals, and portions of crystals; it
shows minute parallel lines of prismatic colours, apparently being a
triclinic felspar.

In this slice, most of the quartz occurs in the skeleton of the rock ;
however, a few particles were detected in irregular crystalline secre-
tions, somewhat like the quartz characteristic of elvanyte. The
micas, amphibole and pyrite (?) usually occur together, forming
irregular nests; they are, however, sometimes in scattered small
patches, while a few individual flakes or crystals were detected.

B. 18*. This slice seems to show the general character of the rock
in mass. With a power of 17 the three varieties of felspar appear to
be nearly equally developed. The quartz, besides forming the skele-
ton of the rock, appears in distinct crystals, while associated with the

Kryanan—On Microscopical Structure of Rocks. 165

mica and pyrite (?) that occur in nests, is a bright green, beautifully
iridescent mineral.

B. 22. This slice was.cut from a specimen taken from near the
margin of the mass of the granite, where it is slightly foliated. With
a power of 17 the three varieties of felspar are apparent. The flesh-
coloured variety shows some well-marked twin crystals ; the iridescent
semiopaque felspar is only sparingly developed, while the finely lined
felspar crystals are well marked, this latter felspar also occurring in
some places as thin envelopes to the semiopaque felspar. Of quartz
there is a large proportion, while the amphibole is in excess of the
micas; the last minerals and pyrite (?) occurring in minute crystals
and flakes scattered about. In this slice was also observed the unde-
termined bright green iridescent mineral found in B. 18*.

B. 28. This slice is from a specimen procured a little north of
B. 22, where the granite is distinctly foliated. With a power of 17,
quartz is found to be the most abundant mineral, a large proportion of
it bemg in distinct crystals. The three felspars appear to be nearly
equally developed, while the flakes of the micas are minute and few.
The amphibole is in small nests, or scattered crystals, while the pyrite
is in most minute specks.

It should be mentioned that the character of the granite at Cross-
fintan is porphyritic, similar to the rock at Carnsore ; and that the two
slices [B. 22 and 23] just described, were, respectively, cut from places
that seemed to show the general arrangement and proportion of the
different minerals to one another; as always in the vicinity of one of
the large felspar crystals; the other constituents of the rocks seem
to have a peculiar arrangement.

From these notes on the granite of Carnsore, it will appear that it
and the Galway granite previously reported on [ Reports Nos. 1 and 2,
antea, pp. 102, 161] are similarly constituted, and contain nearly
identical minerals. Under higher powers of the microscope, it was
found that the individual pecuharities in the different minerals were
very similar to those to which attention was directed in those reports,
no remarkable variation haying been observed. It is, therefore, un-
necessary to give detailed descriptions of them again, and I have con-
fined myself to the general character, which seems to identify this
granite with those of the Galway granite type, the principal constitu-
ents being three felspars [orthoclase, adularia (?), and oligoclase (?) ],
quartz (both crystalline and as the skeleton of the rock), amphibole,
pyrite, and locally black and white micas.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. Z

166 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

» XXIII.—On some FurtrHer [rrovements oF THE CoMPARABLE SELF-
REGISTERING HycGrometeR. By M. Donovan, Esq.

[Read February 8, 1875.]

Wuatever length of gut-line may be employed in giving one round of
the primary index, an equal length will be employed in giving every
other, the gut-line being equal throughout; since that length is the
natural unit, which, divided into the whole gut-line, gives for quotient
the number of rounds which the primary index, under the circum-
stances, is capable of accomplishing. The spiral convolutions of the
strands constituting the gut-line act simultaneously in all its parts,
but diminish in effect from the bottom towards the top. Hence, the
shorter the intercepted portion of the gut-line is, the less of the
eraduated circle will be traversed by either index in a given time, and
the greater will be the total number of rounds performed by the
primary. The revolutions of the primary index in the open air,
therefore, virtually divide the gut-line into as many parts as that
index performs reyolutions round the graduated circle; the intercept,
or what is the same thing, its effect in degrees on the graduated circle,
being the natural unit. :

According to the experiments of competent inquirers, the moisture
of the atmosphere and of pervious bodies can be completely absorbed
and withdrawn by exposure to the action of certain exsiccants, one of
the most efficient of which is chloride of calcium. With this substance
I proceeded as follows:—The hygrometer, fitted with a measured
length of gut-line, perfectly dried in the exsiccating receiver during
three days by means of ignited chloride of calcium, was placed in an
artificial damp atmosphere, and so left for 24 hours, during which time
the primary index had moved very nearly nine times round, and had
begun to move backwards. A slip of wet blotting-paper being intro-
duced into the receiver, the index continued to recede, some air haying
entered ; but after a short while advanced, and at length reached zero,
thus completing ten rounds, shortly after which it permanently ceased
to move. Thus, in the open air, ten rounds of the primary index, or
one of the secondary, cannot be exceeded, for they comprise all the
degrees between extreme moisture and extreme dryness. The length
of the gut-line exposed to the action of the exsiccant being 4-65 inches,
and that of the intercept °6 inch, the resulting normal number of
calculated rounds by the primary index would be 7°75; and the unit
in the open arr, at this rate, would be by calculation 12°-9. But the
experiment haying been repeated in an artificial saturated damp
atmosphere, the gut-line untwisted to ten rounds of the primary index,
which, therefore, gave 10° as the unit; and the average of the differ-
ences in 10 rounds (viz., 10, 10, 9, 10, 11, 8, 12, 10, 10, 10,) gave 10° as

Donovan—On the Comparable Self-registering Hygrometer. 167

the unit by experiment. Thus, calculation and experiment agreed
exactly.

Should it happen, through any cause, that ten revolutions of the
primary index do not measure the intercept in an artificial damp atmo-
sphere, a new revolution will commence. When the secondary indicates
10° in the open air (which it will very rarely do), we say that the air
is then saturated; but the affinity of the gut-line for water may not
then be saturated. In an artificial damp atmosphere the gut-line will
still absorb, and continue to turn the indexes until the gut-line be
completely soaked, flaccid, and powerless.

It has been shown in my former communication* to the Academy,
that a gut-string, as obtained from the music-seller, always contains
water. This, being not water of composition, but hygroscopic moisture,
may be abstracted without changing the nature of the animal matter
that contaimed it. It obeys the law of the instrument with regard to
absorption and expulsion. The indexes show how much had been
already absorbed, by previous exposure, which now entering undis-.
tinguishably into present indications, keeps a running account of the
total water previously absorbed or newly acquired.

* Vide ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,”’ vol. i., ser. ii., pp. 476 and
506.

168 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

XXIV.—On two new Depostrs orf Human anv orHeR Bonzs, DIs-
COVERED IN THE Cave oF Dunmore, Co. Kirxenny. (With Plate
18.) By Epwarp T: Harpmayn, F.C.8., F.R.G.S8.1. “(Of the
Geological Survey of Ireland.)

[Read February 22, 1875. ]

Tue Cave of Dunmore, situated about six miles from the City of
Kilkenny, has been from very early times an object of much interest,
and has been more or less fully described by various writers, the
earliest of whom, as I am informed by the Rev. James Graves,
M.R.1.A., was Bishop Berkeley. After him, many visitors have re-
corded their impressions of this weird locality, but the fullest account,
which, deed, like Moses’ rod, swallows up or embodies most
of the rest, is that of Dr. A. W. Foot,* who, in 1869, explored
the place, in company with Rev. Mr. Graves and Mr. Burtchaell, C. E.
He fully describes the principal features of the Cave, in his paper read
before the Royal Historical and Archeological Association of Ireland,
and gives an account of a quantity of human bones, which were
obtained from one part of the Cave. I shall, therefore, make my

descriptive remarks as brief as possible, as they must necessarily, in

part, be a repetition of that and other papers. Dr. Foot shows that
for at least two centuries this spot has been known to be a receptacle
of numbers of human bones, which were said to have strewed the floor
of it abundantly; but in modern times these have disappeared, and
Dr. Foot’s collection was obtained from a clay or silt bed, at one end
of the Cave. He considers the bones to be the remains of natives
slaughtered by the Danish invaders, about the tenth century. It is
possible, however, that they belong to a much more remote antiquity.

At the time that I conceived the idea of examining this Cave for
animal remains—in the course of my duty on the Geological Survey—I
was quite unaware that any bones had ever been really got in it,
although I knew there was a local rumour that some of those con-
cerned in the rising of ’98 had taken refuge, and died there. I was ~
accompanied by Lieutenant W. W. M. Smith, of the Royal Artillery, and
it fortunately happened that we picked up the same guides who had con-
ducted Dr. Foot and his party. From them we learned of the find of
bones, and were taken to the spot, whence we brought away many
specimens. No other bone locality was then known to these men, but
on a subsequent occasion Mr. Smith and I visited the Cave again, and

* An Account of a visit to the Cave of Dunmore, Co. Kilkenny, with some
remarks on Human Remains found therein. By A.Wynne Foot, M.D., F.K.Q.C.P.1.,
Jour. Roy. Hist. Archzol. Assoc. Ir., vol. 1. (Fourth Series), Pt. i., p. 65.

Harpman—On two new Deposits of Human Bones. 169

found at quite the opposite extremity of the Cave, and in a different
chamber, two places in which bones were fully as abundant, not
only human, but mixed or embedded with those of other animals, of
which those of sheep or goat, pig and ox, have been identified.

To make my account intelligible, a short description of the Cave
is necessary. The mouth of the Cave (see plan, Plate 18, fig. 1)
which forms a rude arch, some 30 feet high, and about equal width, is
approached from an old quarry, by a very steep incline, continuing
into the interior some distance (about 200 feet). At the bottom it
turns in to the left, and is at last stopped by a great bank of stalag-
mite, clay, and angular debris. This place is the lowest part of the
Cave, and is called the ‘Fairies’ Floor.” Retracing our steps about
half-way to the entrance, there is found a deep recess in the side.
Entering this, it is seen to branch to the north and south. The
northern opening is narrow, but enlarges after a little, and leads into
a large chamber of very irregular height ; in one place the floor com-
ing within three feet of the roof. This is known as the ‘ Rabbit
Burrow,” and at the extreme end of it (at a) is the deposit of bones
referred to by Dr Foot. The southern passage leads, by a very rough
and difficult way, to the ‘‘ Market Cross,” a very large chamber, so
called from the magnificent stalactitic pillar which it contains, and which
is represented in the accompanying sketch (Plate 18, fig. 2). This
pillar cannot be less than sixteen feet high; the shaft is about four to
five feet in diameter, the pedestal in the view given, from six to
eight feet, but itis over twelve feet when looked at from the left,—the
sketch, in fact, showing the narrowest aspect of the whole pillar. A
second pillar, of nearly the same dimensions, formerly graced this
apartment ; but I am informed that a gentleman in the neighbourhood
committed the vandalism of cutting it down to adorn his grounds.
The examples seen in this part of the Cave, especially that before us,
exhibit well the mode of formation of these pillars, and their gradual
accumulation from ground and ceiling simultaneously, finally meeting
and becoming one solid mass, then thickening laterally. Near this
pillar are the two new localities for bones which we discovered. As
the mode of occurrence of these deposits, and of that already known, is
similar in all these cases, and involves points not touched on by Dr.
Foot, I shall endeavour to describe it. I should first remark that Dr.
Foot and his friends looked on these deposits entirely from an anti-
quarian point of view; and most naturally so, just as I myself, from the
nature of my pursuits, had the geological and pre-historic idea upper-
most in my mind from the instant I saw them: and in support of those
views Dr. Foot quotes from the Annals of the Four Masters an account
of a great slaughter at Dearc-Fearna, the ‘‘Cave of the Alders,’”’ and
which he considers refers to the Cave itself. I am inclined to think,
however, that it simply denotes the townland, or territory, so called,
according to the usual custom, from the principal feature in it. The
passage runs thus, the date being the Age of Christ, 928 :—

170 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

“Godfrey, grandson of Imhar,* with the foreigners of Ath-cliath,t demolished
and plundered Dearc-Fearna, where one thousand persons were killed in this year,
as is stated in the following quatrain : —

‘Nine hundred years without sorrow, twenty-eight, it has been proved,
Since Christ came to our relief, to the plundering of Dearc-Fearna.’”’

O’Donovan, in a note, says that the above was ‘probably the
ancient name of the Cave of Dunmore.” In the whole passage there
is no reference to smoking out, or ‘‘ smothering,” which Dr Foot
surmised may have been the means employed in reducing the garrison.
The Cave was certainly not ‘‘ demolished,” and there could have been
but little to plunder it of. Moreover, at the best of times the Cave
could hardly accommodate a thousand persons, and the passage appears
to me to apply only to the territory, where there may have been a
large village. At any rate, it is but slender evidence on which to refer
the bones to the Danish period; and there are certain circumstances
that seem to render it most probable that these bones, even if not
dating from one of the Stone Ages, are of much greater antiquity than
the period of the Danish invasion. These I shall presently refer to.

At Dr. Foot’s locality the bones occur at the base of a steep
declivity, formed of a quantity of silt, sand, and clay, which rises at
a sharp angle towards the roof, which it meets. This stuff, which is
covered with stalagmite from one to four inches thick, is well stratified,
and was undoubtedly brought in by water, through a fissure at the
north end, now filled up. The following is the section, so far as it
could be observed :—

SEcTION AT END OF Rassrt Burrow. t

. Layer of stalagmite, .. oe 46 a
Fine sand stratified, with rib of infant, —— in places,
. Layer of stalagmite, which finally unites with (1),

Sand, ne oe
Dark carbonaceous and eaty- ‘ooking matter, . O 3—
Sand, .. Eo ih .. about
. Fine clay, str atified, 30

. Coarse, loose, brown well-stratified ‘sand, with fragments
of decayed bone, .. a 6 ms As Bou 3S

moo 0 oo OD Ft

DWNIAANPWHHE

4/11

The main deposit of bones occurs at the base of the incline, marked
(a) in plan and section, but from the manner in which it has been dis-
turbed, we could not determine their exact position. From the method

* Annals of the Four Masters, O’ Donovan; Ist Division, vol. i., p. 623.

+ Dublin.
t See Sketch Section, Plate 18, fig. 3. Throughout the Cave the floor is

cov ered with large blocks of limestone, fallen from the roof, and now coated thickly
with stalagmite.

HarpmMan—On two new Deposits of Human Bones. 171

in which this stratified deposit dips away from where it and the roof
come together, there can be no doubt it has been introduced through
an old opening or fissure which formerly existed here. It, with the
included bones, could not by any possibility have been brought in by a
stream or flood of winter rain-water, from the other parts of the Cave—
as Dr. Foot suggests,*—for the stratification should run the other way,
in that case, and the Cave should be nearly filled with water before a
stream of any size could commence to flow in this direction.

The bones which we obtaimed from this locality are, without ex-
ception, human, and are mostly in a fragmentary condition, owing in
ereat measure to the disturbance which the soil has already undergone.
They comprise fragments of cranium, lower jaw, with teeth, vertebree,
humerus, fibula, ribs, patella, os calcis, &c., and numerous phalanges,
which seem to be most abundant. It is sufficient to mention the fact
of all these being human, however, for Dr. Foot, in the valuable paper
cited, gives a complete list of all the bones he obtained, numbering
113 specimens. Our collection from this place numbers about 70, but
some of these may be only different parts of the same bone. Yet, it
shows what a quantity of human remains lie here. One fact worth
notice is, that a pre-molar tooth is ground down to a flat surface, indica-
tive of the owner having fed on grain, which had been ground up in
some such rude implement as a quern, and thus plentifully mixed with
sand. This would seem to point to an earlier period than the tenth
century, when the Irish people were in a fair state of civilisation. I
am informed by Rev. Mr. Graves, and also by Professor A. Leith
Adams, F.R.8., that such teeth are not uncommon in the ancient
Catrn-tombs or Kistvaens; but I am not aware if they have been
observed in more modern cases, except perhaps in those of some
ancient Egyptian skulls.

Another pomt must not be passed over, viz., the finding of bones
in the silt itself, and under the stalagmite covering it. A rib of a
young infant was found by us in the layers of sand six inches under
stalagmite, and near the old opening, and consequently at a higher
level in the Cave than the main deposit. Then in bed (8), which
comes about three feet beneath the stalagmite, several fragments were
found in a stratified layer, which appear to be the earthy remains of
bone, from which all organic matter has been extracted. Professors
Macalister and A. Leith Adams, who kindly examined my specimens,
agree with me that some at least of these are bone.

I shall now refer to the new deposits discovered by us near the
“Market Cross,” at quite the other extremity of the Cavern, and some
600 feet distant from the last. (See plan, Plate 18, fig.1, b.) These
occur in precisely the same way; that is, at the base of, and inter-
stratified with, silt, clay, and sand, which have come in through old
openings, now entirely closed up.

* Op. cit., p. 76.

172 Proceedings of the Royal Ivish Academy.

The first we examined forms a small recess, about ten yards from
the ‘‘ Market Cross,” and to the left of the approach to it. We had,
in fact, made this visit specially to make a survey, in order to de-
termine where fresh explorations might be best made, feeling confident
that the deposit described by Dr. Foot was but one of many in this
Cave; and anything like a silt bed, or old opening, received our principal
attention. This recess (fig. 4) was hidden beneath and behind large -
blocks of limestone, but well repaid our search, for a large deposit of
bones was found; and nothing, I am convinced, but proper light, tools
and labour, was requisite to enable an important find to be made. The
sloping bed was encrusted with stalagmite; beneath, and encrusted in
which are numbers of bones, not only human, but also those of the
lower animals; all, however, recent. Some of those are encrusted
thickly with stalagmite, or form a bone breccia. They have been
identified as bones of sheep (or possibly goat) and pig, as well as
human ; the latter chiefly those of very young children. In fact, we
hardly obtained a single bone approaching maturity in this part of the
Cave. We also obtained teeth of sheep or goats, probably the former.
The dip of the silt bed is here towards the north; just the reverse of
that in the Rabbit Burrow.

A little nearer the Market Cross we come to another mass of silt,
&c., dipping steeply to the north-east. It appears to be very thick.
The hollow at the base of this contains quantities of bones, both
human and others. We have obtained the lower part of a femur, and
also a cervical vertebra of a small bovine animal, probably a calf,
together with parts of the human skull, and other bones. Digging
into the higher part of the bank of silt, we came to a layer of fine
mud, or clay, contamimg fragments of bones, better preserved than
those found under precisely similar conditions in the Rabbit Burrow,
and admittmg of no doubt whatever as to their character. As they
are fragmentary, and much decayed, it would be useless to make out
their species.

The bones we got from here have been determined as follows. For
assistance in the identification I am much indebted to my friend and
colleague, Mr. W. H. Baily, F.G.8. & L.8., &c., Paleeontologist to the
Trish Geological Survey. I have also pleasure in acknowledging the
kindness of Dr. John Barker, F.R.C.8S.1., &c., who allowed us to
make use of the valuable osteological collection in the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons, and also gave us his time and assistance in
comparing the specimens. My thanks are also due to Professors
Macalister and A. Leith Adams, who confirmed our identification.

HarpmMan—On two new Deposits of Human Bones. 173

List or Bonrs From ‘‘ Market Cross”? Coamper, Dunmore.

Skull and Head, &c.

Human.

1. Temporal and tympanic portion.

Dh. 5 ars n a of child.

3. Parietal. Mu

4, 5, 6. Various fragments of skull, not quite
mature.

7. Basi-sphenoid and pre-sphenoid, young in-

fant.
8. Lower maxille, with canine tooth in pre-
eruptive condition, very young infant.
9, 10. Fibulee of young infant, right and left.
12, 13. Femurs of very young child, possibly
new born.
14-23. Ribs of very young child or children.
24. Femur of older child.
25. Os calcis, nearly adult (?).
26-32. Scapulee, mostly imperfect, of children of
various ages.
33. Portion of rib, adult.
34. a dy BLOT)
35. wld gs Talon ley.
36. » », 08 calcis, young.
37. ” ” ” ”
38. Os calcis, adult, left foot.
39, 40. Masses of stalagmite and bone breccia,
' with various fragments of skull,
scapule, &c.

Other Animals.

41. Bos (? calf), lower end of femur.
SS », second cervical vertebra.
43. Sus, small species, upper end of right femur.
44. ,, (larger individual), lower end of femur.
45, 46, 47. Ovis(?), molars (8).
48. Ovis(?), humerus, lower end of right.
49. ,, or Capra (?), metatarsal set upright in
stalagmite.
50 ee ,, metatarsal, set in stalagmite.

Miscellaneous.—Various pieces of bone breccia, or limestone cement-
ed with stalagmite, and containimg numerous fragments of bone,
undeterminable. Also, in the stratified layers of silt, nearly decom-
posed fragments of bone.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL, I1., SCIENCE. 2A

174 Proceedin, .f the Royal Irish Academy.

A remarkable fact is the great number of infantile and immature
human bones, some of the former being so young as to be nearly feetal.
Those of the pig are slightly blackened, as if by fire. Few of the
bones show traces of haying been gnawed by wild animals, although
on some are marks that may have been produced in that way. Nor
are they split, as if for the extraction of marrow, but that might have
been accomplished by simply cracking them across. It is now hard to
say whether they were broken as they are found, by accident or design.

I may be permitted to point out the importance of this find, for
more than one reason. First, if we examine the literature of the Cave,
as briefly summarised in Dr. Foot’s paper,* we shall find that all the
descriptions of the locality, where, from the remotest times, bones
were known to occur, refer entirely to the Rabbit Burrow. A glance
at the extracts given by him will prove that at once. But the last
expedition before Dr. Foot’s was undertaken by the Rey. Mr. Graves,
Mr. Prim, and Mr. William Robertson, to clear up doubts expressed by
a relative of the latter in notes of a visit in 1819, as to the existence
at all, in the Cave, of bones, and of a well of water. These gentlemen
concluded that he had only visited the ‘‘ Market Cross” chamber,
where (they considered) no bones were to be found, and came to the
conclusion, that human and other bones are confined not only to one
chamber, but to a part of that chamber, and in the immediate vicinity of
the well.t And it is clear that all the observers considered the bones
to have remained where they were originally deposited, without any
reference to subsequent geological agencies.

Besides this, the discovery of these bones adds another link in the
chain of evidence against the idea that all the bones in this cavern are
those of persons who used it as a place of refuge from the Danes, and
were slain there in the tenth century. Along with the improbability
of people ina hurried flight taking in parts of animals to serve as food,
and of their eating it in such uncomfortable and out of the way positions,
it must be remembered that all the bones occur under the same condi-
tions, in stratified deposits, under clay and silt, which must in part
have come in later, and that by means of a considerable stream ; nor
could they have been introduced from other parts of the now known
interior of the Cave, as the stratification runs the wrong way for
this, and in a direction tending towards the present openings of the
Cave.

My theory is, that these silt-beds covered with stalagmite, fill up
the entrances to other chambers of the Cave at a higher level; that the
bones formerly belonged to these chambers, and have been brought out

¥* Op. cit., pp. 67-72.

+ Kilkenny Archeological Society Proceedings, Ap. 28,1854. See Natural History
Review, Vol. I., p. 175. The italics are in the original. Mr. Robertson refers to
the “large fracture wantonly made in one of the stalactitic flutings of this bold
pillar (‘the Market Cross’).’”” But this appearance is simply caused by the two
portions of the pillar not having yet joined.

Harpman—On two new Depositsaf Human Bones. 175

to their present position by water; and that this will quite account for
such a disproportionate quantity of imfants’ and small bones, because
naturally we should expect that the smallest, and, therefore, the
lightest bones, would be brought down in largest quantity.

As a proof of the possibility of such upper chambers existing, I
shall cite the case of the ‘‘ Fairies’ Floor,” which lies to the north of
the ‘‘ Market Cross” chamber, but some twenty feet below it. These
are connected by a fissure now nearly closed up, and the water has
brought down a large quantity of silt and debris, covered with stalag-
mite, in every respect similar to the bone localities. (See Sketch,
fig. 5.) When this is explored, I expect it will also yield bones.

The manner in which I have endeavoured to account for the bone
deposits of this place is in accordance with Schmerling’s and Lyell’s
doctrine,* that cave-earth, bone-breccias, &c., are produced by the
sweeping into caves or fissures, by subterranean streams, of quantities of
animal remains, together with fine clay and sand. ‘There can be no
doubt that some at least of these bones form part of a stratified deposit;
but whence they came, or to what period they belong, are points which
must be reserved, until further examination is made of the Cave;
this I hope to be enabled to do this Summer.

The presence of the bones of such domesticated animals as the
sheep, pig, and ox, especially the first, while it certainly precludes the
reference of the human remains to a very remote antiquity, in a
geological sense, yet allows of the idea that they may belong to the
Stone or Bronze Ages. Sheep bones have been found along with
bronze implements in Danish peat bogs;} also in a pre-historic bury-
ing-place, or cist, at Pickering, England,{ in company with a stone
spear-head, and piece of pottery ; and are frequently met with in the
Swiss lake-dwellings of the later Stone period,§ as well as a small
race of pig. (It may be mentioned here that the pig bones found at
Dunmore are either very young, or belong to a small species.) In
Ireland itself, in the Crannoge of Lagore, bones of sheep, goats, oxen,
swine, &e., were found associated with antiquities of Stone, Bronze,
and Iron Ages, under sixteen feet of bog.||

No flint implements, works of art, or articles of domestic use have
yet been found in Dunmore Caye, but this may be simply because they
have not been searched for. Mr. Graves told me he had not looked for
any; and-although Mr. Smith and I kept a look-out for anything of
that kind, our time was too short to do more than lay the ground-
work for future explorations; and as the bones occurred so plentifully,
they kept our attention fully occupied. On the other hand, were these

———

* Principles of Geology, Vol. II., p. 521, 10th Ed. Also Antiquity of Man.
f+ Antiquity of Man, Lyell (1863), p. 15.

{ Pre-historic Times, Lubbock; Tables of Primary Interments, p. 97.

§ Lyell, op. cit., p. 25, et seg. Also Lubbock, op. cit. p. 148.

| Lyell, op. cit., p. 30,

176 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

bones so recent, as hitherto supposed, it might be imagined that
modern implements, arms, &c., would have been found at some time in
the Cave; but none are recorded. And it must not be forgotten that

~ those things would not be so apt to escape the attention of ordinary

observers, as flmt weapons, and their accompaniments, which such
persons would be most likely to regard as mere rubbish.

Another point I should refer to is the presence of peaty or car-
bonaceous matter in these Caves. This I have noticed im the section
of the Rabbit Burrow. It has also been mentioned by Dr. Foot* as
recorded by Mr. Robert Mallet so long ago as 1848,} that the charcoal
of coniferous wood was found in layers in the stalagmite. Any charcoal
that I saw was remote from the entrance, and interstratified with the
deposit in which the bones were obtained; and had people fled there
for refuge, and been undergoing the very unpleasant process of being

“smoked out,’”’ they would hardly have tried to add to their discomfort
by keeping up a fire in the interior. So that if it were even conceded
that this charcoal was the result of fires used by regular denizens of
the Cave, that would be sufficient to do away entirely with the notion
of the Danish massacre.

In Mr. Mallet’s paper, just cited, the occurrence of phosphate of
lime in the stalagmite of this Cave is shown. He supposed it to be
derived from the limestone rocks; but it is most probably due to the
presence of bones. He does not seem to have been aware of their
existence.

* Loe. cit., pp. 79-80.
+ Journal Royal Geological Society, Ireland, Vol. III., p. 362.

ApAams—On a Fossil Saurian Vertebra. ab?)

XXV.—Own 4 Fossm, Savrran Verresra, Anrcrosaurus OsBornt,
FROM THE Arctic Recions. By A. Lerru Apams, F.R.S8., F.G.S.,
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science for Ireland.

[Read May 10, 1875.]

THe vertebra here described was presented to the late Mr. Salter,
F.G.8., by the late Admiral Sherard Osborn, who brought it from
Rendezvous Point, Byam Martin Channel, in the Arctic regions. I
lately placed myself in communication with Admiral Osborn, with
the view of obtaining further information on the subject, but regret
to state that his sudden death prevented me from obtaining whatever
data he might have been enabled to furnish in connexion with the
history of its discovery and the conditions under which it was found.
However, I am assured by the Rev. Dr. Haughton that he has a dis-
tinct recollection of seeing the fossil bone when in the possession of
Mr. Salter, and, from a cursory examination at the time, was inclined
to think that it might have belonged to Teleosaurus ; at the same time,
he informs me that there cannot be the slightest doubt as to its Arctic
origin, which he ascertained previous to making the following record,
published in the ‘‘ Appendix to the Voyage of the Fox,” p. 372.
Referring to the above, and remains of a similar description, he states :
‘Captain Sherard Osborn also found broken vertebre of a Teleosaurus,
150 feet up Rendezvous Hill, Byam Martin Channel, at the north-
west extremity of Bathurst Island; they were certainly im situ.”
Moreover, according to the determinations of this distinguished geolo-
gist, it will be observed that he considers the upper portion of Bathurst
Island is composed of carboniferous limestone.*

The specimen in question was presented by Mr. Salter to Dr. Carte,
F.L.S., Director of the Natural History Museum, Dublin, who has
placed it in my hands for description.

With reference to other discoveries of a similar nature within the
Arctic Circle, it may be stated that Sir Edward Belcher, Sir Leopold
M‘Clintock, and Admifal Sherard Osborn, brought many fossils from
the group of islands lying between N orth Cornwall and North Devon.
Among others were remains of Ichthyosaurus, determined by Pro-
fessor ‘Owen, and said to be from Lias beds.t These are the only Rep-
tilian remains, as far as I can discover, yet described as Arctic fossils.

The specimen presents the following mineralogical characters, for
the determination of which I am indebted to my friend M. Gages,
M. RIA.

“Geological Account of the Arctic Archipelago, drawn up from Specimens col
tested by Captain F. L. M‘Clintock, R.N., from 1849 to 1859,” Jour. of the Geo
Soc., Dublin, vol. viii., p. 196. By the Rev. S. Haughton, F.R.S.

¢ Appendix to “ Last of the Arctic Voyages,” by Sir E. Belcher, vol. ii., p. 389

R, I. A. PROC., SER. Il, VOL. Il., SCIENCE. 2B

178 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

‘The phosphate of lime of the bone has not been entirely removed -

by the process of mineralization. There are incrustations of carbon-
ate of lime in patches here and there, and it covers debris of quartz
which, with numerous cubic crystals of iron pyrites, permeate the
cancellated structure wherever the outer shining vitreous shell has
been removed.’

The following portions of the vertebra are deficient :—The neural
spine is broken off close to its base; there is a loss of the right pre-
and portion of the left post-zygapophysis, together with a considerable
portion of the left half of the centrum. The outline of the centrum
was evidently ovoid. There is a distinct cavity in front (fig. D), and
although about one-half of the posterior aspect is lost, there are clear
indications (fig. C), of a similar hollow, thus showing an amphiccelous
styucture.

(Natural size.)

It will be observed (fig. A) that the under surface of the elon-
gated centrum is somewhat arched, the anterior portion being di-
rected directly forwards, whilst the posterior points downwards and
forwards, as indicating an upward neck curvature. The lower border
of the centrum has been considerably injured laterally, but clearly it
was narrow, and not broad and rounded. On its side there isa deep
sulcus, pressed inwards.

The dia- and para-pophyses, so pronounced on the vertebrae of Croco-

-Apams—On a Fossil Saurian Vertebra. 179

dilia, and also the traces of the neuro-central suture, so generally present
in this order, are, unfortunately, as regards the tubercula and capi-
tula, undeterminable, from injuries to the outer shell; a crack, how-
ever, in the situation of the neuro-central suture may indicate the line
of junction.

The pre-zygapophysis (fig. A), is produced with a deep inter zyga-
pophysial pit (figs. Band D). The articulating surface is oval and
plane, and the angle of inclination between it and the other is 50°:
a still wider and deeper cleft intervenes between the posterior zyga-
pophyses fig. (C). Both of the pits indicate powerful nuchal liga-
ments. F

The base of the neural spine is compressed, and presents a hollow
on either side (figs. A and B), with prominent ridges, which go to
form the outer border of the yost-zygapophyses. The latter are nearly
horizontal (fig. C). In all these characters—to wit, the hollow at the
base of the spine, zygapophysial ridge and posterior articular surface—
it seems to agree with Lacertilia rather than Crocodilia. The cervical
neural spine in Crocodilia is lengthened, and tapers towards a blunt
point ; whereas in Lacertilia it is shorter and broader in the antero-
posterior direction, which, judging from the extent of the fractured
surface (fig. B), was apparently the case also in the fossil. The
neural canal is small and oval. Further there do not appear to me any
points worthy of record.

I conceive that the bone may in all probability have been one of
the middle ceryicals of a Saurian, with bi-concave vertebre. Com-
pared with recent and fossil species of Reptilia, the above represents
an animal between ten and twelve feet in length. Seemingly
remarkable contrasts between the above and cervical vertebre of Teleo-
saurus and other mesozoic crocodiles are in the produced pre-zygapo-
physis, sub-oval centrum, and the small size of the latter, as compared
with the rest of the bone—to wit, height of the arches and massive
ligamentous and zygapophysial attachments of this Arctic fossil, which
would appear, moreover, to represent a considerably smaller species than
either Zeleosaurus brevidens, T. cadomensis, or T. bubulidens. The charac-
ters being narrowed to a few points in connexion with a single imper-
fect vertebra, I feel that it would be impossible to establish reliable
comparisons between it and fossil genera of the Mesozoic formations.

It is to be regretted that, owing to the untimely death of Admiral
Osborn, I have been unable to obtain further evidence as to its history,
Admitting, however, its Arctic origin, as given by the late eminent
paleontologist Mr. Salter, I propose for it the provisional name of
Arctosaurus Osborni, in respect for the memory of this distinguished
traveller, and in hopes that the naturalists of the expedition now about
proceeding to the Arctic Regions will be enabled to verify these few
data by fresh discoveries of a similar description.

180 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XXVI.—IyeEnttre Rocks. Report No. 4. By G.H. Kryanay,
, M.R.I.A., &., &e. |

[Read May 10, 1875.]

Lonestone, Co. Tipperary, Ordnance Sheet 58.—An intrusive mass,
coming up through the lower-bedded carboniferous limestone. This
granitic rock is a more or less granular elvyanyte, which may be thus
described :—a slightly granular purplish brown color, weathering to a
dirty reddish or orange. The base contains crystals of yellowish-greenish
felspar, some small blebs of quartz, nests of minute greenish flakes
(mica?), which congregate in a matrix that weathers ferruginous. In
this protrusion there has not been a deep quarry opened, and, as the
rock is more or less weathered to a depth of over twenty feet, it is im-
possible to procure a normal specimen of the rock, and, as may be
expected, the slices cut are unsatisfactory, as the minerals they con-
tain are more or less affected by rust stains. Under a power of 33 the
rock seems to have a brownish felspathic matrix, contaiming numerous
black, opaque, ill-defined crystals; and the latter, under a high power
(327), are found to be crystals of pyrite changed on the edges into
rust. In the matrix also are found numerous specks and small se-
cretions of quartz ; the latter, under a power of 258, are found to be
arranged somewhat similar to what is shown in figs. 1 & 2, where the
unshaded portions are the quartz; the obliquely-shaded portions, the
felspathic matrix; the long crystals, appear to be amphibole, while
there are bunches, or individual crystals (some well-marked octohe-
drons), of pyrite, or perhaps of a ferriferous garnet.

The mass of the quartz evidently has crystallized out after the
other minerals, as it is found filling up the vacancies. In it were re-
marked lines, groups and scattered minute air bubbles, and some tubuli;
in the sections examined they were not very numerous. In one piece
of quartz forming a triangle (fig. 2), the plane is traversed by nume-
rous irregular lines, giving the crystal a ruptured aspect (fig. 4); but

~ Kananan—On Ingenite Rocks. 181

under a favourable light they are found to be irregular minute black
tubuli—some being straight, others curved, some oblique to or at right
angles to one another, while some are short and others long. At the
apex of the triangle there are a few air bubbles, but in the rest of it
only one was detected.

The felspathic base, under a power of 386, shows a greenish-brown
ground, thickly covered over with whitish dots, lines, and broken
lines which are irregularly mixed up together; while in many places
in it there are incipient forms, as if different minerals had attempted
to crystallize out. It is also found to be principally a mixture of two
felspars, one semi-opaque with irridescent spots, the other having a
parallel play of colours; these seem to be most irregularly combined,
but the latter apparently predominates.

The felspar crystals developed in the matrix seem all to have ill-
defined margins. The most perfect seen in the slices is a twin crys-
tal (fig. 3). Of these the left-hand member has an imperfect ribaned
structure parallel to the long axis of the crystal ; while in the right-
hand crystal there is an obscure oblique structure. In all the crys-
tals of this felspar there are inlying opaque black specks, probably of
pyrite; the large black speck figured near the bottom of the left-hand
erystal (fig. 3) seems to be a perfect hexahedron.

Besides the more or less regular crystals of felspar, there are ir-
regular secretions, which consist in part of a semi-opaque iridescent
felspar (a, fig. 6), containing, what seems to be nuclei, irregularly-shaped
masses, (4) of a felspar, in which is a play of colours in parallel lines,
similar to that displayed by a section of labradorite; while scattered
about in the felspathic matrix are more or less well-formed small
crystals (¢), apparently of the same felspar as the first-mentioned
nucleus.

Two of the nests of greenish flakes, when magnified to 33 dia-
meters, are figured (fig. 5). With a power of 385, the uppermost of
these nests is found to be fringed by flaky crystals of an olive-green
mineral, while the central portion is principally crystals of pyrite (?),
with which are associated the olive-green mineral. In the oblique
lower nest the olive-green mineral and the pyrite (?) are irregularly

182 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

combined ; but at the apex there is a great predominance of the
pyrite.

From the slices examined, the peculiarities of this elvanyte seem to
be the nearly total absence of mica, except in nests, while the crystals
or blebs of quartz, so characteristic in general of elvanytes, are nearly
microscopic. The incipient crystalline forms in the felspathic matrix
are also remarkable. But, as before mentioned, the specimens ob-
tained were more or less weathered, and taken from near the margin of
the mass. If, however, normal specimens could have been procured,
and from places more deeply seated, it is probable that the porphyritic
characters would be better developed.

“eae

Davy—On Properties possessed by Salts of Fulminic Acid. 183

XXVII.—On somE NEWLY OBSERVED PROPERTIES POSSESSED BY CERTAIN
Sats oF Futmryic Activ. By Epuunp W. Davy, A. M., M.D., Pro-V
fessor of Forensic Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland.

[Read January 11, 1875.]

Tur salts of fulminic acid, or the fulminates, have not received the
attention which the interest arising from their extraordinary proper-
ties would lead us to expect. ‘This is, no doubt, due in a great mea-
sure to their being such highly explosive and consequently dangerous
compounds, which have already occasioned several serious and even
fatal accidents to individuals whilst making them objects of research ;
they are, therefore, considering the amount of personal danger attend-
ant on a study of their properties, not very inviting subjects of
inquiry, and necessitate the exercise of much caution on the part of
those engaged in their investigation.

The compound which is known to chemists under the name of ful-
minic acid, and which is expressed by the empirical formula H,C,N,0,,
though it has never yet been isolated or obtained in the free state, is
capable, as is well known, of forming a number of simple and com-
pound salts, which are endowed with more or less explosive proper-
ties. Of those salts, by far the most important is the fulminate of
mercury, which constitutes, as is well known, the active constituent
of the percussion caps, and of the detonating matters which are used to
fire the charges in our guns and pieces of ordnance; and for those
purposes it is now manufactured in large quantities, and forms a very
important instrument of modern warfare, since by its employment the
use of flint and steel, matches, and other rude means of firing small and
large guns haye been quite abandoned, at least among all civilized
nations.

Whilst making some experiments on the fulminate of mercury, I
observed that when that salt and the ferrocyanide of potassium, both
in aqueous solution, are gently heated together, the mixture at first
acquires a faint reddish yellow tint, which quickly passes into a port-
wine or deep purple colour, without the separation apparently, at
least at first, of any gas or solid matter. The development of this
coloration, under the circumstances stated, being considered very
singular, and hitherto unnoticed (as far as I have been able to ascer-
tain), led me to study the matter more closely, to determine the nature
of this coloured compound, and of the changes taking place in its for-
mation.

On prosecuting this inquiry, I further ascertained that when the
purple compound was fully developed, if the heat was continued for
some time, or more quickly if the temperature was raised to, and
maintained at the boiling point, the purple colour gradually dis-
appeared, the liquid acquiring a light yellow tint, whilst more and
more of a reddish brown solid matter (which was ascertained to be the

184 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

peroxide of iron) was produced; these changes being accompanied by
the evolution of more or less of ammonia, and by the mixture, which
was at first quite neutral, acquiring a strong alkaline reaction. The
solution being filtered, and concentrated by evaporation, was found to
yield small prismatic crystals of a colourless or very light yellow salt,
which appears to be a double cyanide of potassium and mercury.

Considering that the principal feature of interest in the reaction of
the fulminate on the ferrocyanide was the formation of the purple
compound, my attention was chiefly directed to its investigation. But
I soon ascertained that this compound was a substance of a very
unstable character, and that it presented great difficulties in the way
of its separation from the matters with which it was associated, as
procured in the reaction referred to; and not being able to obtain it in
a pure or suitable state to submit it to actual analysis, 1 was for a
considerable time unable to obtain any clue as to its real nature, fur-
ther than it was some organic compound of iron, in which cyanogen,
or at least its elements, were constituents.

At last it occurred to me, that the coloration observed might
be in some measure connected with the formation of the fulminate
of iron; and on making some of that salt, and comparing its reac-
tions with those of the compound referred to, many points of agree-
ment between them were at once perceptible. I may observe that
the fulminate of iron is readily obtained by the action cf metallic
iron on the fulminate of mercury, suspended in water. Thus if about
equal bulks of the fulminate and of fine iron filings are placed in
a small stoppered bottle, which is then filled with distilled water,
and being closed is occasionally agitated, the liquid in a short time
acquires a yellowish tint, which gradually deepens in colour, whist
the filings become tarnished, and more or less of mercury, in the
form of minute globules, make their appearance. After a few hours
the decomposition of the fulminate of mercury will be more or less
complete, and on filtering the mixture, a dull yellow liquid is obtained,
which holds the fulminate of iron in solution. This fulminate, as so
obtained, was described by my late father, amongst several other com-
pounds of fulminic acid, which he was, I believe, the first to discover,
during his elaborate researches on that avid. This salt was observed
by him to produce, when treated with diluted acids, a fine red or purple
colour, which disappeared after some time, evolving hydrocyanic acid ~
amongst other products. He also found that a somewhat similar
colour, rapidly changing to a bluish black, with a precipitate of that
colour, was developed on heating this fulminate.

But this development of colour only occurs in the case of the freshly
prepared fulminate of iron, for the salt, being one of very great insta-
bility, commences almost immediately after its formation to undergo
spontaneous changes, which are attended by the separation of a dark
brown substance, even when the solution is kept excluded from the
air in a well-stoppered bottle ; and after such changes have taken place,
it ceases to develop, either by the action of acids or by heat, the colo-

Davy—On Properties possessed by Salts of Fulminic Acid, 185

ration just stated. My father also observed that alkalies produced in
freshly prepared fulminate of iron a dull green precipitate, quickly
changing to a brown colour, which is obviously due to the separation
of iron as an oxide from the fulminate of iron. And I have myself
observed that the light yellow liquid which remains after the action of
the alkalies and the separation of the oxide, at once develops a fine
port-wine colour, when it is treated with diluted acids, and that the
coloration so produced is much more stable than that developed by
directly treating the fulminate of iron similarly ; and that this red or
purple-coloured compound resembles in all its characters that produced
in the new reaction of the ferrocyanide on the fulminate of mercury
already referred to.

As tothe singular development of colour when the fulminate of iron
is treated with dilute acids, [am not aware that any explanation has as
yet beengiven; andthe one that I wouldnow suggest accounts for its pro-
duction, not only in the case of the fulminate of iron, but also in the new
reactions which I have myself recently observed ; and explains some of
the properties of this curious purple-coloured compound. To make
the explanation I would offer intelligible, I should first observe that
fulminic acid is generally regarded as a bibasic acid, which is capable
of forming two classes of salts, viz., the neutral and the acid salts. In
the first, the two atoms of hydrogen in the hydrated acid (H,C,N,0,),
are replaced either by two atoms of a monad metal, as in the case
of the fulminate of silver (Ag,C,N,O,), or by one atom of a dyad
metal, asin the fulminate of mercury (HgC€,N,0,). In the second class
we have either one atom of hydrogen still retained, whilst the other is
replaced by a monad metal, as in the case of the acid fulminate of
silver (AgHC,N,O,), or two atoms of hydrogen are retained (the mole-
cule of fulminic acid being doubled) where a dyad metal occurs, as
in the acid fulminate of mercury (HgH,(C,N,0,)*). Now as iron
in most of its combinations plays the part of a dyad, we should express
its neutral fulminate thus, Fe C,N,0,; and when this salt is treated
with a diluted acid there is formed, as I conceive, an acid fulminate of
iron (a hitherto undescribed salt), by the following reaction, where for
example, sulphuric acid has been employed, 2 Fe C,N,0, + H2S0O,= Fe
H, (C,N,0,)° + Fe SO,, and that it is this acid fulminate which pos-
sesses the red or purple colour, whilst it is at the same time much
more stable or less prone to decompose than the neutral salt. If this
acid fulminate is treated with an alkal, its purple colour disappears,
owing, as I conceive, to the formation of a neutral double fulminate of
iron and the metal of the alkali, which is a colourless salt in dilute
solution ; thus in the case of potash being added to the acid fulminate
of iron, there would be a double neutral fulminate of iron and potas-
sium formed, according to the following reaction: Fe H, (C,N,O,)? +2
KHO =Fe K, (C,N,0,) ?+ 2 H,O, and this colourless solution being
treated with a diluted acid again develops the purple colour by the
reformation of the acid fulminate, as the following equation indicates :
Fe K, (C,N,0,)? + H,SO, = Fe H, (C,N,0,)? + K,SO,. Or again, if to

R. I, A. PROC., SER, IL., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2C

186 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

some freshly prepared fulminate of iron a dilute solution of caustic
potash be carefully added, the mixture will continue (asl have observed)
neutral so long as the alkali produces a further precipitate of the oxide
of iron; and when it ceases to do so, if the mixture be then filtered, a
light yellow solution will be obtained, which holds dissolved, as I
conceive, a double neutral fulminate of iron and potassium resulting
from the displacement of one half the iron in the neutral salt, as is
shown in the following equation: 2 Fe C,N.0,+2 KHO=Fe K,
(C,N,0) 7+ Fe 0 + H,O, and this double fulminate develops, as be-
fore observed, the purple coloration when treated with a diluted acid,
and again becomes colourless, or very nearly so, on adding an excess of
alkali, especially after the application of heat, and the colour can be
again restored by acidifying the mixture, and these changes may be
produced many times in succession.

For the production of the acid fulminate of iron the double neutral
salt is much preferable to that of the simple neutral fulminate of that
metal, as in the latter case there will be produced, as before shown,
a protosalt of iron, which reacts on the acid fulminate, occasioning its
more or less rapid decomposition.

I may further observe, that on heating the double fulminate just
described, there will be developed the red or purple coloration, unless
there is present too great an excess of alkali; this remark, however,
does not apply to the case of ammonia, the excess of which being ex-
pelled by heat does not interfere with its production.

This development of the acid fulminate by heat is not so easily
accounted for as where it has been due to the action of acids; it may,
however, depend on the circumstance that the simple neutral, and
double fulminate of iron, are both easily resolvable by heat under cer-
tain conditions into the acid fulminate.

I shall now point out how the explanation I have given of the produc-
tion of the purple coloration in the case of the fulminate of iron may
likewise serve to account for the similar development of colour, which
I have myself observed, in the reaction of the ferrocyanide of potassium
on fulminate of mercury. My experiments would seem to show, that
when those compounds react on each other, there‘is at first formed,
amongst other products, the double fulminate of iron and potassium,
which, like that salt prepared directly, as already described, from
the fulminate of iron, passes into the purple acid fulminate of that
metal, on being heated or treated with diluted acids; the following
formule and equation explaining the production of the double salt,
accompanied, as it is in this case, by the cyanide of mercury and OES
sium: 2 Hg C,N,0, + Ky Fe Cy; = Fe K, (C,N,0,)? +2 Hg Cy, + 2
KCy.

Amongst other facts which might be mentioned in support of the
foregoing statement, is the following one, that I have observed, that
when the ferrocyanide of potassium and the fulminate of mercury,
along with water, react on each other at the ordinary temperature, the
mixture after a short time acquires a yellowish tint, which gradually

Davy—On Properties possessed by Salts of Fulminic Acid. 187

passes into that of a reddish shade, and if a portion of the mixture in
this early stage of reaction be treated with a drop or two of any dilute
acid, or is heated, the deep purple coloration which results when the
double fulminate is similarly acted on will at once be developed. I
shall now briefly notice some of the more characteristic properties of
the acid fulminate of iron as obtained by the action of the ferrocyanide
of potassium on the fulminate of mercury, most of my experiments
haying been made on that salt as so procured. When that compound
is dissolved in water, it appears to possess, at the ordinary temperature,
considerable stability, for it has been exposed to the air and even light
in an open vessel for several weeks, without its appearing to undergo
any change of colour; but when the solution is allowed even sponta-
neously to evaporate to dryness, the dark purple residue very soon
passes to a brown colour, from the decomposition of this salt, and the
separation of its iron in the form of peroxide; and this proneness to
decompose in the dry condition may account for the residue not ex-
ploding on the application of a strong heat, the salt having quietly
decomposed before reaching the temperature necessary to explode it,
or other fulminates ; and I may further observe, that even in aqueous
solution it soon decomposes if the temperature is raised to the boiling
point, its decomposition being attended with the separation of per-
oxide of iron and ammonia.

It does not appear to be soluble in ether,’chloroform, bisulphide of
carbon, or in benzole, though it is readily dissolved by alcohol.

It is quickly decomposed by strong acids, with the eyolution of
hydrocyanic acid and the development of Prussian blue, and eyen in
their diluted condition the same occurs, but more slowly.

The caustic alkalies, at the ordinary temperature, slowly discolo-
rize its solution; with the assistance, however, of heat that effect is
quickly produced. :

It appears to possess but little, if any disposition to assume a crys-
talline form, for as yet all my attempts to obtain it separately in such
a condition have been unsuccessful.

Several experiments were made as to the effects of different metal-
lic salts on this compound, but no very characteristic results were ob-
servable, except in the case of the nitrate of silver, which produced a
dull bluish precipitate, leaving the liquid colourless, if sufficient of the
silver salt be added. This precipitate, however, is one of great insta-
bility, for it very soon loses its blue colour (even when lying at the
bottom of the stratum of liquid from which it has been precipitated),
and becomes of a white or yellowish-white appearance.

If, however, while it still retains its blue colour, it is treated with
diluted hydrochloric acid, or with an alkaline chloride, the solution
regains its original purple colour, whilst the chloride of silver precipi-
tates; but if the addition of the acid or chloride be delayed till after
the precipitate has become white, then both fail to reproduce tke
purple coloration, owing to the previous decomposition of the silver
compound.

188 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

This red or purple combination appearing to be but little affected
by many of the metallic salts, seems to strengthen the view I have
taken as to its nature, for had it been a peculiar cyanogen compound,
such as we have in the case of the ferro-, ferri-, and nitroferri-cyano-
gen, as well as in other compound salt radicals of that substance, we
should have expected that it would have produced very characteristic
effects with different metallic salts.

I may further observe that the same compound is formed when the
ferricyanide of potassium (or as it is better known under the name of ©
red prussiate of potash), instead of the ferrocyanide of potassium (the
yellow prussiate), in aqueous solution is heated along with the fulmi-
nate of mercury, and that it, as well as the ferrocyanide, even without
the application of heat, give rise to, but more slowly, the formation of
the red or purple combination, the ferricyanide acting, however, in
this respect more readily than the ferrocyanide.

Lastly, I may add that I found that a similar purple compound
was produced when the fulminate of silver was substituted for the
mercurial salt in the reactions referred to, and it is probable that some,
at least, of the other fulminates would give rise to like effects.

I regret that the results which I have brought before the Academy
are not, in some respects, of a more definite character; but all who
have experimented on the fulminates have experienced the great difti-
culties of such inquiries, arising from their instability and complexity
of constitution; but I hope before long to be able to investigate more
fully the subjects of this communication, as well as other matters bearing
on them. I trust, however, that the results of the observations which
I have already made may not be considered as devoid of interest, as
any facts which may extend our knowledge of fulminic acid, a com-
pound regarding the true nature of which chemists are not yet agreed,
must possess more or less interest in a scientific point of view; and it
is well known that many facts and observations which at first have
- been regarded as mere matters of interest to men of science haye after-
wards proved of much practical utility.

STUDDERT AND Prunxett—On Waters of Lisdoonvarna, 189

XX VITI.—On THE ConsTITUENTS OF THE TWO PRINCIPAL MINERAL WATERS
oF Lispoonvarna, County oF Crarr. By Lancenor Stuppekrt, LL. D.,
Ex-Sceh., T.C. D., and Wri11am Prounxert, F.C.S8.

[Read May 24, 1875.]

Berrore proceeding to Lisdoonvarna the authors procured, in July last,
a jar of the principal sulphur water of the place, which was carefully
collected from the Gowlaun Well, through the kind aid of Dr. Cullinan,
of Ennis; of this a preliminary examination was then made at the la-
boratory ‘of the Royal College of Science, Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

In August they visited ihisdoontvauney i in order to deine at the
springs the sulphuretted hydrogen that might haye escaped, and the
iron that might have become peroxidised before reaching Dublin; and
also for the purpose of procuring a large supply of the waters, to de-
termine their more stable constituents. This lengthened investigation
the authors were kindly permitted by Professor Galloway to conduct
in that laboratory, with all appliances available.

Remaining at Lisdoonvarna until the 5th of September, they re-
peatedly estimated at the well itself the sulphuretted hydrogen in the
Gowlaun Spring, and in a secondary one, near the east end of the
parish church. They also determined the iron present as protoxide in
a principal, and also in a secondary, chalybeate well, both situated in
an enclosure at Rathbawn Bridge, nearer to the town of Lisdoon-

yarna.

It may be right, perhaps, to remark that there are no interments
in the churchyard ; that spring there issues from the cliff-side, and is
one of a pair of spas, sulphur and iron, in one recess, and nearly join-
ing at their mouths, thence called the ‘‘ Twin Spas.”? The iron one
was not flowing in September last; and neither of these seems to have
beer sent for analysis to Professor Apjohn in 1856. There was indeed
another chalybeate water sent then to the laboratory of that eminent
chemist from the ‘‘ Spectacle Bridge’”’ Spa, still farther from Lisdoon-
yarna town; but the well is now closed by cattle tracks, and is re-
ported by a writer (Dr. Faussett) to have been disused in 1867.

The temperature (which is said to be equable) of the two sulphur
and two iron spas so examined by the authors was ascertained as com-
pared with that of the atmosphere ; also the rate of flow of the ‘“‘ Twin
Sulphur Spring ;”’ but the underground position of the springs at Gow-
laun and Rathbawn prevented “their rate of flow being determined.
However, notwithstanding their many drinkers, the level of these two
principal wells is said to be rather constant. :

It should be noted that during this visit, and for some days before,
the weather was wet. The rain seemed to dilute the spas; for even the
drinkers remarked them weaker in taste. The explanations to accom-
pany Sheets 114, 122, and 123 of the maps of the Geological Survey

190 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of Ireland, illustrating parts of the Counties of Clare and Galway, by
Mr. Frederick J. Foot, M. A., give the geological formation of the
Lisdoonyarna district, which may account for the nature of its springs.
At page 27, Mr. Foot observes that “Iron occurs in the form of iron-
stone nodules and thin bands in the shales about Lisdoonyarna,. .
also as iron pyrites, with the crystals of which mineral (he adds) the
black fissile shales, when they are unweathered, may be seen coated.”
He seems correct in remarking (page 28) that ‘‘ It is from the decom-
position of the iron pyrites fsulphide of iron] in the coal measures
that these wells [at Lisdoonvarna | derive their sulphur and iron.”

It may be added, in passing, that Mr. Foot gives a correct wood-
cut of the ‘“ Twin Spas” as Figure 9 of his report.

Following the suggestion of a recent eminent writer, from a medical
point of view, on these and other spas of Ireland (Dr. Mapother), who
advised lithia to be looked forin the Gowlaun water, the authors
made that search by means of the spectroscope, and the presence of
lithia (by its distinctive band) was ascertained, but in amount too mi-
nute for a quantitative determination in the supply of water available.
This constituent seems to have been detected in this water now for the
first time. Dr. Mapother relies on it as a curative agent of much
value.

Another medical gentleman, Mr. William Faussett, M.B., F.R.C.S.,
who visited Lisdoonvarna in 1867, as he says, ‘‘ for his own health’s
sake,” states, in an account of his visit (page 13), that ‘‘ The sulphur
and chalybeate springs of Lisdoonvarna, when judiciously used, and
supplemented as occasion, In some cases, May require, possess an ex-
tensive range of therapeutical action; and being free from the excess
of any irritating ingredients, such as common salt, will, on this ac-
count, be found more beneficial than spas which have hitherto been
held in higher repute.”

Since then (it seems it was, that) the present excellent pump-room
was built over the Gowlaun Well. In September last the local phy-
sician, Dr. Stackpoole Westropp, was erecting some baths near it,
much desired by patients and their professional advisers. Dr. Apjohn
remarked, in 1856, that the Gowlaun water was ‘‘used externally as a
bath.”

Of the several springs at Lisdoonvarna two are chiefly resorted to,
namely, the before-mentioned sulphur spring known as Gowlaun, and
the principal chalybeate spring at Rathbawn. The following are the
results of the examination made of them :—

GOWLAUN.

The temperature of this water, as drawn from the well, was found
to be 11° C., the air at the time being 15.5° C. It contains, in addi-
tion to the usual constituents of well water, 5.553 cubic centimeters
of sulphuretted hydrogen in the litre. The unoxidized sulphur exists _
entirely combined with hydrogen. It also contains, as before mentioned,

STUDDERT AND Prunkert—On Waters of Lisdoonvarna. 191

traces of lithia. The following table gives the quantities of the several
constituents :—

Parts in Grains in
one million. one gallon.

Silica ote as a 13.6 952
Sulphuric acid, calculated as SO; Si ae os 10.0 -700
Chlorine 56 29.6 2.072
Lime precipitated on boiling, calculated as Ca we 35.0 2.450
Lime retained in solution on boiling, calculated

as Ca ho x at 30 D6 B6 27 .189
Magnesia precipitated on boiling, calculated as Mg Uifelh 1.197
Magnesia retained in solution on boiling, calculated .098

as Mg 36 50 ne a0 AG a 1.4
Lithia ie no 25 ay be Traces. Traces.
Soda, calculated as Na oe ah ae oe 61.9 4.333
Potash, K si 4 a Be 3.0 .210

”?

Which may be calculated as being in combination thus :-—

Silica é a6 yo 13.6 952
Calcic carbonate Be 87.5 6.125
Magnesic _,, 60.1 4.207
Sodic 102.3 7.161
Calcic sulphate 8.1 567
Magnesic ,, 6.0 .420
Sodic chloride 44.4 3.108
Potassic ,, a7 399

327.7 22.939

c. c. per litre

Sulphuretted hydrogen 5.553

The specific gravity referred to water at 15° C. was 1.0006.

RAatTHBAWN CHALYBEATE.

The temperature of this water was found to be 13° C., when that
of the air was 15°.1 C., being a difference of only 2°.1, whilst j in the
case of the Gowlaun water, the difference was 4°.5: this may be ac-
counted for by the more open situation of this well, which is more
freely exposed to sunshine. This water contains, in addition to the
usually occurring substances, a ferrous salt, and also a weighable
quantity of manganese ; this latter substance does not appear to haye
been before detected. The several constituents are :—

*
192 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Parts in Grains in
one million. one gallon.

Silica 2 oF ie 12.1 847
Sulphuric acid, Calculated as 80, ae ae ee 124.7 8.729
Chlorine st es ee ae 39.5 2.485
Tron, calculated as Fe ft ae 5 17.1 W197
Manganese aba 0.8 .056
Lime precipitated on boiling, calculated as Ca al 56.0 3.920
Lime retained in solution on boiling, calculated |

as Ca Me 24.8 1.736
Magnesia precipitated on boiling, calculated as s Mg ; 2.7 .189
Magnesia retained in solution on boiling, calculated

as Mg 46 AG 5c x 16.8 1.176
Soda at nied a as Na .. ie 20.5 1.435
Potash calculated as K ore 2.5 178

Which may be calculated as being in combination thus :—
Silica 12.1, | .847
Ferric oxide, with trace of alumina ie | 189
Ferrous carbonate 31.7 | DONG)
Manganous _,, eee -| 119
Calcic sf 140.0 9.800
Magnesic y 9.5 665
Calcic sulphate 84.3 | 5.901
Magnesic ,, 84.0 | 5.880
Sodic chloride 52.1 | 3.647
IROLASSIC ates as. 6.4 448

|
494.5 | 29.715

The specific gravity referred to water at 15° C. was 1.0006.

In the same enclosure with the last mentioned, is another chaly-
beate, know as the Magnesian iron water. As it has now fallen into
disuse, it did not seem necessary to do more than determine the iron
which it contains. Calculated as carbonate, it was 14.9 Mgr per hire,
or 1.043 grains per gallon.

Of that remarkable pair the “Twins,” only one—the sulphur
water—was flowing; it is essentially of the same character as the
Gowlaun water. It contains 2.052 cub. cent. sulphuretted hydrogen
per litre. The temperature was 11°.6 C., the air being 15°.4 C. The
rate of flow was found to be one litre discharged in one minute and
twenty seconds, or about ten gallons in one hour.

SS eT oe

ihe

Baxer—On the Ligamentum Mucosum. 193

XXIX.—On rae Licamentum Mocosueu. By Artucr Wrypows
Wutert Baker, B.A., Student in Medicine, Trinity College,
Dubhn.

[Read April 27, 1875.]

Tue ligamentum mucosum of the knee joimt being so very slightly

noticed by anatomists in general, and the information respecting it so

scanty, it has been suggested to me that I should keep notes of some
of those I found during the past winter session, and these notes I now
bring under your notice.

Before giving the result of my own observations, it may be
necessary to review the literature of the subject. The first notice of
it, of which I am aware, is by Vesalius (Op. Venetiis, 1568, p. 270),
who reeords its existence in these words :—‘‘ Verum praeter hoc liga-
mentum interdum adhuc mucosum quoddam et gracile reperias, in medio
genu articuli locatum.” The anatomists who followed him added
nothing to his description until the publication of Walther’s Obser-
vationes de articulis et ligamentis incessu, statuque, &c. (Lipsie, 1728,
p. 8), who refers to its relation to the mass of fat. But the fullest of
the old descriptions is that of Weitbrecht, who, in his Syndesmologia
(Petropol., 1742), says, ‘‘Ex ejusdem zone pinguedinose sede
inferiore educitur appendix aliqua ejusdem substantie sed plurimis
fibris intexta, ope quarum in latere dextro sulci, qui est anterius juxta
capitulum externum femoris supra ligamentum cruciatum anterius
cui accumbit infigitur. Hee fibre an duplicaturarum continuationes
sint, an vero ex ipsa patella proveniant ut Winslow vult difficulter
extricari potest, magis tamen assentiendum Walthero mihi videtur
qui id de pinguedine terminari perhibet.”” Referring to Winslow’s
description shows us that it is an incorrect one, as even in the fifth
edition of his ‘‘ Anatomical Exposition of the Structure of the Human
Body” (1775), he says (p. 180), ‘‘it is attached to the lower part
of the cartilaginous side of the patella by one end, by the other
to the anterior part of the great notch between the femoral con-
dyles.” He says its use is to hinder the fat from being compressed
in motion of the knee. Other old anatomists, Kerckring, Blancard,
&c., add nothing. Among the modern anatomists the ligament is
passed by with as trifling notice. Boyer names it the adipose liga-
ment. Cruveilhier (Anatomie, 1834, p. 469), says that sometimes it
is absent, sometimes multiple; he has seen a fold of this nature
stretching from the membrane over the extensor tendon to the supra-
trochlear part of the femur. Mr. B. Cooper in his Lectures (1829, p.
275) says it is composed of a number of little fimbriated processes
which receive the branches of the articular artery. Barkow calls it
“ligamentum suspensorium marsupu,’” as he has named the alar
ligaments the ‘‘marsupium patellare.”’ Henle* says of it, ‘‘The

* Banderlehe, 2nd edition, p. 153.
R.1. A. PROC, SER. 1I., VOL. I., SCIENCE, 2D

Ns

194 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

origin, strength, and connexions of this ligament are variable. I saw
it of the thickness of a coarse thread only, made up of an arterial and
venous stem, and a pair of bundles of connective tissue; usually it is
flat and broad towards its insertion, cylindrical medially, and knotty
by its including several fatty lobes.” Luschka says,* ‘That only
exceptionally does it form in man amembranous sagittal septum, which
completes the partition of the synovial cavity of the knee into two
lateral halves, a partition partly begun by the crucial lhgaments.”
Roberts} adds little more in his monograph. Hyrtl remarks, ‘ In
spite of its slenderness and often thread-like proportions, this band is
called the mucous ligament ; it is often absent or appears knotty from
including fat, or it includes a fibrous string which conveys blood ves-
sels to the patella, these seem to fill vacant spaces in the joint.”
Cloquet describes it as an adipose canal.

Before bringing forward the details of my own observations, I wish
to explain the following division which I have adopted.

Class I. Contains those cases where the ligament formed a com-
plete septum across the joint.

Class II. Where it formed a partial septum.

Class III. Where it existed as a coarse thread or threads.

Class IV. Where the ligament was absent.

To this I have added notes on the comparative anatomy of the
ligament.

The total number of cases occurring in each class, together with
the average strain it took to break them, is as under :—

Class I. There were 9 cases (222 per. cent.), average strain,

21.24 lbs.

Class II. There were 9 cases (223 per cent.), average strain,
15.00 lbs.

Class III. There were 19 cases (473 per cent.), average strain
9.19 lbs.

Class IV. There were 3 cases (73 per cent.)

Class VY. There were 20 cases.

In Class I. the measurements were taken in this manner :—

Anteriorly. From the marsupium to the femoral notch.

Posteriorly. From the anterior crucial ligament to the femoral
notch.

Above. The femoral attachment.

Below. From the marsupium to the anterior crucial ligament.

* Nur ausnahmweise bildet das ligamentum mucosum beim Menschen ein
membrandéses sagittal gestelltes Septum | welches die schon durch die hgamentum
cruciatum eingeleitete sonderung des gelenkes in Zwei seitenhalften vervillstandigt,
Anat. des Menschen, 1865, Bd. 3, pt it ,p. 876. [1 am indebted to Dr. Macalister
for the translations].

+ Untersuchungen iiber die anatomie und mechanik des kniegelenkes, Giessen,
1855.

eS

Baxer—On the Ligamentum Mucosum. 195

to | ;| 3
4 Bs Pj te | cies
- | eo ie =e g E — 2
4 | O| aS | as
Crass I.—Compete Srpra. S/o] 5° | so | 89 | ga | F.8
Aln| 24} 458 | o4 9/28
a an | 3 2 8 | 45
eS i/sO | 8&8) FS) a4
qa = oO 3
$ 9

Inches. |Inches.| Inches, |Inches,| Lbs.

1. The first complete septum I saw, I
regret I was unable to measure, as it was
a very fine specimen.

2. The ligament was attached to the |M./R.| 1.25 | 1:10) 0-75| 0-90] 21
external side of the femoral notch, and con-
tained a vessel.

3. The fellow ligament of No. 2 carried | M.) L.| 1:00 | 0:95 | 0°55 | 1:00} 28
several vessels, and was attached to the
external part of the notch; I also observed a
second mucous ligament going from the mar-
supium to the snyoyial hood which is often
found on the internal condyle. Though a
mere thread, this ligament was of consider-
able strength, haying a triangular origin and
insertion ; it measured 1.26 inches in length,
and is the second of the kind I have observed
in man.

4. There was no communication between | F.| L.| 0°75 | 0.90 | 0:70} 0:90 | 24:5
the subcrureal bursa and the synovial cavity
of the joint; the inner condyle had a free
fimbria attached to it.

5. Was composed of separate threads at | F.| R.| 1:00} 0°80} 0:50 | 0°90} 14
the anterior portion; was fellow of No. 4.

6. Was broader at the anterior portion, and | F.| R.| 0-75 | 0°85 | 0:70] 0-70} 19
T-shaped, like the ligamentum mucosum in
the Otter. «

7. Was slightly notched at its femoral | F.| L.| 0°75 | 0°85 | 0°85 | 0:90} 14
attachment, and had no trace of any vessel ;
but there was a slip going from the middle
of the ligament to the external side of the
femoral notch.

8. No trace of any vessel; in testing the | M.| L.| 0°60 | 0°85 | 0°55 | 0°80 | 28°5
strain it broke cleanly from its femoral origin.

9. Was so much inflamed that I did not | F.
think it worth while testing the strain.

ra
2
le.e)
S

0°70 | 0°85 | 0:40} —

196. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. |

Fig. 1, Refers to No, 16, Class IIT,

Za

p = Patella. .
a = Mass of fat.
6 = Bursa.
¢, = ibiae
Yi Ff = Femur:
yy, is gz = Anterior crucial
ligament.

m = Ligt. mucosum.

p = Patella. .
a = Mass of fat. |
op 6 = Bursa.
Z ¢ = Tibia.
4 f = Femur.
zw = Anterior crucial
ligament.

m= Ligt. mucosum.

BaKxer—On the Ligamentum Mucosum.

197

Crass JJ.—PARTIAL SEPTA.

1. Had a falciform edge at femoral attach-
ment.

2. Had a falciform margin looking downwards
and backwards.

3. The ligament was inflamed, the subject
itself was old, thin, and had numerous bed-sores
upon her. Fig. 2.

4. Had a falciform margin. I had not weights
to measure what strain it would bear.

5. Had a falciform edge, and broke from its
femoral attachment, where there was some trace
of a vessel.

6. A rickety subject, in whom the testes had
not descended ; the ligament carried many vessels.
I observed a fine thread extending trom the
middle of the hgament to the anterior crucial
ligament at its latter extremity ; it expanded into
a reddish cone-like thickening ; this thread mea-
sured 0°6 inch in length.

7. The fellow limb of No. 6 had a slight falci-
form edge, and broke from the marsupium ; not-
withstanding its being a smaller ligament than
the preceding, it bore a greater strain, in conse-
quence of a large vessel running along the
posterior margin, which came from the azygos
articular artery.

8. Had a falciform margin, a second slip went
from its femoral attachment to the anterior crucial
ligament, and a third slip jomed the marsupium
to the outer reflection of the synovial membrane;
the vessels on its surface were from the internal
and external superior articular arteries ; there was
a hood on the inner condyle.

9. Had a falciform femoral attachment; two
threads went from this ligament to the anterior
erucial ligament, and a third thread joined the
marsupium to the external reflection of the
synovial membrane; there was a hood on the
inner condyle. Fig. 3.

Sex.

M.

Side.

3
: 2 ‘ ou
® | 3 | es
a) ne lee8

3
Inches |Inches.| Lbs,
0°80 | 0°30 | 21°5
0:80 | 0:30 16:0
0°55 | 0°90 29'3

0°70 | 0:20 —

0°60 | 0°25 10°5
1:00 | 0°40 14°0
0:80 | 0°15 15°5
0°80 | 0°35 7:0
1:20 | 0°30 6:0

198 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Crass III.—Coarsrt THREAD OR THREADS.

1. A coarse thread.

2. Was double at its origin and insertion; had
a trace of a vessel at its insertion.

3. Carried a vessel from the superior external
articular artery.

4. Had a second thread underneath, and a
vessel from the superior internal articular artery.

5. There was a thin synovial reflection like a
rudimentary septum, behind or posterior to the
ligament. This was fellow limb of preceding.

6. Was so thin I did not test its breaking
strain.

7. Had no trace of any vessel, and was com-
posed of two threads, one of which was inserted
0.2 inch below the femoral notch; the other was
attached to the outer condyle.

8. Broke at femoral attachment in testing the
strain.
9. Broke at femoral attachment.

10. Slight trace of a vessel near the marsupium.

11. There was a well-formed hood on the
internal condyle; the ligament broke from its
femoral attachment, and a slip went from about
the middle of this hgament to the anterior crucial
ligament; a second slip went from the femoral
attachment to a fatty mass on the anterior crucial
ligament.

12. This ligament existed in a subject with
very long lower limbs.

13. The weight was not very accurate in this
case.

14. Carried several vessels, though only the
diameter of a coarse thread, and broke from its
femoral attachment.

15. Was a double thread, and had no trace of
vessels.

16. Had a second band, of the same size and
thickness as the ligament itself, going from its
femoral attachment to the anterior crucial liga-
ment. The joint could only be flexed to a limited
extent until both the accessory band and ligament
were burst through. Fig. 1.

17. Was aslender thread.

18. Contained a vessel, and a fatty lobe in the
middle.

19. The fellow limb of preceding ; both had
traces of hoods on their internal condyles.

Sex.

M.
M.

sa

Side.

BI

Length.

Inches.

0-90
0°65

0:95

0°50

Width.

0:20

0°30

0:10
0-10

Inches.

Broke with a
strain of

Sey
As

Baxker—On the Ligamentum Mucoswn. 199

Crass IV.—LIGAMENT WAS ABSENT.

Sex
Side.

1. It probably existed at some time during life. There were slight | M.| L.
traces of a hood on the internal condyle. The fellow limb of No. 8,
Class IIT.
2. Some remains at the marsupium as if it had existed. \ M.| R.
3. Some remains at the marsupium ; also traces of rheumatic disease. | M.| L.

Fig. 3. Refers to No. 9, Class IT.

Patella.

Mass of fat.

Bursa.

Tibia.

Femur.

Anterior crucial
ligament.

m = Ligt. mucosum,

We We WD

enanaroaats

Norss on tHE Comparative ANATOMY OF THE LIGAMENT.

Siredon maculatum. The extensor tendon arose from the front of
the femur, and the ligament existed behind it as a lamina of synovial
membrane.

ftana mugiens. The synovial membrane was separate from the
rectus tendon, so that on cutting the latter across and throwing it down
the jot was unopened. On opening the joint the ligament was seen
beneath the tendon that traverses the joint, and was connected with
the semilunar cartilage.

200 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Tejus teguixzin. The ligament consisted of a band connecting the
internal part of the femoral notch with the anterior portion of the
internal semilunar cartilage.

Iguana rhinolophis. Same as in preceding case ; was a strong,
fibrous band, quite separate from the crucial ligaments.

Ameiva lineolata. Same as before; was a flat membrane. A sort
of horizontal septum.

Amphibolurus barbatus. Same as before; the internal semi-lunar
cartilage was attached to the internal condyle by a band of synovial
membrane.

Chameleo vulgaris. I examined two specimens of this reptile, in
both of which the ligament was absent.

Moloch horridus. Same as in Amphibolurus barbatus.

LEcphymotes obtusirostris. A mere thread, attached like the pre-
ceding ligament; there was a second band of some width going to the
internal condyle.

Crocodilus biporcatus. This was a very young specimen, the liga-
ment existed as in the lizards.

Tatusia hirsuta. The ligament formed a complete septum, was
T-shaped, and formed the sheath of the extensor tendon.

Sheep. Formed a complete septum, and was roofed in on the
external side by the synovial membrane which formed the sheath of
the extensor tendon ; there were vessels on its surface from the exter-
nal articular and azy 20s arteries.

Lutra vulgaris. The ligament was T-shaped, and formed a com-
plete septum.

Nasua narica. It formed a complete septum, the synovial mem-
brane being refiected over the marsupium, thus roofing in the cavity.

Canis fanilaris var. Was composed of several threads containing
fat, and a vessel from the superior internal articular artery.

Ursus lasiotus. Was loaded with fat; did not form a septum.

Ursus Himalayanus. Xt formed a complete septum, and at the
posterior border was traversed by a large branch from the azygos
articular artery.

Presbytes comatus. The ligament was absent.

Cercopithecus griseo-viridis. It existed as a coarse thread.

Cercopithecus mona. In the right limb the ligament was a mere
thread, in the left limb it was double, one thread being attached to
the external condyle.

In conclusion I wish to draw attention to some poimts which
anatomists have, I think, stated wrongly, or passed over without
notice.

1. Luschka says, ‘“‘ That only exceptionally does it form in man a
membranous sagittal septum.” Now, it appears to me that the com-
plete septum is somewhat more than an exception, seeing that nearly

Baxer—On the Ligamentum Mucosum. 201

one-fourth (223 per cent.) of my cases deserved that title; and if the
number of partial septa be taken into account, I think the tendency of
the ligament in man is quite as much towards the septate condition as
the filiform.

2. Hyrtl remarks, ‘It appears knotty from fat, or it includes a
fibrous string which conveys blood-vessels to the patella ; these seem to
fill vacant spaces in the joint.” With the first part of this statement
I entirely disagree, for, in those specimens I examined, the vessels did
not approach the patella at all, but went rather to the femoral attach-
ment of the ligament (?. ¢., the intercondyloid portion of the femur) ;
whether they nourished that portion of the bone or not, I am not pre-
pared to state: with the latter part of his statement I feel inclined to
concur, for, as far as I can.judge, the function of the hgamentum
mucosum is to adjust the fatty lobe at the marsupium patellare, to
fill the various vacant spaces in the joint, in the different positions
between complete flexion and extension.

3. In several of the lower animals I observed that when the liga-
ment formed a complete septum, it was continuous with the synovial
membrane forming the sheath of the extensor communis digitorum,
which passes across the external side of the joint, and at the same
time roofs in the outer division of the jomt. In some human joints I
found bands going from the marsupium to the external reflection of
the synovial membrane.

4, On two separate occasions, in man I observed an additional liga-

ment going from the marsupium to the hood that is often found on the -

internal condyle; in Lephymotes obtusirostris this ligament existed
as a strong fibrous band.

5. With regard to the development of this ligament nothing is as
yet known ; it is a pomt which would probably clear up its morpholo-
gical nature, and throw light on the vexed question, ‘‘ the origin
of synovial membrane,’ on which much has been written, and of which
the best modern exposition is that published this year in Leyden, by
J. G. Van der Sluijs (Over den Bouw van het Synoviaalvlies, Leiden,
P. Somerwil, 1875).

bo
jest

R. I. A. PROC, SER. II.) VOL, Il., SCIENCE.

202 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XXX.—On Some Forus or tHe Licamentum Preryeo-sprnosum. By
A, Macatister, M. B., Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Dublin
University. (With Plates 19 and 20).

[Read April 27, 1875].

THE bony arch stretching from the outer pterygoid plate to the spina
angularis of the sphenoid bone has been described by many authors ;
Dieterich,* Gruber, Barkow as well as the manual writers have noticed
its existence and some of its forms. Its most common condition in
man as the lgamentum pterygo-spinosum has been shown by
Civinini} and its comparative anatomy as the representative of the canal
or foramen present in the ecto-pterygoid plate in Rodents has been
abundantly referred to by these writers.

The object of the present paperis to catalogue the very varying
forms of this ligament found in the skulls in the collection of the
Dublin University.

The ligamentum pterygo-spinosum is an upward and forward elonga-
tion of the fascial fold which forms the internal lateral ligament of the
mandible, and usually appears as a flat band, wider at its ptery-
goid than at its spinous attachment, but variable in shape, lying usually
internal to the Arteria meningea media, external to the tensor
palati, which often takes an additional origin from it; posteriorly
and internally it is related to the fibrous capsule of the Eustachian
tube, to which it is often tightly bound.

Beside the simple ligamentum pterygo-spinosum, there exists
very often a second band connected with it at its pterygoid end
(Pl. 20, fig. 14 @), but inserted external to the foramen spinosum into
asmall spur. ‘This little process is very frequently present as a sharp
tooth on the outside of the oval and spinous holes (figs. 1, 2 @), and
the band attached to it is much shorter, higher up, and bounds a
narrower archway; to this second ligament the name ligamentum
pterygo-spinosum accessorium is applicable, it roofs over the nervus
temporalis profundus and n. massetericus (fig. 14 ¢’ 7”). This ligament
may be separate from the first named, or joined to it at its pterygoid
end, or for most of its extent, and only separated where it is pierced
by the middle meningeal artery and some nerve filaments.

Of the bony arrangements coexisting with these ligaments there
are the following, and I have appended thereto the proportional
frequency of their occurrence out of 144 skulls.

ist. The existence of the ligament with no ossified tooth on the
external pterygoid plate. This occurred in fifteen of the skulls on
both sides, and in four on one side only. In one of these the nervus

* Dieterich, Beschreibung einiger abnormitaten des Menschen-schidels, Basel,
1842, p. 9. "
+ Schmidt’s Jahrbucher, 1863,

MacaristEr—On Ligamentum Pteriygo-spinosum. 208

spinosus of Luschka (Miller’s Archiv., 1853), traversed a well-marked
groove from the oval to the spinous foramen, and the tip of the spina
angularis was nearly separated from its base by a suture.

2nd. The presence of a tooth on the external pterygoid plate
(figs. 6 w), as the only ossified part of the ligament; this I have seen very
large, and in one negro skull (tribe unknown) from the Gold Coast, it
appeared as a round tubercle near the base of the external pterygoid
plate, but separate from that plate. Several instances of this tooth
were coexistent with avery thin oblique lamellar septum between
the oval and spinous foramina, and in one case the two foramina were
not separated, while on the right side of another the oval foramen
communicated with the pterygo-sphenoidal fissure. The spinous
foramen in another specimen was in the line of the spheno-petrosal
suture. Cases of this kind occurred in twenty skulls.

srd. Cases of the presence of a second distinct tooth on the
pterygoid plate. This is noticed in Theile’s Muskellehre, p. 68,
where such a tooth may be below the primary one, is always flatter
and weaker, and rarely has a ridge like the prominent rib on the inside
of the ectopterygoid plate, which crosses the upper part of the ptery-
goid fossa to strengthen the primary tooth ; sometimes a second
accessory tooth higher than the primary one is present, but this
usually coexists with the spur to be described below (No. 5), and is for
the accessory ligament. The lower tooth is for the attachment of the
external pterygoid muscle. Cases of the existence of this second tooth
existed in nine skulls.

4th. The coexistence with the fore-mentioned tooth or teeth of a
forward-directed spur on the spina angularis sphenoidalis was noticed
in eighteen skulls: sometimes this is of very large size, projecting
towards the pterygoid tooth, but always separated by an mmterspace
(figs. 1,2, 13). This very often existed with a double pterygoid tooth,
and in one instance where it was present there was no pterygoid tooth :
in one case there was no spina angularis on the sphenoid, but a process
sundered from the anterior and internal end of the vaginal ridge (spina
petrosa) took its place. This spina petrosa is not rare, either as an angle
of the vaginal ridge or as an independent spur, and it often contributes
with the spina angularis to give origin to the internal lateral ligament of
the lower jaw.

5th. The existence of a spina accessoria external to the foramen
ovale, and separated from the spina angularis by the foramen spinosum,
has been before referred to as giving attachment to the ligamentum acces-
sorium pterygo-spinosum (figs. 1, 2, 9 a), and it may be present and dis-
tinct even though the two ligaments are united. This is a very frequently
present spine, as it exists in forty-one skulls. I have even found this
present in the skull of a three-year-old child. In some of these it was
only present as a minute rudiment, butin others it was long, and formed
nearly a loop with a long pterygoid tooth. In a Chinook skull this
coexisted with a fine lamellary septum between the foramina ovale and
spinosum. In a Mandingo skull it coexisted with a strong spina petrosa,

204 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

taking the place of the spina angularis. In a Melanesian skull from
Chatham Island it coexisted with a fossa pterygoidea externa, protected
by a strong processus pterygoideus accessorius (the same fossa I have
seen in the skull of a negro, and I have referred to it elsewhere)
fig. 12 A). P
6th. This spina sphenoidalis accessoria may coexist with a forward
directed tooth on the spina angularis, and this exists in thirteen skulls.
In one of these, the angular tooth is pierced externally by the middle
meningeal artery. These two spurs often rise as sharp peaks, one in
front and the other behind the foramen spinosum, so as to give the
appearance as if the foramen bored through the spine; this occurs
in several crania, among others in one Australian, one from Circassia,
and one found embedded in plaster, at Sinai. Sometimes the apices
of the two spines are joined by a bridge (that is, the band of. union
which forms the posterior part of the connexion between the ligamen-
tum pterygo-spinosum and the accessory ligament [when these are
united], becomes ossified), and then there are two external outlets for
the foramen spinosum, an outer (larger and transmitting the artery)
and an inner, smaller, and usually transmitting the nervus spinosus
(fig. 7 a’). Thismay coexist with a double tooth on the ecto-pterygoid
process, but if so the second tooth is generally the lower, muscular,
one.

7th. Cases of the formation of a complete bony bridge are not rare.
Professor Gruber assigns a frequency of once in thirteen to fourteen
skulls. In our collection we have nine in which such a bridge oecurs
on both sides, five in which it is present on one side. Thus our pro-
portion is, that a bilateral bridge exists in one in sixteen, a unilateral
or bilateral, once in 9.5 cases.

Two forms of this bridge exist which should not be confounded :—
Ist, ossification of the true ligamentum pterygo-spinosum. This is either
simple, forming a large wide arch (not a common form) (fig. 9 / p), or
compound, coexisting with an ossified hgamentum pterygo-spimosum
accessorium. This latter form is the commonest, and, asthe two liga-
ments are usually united for a good part of their extent, so the bony
arch is simple, wide, and shows its double nature by having two piers
at its hinder end, one continuous with the spina accessoria, one with
the true spina angularis (figs. 8, 11 0’). The other form is a simple
ossification of the ligamentum accessorium which then forms a closely
adpressed arch, only bridging over the temporal and masseteric nerve.
(figs. 10, 18 au). This I have seen well marked in an Esquimaux
skull with no spina angularis, and in a Chinook skull, as well as in
several Irish crania.

The ossification of the true pterygo-spinous ligament never takes
place autogenously. The forward end ossifies by an extension into it of
the bony matter of the external pterygoid process, while the hinder
end ossifies as an offshoot from the spina angularis; hence where the
two bony growths coalesce there is, in nearly every case, a suture,
which I have very seldom seen obliterated, and which is sometimes den-

Macauister—On Ligamentum Pterygo-spinosum. 205

tated (fig. 9 z). This is often the case in the ligamentum accessorium
also (fig. 10 x), but here complete ossification and obliteration of the
suture at the point of junction is much commoner, so that the arch
becomes simple, solid (fig. 18).

A form of spurious arcuation may be produced by the elongation
and convergence of the two ecto-pterygoid teeth, which may loop
towards each other in an arched form, and may even touch, leaving
thus a round hole in the external pterygoid plate (figs. 2, 4 n). This
when present transmits an anomalous branch of the internal maxillary
artery.

The whole trunk of the internal maxillary, in a not uncommon
anomalous course under the external pterygoid muscle, either pierces
below, or through, or under the ligament of Civinini, so that when
this band is ossified, it is not uncommon to find the whole trunk of
the artery passing through the loops of the bony bridge. "Such an
arrangement is the exact repetition of the course of the artery in
Rodents and many other mammalian orders ; indeed this seems the only
assignable use for the ligament, to protect the artery from the pressure
of the pterygoid muscles. In Henle-Krause’s Handbuch der Getiiss-
lehre des Menschen, p. 243, Professor Krause describes the anomalous
internal maxillary as trasversing sometimes a hole in the lamina
lateralis processi pterygoidi ossis sphenoidei (external pterygoid plate),
and speaks of this being analogous to the condition in the rabbit. The
hole referred to is the arch of the ligament; for the trunk internal
maxillary artery never passes through any hole in the outer pterygoid
plate proper.

In a Mandingo skull, the spina angularis is double, half formed of
the squamosal element of the anterior lip of the elenoid cavity, and
half of the sphenoid, the spheno-squamosal suture crossing the summit
of the process, and this coexists with a foramen spinosum in the spheno-
petrosal suture. In another skull the tooth on the pterygoid plate is a
tooth on the outside, not on the hinder margin of the plate.

206 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

XXXI.—On a Matrormen Corona oF EcuInvs ESCULENTUS. B
H. W. Macxrmtosy, B.A. (With Plates 21 and 22).

[Read May 10, 1875.]

Tue remarkable specimen which is described in the present communi-
cation has lain for many years.in the Museum of the Dublin Univer-
sity, having been, as I am informed by Professor Dr. Perceval Wright,
dredged up by the late Dr. Ball off the coast of Youghal.

I had often noticed it in the course of my museum studies, on ac-
count of the prominent pouch which the actinal (oral) aspect presents,
but had not bestowed more than a casual inspection onit till recently,
when its many peculiarities so forced themselves on my attention, that
I requested and obtained permission of Professor Dr. Macalister,
the present Director of the Museum, to place a short description of
it on record.

In describing the present specimen I shall not attempt anything
like a detailed notice of all its peculiarities. Such a proceeding
would be but of little value or interest, and a mere abstract descrip-
tion of such a shell would convey but little idea to the mind; hence
I prefer relying on the drawings* for this purpose, and will only indi-
cate here the chief features of interest.

For purposes of convenience the madreporic plate—placed pos-
teriorly—and corresponding interambulacrum will be numbered I, the
next genital plate on the left, and its interam-
bulacrum will be II, and so on from left, to
right; the ocular plate and ambulacrum on the
immediate left of the madreporic, will be 1, the
next on its left 2, and so on in the same order;
and, since each area has a double series of plates,
these will be called La, 1), &., or 1 a, 16, &e.,
respectively. I adopt this method simply for
convenience and not with any reference to the
views put forward by Professors A. Agassiz or
Lovén, as to the position of the madreporic plate.

Looked at as a whole, the corona is seen to be considerably flat-
tened on the madreporic side, which is produced on the actinal surface
into a sort of boss or pouch (Plate 21, fig. 2). The mouth is eccentric,
displaced to the lower left-hand side ; the auricles are normal. In the
abactinal system, plate I (madreporic), is unsymmetrical, being pro-
longed at the upper left-hand corner, and has but little of the character-

* Which have been all taken under the camera lucida. As the outlines of
the plates are the most striking part of the corona, Thave drawn themas accurately ~
as 1 could, and have therefore laid down the tubercles almost orthographically.

MacxintosH—On « Malformed Corona of Echinus. 207

_ istic granulation; plate II.is very much elongated anteroposteriorly, and
the orifice for the genital duct has disappeared; plate ILI. presents
the reverse condition, being broader than deep, and has its genital
aperture ; plates IV. and V. are but shghtly altered. The ocular plates
are scarcely changed in form, with the exception of plate 1, which is
considerably elongated at the lower left-hand corner. The anal sys-
tem corresponds in outline to the abactinal, being drawn out from
before backwards.

In the corona the alterations are mainly confined to ambulacrals
1 and 2, and to the corresponding interradia, and of these, interambu-
lacrum Ia is scarcely changed, being merely curved to the right
a little more than usual; 14 is a good deal altered, its fourth plate
(from the top) seems to be made up of two fused together; and the
twelfth and succeeding plates are very much elongated towards the
left side, and seem to include the greater part of the actinal boss.
Ambulacrum 1 seems to be only represented by the short series of pores
seen in Plate 22, fig. 4, which terminates almost at the summit of
the boss, and the perforations of which haye no very definite arrange-
ment. This ambulacral area is thus altogether included in Ib. The
next ambulacrum is a curious one. It begins normally, both in
arrangement and position, but soon bifurcates, one division going up
to the abactinal system to form ambulacrum 2, of which 2 6 is per-
fectly unaltered, but 2a is remarkable for the exceedingly scattered
disposition of its pores (Plate 21, fig. 2), some of which are placed
well within interambulacrum II 4, whilst others are situated in the
middle line of their own radium. The other half of this ambulacrum
runs up to a short distance above the ambitus (equator of the corona),
where it abruptly terminates, thus circumscribing interambulacrum
Il., which, ending in a point a little below the ambitus, fails to reach
the actinal opening, and assumes a striking petaloid appearance.
There are thus but four ambulacral areas reaching the abactinal
system, No. 1 being deficient, and its place occupied by the remark-
able congeries of plates shown in the figures.

The dimensions of the corona are as follows :—

ionudtthe ambitus,. .0% « «+. . . 15 inches.
Dextro-sinistral circumference, . .. . . 182 ,,
Antero-posterior circumference, . .. . 138 ,,

Depth (from abactinal to actinal orifice),. . 3.% ,,

As regards the cause of this curious malformation it is difficult to
speak absolutely. The altered side of the corona, though presenting
more or less of an undulating appearance, has no sharp depressions
such as might be caused by fracture and repair; if this has taken
place it has been unusually evenly done, for it is seldom that the
calcareous parts of Echinoids are repaired without showing very mani-
fest tokens of the change. The flattening of the altered side, and
the presence of the actinal boss, suggest the idea that the lateral
growth of the test was limited by its surroundings, and had to take

7

208 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

place in a downward direction—a supposition which perhaps would be
strengthened by the absence of ambulacra on the flattened side. I am
free to confess, however, that this solution is not satisfactory, for it
would be a matter of no little difficulty to arrange the surroundings so
as to produce the given result, and hence I am fain to keep clear of the
cloud-begirt regions of hypothesis, and limit myself to the simple
record of facts.

Malformed specimens of Echini have been described by the fol-
lowing :—

Philippi, ‘‘ Weigmann’s Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1837.” I
have not been able to consult this paper, as the volume of this
Archiv for 1837 is not in any of the Dublin libraries.

Kinahan and Du Noyer, ‘‘ Proceedings of the Dublin Natural His-
tory Society,” vol.u., 1857. The specimen seems to combine the pores
and tubercles of Strongylocentrotus lividus, with the actinal system of
Echinus esculentus. ey

T. H. Stewart, ‘‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 3rd
series, Vol. y., 1860.” The malformation is chiefly in the abactinal
system, the corona being but slightly altered.

Donitz, ‘‘ Reichert und Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1866.” The
malformation consists in the almost total disappearance of one of the
five interambulacra, and a corresponding change in shape of the corona.

_ M‘Nas—Remarks on the Leaves of certain Conifere. 209

XXXII.—ReEMarks oN THE STRUCTURE OF THE LEAVES OF CERTAIN
Contrer@#. By W. R. M‘Nas, M.D., Edinburgh, Professor of
Botany, Royal College of Science for Ireland. (With Plate 23.)

[Read June 14, 1875.]

In a Thesis which was presented to the Faculty of Science, Paris,
and published last year, Dr. C. E. Bertrand describes the comparative
anatomy of the stems and leaves of the Gnetacez and Conifer. In
his descriptions Bertrand gives anatomical characters, by which sub-
genera may be readily separated, and also gives tables by which
to identify the species. Believing that, in one or two respects,
Bertrand has come to erroneous conclusions, I determined to re-inves-
tigate certain points which I considered of importance. In doing so
I had the great advantage of haying access to the collection of Coni-
fere at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where most of the
rare and valuable North American species are carefully cultivated.
We are certainly much indebted to Bertrand for pointing out that
valuable characters can be got by anatomical investigation of the
leaves of Pines. To the nurseryman who has chiefly to do with
small plants without cones, any good method of determining species by
the foliage must be welcome. While, however, I acknowledge the
value of such anatomical characters, I do not think we can place im-
plicit confidence in them alone; but that, when taken along with
other characters, they are of the highest value. It is chiefly by
making transverse sections of the leaf that the investigation is to
be carried on. Very thin slices are to be taken from the middle
of the leaf, care being taken to have the sections in the proper
plane. All the sections I have examined were placed at once in dilute
glycerine; and, in nearly all cases, the perfectly fresh leaf was used.
The chief points to observe in the sections are:—1st, the nature of
the fibro-vascular bundles or midrib; 2nd, the sheath of the fibro-
vascular bundles; 3rd, the resin canal or canals; 4th, the thickened
cells or hypoderma belonging to the ground-tissue, and placed below
the epidermis, but not belonging to it; 5th, the parenchyma of the
ground-tissue; 6th, the epidermis, with its cuticle; and 7th, the
arrangement of the stomata; this last, however, requiring the examina-
tion of the upper and under surfaces of the leaf in addition.

My attention was first directed to Bertrand’s sub-genus Tuga,
which includes—Pinus Pattoniana, canadensis, Mertensiana, Se. I
think it is best to follow Parlatore in his definition of the genus Pinus ;
but I would limit Parlatore’s section Tsuga, and use it in the restricted
sense in which Carriére and Bertrand employ it. In Parlatore’s Conifer
(De Candolle Prod., vol. xvi., pars 2), the section VI. Tsuga Endl.
Parl. is used to include :—Tsuga Carr., Keteleeria Carr., and Pseudo-

R. I. A. PROC., SER, II, VOL, II.) SCIENCE * 2¥F

210 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tsuga, Carr. Pinus Douglast? belongs to Carriére’s Pseudotsuga, and
Pinus Fortunet to his Keteleeria. Both P. Douglasii and P. Fortunei
must be placed in Carriére’s Pseudotsuga.

The section Tsuga is well characterised by the presence of a single
median resin canal, which is placed below the single central fibro-
vascular bundle forming the midrib; by the flattened leaves bifariously -
placed ; and lastly, by the presence of well marked cushions supporting
the leaves.

Five species, as described by Parlatore, belong to the restricted
section Tsuga, viz. :—

106. P. Tsuga Ant.

107. P. canadensis Linn.

108. P. Mertensiana Bougard.
109. P. dumosa Don.

110. B. Pattoniana Parl.

To this I have one to add, viz., P. Hookeriana, the Abies Hooker-
iana of A. Murray.

Bertrand only distinguishes four species by anatomical characters,
and gives the following synoptic table of these characters :—

Stomata on the upper surface of the leaf;

Margin entire ; no hypoderma, : . P. Hooxerrana.
No stomata on the upper surface of the leaf ;
Margin of leaf serrulate; hypoderma, . P. cANADENSIS.

ae - No hypoderma, : . P. Brunontana.
JlaiiggHh CLIO ee ; . P. Sreporpn.

Bertrand further gives the following table of the synonomy and
distribution of the species :—

Picea (Tsuga) Hookeriana Carr., Northern California.

Syn. Abies Pattoni Jeff. A. Hookerii Hort. A. Williamsonii
Newbury. 7

Picea (Tsuga) canadensis Link. (T., Mertensiana does not differ
anatomically from T. canadensis). Rocky Mountains.

Syn. Abies canadensis Mich. Pinus Americana Du Roi. P.
canadensis Linn.

Picea (Tsuga) Brunoniana Wall. Southern China.

Syn. Abies dumosa Loudon. <A. cedroides Griff. Muicropeuce
Brunoniana Spach. P.decidua. Wall.

Picea (Tsuga) Sieboldi Carr. Japan.

Syn. Pinus Tsuga Ant.

From my examination of the species of the section Tsuga, I find
that Hookeriana and Pattoniana are distinct; but I can refer neither
of them to Bertrand’s Hookeriana. Probably his Hookeriana is our

M‘Nas—Remarks on the Leaves of certain Conifere. 211

Pattoniana; but in all specimens that have come under my notice
the hypoderm is developed, while Bertrand distinctly says, ‘‘ Pas
@hypoderm.” Then the specimens of canadensis and Mertensiana
examined by me are quite distinct. In this case I think that Bertrand
has described Mertensiana for canadensis. Lastly, in his description
of Brunoniana and Sieboldii we are slightly at variance.

The forms about which the greatest confusion has existed are
Hookeriana and Pattoniana. Both are, at first sight, very similar
in habit and in appearance, while their cones are also exceedingly close.
They are, however, readily separated by the structure of the leaf. In
Hookeriana the resin canal is separated from the fibro-vascular bun-
dles by a few parenchymatous cells, containing chlorophyll—a charac-
ter which does not occur in any of the other species. The leaf is also
thicker, more tetragonous than Pattoniana; the margins of the leaf are
entire, while in Pattoniana they are distinctly serrulate near the
apex. Both the species, however, agree in having stomata on the
upper as well as on the under surface of the leaf. In Hookeriana the
hypoderm forms a nearly continuous row of cells beneath the whole
epidermis, giving such an appearance as might almost be produced if
the epidermis consisted of a double instead of a single layer of
cells.

Taking all the characters, I would give the following table by
which to separate the different species :—

I. Young shoots hairy.

A. Resin canal separated from the sheath
of the fibro-vascular bundles by one or
two layers of large chlorophyll-bear-
ing cells; leaf flatly tetragonous, the
hypoderma nearly continuous around
the whole leaf; stomata on both sur-
faces. . : : 5 . 1. T. Hoorrnrana.

B. Resin canal in contact with sheath of
fibro-vascular bundles.

1. Stomata on both sides of leaf;
hypoderma well developed. . 2. T. Parrontana.

2. Stomata on under surface of leaf
only.

a. No hypoderma; margin of
leaf rough; apex obtuse. . 3. T. CANADENSIS.

6. Hypodermaat marginsof leaf,
and above midrib; margin of
leaf ciliate; apex obtuse. . 4. T. MeRTEnsIAna.

212 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ce. Hypoderma at margins of leaf,
and at each side of the resin
canal; margins of leaf slightly
reflexed ; serrulate; apex ob-
tuse, . 4 é . 5. T,. BRUNoNIANA.

II. Young shoots glabrous; hypoderma at
margins of leaf only; margin of leaf
entire; apex emarginate, sometimes ob-
tuse; stomata on under surface of leaf
only: : : : 3 ; : . 6. T. Sreporpn.

1. Pinus (Tsuga) Hookeriana.

Abies Hookeriana A. Murray, Edinburgh New Philosoph.
Journal, 1855, p. 289.

Tsuga Hookeriana Carr. ? not of Bertrand.

Shoots hairy; leaves four to seven lines in length, irregularly
bifarious; margin entire; apex obtuse; two sides of leaf similar dark
_ green, with four to six rows of stomata on each side of the middle
line. Plate 23, fig. 1.

2. Pinus (Tsuga) Pattoniana.

Abies Pattoniana Jeffr. Oregon Bot. Exped. 3.

Shoots hairy; leavessix to nine lines long, irregularly bifarious; mar-
gin denticulate near the obtuse apex ; upper side yellowish green, with
from two to four rows of stomata on each side of the slightly marked
central furrow, beneath with six to seyen rows of stomata on each side
of the middle line. Plate 23, fig. 2.

The forms cultivated in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, under the
names of Abies Parryana and Abies Hanburyana, cannot be separated
by any characters from P. Pattoniana. This is not Pinus Pattoniana
of Parlatore, as he includes both this species and P. Hookeriana.

3. Pinus (Tsuga) canadensis Linn. Parlatore.

Shoots hairy ; leaves six to nine lines long in two rows; margins
rough; apex obtuse; upper side dark green, with a central furrow,
beneath with eight or nine rows of stomata on each side of the promi-
nent resin canal. Plate 238, fig. 3.

4. Pinus (Tsuga) Mertensiana Bougard. Parlatore.

Shoots hairy ; leaves four to seven lines long in two rows; margins
ciliate; apex obtuse; upper side dark green, with a central furrow,
beneath with eight or nine rows of stomata on each side of the middle
line, where the hypoderm is developed. Plate 23, fig. 4.

The forms cultivated in the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens, under
the names of Abies Albertiana, Abies Bridgesii, and Abies Williamsonii,
cannot be separated by any characters from P. Mertensiana,

M‘Nas—Remarks on the Leaves of certain Conifere. 218

Parlatore gives A. Williamsonii as a synonym of his P. Pattoniana,
while Bertrand gives Williamsonii as a synonym of his T. Hookeriana.

5. Pinus (Tsuga) Brunoniana Wall.

Pinus dumosa Don. Parlatore.

Shoots hairy ; leaves twelve to fourteen lines long in two rows;
deciduous ; margins slightly reflexed ; serrulate; apex obtuse; upper
side grass green, with a central furrow, beneath with a band of nine
or ten rows of stomata placed close to each side of the central carina,
Plate 23, fig. 5.

6. Pinus (Tsuga) Sieboldu Carr.

Pinus Tsuga Ant. Parlatore.

Shoots glabrous ; leaves eight to ten lines long in two rows; margin
entire; apex emarginate, sometimes acute ; upper side dark green,
with a central furrow, beneath with a band of six to eightrows of
stomata on each side of the middle line. Plate 23, fig. 6.

In conclusion, I have to tender my best thanks to Dr. Moore,
Glasnevin, for kindly furnishing me with specimens from Glasnevin
Gardens; while to my father I am chiefly indebted, as he furnished
me with specimens of all the forms cultivated in the Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh.

214 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

XXXIII.—On Two Dissrar Forms oF Perrrypxiic Poucues. By
AtrxanDER Macatister, M.B., Professor of Comparative Anatomy,
Dublin University. (With Plate 24.)

[Read June 14, 1875.]

In a paper published in Virchow’s Archiv., 1874, Band. 60, p. 66,
Prof. Waldeyer of Breslau gives a resumé of all the cases of post-
abdominal pouches of which he has found records, and from these
data proceeds to classify these pouches according to their anatomical
position, and to suggest the probable cause of the formation of each
species. His experience agrees with that of every practical anatomist,
that the neighbourhood of the cecum is that which is most fertile in
irregularities, as he catalogues four species which occur in this
locality.

Having seen a very large number of these pouches, I was early led
to believe that, although it is useful, for convenience, to classify these,
yet scarcely two of these perityphlic pouches are alike. This is what
one might expect from a few moments’ thought on the remarkable and
variable changes to which this region is exposed in the course of the
development and descent of the ceecum, and hence almost every case
that occurs has its own features of interest.

In the present volume of the* Proceedings of this Academy one
variety of pouch was described by Mr. Leeper, under the name of
recessus retrocecalis, a pouch which, though belonging to a genus of
fossee similar to others described elsewhere, yet had strongly marked
individual features of its own. A case resembling this in some features
occurred in an old emaciated female subject dissected at the end of the
last session in the Anatomy room of the Dublin University. This
subject showed a faint superior ilio-ceecal pouch, whose floor was
formed by the layer of peritoneum at the inferior and left end of the root
of the mesentery, which was attached to the anterior surface of the psoas
muscle. There was no inferior ilio-cecal fossa, and the mesenterio-
lum was slender, not bounding any ilio-cecal recess either above or
below it, nor was there a trace of a sub-cecal fossa. The descending
colon was very long, and, as is always the case under such circum-
stances, the end of the cecum was pushed well forwards, lying on the
anterior wall of the abdomen, the fundus of the cecum being well
turned forwards, and the peritoneal covering of this part of the large
intestine was exceedingly imperfect, the serous membrane passing asa
tense lamina from the sides of the czecum to the sides of the abdominal
wall. The ascending colon on the level of the crest of the ilium was
displaced backwards in a knuckle-like fold, to such a depth that the
middle part was quite buried in a backwards and inwards-reaching sac.

* Antea, p. 79.

MacaristER—On two Forms of Perityphlic Pouches. 216

On pulling this out, alarge pouch was displayed, burrowing behind the
psoas muscle as far inwards as the yertebral column opposite the
transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra, having a strong ilio-
lumbar ligament above it, and being crossed at its upper part pos-
teriorly by the ilio-hypogastric nerve, and a little lower by the ilio-
inguinal. A separate slip of the psoas muscle from the transverse
process of the fifth lumbar vertebra projected into the fundus of the
sac. The mouth of this fossa looked upwards, and a little forwards
and outwards, and was bounded in part by a crescentic fold of iliac
fascia from the anterior surface of the psoas magnus (there was no
psoas parvus), passing outwards to the front of the ilacus. So deep
was this pouch, that the index finger introduced into it could be im-
bedded to the base of the second joint, and could touch the back of the
common iliac artery at its bifurcation behind the psoas. Fully three
and a half inches of the colon were sunk into this recess, and held
there by the reflection of peritoneum from the ascending lumbar meso-
colon outwards to the wall of the fossa. The pouch had a distinct
flooring of iliac fascia.

Co-existing in this subject was a good large intersigmoid pouch
with, as usual, no fascial relations, but a crescentic fold of fascia formed
a shallow retrosigmoid fossa like that described by Leeper. There was
a very strong and large cysto-hepato-colic hgament. Fully five inches
of large intestine stretched from the lower lip of the pouch to the
fundus of the czecum, and at the inner side of the pouch the peritoneum
was raised and rendered prominent directly internal to the involuted
portion of the colon, by the prominent inferior angle of the duodenum.

In comparing this case with the already described instances of
cecal fossee, it will be seen to resemble most closely the three cases
recorded by A. Biesiadecki of Cracow, in the Untersuchungen aus
dem Pathologische-Anatomische Institut in Krakau, Wien, 1872. The
fossee, which this author groups under the name fossa iliaco-subfascialis,
had this in common with it, that they were bounded by a prominent
fold of the iliac fascia, that they were between the psoas and iliacus,
that the iliacus muscle was more or less behind it; his cases were also
distinctly beneath the lower edge of the iliac fascia, which was strength-
ened by the fibres of the psoas parvus.* A case of cecal fossa is
described by Huschke, in which a fold of iliac fascia is referred to;
but this is by no means identical with either Leeper’s pouch or the
one described above, as Huschke’s is circumstanced very differently,
for this author describes having found, by an exaggeration of the
normal descent of the intestine, a falciform fold formed by the perito-
neum and the fascia iliaca, very prominent, upwards and forwards, form-

* Even whet this muscle does not exist as such, a strong band of fibrous tissue
strengthens the iliac fascia and passes outwards across the iliacus at its site of in-
sertion, while a slip of strengthened aponeurosis lies in the situation of its tendon

on the inner side of the psoas magnus. These should be regarded as rudimental
organs.

216 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ing a sort of bed for the cecum (Huschke’s Eingeweidelehre, p. 79;
Jourdan’s Trans. 1845, p. 90); here the fold is produced by the descent
of the ceecum, and the intestine accurately fits the fossa. In speaking
also of the peritoneal investment of the caecum, he says, that the begin-
ning of theright colon has often aperitoneal ligament attached (right colic
ligament of Hensing,) which raises itself from the right iliacus muscle,
and often forms a fossa of which the opening receives the colon; this
he calls the cecal ligament. The marks whereby this is distinguished
are its accurately corresponding to the cecum, and being formed by
that intestine, and bounded externally by Hensing’s* ligament.

Waldeyer + cites a case of the existence of what he names a fossa
cecalis; but it is different from either Huschke’s, Leeper’s, or mine,
and also received the end of the cecum. It occurred in a girl who died
of acute Endocarditis; its right boundary was Hensing’s ligament
(Huschke’s cecal ligament) ; its left fold went to the angle of fusion
of both plicee which bound the ilio-ceecal recess. We will have more
occasion to notice this instance presently. Langer { has also
described an instance in a young soldier which corresponds closely
to that given by Waldeyer, and which also corresponded to the
fundus of the well-descended cecum; but like the former case there is
no record of a fold of iliac fascia as related to the sac, although both
Langer and Waldeyer were acquainted with Huschke’s description.
Treitz § notices cases likewise of its occurrence in children and young
persons, its occurrence being due to the descent of the ceecum—
‘durch das Herabsinken des Cocum wird in der That manchmal das
Peritoneum der Fossa iliaca etwas eingestiilpt und bildet eine sehr
flache, nach aufwarts sehende Tasche, in die sich das Cocum legt.”

The instance described by Leeper differs from all these in having
no relation to the cecum or to any intestine, and being a primary fold
of the iliac fascia clothed by peritoneum.

My specimen is likewise peculiar in its extending inwards behind
the psoas, in its lower position regarding the ilium, im its having a
perfect flooring of iliac fascia, and in its co-existence with no ligament
of Hensing.

The same subject had a large subsplenic fossa, and the left obtu-
rator foramen had a shallow peritoneal involution capable of receiving
the tip of the middle finger, and about three quarters of an inch deep.
This ran inwards and forwards under the pectineus, and lay over the
obturator vessels and nerves.

The causation of these pouches in this subject is also a point of con-
siderable interest ; the old woman was a victim to tight lacing, and pre-
sented many of the pathological phenomena arising from that condition ;

* Hensing’s description is in Haller’s Collect. Dissert. Inauguralis Gottin-
gen, vol. i., p. 177.

? Loe. cit., p. 81.

+ Wochenblatt der Gesellschaft der Wiener Aertze, 1862, No. 17, p. 130.

§ Hernia Retroperitonealis, Kin Beitrag zur Geschichte innerer Hernier. Prag.
F. A. Credner, 1857, p. 110.

MacaristEr—On two Forms of Perityphlic Pouches. 217

the lower ribs were bent inwards; there was a compressed stomach, a
very characteristic schniirleber whose right end reached nearly to the
erest of the ium. This vicious habit forcing the viscera downwards
evidently exaggerated, if it did not cause, the disposition of the colon
to burrow behind the psoas muscle, and thus to produce this fossa. It
is interesting also tonote that one of Biesiadecki’s cases was also a female,
while in Leeper’s the pouch was utterly unconnected with any cecal
relation.

The other instance was of less interest, though more complex.
Tn an old, thin female, which happened to be on the next table in the
dissecting-room to the case just cited, the cecum had just reached the
iliac fossa, and, consequently, was well covered with peritoneum, and
its fundus had just begun to turn forward when its growth was arrested;
hence the vermiform appendix hung inwards and a little forwards
below, but not in front of the opening of the ilium. A strong ligament
of Hensing passed from the caecum to the abdominal wall, forming the
outer boundary of a sub-czecal sac, in which the fundus of the caecum
lay, and which its sharp falciform border rendered very deep and dis-
tinct. The mesenteriolum had not yet reached its usual perfect
distinctness, but the appendix lay in a distinct peritoneal fold, at
the bottom of the sub-ceecal fossa, whose cavity it divided into an inner
and outer part, the former having a shallow digital recess from. its
floor under the ilium, and its separation from the outer was completed
by a ridge passing from the mesenteriolum to the anterior and inferior
part of the abdominal wall, as represented in the figure. The interest
of this case is, that it shows a primary stage of both the sub-ceecal and
inferior ilio-czecal fossa, in which the two are confluent, for the sac in
this instance is really a sub-ceecal one with an imperfect septum. A
further descent of the cecum would have been attended with an in-
creasing prominence of the vermiform appendix, and an increasing
distinctness of the mesenteriolum, then the inner fossa would
form a perfect ilio-ceecal recess, while the outer would be a sub-ceecal
fossa. The continued descent of the cecum, however, would have the
effect of obliterating the sub-cecal fossa, and leaving then the ilio-
cecal alone. The resemblance between this case and that of Waldeyer
is so close as to lead me to believe that they are both varicties of one
species; and the comparison of these with the other cases throws a clear
light on the genesis of these peculiar and often dangerous pouches.*

* Since this paper was written (June, 1875) an instance has come under my
hotice of a very peculiar additional variety of sub-cecal fossa. In a male adult,
aged about sixty, a narrow slit-like opening was found below and in front of the
cecum, about 13" long, and starting below the ilium, and extending transversely ;
on introducing the finger it passed under and behind the cecum, and the fundus of
the pouch was found placed upwards, backwards, and outwards, on the level of the
erest of the ilium. The cecum thus lay in and bounded this fossa, in the floor of
which was the vermiform appendix. ‘The formation of such a pit was probably
due to the occurrence of an adhesion between the layers of the peritoneum and the
back of the cacum, while the latter was descending ; so that the intestines, in pass-
ing down, instead of separating the lamina, as usual, left this portion behind it.

R. I. A. PROC: SER, 11.) VOL, 1.) SCIENCE, 2G

218 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XXXTV.—Nore on tue Spectrum, Potarizarton, AnD Form oF THE
ZopiacaL LicHr; As OBSERVED IN THE YEARS 1874 anv 1875. By
C. E. Borroy, B. A., Memper or THE Ropricuez TRANSIT oF
Venus Expeprriow (Brrrisu. ) (With Plate 25.)

[Read June 14, 1875.]

In the year 1872, the Royal Irish Academy entrusted me with a
pecuniary grant which was to be applied in defraying the cost of con-
struction of a spectroscope, which should be specially adapted to the
examination of the extremely faint spectra of the Aurora and Zodiacal
Light. (Vide Report on a Spectroscope of the binocular form.*)

An opportunity of studying the phenomena presented by the Zodia-
cal Light, under more favourable circumstances than those which
prevail in comparatively high latitudes, was afforded to me by my
being attached to the observing party sent by the British Government
to the Island of Rodriguez, situate in the South Indian Ocean.

This fact having been represented to the Royal Irish Academy, and
their permission having been obtained to the employment of their in-
strument during my service with the Transit of Venus Expedition
alluded to above, I was enabled to take advantage of several vivid dis-
plays of the Zodiacal Light which occurred while I was absent from
the United Kingdom, and to obtain the results detailed in the subse-
quent sections of this note.

The observations will be entered in the following order:

(1.) Those indicating the projected form of the luminosity :
(2.) Spectroscopic results :

(3.) The indications of sensible polarization: under each date on
which observations of the Light have been made in more than one of
the above mentioned respects.

Date and Place of Observation.—1874, June 10°, ", 30™, approximate
local mean time. Lat. 32° N., Long., 14° W.

Form.—TVhe Zodiacal Light manifested ‘itself very distinctly as an
ill-defined luminosity of an approximately triangular form, six or seven
degrees in breadth at the horizon, about forty degrees in length,
and inclined some fifteen degrees to a vertical circle bisecting its
base.

SILT —The spectroscope, on being directed to the bright cen-
tral region of the luminosity, showed a broad and nearly continuous
spectrum, sharply terminated on the less refrangible side, and fad-
ing gradually into complete darkness as its refrangibility increased.
The limits of the spectrum seen are defined by the wave lengths

* Antea, p. 42.

Burton—Wote on the Zodiacal Light. 219

5680 and 4610+ expressed in seventh-metres; the units employed by
Professor Angstrom in preparing his maps of the Solar Spectrum, and
adopted in this notice. Repeated impressions of the existence of a
narrow bright band, situated at, or very near to, the less refrangible
end of the continuous spectrum were received this evening, and the
wave length of the bright band determined to be 5680. Strong suspi-
cions were entertained that there was a darkish band to which the
wave length 5360 + 10 was assigned, by the measures taken. These
suspicions were strengthened by the evidence of another and indepen-
dent observer.

Date.—June 114, 92, 30™, local mean time.
Place of Observation —Twenty miles N.E. from Grand Canary.
Spectrum.—As on the preceding night, the central region of the
Zodiacal Light yielded an almost continuous spectrum, the sensible
limits of which had the wave lengths 5670 and 4640 seventh-metres,
according to the measures obtained on this occasion, the first quoted
being probably the more trustworthy, on account of the much more
definite termination of the spectrum at its less than at its more refran-
gible end. No mention is made of the bright line seen last night, in
the notes made on the present occasion, but a suspicion is recorded
that another very narrow and extremely faint existed, the refrangibi-
lity of which was less than that of the more defined limit of the con-
tinuous spectrum. (As June 11 was the only occasion on which the
second bright line was even suspected, it is not included in the accom-
panying representation of the Zodiacal Light Spectrum, the details of
which are laid down from the mean of the measures obtained, con-
verted into wave lengths by curves of interpolation). (Diagram 1.)
The continuous spectrum was almost interrupted by a well-marked
darkish streak, to which was assigned the wave length 5379.
Polarization. —A Savart arrangement yielded traces of polarization
in planes sensibly parallel to the principal axis of the Light. These
traces of polarization could hardly be due to lingering twilight, the
depression of the sun below the horizon being not far from 35° at the
time of observation. (Diagram 1.)

Date.—June 124, 9", to 124, 10, local mean time.

Place of Observation.—Lat. 243° N. Long. 16° W.

Spectrum.—The Zodiacal Light appeared much brighter than on
June 114, and the lowest power of the spectroscope was employed.
The spectrum was sharply terminated on the less refrangible side, and
I was convinced that there was in this position a well-defined band,
brighter than any other part of the spectrum, the breadth of which
was estimated to be approximately equal to that of Frannhofer’s group
(b), asseen with the same instrument. The wave length of the bright
band was determined to be 5680. The dark streak seen last night was
again detected, and its position recorded by two observers indepen-

220 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

dently, whose accordant measures indicate its wave length to be ap-
proximately 5355. The more refrangible end of the spectrum was
extremely ill-defined, and the measures give it a wave length which
is probably much too great, being that of the pomt where the index
in the field of the eye-piece ceased to be visible, namely, 4640 seventh-
metres.

Date.—June 154, 93".

Place of Observation.—Lat. 18° N. Long. 173° W.

Spectrum.—As on June 12, with the exception of the dark band
at 5355, which was not visible, with all attention. The other details
of the spectrum were visible with the usual distinctness, but the
measures of the bright line were unsatisfactory, indicating its wave
length to be 5720, instead of 5670, or 5680, as previously determined.
This untoward discordance may have been caused by an accidental
shift of the recording levers, due either to insufficient tightening of the
clamp which connects them with the telescopes, or, as is more pro-
bable, judging from the tested stability of the zero, to my having
mistaken the acute angle formed by the less refrangible edge of
the bright line with the visible edge of the triangular pointer for
the proper point of reference, namely, the apex of the triangle.

On directing the instrument to any part of the sky, except that
occupied by the Milky Way, the same spectrum, much diminished in
intensity, but otherwise recognisable, was seen as when viewing the
central regions of the Zodiacal Light. The same fact was observed on
many subsequent occasions in widely different localities, and with
another instrument. It is, perhaps, scarcely possible to attribute this
spectrum to any diffused reflection of the solar rays, for, at the hour
of observation, the sun’s depression below the horizon was nearly 40°,
and, furthermore, the luminous appearance which yielded the spectrum
its greatest brilliancy retained its form and position among the stars
sensibly unchanged during the evening.

The facts mentioned in the last words of the preceding sentence,
taken together with the apparently unique character of the spectrum,
appear to preclude the supposition that it was due to any terrestrial
aurora, the spectrum of which differs much from the Zodiacal Light
spectrum, as regards both its aspect and the positions of the lines
hitherto recorded, so far as they are known to me.

A suggestion made many years ago, I believe, by Sir John Hers-
chel, to the effect that the observed extension of the Zodiacal Light
from the sun indicated that the earth is probably immersed in the
outer portions of a luminous haze of lenticular form, symmetrically
disposed about the sun and having its principal section nearly co-
incident with the plane of the Ecliptic, seems to afford a possible
explanation of the diffusion of the light over the whole sky, indicated
by the spectroscope, and also of certain anomalies in the form of the
denser portion, hereafter to be recorded,

Burton—WNote on the Zodiacal Light. 221

Date.—1874, August 3¢ 8 local mean time.

Place of Observation —H.M.S. ‘‘Shearwater.”’ Lat. 28° 4’8.; Long.
58° 46’ E.

Spectrum.—The bright line forming the less refrangible boundary
of the visible spectrum was well observed, being much more distinct
than on former occasions. This line would be more accurately de-
scribed as a narrow bright band, with tolerably well-defined edges;
especially that which is least refrangible. Its centre has a wave
length of 5670 seventh-metres, according to the measures obtained.
The dark streak at 5355+ was not seen, there being barely time for
the measures of the bright band, as clouds rapidly formed and ob-
scured the Zodiacal Light. The existence of the bright band was
verified by one of the ship’s officers, Lieut. Pullen, R.N., who kindly
gaye me most efficient assistance on the occasion.

Date.—1874, August 54 6» 50™ local mean time.

Place of Observation—H.M.S8. ‘‘ Shearwater.” Lat. 23° 45’S.;
Long. 58° 35’ E.

Spectrum.—The narrow bright streak was again seen, and its place
determined, but the instrument seems to have been deranged between
the observation of the Zodiacal Light and of the standard spectrum
—in this case the solar spectrum. The measure has been rejected.
There was a very faint and ill-terminated extension of light on the
less refrangible side of the bright band, which may have been due to
some remains of twilight, or to the near neighbourhood of the planet
Venus, which was then very brilliant, to the region under inspection.
A dark streak, apparently somewhat less refrangible than solar E,
was distinctly seen. The breadth of this streak was estimated as equal
to about 40 units of Angstrom’s scale.

Date.—1874, August 10¢ 7, Hour not noted at the time, but
inserted here from recollection.

Place of Observation.—Port Louis, Mauritius.

Spectrum.—tThe bright band seen. The measures give 5690 seventh-
metres as its wave length.

Date.—1874, August 114 8.

Place of Observation.—Port Louis, Mauritius.

Spectrum.—Measure largely in error, some slip of the clamp or
record carrier having probably occurred.

Polarization.—Liecut. Neate, the chief of the Rodriguez Transit of
Venus Expedition, was able to detect bands parallel to the principal
axis of the luminosity, while making use of the Savart arrangement
before mentioned. I could not see them, being fatigued with the
previous spectroscopic work.

The bands seen indicated, according to Lieut. Neate’s remarks, a
slight degree of polarization in planes parallel to the axis of the Light.

222 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Date.—1874, August 124. Time not noted.

Place of Observation. At sea—between Mauritius and Rodriguez.

Polarization—With the Savart arrangement bands were visible,
which were sensibly parallel to the axis of the Zodiacal Light, when
at their greatest intensity; and the plane of polarization indicated
seemed to lie in the same plane as the bands.

A Nicol prism confirmed the result obtained with the Savart—the
mode of observation being this: the prism was rotated slowly until a
faint star involved in the Zodiacal Light appeared brightest.

Date.—1874, October 10% 7s.

Place of Observation.—Rodriguez. Observatory House.

Spectrum.—The measures obtained give a wave length of 5655
seventh-metres for the bright line terminating the spectrum on the
less refrangible side.

After October 10, the use of the recording spectroscope had to be
discontinued, to my great regret; the cement used for securing the
prisms haying been affected by the heat and dryness of the climate, and
become brittle and unsafe.

The only substitute available (pure wax) proved equally unreliable.

Date.—1875, January 24 8 to 9» 30™, local mean time.

Place of Observation.—Curepipe, Mauritius. 1800 feet above sea
level.

Spectrum.—A pocket spectroscope with one compound prism of
direct vision showed a Zodiacal Light Spectrum identical with that
formerly observed, except as regards the dark streak of wave length
53855, which was not detected.

Polarization.—A Nicol prism, rotated about its longer axis, produced
marked variations in the intensity of the part of the Zodiacal Light
viewed, upon which I kept my attention fixed during the experiment
by retaining two faint stars involved in the luminous haze in the centre
of the field. These stars were barely visible to the unarmed eye, but
were well seen when the principal plane of the prism was at right
angles to the axis of the Light.

The Savart arrangement also indicated polarized light, but much less
decisively, as the Light was setting.

Form.—Herr Heidorn, of the German Expedition to Mauritius to
observe the Transit of Venus, joined me in making careful observations
on the general form and position of the luminosity.

We noted that the northern boundary of the Light was much better
defined, and more nearly straight, than the southern ; also that it passed
close to a great circle described through 7 Tauri and ¢ Pegasi.
The southern boundary nearly coincided with a parabolic curve passing
through a Tauri, 8 Ceti, anda Gruis. The luminosity extended from
the W. horizon, where its breadth was about twenty-five degrees, cer-
tainly as far as the Milky Way in Taurus, its apparent width at the

Burton—WNote on the Zodiacal Light. 223

point of intersection being nearly three degrees. (Sketch 2.) Within
this luminous region there appeared to be a distinct nucleus, the
intensity of the Light increasing somewhat abruptly toward the
centre from both sides, and forming a tolerably defined central
cone, five or six degrees broad at the horizon, and twenty-five
degrees in length. At an elevation of ten degrees from the horizon
the central region of the Light appeared to exceed in intrinsic bright-
ness every part of the Milky Way, except, perhaps, the narrow stream
in Argo.

Date.—1875, February 5? 75, local mean time.

Place of Observation.—Lat. 3° 8. Long. 70° E.

Form of Light.—Lieutenant Neate, Chief of the Rodriguez Transit
of Venus Expedition, observed a short branch or spur diverging at a
small angle from the base of the principal mass of Light on the south
side, as shown in Sketch 3. The spur was very faint when compared
with the neighbouring luminosity, but was distinctly seen by another
observer when Lieutenant Neate drew his attention to it.

Date.—1875, February, 7° 7", + local mean time.

Place of Observation.—Lat. 2° 30’ N. Long. 73° E.

Spectrum.—The pocket spectroscope used on 1875, January 2%,
showed a faint line, estimated to be near solar E. It was separated, or
nearly separated, from a short continuous spectrum by a narrow dark
band. ‘The continuous spectrum faded gradually into darkness, with
increasing refrangibility. This compound spectrum varied in brightness,
but did not change tts character when the instrument was swept round
in a small circle parallel to the horizon at an elevation of 15° or 20°,
except when it received light from any part of the Milky Way, which
added its spectrum to the other, and produced confusion.

The brightness of the Zodiacal Light Spectrum was far greater when
the instrument was directed toward the bright central region of the
luminous cone-shaped haze than when it received light from any other
part of the sky. (Sketch 4.)

Polarization.—With the Savart polariscope bands were distinctly
seen, especially when the principal plane of the Nicol prism was nearly
at right angles to the axis of the Zodiacal Light, and the disposition of
the bands indicated that the plane of polarization was inclined about
75° to that line.

This result was confirmed by the subsequent observation with the
simple Nicol prism, made independently by the same observers (Messrs.
Neate and Burton).

Daie.—1875, February 11.

Place of Observation. —At sea, near Trincomalee, Ceylon.

Brightness.—The Zodiacal Light began to be See, less than half
an hour after sunset, and despite the neighbourhood of the crescent
moon,

224 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Date.—1875, March 31% 8°.

. Place of Observation. Off Cape St. Vincent.

Form.—The Zodiacal Light was well seen. The upper part ap-
peared to intersect a line passing through a and 8 Geminorum, about 8°
or 10° south of the latter star. On this occasion the southern boundary
of the luminous haze was much more definite than the northern.
There was an evident nucleus or brighter region included by the
outer haze. This nucleus was about 25° in length, and almost in-
volved the Pleiades on its northern side. (See Diagram 5.)

SUMMARY.
The observations detailed in this memoir appear to indicate :—
(1.) That the Zodiacal Light is emitted by matter partly liquid and
partly solid, intermixed with gas.
(2.) That it reaches, and probably surrounds the earth, as shown
by the visibility of the spectrum when viewing any part of the sky un-

occupied by the Milky Way, and by the change of form seen when the ~

observer passed from 8. to N. latitudes. (Shown in the Diagrams.)

It only remains for me now to express my deep sense of the honour
which the Academy have conferred upon me by committing their instru-
ment to me for this work; as well as my regret that other avocations,
while abroad and in charge of a very different species of research,
together with innumerable circumstances connected with the instru-
ment, the weather, the presence of the moon and even of Venus before
inferior conjunctions, have rendered this Report much less complete
than it would otherwise have been.

Davy—On Arsenical Compounds. Dye

XXXV.—On «a Reavy Means or Derecrina Arsextcat Compounns.
By Epuunp W. Davy, A. M., M.D., Professor of Forensic Medi-
cine, Royal College of Surgeons, etc.

[Read June 14, 1875.]

Tux extensive employment of certain compounds of the metal arsenic
for the criminal destruction of human life, has rendered their detection
under different circumstances a matter of great importance to society;
and to attain this end they have long been objects of much interest to
the chemist and toxicologist. Fortunately for mankind, the metal
itself, as well as its combinations, have been found to be endowed with
very characteristic chemical properties, and on these are based several
excellent tests, by which, in the hands of the chemist or in those
skilled in the detection of poisons, very minute quantities of arsenic or
of its compounds can be identified with more or less facility; and the
fear of such detection has acted as a great preventative against their
criminal employment as poisons; for, before such means of recognising
their presence were discovered, secret poisoning by arsenious acid,
which is popularly known as ‘‘arsenic,’’ was carried on to a fearful
extent, a greater number, perhaps, of indivduals having been already
deprived of life by that substance than by all the other known poisons
put together. But now, owing to our possessing the means by which
even very minute quantities of arsenical compounds can be detected
with almost unerring certainty, and there having been of late years
certain legal restrictions placed on the sale of arsenic, cases of homi-
cidal poisoning by that substance have now become comparatively rare.
Still, as such cases or those from accident do from time to time occur,
and as different arsenical compounds are used for a number of industrial
purposes, some of which are highly objectionable, endangering as they
do the health, and even lives, of many individuals, it is very desirable
that we should be able readily to detect those virulent substances, not
only where they may occur by design or accident in different articles
‘of food or drink, or in the bodies of those who have died from their
effects, but likewise where they may exist in various manufactured
products, the use of which might be attended with very serious conse-
quences. The test which I would now propose being one of such
simplicity and ease of execution that it might be performed by almost
any one, will, I should hope, be found useful for the objects stated,
especially to those who are not very conversant with the details of
chemical manipulation. As it is a modification of Mr. Marsh’s test, it
’ is necessary for me briefly to refer to that method before describing the
one I would now suggest. That gentleman’s test, as is well known,
is founded upon the circumstance, that nascent hydrogen in presence
of certain compounds of arsenic will give rise to the formation of
arseniuretted hydrogen; a gas which, being possessed of very charac-
R.I. A. PROC., SER, II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2H

226 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

teristic properties, may be easily recognised, and thus very minute
quantities of arsenic under different circumstances can be readily
detected. This method, as proposed by its discoverer, consists in gene-
rating, in a suitable apparatus, hydrogen by the action of dilute
sulphuric acid on metallic zine, and then adding in the state of solution
the arsenical compound, when arseniuretted hydrogen will be quickly
generated, and a fine jet of the gas being ignited, and a cold surface
placed down on the top of the flame, very characteristic spots or stains
of metallic arsenic will be produced; or the gas being passed through a
heated tube, 1t will be decomposed, and a metallic sublimate formed at
a short distance beyond the heated portion. I need not refer to the
apparatus recommended by Mr. Marsh for carrying out his test, as it is
now so well known, nor to the modifications of it which have been
subsequently proposed; and I must acknowledge that this beautiful
means of detecting arsenic, owing to its great delicacy and very conclu-
sive results in the hands of the experienced chemist, leaves but little
to be desired. It, however, labours under this serious disadvantage,
that the acid and the zine which are employed in the process may one
or other of them, or even both, contain more or less of arsenic as an
impurity, and consequently the indications of that substance which are
thus obtained, may be due not to its existing in the suspected matter
or object under investigation, but to its occurring as an impurity m the
materials employed in this process for its detection; and I may add that
it is difficult to get in commerce the zinc and sulphuric acid required
pertectly free from arsenic.

To obviate more or less this source of fallacy, several modifications
of the original process of Marsh have been suggested. Thus, Fleitmann,
some years ago, proposed the use of a strong solution of caustic potash,
assisted by heat, instead of the acid, to act on the zinc as a means of
generating the hydrogen gas, and in this way one source of arsenical
contamination was avoided. It was found, however, to be too slow a
means of generating hydrogen to detect arsenic in the usual way by
Marsh’s method. Professor Bloxam has suggested the employment of a
galvanic battery for the generation of the same gas, and in this way
obviates the use of zinc, and thus excludes another possible source of fal-
lacy; but, owing to the trouble and expense attendant on the use of a gal-
vanic battery, which for this purpose must be of some power, and the
arrangement being of rather a complicated character, and still requiring
sulphuric acid, it has, I believe, been but little employed. I should
also add that the metal aluminium, and more recently magnesium, have
been proposed as substitutes for zinc in Marsh’s process or in Fleitmann’s
modification of it, as being less likely to be contaminated with arsenic
than that metal. The modification which I would now suggest, and
which, as far as I can ascertain, has not hitherto been proposed, is the
employment of an amalgam of sodium and mercury as a means of gene-
rating the hydrogen required for the test: and by the use of this
substance I do away with, altogether, the necessity of any acid, and I
employ two metals which are not liable to arsenical contamination. As

Davy—On Arsenical Compounds. PHS

to sodium, I am not aware that arsenic has ever been pointed out as one
of its impurities; and, as to its presence in mercury, that is, I believe,
a circumstance of very rare occurrence; but, should it exist in that metal
as an impurity, it can be readily removed from it by digesting the
mercury in diluted nitric acid, and afterwards well washing it with
water. The amalgam which I have found to answer very well for the
detection of arsenic, consists of one part by weight of sodium to eight or
ten parts of mercury, andis easily made by heating moderately in a test
tube over a lamp the mercury, and then adding gradually in small
pieces the sodium, taking care to keep away the face, if unprotected
from the mouth of the tube, lest some of that metal in an ignited state
might be spirted out during the addition of the first portions. Those
metals readily combine under these circumstances, forming an allo
that is liquid whilst hot, but becomes hard and brittle when cold.
The contents of the tube, while still hot and liquid, are quickly
poured out on a clean plate, and, when cool, broken up in small
lumps, which are then immediately placed in a well corked or stoppered
bottle.

The way I employ this amalgam is simply to place the suspected
solution, or solid matter along with a little water, in the bottom of a
test glass, then add a small bit of the amalgam, about the size of a
grain of wheat, and lastly, place without delay, on the top of the
glass, a piece of white filtering paper or the cover of a white porce-
lain crucible moistened with a drop of a dilute solution of nitrate of
silver, slightly acidulated with nitric acid, when if, arsenic is present, a
dull black or deep brown stain on the paper, or a dark silvery one on the
porcelain, will be quickly developed in the part moistened, owing to
the silver of the salt being reduced to the metallic condition by the
agency of the arseniuretted hydrogen thus evolved, which, coming in
contact with the nitrate of silver, gives rise to the following reaction :
H,As + 6 AgNO, + 3H,0 = 6 HNO, + H;AsO; + 3 Ag.

The silver solution, which I have found to answer very well for
this purpose, was made by dissolving twenty grains of the nitrate in
an ounce of distilled water, and then adding two drops of strong nitric
acid, to render the solution slightly acid. I may further add that I
generally place a small dise of bibulous paper between the mixture in
the glass and the paper or cover moistened with the silver solution, to
intercept any particles of the liquid which might otherwise be projected
against them, producing there minute black spots, and thus imterfering
with the results of this test.

I have found that exceedingly minute quantities of arsenic can be
readily detected by this very simple process ; thus the one thousandth
part of a grain of arsenious acid, dissolved in one cubic centimetre of
distilled water, gives a very decided effect in afew moments ; but much
smaller quantities are detectable by it; thus the one hundred thou-
sandth or even the one millionth part of a grain of arsenious acid, dis-
solved in the same quantity of water (one cubic centimetre), will
afford, by the blackening of the silver salt, after a little time, an indi-

228 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

cation of the presence of arsenic. I have also ascertained that this
method of detecting arsenic is not alone directly applicable to where
it exists as arsenious acid, but likewise to several other compounds of
arsenic, whether they are soluble or insoluble in water—thus, for ex-
ample, the two sulphides of arsenic (orpiment and realgar), the alkaline
arseniates, and even metallic arsenic itself 1f reduced to powder; will
readily show their arsenical nature by this test; and we may in a few
moments detect by it the occurrence of arsenic in different green,
yellow, and orange pigments, which are still much employed in the
manufacture of wall papers, in painting, and in the colouring of cer-
tain textile, and other articles used in dress or for ornamentation.
Thus, for example, if a little of the colourmg matter of any arsenical
pigment be scraped off from a wall paper, or a small piece of the paper
itself be taken and placed in a test-glass with a little water, and hay-
ing being stirred or shaken to detach the colour, a piece of the amalgam
be added, it will, by the blackening of the silver salt employed as
before described, soon indicate the presence of arsenic. In the same
way it can be easily demonstrated that the colourmg matter in certain
green tarletans, calicoes, and other articles used for dress or for orna-
ment, are arsenical. J may further state that the presence of organic
matter seems to interfere but little with this test, for I have found
that very minute quantities of arsenious acid, when mixed with con-
siderable amounts of milk, tea, coffee, ale, porter, soup, or stirabout,
could, with almost the same facility, be detected by this method, as
where they were only simply dissolved in water; thus showing that
the cases to which it is applicable are very extended.

But I should here observe that, as in the case of Marsh’s original
method, there is one other metal which, under certain circumstances,
will produce with the sodium amalgam results closely resembling
those occasioned by arsenic ; the metal I refer to is antimony, which is
capable of uniting with nascent hydrogen to form a gas (antimoniuretted
hydrogen), which, coming in contact with nitrate of silver, produces a
black antimonide of that metal, by the following reaction: H; Sb + 3
Ag NO,= Ag; Sb+8 HNO, and the blackening of the silver salt
from the formation of that compound might be easily mistaken for the
effect produced by the arsenical gas.

But owing to the fact, first pointed out by Fleitmann, that antimoniu-
retted hydrogen is not evolved (except, perhaps, asa mere trace), from
strongly alkaline solutions, though the conditions may exist there for its
formation, andasthe action of the sodium amalgam is torenderthe mixture
quickly alkaline, there will be only a very minute quantity of the an-
timony that may be present so evolved; and, by previously rendering
the mixture strongly alkaline, we may almost altogether prevent the
evolution of that gas. If, however, we make the mixture containing
the antimony in solution first strongly acid, and then add the amalgam,
or even acidify after its addition, the antimoniuretted hydrogen will
be evolved in abundance, producing a deep black stain on the paper
moistened with the nitrate of silver ; and, for the purpose of thisacidi- .

Davy—On Arsenical Compounds. 229

fication, I have found that tartaric acid answers very well. As the
presence of alkalies in solution do not interfere with the evolution of
the arsenical gas, this is itself a means of distinguishing the two metals,
arsenic and antimony.

But it may be occasionally necessary to determine whether the
effects observed on the paper moistened with nitrate of silver are due
to arsenicortoantimony. There are different methods by which we may
determine this question; but the one I have found the simplest and
on the whole, the most satisfactory, is to digest the paper stain in sul-
phide of ammonium, when the arsenic or antimony present will be con-
verted into a sulphide, and dissolved by the excess of the alkaline salt,
leaving the silver sulphide undissolved, and adhering principally to the
paper—the alkaline solution, on being evaporated to dryness, will, in the
case of arsenic, leave a bright yellow residue almost insoluble in
hydrochloric acid, whereas in the case of antimony, an orange one will
remain, which readily dissolves in that acid, at least on the application
of heat.

Before concluding, I wish to observe, that according to some ex-
periments recently made by Dr. Russell, it appears that hydrogen alone
is capable of reducing solutions of nitrate of silver to the metallic
state; but this action, even from his observations, is an exceedingly
slow one, and takes place to a very minute extent in dilute solutions.
On the other hand, M. H. Pellet maintains, that hydrogen carefully
freed from acid and arsenic, by passing it through solutions of soda and
of nitrate of silver, has no action on that salt at the ordinary tempera-
ture. But he states, that nitrate of silver which has been fused possesses
an alkaline reaction in solution, and that a slight precipitate is produced
in such by pure hydrogen; if, however, he observes, a drop or two of
nitric acid be added, then nothing is precipitated. Be this as it may, as
regards the reducing action of pure hydrogen, [ found in an experiment
I made, that hydrogen which had been passed through solutions of
caustic soda, and of nitrate of silver, and was afterwards brought in
contact with a porcelain crucible cover, moistened with the dilute and
acidulated solution of nitrate of silver already noticed, produced only
the faintest possible effect, even after several hours’ exposure to a
stream of this gas, and this very slight action might possibly be due to
the hydrogen not being perfectly freed from its impurities. Conse-
quently, it is very doubtful that any reduction of the silver salt from
the hydrogen alone will occur under the circumstances of the proposed
test. Finally, I must observe, that where paper moistened with the
silversolution is used to detect arsenic or antimony, we must bear in
mind that nitrate of silver will alone, after some time, blacken the
paper, especially if it is exposed to the light; but this gradual
change which is so produced is very unlike the rapid effect that takes
place where either arseniuretted or antimoniuretted hydrogen acts on
paper moistened with that silver salt.

230 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XXXVI.—Furture ResearcHes oN THE Dissocration oF MonecuLus
In Sotution. By Cuanrtes R. C. Trcuporne, Ph. D., F. €.8., &e.

[Read June 14, 1875.]

Jn my previous researches in connexion with the dissociation of the mole-
cules, which are generally known as salts, I have shown that there is
probably in every case a partial separation of the base, determined by
the thermal force acting upon these molecules when in solution.* The
first basic salt produced does not differ much from the original molecule,
but its basicity goes on increasing with the increment of heat, ob-
tained, we will say, by increased pressure, until a complete temporary
analysis of the salt is effected, even if the result of the action is not a
permanent decomposition. We may also view these extreme cases as
partaking of the nature of gaseous dissociation, it haying been proved
by Dr. Andrews that there is no hard line of demarcation between the
liquid and gaseous state of matter.

I have also determined that the first thermanalytic action of heat
upon hydrated salts, although still in the presence of water, is to gra-
dually and completely dehydrate the salts, and to render them anhy-
drous. The water of hydration, so called, being merely the last and
crowning portion of the compound molecule, and therefore the portion
of the molecule least amenable to the chemical or molecular force,+
it is not necessary to dwell upon this point of the subject any further
than to bear in mind that we are actually operating upon the anhy-
drous salt. Presuming, then, that the thermanalytic force bemg
antagonistic to the chemical force, and that, step by step, the com-
pound is analyzed to its elementary molecules, it follows that as the
basylous molecules are separated, so the stylous or acid molecules must _
be also liberated or separated. The following experiments, whilst.
establishing this fact, are merely taken as examples from many others
in consideration of their simplicity.

It becomes evident that, in working under pressure, there cannot
be any indications of molecular change better than colour tests, similar
to those which serve us so well in ordinary qualitative analysis, and,
therefore, it is better to confine ourselves, as much as possible, to such
reactions.

There are many instances which may be cited as setting forth with
the dissociation of the stylous group, but which would not come under
my designation of dissociation, because they are attended with perma-
nent decomposition. As an example of dissociation, let us take the
well-known salts formed by the combination of chromic acid and

* Report on the Molecular Dissociation by Heat of Compounds in Solution.
Proceedings Royal Irish Academy, Vol. r., Ser. 11., Science, p. 169.

+ On the Action of Heat upon Solutions of Hydrated Salts. Proceedings
Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 1., Ser. 11., Science, p. 247.

TicHBporNE—On the Dissociation of Molecules in Solution. 231

potassium. Solutions of the yellow or neutral chromate of potassium,
and also the red, or acid, chromate of potassium, were made of such a
strength that 10,000 parts contained an equivalent of each salt. In
other words, the yellow solution of chromate of potassium contained
194-5 parts of salt in the 10,000 parts, and the red chromate contained
147:5 parts in the 10,000, but each solution contained the same amount
of the colour-producing molecule, or the chromic acid, only in different
conditions of saturation. Ifwe take 1000 parts of the yellow solution
of chromate of potassium, we find that, even at the ordinary tempera-
ture, 15°5 C., partial dissociation has occurred. Presuming that we
have started with perfectly neutral crystals, we shall find that, on the
addition of a volumetric solution of soda, the colour becomes lighter
until a quantity has been added which represents ‘059 of red chromic
salt ; therefore we are justified in coming to the conclusion that at a
temperature of 15-5, sufficient of the acid is dissociated from the neu-
tral salt to form that quantity of the acid salt—that in fact there is
even a slight or partial dissociation in the act of solution. If this -
neutral solution is then brought to the boiling point, and we use
some considerable bulk for the experiment, we shall find that a marked
decomposition has taken place in the salt, as evidenced in the change
of colour. In a few carefully conducted experiments it was found
that it gave a decomposition which averaged about z'sth of the yellow
salt present; ¢.g., 1000 parts of the solution of the yellow salt, men-
tioned above, were brought rapidly to the boil in a flask furnished with
a long neck, so as to condense the steam which flowed back into the
flask. Another 1000 parts of the yellow solution was then placed into
another flask, and at a temperature of 15°5 C. A standard solution of
sulphuric acid was added, degree by degree, until the exact colour
was obtained, which agreed with the boiling solution of chromate. The
standard solution contained one-half an equivalent in 10,000 parts of
sulphuric acid, and fifty-one degrees had been used, which corresponded
with 0°75 parts of the red salt formed, and which also represented
‘51 parts of chromic anhydride dissociated at a temperature of 100° C.
from 19°45 parts of the salt.

Tf the neutral solution of yellow chromate be now inclosed in a
sealed tube (such a one as described in my previous paper*), and sub-
mitted toa high temperature, say 250° C., it would appear that about
75 per cent. of the yellow chromate will be converted into the red
salt.| The experiments in connexion with chromates may throw some
considerable light upon one of those mysteries of the photographie art
which up to the present time has not been properly or satisfactorily
explained. One, if not the most important, method of taking sun-
pictures is based upon the action of light upon a film of gelatine, contain-
ing a little red chromate of potassium. Such a mixture is highly

“2? Mk Gen, 1a AE
+ Chromic acid is said to form four salts with potassium; K,0CrO3, K,02Cr0s
K,03Cr03;, and K,04Cr0Os.

232 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

sensitive to light, the gelatine becoming insoluble under the faintly
oxidizing tendency of the chromic salt. This film is also found, however,
to be sensitive to other agencies, and it has been this phenomenon
that has puzzled photographers. Such a film becomes insoluble by
moisture, heat, and lapse of time. It would appear in fact that light is
not absolutely necessary to bring about the change. The experiments
detailed will go far to explain all these phases of the phenomenon.
We find that moisture means solution, or the mobility of the chemical
molecules, which is absolutely necessary to chemical change, and that
solution, even at ordinary temperatures, means a partial decomposi-
tion, however infinitesimal that decomposition may be. But when
we add time to this, there is no limit to put upon the results of this
decomposition. We also see how greatly the partial decomposition of
the chromic salt is accelerated by each increment of heat, and therefore
we can understand how such a film would be sensitive to temperature.

The salts used in these experiments were not those ordinarily found in
commerce, because their neutrality is not sufficiently well marked for the
determination of the delicate reactions detailed above. The yellow chro-
mate was found particularly unreliable in this respect. Itwas purified by
adding afew drops of caustic potash, and re-crystallizing twice. The
bichromate was purified by adding a few drops of dilute sulphuric
acid, crystallizing to a slight extent, and rejecting these first crystals,
and then taking off a second and more extensive crop of crystals.
These last crystals, on re-crystallization, yielded a salt sufficiently pure
for the experiments. Solutions made with the two salts exhibited a
marked difference in shade from the commercial crystals.

Another illustration of the dissociation of the acid molecule is well
shown in the uranic nitrate: uranic nitrate is, 1f evaporated to dryness
and submitted to heat, decomposed into pure uranic hydrate and
a basic nitrate. It would probably therefore be a salt which would
easily dissociate in solution, even at a moderate temperature, but at
the same time, it affords a colour test of the dissociation of the acid
molecule, because the presence of free nitric acid causes in the bright
yellow solution of uranic nitrate an orange coloration.

It is stated that a solution of uranic nitrate is decomposed at a
moderate heat with the deposition of a precipitate, the composition of
which has not been determined. I have not found this to be the case,
however, in sealed tubes; for it seems to bear with impunity a tempera-
ture which must be close upon 130° C. Therefore we are led to infer
that sucha decomposition results from the loss of nitric acid. When such
a solution is heated under these conditions, it gradually becomes
more and more orange. Many other instances may be given of the dis-
sociation of the acid molecule, and we need hardly go further than
the decompositions resulting from the dissociation, when either the
acid or the base is volatile. In the case of carbonic anhydride this
dissociation results in the production of basic carbonates, such as

Carbonate of Magnesium ((MgCO;) sMg05H,0).
Carbonate of Zinc (ZnCO; (ZnO), 3H,0).
Carbonate of Lead (6PbCO,PbOH,0.)

TicHBOoRNE— On the Dissociation of Molecules in Solution. 233

In the case ofa volatile base and acid such as carbonate ofammonium,
we have a partial dissociation, attended with both loss of acid and
base, but which from the tendency to assimilate the acid molecule M’
H A” is productive of a curious decomposition. The two following ex-
periments will illustrate this in a striking manner.

They are performed with the most permanent of the ammonium
salts, the sulphate (NH,).S0,, and the most unstable, viz. (NH,),CO,,
the normal carbonate. We find that at a very slight increase of tem-
perature the sulphate molecule is no longer permanent. Crystals of
sulphate of ammonium were taken which were perfectly pure and neutral.
A poreclain crucible was filled’ with these crystals, and a sufficient
quantity of water was added to moisten them. The crucible was
placed in a water bath provided with a thermometer, and covered with
a beaker, a piece of blue litmus was placed upon ‘the surface of the
moistened sulphate, and a piece of red litmus in the beaker. Ata
temperature 16°C. a slight decomposition took place, but at 20° C.
the tension of the gaseous base was so raised that rapid decomposition
set in, the litmus paper in the salt becoming red from the formation
of NH, HSO, and the litmus paper in the beaker, which was originally
red, becoming blue from evolved ammonia.

Water is essential to such a phenomenon, and no decomposition can
be perceived with the dry salt, under such a condition, mobility of the
atoms being essential.

Carbonate of ammonium NH, CO, was formed, by treating ordinary
carbonate with ammonia, and the result was a moist salt, but still
in the form of a powder. It was placed in a vessel the sides of which
were perfectly cleaned: this vessel was then surrounded with a freezing
mixture of a considerable power, and at a temperature of about 4° C. it
became nearly odourless, and at a much lower temperature perfectly so.
Thus we find that the most permanent salt of ammonia is in a state of
tension thus :

Molecule of Sulphate of
Ammonium.

Molecule of Sulphate of Ammonium dissociated by heat into two molecules.
R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 21

254 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

or it may be represented by the equation

(NH,).SO, = NH,H SO, + NH.
and the second experiment by the equation

(NH,), CO, = NH, HCO; + NH.

If we substituted a less volatile base in such a reaction we ought
only to have the phenomenon which is generally understood under
the designation of dissociation. The result, however, in this case isa
permanent decomposition.

Nitrates when heated under pressure with oxidizable metals are

rapidily decomposed, and the surface of the metal corroded. Many of
the boiler accidents have been probably so caused; for we may ex-
tend these remarks to the other salts found in water, although none
seem so energetic upon the surface of the metal as the nitrates, owing
to the ease with which that acid yields its oxygen.
_ We cannot conclude this part of our subject without pointing out
how strongly these researches upon the dissociation of the acidulous
and basylous molecules bear upon the technical processes upon which
the arts and manufactures rest. Le Blanc’s ingenious but round-
about process for the production of soda and hydrochloric acid, seems
threatened by dissociation, and already the process for the production
of chlorine directly from hydrochloric acid and air* is based upon
similar reactions to those described in this report.

* “On a New Chlorine Process without Manganese.” By Henry Deacon,
F.C.8., British Association. Report, 1870, Transactions of the Sections, p. 54.

O’Mrsra—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 285

XXXVII.—Revort on tHe IrtsH Diatomacem. By the Rey. Everne
O'Meara, M. A. PartI. (With Plates 26 to 35.)

[Read June 28, 1875.]

Ir is now just a century, since in 1773, O. F. Miller discovered the
first known diatomaceous form; nor was: it till ten years after, the
same distinguished author was able to add two new forms to the list.
In the year 1824 Agardh published his ‘‘Systema Algarum;’ and
then the number of species was forty-nine, comprehended under eight
genera. But if in this province of Natural Science the progress was
slow during the first half century, it has been very rapid in the last,
owing not only to the number of eminent labourers in this field of
research, but also to the greatly improved means of investigation.
The number of species in Europe alone, as computed by Rabenhorst
in his index, is about 4000. This may be beyond the mark, but
certainly Pfitzer is far short of it when he fixes the total number of
known species at about 1000. It is not necessary to enumerate the
many authors to whose useful labours the students of this branch of
Science are indebted, but special notice should be made of Kiitzing,
who explored the whole surface of the globe; and of Ehrenberg, who,
not content with the same ample field of investigation, extended
his researches into the bowels of the earth. But no authors, perhaps,
have contributed so much to the extent and accuracy of our know-
ledge, as those who haye restricted their labours to some special
families, or to the collection and examination of the forms incidental
to some country or district. The treatise on the Diatomacez of the
Clyde has earned for Gregory an imperishable name. The Austrian
forms have been described by Grunow. The Prussian by Schuman.
The Danish by Heiberg. Those of Sweden and Norway by Cleve,
and those of Great Britain by Smith in his admirable Synopsis.

No country would appear more favourable to the growth of these
forms than our own, with its extensive sea-coast indented with
numerous bays, its rivers and lakes, and mountain ranges. And yet
it is strange that Smith, an Irishman, at least labouring professionally
in Ireland, should have done but little in exploring its resources, as
appears from the fact that, in the case of 389 forms figured and
described by him as British, there are not more than about one
hundred for which Irish localities have been assigned. Hence it
might be supposed that the climate of Ireland is not favourable to the
growth of Diatomaceous forms—an impression which is not justified
by the fact, as L hope to prove by the present work.

For many years the intervals of professional engagements had been
deyoted by me to the collection and study of the Irish Diatomacez ;
and a large amount of material had been gathered and arranged when

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2K

236 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,

I was favoured with the request of the Royal Irish Academy to
prepare a list of the forms to be met with in this country—a request
with which I unhesitatingly complied. Had I been content with
furnishing an inventory of the forms I had found, the task I had
undertaken might have been speedily performed; but my anxiety was
to render the work as complete and as useful to my fellow-students as
I could, and as worthy of the reputation of the Royal Irish Academy
as it was possible for me to make it. With this view I determined to
explore new localities, and to search more carefully, districts I had
previously examined. I was anxious also to avail myself of the
labours of the most distinguished authors on the subject, and was
therefore obliged to acquire a knowledge of languages with which I
was previously unacquainted.

For all this, time was required, and I refer to the subject for the
purpose of showing that the long period that has elapsed since the task ~
was undertaken has been busily, and I hope not fruitlessly, occupied.
No authentically named specimens were available; and this proved to
me a source of much additional labour and delay. Those who are
practically acquainted with the Diatomacee are aware how difficult it
is sometimes under the most favourable circumstances to identify a
form. The difficulty is enhanced in cases in which the original
form, observed under the disadvantage of inferior instruments, has
been inadequately described; and when a mistake has been made
in the figure or the description, the only satisfactory means of identifi-
cation is the inspection of the specimen. Hence some idea may be
formed of the difficulty and delay arising from the circumstance
of there being no authentic specimens preserved in any of the
Collections or Herbaria of Dublin. Many are the friends who have
kindly assisted me in the prosecution of this work, but special acknow-
ledgments on my part are due to Professor E. Perceval Wright, M.D.,
not only for the loan of collections but also of books and objectives, to
Rev. Maxwell H. Close, and A. G. More, Esq., whose collections have
added numerous forms to my list, as well as new localities for many
others; and also to Dr. David Moore, whose many and valuable
collections were kindly placed at my disposal.

The name of Bacillariaceze was employed to designate this group of
organisms at a time when little of their structure and habits, except
their outward form, was known; and Pfitzer maintains that this desig-
nation should be retained because of its priority: but I have adopted
the more modern name of Diatomacez, not only because it is more
pronounceable, but specially because it is more characteristic and more
generally known.

The question, what is the proper position of the Diatomacez in the
classification of organized beings, has been variously answered. The
first known species were by their discoverers included amongst the
Confervaceze; the extraordinary movements, however, of Bacillaria
paxillifer, noticed by Miiller, induced that author to identify it with
the genus Vibrio; and the position assigned to this form, as well as

te

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. — 237

the rapid motion by which it is characterised, may have insensibly
inclined succeeding observers to assign to the Diatomacce generally a
place in the Animal Kingdom. This theory is supported by the
authority of the illustrious Ehrenberg, who regarded the numerous
globules noticeable in the cells as so many stomachs, and therefore
gave to a group embracing these and other forms the general designa-
tion of Polygastrice. But notwithstanding the deference justly due
to so great an authority, more recent observers are, I may say,
unanimously of opinion that the Diatomaceze belong to the Vegetable
Kingdom—an opinion sustained by the analogy which the forms of
this group exhibit as regards their general structure, and more
especially by the mode of reproduction which they possess in common
with other organisms generally regarded as vegetable.

The Motion of the Diatomacee.

One of the first phenomena which attracts the notice of the students
of the Diatomacez is the extraordinary power of motion with which
the frustules are endowed. To account for this motion, various
theories have been suggested, reducible to two general classes. By
some it has been supposed that in the process of imbibing water con-
taining nourishment and expelling what is superfluous, currents are
produced which have the effect of propelling the frustules backwards
and forwards through the water. As concerns this hypothesis, I quite
concur with the opinion expressed by Ralfs, that it should be regarded
rather as a figment of the imagination than founded on the observation
of facts. Others have suggested that the frustules are furnished with
special organs of locomotion. The occurrence of hair-like processes
on the frustules has afforded a colourable reason for such a statement ;
they are, however, only occasional, and have the appearance of
parasitic growth, rather than of normal organs of the plant. Ehren-
berg conceived that a pedal organ was extruded from what he regarded
as an orifice in the centre of the valve: but so far from the exis-
tence of such an organ having been satisfactorily sustained, the fact
that what that eminent observer, as well as others of deservedly high
reputation, considered to be an opening, is now generally regarded as
a thickening of the silicious plate, is fatal to the theory. So while
the motion of the Diatomacex continues to excite attention, it must be
confessed that the mechanical agency by which the motion is effected
remains unexplained.

Structure of the Cell.

There is one remarkable feature in the structure of the Dia-
tomacese which distinguishes them from cognate organisms, that is, the
fact that the cell is invested with a silicious covering, consisting
of two distinct plates, more or less parallel to one another, and held
together by a rim or hoop. This silicious covering has been appro-

2K 2

238 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

priately assimilated to a pill-box, consisting of the box itself and the
cover which slips over it; and if we suppose the cover to be of the
same depth as the box, or nearly so, we have a structure on a
large scale which nearly resembles the silicious covering of such
Diatomaceous species as possess a circular form, and which with some
modification may be taken to illustrate the general plan on which the
silicious part of the cell of Diatoms is constructed. In the larger
forms it may easily be noticed that one valve of the frustule, with its
accompanying rim or hoop, is smaller than the other into which it fits,
as the slides of a telescope fit into one another. It has been supposed
that in the parent frustule the two valves are of the same size, and that
the diminution in the dimensions of one valve is owing to the fact of its
being developed within the rim of the primary valve, and is conse-
quently smaller than it by the thickness oftherim. Pfitzer, however,
has remarked that in some cases at least the difference in size is
noticeable in the mother cell, in which one valve is secreted in the
first instance, and then the opposite valve is formed within the former.
This remark is worthy of notice and should be borne in mind when
cases of conjugation come under view, in order to ascertain whether
the occurrence is casual, or whether the same process takes place in
the other species of Diatomaces. To the distinguished author just
named belongs the merit of haying contributed more than any other
to the extent and accuracy of our knowledge concerning the various
parts and disposition of the cell-contents. There is first the plasm-sac,
consisting of a fine colourless plasm, forming a closed sac of the shape
of the cell, and in which the cell-contents are enveloped. It is often
very difficult for the observer to make himself certain of the existence
of this sac, because its refractive power differs but slightly from that
of water, but the structure becomes apparent immediately on the
application of dilute hydrochloric acid. The effect of this re-agent
is to produce an instantaneous contraction of the sac, which at first, as
it recedes from the cell-wall, preserves the form of the cell and still
maintains connexion with it by means of a few pellucid threads, but
after some time it becomes contracted into a round mass. This result
is accomplished most effectively by the use of osmic acid at the
strength one per cent. Jodine gives a bright yellow colour to the
plasm-sac. Within the plasm-sac, and in close proximity to it, is the
structure to which Pfitzer has given the name of Endochrome-
plates, varying in number and position in the various genera.
Some possess two of these plates, others only one. In the Nayicule
these plates, two in number, lie one at either side, the middle of the:
plate corresponding with the middle of the hoop or connecting band,
whence they pass on either side towards the median line, leaying a
small narrow space down the middle of the valve free; in other genera
there is but one such plate, variously disposed. They consist of a
thick substance, and are of the same colour thoroughout, varying from
light yellow to dark yellowish brown. The plasm of which these
plates consist differs in density from the plasm whioh forms the

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 239

plasm-sac and the structure which is called the middle-mass. In case
the normal condition of the cell-contents be disturbed by fracture of
the silicious epiderm, the endochrome plates go together, and never
commingle with the material of the plasm-sac. If the colouring
matter be discharged by alcohol, the demarcation of the endochrome
plate from the rest of the plasm can be readily distinguished.
Within the folds of the endochrome plates is found in some a
collection of plasm, which Pfitzer calls the ‘‘middle plasm-mass,”’
described by Ehrenberg as resembling ‘‘ the embyro in an egg;”’ in
the Nayicule it forms generally an irregular quadrangle. Vacuoles and
oil globules occur imbedded in this middle plasm-mass, and appear
distinctly in consequence of their strong refractive power. In the
middle of this plasm-mass a central vesicle is observable in some
genera, but is not equally distinct in all species. And although in some
cases it cannot be discovered, even with the most skilful management,
Pfitzer considers that nevertheless the statement of Liiders may be
correct, that no Diatomaceous cell is destitute of such a vesicle, because
although in many cases no such structure can be detected by ordinary
means, it becomes apparent by the application of re-agents, the most
effective for the purpose being dilute hydrochloric acid.

Besides the parts already specified, there have been observed in
some of the Diatomacez a water-like fluid substance, and oil-globules,
varying in size. These latter occur swimming freely in the cell, but
in greater number upon the inner surface of the plasm-sac. In con-
sequence oftheir strong refractive power they strike the eye at once,
and are changed into a black colour by the use of osmic acid. As
they readily combine, they have no investing pellicle. It is thought
that in proportion as the oil-globules abound, the cells have suffered
from the want of pure water, and that the appearance of the larger
oil-globules is a sign that the cell has attained its full maturity,
and that its resources have been exhausted. The oil-globules afford
a means of answering the question whether the cell contents are of a
watery or of a gelatinous consistency. In favour of the former view,
Pfitzer refers to the fact that very weak acid produces an immediate
shrinking cf the plasm-sac, and also to his observation that the oil-
globules can be moved about with facility, which could not occur
if the surrounding matter were of a gelatinous thickness. And this
opinion of Pfitzer has been corroborated by Focke, who discovered
that the oil-globules, in consequence of their light specific gravity,
accumulate on the upper surface of the cell, and change their position
in case the frustule is turned upside down.

The Reproduction of the Diatomacee

Isa subject of deep interest, requiring some explanatory remarks.
The ordinary mode of increase is by self-division, as it has been
termed. The cell-contents within the enclosure of the silicious
epiderm separate into two distinct masses. As these develop they

240 Proceedings of the Royal Ivish Acadenvy.

push the valves of the mother-cell more and more widely asunder.
A new silicious valye is secreted by each of the two masses, on the
side opposite to the original valves. And, when this process has been
completed, two distinct frustules are formed, the silicious valves in
each being one of the valves of the parent-cell, and a newly secreted
valve apposed to it. During the active life of the cell this process of
self-division is continued, and is rapidly completed. On this subject
Smith observes, ‘‘ I have been unable to ascertain the time occupied in
a single act of self-division; but, supposing it to be completed in
twenty-four hours, we should have as the progeny of a single frustule
the amazing number of one thousand millions in a single month—a
circumstance which will, in some degree, explain the sudden, or, at
least, rapid appearance of these organisms in localities where they
were, but a short time previously, either unrecognised or sparingly
diffused.”’—British Diatomacex, vol. 1., p. 25.

It seems probable that the Diatomacez are sometimes reproduced
by zoospores. Rabenhorst records his having observed a specimen of
Melosira varians, in which, from the sporangial frustule, there issued
what appeared to be germs, and has described the process. Die
Susswasser Diatomaceen, T. x., fig. 18 c. A similar occurrence was
noticed by myself in 1858, in the case of Pleurosigma Spencerii: and
Castracane has recorded two or three observations of the same kind.
So far as I am aware, the development of these zoospores, if such they
be, has in no case been traced through its successive stages to its.
ultimate result; but there is nothing unreasonable in the presumption
that the phenomenon may be a phase of the reproductive process.

Another mode of reproduction in the Diatomacez is by conjugation,
of which, according to Smith, there are four distinct phases. First. The
union of two parent frustules issues in the formation of two sporangia.
Second. Two parent frustules produce only one sporangium. Third. A
single frustule develops a single sporangium. Fourth. A single parent
frustule produces two sporangia. In the first stage of the conjugative
process, a mucous sac is secreted by the parent frustules, within
which the sporangia are developed; these sporangia, in some cases,
lie parallel, and in other species at an angle with the parent frustules-
or valves, as the case may be. A phase of conjugation, quite distinct
from the four just referred to, came under my notice, many years ago,
in the case of Diatoma vulgare.* I observed numerous instances of the
long chain of concatenated frustules in their normal condition with a
sudden jerk fold themselves into a solid mass. In a very brief period
a mucous sac was seen to develop itself, inclosing the whole mass of
frustules, and in some cases enveloping forms of a different species
which happened to be in immediate proximity. By degrees the mu-
cous sac pushed itself forward, sometimes in a single projection, some-
times in two, and into these prolongations the cell-contents of the

* Natural History Review, 1859, vol. vi., page £0, Pl. ix.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 241

frustules were poured; the prolongations became gradually more and
more constricted at the base, until ultimately they were completely
cut off from the mucous sac, in which the frustules remained folded, in
a state of perfect inanition. The process described was completed
within the space of a few hours, so that in innumerable instances I was
able to trace it from beginning to end—that is, from the commence-
ment of conjugation up to the formation of the sporangia. Smith refers
to cases of Cocconema cistula, and also of Synedra radians, having been
found aggregated in great numbers and enclosed in mucous sacs simi-
lar to what has been described in the case of Diatoma vulgare; and
all three cases seem to me to represent the same phase of conjugation:
and I am disposed to think that, as in Diatoma vulgare, so in the
other two cases, the encysted frustules were not, as Smith considered
them, young frustules in course of development from a sporangium,
but parent frustules preparing to produce sporangia.

Instances of conjugation in any of its varied forms are rarely to be
met with. When Smith published his Synopsis, in 1856, cases had
been observed in thirty species, included in seventeen distinct genera ;
and during the interval of fifteen years that had elapsed when Pfitzer
published his work, ‘‘ Uber Bau und Entwicklung der Bacillariaceen,”’
only twenty-eight cases had been added to the list, exclusive of that
of Diatoma vulgare, making a total of sixty-one. This remarkable fact
Smith thus endeavours to account for: ‘‘ During conjugation the process
of self-division is arrested, the general mucous envelope or stratum
produced during self-division is dissolved, and the conjugating pairs
of frustules become detached from the original mass; they are thus
more readily borne away and dispersed in the surrounding currents, or
by the movements of worms or insects, and their detection becomes in
consequence more casual and difficult.”” Itis notimprobable, however,
that the mode of collecting, and the time that is often suffered to elapse
before the collection is submitted to investigation, may have more to do
with the fact. And, in confirmation of this view, I would mention
that, although I have for very many years been engaged in the study
of the Diatomacew, and have made innumerable collections at all
seasons of the year, I have not been so fortunate in observing instances
of conjugation as some friends whose collections have been made with
a view to the discovery of other organisms. Their gatherings are
usually made in large bottles containing a considerable quantity of
water, by which the specimens may be preserved for a long time in
their normal state—my gatherings being put up in minute bottles with
little water, so that the vigour of the frustules is greatly abated be-
fore an opportunity of examining them may be afforded. As tothe
seasons of the year in which conjugation is most likely to occur, the
facts hitherto accumulated do not afford much information. Besides
the case of Diatome vulgare which I observed in conjugation in the
month of August, seventy-two observations, with specification of date,
have been recorded, making seventy-three in all. Of these, twenty-
three occurred in spring, twenty in summer, twenty-four in autumn,

242 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and only six in winter. The paucity of such observations during the —
winter may, however, be traceable to the fact that then, in conse-
quence of the inclemency of the weather, fewer gatherings are made,
than because the process of conjugation is of less frequent occurrence
during the season.

Classification.

In the various systems of classification, the several authors have
treated the facts they had to arrange as Procrustes is said to have dealt
with his guests: ‘‘ Qui ad lectum hospites emensus breviores exten-
debat longiores decurtabat.’? How just this observation is will be
obvious if we consider Pfitzer’s fair criticisms on the anomalies of the
systems of classification hitherto propounded. All systems are arti-
ficial; and when we consider the immensity and variety of Nature’s
productions, we cannot wonder if in every group some organisms will
be found to exist which cannot, without violence, be reduced into the
order proposed. Every plan of arrangement will be lable to objection;
and that may be regarded as the best which is the most obvious, the
most simple, the most comprehensive, and productive of the fewest
anomalies.

Pfitzer considers that the imperfections of the existing systems are
traceable to the fact that the ground-plan has been laid down ona
single line, and as a remedy suggests a system of classification based
on several concurrent lines, the principal of which are the character
and number of the endochrome-plates, the structure of the sporangia,
and the symmetrical or unsymmetrical form of the frustules in their
several aspects. Upon these lines Pfitzer has skilfully constructed a
most ingenious system of arrangement; but however great its merits as
a philosophical abstraction, it appears to me liable to objection on
practical grounds. The dislocation of analogous species chargeable on
former systems, so far from being avoided, is scarcely, if at all, di-
minished by the proposed plan. Here we have the Nitzschiew brought
into close contact with the Naviculee; the symmetrical Synedriz and —
the unsymmetrical Eunotiese are placed side by side, and in near
proximity to the Surirellee. The symmetrical Fragilaries are severed
from the symmetrical Synedrie, and associated with the unsymmetri-
cal Meridice. The Tabellariee are separated from the Fragilaries
and ranged with the Lichmophoree. The character of the endo-
chrome-plates seems to me a condition of too recondite a nature to
admit of practical application; besides, the induction of facts on the
subject is, as yet, far too limited to justify its adoption. As to the
_ reproductive process and its results, if our knowledge on the subject
were sufficiently comprehensive, it would furnish most valuable help
towards the construction of a satisfactory arrangement of the Diato-
mace ; but, unhappily, in the great dearth of authentic facts illustra-
"tive of the subject, we are not warranted in using the knowledge we
have as a ground plan of a general systematic arrangement.

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 243

The reproductive process has not been observed in more than about
sixty-five species, and in some of these cases there is a difference of
opinion as to the facts. A system, therefore, in which this process
constitutes an important part of the ground plan, is practically ob-
jectionable, as founded on hypothesis.

The system which appears to me to have most to recommend it is
that which has been matured by Heiberg, founded on the symmetri-
eal or unsymmetrical structure of the frustules in their various aspects.
There are two principal aspects in which a diatomaceous frustule may

_be regarded—the front view, in which the hoop or connecting band is
presented to the eye, and the side view, in which one or other of the
two valves is under observation; and in both these positions the
iongitudinal and transverse axes are to be considered. If in these two
positions, and in these varied views, exact symmetry obtains, the frus-
tule is said to be symmetrical in all its aspects; but if the two oppo-
site valves are not uniform, or the portions of the valves on either
side of the transverse or longitudinal axis, on side view or front view, do
not exhibit the same proportions or outline, the frustule is said to be
unsymmetrical on that view or axis on which the difference of form is
observable. Such is the ground plan of Heiberg’s systematic arrange-
ment, and which I have adopted in the present report. It is not,
indeed, wholly free from the objections to which other systems are
liable, and, possibly, may be open to cthers peculiarly its own; but
stili the principle on which the arrangement is based commends itself
as being at once most simple, most comprehensive, and most easily
applied.

There are, however, two very important yet subordinate features
of Heiberg’s system, in regard to which I cannot adopt the views of
that distinguished author. He ranges the numerous Cuneate species
as aberrant varieties of the families which in other respects they most
closely resemble; for example, Meridion and Asterionella are asso-
ciated with the Fragilariee, under the distinctive appellation of
Fragilarieze cuneate ; Podosphenia with the Striatillex, as Striatillese
cuneate ; Gomphonema and Cocconeis with the Naviculez, as Navyi-
culese cuneatee ; whereas I have collected the numerous species with a
cuneate outline, under the one general group of Cuneate. Again,
the numerous species of Diatomacez, as is well known, exhibit various
normal phases of growth. Some species are normally free, others
attached by a short gelatinous cushion, or a larger or shorter stipes;
the frustules in some genera are simple, while in others, after self-
division, they remain in concatenate or ribbon-like filaments; in
some genera the frustules are naked, while in others they are en-
veloped in mucous fronds, of which some are indefinite, others definite,
forming simple or composite tubes. These peculiarities of growth
Heiberg treats as of little significance; and accordingly, the genera
Schizonema, Berkleya, and Colletonema, the frustules of which are
included in tubes; Dickiea, the frustules of which are imbedded in
a less definite mucous mass; Diadesmis, the frustules of which are

244 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

united in short filaments; and Brebissonia Boeckei = Doryphora
Boeckei, in which the frustules are stipitate, are notwithstanding
these peculiarities of growth included as species under the genus
Navicula. If Smith and others attached too much value to these sub-
ordinate features, and therefore separated the forms which exhibited
them very far from the Naviculez, with which, as regards the general
structure of the frustules, they are intimately related, Heiberg, on
the other hand, I consider, has made a mistake in ignoring these
peculiarities altogether. Recognising these various normal modes of
growth as generic distinctions, I have included the forms as separate
genera of the group Nayiculee.

On the Distribution of the Diatomacee.

Some species are found only in fresh water, some only in salt
water, while others select as their normal habitat places in which salt
and fresh water habitually or occasionally commingle. I have
indeed frequently found fresh water species in the stomachs of
Ascidians dredged from a considerable depth in the sea; but their
occurrence therein indicates the influx of fresh water in the immediate
neighbourhood. And when marine forms are found in fresh water, as
occasionally they may be, they indicate that the place is within the
range of tidal influence.

An experienced observer will be able at a glance to ascertain
whether a gathering is marine, or made in fresh or brackish water ;
and not only so, but will be able to discriminate the lacustrine and
alpine forms from those incidental to other situations.

It is not possible to ascertain for what period the life of the
Diatomacez continues, but when their course, be it long or short, is
ended, the silicious covering sinks into the sediment: and when in
the process of ages the sediment is solidified into rock, the exuyie of
the Diatoms that lived in the water during the period of deposition
continue unaltered in their stony shroud. If the rock be decomposed ©
by natural or artificial agencies, they may be extracted, and subjected
to inspection; and if found in sufficient number, the species discovered
may serve to illustrate the circumstances under which the deposit was
formed.

Irrespective of the variety and symmetrical beauty of the Diato-
mace, there is another circumstance which invests them with a pecu-
liar interest: it is this, that no existing organism, whether it be
vegetable or animal, can boast of so ancient a lineage. Countless have
been the genera and species of living beings which flourished during
the several geological periods, and of which no representatives survived
the vicissitude which brought their epoch to a conclusion; but so far
back in the annals of the earth as research has been able to trace the
Diatomacez, the species which have been discovered are identical with
those we have living at the present time. Numerous are the fossil or
subfossil diatomaceous deposits which have been discoyered in all parts

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 245,

of the globe; some the accumulations of marine, others of fresh
water growth. Among these latter, the Irish deposits of Lough
Mourne, Lough Islandreayy, Toombe Bridge, and Tollymore Park,
are distinguished for the number and beauty of the species they con-
tain: and we are indebted to the industry and intelligence of Mr.
Gray, of Belfast, for the discovery of several sub-peat collections in
various parts of the country. Nearly all the species contained in
these various deposits have been found living at the present day; and it
is a noteworthy fact, that the forms of these numerous species, however
remote from one another in time and space, exhibit no appreciable
divergency. As an illustration I may mention a few facts. Through
the kindness of Mr. Kitton, of Norwich, I was supplied with a sample of
a fresh water deposit from California, which contained numerous speci-
mens of Synedra amphirhynchus, in no respect differmg from the
specimens of the same species I had found living a few days before,
in a ditch not far from my residence in the county Dublin. Another
deposit discovered by Dr. Moss, R.N., at Vancouver’s Island, was
sent to me for examination; and in it, among many other well-known
forms, i found in great number, specimens of Navicula Americana, in
all respects identical with forms of that species collected by my friend
the Rey. George Davidson, from a deposit at Lough Canmore, in the
north of Scotland, and those I had myself gathered some time ago in a
living state on the borders of Lough Neagh. Count Castracane is
of opinion that Diatoms must have existed even in the remote ages of
the Palzeozoic period. It remains to be proved whether this was so
or not; but in his researches in the lignite formation of Urbino he has
traced existing species so far back as the earlier epoch of the Tertiary
formation. The specimen of lignite examined by this distinguished
Italian naturalist was furnished by Professor Mici, who considered it
to belong unquestionably to the Miocene period. This result is con-
firmed by the statement of Pfitzer, that all the fresh water, as well as
marine forms hitherto discovered in the deposits of the Tertiary
period, belong to existing genera and species. The generations of a
Diatom in the space of a few months far exceed in number the genera-
tions of man from the earliest time to the present day; and yet
we find that the individuals now living retain without alteration the
characteristics which distinguished the species at the remotest time to
which their existence can be traced. It might be alleged in this case
that the silicious valves within which the valves of successive genera-
tions are developed necessarily impress the characters of the parent on
the offspring ; and that, therefore, any tendency to variation, however
powerfully it might operate, would be checked by the irresistible
force of external pressure. But the sporangia before the soft skin
has become solidified by the secretion of silex are of a more plastic
character, and afford a facility for variation if the cell-contents were
endowed with any such tendency. And although the formation of
Sporangia has been observed in but very few instances, yet the
frequent recurrence of this process of reproduction is forced on our

246 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

acceptance as a necessary inference from the fact of the continuous
existence of numerous species, despite of the law which regulates
their multiplication by the process of self-division. As im each suc-
cessive act of fission the newly-formed valves are smaller than those
within which they have been secreted, the species would soon become
extinct, were there not a provision made for its perpetuation in
the process of sporangial reproduction. All the circumstances consi-
dered, I am led to regard the Diatomaceee as a group of organism on
which the Creator has impressed certain distinctive characteristics from
which, through countless, successive ages, they have shown no ten-
dency to depart.

LIST OF SPECIES.
A. Frustules symmetrical. 1. Vaives circular.
Faurty I. MELOSIREZ, Kiitz.

Frustules simple, or adhering in filaments. Circular on side view.

Tuts family, since the adoption of it by Kiitzing, has undergone
considerable modification in respect to the genera included within
it. If we omit the ill-defined genus Pyxidicula, the forms he em-
braced within it, with the exception of Cyclotella, belonged to those
genera distinguished by the filamentous character of their growth.
Kiitzing recognised the analogy between these genera and those of
which Coscinodiscus may be regarded as the type, but placed them
widely apart, principally on the ground cf the areolate striation of the
latter. ‘This character, however, is by no means universal, and even
if it were, could scarcely justify so great a dislocation. Grunow,
therefore, who is followed by Heiberg, includes among the Melosirese
all the symmetrical forms circular on the side view, irrespectively of
their peculiarities of striation; thus establishing a very distinct and
well-defined group which I adopt—my only difliculty in doing s0 aris-
ing from the fact that in the genus Cyclotella, some of the included
species are waved on the front view, and for this reason can scarcely
be considered as symmetrical in all aspects, in the sense of Grunow
and Heiberg.

Genus I. Metosrra, Agardh.

Frustules filamentous. Convex at the ends, filaments free.

Melosira borrerit, (Greville.) Marine or brackish water.

Valves sub-hemispherical; girdlebands marked with conspicuous
circles of cellules; filaments varying in breadth; colour of the desic-
cated filaments, a rich brown. (Pl. 26, fig. 1.)

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 247

Greville, in Hooker’s Brit. Flora,* p. 401. Wm.Sm. B.D., Vol. ii.,
p. 56; Pl. 1., fig. 330. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 28M. moni-
liformis, Kiitz. Bac., p. 53, T. i1., fig. 2. Raben. Fl. Eur., p. 38.
Ralis, im Pritch., p..817, Pl. v:, fig. 71.

River Slaney, near Killurin, Co. Wexford. Brackish ditch near
Wexford town. Malahide, Dollymount strand, Howth, Co. Dublin.
Sea weeds, Giants’ Causeway, Co. Antrim. Brackish ditch near the
town of Wicklow. R. Nannywater, Laytown, Co. Meath.

elosira subflexilis, (Kiitz.) Fresh or brackish water.

Frustules usually narrow elongate, slightly inflexed upon the
margin. (Pl. 26, fig. 2.

Kitz. Bac., p. 53, T.u., fig. 13. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. ii., p. 57,
Pl. 11., fig. 331. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 28. Rab. Fl. Eur.,

Bod.

F Considerable diversity of opinion exists as to the habitat of this
species. According to Kiitzing it belongs to the fresh water forms,
haying been found by him in rapid brooks. ‘*In schnell fliessenden
Bichen. ” Bac., p. 54. Still more precisely does Rabenhorst assign
to it a fresh water habitat. ‘Hab. in rivulis Sporadice per totam
Europam e planitie usque in regionem montanam superiorem, Fl. Eur.,
p- 39. While Smith gives it either a fresh water or brackish locality,
Heiberg makes it a marine species. His remarks are worthy of notice.
“Smith attributes the authorship of this species to Kiitzmg, but
Kiitzing’s figure can hardly be identified with certainty, and seems to
be more properly referrible to Melosira varians. Kiitzing’s Melosira
Jurgensii more nearly resembles Smith’s species, and so Pritchard
accepts it. But Pritchard calls the species Melosira Jurgensii, and
represents Melosira subflexilis Sm. as a synonym; but in any case
this ought to be reversed, inasmuch as Smith was the first to define
the species so that it could be identified with certainty.” ‘Smith
assigns it to fresh water, but as the localities mentioned are near the
mouths of rivers, the species possibly has been borne out along with the
floods.”” De Danske Diat., pp. 28, 29. In addition, I have only to say
that the localities in which the species has been found by me in
Treland are marine, but still liable to the access of fresh water.

Lough Foyle, Bellarena, Co. Derry. Greystones, Co. Wicklow.

Melosira varians, (Agardh.) Fresh water.

Ends of the frustules not so convex as in the preceding species.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 54, T. u., fig. 10. Rab. Die Stissw Diat., p. 18,
mane, 4 Wm.om.8.D., Vol. n.,-p. 57, Pl. 1, fig. 3382. Ralfs,

* For explanation of contractions and list of references, ride List at end of Report.

248 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

in Pritch., p. 817, Pl. xv., fig. 32. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 27.—
Gallionella varians, Ehr. Inf. T. x., fig. 4.

Very common in streams and fresh springs.

Melosira distans, (Kutz.) Fresh water.

Frustules short, but slightly convex at the ends, distinctly punc-
tate. (Pl. 26, fig. 3.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 54, T. ., fig. 12. Rab. Die Siissw Diat., p. 13,
ou. fg. 9: Wm. Sm BoD, Vol. u., p: 58, Bistimammaiemosa:
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 818.—Gallionella distans, Ehr. Inf., p. 170,
a oexa) fio Ae

Smith describes this species as ‘‘ obscurely cellulate,’”’ and distin-
guishes it on this ground from his Melosira nivalis, which he charac-
terises as ‘‘ distinctly cellulate,” but remarks that ‘‘this character is
probably insufficient to justify their separation.” B.D., Vol.i1., p. 58.
The forms occurring in the Bilin Polirschiefer, one of the localities
assigned by Kiitzing to Melosira distans, are most distinctly punctate;
. I am therefore disposed to consider that Smith’s species, Melosira
nivalis, cannot be sustained.

Kallikee, Dundrum, Co. Dublin. Kiulcool, Co. Wicklow. Pond
near Armagh,

Genus II. lLysrcontum, Link.

Frustules globose or cylindrical, valves furnished with an elevated
keel which runs parallel with the sutures; in other particulars as in
Melosira.

I have adopted this genus in deference to the authority of Heiberg,
who, referring to Lysigonium nummuloides, remarks, ‘‘ This species,
which by all the more recent authors has been assigned to the genus
Melosira, in my judgment ought to constitute a type of a new genus to
which Melosira Westii Wm. Sm., which does not occur in our country,
may also be referred. The name Lysigonium was in the first instance
applied by Link. to O. F. Muller’s Conferva moniliformis, with which
in all probability this species is identical ; and for this reason it seems
most convenient to re-establish the genus to receive it.’ De Danske
Diat., p. 29. Heiberg further remarks, ‘‘ that the known species form
shorter or longer filaments, attached or free ;’’ but I have never seen
any of the filaments attached.

Lysigonium nummuloides, (uyngbye, Kitz.) Marine.

Ordinary frustules, globose. Keel thin, in front view appearing as
lines projecting like horns. (Pl. 26, fig. 4.)

Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 29.—Melosira nummuloides, Kiitz.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 249

haGepeolw. wi te. 34 Wan.om., B.D Vol.ai-, p.65. — Ply xix.,
fig. 8329. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 816, Pl. v., fig. 64 and Pl. xi., fig. 14.

There is considerable difference of opinion as to the founder of this
species; Smith assigns it to Kiitzing, Ralfs to Dillwyn and Agardh.
On this subject Heiberg says, ‘‘As above mentioned, O. F. Muller
was probably the first to discover this species, and describe it under
the name of Conferva moniliformis, or strand-necklace, but that can-
not be ascertained with certainty. The present specific name is
attributable to Dillwyn, who in 1809 described a Conferva nummu-
loides, which Lyngbye cites as a synonym under his Fragillaria num-
muloides. But as meanwhile there do not appear to be any original
specimens of Dillwyn’s species, and his figures can only be approxi-
mately identified, while the numerous specimens of Lyngbye which
still exist are all attributable to our species, it seems most proper to
name Lyngbye as the author.’’ De Danske Diat., p. 29.

Brackish ditch near Wexford, Malahide, Dollymount, North-
wall, Co. Dublin. Salt ditch near Wicklow, and many other places
too numerous to mention.

Lysigonium Westii, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Frustules somewhat conical, furnished with two keels, one at the
suture, another near the end, considerably thicker than the similar
structure in Lys. nummuloides, and not projecting upwards to the
same extent.

Melosira Westii, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 59, Pl. lii., fig. 338.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 817. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 38.

Dollymount, Oyster beds, Howth, Co. Dublin. Near Wicklow.
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Lysigonium Wrightir, (O’Meara.) Marine.

Frustules rounded at the ends, narrow, surrounded by a broad
keel, which curving slightly outwards and upwards, then bending in-
wards and downwards to the surface of the valve, forms round it a
crown-like rim. In the front view two nodules are observable in the
central portion of the valve; the frustule is perfectly hyaline, without
sculpture of any kind.

OpMeara, Q: J. M.S., Vol. ix., Pl. xii., fig. 3.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Genus III. Poposrra, Ehr.

Filaments attached by a distinct stipes, and generally short, con-
sisting of a few frustules.

Heiberg regards the character on which this genus is founded as

250 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

‘wholly destitute of a scientific basis.” De Danske Diat., p. 27.
Most other authors have, however, decided in favour of its validity.
Smith’s supposition that the apices of the valves are destitute of
silex, with Heiberg and Ralfs, I consider is founded on imperfect
observation.

Podosira Montagne, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Filaments usually consisting of two frustules. Frustules large,
cylindrical, globose at the ends. (PI. 26, fig. 5.)

Kutz. Bac., 52, T. xxix', fig: 85, > Wm.’ SmieBs0 > Volssneasps
53, Pl. xlix., fig. 326. Ralfs, im Pritch., p. 815, Pl! v.; fic. 612 Rab:
Fl. Eur., p. 37.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Podosira hormoides, (Kiitz.) Montagne. Marine.

Frustules small, compressed. Valve with distinct umbilicus,
obscurely punctate.

Smith and Ralfs attribute the species to Kutzing; Heiberg, and
Rabenhorst, Fl. Eur., to Montagne.

Kutz. Bac., .p. 52, TT?) xxvi., fig. 5, ‘and’ i xccheincens 4.
Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. u., p. 538, Pl. xlix., fig. 327. Ralfs, m Pritch.,
p. 815, Pl. u., fig. 45. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 37.—Melosira hormoides,
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 29.—Podosira nummuloides, Ehr.

Bannow, Co. Wexford. Salt ditch, near Wexford. Malahide.
Piles on Strand, Clontarf, Co. Dublin.

Podosira maculata, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Frustules globose, distinctly punctate; puncta divided by radiate
bands of a deeper colour, which latter do not reach the centre.
Valves having a distinct umbilicus. (Pl. 26, fig. 5a.)

Wm. Sm) B.D.) Vol: 1.; p. 54, Pl. xlix:, figitd2 Savaldenein
Pritch., p. 815. Rab. Fl. Hur., p. 37.

Sea weeds, Bannow. Salt ditch, near Wexford. Arran Islands,
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Genus 1Y. Onrrnostra, Thwaites.

Frustules attached in filaments; without stipes, plane on the side
view, ornamented with a circlet of puncta parallel with the suture;
junction surfaces spinous.

The genus Orthosira was originally established by Thwaites, for
the purpose of distinguishing the filamentous species with level end
surfaces from those included in Melosira, the end surfaces of which
are more or less arched, and thus defined it has been adopted by most

O’Mrara—Report on the Ivish Diatomacce. 251

succeeding authors. Ralfs and Rabenhorst, however, abandoning the
generic distinction, have relegated the several species of Orthosira to
the genus Melosira. Heiberg, on the contrary, recognises the distinc-
tion of Thwaites, but includes the species of Cyclotella in the genus
Orthosira, and establishes a new genus, Paralia, to receive the single
species Orthosira marina (Wm. Sm.), on the ground that the frustule
possesses an elevated keel similar to that which characterises the
genus Lysigonium. It is a question, then, whether the distinction of
Thwaites should be recognised, as most authors since his time have
done, or discarded, as Rabenhorst has considered it ought to be; and
the following observations of Pfitzer seem to supply a reasonable
solution. Having referred to the original distinction, he adds, ‘‘ A
far more important distinction exists in the mode of developing Auxo-
spores. Although the Orthosire in their mode of growth agree
thoroughly with Melosira, have the same structure of the primordial
cell, and the same mode of cell-division, they differ in this respect,
that in the process of spore-formation from a single cell, the valves of
which are pushed away from one another, the contents enveloped in a
mucous investment come out free, and are then, without being in con-
tact with the mother-cell, developed{into a single Auxospore in which
the firstling cell is so situated that the plane of division crosses that of
the mother-cell, whereas in Melosira it is parallel to it. Thwaites
had observed this feature in the case of Orthosira aurichalcea, and
Smith refers to the peculiarity as an important generic distinction.
But only one species had been observed in this aspect, and so it was
questionable whether all the Orthosirze obeyed the same law. Fr.
Schmitz has succeeded in proving this in respect to another species,
Orthosira roeseana (Rab.), = O. spinosa (Grev.)’’? Ueber Bau und
Entwicklung der Bac., p. 184. If then the mode of developing Aux-
ospores be regarded, as I consider it ought to be, of importance as a
generic distinction, the conclusion is inevitable that the genus Ortho-
sira should not be merged in Melosira, as Ralfs and Rabenhorst have
treated it. And also, forasmuch as in those species of Cyclotella in
which the formation of Auxospores has been noticed, the daughter-cell
is parallel to the mother-cell, for this reason, as well as on the old
ground of distinction, the species of Cyclotella should not with Heiberg
be included in the genus Orthosira.

Orthosira arenaria, (D. Moore.) Fresh water.

Frustules very large; cell-cavity sub-spherical. Spines on juncture
surfaces short, broad, and close. Strix, on side view punctate,
radiate, stronger at the margin, and loosing their radiate arrangement
as they approach the centre. Strie on front view punctate, trans-
wetses) (El. 26, fig. 6.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. u., p. 59, Pl. lit, fig. 834. Heiberg, De
Danske Diat., p. 81. Ralfs, in Ann. N. Hist., Vol. xii., p. 349,
Pl. ix., fig. 4-—Melosira arenaria, Kiitz. Bac., p. 55, T. xxi., fig. 27.
Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 14, T. ii, fig. 5.

R. I, A. PROC., SER, II., VOL. II., SCIBNCEs 2L

202 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Besides the localities specified by Smith, namely, near Belfast
and Lough Mourne deposit, I have found the species in the following
pes :—River Erne, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan; ditch near Wexford ;
Terner’s-bridge, Co. Armagh; Killakee, Co. Dublin; stream near Kil-
cool, Co. Wicklow; L. Neagh, near the town of Antrim; surface of
rock near Glenarm, Co. Antrim.

Orthosira sulcata, (Ehr. Kitz.) Marine.

Spines of junction surfaces large, short, and more distant than in
the former species. Striz on side view linear, radiate, distinct at the
margin, attenuated towards the centre, which they do not reach;
puncta at the suture large; strie on front view linear, direct, parallel
(RIN26; fie.)

Melosira sulcata, Kiitz. Bac., p. 55, T. u., fig. 57. Ralfs, in
Pritch:;p. 819; Pl. ix:, fig 131; Plate xi\; fig. 26) aRabsenieeeaur:
p. 41.—Orthosira marina, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 59; Pl. lin.,
fig. 338.—Gallionella sulcata, Ehr.—Paralia marina, Heiberg, De
Danske Diat., p. 33.

Although this species has been described and figured by Kiitzing
as identical with Gallionella sulcata of Ehrenberg, Heiberg attributes
it to Wm. Smith. The latter indeed has figured it more perfectly
than Kiitzing has done; still, Kiitzing’s figure, imperfect as it is,
seems to me unmistakable; and all uncertainty as to the species indi-
cated is removed by his reference to the Richmond deposit in which
the form abounds. For this reason I have followed Ralfs and Raben-
horst in assigning the species to Ehrenberg and Kiitzing, as well as
restoring the original specific designation. And as I have not been
able to trace any keel similar in structure and position to that of Lysi-
gonium, instead of adopting Heiberg’s new genus, Paralia, I leave the
species where Smith placed it in the present genus.

Cork and Kinsale Harbours, Wm. Smith. Bannow, River Slaney,
Killurin, Co. Wexford. Near Wicklow. Malahide. Dalkey, Co. -
Dublin.

Orthosira Dicktewt, (Thwaites.) Fresh water.

Cell-cavity sub-spherical. Sutural puncta small and distant.
Spines on junction surfaces absent. Strie, both on front and side
view, minutely punctate. Puncta on front view arranged in lines
parallel to the suture.

Thwaites, Ann. N. H., 2 series, Vol. i., p. 168, Pl. xii. Wm. Sm.,
B.D., Vol. ii., p. 60, Pl. lit., fig. 3835.—Melosira Dickieii, Kitz. Sp. Alg.,
p. 889. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 820, Pl. xv., fig. 29. Rab. Fl. Eur.,

. 43.
: This species is remarkable for the abnormal growth of frustule
within frustule, so fully described by Smith, B. D., Vol. ii., Pl. lii.,
fig. 385. Thwaites regarded this peculiarity as a mode of developing
sporangia, while Smith considered it an abnormal development similar -

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 253

to what he had noticed in Meridion circulare and M. constrictum,
Himantidium Soleirolii, Odontidium anomalum, and Achnanthes sub-
sessilis. I add the interesting description given by Pfitzer of an ano-
malous procedure noticed by Fr. Schmitz in the development of
Orthosira spinosa, as likely to throw some light on the subject. ‘‘ A
separation of the firstling-cell followed, not immediately, but a devia-
tion occurred analogous to what has been described in the case of
Navicula ambigua. First one girdleband was developed, the length
of which was about that of the radius of the cell. This girdleband,
according to Fr. Schmitz, was attached only to one valve; that which
ought to have been connected with the other valve, if it existed at
all, was only rudimentary. Then the plasm moved about only in that
half of the cell to which the girdleband adhered, and secreted a new
valve, which, as might be expected, was parallel to the original one
destitute of the girdleband. In the cell so originating, division then
took place in the normal manner, only that the one end-cell of the fila-
ment in course of formation, instead of two valves possessed three.
Inasmuch as a small portion of the plasm remained behind, between
the two parallel valves, and then died off, Fr. Schmitz was inclined
to think the procedure was an abortive attempt at self-division, one
portion of the plasm being too small to develop itself into a daughter-
cell.”” Ueber Bau und Entwicklung der Bac., p. 1385.

Ditch on bank of Royal Canal, near Kilcock, Co. Kildare. It is
likely this species is more common than it appears from the few lo-
calities assigned to it, as in its normal condition it may be easily con-
founded with Melosira varians.

Orthosira orichalcea, (Wm. 8m.) Freshwater.

_ The circle of puncta that.in most of the species of this genus runs
parallel with the suture is not observable in this. Spines on junction
surfaces distinct ; valve not striated on the side view, except on the
margin, where the points of the spines appear as small puncta. Frus-
tules striated’ on front view. Strie fine, punctate, parallel. (Pl. 26,
fig. 8.

Betts and Rabenhorst have referred this species to Mertens on the
authority of Kiitzing, who has figured and described a form under this
specific designation. The figure of Melosira orichalcea, Bac., T. u1.,
fig. 14, is by no means definite, and one feature in the description
suggests the impression that he had quite a different species in view.
“* Sub epidermide silicea leviter bis contractis,’’ Bac. p. 54, may pos-
sibly refer to Orthosira spinosa, but not to Orthosira orichalcea, as
figured by Smith, to whom Heiberg considers the species should be
attributed, as he was the first to give a description and figure by
which it could be satisfactorily identified. Heiberg makes the follow-
ing shrewd observation under Orthosira orichalcea :—‘‘ The figure by
which Smith describes the process of conjugation in the species under
consideration, and which he copied from Thwaites’ original delineation,

2L2

ee ee eee

204 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

deviates so much from the normal appearance of the species, that one
may almost take it for certain that it represents a very different form,
for a difference of so much importance could scarcely have arisen from
inadvertence.”’—De Danske Diat., p. 31. In Thwaites’ original
description of Aulocoseira crenulata, Kiitz. = Melosira orichalcea, Ralfs
(and Orthosira orichaleea, Wm. Sm.), both the generic definition and
the figure are inapplicable to the present species as figured by Smith.
“ Aulacoseira cellulis cylindricis, disulcatis, extremitatibus plus minusve
rotundatis, in filamenta concatenatis.””’ Ann. of Nat. Hist. March,
1848, p. 7, most correctly describes Orthosira Roeseana, Rab. = O.
spinosa (Wm. Sm.). The frustules, as described ib. Pl. xi., B., figs.
1, 2, and 3, are greatly more like that form than any other species,
and the side view, as represented in the sporangial frustule, is pre-
cisely as the side view of that species is described by Smith, B. D.,
Vol. i1., p. 62, Pl. 1xi., fig. 386. I am therefore disposed to think
that it was not Orthosira orichalcea, but Orthosira Roeseana, which
Thwaites observed in the process of forming sporangia, or, as Pfitzer
designates them, Auxospores.

Smith’s Irish localities are—Well at Seven Churches; Clonmac-
noise; Moanarone, County Cork; Lough Mourne deposit ; to which I
have to add the following :—River Erne, Crossdoney, County Cayan ;
Lough Islandreavy, County Down; Lough Neagh, near the town of
Lurgan, County Armagh; Killakee and Glenchree, County Dublin.

Orthosira punctata, (Wm.Sm.) Fresh water.

This species is distinguished from the preceding chiefly by the fact
that in this the puncta are very much larger, and more regularly
arranged ; they are parallel to the suture, and so regularly placed that
they sometimes appear to run spirally. Heiberg remarks that ‘‘ Smith’s
species is easily recognised by the obvious rows of puncta crossing one
another, which run in oblique spirals from the suture up to and over
the side view.’’—De Danske Diat. p. 31. These last words seem to |
imply that the side view is punctate like the front view; if so, then
the species must be regarded as certainly distinct from the preceding.
Smith does not figure the side view, and, in consequence of the length
of the frustule, it is difficult to turn it over so as to get it under
observation. In one case only could I get a view of it, and then only
obliquely ; in this aspect it appeared strongly punctate. The circle of
spines at the suture is absent in this species as in the last.

- Ralfs, in Pritchard, p. 820, makes this species synonymous with
Melosira granulata = Gallionella granulata, Ehr. and Rabenhorst, FI.
Eur., p. 48, adopts the same course; but so much uncertainty charac-
terises Ehrenberg’s figures of that species, I prefer, with Heiberg, to
adopt the precise figure of Smith, and attribute the species to him.

Ulster Canal, near Poyntzpass. Lough N cagh, near Lurgan, County
Armagh. .

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 200

Orthosira Roeseana, (Rab.) Fresh water.

Inner surface of cell sub-spherical; frustule sulcate on either side
of suture ; spines at the junction surfaces very distinct and long; cir-
clet of puncta parallel with suture absent. Strize on side view radiate,
distinct, with three large puncta placed triangularly at the centre.
On front view strie finely punctate, and parallel with suture.
(Pl. 26, fig. 9.)

Smith, in 1856, describes this species as new, under the name of
Orthosira spinosa. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. u., p. 62, Pl. lxii., fig.
386. But it had been already described by Rabenhorst, Siissw. Diat.,
p. 18, T.x., fig. 5, im 1853, as Melosira Roeseana, and with sufficient
accuracy, both as respects the figure and the description, as to render
identification certain. Melosira Roeseana, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 818,
Elba, fe) G7.

Killakee, County Dublin. Ulster Canal, near Poyntzpass. Lough
Neagh, near Lurgan, County Armagh. Ditch at side of Royal Canal,
near Kilcock, County Kildare.

Genus Y. Cyctorenta, Kitz.

Frustules normally single, narrow ; sometimes slightly waved on
the front view; on the side view having the valves more or less dis-
tinetly divided into two concentric portions.

It is extremely difficult to define this genus by words so precisely as
to distinguish it with certainty from others nearly allied; yet still
the forms included within it constitute a tolerably distinct group. So
much so, that almost all authors have agreed to mark their peculiarity
by a distictive generic name.

Heiberg and Cleve have included the several species under the
genus Orthosira, with which they are closely allied; but I consider
them entitled to stand by themselves, not only on account of their
different modes of growth, but also on account of the distinctive cha-
racters of their sporangia.

It would appear at first view that the generic name Discoplea
should, on account of its priority, be preferred to the more recent name
of Cyclotella. As Ehrenberg has given no verbal diagnosis of his genus
Discoplea, we have no means of ascertaining its characteristics, other-
wise than by the figures, and in these no sufficiently distinctive feature
is discernible. Not only are forms that seem to belong to different
species included under the same specific name, but more than this,
species belonging to Orthosira, on the one hand, and more closely re-
sembling Coscinodiscus, on the other, are included in the genus Disco-
plea. Kiitzing’s diagnosis of his genus Cyclotella, although sufficient
to distingush it from Orthosira, on the one hand, is not clear enough, so
far as words are concerned, to prevent confusion with Coscinodiscus,

256 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

on the other. Yet his figures, however obscure in minute details of
structure, distinctly mark the separation of the valves into two well-
defined concentric parts.

Walker-Arnott confounded the distinction between this genus.

and Orthosira, when he identified Cyclotella dallasiana with the Cyclo-.

tella radiata of Brightwell, which should rather be included in Or-
thosira. There is great confusion as to the synonomy of the several
species; nor is this surprising, as the earlier descriptions and figures
are by no means satisfactory; and, in order to avoid consequent per-
plexity, I consider there is no more satisfactory plan than to follow
the line marked out by the figures of Wm. Smith, which are so distinct
as to be easily recognised.

Cyclotella Kiitzingiana, (Thwaites.) Fresh water.

Frustules undulate; striz delicate, marginal, scarcely one half of

the radius in length; the central portion of the valve unstriate. (Pl.
26, fig. 10.

Smith yee. this species to fresh or brackish water, and with
this opinion Rabenhorst concurs. Walker-Arnott alleges he has
never seen the true species from fresh water. Cleve makes it an
essentially brackish water species, and Heiberg on the contrary, a
fresh water form. This difference of opinion may arise from mistake
as to identity; but speaking of the form described by Smith as C.
Kiitzingiana, I have to say that though I have sometimes found it in
water slightly brackish, it has been commonly discovered by me in
localities far remote from marine influences, so that I think it 1s to be
considered an essentially fresh water species.

The slightly undulate outline which this species presents on the
front view may possibly arise from the sinking in of the valve in the
centre, and the consequent projection of the outline of the dip upon
the plane of observation. Thus Wm. Smith accounts for the ap-
pearance, and his opinion on the subject ‘is supported by that of
Heiberg. ;

Wm. Sm. B.D, Vol.i:, p. 27; Pl. v., fig. 47: Rabent aii
p. 32.—Orthosira Kiitzingiana, Heib. De Danske Diat., p. 31.

Stream, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Stream near Larne, Co. Antrim.
Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Ditch on banks of River Liffey, Co.
Kildare, near Ballymore Eustace. Tarbert, Co. Kerry. Ditch, Kil-
cool, Co. Wicklow.

Cyclotella Meneghiniana, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules not undulate on the front view; strie on the valves.
much coarser than in the former species, more distant, and consider-
ably longer. (PI. 26, fig. 11.)

Walker-Arnott regards this species as identical with C. rectangula,
De Breb, and the greater weight attaches to his opinion as it was.
adopted after examination of specimens ‘‘from De Brébisson himself,

—_—______.—

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. ai

and a portion of the only gathering he ever made of it (near Paris.)”’
Q.J.M.S., Oct., 1860, p. 245. Subsequently De Brébisson found the
same form at Falaise, and gave a figure of it which is confirmatory of
the opinion of Walker-Arnott. ‘‘ Notes on some French Diatomacez,”’
Journal of Queckett Mic. Club for April, 1870, fig. 6. Kiutzing states
that this species is adnate. I have never seen it so.

Kutzeebac.,. p. 00, Tj xxx, figs 68. | Rab.) Sussw., Drat:, pill:
T. i, fig. 2. Possibly this species may be identical with C. Kiitzin-
giana, var. B. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 27; and if so, it is not the
same that Ralfs has figured as C. rectangula (De Bréb.) Ralfs, in
Pritch., Pl. v., fig. 54; the latter being undulate on the front view,
whereas the present species is rectangular.

Lucan. Feather-bed mountain, Co.Dublin. Kailcool, Co. Wicklow.

Cyclotella operculata, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Marginal striz short, fine, linear; central part of valve covered
with distinct moniliform striz radiately arranged. (PI. 26, fig. 12.)

Though Smith, who is followed by Ralfs, describes the strize in
this species as obscure and very short, the figure in both cases is too
clear to admit of any doubt as to identification.

entzaebacy ep. o0, Le iehies; 12 and 15.8 Wan. sSme Bs
Vol. i., Pl. v., fig. 48. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 811, Pl. v., fig. 53.—
Orthosira operculata, Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 32. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 217. This form is not identical with
that described by Walker-Arnott under this name, with the centre
destitute of striae, but probably is the same as the variety he identifies
with C. minutula, Kitz. See Arnott on Cyclotella, Q.J.M.S. for
Oct., 1860, pp. 246, 247.

Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry. Derrylane Lake, Co. Cavan.
Glenchree, Co. Wicklow. River Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Derry.
River Erne, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Royal Canal, Enfield, Co. Meath.
Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Lough Mourne deposit.
Lough Island-Reavy deposit, found also living in the same place.

Cyclotella operculata, var. Fresh water.

Margin of valve fringed with short rounded distinct costs, over
which there is a circle of very fine linear striae, short; centre of the
valve as in the former, but the moniliform strie much finer and more
obscure. (Pl. 26, fig. 12, b.)

On banks of the Liffey, near Ballymore Eustace, Co. Kildare.
Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh.

Cyclotella antiqua, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Marginal portion of the valve narrow, marked with short, broad,
triangularly formed bars, over which there is a circlet of very fine
short linear striz ; central portion occupied by about nine triangular
bars which do not reach the centre. (PI. 26, fig. 13.)

258 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Smith does not figure the fine marginal strie, and describes the
marginal triangular bars as if they were moniliform; but with this
exception his figure is in every respect accurate, so as to remove all
doubt as to the identity of the species. Walker-Arnott considers that
Smith’s form is identical with C. minutula, Kiitz., found by him in
the Lineburg deposit, and adds, ‘“‘It is this which Smith obtained
from the Lough Mourne deposit, but which he has unfortunately
referred to C. antiqua, a species which does not occur in any of the
Trish deposits which I have examined.’”’ On Cyclotella, Q.J.M.S.,
Oct., 1860, p. 246. The forms of Cyclotella found on the only slide
I possess from the Liineburg deposit are those of C. operculata.
Walker-Arnott evidently had not seen any specimen of C. antiqua,
for the distinctiveness of the species is too obvious to have escaped his
keen observation, had even a single form of it come under his notice.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.1., p.-28;. Pl. v., fig. 49. — RaltssansPreie,
p. 812. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 38.

Lough Mourne deposit, in which I have occasionally noticed it.
Sub-peat deposit, Dromore, Strangford Peat, Co. Down.

Cyclotella rotula, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve with a slight depression towards the centre, striz radiate,
running from the margin to the centre; coarse at the margin, finer
and finer as they approach the centre, where they appear confused.
Striz linear, but notched, so as to seem moniliform. (Pl. 26,
fig. 14.)

In consequence of supposing that Discoplea rotula of Ehr., Mic.,
T. xxxv. A. xxii., fig. 67, was a species of Cyclotella, Kiitzing, in his
Species Algarum, changed his original specific name to that of Cyclo-
tella astreea, and this nomenclature has been adopted by Ralfs and
Rabenhorst. It is not, however, certain that Ehrenberg’s form pro-
perly belongs to Cyclotella, and therefore the original name ought to
be retained.

Kutz. Bae:, “sp: 50, 'T. 1, fig. 4,00 W. Sm, B.D.) Walesa
Pl. v., fig. 50. Wallker-Arnott, Q. J. M.8., Oct., 1860, p. 247.—Cy-
clotella astreea, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 812. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 34.—Or-
thosira rotula, Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 32. Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska, Diat., p. 217.

Lough Neagh, in several parts. Lucan, Feather-bed mountain,
and Grand Canal, Co. Dublin. River Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Derry.
Lough Mourne and Lough Island-Reavey deposits. Small forms of
this species may be, at first view, readily mistaken for Cyclotella oper-
culata, but on close inspection the difference will be obvious.

Cyclotella papillosa, (N.S.) Fresh water.

Marginal striz of the valve linear, very fine, central portions
unstriate and occupied by a circlet of papille, usually five or six in
number. (Pl. 26, fig. 15.)

O’Mzara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 259

There is a form resembling the present, described by Ehrenberg as
Discoplea atmospherica, from Nepal, Mic. “) T. xxxii. v., fig. 4; and
also from Fayoom, Egypt, Mic., T. xxxii.1., fig. 3; but as the figures
of Discoplea atmospherica differ so widely from one another, even if
there were no doubt as to the identity, a different name is needful to
mark the peculiarity of the present species.

Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Lough Mask, near
Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. There is a form occurring in the Lough
Mourne deposit, which may be the same as this, but the papille are
usually injured, and, judging from the traces that remain, they seem
to have been more numerous, more slender, and more scattered than in
the living forms.

Cyclotella Scotiea, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Valve very small, finely striate on the margin; the centre unstriate.
Kitz.

Bae, p: 50, T. i., figs. 2 and 8, Rallis, im Britch., p. 811, PI.
xiv, ce. 1/7, (Pl. 26, fig. 16.)

On sea-weeds at the Giants’ Causeway, Co. Antrim. Kiitzing and
Ralfs describe this species as adnate, but as my specimens had been
treated with acid before observation, I cannot confirm this character.

Cyclotella dallasiana, (W. Sm.) Marine.

Margin of the valve coarsely striate; central part rugose, as if blis-
tered. Smith represents the central part as ‘‘ cellulate ;” but Walker-
Arnott has more accurately described it as ‘‘ puckered, or as if blis-
tered.””

Wm.'Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 87. Walker-Arnott, Q.J. M.S, Oct.,
1860, p. 245. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 818. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 33.

Stomachs of Ascidians. Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Cyclotella punctata, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules undulate on front view; on side view, striz close, radiate,
very finely punctate, puncta smaller towards the margin, which latter
is surrounded by a circlet of short, fine coste. (PI. 26, fig. 17.)

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 87. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 813. PI. viiz.,
fig. 138. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 33.

Lough Island-Reayey, Co. Down. Float bog, Co. Westmeath.

Genus VI. Coscrnopiscus, Ehr.

Frustules simple, free, lenticular; valve generally uniformly striate.
Striz areolate or moniliform. Without processes or undulations.

Kiitzing noticed the close affinity between Melosira and the pre-
sent genus, but in his classification placed them very widely apart,

260 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

simply because in the latter the striation was, as he describes it, areo-
late. But subsequent writers found this distinction untenable, inas-
much as in Creswellia, connected with Melosira by the filamentous
character of its frustules, the striation is distinctly areolate, while in
some of the species which are properly included in the genus Coscino-
discus the areolate character disappears.

Heiberg is dissatisfied with the diagnoses which preceding authors
haye given, but in consequence of the limited amount of material for
observation at his command, declines to attempt a more satisfactory
definition. It appears to me that if Coscinodiscus excentricus, which is
described as having a spinous or dentate margin, be excluded, we
shall then have a tolerably well-marked group, as above defined.

-(a) Disk with a central rosette.

Coscinodiscus oculus tridis, (Ehr.) Marine.

Central rosette, consisting of from six to nine large oblong cellules.
Cellules large, hexagonal, radiate, distinctly smaller as they approach
the margin. (Pl. 26, fig. 18.)

Ehr. Mic., T. xviu., fig. 49. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 828. Raben.
Fl. Eur., p. 34. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 35. Cleve, Om Syenska
och Norska Diat., p. 217.

Tide pool, Monkstown; on sea-weeds, Ballybrack; tide pool,
Dalkey ; Oyster-shells, Dublin Bay, all in the County Dublin.

Coscinodiscus centralis, (Khr.) Marine.

Central rosette consisting of about eight large rounded cellules
surrounding a single central one. Cellules distinctly hexagonal,
radiate, nearly equal, and smaller than in the former species. (PI. 26,
fis 2119:

ae Mic., T. xviii., fig. 39. Greg. Diat. of Clyde. p. 28, Pl. x.,
fig. 49. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 828. If Gregory describes and figures
with accuracy the form so named, and found by him in Glenshira
Sand, as well as in the Clyde, it can scarcely be identical with the pre-
sent species. The only difference, however, is in the character of the
cellules forming the central rosette, which, in his form, consists of
“three large oblong cells meeting in a point, and between these, a
little farther from the centre, three more cells, a little smaller.”
Ralfs, however, as above cited, describes this portion of the valve as
consisting of ‘‘a few oblong cellules, round a circular one;” which
description accurately represents the appearance of the rosette in the
present form, and therefore I adopt the specific name.

On sea-weeds, Ballybrack, Dalkey, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of Asci-
dians, Belfast Lough.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 261

Coscinodiscus stellaris, (Roper.) Marine.

Central rosette, consisting of five or six long and narrow cellules ;
strie extremely minute, punctate, radiate.

Roper, Q. J. M.S., Vol. vi., p. 21, Pl. i1., fig, 3. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
828, Pl. v., fig. 83.

Oyster Shells, Dublin Bay.

Coscinodiscus concinnus, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Central rosette, consisting of from three to eight large flattened
cellules. Cellules small, radiate; valve divided into compartments by
radiating lines, which do not reach the margin.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p.84. Roper, Q.J.M.S., Vol. vi., p. 20,
Pl. ii., fig. 12. Ralfs, im Pritch., p.828. Roper, as above cited, states that
‘‘the larger specimens show plainly a point that is not easily discernible
in those under -004” in. diameter, namely a submarginal row of minute
spines, varying from 3;/55th to a soth of an inch apart, according
to the size of the disk, and from each of which there is a radiating
line almost to the centre of the valve.”’ I have, in consequence, con-
siderable hesitation in including the species under the genus Coscino-
discus; but, as the specimens that came under my notice were few in
number, and in every case imperfect, I would not presume to make
any change in the position to which it has been assigned.

It was found by Wm. Sm. in Kinsale Bay, and fragments have
occurred on sea-weeds, Ballybrack, and on oyster-shells from Dublin
Bay, both in the County Dublin.

(b). Disk with a central hyaline space like a perforation.

Coscinodiscus perforatus, (Khr.) Marine.

Hyaline centre, small, surrounded by about five rounded cellules.
Cellules large, indistinctly hexagonal, radiate, decreasing in size near
the margin. (PI. 26, fig 20.)

Smith describes the cellules as ‘‘ equal,’’ and Ralfs as ‘‘ minute ;”
but in my specimens they differ as stated above.

PireMaes To xvii, figs 46. Wm. Sm.,, B.D: Voli. p.. 852
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 829.

From stomachs of Howth Oysters, Tide-pool, Monkstown, Dalkey,
Ballybrack; on Oyster shells, Dublin Bay. Stomachs of Ascidians,
Belfast Bay.

(ce). Disk without a central rosette or vacant space. Cellules radiate.

Coscinodiscus gigas, (Khr.) Marine.

Disk very large, cellules not very large, hexagonal, radiate, smaller
towards the centre. (Pl. 26, fig. 21).

ine Mic. I xvini., fic. 34) Kutz. Bact, p..le2, I. 1) fie: 16:

Stomachs of Ascidians, dredged on the coast of County Clare.

262 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Coscinodiscus radiatus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Cellules large, hexagonal, radiate, somewhat smaller near the
margin.

Bhr. Mic 1. xx7 fic: 1) Miuitz. Bae: /p,. Vs2 ies:
Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 28, Pl. ui., fig. 37. (Relish im@Bmteh:)
p- 830, Pl. x1., figs. 89 and 40. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 36.
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 218. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 34.

On sea-weeds, Bannow, County Wexford. Piles of wooden bridge,
Dollymount; Malahide. Stomach of Pectens, Dalkey. On corallines,
Howth. On sea weeds, Ballybrack, County Dublin. On sea weeds,
Kilkee, County Clare. From stomachs of Ascidians, coast of County
Clare.

Coscinodiscus radiolatus, (Khr.) Marine.

Disk small, cellules minute, obscurely hexagonal, arranged partly
in radiate bands, and partly in the intervals of these bands in converg-
ing lines. Cellules confused at the centre of the disk, smaller towards
the margin. (Pl. 26, fig. 22.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 182, T. xxix., fig. 91. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 830, who
describes the form thus :—‘‘ Cellules punctiform, equal, radiating,”
whereas, in fact, they are minutely hexagonal, and diminish slightly
near the margin.

Oyster shells, Dublin Bay. Tide-pool,S Dalkey, County Dubhn.
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, County Galway. Stomachs of
Ascidians, County Clare.

Coscinodiscus cervinus, (Brightwell.) Marine.

Cellules very minute, radiate, close, dry valve fawn-coloured, frus-
tule convex.

Brightwell has described and figured this form as Hyalodiscus cer-
vinus, Q.J.M.S., Vol. viii., p. 95, Pl. vi., fig. 18. He describes the
‘‘puncta or dots”? as ‘scattered over the whole surface ;” butin his
figure represents them as regularly radiate, which latter corresponds
exactly with my specimens. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 831, places the form
among the doubtful species of Coscinodiscus, to which genus it pro-
perly belongs.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, County Galway.
From stomachs of Ascidians, County Clare.

Coscinodiscus Smithtii, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Disk small, punctate, puncta regularly radiate.

Wm. Sm., B. D.,Vol.i., p. 23, Pl. iii., fig. 36.

Smith has unaccountably confounded this form with Coscinodiscus
minor, Ehr., from which it is plainly distinguished, both by its habitat
and the character of the striation ; the latter being marine and areolate,
the former a fresh water species, and punctate.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 263:

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 818, considers this form may be identical with
Melosira nivalis, but it plainly belongs to the genus Coscinodiscus.

Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, County Armagh. Lough Island-Reavey,
County Down. River Blackwater, near Kells, County Meath.

Coscinodiscus Normanni, (Greg.) Marine.

Cellules on the the disk small, obscurely hexagonal, radiate,
arranged in fascicles of about six lines, decreasing in size as they ap-
proach the margin ; valve very convex in the centre.

Grevallles Qs J; M.S. Vole var. p. 81, Pl vi. fie. 3. Ralis) am
Pritch., p. 830.—Coscinodiscus fasciculatus, O’M., Q. J. M. S., New
Series, Vol. vil., p. 249, Pl: vii, fig. 1.

Arran Island, County Galway. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone-
Bay, County Galway. ;

Coscinodiscus nitidus, (Greg.) Marine.

Margin of the disk striated, cellules distant, roundish, large, dis-
tinctly radiate, except near the centre, where they are slightly con-
fused. Smaller at the margin, gradually increasing in size towards.
_ the centre.

Greg. Diat. of Clyde, p. 27, Pl. x., fig. 45. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p20, Pl. vi.; fig. 18.

Arran Island. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, County
Galway. Malahide, County Dublin. Rostrevor, County Down. Kilkee,
County Clare.

Coscinodiscus Gregorti, N.S. Marine.

Margin of the disk striated, cellules sub-quadrangular, much
smaller than in the former species, and more equal in size, radiate ;
a small vacant angular space in the centre, from the angles of which
so many lines of cellules run to the margin, the interspaces filled up
by rows of cellules, gradually shortening. (Pl. 26, fig. 23.)

Gregory, Diat., from Glenshira Sand, Q. J. M.S., Vol. v., Pl. 1.,
fig. 50. After describing Coscinodiscus nitidus, Gregory remarks,
‘‘this pretty disk was figured, without a name, in my last Paper on
the Glenshira Sand (Trans. Mic. Soc., Vol. v., Pl. i., fig. 50). Having
found it tolerably frequent in Lamlash Bay, I now figure a perfect
example, which provisionally I refer to Coscinodiscus.”” Diat. of
Clyde, p. 28. This form may easily be confounded with the preced-
ing, as Gregory has done ; but a more careful comparison of the many
specimens that have come under my observation convinces me the
forms are distinct; and accordingly I give to the present the name
of Gregory, who first discovered it.

Arran Island. From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay,
County Galway. Stomachs of Ascidians, County Clare.

264 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
(d). Cellules radiate at the margin, linear in the central portion.

Coscinodiscus fimbriatus, (Khr.) Marine.

Cellules hexagonal; small; im the central portion of the disk
arranged in lines crossing in quincunx ; towards the margin radiate ;
smaller towards the margin.

Ehr. Mic. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 829.

Stomachs of Ascidians, County Clare.

(e.) Cellules arranged variously.

Coscinodiscus marginatus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Cellules large, hexagonal, arranged in irregularly curved lines,
with a distinct narrow strongly costate margin.

Ehr. Mic. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 829. Weisse, Recherches Micro-
scopique sur le Guano, Bul. de ?Academie Imp. de St. Petersburg,
exaie po. 122 UP ln petiole

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay. Arran Islands. Stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

Coscinodiscus lineatus, (Khr.) Marine.

Cellules rounded, arranged in oblique, parallel lines.

Ehrenberg, in his Microgeologie, gives several figures under this
name. One of them, T. xxi.., fig. 6 a.b., seems scarcely assignable to
the genus Coscinodiscus, inasmuch as it is furnished with a marginal
circlet of nodules. Besides this there are two other forms, quite dis-
tinct: one in which the striz are linear, to be immediately described ;
the other, the present form, which is furnished with cellules as
described above.

Ehr. Mic. Kitz. Bac., p. 131, T. 1., fig. 10. Ralis\anvientehe
p- 830.

Malahide. Monkstown. Dredgings in Bay, Co. Dublin. Sea-
weeds, Wicklow. Breaches near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow. Bannow,
Co. Wexford. Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Asci-
dians, Roundstone Bay, Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Coscinodiscus Ehrenbergi, N.S. Marine.

Disk ‘striate. Striz limear, in two series, crossing each other
obliquely. (Pl. 26, fig. 24.)

This is the form described by Ehrenberg as Cos. lineatus, Mic.,
mM xxxv., AJ1/, fig. (7; T. xxxv.; A. 16, fie. 3.. . Wieissewbolemde
lV’ Academie de St. Petersburg, Tom. xii., Pl.i., fig. 20a.

Malahide. Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount, Co. Dublin.
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 265

Coscinodiscus minor, (Khr.) Marine.

Disk small. Cellules roundish, without any perceptible arrange-
ment. (Pl. 26, fig. 25.)

Ehr. Mic., T. Qo, Tt GILG, ALS < =i. fon 28)4 ely exalt ee
iexax ties 3. Kutz. Bac. 4 p. EBay Cohen fies. 12, 13. Ralfs, in
Pritch., 51D 831. Weisse, Recherches Microscopiques sur le Guano, Bul.
de 1’ Academie Imperial de Science de St. Petersburg, T. xu., p. 121,
Plein te, 22.

Tide-pool, Dalkey, Co. Dublin.

Coscinodiscus punctulatus, (Greg.) Marine.

Strie indistinct. Disk covered with what appear to be fine puncta,
irregularly scattered.

Gregory describes the disk in his specimens as ‘‘ marked by very
fine and obscure lines, which, near the margin, are traceable as rays,
but which soon become fainter, and apparently wavy, at the same
time as they proceed towards the centre.’”’—Diat. of Clyde, p. 28.

Several specimens, from different localities, came under my notice,
but all mounted in balsam. In consequence I could not trace the lines
referred to; and, moreover, the puncta in such forms as were seen
obliquely had the appearance of fine hairs. This circumstance increases
the doubt which I entertain, in common with Gregory and Ralfs, as
to whether the form is properly referred to the genus Coscinodiscus.

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 28, Pl. x., fig. 46. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 831.

Arran Islands. From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay,
Co. Galway. On Fucus serratus, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

Genus VII. Aracuwnorpiscus, Ehr. Deane.

Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergit, (Bailey.) Marine.

‘Disk with a central hyaline nodule or umbilicus, and numerous
radiating lines, connected by concentric circles of large pearly granules;
the circle next the umbilicus formed of short lines.’”’—Ralfs.

Waneism:, B. D:, Vol.1 p.20; Supp. Pl. xxxi, fig: 256. Rallis:
in Pritch., p. "842, Pl “xv., figs. 18-21.

This truly splendid form has been discovered in the fossil earths ot
California, and in a living state it has been gathered in Japan, Cali-
fornia, and South Africa. It is its habit in congenial climates to cover
completely the plants to which it is attached. It admits of serious
doubt, therefore, whether the few isolated specimens which have been
‘discovered in this kingdom entitle it to be included among our British
forms. _ Rabenhorst does not give it a place among the European
species of Diatomacez; and perhaps he wasright in excluding it. But
it seems desirable to notice the fact of its having been found. Besides

266 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the case mentioned by Smith, Captain Hutton found some two or three
‘specimens in a gathering made by him at Malahide, Co. Dublin, as
mentioned in the Proceedings of the Dublin Microscopical Club, 15th
December, 1864; Q. J. M.S., April, 1865, p. 167. Had these forms
been found in the proximity of a harbour resorted to by foreign vessels,
it might be suspected they were imported from foreign seas, and
deposited as the vessels unladed their freight; but such a supposi-
tion cannot be entertained regarding Malahide. I was present at the
meeting when the specimens were exhibited, and remember that
Captain Hutton informed me that he had not been working with any
material likely to contain these forms, and that he was confident they
were taken from the sea at Malahide, as the vessels used in the pre-
paration were new, and had not been used before. I have myself to
add, that a single frustule was recently found by me in a gathering
made by Rey. M. H. Close, at a place called Drehidnamaud, on the
coast of the Co. Kerry.

In the same gathering which yielded the specimens of Arachnoi-
discus Ehrenbergu, Captain Hutton found some specimens of what he
regarded as Arachnoidiscus ornatus; but considering it likely these
latter were not specifically distinct, I only refer here to the circum-
stance as corroborative of the probability that Arachnoidiscus Ehren-
bergii was found at Malahide.

Genus VIII. Crasprpopiscts, Ehr.

Disk not undulate, having a broad border, with areolation differing
from that of centre.

Craspedodiscus coscinodiscus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Border broad, about the third of the entire diameter, areolate
areoles hexagonal. Middle portion punctate. (Pl. 26, fig. 26.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 832, Pl. v., fig. 80.—Craspedodiscus pyxidicula,
Brightwell, Q. J. M. S., 1860, p. 95, Pl. v., fig. 4.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

Genus IX. Actrnoptycuvs, Ehr.

Disk undulate, divided into strongly defined somewhat triangular
‘compartments, with a distinct polygonal centre, the sides of the
polygon being equal to the number of compartments into which the
disk is divided.

The valves in this genus appear to consist of two distinct plates,
with a striation somewhat different, hence the species have by some
being unnecessarily multiplied.

,

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 267

Actinoptychus senarius, (Ehr.) Brackish or marine.

Valve divided into six compartments, areolate, areole more or
less hexagonal. In this species the valves vary considerably in size.

DireMae To xxi, fiel8 a:b. Kutz. Bae:, p. 134, "1. v,, fies 21;
T. xxi., fig. 26. The form there described does not differ from that
which the same author has described and figured as Actinocyclus undu-
latus, Bac., p. 132, T.i., fig. 24. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 839, Pl. ix., fig.
132.—Actinoptychus undulatus, Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 35.—
Actinocyclus undulatus, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 25; Plate v., fig.
43. Heib. De Danske Diat., p. 37. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska
Diat., p. 218.

Salt ditch near Wexford. Bannow, Co. Wexford. Rostrevor,
Co. Down. Stomachs of Pectens, Dalkey. Dollymount. Portmarnock,
Co. Dublin. Sea shore, near Ballysodare, Co. Sligo.

Var. denarius, (Ehr.) Marine.

Compartments ten in number. Ehr. Mic., T. xviii., fig. 23.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay. Arran Islands,
Westport Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. duodenarius,.(Ehr.) Marine.

Compartments twelve in number. Ehr. Mic., T. xviii. f. 24.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 840. Weisse, Bulletin de L’Academie Imp. de
St. Petersbourg, Tome xil., p. 122, T.1., fig. 8—Actinocyclus duo-
denarius, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 86.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay. Arran Islands, Co.
Galway.

Var. sedenarius, (Khr.) Marine.

Compartments sixteen in number. Ehr. Mic., T. xviii., fig. 26.
Weisse, Bulletin de L’Academie Imp. de St. Petersbourg, Tome xii.,
p- 122. T.1i., fig. 9.—Actinocyclus sedenarius, Wm. Sm., B.D.,
Vol. 1, p. 86.

Sea-weeds, Bannow, Co. Wexford. Arran Islands. From sto-
machs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. vicenarius, (Ehr.) Marine.

Compartments twenty in number. The only specimen of this
variety found by me has marginal teeth obyious on some of the com-
partments, though not noticeable on others, owing perhaps to the
circumstance of the valve not lying quite parallel to the side. These
teeth disappeared altogether when the form was mounted in balsam.
Ralis, in Pritch., p. 840. Weisse, Bulletin de L’ Academie Imp.
de St. Petersbourg, Tome xii., p. 122.

Drehidnamaud, Co. Kerry.

R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL, II., SCIENCE. 2M

268 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Genus X. OmpHatopetta, Ehr.

Valves as in Actinoptychus, but haying a marginal spine in each
compartment.

Omphalopelta areolata, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valve haying six compartments, areolate ; submarginal spines small.

Whr. Mic., I xxxy., A. “Ralis; im Pritch., “p; O21 ae eyauae eae
15.—Actinocyclus areolatus, Brightwell. Q.J.M.S., 1860, p. 93, Pl.
Weel

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Genus XI. Acrrvocyctus, Ehr.

‘‘TDisk minutely and densely punctated, or cellulose, generally
divided by radiating single or double dotted lines, and haying a small
circular hyaline intramarginal pseudo-nodule.” ‘‘The disk is not
undulated.”” Ralfs. To this description may be added, that the
species of this genus usually exhibit a border in which the strie are
unlike those of the remainder of the disk; the striw also almost or
altogether reach the centre.

Actinocyclus Ralfsii, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve highly irridescent under a low power. Strie radiate, monili-
form ; puncta nearly of uniform size throughout, the dividing radii equi-
distant, nearly reaching the centre; the next lines of puncta consider-
ably shorter than the radu; the next again still shorter, exhibiting
numerous subulate blank spaces; border tolerably wide, minutely
punctate; submarginal nodule large, round; no central nodule, but
the central portion marked by a few scattered puncta; diameter about
"0042. (PI. 27, fig. 1.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 835, Pl. v., fig. 84.—Eupodiscus Ralfsii, Wm.
Sms Babs Vol a p:.86.

Lough Kay, Co. Kerry. Stomachs of Pectens, Dalkey Sound, Co.
Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Actinocyelus moniliformis, (Ralfs.) Marine.

Strize moniliform, principal rays about twelve in number, running
radiately from centre to border; intermediate rays becoming gradually
shorter and parallel, except near the border, where a few short ones
meet them at an angle. About four puncta, closely approximated in
the centre, present the appearance of a nodule; border narrow, punc-
tate; pseudo-nodule small, marginal. Diameter about -0034. (Pl.
27, fig. 2.)

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a

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 269

i have had considerable difficulty in identifying this species; in
some respects it agrees with the description of Eupodiscus sparsus,
Greg., Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 81, Pl.1., fig. 47. But as it more nearly
resembles specimens frequently to be met with in the Richmond
deposit, which Ralfs seems to have had in view when he named the
species, I have adopted his specific designation.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 834.

Salt ditch near Wexford. Sea-weeds, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

Actinocyclus crassus, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Strize moniliform; principal rays strongly marked when viewed by
a low power; arrangement of puncta somewhat confused; border
narrow, punctate, puncta decussate; submarginal nodule small; dia-
meter 0020.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 835.—Eupodiscus crassus, Wm. Sm., B.D.,
Wolsi, p- 24, Pl. iv., fig. 41.

Sea-weeds, Ballybrack. Stomachs of Pectens, Dalkey Sound,
Malahide, Howth, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Actinocyclus fulvus, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Striz moniliform, close, subradiate; border broad; striation indis-
tinct; submarginal nodule small. Diameter about :0025.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 835.—Eupodiscus fulvus, Wm. Sm., B.D.,
Vol. i., p. 24, Pl: iv., fig. 40.

Stomachs of Pectens, Dalkey Sound, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of
Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co Galway.

Genus XII. Evropiscvs, Ehr.

Valves haying horn-like processes springing from the surface.

Eupodiscus argus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Disk large, areolate; areoles irregular, somewhat angular, radiately
disposed ; processes three or four, submarginal. Diameter from ‘0065
to °0120. (Pl. 27, fig. 3.)

Wan. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 24, Pl. iv., fig. 39. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p- 848, Pls. vi., fig: 2, and xi:, figs: 41, 42: Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p: 87: Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. i., p. 319.—Tripodiscus argus,
utz. Bac., p. 136, T. i., fig. 6.

Dublin Bay.
2M 2

270 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Genus XIII. Avtiscus, Ehr.

Surface of the valve undulate, furnished with two large processes;
strie plumose, arranged in form of a quatrefoil.

Auliscus sculptus, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Strie linear. (Pl. 27, fig. 4.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 845, Pl. vi., fig. 3. Greville, Q.J.M:S.,
1863, p. 48, Pl. ii., figs. 1-3. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 37.
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 218 ——Eupodiscus sculptus,
Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 25, Pl. iv., fig. 42.—Aulacodiscus sculp-
tus, Brightwell, Q.J.M.8., 1860, p. 94, Pl. v., fig. 3.

Malahide. Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount, Co. Dublin. River
Slaney, at Killurin, Co. Wexford. Sea-weeds, near town of Wicklow.
Westport, Co. Galway.

Genus XIV. Opontopiscus, Ehr.
Disk furnished with marginal tecth. ;

In this genus I have united Ehrenberg’s two genera, Odontodiscus
and Systephania, deeming the distinction between them not of suffi-
cient importance to justify their separation. The distinction, as ex-
pressed by Ralfs, is simply this, that in Odontodiscus ‘‘the dots are
radiate, not parallel, as in Systephania.”’

Odontodiscus excentricus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Disk varying in size from ‘0008 to -0025; areolate; areoles round,
arranged in curved excentric lines; teeth numerous, short. (PI. 27,
fig. 5.

: vie Mic., DT. xxxy., A. 18; fig. 11. Ralfs, in. Prtchs isso.
Pl. v., fig. 90.—Coscinodiscus excentricus, Kiitz. Bac., p. 131, T.i.,
fig. 9, in which the teeth are not figured or described. Wm. Sm.,
B.D., Vol. i., p. 28, Pl. iii., fig. 38.—Eupodiscus excentricus, O’M.,
Q.J.M.S., 1867, p. 249, Pl. vii., fig. 2.

Sea-weeds, Bannow. Salt ditch near Wexford. Piles of wooden
bridge, Dollymount, Malahide, Stomachs of Pectens, Dalkey, from
Corallines, Howth, Sea-weeds, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin. Sea-weeds,
Kilkee, Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians,
Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Odontodiscus anglicus, (Donkin.) Marine.

Disk about ‘0016 in diameter ; teeth large and prominent, oceupy-
ing a tolerably broad unstriate margin; strie minutely punctate, decus-
sately arranged. (PI. 27, fig. 6).

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. —- 27/1

Systephania anglica, Donkin, Q.J.M.S., 1861, p. 12, Pl. i,
fig. 14.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Odontodiscus hibernicus. N.S. Marine.

Disk about ‘0018 in diameter; areolate ; areoles round, decussately
arranged, reaching the circumference ; teeth more numerous than in
former species, and shorter. (Pl. 27, fig. 7.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

A. Frustules symmetrical. Valves not circular. ~

Famity II, BIDDULPHIEA, Kitz.

Valves lanceolate, in some cases nearly orbicular, furnished with
distinct processes and spines; connecting zone largely developed in
full-grown specimens. In such species as have been seen in a living
state the frustules are united in filaments.

This group, established by Kiitzing without any very distinct defini-
tion, embraced the following genera, Isthmia, Odontella, Biddulphia, and
Zygoceros. Ralfs, in Pritchard, adopts the same system of grouping,
adding to those above named two other genera, Hemiaulus, and Hy-
drogera, but gives more distinct characteristics than the former author.
His diagnosis rests mainly on the convexity of the frustules, in con-
sequence of which the lateral valves ‘‘enter largely into the front
view,’ and onthe development of processes on the valves. Grunow
adopts the group with no more distinct definition than the following.
‘Side view longish, or having three, four, or more angles,” and in-
cludes in it four genera, namely, Isthmia, Biddulphia, Amphitetras,and
Triceratium. Heiberg marks the group by the fact of the processes
springing from the valve obliquely outwards, and places under it the
genera Cerataulus, Biddulphia, Triceratium, Amphitetras; and in a
sub-group named Biddulphiez cuneate, the genus Eucampia also.
Immediately connected with the Biddulphiez, this Danish author
places another group, the Hemiaulide, mainly distinguished from the
former by this one feature, that the processes, instead of springing
from the valve obliquely, are placed at right angles with the plane of
the base.

The genus Isthmia which Kiitzing, Ralfs, and Grunow include in
the Biddulphiee, differs considerably in these respects, that the frus-
tules on the front view are not symmetrical, and the valves are not
furnished with processes, the structure which Ralfs regarded as such

272 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

being only a mucous cushion or stipes, and on these grounds the genus
Isthmia ought to be excluded. In the case of Hydrosera (Wallich),
the frustules are not symmetrical, processes occurring on the one valve,
and not on the opposite one. Wallich’s description is ‘‘on one side
only, with a remarkable series of aperture-like appendages.” Wallich
on Triceratium, Q.J.M.S., July, 1858, p. 251. For which reason I
consider the genus Hydrosera is not properly comprehended in the
group. The species marked by an angular outline of the valves as
Triceratium, Amphitetras, &c., however closely related to the Biddul-
phiez, seem however to possess such distinctive peculiarities of struc-
ture as to justify their being placed in a separate group; and if any
forms of the genus Hemiaulus had occurred in Irish localities, I would
have been disposed to include them with the Biddulphiee as Raben-
horst has done in his Flora Europea Algarum.

Various generic names have from time to time been introduced by
different writers to designate the forms of this group, in consequence
of which much confusion has arisen, to obviate which a few remarks
are here necessary.

The generic name Biddulphia was first adopted by Gray, and
along with Biddulphia pulchella embraced some heterogeneous forms,
which latter were afterwards removed to their proper places. Agardh
then established the genus Odontella to receive the single species now
known as Biddulphia aurita; Ehrenberg having applied the name
Odontella to a species of Desmid, as Roper informs us, Q.J.M.S.,
Oct., 1858, p. 3, substituted for it the designation Denticella, which
was thus equivalent to Agardh’s Odontella. The forms included in
these genera, Biddulphia and Denticella, were filamentous; and
Ehrenberg having found kindred forms which, without sufficient
examination, he considered to be simple, adopted the genera Zygoceros
and Cerataulus, the former for those free forms, as he thought them
allied to Biddulphia, the latter to Denticella. Some of these genera
have been retained by succeeding writers, but Smith in his Synopsis
has, as I think, wisely dispensed with these superfluous subdivisions,
and included the forms contained in them under the one generic
name.

Rabenhorst, in his Flora Europea Algarum, places the Biddulphiese
in close connexion with the septate forms, supposing, as I imagine, that
the costz on the valves of Bid. pulchella and other species with un-
dulate surfaces are septa. On this subject the observations of Smith
are worthy of notice: ‘‘The existence of septa in B. pulchella is by
no means to be admitted, though the costee may occasionally project
into the interior of the cells.” B.D., Vol. ii., p. 49.

Genus I. Broputpnta, Gray.

Processes projecting outwards at a more or less acute angle from
the plane of the base.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. —-278

(a.) Surfaces of the valves not undulate.

Biddulphia radiata, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve nearly circular; cellules distinct, roundish, radiate, larger
at the margin than towards the centre, where they are small and more
- distant; processes two, large, alternating with two others smaller and
spine-like.

It is with some difficulty that I have come to the conclusion that
this form is identical with that described by Wm. Smith, first as
Eupodiscus radiatus, B.D., Vol. i., p. 24, Pl. xxx., fig. 255; and sub-
sequently as Biddulphia radiata, Vol. u., p. 48, Pl. lxi., fig. 255.
Neither as regards the outline of the valve, nor its areolation, can this
form be regarded as obviously the same as that described in Smith’s
figure, which is perfectly orbicular, whereas in the present case the
outline, though nearly circular, presents four distinct angles, the pro-
cesses being placed at opposite ends of one diagonal line, the spines
occupying the corresponding position on the other. Roper, Q.J.M.S.,
‘Oct., 1858, p. 19, Pl. ii., fig. 29, and Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 847,
affirm the orbicular outline of the valve; but Smith, who was sub-
sequently convinced that the form was wrongly placed in the genus
Eupodiscus, and that its proper position was in Biddulphia, uses such
language as to imply that the outline is not perfectly circular. Mark-
ing the distinctive peculiarities of Eupodiscus and Biddulphia, he
says, the frustules of the former differ from those of the latter, “‘ by
the orbicular outline of their valves.” B.D., Vol. ii, p. 48. The
present form differs from Smith’s figure not only in the outline, but
in the character and arrangement of the cellules. In the latter, the
cellules are minute, close, and not radiately disposed, and on this point
Ralfs alleges, ‘‘the cellules are not radiant,” Pritch., p. 847. The
specific name given to the species by Smith is, however, suggestive
of the thought that the figure is at fault in this respect. Roper’s
figure of the species exhibits the cellules as small and radiately
arranged, but in his description he represents them just as they are in
the form under consideration, ‘‘as distinctly reticulated, with small
but rather irregular hexagons.”

Cerataulus Smithu, Ralfs, in Pritchard, p. 847. Cleve, Om
Syenska och Norska Diat., p. 218. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. i., p. 813.

Salt marsh near Ballysodare, Co. Sligo.

Biddulphia turgida, (Khr.) Marine.

Connecting zone transverse; valves nearly orbicular, having two
large truncate processes, and two alternate spines both situated diago-
nally; a circlet of small marginal spines sometimes present, and
numerous minute spines scattered irregularly over the surface; stria-
tion minutely punctate, the puncta arranged in close wavy lines.

This, as well as the former species, are by Ralfs, Heiberg, Raben-
horst, and Cleve, placed in a distinct genus named Cerataulus, the

274 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

distinctive characteristic being the fact that the processes and spines.
are diagonally situated on the valve.

Wm. 8m., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 50, Pl. lxii., fig. 8384. Roper, Q. J.
M.S., Oct, 1858, ps1%, Pl. u., fig. 23. Ralfs, in Pritch, p) 846, Pl.
vi., fig. 8. Heiberg, De Danske Diat, p. 39. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1,.
p- 313. :

Salt marsh, Ballysodare, Co. Sligo. Sea-weeds, Malahide, Co. Dub-.
lin.

Biddulphia aurita, (Lyngbye.) Marine.

Valves elliptical lanceolate, with the processes at the extremities.
of the longitudinal axis; processes large at the base, rounded off
towards the fine extremity; the elevated centre of the valves bearing
three fine and long spines; striation punctate, fine ; puncta observed
from front view, parallel; connecting zone finely punctate. (Pl. 27,
fig. 8a).

Smith and Roper attribute this species to De Brébisson; but with
Ralfs, Heiberg, and Rabenhorst, I consider it should be ascribed to.
Lyngbye, who first described it as Diatoma auritum.

Wm. Sm, B.D., Vol. i.,p. 49, Pl. xlv.,-\fig: 8195) Ropema@adr
M.S., Oct., 1858, p. 10, Pl.i., fig. 3. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 849. Hei-
berg, De Danske Diat., p. 41. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 811. Cleve,
Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 218.—Denticella aurita, Ehr. Mic.,
T. xxxv., A 23, fig. 7.—Odontella aurita, Kiitz. Bac., p. 1387, T. xxix.,
fig. 88.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. Sea-weeds,
Ballybrack, Malahide, Dollymount, Howth, Co. Dublin. Rostrevor,
Co. Down. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Laytown, Co. Meath. Bally-
sodare, Co. Sligo. Dundalk, Co. Louth.

Biddulphia rhombus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valves orbicular-lanceolate ; processes at the extremity of the longi-
tudinal axis; spines marginal ; central elevation slight; striation finely
punctate, seen on front view, parallel; connecting zone finely punc-
tate.

Ehrenberg described this form as Zygoceros rhombus; to him, there-
fore, should it be ascribed, and not to Wm. Smith, as some authors have
done.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. it, p. 49, Pl. 1xi., fig. 320. Roper, Q. J. M.S.,
Oct., 1858, p. 11, Pl. i., fig. 4. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 40. Rab.,
Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 811. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p. 218.—Zygoceros rhombus, Ehr., Berl. Acad., 1839, p.156. Ktitz.
Bac., p. 138. T. xviu., fig. 9. Ralfs, in Pritch, p. 850.

Malahide, Baldoyle, Ballybrack, Dollymount, Co. Dublin.

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. = 275

Biddulphia baileyvi, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Frustules, on front view, receding at the sides in a gentle slope; end
surfaces nearly flat, with two slight elevations on which the spines are
situated ; processes long, and narrow towards the extremity, slightly
curving inwards; striation very obscure; punctate; puncta parallel.
On side view valves broadly elliptical; processes at extremities of the
longitudinal axis; spines two, situated a little to the right and left
of same, about one-third of the entire length from extremities ; strize
very fine; lines of puncta appearing to cross each other, except upon
a vacant, sigmoid, narrow space in the middle. (Pl. 27, fig. 8.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. ii., p. 50, Pls. xlv. and Ixii., fig. 8322. Rab.
Enns esect. 1, ps 811: ) Roper) Q: J, MS4) Oct. 1858)» py 12,
Pl. i., figs. 5-9.—Zygoceros mobiliensis, Ralfs, in Pritch, p. 850,
Pliava. ie. 11.

Salt ditch near Wexford. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Dundalk,
Co. Louth. Salt marsh, Drehidnamaud, Co. Kerry.

(b.) Surfaces of the valves undulate.

Biddulphia pulchella, (Gray.) Marine.

On front view the sides incline inwards towards the processes ; the
valves divided into compartments, from three to seven in number, the
central being the largest and most elevated, from which, in perfect
specimens, two or three spines are projected; compartments separated
by what appear strong coste ; processes short, rounded at extremities ;
striation areolate; areoles roundish, and nearly parallel; connecting
zone striate. On side view the valve is broadly elliptical; areoles
ranged round the central point. (Pl. 27, fig. 9.)

Wameiism., B.D.) Voleit:,sp.48) Pis., xliv., xlv.; xlv., fie..321-
Roper, Q. J. M.S., Oct., 1858, p. 7. Ralfs, in Pritch, p. 848, Pl. u.,
figs. 46-50.—Biddulphia trilocularis ; B. quinquelocularis ; B. septem-
locularis, Kitz. Bac., p. 138, T. xxix., fig. 89, T. xix., fig. 1, T. xix.,
fig. 2.—Diatoma Biddulphianum, Agardh, Syst. Alg., p.5.—Denticella
Biddulphia, Ehr., Berl. Trans., 1843.

Malahide, Ireland’s Eye, Baldoyle, Co. Dublin. Sea-weeds,
Giants’ Causeway, Co. Antrim. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone
Bay, Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Famity TTI. TRICERATIEA.
Valves on side view presenting three or more angles, with a pro-

cess springing from each angle.

This group includes the genera Amphitetras, Triceratium and Trina-
cria, which, in consequence of their obvious resemblance, are placed

276 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

here, although differently arranged by other authors. Wm. Smith,
recognising the affinity between Biddulphia and Amphitetras, placed
them close together, but assigned to Triceratium a widely different
position in his system of arrangement. Kiitzing distributes the in-
cluded genera in two distinct groups—the Anguliferee and Angulate,
between which he interposed the Biddulphiee and Tripodiscus argus
= Eupodiscus argus. The Angulifere, he says, ‘‘are easily distin-
guished by means of their angular side view;”’ but of the Angulate,
which embraces only the single genus Triceratium, he gives no other
diagnosis than that contained in the description of that genus, ‘‘indi-
viduals free, with the bivalve lorica triangular, not concatenated,”
Ralfs omits Trinacria, a genus established by Heiberg subsequently to
the publication of the ‘‘ History of the Infusoria,’”’ and along with the
other genera placed in the present group includes Eucdia, and Hemi-
discus. Of Hemidiscus I have never seen a specimen, and, therefore,
can express no opinion regarding it; but as to Euodia, from the cuneate
outline of its transverse section, it plainly should be excluded from this
group, with which it has little, if any, affinity. Ralfs indicates two
features by which the forms in this group may be distinguished from
the Biddulphiee: ‘‘ The angles on the front view are usually less
elongated, and the intervening margin less lobed.” Of these charac-
ters the latter can scarcely be sustained in all cases; and as to the
former, if Trinacria, in which the processes at the angles are very
long, is to be admitted here, this, too, must be regarded as by no
means a satisfactory diagnosis. Grunow does not refer to Trinacria,
for the same reason as Ralfs, but includes the other forms of this group
under the Biddulphieze, which he thus defines: ‘‘ Valves on side view
longish, or three, four, or more angled,” no reference being made to the
processes springing from the angles which constitute so remarkable a
feature of these forms. According to this author, the characteristic
distinction between Amphitetras and Triceratium is the possession of
four angles by the former, while the latter has but three. The fact
that specimens of the former occur with five angles, and of the latter
with four or more angles, evinces how untenable is this distinction asa
generic diagnosis.

Heiberg includes Amphitetras and Triceratium in the Biddulphiee,
and his genus Trinacria in another group, namely, the Hemiaulide ;
the main distinction of which rests on the form and position of the
processes, which are triangular, and spring at right angles from the
basal plane of the valve. But these differences, though sufficient to
establish generic distinction, seem scarcely to justify the establishment
of a distinct group to receive the forms. It will thus appear that, in
consequence of the projection of the processes from the angles of the
valves, the relationship of this group to the Biddulphiez is recognised
by most authors: but no more satisfactory distinction between Am-
phitetras and Triceratium has been suggested than that in the former
the frustules are concatenate, and in the other free. This distinction
I adopt, not because I consider the supposed fact on which it rests in

eee OR 2 = A in eee
.

O’Mrara—eport on the Irish Diatomacee. 277

all cases substantiated by observation, but because it seems the most
satisfactory. And not being in a position either to sustain or refute
the assumption, I consider the proper course is to leave them as they
stand.

Genus I. Ampurrerras, Ehr.

Frustules concatenate ; cubical ; processes springing from each angle
of the valve short.

Amplitetras antediluviana, (Ehr.) Marine.

Striation areolate; connecting zone more finely areolate than the
valve. On side view, margins deeply concave ; areoles radiate and con-
centric. (PI. 27, fig. 10.)

KGuizerbacs. p. Veo) xix foe (oi Sexo fet S6 6 alts sin:
Pritch., p. 858. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 42. Rab. Fl. Eur.,
sect. 1, p. 318.—Amphitetras antediluviana, 8. W. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii.
pac blelxav., fis. 818 a’.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Arran Islands, Co.
Galway.

Variety a.—On side view, sides parallel—Amphitetras antediluvi-
iawn S:, B.D, Vol. u., p. 47, Pl! xhiv., fie.-31\8. Walis, ain
Pritch., p. 858, Pl. xi., figs. 21 and 22.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay. Arran Islands, Co. Gal-
way. Malahide. Dublin Bay. Howth, Co. Dublin. Bundoran, Co.
Donegal.

Variety 6.—With five angles.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Genus II. Triceratium, Ehr.

Frustules simple; normally triangular on side view; processes
short, roundish, springing outwards, at an acute angle to the basal
plane.

Triceratium facus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Striation areolate; areoles hexagonal, large; sides straight or slightly
convex.

anizer back, p.. 139, iL. xvaies pie. Il) ) Wana Sms, BaD Volks
p. 26, Pl. v., fig. 44; Supp. Pl. xxx., fig. 44. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 855.
Pl. xi., fig. 43. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 41. Mab. Fl. Eur.,
sect. 1, p. 315.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

278 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Triceratium alternans, (Bailey.) Marine.

Sides nearly straight; striation areolate; areoles small, roundish ;
radiating towards the three angles; bases of the processes ‘marked by
what seem well defined cost. (Pl. 27, fig. 11.)

Bailey, Mic. Observations made in Sth. “Carolina, Smithsonian Con-
tributions, Vol. ii., p.40. Brightwell, Q. J. M. S.., Vol. i., p. 251,
IAL yates sheds 1 Wm. bm., B.D., Vol.a., p. 26, Pl iyveeieatoe Supp.
Pl. xxx., fig. 45. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 854, Pl. vi., fig: 21. Rab.
Fl. Eur. sect. 1, p. 316.

Mud of River Liffey, Co. Dublin.

Triceratium amblyoceros, (EKhr.) Marine.
Sides convex ; angles broadly rounded off; cellules radiate, distant,
roundish ; more deeply shaded at the borders. (Pl. 27, ie 12.)
Bhr. Mic., T. xviu., fig. 51. Brightwell. Q. J. M. S., Vol.2.,.
p. 250, Pl. iv., fig. 14. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 857.

Stomachs of Poolbeg oysters. Dublin Bay.

Triceratium exiguum, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve very minute; areoles minute; angles elongated; sides in-
flexed. (PI. 27, fig. 13.)

Wn. 8n., B. D., Vol.ii., p. 87. Brightwell,Q.J. M.S., 1856,
p. 274, Pl. xvu., fig. 1. Ralts, im Pritch., p857, Pic vaxpiowsles

River Liffey, Co. Dublin.

Genus III. Trrvacrra, Heiberg.

Frustules normally triangular; processes springing from the sur-
face at a right angle, and surmounted by two curved spines ; transverse
section of the processes triangular.

Trinacria regina, (Heiberg.) Marine.

As but one specimen of this species has been met with by me, and
that mounted in balsam, instead of giving my own diagnosis I
consider it better to transcribe the exhaustive description of Heiberg.

‘Outline of the basal-surface triangular, with an extended de-
pression towards the centre and the short pointed angles. The out-
line of the side view less than that of the basal-surface, its sides
bulged in the middle, and evenly depressed on both sides of the same.
The side-surface separated from the front surface by a thick projecting
border. The end-processes of varying height, with a prominent keel
on the outer margin; spines slightly crescentic. The portion of the
side-surface lying between the processes at the angles forms a gently
elevated ridge, which again has a slight depression towards the middle

O’Mrsrsa—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 279

point. The striation of the valves formed of moderately scattered
granules, arranged in curved radiating lines, slight or absent ; about the
middle point, more robust, and consisting of angular granules arranged
in three or four longitudinal lines, and in short transverse lines diverg-
ing towards the suture, or that portion of the side-surface of the valve
which lies between each pair of end-processes. Granules about 22 in
0.05™™ along the suture; striation of the connecting-zone unknown;
length of the side of the basal surface = 0°055™™ — 0:°175™™.”
This beautiful form I considered to be an undescribed species of
Triceratium, until I saw Heiberg’s figure of Trinacria regina, when I
at once recognised its identity. (PI. 27, fig. 14).
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 50, T. u1., fig. 7.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

In reference to the locality of this form, Heiberg says:—‘“ It
eccurs abundantly in the brown Moleer from Fuur, in which it is one
of the most common forms. In the white Moleer I have found only
a few single specimens.” It is then a matter of interest to discover
it on our own coasts.

Famay IY. ISTHMIEA, Agardh..

Frustules trapezoidal on front view, on the side view broadly
elliptical, without processes; one valve having the extreme corner
preduced, at the end of which is secreted the mucous cushion by which
frustule is united to frustule, so as to form an irregularly branched
filament.

In a classification founded on the symmetrical or unsymmetrical
shape of the frustule, this family should in strictness be assigned to a
different position; but I place it here not only in deference to the
views of all authors known to me, but because in point of fact
it presents considerable analogy to the Biddulphiee, and without
violence could not be suitably placed at a distance from that

group.

Genus I. Isruaa, Agardh.
Characters of the Genus those of the Family.

Isthmia nervosa, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Striation of valves areolate; areoles large, close, somewhat hexa-
gonal, with numerous strong anastomosing coste springing from the
margin, and disappearing towards the middle of the valve; connecting
membrane areolate, areoles much smaller than those on the valve
(Pl. 27, fig. 15.)

iniz, ac. p. lol, Umax fe. 5. Wm. snt., B. D., Volou-,

280 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

p- 52, Pl. xlvu. « Ralfs,.m Pritch.,p. 581. . Rab: FS Hmeeiseetes|,
p. 809.

This and the following species have been described by different
authors under different generic and specific names, e. g., Isthmia obli-
quata, Ag.; Diatoma obliquatum, Lyng.; Isthmia obliquata tenuior,
Ag.; Conferva obliquata, Engl. Bot., tab. 1869; but as it is not
certain in all cases which of the two. species was intended, it seems
better not to attempt further identification.

Collected in great abundance by Dr. D. Moore on Polysiphonia in
Camlough Bay, Co. Antrim; and found by me in almost every marine.
gathering from that place northwards, but not at all in the same pro-
fusion. Malahide, Co. Dublin.

Isthmia enervis, (Ehr.) Marine.

Striation of valves areolate, areoles quadrangular; without coste ;
areoles on connecting membrane much smaller, and roundish.

The frustules are generally slighter than in the former species,.
but the distinctive characters are, first, the absence of the costs, and
secondly, the want of a distinct border on the valve in side view, so
conspicuous in Isthmia nervosa.

Kitz. Bac., “p. 137, TL. mx, fig. 4. “Wm. Sms BSD eiolgenes
p. 02; Pl. xlvim. . Ralfs, in Pritch., p; 851; Pl. x5 figs USaaeeiab.
Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 809.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay. Arran Islands, Co.
Galway. Malahide, Co. Dublin.

Famizy V. FRAGILARIEA, Kiitz.

Frustules in front view rectangular, without median line, central
nodule, or internal diaphragms. ‘The frustules are usually attached
by a stipes, or united together in parallel or zig-zag filaments.

The group thus limited embraces the following genera :—Fragi-
laria, Denticula, Odontidium, Plagiogramma, Dimeregramma, Diatoma,
Synedra, Raphoneis, and is tolerably well defined by the common
characteristics above specified. In the case of Raphoneis indeed it is
doubtful whether the frustules are free or stipitate. I have never seen
them in a growing state, but in other respects they exhibit the com-
mon character of the Fragilaricz.

The above genera have been distributed by different authors
very differently from their present arrangement. Kiitzing grouped
such of the above genera as were known to him under the Fragilariex,
with the exception of Synedra, which he and others have unaccount-
ably, as it appears to me, placed under the Surirellee. William
Smith, who attaches great importance to what others have regarded as.

i ee

ee

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 281

a subordinate feature—namely, the attachment of the frustules in fila-
ments—has accordingly placed together such of the above-mentioned
genera as seem to have been known to him, with the exception of
Synedra, which he has ranged immediately after Pleurosigma. The
position thus assigned to Synedra may possibly be owing to his sup-
posing that the median, longitudinal, narrow, unstriated space, and
the unstriated central space, which some of the forms present, are
analogous to, the median line and central nodule of the Naviculaces.
Grunow has ‘adopted a group, which he has named Diatomesx, dis-
tributed into two sub-groups, distinguished by the absence of dia-
phragms in the one, and the presence of this structure in the other.
The former very nearly corresponds with Fragilaries as here defined.
The genera which Grunow includes in the first sub-group of Diatomez
are Odontidium, Diatoma, Plagiogramma, Fragilaria, Dimeregramma,
his new genus Cymatosira, Grammonema, Raphoneis, Doryphora,
Synedra, Asterionella, and Desmogonium. Of these, Grammonema is
considered by Ralfs, Kiitzing, Ehrenberg, and Meneghini, as not
diatomaceous. If, however, it belong to the Diatomacee, as I
think it does, its proper position is with the Fragilaries. Dory-
phora, Grunow describes as a stipitate Raphoneis, while in reality it is
a stipitate Navicula, and should therefore be ranked with the
Navyiculacee. Asterionella should be excluded from this group,
im consequence of its unsymmetrical outline, both on the front
and side views; while the general characters of Desmogonium are
those of the Fragilaries. Ralfs adopts Fragilariese as the designation
of a group in which he includes Denticula, Plagiogramma, Odon-
tidium, Fragilaria, Grammonema, Diatoma, all of which are placed by
me in the present group; but he adds also the following very hetero-
geneous genera:—Asterionella, Nitzschia, Ceratoneis, and Amphi-
pleura; while Synedra, Desmogonium, Dimeregramma, Staurosira,
Raphoneis, under which he includes Doryphora, are ranged under
the Surirelles. These latter genera seem to have little in common with
the Surirellez, while, with the exception of Doryphora, already referred
to, they exhibit the general features of the Fragilariez ; Asterionella,
Nitzschia, and Ceratoneis, which is unnecessarily separated from
Nitzschia, on account of haying unsymmetrical frustules, are incon-
gruously forced into this group; and Amphipleura, by its conspicuous
median line, is more analogous to the Nayiculaceze. Lastly, Heiberg
adopts Kiitzing’s group of Fragilariee, which he divides into two
sub-groups—Fragilariee genuine, and Fragilariese cuneate. The
former, so far as it extends, corresponds with the present group,
while the genera contained in the latter, Meridion and Asterionella,
seem so incongruous that they should be placed in a widely diffe-
rent position.

Genus I. Fracizarrsa, Lyngb.

Frustules on front view more or less pcrfectiy quadrangular,

282 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

united in filaments, in which they are parallel; connecting zone usually
very narrow; striz on the side view very fine, usually persistent, and
appearing on the front view, where they form a narrow margin.

Fragilaria capucina, (Desmazieres.) Fresh water.

Frustules fiat, so that the band of strie appearing on the front
view is very narrow. On side view the valves are narrow, linear,
with either acute or slightly rounded apices; strize very fine, per-
sistent.

This species includes Fragilaria acuta, which is scarcely distin-
guishable from it.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 45, T. xvi., fig. 3. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 33; T.i.,
fig. 2. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. u, p. 22, Pl. xxxv., fig. 296. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 776. Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band
xil., 1862, p. 372. Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nella Val.
Intrasca, p. 15.

This species is of almost universal occurrence.

Fragilaria virescens, (Ralfs.) Fresh water.

Frustules more arched than in the preceding species, and the
marginal line of strie, as seen on the front view, therefore wider.
On side view linear, or slightly elliptical; narrowed at the ends, but
not constricted ; strie fine, persistent.

Ralfs, A. N. EE, Vol. xit., Pl. ii., fig. 6. Kiitz. Bac., p. 46, T. xvi,,
fig. 4. Rab. Siissw. Diat. os 33, T. i., fig. 1 _ Wm. Sm. B. D., Vol. i,
p. 22, Pl. xxxv., fig. 297. ’Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 777. Grunow, Verhand
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xi.., 1862, p- 373, T.av., fig. 15.
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p.60. Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte-
nella Val. Intrasca, p. 15. Cleve, Om Syenska ech Norska Diat.,
p. 219.

Friarstown, Piperstown, Killikee, Co. Dublin. Glenchree, Greenane,
Co. Wicklow. Feighcullen, Co. Kildare. (Moanarone, Co. Cork; Wm.
Sm.)

Fragilaria equalis, (Heiberg.) Fresh or Brackish water.

Frustules considerably longer than in the last species; on side view
linear; ends attenuated and rounded ; strie fine, persistent. Heiberg’s
figure represents the strie as interrupted by a narrow median space,
but in the forms that came under my inspection the strie, although at
first they seemed interrupted, as described by Heiberg, on closer ex-
amination were obviously persistent.

Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 61, T. iv., fig. 12.” Cleve; Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 219.

Oyster beds, Malahide, Co. Dublin.

O’Mearsa—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 288

Fragilaria maxima, N. 8. Fresh water.

Frustules very large; on side view, considerably expanded in the
middle, and gradually tapering towards the rounded ends; strie fine,
persistent. (Pl. 27, fig. 16.)

Aghold, Co. Wicklow.

Fragilaria crotonensis, (Kitton.) Fresh water.

Frustules long ; margins on front view slightly waved ; on the side
view narrow ; very slightly expanded in the middle, and gently attenu-
ated towards the slightly capitate ends; striee fine, persistent.

This species seems widely diffused, having been found by me in
panes nes made by Mr. Mozeley, of H.M.S. Challenger, at Kerguelin’s

and.

Pond, Newcastle Lyons, Co. Dublin. Mill-pond, Greenane, near
Rathdrum, Co. Wicklow. Lough Derg, Co. Galway. Bundoran, Co.
Donegal.

Fragilaria tenuicollis, (Heib.) Fresh water.

Frustules small ; on front view slightly attenuated at the ends; on
side view narrow, considerably expanded in the middle, and gently
attenuated towards the capitate, rounded ends; strie fine, persistent.

Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 62, T. v., fig. 138.

Mill-pond, Greenane, near Rathdrum, Co. Wicklow. Malahide, Co.
Dublin.

Fragilaria striatula, (Lyngb.) Marine.

Frustules short; on side view linear, rounded at the ends; striz
extremely fine, persistent.
_ Lyngbye, Tent. Hydr. Dan., p. 183, T. lxiii. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.iz.,
p. 23. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 219.—Fragilaria aurea,
Grey. Brit. Flora, p. 408. Harvey’s Manual, p. 197.—Grammonema
jurgensii, Agardh, Consp., p. 68. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 778, Pl. xv.,
figs. 24,25. Rab., Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p.124.—Grammatonema stratulum,
Kitz. Sp. Alg., p. 187.

Salt ditch, Arklow, Co. Wicklow. Ballybrack, Monkstown,
Kingstown, Co. Dublin. Larne, Rathlin Island, Co. Antrim.

Fragilaria construens, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Frustules short; on side view greatly expanded; ends short and
attenuated ; strie fine, persistent.

Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862,
p- 871. Rab., Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 120.—Staurosira construens, Ehr.
Sasa, 3, fir..8; 1. ui. 1, fig. 15; T. xxxix. 2, fig. 10. Rallis,
in Pritch., p. 791. Pl. xv., fig. 5.—Odontidium tabellaria, Wm. Sm.,

RI. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL, II., SCIENCE. 2N

284 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

B.D., Vol. i., p. 17. Pl. xxxiv., fig. 291 a., and Fragilaria undata,
Supp. Pl. lx., fig. 377 a.

Piperstown, Killikee, Co. Dublin. Verner’s Bridge, Co. Armagh,
Float bog, Co. Westmeath.

Wm. Smith has described a form as Odontidium parasiticum, some-
times expanded in the middle, sometimes constricted, B. D., Vol. i1.,
p. 19, Supp. Pl. Ix., fig. 875. The separate valves of the latter would
seem to be a variety of the following species, those of the former to
belong to the present; the habit of growth, however, is much more
that of Synedra than of Fragilaria. Some few specimens have occa-
sionally come under my notice, parasitic on Nitzschia sigmoidea, and in
no way differing from the representation in Smith’s figure. So seldom,
however, did they occur, and in such small quantity, I never could
make any satisfactory examination of them, and therefore refer to
the subject here in deference to the opinions of the best authors, who
have placed them in the genus Fragilaria—not because I agree with
them in considering such is their proper place, but because I consider
it inexpedient to make any change until an opportunity for more
thorough examination shall have been afforded.

The forms have occurred in gatherings from Bohernabreena and
Killikee, Co. Dublin.

Fragilaria undata, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valves broad on side view; constricted in the middle; ends attenu-
ated ; striz strong, persistent.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 24, Supp. Pl. lx., fig. 377.—Odonti-
dium tabellaria, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. ii., p. 17; Pl. xxxiv., fig. 291 a.—
Fragilaria constricta in part, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 777.—Fragilaria
virescens var. undata, Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band xii., 1862, p. 374. Grunow regards this form as likely identical
with Fragilaria constricta, Ehr. Mic., T. xvi., 2, figs. 34, 85; as also
with F. binodis, Ehr. Mic., T. vi. 1, fig. 48; but as there is some
doubt on this point, and as some of the figures of the forms so named
appear to be incorrectly attributed to this species, it is better to refer
the species to Wm. Smith, whose figure admits of no doubt.

Bohernabreena, Killikee, Co. Dublin.

Fragilaria mesolepta, (Rab.) Fresh or brackish water.

Frustules on front view regularly quadrangular; onside view narrow,
constricted at the middle, and more slightly constricted towards the
apices, which are narrowed, produced, and sub-capitate; strie fine,
persistent.

Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 61, T. iv., fig. 11—Fragilaria capu-
cina var. mesolepta, Rab., Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 118.

Rock pool on sea-shore, Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim. Malahide ;
Basin, Ringsend, Co. Dublin.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 285

Genus IJ. Denrticuta, Kiitz.

Frustules united in parallel filaments; on front view regularly quad-
rangular, on side view narrow, elliptical, costate, costee not pervious.

Kiitzing’s distinction between this genus and Odontidium is not
very obvious. Smith entertains considerable doubt as to the propriety
of separating them, but distinguishes them by the relative length of
the filaments. Those whose frustules form short filaments, he attri-
butes to Denticula, while those forming filaments of considerable
length constitute the genus Odontidium. Ralfs retains the two genera,
interposing that of Plagiogramma between them, and remarks that, in
the valves of Denticula, fine strie are interposed between the coste,
this peculiarity not being noticeable in the valves of the several species
of Odontidium. Rabenhorst also retains the two genera, and inter-
poses the genus Gomphogramma between them, his distinguishing
character being the same as that on which Smith relies. Grunow
relegates the genus Denticula to the group Nitzschiee, separating
from it Denticula obtusa, Kiitz., which he includes under Fragilariex ;
while Heiberg, who appears to be followed by Cleve, drops both
genera, referring Odontidium parasiticum, Wm. Sm., to the genus
Fragilaria, and Odontidium mutabile, Wm. Sm., to the genus Dia-
toma.

The distinctive characters of the genera, as here defined, rest on
the fact that, in Denticula, the coste are interrupted by a broader or
narrower intermediate space, while the cost in Odontidium are per-
vious.

Denticula obtusa, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Filaments short; on side view narrow; elliptical, coste marginal,
with fine pervious strice interposed.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 44, T. xvii., fig. 14. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 33, T.i.,
fess Wan. om:, BD: D., Vol/i., p.19, Pl. xxxiv., fig: 292: ‘ Ralfs, in
Piiten.. p. 173.

River Dodder, Basin of Grand Canal, Co. Dublin.

Denticula mutabilis, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules varying greatly in size, generally forming long filaments;
on side view nearly oval, and sometimes narrow, elliptical; cost
broadly marginal, without interstitial strie. (PI. 27, fig. 17.)

Odontidium mutabile, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 17, Pl. xxxiv.,
fig. 290. Grunow, Verhand der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii.,
1862, p. 369.—Fragilaria mutabilis, Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 118.
Diatoma mutabile, Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 58. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 219.—Dimeregramma mutabile, Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 790.

2N2

286 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

Smith, with doubtfulness, refers Diatoma tenue, Kiitz. Bac., p. 48,
T. xviil., figs. 9,10, and Odontidium striolatum, Kiitz. Bac., p. 45,
T. xxi., fig. 20, to this species; and Grunow, under Diatoma tenue,
Kiitz., remarks, ‘‘ I do not find this variety described in Wm. Smith’s
Brit. Diat.,’? Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot., Gesel., Band xu., 1862,
p. 862. Asso much doubt rests upon the forms described by Kiitz-
ing, I have referred the species to Wm. Sm., whose accurate figure
removes all doubt as to the identification of it.

Lough Mourne deposit. Ditch near Giants’ Causeway, Ballyleg,
Co. Antrim. Derrylane Lough, Stream near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan.
Lucan, Bohernabreena, Co. Dublin. Connemara, Co. Galway. Black
Castle, Glenchree, Co. Wicklow. Feighcullen, Royal Canal, near En-
field, Co. Kildare. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Killeshin, Queen’s
County.

Genus III. Opontrium, Kiitz.

Frustules united in longer or shorter parallel filaments; on front
view regularly rectangular, on side view elliptical, costate; costee
pervious; their ends very conspicuous on front view.

Odontidium sinuatum, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules united in short filaments ; on side view somewhat lanceo-
late; outline sinuous ; expanded and angular in the middle ; costz rela-
tiv ely fine.

In consequence of the supposed excentric structure of the frustule
of this species, Grunow has transferred the genus Denticula, as before
stated, to the group Nitzschiee ; and Rabenhorst, taking the same view
of the structure of the frustule, adopts his suggestion, but establishes
a special genus, Grunowia, for its reception, a course in which he is
followed by Cleve. This treatment appears to me inadmissible, inas-
much as the frustules are, in general structure, perfectly symmetri-
cal. In some specimens the striation appears on one side, while the ©
opposite side seems destitute of coste. This may be an illusory appear-
ance, arising from the,convexity of the valve when viewed at an angle
to the plane of the field; but, certainly, it is by no means universal.
By accurate adjustment I have traced the coste from one side to
the other, and at the extremities, where the convexity appears less
than in the middle, the persistent character of the cost is easily
traced.

Denticula sinuata, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. u., p. 21, Pl. xxxiv.,
Be 295. Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val Intrasca, p. 14.
—Dimeregramma sinuatum, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 730, Pl. iv., fig. 12.

River Dodder, Co. Dublin. Slate quarry, Glanmore, Co. Wicklow.
Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 287

Odontidium hyemale, (Lyngb.) Fresh water.

Frustules in long filaments; valve on side view narrow, elliptical ;
coste strong, about ten in number, with distinct linear strie between
the coste ; ends of coste on front view forming a narrow margin.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 44, T. xviii., fig. 4. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 34, T. i1.,
feo = Win. sim., B.D; Vol. u.; p. 15,, Pl. xxxiv., fig: 289. Ralfs;
in Pritch., p. 775, Pl. xiii., fig. 25. Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 356.—Diatoma hyemale, Heiberg, De
Danske Diat., p. 58. ’ Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 219.
—Fragilaria hyemalis, Lyngb., Tent. Hydr. Dan., p. 63.

Wet rock, Black Castle, Co. Wicklow. Streamlet near Belfast,
Co. Antrim.

Odontidium mesodon, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Frustules united in long filaments, shorter, wider, and broader
than in the preceding species; on side view broadly elliptical, with
three to five strongly developed costee, which, in consequence of the
greater convexity of the valve, appear longer on the front than in the
foregoing species; fine strie may be discovered between the coste
without much difficulty. (Pl. 27, fig. 18.)

Heiberg attributes the species to Lyngbye, Smith to Kiitzing; but
as Kitzing himself identifies it with Fragilaria mesodon of Ehr, and
the Fragilaria hyemalis of Lyngbye is regarded by the same writer as
identical with both Odontidium hyemale and O. mesodon, the species
may properly be referred to Ehrenberg.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 44, T. xvii., fig.1. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 34, T.u.,
fig.2. Wm.Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 16, Pl. xxxiv., fig. 288. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 75.—Odontidium hyemale var. mesodon, Grunow, Verhand
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xu., 1862, p. 357.—Fragilaria
mesodon, Ehr. Mic., T. ii., fig. 9.—Diatoma hyemale, Heib., De Danske
Diat., p. 58. Cleve; Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 219. Both
these last named authors regard this and the preceding species merely
as varieties.

Friarstown, Piperstown, Co. Dublin. Glenchree, Powerscourt,
Co. Wicklow. Well at Farraghy, River Dour, Co. Cork.

Odontidium anomalum, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Filaments short; frustules on front view usually exhibiting in-
ternal cells, likely the result of imperfect self-division; on side view
narrow, linear, slightly constricted at the ends. Coste strong, about
eight or ten in number.

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. ii., p. 16, Supp. Pl. 1xi., fig. 8376. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 776. Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band
Xu., 1862, p. 857, T. iv., fig. 4. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 116.

Ditch near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow. This form is usually found
in Alpine districts.

288 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Odontidium tenue, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules united in short filaments ; on side view narrow, ellipti-
cal, with sharp ends; costee numerous, with interrupted linear striz
interposed.

Denticula tenuis, Kitz. Bac., p. 48, T. xvi, fig. 8. Wm. Sm.,
BD, Vol. :, p. 20; Pl. xxxiv., fig. 293. “Ralts) in’ Pritehespamas-
Rab. sble Buresect. 1p: 114:

Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow. River Dour, Co. Cork.

Odontidium inflatum, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules united in short filaments; on side view short, broadly
elliptical, costze close.

Denticula inflata, Wm. Sm., B.D.,: Vol. i., p. 20, Pl. xscxiy,.,
fig. 294. According to Ralfs, = Denticula crassula, Nageli. Ralfs,
m Pritch., p. 773. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p: 115.

River Dour, Co. Cork.

Odontidium elegans, (Kutz.) Fresh water.

Frustules united in short filaments, on front view slightly ellipti-
eal; truncate, with large glandular expansions at the ends of the
coste ; on side view, narrow, elliptical, pomted at the ends; coste
close.

Denticula elegans, Kiitz., p. 44, T. xvu., fig. 5. Rab. Stssw.
Diat., p. 33, T.1., fig. 4. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 773, Pl. xii., fig. 4.
Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xu1., 1862, p. 549.
Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 115.—Denticula ocellata, Wm. Sm., B.D.,
Nolte; p20:

Rocks, Bundoran, Co. Donegal. Powerscourt, Rathdrum, Co.
Wicklow. Rocks near the sea at Black Castle, and the Silver sands
in the neighbourhood of Wicklow. Rocks, Portrush, Co. Antrim.
This species has usually been found by me on moist rocks.

Genus IY. Dorerecramma, Ralfs.

Frustules in short filaments, parallel to each other. On the front
view slightly constricted near the ends; on side view elliptical, stri-
ate; the striz marginal.

This genus, in the general appearance of its frustules, bears a Gane
resemblance to some of the forms included in Odontidium and Denti-
cula, to which latter Gregory assigned the numerous forms described
by him, but may be distinguished by the fact that the margin on front
view presents a slight constriction at the ends.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 289

Dimeregramma nanum, (Greg.) Marine.

Frustules on front view slightly arched, short, but broad; end of
striz appearing at the margin; on side view broadly elliptical, lanceo-
late; marginal strie long, leaving but a narrow unstriated median
space.

- Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 790, Plate iv., fig. 33.—Dimeregramma
Gregorianum, Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band
xil., 1862, p. 346. This last named author changes the specific
name given by the discoverer, on the ground that the original designa-
tion answers only for the smaller forms, the species varying greatly as
regards size. Rabenhorst retains the original specific name imposed
by Gregory, and adopts the generic name Dimeregramma, but erro-
neously ascribes the species to Pritchard. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 123.—
Denticula nana, Gregory, Diat. of the Clyde, p. 23, Pl. x., fig. 34.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Dimeregramma minus, (Greg.) Marine.

Frustules on front view as in the preceding species, only narrower
for the length; on side view narrow, elliptical, and pointed at the
ends; marginal strie long, leaving the central unstriate band very
narrow.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 790. Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot.,
Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 376, T. iv., fig. 29. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect.
1, p. 128, who attributes this species as well as the preceding to
Pritchard.—Denticula minor, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 23, Pl. x.,
fig. 35.

On piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount. On sea-weeds, Ireland’s
Eye, Co. Dublin.

Dimeregramma distans, (Greg.) Marine.

Frustules on front view similar in outline to the preceding species;
on side view broadly elliptical, and somewhat lanceolate at the ends;
marginal strie costate,’short, leaving a broad, unstriate, median space.
eel 27, tie. 19.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 790, Pl. iv., fig. 34. Grunow, Verhand der
K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 376. Rab. Fl. Eur.,
sect. 1, p. 123.—Denticula distans, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 23, Pl.
x., fig. 36.

a Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Dimeregramma marinum, (Greg.) Marine.

Frustules on front view linear, slightly constricted at the ends; on
side view linear, with cuneate ends, and slightly expanded in the
middle; striz moniliform, long, leaving the median unstriate band

290 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

very narrow. This species is very much larger than the species here-
tofore described.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 790. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 124.—Denti-
cula marina, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 24, Pl. x., fig. 39.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. Sea-
weeds, near the Newtownlimavady junction, Co. Derry.

Genus V. Pragiogramma, Grey.

Frustules similar to those of the preceding genus, from which they
are distinguished by the presence of a pair of strong, transverse costz,
including a central unstriate band. Some of the species have also,
besides, a similar terminal costa at either end, the space between
which and the apex is unstriate; valves striate, except at the central
and terminal portions referred to; strize sometimes interrupted in the
middle, sometimes persistent ; filaments short.

Plagiogramma staurophorum, (Greg.) Marine.

Valves furnished with a central pair of transverse, pervious coste;
on front view margin slightly dilated ; on side view elliptical, obtuse ;
strie fine, moniliform, persistent; central coste inflexed; the unstri-
ate band bounded by the same, narrow, and extending across the valve,
from margin to margin.

Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 165. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska
Diat., p. 219.—Denticula staurophora, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 24,
Pl. x., fig. 37. Plagiogramma Gregorianun, Grev., Q.J.M.S., July, -
1859, p. 208, Pl. x., figs. 1 and 2. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 774. Rab.
Fl, Eur., sect. 1, p. 117.

On piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount, Oyster beds, Malahide,
Co. Dublin. Sea-weeds, near Newtownlimavady junction, Co. Derry.
Sea-weeds, Bannow, Co. Wexford. From stomachs of Ascidians,
Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. :

Plagiogramma costatum, (O’M.) Marine.

Valves furnished with both a central pair of coste and a single
costa at either end; frustules in front view quadrangular; terminal
constriction slight; on side view central and terminal costz inflexed;
valve broadly elliptical, with slightly-cuneate ends; central unstriate
band extending across the valve; strie costate; coste pervious. (Pl.
27, fig. 20.)

O’Meara, Q.J.M.S., April, 1869, p. 150, Pl. xii., fig. 2.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 291

Genus VI. Dratoma, De Candolle.

_ Frustules united in zig-zag filaments ; strongly costate ; coste per-
vious.

Grunow states that the various species of this genus, as well as
those of Odontidium, possess fine striee interposed between the coste,
although in the former they are more difficult to be discovered than in
the latter. The most careful examination of the valves of Diatoma,
on my part, has, as yet, failed to bring them out.

Diatoma vulgare, (Bory.) Fresh water.

Valves much arched, so that the coste present a deep margin on
the front view; on side view the outline is elliptical, sometimes nar-
rowed towards the ends ; coste strong and close.

Kitz. Bac., p. 47, T. xvii., fig. 15, 1-4. Rab. Siissw. Diat.,
Paola. tc 6: Wm. Sm., B. D.; Vol: 1.5 p39) Ply xi, fig? 309:
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 778, Pl. iv., fig. 138, Pl. ix., fig. 168. Grunow,
Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 363. Hei-
berg, De Danske Diat., p. 57. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p- 219. Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val Intrasca,
ip. Lo.

River Dodder, Grand Canal at Portobello, Co. Dublin. Well,
Strokestown, Co. Roscommon. Stream in Glebe, Delgany, Co. Wick-
low. River Moy, Foxford, Co. Mayo. Stream, Killeshin, Queen’s
County. River Lee, Co. Cork.

Diatoma grande, (Wm.Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules on front view. slightly inflexed; on side view linear,
slightly constricted towards the capitate ends; coste fine, close. (Pl.
28, fig. 1.)

Waor om. B. 1): Volsit., p: 89; Pl. xl) fic: 3102 Ralis im’ Priteh’s
p. 779. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 57. Castracane, Catalogo di
Diat. raccolte nell Val Intrasca, p. 15.—Diatoma vulgare var. grande.
Grunow, Verhand der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., xii., Band 1862, p.
364.—Diatoma Ehrenbergii forma grandis, Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1,
p- 122. Grunow stands alone in subordinating this form to Diatoma
vulgare, from which it stands distinguished by numerous characters:
so distinct is it from that species in the outline of the valve, both in
front and side view, that it seems deserving of occupying the place of
a separate species.

River at Belleek, Co. Fermanagh. Tacumshane, River Slaney,
near Killurin, Co. Wexford. River Shannon, near Athlone, Co. Ros-
common. Lough Corrib, Co. Mayo. Lough Derg, Co. Galway.
Lough Neagh, Co. Armagh. Killikee, River Liffey, Co. Dublin.

292 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Diatoma elongatum, (Agardh.) Fresh water.

Frustules on front view greatly inflexed ; on side view linear, nar-
row, with capitate and expanded ends; valves not so much arched asin
the preceding species, so that the coste appear, on front view, as a row
of puncta.

There is considerable diversity in the outline of various forms of
this species; in some the capitate ends are not so much expanded as in
others. In some the margin on side view, instead of being perfectly
straight, is slightly expanded towards the middle. The species might,
in some cases, be confounded with the preceding; but the characters
above given will serve to distinguish between them.

Agardh, Syst., p. 4. Kiitz. Bac., p. 48, T. xvui., fig. 18. Rab.
Stissw. Diat., p. 35, T. u., fig. 1. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i1., p. 40,
Blo xi, fig: 311. Ralfs, in Prtch., p. 779, Pl. iv., figs la eeeoe
fig. 169. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 57. Castracane, Catalogo di
Diat., raccolte nell Val. Intrasca, p. 15. Cleve, Om Svenska och
Norska Diat., p. 219.—Diatoma tenue var. elongatum, Grunow, Ver-
hand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 363.

Dundrum, Co. Dublin. Newcastle, Co. Wicklow. (Cork harbour.
Belfast, Wm. Sin.)

Diatoma tenue, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules small ; on front view regularly quadrangular ; ends of the
costee appearing like a fine line of puncta; on side view broadly ellipti-
cal; ends rounded ; cost fine.

Smith makes this species a variety of Diatoma elongatum. Gru-
now regards it as the representative of a species of which Diatoma
elongatum is a variety. A careful examination of the form, I think,
will lead to the conclusion that it deserves to rank as a distinct species.
In general appearance, in outline, both on front and side view, it differs
from Diatoma elongatum ; on front view D. elongatum is not regularly
quadrangular, but somewhat inflexed at the sides, the ends being
broader than the middle; whereas in D. tenue, the front view nor-
mally is perfectly quadrangular; on the side view, D. elongatum is
more or less distinctly capitate, the ends being broader than the
middle; the sides are usually straight and parallel; in D. tenue the
side view in outline is broadly elliptical; the ends narrowed and
rounded. For these reasons I consider D. tenue is obviously distinct
from D. elongatum. It might more likely be considered a variety of
Diatoma vulgare, but its features are perfectly distinctive. The valve
of D. vulgare j 1s sreatly arched, so that the ends of the costs occupy a
large portion of the front view; whereas in D. tenue, the valve is
flat, and the ends of the cost, on the front view, are barely noticeable.

Kiitz, Bac sip. .435) cl. xvii., fie DO: Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 35,
DMliee io .. awalts, im Pritch. HDs 779, Grunow, Verhand der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band Sally 1862, p- 862.—Diatoma elongatum, variety
vy. WimerSme, B.D., Vol. ii. ,p. 40, Plexi. sfios oiluliays

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 293

Found abundantly in a gathering from salt water at Howth, in
which fresh and marine forms were mingled, the latter greatly pre-
dominating. Some cuneate forms occurred along with those in a
normal state, just as described in Smith’s figure; but the former are
obviously to be regarded as monstrosities.

Genus VII. Ratrsra, N. G.

As Diatoma, differing only in this respect, that the valves are
hyaline, and without coste.

Ralfsia hyalina, (Kutz.) Marine.

Valves on front view quadrangular; on side view narrow, nearly
linear, narrowed at ends.

Diatoma hyalinum, Kiitz. Bac., p. 47, T. xvii., fig. 20. Wm. Sm.,
iby De aVols up. 41, Pl xli., fig? 312.. Ralis-im Prtch., p..778, Pl.
iv., fig. 16. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 122.—Fragilaria hyalina major,
Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xil., p. 874.—
Fragilaria tenerrima, Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 63. Cleve, Om
Syenska och Norska Diat., p. 220.

Salt ditch, Breaches near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow. Sea-weeds,
Tramore, Co. Waterford.

Ralfsia minima, (Ralfs.) Marine.

Frustules very small; on front view quadrangular; on side view
broadly elliptical.

Diatoma mininum, Wm. S8m., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 41, Pl. xl, fig. 313.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 778.—Diatoma hyalinum, var. minimum, Rab.
Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 123.,—Fragilaria minima, Grunow, Verhand der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 8347.—Fragilaria tenerrima, ,
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 68. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska
Diat., p. 220.

Found by Ralfs attached to Surirella gemma, but found by me
in a brackish ditch, Kilkee, Co. Clare, in which no specimen of Suri-
rella gemma appeared.

Ralfsia tabellaria, N.S. Marine.

Frustules very long, :0038 ; on front view regularly quadrangular;
on side view capitate at the ends; gently decreasing in breadth, and
then gradually expanding towards the middle. (PI. 28, fig. 2.)

Sea-weeds, Tramore, Co. Waterford. Lough Strangford, Co.
Down.

294 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Genus VIII. Ruapnonets, Ehr.

The characters on which this genus is grounded are :—First. The
symmetry of the frustules by which they are separated from Cocconeis,
which some of the species in other respects closely resemble. Secondly.
They do not form parallel filaments, by which circumstance they are
distinguished from those of Denticula and Dimeregramma. Thirdly.
The strie are interrupted by the interposition of an unstriate longi-
tudinal band, more or less broad—a feature by which the forms of the
genus may be discriminated from those of Diatoma and Odontidium.

While adopting this genus, I do so with somewhat of the feeling
which Grunow has so well expressed in the following remarks :—
‘““The genus Rhaphoneis, which here I represent in Ehrenberg’s
sense of it, is widely separated therefrom, for the purpose of receiving
forms which, in point of fact, have but little generic relationship to
each other. Meanwhile, it is nevertheless a sort of refuge for various
Diatoms which have not been thoroughly investigated, and which,
in some cases, are known only so far as their side view is concerned.
A portion of these, upon more mature knowledge, may be transferred to
Dimeregramma, while others, from their Cocconeis-like habit, must cer-
tainly be constituted as a special genus. Very numerous instances
of forms belonging to the latter class have come under my notice;
and I am conyinced that they do not underlie the upper valves of
Cocconeis—and for this reason, that I have never found associated with
them valves of Cocconeis with a central nodule, or valves which in
other details of structure would be supposed to correspond with them.”
Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 378. Two
of the forms herein included—namely, Rhaphoneis amphiceros and
Rhaphoneis rhombus, Smith has placed side by side, under the same
generic name, with Doryphora Boeckii, with which, beyond the fact
of being stipitate, they have little in common. Rhaphoneis amphi-
ceros was observed by Kiitzing 7m sztu, and described and figured by
him as stipitate. Iam not aware whether, in the case of the other
forms included, a similar fact has been noticed. Whatever presump-
tion there may be in favour of the supposition, this feature cannot be
as yet admitted as a general characteristic of the group. Odontidium
Harrisoni, Wm. Sm., the frustules of which in general structure are
similar to those of Denticula, as I have defined that genus, exhibits
nevertheless a different habit of growth, the frustules being attached
by a cushion or short stipes, and forming a filament, the several frus-
tules adhering by their ends to one another. It seems then in this
respect, as well as in the interrupted striation, to stand in close
relationship with Rhaphoneis amphiceros, and on this account I include
itin the same genus; not indeed because I feel quite satisfied on this
point, but because, all things considered, I regard this most suitable
as a provisional arrangement.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 295

Ehaphoneis amphiceros, (Hhr.) Marine.

On side view valves short, broadly rhomboid; very slightly pro-
duced at the apices; striz large, moniliform, radiate; median free space
linear, and very narrow, so much s0 as to be sometimes scarcely dis-
cernible ; frustules stipitate. (Pl. 28, fig. 3.)

Ralfs. im Priteh. pol bl. xiv., ne. 21, Rab. EE Kur,, sects1,
Pp. 126.—Doryphora amphiceros, Kitz. Bac., p. 74., T. xxi., fig. 2.
Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., Pl. xxiy., fig. 224. Grunow, Verhand der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 384.

From mud on sea-shore, Co. Clare, supplied by Professor Sullivan.
On Sea-weeds, Co. Clare. On Sea-weeds, Co. Donegal.

Var. leptoceros, (Ehr.) Marine.

Similar in all respects to Rhaphoneis amphiceros, but longer, nar-
rower, and the ends produced into long beaks.

Rhaphoneis leptoceros, Ralfs, in Pritch., pain:

Sea-weeds, Co. Donegal ; sea-weeds, Co. Clare.

Rhaphoneis rhombus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valves narrow, elliptical; ends rounded, striz fine; moniliform ;
parallel in the middle, and slightly radiate towards the ends; median
unstriate space narrow, linear in the middle, and expanding towards
the ends.

Ralfs, in Pritch, p. 792. Grunow, Verhand der K.K. Zool. Bot.
Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 379, T. iv., fig. 36. Roper, Q.J.M.S.,
Trans., Vol. u., 1854, Pl. vi., figs. 7-10.

Concerning this form, Grunow, as above cited, makes the following
noteworthy remarks :—‘‘ Rhaphoneis rhombus ought to be considered
as the type of the genus Rhaphoneis, which must ever stand, though
other species be separated as not belonging toit. The frustules in
contradistinction to Doryphora occur free, as I consider I have satisfied
myself to be the case.”

Sea-weeds, Dundalk, Co. Louth. Piles of the wooden bridge,
Dollymount, Co. Dublin. Sea-weeds, Co. Donegal.
A smaller variety occurs frequently in the last named gathering,
much broader for the length than the ordinary specimens, but in other
respects so similar that it cannot be considered even a variety.

Rhaphoneis scutelloides, (Grunow.) Marine.

Valves small, on front view broadly elliptical, rounded at the ends,
stire obscurely moniliform, nearly parallel at the middle, and slightly
radiate towards the ends; median free space, narrow, elliptical. (Pl.
28, fig. 4.

etic, Verhand der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862 ie
383, T. iy., fig. 34.

Sea-weeds, Co. Donegal.

296 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Rhaphoneis lorensiana, (Grunow.) Marine.

Valves considerably larger than the last named, and in all respects
similar, except that in outline the valves are rhomboid.

Grunow, Verhand, der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p.
381, T. iv., fig. 5.

Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount, Co. Dublin.

Rhaphoneis liburnica, (Grunow.) Marine.

Valves broadly elliptical, almost circular; strie large, moniliform,
squarish, distinct, larger at the middle, and decreasing in size as they
approach the margin, radiate ; median unstriate, space narrow, ellipti-
cal. (Pl. 28, fig. 5.)

This form presents very much the appearance of a Cocconeis, in
which genus I would have provisionally placed it, were it not that
Grunow, who first discovered it, placed it here.

Grunow, Verhand der Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 383, T.
iv., fig. 6.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Rhaphoneis Harrisonii, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules attached, filamentous, connected by their ends ; on front
view quadrangular; on side view somewhat cruciform ; angles rounded;
striz costate, slightly radiate ; median unstriate space narrow, linear.

Odontidium Harrisonii, Wm.8m., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 18, Supp. Pl. lx.,
fie. 373.—Dimeregramma Harrisonii, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 290, Pl. vii.,
fig. 6.—Fragilaria Harrisonu, Rab. FI. Eur., sect. 1, p. 119.—Diatoma
Harrisonii, Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 219.

Friarstown, Killikee, River Dodder, Bohernabreena, Co. Dublin.
Royal Canal, near Enfield, Co. Kildare. Portadown. Verner’s
Bridge, Co. Armagh.

Genus IX. Sywnepra, Ehr.

Frustules long and narrow, both on side and front view; attached
by a gelatinous cushion, or by a longer or shorter stipes.

The characteristics of this genus are so well marked, that very little
difference of opinion has existed from the first as to the grouping of
the several species, although the relation of the genus to other genera
has been very differently represented. Kiitzing includes Synedra in
his group of Surirellez, in which besides he ranges the genera Campylo-
discus, Surirella, and Bacillaria. The last named has, indeed, a super-
ficial resemblance to the frustules of Synedra, but, in consequence of
its unsymmetrical character, has, by more recent authors, been trans-

O’Muara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 297

ferred to the Nitzschiex ; but with Campylodiscus and Surirella, Syne-
dra has few common characteristics. Ralfs, while he adopts this
grouping of Kiitzing, expresses dissatisfaction with an arrangement so
heterogeneous, and suggests that, with more propriety, Synedra should
be ranked under the Fragilariee. It is not very easy to ascertain
precisely what Smith’s views were as to the relations of Synedra; for
while in the plates the Synedre are ranged next to the Nitzschie, in
the text they are interposed between Pleurosigma and Cocconema.
For the reason already specified, the Synedree and Nitzschie stand
very remote from one another, in a classification based on the sym-
metrical or unsymmetrical structure of the frustule. Andon the same
ground, as well as for other reasons, I cannot consider that the right
position of Synedra is in close relation either with Cocconema or
Pleurosigma. Grunow, either led by the suggestion of Ralfs, or by
his own sagacity, included the genus in the first sub-group of his
group Diatomez ; and although some genera which, for reasons spe-
ecified before, ought not to be placed in this connexion, are included
in the sub-group, still, by this arragement, the genus was associated
with its natural allies. Heiberg’s group of Fragilariez is nearly identi-
cal with Grunow’s sub-group of Diatomez, the only difference being,
that he includes in it the genus Meridion, which, in consequence of
the unsymmetrical structure of its frustules, requires a different collo-
cation. With the exceptions mentioned, I agree with Grunow and
Heiberg as to the true relationship of Synedra; and in this view am
sustained by the judgment of Rabenhorst also, who, though in his
Stissw. Diat. he places the Synedre between the Naviculee and
Cuneatz, in his more recent work, ‘‘ Flora Kuropaea Algarum,”’ follows
the more natural grouping of Grunow and Heiberg. The frustules of
Ralfsia tabellaria, regarded separately, might be considered to belong
to the Synedree, and were, indeed, regarded by me as identical with
Synedra gracilis vera, not of W. Smith, but of Grunow, Verhand der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 401, T. v., fig. 17, which
it strongly resembles, until I had seen the frustules zz sztu, and so be-
came convinced of my mistake. And in some cases itis difficult to
distinguish between the separate frustules of some of the larger forms
of Fragilaria, and some species of Synedra. I would specially refer to

Fragilaria ungeraria, Grunow, the frustules of which, when detached,

are scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from those of the form described
by Kutzing as Synedra amphirhynchus. But whatever slight con-
fusion may arise in such cases, attention to the distinctive character-
istics of the genus will readily remove it.

(a.) Strie pervious ; frustules not arcuate on side view.

Synedra chrystallina, (Lyngb.) Marine.

Valve very long ; slightly expanded at the centre and extremities ;
strie costate ; coste coarse ; an intramarginal longitudinal line appears
on both sides throughout the entire length. (Pl. 28, fig. 6.)

298 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Grunow describes the stipes as short, and occasionally slightly
branched. Kiitzing regards this species as identical with Diatoma
erystallinum of Agardh, and suggests, with a note of doubtfulness, that
it may be the same as Hchinella fasciculata of Lyngbye. Smith con-
firms the former opinion, and that on the inspection of authentic spe-
cimens. Heiberg, who seems to have had the opportunity of inspecting
authentic specimens of Lyngbye’s species, considers it the same as the
present. The species I attribute to Lyngbye, and adopt Agardh’s.
name to obviate confusion with other species named S. fasciculata.

Kitz. Bac., p. 69, I. xvi., fig: 1.) Wm. Sin., BoD: aVolaq=spsa7-
Pl. xii., fig. 101. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 789. Grunow, Verhand der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xil., 1862, p. 407. Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p. 64. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 189.—Diatoma chrystalli-
num, Agardh Consp., p. 52.—Hchinella fasciculata, Lyngb. Tent.
Hydrophyt. Dan., p. 210.

On sea-weeds, Salthill, Co. Dublin. From stomachs of Ascidians,
Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. On sea-weeds, near Dundalk, Co.
Louth. On sea-weeds, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Synedra fulgens, (Greville.) Marine.

Similar to the preceding species, with which it is often associated,
but may be distinguished by the greater delicacy of the strie. The
stipes as described by Kiitzing is long and branched. (PI. 28, fig. 7.)

Wm. Sm., B..D., Vols i.,. p...74, Pl: xii, fig: 10s agialishean
Pritch., p. 789. Grunow, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band
xii., 1862, p. 408. Raben. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 140. -Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 220.—Lichmophora fulgens, Kitz.
Bac., p. 123, T. xii., fig. 5. Kiitzing and Smith concur in the iden-
tification of this species with Exilaria fulgens, Greville, who has a
prior claim to the authorship of this species.

Salt ditch near Wexford. Bannow, Co. Wexford. Sea-weeds,
Malahide. Stomachs of Pectens, Dublin Bay. . Dollymount, Co. Dublin.
Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Sea-weeds, Dundalk, Co. Louth
Sea-weeds, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Synedra baculus, (Greg.) Marine.

Similar to preceding species, but not expanded at the middle or
ends as it is; stria somewhat coarser, and without the submarginal
longitudinal lines. (Pl. 28, fig. 8.)

Gregory, Q.J. M.S. Trans., Vol. v., 1857, p. 88, Pl.i., fig. 54.

Sea-weeds, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay,
Co. Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 299

Synedra superba, (Kitz.) Marine.

Frustules long on front view, quadrangular, slightly tapering at
the ends; on side view tapering slightly from the middle to the
broadly rounded ends; submarginal longitudinal lines strongly deve-
loped; striz linear, coarse, and slightly waved; stipes short. (Pl.
28, fig. 9.)

iMiiapbae p: Ole xe. tie. lo. Wim om... Dy Volaiops
74, Pl. xu., fig. 102. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 789. Grunow, Verhand.
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii. p. 406. Ralfs, in Pritch., p.
789. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 220. Rab. FI.
Hur., sect. 1, p. 139.

From stomachs of Ascidians, as well as from seaweeds, Belfast
Lough, Co. Antrim. Seaweeds, Rostrevor, Co. Down. Seaweeds,
near Wexford. Seaweeds, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Arran Islands,
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Synedra amphicephala, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustule small and narrow, length ‘0018, breadth in middle, on
side view ‘00015. On front view linear; on side view nearly linear
in the middle, and gradually attenuated towards the slightly dilated
apices; striz very fine. (PI. 28, fig. 10.)

Grunow places this species in association with those in which the
strie are interrupted in the middle by a longitudinal sulcus, but in
the specimens which have come-under my notice the striz are obvi-
ously pervious.

iKntzeebac p. 64,1. mit, fies 12. Rab. Sussw: Diat; p43, 1.
iv., fig. 28. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 787. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 400, T. v., fig. 11. Rab. FI.
Kur., sect. 1, p. 136.

Feigheullen, Co. Kildare. Kailcool, Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow.
Bantry, Well at Farraghy, Co. Cork. Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

Synedra investiens, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Frustules minute, length varying from :0005 to 0020; on front
view quadrangular, on side view narrow, linear, tapering towards the
rounded extremities; strize coarse and very close. (Pl. 28, fig. 11.)

Wana. D:D. Vol. ue, p: 98) Ralfs, im Pritch, p! (Si) ab.
Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 185. The last named author places this species in
a group distinguished by the fact of the strie being interrupted by a
median free space; but in a slide kindly supplied to me by Major
Crozier, R. E., and described as part of the original gathering of Smith’s
Synopsis, the forms answering Smith’s description have strong pervious
coste.

Malahide. Kingstown Harbour. Salthill, Co. Dublin.

R.I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 20

300 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Synedra acula, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules long and very narrow; on front view attenuated at the
ends; on side view narrow, attenuated towards the ends, which are
usually expanded very slightly, but frequently acute. (Pl. 28,
fig. 12.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 65, T. xiv., fig. 20—Synedra delicatissima, Wm.
Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 72, Pl. xii., fig. 94, who represents the strie as
interrupted in the middle by a distinct median line with small central
nodule, features which do not exist. Ralfs, in Pritch, p. 787. Cas-
tracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val. Intrasca, p. 10.—Synedra
acus, var. elongata, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band xii. 1862, p. 399.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Stream, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan.
Friarstown, Malahide, Well St. Fenton’s, Sutton, Co. Dublin. Hen-
derson’s Well, Aughnacloy, Co. Tyrone.

Var. tenuissima, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

In all respects like the typical species, except that it is smaller,
and much less attenuated at the ends on side view.

Synedra tenera, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. u., p. 98. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 717, who makes the form described by Smith under this
name distinct from Synedra tenuissima, with which I consider it is
identical—Synedra acus, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.
Gesel., Band xu., 1862, p. 398.

‘‘Tough Alloa, near Blarney, and near Killaloe, Co. Cork,” Wm.
Sm., Bohernabreena, Dundrum, Boat harbour, Dolphin’s barn.
River Dodder, St. Fenton’s Well, Sutton, Stream, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin. Killeshin, Queen’s County, Donoghmore, Co. Tyrone.

Synedra gracilis, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Frustules small, -0012 in length; on front view attenuated
towards the ends; on side view narrow, elliptical, broader in the middle,
gradually attenuated towards the rounded and slightly-expanded ends;
stipes short, nearly sessile; the frustules being few and radiating
slightly. (Pl. 28, fig. 13.)

Kitz. Bae., -p. 64, T. mi:, fig. 14, 'T. xiv., fig..2.6)) Tv xyes
1,2, 5. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786, regards this form of Kiitzing as iden-
tical with that so named by Wm. Smith, B.D., Vol.i., p. 70, Pl. x1.,
fig. 85. The forms, however, are quite distinct. Grunow, Verhand.
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 401. It is to be re-
marked that the last-named author regards this species and Synedra
barbatula, Kutz. Bac., p. 68, T. xv., fig. 10, as so nearly allied that
the latter is to be regarded merely as a variety of the former. I can-
not adopt this view, and for these reasons: first, the growth of the
two is quite distinct; the frustules in Syncdra barbatula are attached
in tablets, while those of Synedra gracilis are fewer in number, and

3

O’Meari—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 301

somewhat radiately arranged. They differ as respects the character
of the striation. In Synedra barbatula the strize are easily detected,
and are divided by a narrow, longitudinal sulcus; in the smaller spe-
eimens of Synedra gracilis the striation is obscure, but in the larger
forms the strize are apparent and pervious.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. From
seaweeds, Drehidnamaud, Co. Kerry. Seaweeds, Salthill, Co. Dub-
lin. Seaweeds, Tramore, Co. Waterford. Seaweeds, Greenore, Co.
Louth. ;

(b.) Frustules arcuate on side view, stri@ pervious.

Synedra undulata, (Bail.) Marine.

Frustules very long and narrow, with undulate margins ; expanded
in the middle and towards the ends; strie moniliform. (Pl. 28,
fig. 14.)

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 59, Pl. xiv., fig. 107. Wm. Sm., B.D.,
Vol. u., p. 97. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786. Grunow, Verhand. der K.K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., p. 405, T. vi., fig. 1. Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska Diat., p. 220. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 180.—Toxarium
undulatum, Bailey, Mic. Obs., p. 15, figs. 24, 25.

Grunow associates this species with forms characterised by the
fact of the strie being interrupted in the middle, and it is so repre-
sented in the figure above referred to; but I have ever found the
striz pervious, as in Gregory’s figure.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians, Round-
stone Bay, Co. Galway. Stomachs of Ascidians, and also from sea-
weeds, in great abundance, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Synedra lunaris, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Frustules on front view quadrangular; on side view arcuate, at-
tenuated towards the extremities; strie linear, fine, but distinct; stipes
short. (Pl. 28, fig. 15.)
hr: [ins tT. KV tee A> Kutz. Bac. ps Go, 4e 110.) foie
Wie Sm. 8. D:, Vol.i., p. 69, Pl. x1., fiz, 82. Rab. Sussw. Duat.,
p. 54, T. ae fig. 6. Ralfs, in Pritch., p- 185. Grunow, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 389. Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p. 65. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 128. Cleve, Om Svenska och
Norska Diat., p. 220. Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val
Intrasca, p. 10.

Lucan, Co. Dublin. Glenchree, Glenmalure, Co. Wicklow.
Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Bellarena, Co. Londonderry. Five-
miletown, Lisnaskea, Co. Fermanagh. Pool, Glencar, Drumoughty
Lough, near Kenmare, Co. Kerry. Bantry, Co. Cork. Connemara,
Co. Galway.

202

302 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Synedra biceps, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules considerably larger than those of the last species; om
front view quadrangular; on side view arcuate ; extremities capitate.
(Pl. 28, fig. 16.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 66, T. xiv., figs. 18 and 21. Wm. Sm., B.D); Vol-
1, p. 69, Pl aa, fig. 85. -Rab. Sussw. Diat., p55, ilvaite
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 65.—
Synedra flexuosa? Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val
Intrasea, p.10. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 129.—Synedra flexuosa, var.
biceps, Grunow, Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot., Gesel. Band xii.,
1862, p. 390.

Killikee, Co. Dublin. Carrickmacrilly, Co. Wicklow. Glencar,
Co. Kerry. Connemara, Co. Galway. Bantry, Co. Cork.

(c.) Strie pervious, except in the middle, where there is a free space,
bounded by a more or less perfectly developed ring.

The number of forms legitimately included in this sub-division is
very limited, and still there is none, perhaps, in which greater con-
fusion reigns. Smith includes the four following species: Synedra
pulchella, Kutz., fresh water; S. gracilis, Kiitz., brackish water; S.
acicularis, Wm. Sm., which he makes =§%. levis, Kiitz, brackish
water; and §. minutissima, Kutz., fresh water. The same author ex-
cludes from this sub-division 8. fasciculata, which seems really to
belong to it, judging from the description given, as well as from the
figure.

To look at the figures of these several species, it might be ima-
gined there would no difficulty in distinguishing the one from the
other ; but, practically, the difficulty of determining is found to be
considerable. Kiitzing’s figures of them are too vague, and his de-
scriptions too indefinite, to help the student out of the difficulty.

Grunow regards Syn. fasciculata, Kitz., as= Syn. Saxonica of the
same author and Syn. gracilis, Kitz., in Wm. Sm., B. D. Syn.
parvula, Kiitz., he regards as = Syn. fasciculata, Kitz., Wm. Sm., B.D.;
and Syn. vaucherie, Kiitz., as = Syn. minutissima, Kiitz., in Wm. Sm.,
B. D., as well as to Syn. vaucherie, Kiitz.,in Wm. Sm., B.D. The
habitat to which these forms have been respectively assigned will fur-
nish no satisfactory distinction. Some are attributed to fresh water,
some to brackish; but when forms are ascribed to the latter, it is diffi-
cult to ascertain whether they are fresh water forms which have been
carried down, or marine forms which. have been carried up, or forms
incidental to brackish water. Grunow has found Syn. fasciculata in
salt water as well as in brackish, and likewise in the Franzensbad
deposit, which is a fresh water deposit, and in which I have also
found the form so named by that author; from this last fact, I con-
clude that the form is essentially a fresh water one, and not therefore:

—

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 303

to be discriminated on the ground of habitat from Syn. pulchella.
Speaking of this last named form, Grunow sagaciously remarks,
“‘ Whether this species is actually distinct from the preceding (Syn.
fasciculata, Grun. = to Syn. gracilis, Wm.Sm.), admits of considerable
doubt. Single frustules are not distinguishable. The separation is
founded only on the union in larger fans upon a stipes often tolerably
thick, which is by no means constant, and the occurrence in fresh
water.’ Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862,
p. 892. I am disposed to regard all these various forms as merely
varieties cf Syn. pulchella—and for this reason, that I have noticed
them more or less mixed together in gatherings from fresh water
localities, as well as in places where the water was slightly brackish,
and almost always exhibiting features of mutual relationship.

Synedra pulchella, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

On front view linear, slightly attenuated towards the ends; on
‘side view narrow, lanceolate, slightly capitate; the median ring
strongly marked. (Pl. 28, fig. 17.)

I have never seen the median ring so round or so decided in its
character as appears in Smith’s figure of the specics.

za bac, ps) 68, l,i, Miss 87 se Wins Smitaib DE Voleas
p. 70, Pl. x1., fig. 84, Supp., Pl. xxx., fig. 84. Rab. Siissw. Diat.,
p. 56, T.iy., fig.17. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786. Grunow, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1872, p. 392. Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p. 65, who considers it a brackish water form.

River Erne, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Caum Lough, near Tralec.
Pedler’s Lake, Dingle, Co. Kerry. Kailcool, Co. Wicklow. Stream,
Fintragh, Co. Donegal.

Var. gracilis, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.
This variety differs from the preceding only in not being con-
stricted at the ends, and the stipes being short, the frustules scattered

and not arranged in the form of afan. In identifying this species we

ean go no further back than the date of Smith’s work, in which it is
faithfully delineated. Kiitzing’s figures of the species named Syn.
gracilis are so indistinct that it would be impossible to identify them
with certainty. (Pl. 28, fig. 18.)

Synedra gracilis, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 70, Pl. xi., fig. 85.

-Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786, who describes the form as marine. Rab.

Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 132, where the form is stated to be submarine, in
which the author coincides with Smith.—Synedra fasciculata, Kiitz.
—Synedra saxonica, Kiitz, according to Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., p. 391. Cleve regards this species as
incidental to brackish water, and with Grunow considers it identical
with Synedra fasciculata, Kiitz, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 220.

Stream, Port-na-Crush, Co. Donegal. Carnlough, Co. Antrim.

304 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Breaches, near Neweastle. On moist rock, Black Castle, Co. Wick-
low. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford.

Var. acicularis, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Resembling Synedra pulchella, only longer and narrower. (Pl.
28, fig. 19.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 70, Pl. xi., fig. 86, who regards it a
a brackish water form.—Synedra levis, Kitz. Bac., p. 65, T. xv.,
fig. 8.2. 8.4. Were this the case, the variety should be attributed
to Kiitzing, and be called var. levis; but Kiitzing’s figure is not
sufficiently distinct to enable me to identify the variety with it, and
therefore I deem it better to retain the name given by Smith, who
figures it with accuracy.—Synedra Smithu, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786..
Grunow, Verhand. der Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xu., 1862, p. 592, who-
remarks, ‘‘that it is probably only a very long variety of (what he
calls) Synedra fasciculata, mixed up with which he found it upon
_ Cladophora flavida, Kiitz., on the Peene at Woolgart, and in such
manner that no clear distinction existed between the two.” Rab. Fl.
Kur., sect. 1, p. 131.

River Slaney, Killurin, Co. Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.
Carrickhugh, Co. Derry. Kilcool, moist rock, Black Castle, Co.
Wicklow. In the last named locality, in which this form was found
abundantly, marine influence was scarcely possible.

Var. lanceolata, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Resembling the typical form, but shorter and broader in proportion.
(Pl. 28, fig. 20.)

Synedra minutissima, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. 1., p. 70, Pl. x.,
fig. 87, who ascribes the species to Kiitzing, but the form so called by
the last named author, Bac., p. 63, T. 11., fig. 30, can searcely be-
identical with it. More likely it is the same as that which Kiutzing
describes as Synedra lanceolata: but whether or not this be the ease,
the designation is adopted because of its appropriateness, and the
species attributed to Wm. Smith, whose figure admits of no mistake.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 786. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 65, who:
attributes the form to fresh or brackish water. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect.
1, p. 189.—Synedra vaucheriz, Grunow, who adopts this view with
doubtfulness, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862,
p. 393, T.v., fig.9. This last named author regards Synedra vaucherie,.
Kitz., as distinct from the form so named by Wm. Sm., and the
ee identical with that figured as Synedra minutissima, by Wm.

mith.

River Slaney, Killurin, Co. Wexford. River at Port-na-Crush,
and stream, Fintragh, Co. Donegal. Stream, Howth, Co. Dublin.
Stream near Giants’ Causeway, Co. Antrim. Kilcool, Black Castle,
Co. Wicklow.

a

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 305

Var. linearis, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Smaller than the preceding var., and on side view somewhat
linear. (PI. 28, fig. 21.)

Synedra fasciculata, Wm. Sm., B.D, Vol.i., p. 73, Pl. xi., fig.
100, who has inaccurately confounded this fresh water species with
Synedra fasciculata, Kiitz. Bac., p. 68, T. xv., fig. 5, which is clearly
a marine species.—Synedra parvula, Kiitz., according to Grunow,
Verhand. der Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 392, T. iv., fig. 17,
where the form is accurately figured; but as it is impossible to identify
it with Kiitzing’s figure of the species so named, I consider it more
conducive to accuracy to refer this species to Smith, who has so accu-
rately described it; and as his specific name must be abandoned for the
reason given, and that adopted by Grunow is not quite certain, I have
given it a name characteristic of its general appearance. It is to be
noted that Smith separates this form from those with which it stands
related; but Grunow and Rabenhorst coincide with me as to its inti-
mate relation to the group of which Synedra pulchella is the type.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Tide pool, Malahide. In both which
marine and fresh water forms were mixed up, but I found it likewise
mixed with the preceding variety on the surface of wet rocks at
Black Castle, Co. Wicklow.

(d.) Strie interrupted by a narrow longitudinal sulcus; valves
linear.

Synedra capitata, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Frustule on front view linear, expanded slightly at the ends; on
side view linear, with expanded triangular head. (Pl. 28, fig. 22.)

Piareatus. lo xx. fie. 29. . Kutz. Bac. p: 67, TL. xiv., fig. 19:
Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 72, Pl. xii., fig. 94. Rab. Siissw. Diat.,
poo ive, ae. 6. -Ralis, in Pritch., p.-788, Pl. iv,, fig. 29, and x,
fig. 185. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xi..,
1862, p. 394. Heiberg, De Danske Diat. p.65. Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska Diat., p. 220.

In Smith’s figure there appears a short median line terminating
towards the centre in small pear-shaped nodules, and also a central
free space; the same features appear in the figure of Ralfs, in Pritchard,
but these peculiarities do not occur in the numerous specimens which
haye come under my observation.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Ditch at railway station, Dundalk,
Co. Louth. Stream, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Lucan. Dundrum.
Boat harbour, Dolphin’s barn, Co. Dublin. Royal Canal, Enfield, Co.
Meath. Royal Canal, Kilcock, Co. Kildare. Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.
The Callows, Ballinasloe, Co. Galway. Limestone quarry, Mullingar,
Co. Westmeath. Lough Mourne deposit.

306 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Var. longiceps, (Khr.) Fresh water.

Like the preceding, but longer, more slender, the ends not so
large; not triangular, but rounded off. (PI. 28, fig. 23.)

Synedra longiceps, Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 55. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p- 788. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel. Band xii.,
1862, p. 386.—Synedra notarisii, Castracane, Dialogo di Diat. raccolte
nell Val. Intrasea, p. 9.

Twyford Lough, near Athlone, Co. Westmeath, unmixed with the
former, and mixed with it in ditch near railway station, Dundalk, Co.
Louth.

Synedra ulna, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Frustules on front view linear ; on side view linear, suddenly con-
tracted at the ends, which are slightly constricted and rounded; stric
interrupted in the centre by a quadrangular vacant space. (Pl. 28,
fig. 24.)

It is not easy to comprehend how Smith could have regarded as
one species the two forms described by him under this name, B. D.,
Vol.i., p. 71, Pl. xi., figs. 90 and 90 B, than which no two forms of
the genus seem to be more distinct. The result is, that great confu-
sion has been introduced, which may be dispelled by a careful com-
parison of Kiitzing’s description and figure of the species with the
actual forms. It is questionable whether the form figured by Smith,
as above, fig. 90 B, really belongs to Synedra ulna; but, unqestion-
ably, that of fig. 90 must be excluded from its limits.

Kutz. Bac., p, 66, T. xxx., fig. 28. Rab. Sissw. Diaty pases,
T. iv., fig.4. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 788, Pl. x., fig. 184, in which only
the front view is given, and the mode of growth is on a short stipes,
and scattered. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot., Gesel. Band
Xil., 1862, p. 397, where he identifies this species with Smith’s fig. 90B,
as above cited, and makes fig. 90 a variety marked by the name of
lanceolata. Heiberg refers to the species as identical with that of
Smith’s fig. 90; De Danske Diat., p. 64. Rabenhorst Fl. Eur., sect. 1,
p. 1838, does not refer to Smith’s figures, and follows Grunow, only
that he includes Synedra salina, a very distinct species, as a variety of
Synedra ulna. Castracane identifies the form so named with that of
Rabenhorst Stissw. Diat., T. iv., fig. 4, as well as with that of Smith,
fig. 90. Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Vall. Intrasca, p. 10.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Caum Lough, near Tralee, Glencar,
Co. Kerry. River Dodder, Co. Dublin. Ditchnear Wicklow. Feigh-
cullen, Maynooth, Co. Kildare. River Moy, Foxford, Co. Mayo.
Well, Farraghy, Co. Cork.

Var. oxyrhynchus, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Much longer than the typical species, and ends on side view
sharper. (Pl. 28, fig. 25.)

Kutz. Bac.7 p. 66, T. xiv., fig. 11... Rallis, im Pritchespe door

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 307

Grunow makes Synedra oxyrhynchus a distinct species, which he iden-
tifies with Synedra oxyrhynchus, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 71,
Pl. xi., fig. 91, and figures a variety distinguished as amphicephala,
which appears identical with Synedra ulna, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. 1,
p. 71, Pl. xi, fig. 90 B. The form under consideration seems diffe-
rent from both. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 185, who follows Grunow.

River Dodder, near Dublin. River Moy, Foxford, Co. Mayo.

Var. amphirhynchus. Ebr. Fresh water.

Like the typical species, from which it differs chiefly by the ab-
sence of the quadrangular unstriate space in the centre of the valve,
on side view. (Pl. 28, fig. 26.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 66, T. xiv., fig. 15. Rab. Stssw. Diat., p. 55,
T. iv., fig. 7. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 788. Grunow, Verhand. der K.K.
Zool. Bot., Gesel., Band xi., 1862, p. 397.

River Moy, Foxford, Co. Mayo. Bohernabreena, River Dodder,
pond, Botanic Gardens of Trinity College, Co. Dublin. Greenane,
Kilcool, Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow. Feighcullen, Co. Kildare. Kaille-
shin, Queen’s County. Well, Farraghy, Co. Cork. Stream near Giants’
Causeway, Co. Antrim.

Mr, Kitton of Norwich, and Rey. George Davidson, have supplied
me with specimens which would appear to belong to this variety, but
growing in short filaments, after the manner characteristic of Fragi-
laria. I find no description of the stipes in any of the authors who
have referred to this form, nor have I ever seen it myself zm situ; but
not unfrequently have I noticed it aggregated im tablets, but not
parallel at the ends, as if the aggregation were accidental.

Synedra longissima, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules very long on front view, quadrangular; on side view li-
near, till near the ends, towards which it is almost imperceptibly
attenuated ; ends constricted and then dilated, without any central
free space ; valves sometimes slightly arcuate. (Pl. 28, fig. 27.)

Smith’s description of this species is tolerably accurate; but the
figure, B.D., Vol. i., Pl. xii., fig. 95, is calculated to mislead. The
form possesses no median line, nor is there a central free space, such
as this figure represents.

Wansesm., B.D, Vol: 15, p: 72: Ralts,.in' Pritch., p.786,;-who
asks ‘‘is this distinct from Synedra biceps?” to which I reply, cer-
tainly it is. The forms differ greatly in their general appearance,
and may be discriminated by the fact that the strie in Synedra bi-
ceps are pervious—in Synedra longissima they are separated by a
median sulcus. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., 220. Rab.
Fl. Eur., sect 1, p. 180, who remarks that ‘‘it appears to him an
elongated, gently-undulate form of Synedra biceps,’ and strangely

308 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

adds, that ‘‘ he considers Grunow has rightly regarded it as a variety
of Synedra splendens.””—Synedra splendens, var. longissima, Grunow,
Verhand. der. K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 397. Grunow
considers this form identical with Synedra biceps, Kiitz. Bac., p. 66,
T. xiv., figs. 18 and 21, and Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 55, T. v., fig. 9..
But however this may be, Synedra longissima and Synedra biceps are
in reality distinct species.

Pond in Botanic Gardens, Belfast. Malahide. St Fenton’s Well,
Sutton. Streamlet, Newcastle Lyons, Co. Dublin. Twyford Lake,
near Athlone, Lake Belvidere, Co. Westmeath. Ditch near railway
station, Dundalk, Co. Louth. Ditch near Wicklow.

Synedra obtusa, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Similar to the preceding species, but much shorter; not so much
constricted or expanded at the rounded ends. (Pl. 28, fig. 28.)

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 71, Pl. xi., fig. 92, who regards it as
= Synedra ulna, Ehr. Inf., T. xvii, fig. 1; but of this he is doubtful;
and Synedra equalis, Kiitz. Sp. Alg., p. 45, ad speciem que dedit
amico De Brébisson. If Synedra eequalis, Kiitz., just referred to, be
the same as that described by the same author, Bac., p. 66, T. xiv.,
fig. 14, it is scarcely ‘identical with the present species.—Synedra
splendens, var. obtusa, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.
Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 897.—Synedra splendens, var. eequalis,
Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p.184. The linear form of the side view
appears to me to distinguish this from the form named Synedra splen-
dens by both the authors last referred to, which Grunow describes as
generally, small lanceolate, and less frequently linear, and Rabenhorst
as linear, lanceolate. If this form can be regarded as a variety of any
other, I think it should be of Synedra longissima, which it very closely
resembles.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford ; Ditch near railway station, London-
derry. Limestone quarry, Mullingar. Twyford Lake, near Athlone.
Lake Belvidere, Co. Westmeath.

(e). Strie interrupted by a narrow, longitudinal sulcus ; valves, narrow
elliptical.

Synedra splendens, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules long: on front view usually wider at the ends than in
the middle ; on side view, narrow elliptical, gradually attenuated to.
the slightly capitate ends. (Pl. 28, fig. 29).

I have found it impossible to discriminate between this species-
and Synedra ulna, as described by Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. 1, p. 71,
Pl. xi., fig. 90. The latter species, as described by Kiitzing Bac.,
p. 66, T. xxxx., fig. 28., is on side view perfectly linear; and.
although I have occasionally seen specimens which exhibit a ten- |

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 309

dency towards the elliptical outline, I am disposed to regard these as.
abnormal, the normal character being linear. Smith indeed distin-
guishes the two forms by the fact that, in the latter, the frustules
are loose and scattered, whereas in the former they are arranged
radiately ; and, although such a feature of growth is not to be wholly
overlooked, it is scarcely sufficient to distinguish the species, especially
in the earlier stages of growth, where the frustules are few in number.
I am inclined to think the form which Smith describes as Synedra
ulna is really Synedra splendens. It seems strange that this form
should have been attributed to Wm. Smith, although he regards what
he calls Synedra radians as equivalent to Synedra splendens, Kutz.

Kutz., Bac., p. 66, T. xiv., fig. 16; Rab. Sussw. Diat., p. 54,
T. iv., fig. 4? Ralfs,in Pritch., p.788. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., p. 394.—Synedra radians, Wm.Sm., B. D.,
Vol. 1., p. 71, Pl. xi., fig. 89. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 64.
Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val Intrasca, p. 10. Cleve,
Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 220.

Stream, Crossdoney. Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Lucan.
Friarstown, Bohernabreena, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Tacumshane, Co.
Wexford. Killeshin, Queen’s Co. Royal Canal, Enfield, Co. Meath.
Glencar. Pedlar’s Lough, near Dingle, Co. Kerry. Ditch near railway
station, Dundalk, Co. Louth. River Suck, Ballinasloe, Co. Galway.

Var. radians, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Like the typical species, but smaller, and the ends more acute on
side view. (PI. 28, fig. 30.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 64, T. xiv., fig.7. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 787.—Syne-
draseradiansy Wan, sme, Bs) 1). Vol. 15, ps 7l,. Bl. xis fe 189B,
and 89 y.

Friarstown, Co. Dublin. Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Pedlar’s
Lough, near Dingle, Co. Kerry. Ditch near Dundalk, Co. Louth.
Ditches in the Callows, Ballinasloe, Co. Galway.

Var. danica, (Kitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules longer and narrower than the typical species, the stria-
tion finer, and the valves on front view more gradually attenuated
towards the ends, which are broadly rounded off, and not capitate.
CEP? 8) fie. 31.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 66, T. xiv., fig. 13.—Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 788;
Synedra radians var. debilis, Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 184? Grunow
considers this var. = Synedra radians, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. 1., p. 71,
Pl. xii., figs. 89 B, and 89y; Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot., Gesel.,
Band xii., p. 896; but Synedra danica is much longer than that
variety, less lanceolate, and with broader rounded apices.

River Moy, near Foxford, C. Mayo. Bantry Well, Farraghy, Co.

Cork. Donoughmore, Co. Tyrone. Coolnamuck, parish of Dysert, Co.
Waterford.

310 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Synedra salina, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve lanceolate, gradually attenuated towards the ends, which are
rounded off, and broader than in Synedra splendens. (Pl. 28, fig. 32.)

Wm. 8Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 71, Pl. x1., fig. 88. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 787. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel. Band xi.
p. 898.—Synedra ulna, var. marina Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 184.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Malahide, Clontarf, Co. Dublin. Ros-
trevor, Co. Down. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Synedra galliontt, (Ehr.) Marine.

Frustules on front view slightly attenuated at the ends, on side
view shorter, broader, and more obtuse at ends than in case of Synedra
salina. (Pl. 28, fig. 33.)

Kutz. Bac.,p. 68, TL. xxx., fig. 42; Wm. Sm) BD Voleeresn:
74. Supp. Pl. xxx., fig. 265, who describes a shorter and stouter
var.20., Supp. Pl. xxx., fig’ 265 “B.” Rallis, an—Pritch, piso merle
xu., figs. 34-86. Grunow, Verhand der K. K., Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band xii., 1862, p. 401. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 187, who attributes
the species to Bory.

On seaweeds, Bannow, and Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. On sea-
weeds, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Seaweeds, Larne, Co. Antrim. Sea-
weeds, Dundrum Bay, Co. Down. Arran Islands, Co. Galway, and
from seaweeds at different parts of the coast in the Co. Clare.

The smaller variety has been found at Malahide, Howth, Co.
Dublin. On seaweeds, Larne, Co. Antrim, and in the other localities
where the larger species has occurred.

Synedra spathulata, N.S. Fresh water.

Frustules very large; length, -0130; on front view wider at ends
than middle; greatest breadth, :0012; ends straight; on side view
wider in the middle, and gradually attenuated towards the ends, at
some distance from which -0028, bending inwards and then outwards,
then suddenly constricted towards the broadly capitate rounded extre--
mities. Striz course, costate. (Pl. 28, fig. 34.)

Ditch at bank of Royal Canal, near Kilcock, Co. Kildare. An un-

dulate variety of the species occurs in a well, Newcastle, Lyons, Co.
Dublin.

Synedra barbatula, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Frustules short, on front view quadrangular; on side view broadly
elliptical ; strie fine, but distinct. (PI. 28, fig. 35.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 68, T. xv., fig. 104. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 789.—
Synedra gracilis, var. barbatula, Grunow, Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot.,
Gesel., Band xii., p. 402.

Salthill, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay,
Co. Galway. Seaweeds, Tramore, Co. Waterford.

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. dll

(£.) Strive marginal.

Synedra tabulata, (Agardh.) Marine.

Frustules large, adhering in tablets on a short stipes; on front view
wider at middle than at the ends; on side view nearly linear, very
slightly attenuated towards the constricted and rounded ends; strize
broader than in the succeeding species. (Pl. 28, fig. 36.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 68, T. xv., figs. 101-3, where the form is described
more in accordance with my specimens than that of Wm. Sm., B. D.,
Wole i, p- 72, Pl. xii., fig. 96. Ralfs, im Pritch., p: 788; Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot., Gesel., Band xu., 1862, p. 403. Rab.
Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1, p. 137. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
220. According to Kiitzing = Diatoma tabulatum, Agardh, on
which authority I attribute the species to Agardh, as do also Ralfs
and Rabenhorst, while Smith, Cleve, and Grunow, the latter doubt-
fully, refer it to Kiitzing.

On seaweeds, Bannow, Co. Wexford, as well as on seaweeds near
the town of Wexford. Seaweeds, Rostrevor, Co. Down. Seaweeds,
Malahide, Co. Dublin. lLaytown, Co. Meath. Breaches near New-
castle, Co. Dublin. Seaweeds, Larne, Co. Antrim.

Synedra arcus, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Frustules much smaller than those of the preceding species, and
not dissimilar in their mode of growth; on front view slightly arcu-
ate; on side view slightly sigmoid; striz short. (Pl. 28, fig. 37.)

ibaebac. p-.68, T xxx. fig, 50. Wm. Sm. BaD: Voli; p.
70, Pl. xi., fig. 98, Pl. xu., fig. 98, in which latter the front view and
manner of growth are accurately depicted. alfs, in Pritch., p. 789,
Pl. iv., fig. 27, where the front view is represented as straight and
perfectly quadrangular, and the side view as arcuate, and with a
median line, the strize reaching the latter; in all these particulars the
figure is not correct. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band xui., p. 405. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 65. Rab. Fl. Eur.,
sect. 1, p. 138.

On seaweeds, Malahide, Monkstown, Bray, Co. Dublin.

Synedra affinis, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Frustules in mode of growth similar to the preceding; on front
view attenuated at ends; on side view lanceolate; strize short. (Pl.
28, fig. 38.)

Mina bac., p. 68, I. xv-, fig. 6. Wm. Sm., B.D. WVols1., ps a3,
Pl. xu., fig. 97. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 788. Grunow, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xu., 1862, p. 403. Rab. Fl. Eur.,
sect. 1, p. 138.

Tide-pool, Wexford. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. On sea-weeds,.
Malahide and Clontarf, Co. Dublin. Camlough Bay, Co. Antrim.

312 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Rostrevor and Dundrum Bay, Co. Down. Breaches near Newcastle,
Co. Wicklow. Mouth of the Nannywater, Laytown, Co. Meath.

Synedra nitzschiodes, (Grun.) Marine.

Frustules on front view slightly attenuated towards the ends; on
side view narrow, linear lanceolate. (Pl. 28, fig. 39.)

Grunow does not describe the mode of growth, nor can I say any-
thing on this subject, as the form has been observed by me only after
treatment with acid. This species may be distinguished from the last
by the linear and slightly apiculate form of the side view.

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., p. 403,
T. v., fig. 18. This species was found by Grunow only in the Pacifie
Ocean.

From stomachs of Ascidiais, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. From
seaweeds, Rush, Co. Dublin, where it occurs in tolerable abundance.

Synedra frauenfeldii, (Grun.) Marine.

Frustules much larger than the three preceding species on front
view, but very slightly attenuated at the ends; on front view narrow,
lanceolate, much attenuated from the middle towards the ends, which
are slightly dilated; striz fine, marginal in the middle, but as the
valves become narrow towards the ends, they seem to meet. (PI. 28,
fig. 40.

5 enue Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p.
406, T.iv., fig. 26. The only habitat given by Grunow is the Red Sea.

Seaweeds, Dundalk, Co. Louth. The form is more slender than
that figured by Grunow as above, the apex less dilated, and the strize
shorter; but in the main features the forms are so like as to leave
but little doubt of their identity.

Synedra putealis, N.S. Fresh water.

Frustules in length -0045, very narrow; on front view slightly
attenuated towards the ends; on side view narrow, lanceolate, gra-
dually tapering towards the rostrate ends; strize short; stipes short;
on which the frustules are crowded in small tablets containing about
ten in each. (Pl. 28, fig. 41.)

This form possibly may be identical with that described as Synedra
tenuis, by Kutzing, Bac., p. 65, T. xiv., fig. 10, but im some respects
it is so different as to warrant the conclusion that it is specifically
distinct. Kiuitzing does not describe the mode of growth nor the
character of the strie, and moreover alleges that in the species re-
ferred to, the frustules are exactly linear on front view, whereas in
the present case they are obviously attenuated.

St. Fenton’s Well, Sutton, Co. Dublin. Well near the Roman
Catholic Chapel, Ballinasloe, in both which localities it occurs in
great abundance, mixed with other forms.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 313

Synedra Smithit, N. 8. Fresh water.

Frustules small; on front view quadrangular; on side view nar-
row, linear; accuminate at the ends; strie short. (Pl. 28, fig.
42.

ee vaucherie, Wm. Sm., B: D:, Vol. i., p.. 73; Pl. x.,
fig. 99, who identifies the species with that so named by Kiitzing, Bac.,
p. 65, T. iv., fig. 4, 1, 2a, 3; and so far as the description of it is
concerned, not without warrant: but although in some respects the
figures cited seem to agree with the form under notice, in other re-
spects there is such a difference as to cast a doubt on the correctness
of the identification. Kiitzing represents the striation in his form as
pervious, whereas in that figured and described by Smith the stricz
are marginal and yery short. Rabenhorst describes and figures a form
under the name of 8. vaucherie ; but although from the description it
might fairly be supposed to be the same as the present form, the figure
renders the identity more than doubtful; Stissw. Diat., p. 55, T. iv.,
fig. 15. Again, Grunow describes a form as identical with Kiitzing’s
Synedra vaucheriee ; Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xi..,
1862, p. 393, T. v., fig. 9, which seems to differ widely from Kiitzing’s
figure, as well from that so named by Wm. Smith. He remarks :—
*‘The species here referred to, which exhibits a decided relationship
to Synedra pulchella, I regarded for a long time as the identical
Synedra vaucheriz of Kitzing and recently had my impression on the
subject confirmed through means of some specimens of De Brébisson’s,
kindly sent to me by Professor A. Braun. I find Smith’s figure
widely different from Synedra vaucherie, Kiitz., which might much
rather be regarded as a form of Synedra affinis, although Synedra
vaucheriz also possesses a tolerably broad unstriate space between
the striz, but in the description I find no allusion to the unstriate
very fine ring-formed-pseudo-nodule.”’ These remarks make it obvious
that it is impossible to identify Smith’s form with Synedra vaucherie,
Kiitz., from which it differs considerably. I have therefore adopted
a new specific name, that of Synedra Smithi.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. River at Port-na-Crush, Co. Donegal.
Malahide, Portmarnock, St. Fenton’s Well, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

(g.) Stri@ obsolete.

Synedra debilis, (Kutz.) Fresh water.

Frustules very minute ; on front view regularly quadrangular; on
side view elliptical-lanceolate. (Plate 28, fig. 43.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 65, T. im., fig. 45. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 787.—
Synedra radians, var. debilis, Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 136.

Twyford Lake, near Athlone, Co. Westmeath. River Dour,
Co. Cork.

3l4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

FAMILY VI. STRIATELLEA, Kutz.

Frustules precisely as in the immediately preceding family, and
distinguished by the possession of internal diaphragms, which, spring-
ing from the connecting membrane, are interposed between the two
opposite valves.

This family, since it was constituted by Kiitzing, has been adopted
by successive authors, but with some divergence respecting the species
comprehended within its limits. As here defined, it embraces not
only the genera included in Kitzing’s family Striatellez, but also
those of the family Tabellariez, which, though generically distinct,
come properly within the same limits. The Genera Gephyria and
Eupluria, which were included by Ralfs, are here excluded from the
family ; because in whatever other respects they may agree, they stand
remote in consequenee of the unsymmetrical structure of the opposite
valves. And for a similar reason I exclude Podosphenia, which Hei-
berg placed in the family, the frustules being unsymmetrical both on
front and side view.

Thus defined, the family is precisely equivalent to Grunow’s sub-
group of Diatomez, and stands out distinguished by two very decided
features, namely, the perfect symmetry of the valves, and the inter-
position between them of diaphragms more or less numerous.

The diaphragms constitute so important a feature in the family,
that some observations are needed to explain their nature and mode of
growth. As far as I know, Ralfs was the first who described these
organs with any tolerable approach to accuracy. He says :—‘‘The
appearance of longitudinal strize is in fact produced by silicious plates,
arising internally from the margins of the filament, and extend-
ing towards, but not reaching, the centre. The interior is thus
divided into chambers opening into a central space. When viewed
laterally, this central space resembles a canal, especially as the inner
edge of each plate has a concave outline.” Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 803. .
If there be anything vague in this description, it is greatly elucidated
by the observations of Wm. Smith, as well as by the figures of these.
diaphragms in the case of Rhabdonema, Tetracyclus, and Tabellaria,
B. D., Vol. ii., pp. 82-34, Pl. xxxviit., fig. 306h and 305}, Pl. xxxix.,
fig. 808 h and h’, Pl. xliii., fig. 816} and 317}.

In these cases, the diaphragms may be regarded as compressed
rings corresponding externally with the outline of the valves; but
Heiberg has called attention to the fact that, in the case of Striatella,.
the diaphragms are somewhat differently constructed. ‘‘ Smith’s repre-
sentation of the structure of this species is in the main correct, but he
has misapprehended the form of the diaphragms, considering them to
be closed rings (as his figure 807 h, as well as the descriptive term,
“‘Annuli” indicate), whereas in reality they are open at one end. The
form of them would naturally be best seen by preparing them out sepa—

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 315

rately. One can, however, satisfy himself that the diaphragms are
open at one end, by observing a perfect frustule in transverse view,
when one diaphragm is seen from the open, and the other from the
closed, side.””-—De Danske Diat., p. 72. In the case of the diaphragms
of Striatella, it may be noticed that the silicious plate is thicker at

one end, and becomes gradually thinner as it recedes from it. This -

fact may serve to illustrate the mode of growth in the diaphragms in
other species, as well as in Striatella. Springing from opposite ends,
the two contiguous diaphragms in some cases appear much thicker at
the starting point, and as they proceed parallel to each other become
thinner and thinner as they approach the opposite end of the frustule.
The strong lines which appear as coste on the front view may seem to

mark the extreme length to which the diaphragms project into the cell ;-

but the compressed rings are, except in the case of Striatella, com-
plete, and can by proper focusing be traced through their entire
course.

Genus I. GrammatopnHora, (Ehr.)

Frustules attached, united in zig-zag filaments ; diaphragms two in
number; open in the centre, and equally developed at both sides of
the same. Valves narrow, elliptical; sometimes slightly expanded in
the middle; striz obvious, and appearing on front view as a narrow
striate border.

Although the species of this genus are by the experienced eye
easily discriminated, it is not easy to describe their characteristics
in words so as satisfactorily to obviate confusion with other forms
belonging to the same family, especially with Tabellaria, which they
resemble, not only in the mode of growth in zig-zag filaments, but
also in the general formation of the diaphragms, which are equally
developed on both sides of the central portion. Whether we view the
frustules on the front or side views, they may be distinguished by the
following characters:—In Grammatophora the valves are sometimes
slightly expanded in the middle, but in no case so much so as in Tabel-
laria; the strie, too, are ever noticeable, which is not the case with
the last-named genus. And on the front view the narrow margin of
striz noticeable in the species of Grammatophora are never to be seen
in those of Tabellaria.

Grammatophora marina, (Lyngb.) Marine.

Frustules on front view regularly quadrangular; on side view
narrow, elliptical; strize obvious; diaphragms curved near the ends,
and thence running in a straight line towards the middle. (Pl. 29,
fig. 1.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 128, T. xvii, fig. 24, who regards the species as
identical with Diatoma marina, Lyngb. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii.,

R.I.A, PROC., SER. II., VOL, II., SCIENCE. 2P

—

316 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

p. 42, Pl. xi., fig. 314.- Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 808, Pl. iv., fig. 47,
Pl. xi., fig. 52 and 53. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band. xii., 1862, p. 415. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 71. Rab. FI.
Eur., s. 1, p. 803. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 222.

Sea-weeds, Malahide. Sea-weeds, Portmarnock, Co. Dublin. Sea-
‘weeds, Portrush; and same, Co. Antrim. Arran Islands, Co. Galway.
Tacumshane, Co. Wexford.

Grammatophora macilenta, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Frustules on front view quadrangular, but sometimes slightly
arcuate ; generally much longer than the preceding species; on side
view nearly linear; diaphragms similar to the last, except that the
foramen is more elliptical, and the striz finer.

Wm. Sm., B. D:, Vol. u.; p43: Supp. ‘Pl. bxu., fig’ 8825 WRalis;
in Pritch., p. 808. Rab. El, Eur., sect. 1, p. 304. Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska Diat., p. 222.—Grammatophora oceanica, var. macilenta,
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862,
p. 417.

Salt ditch, near Wexford. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Carnlough
Bay, Portrush. Waterfoot, Co. Antrim. Dundrum Bay, Co. Down.
Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Grammatophora serpentina, (Ralfs.) Marine.

Frustules on front view regularly quadrangular; on side view
linear elliptic; strize obvious; diaphragms undulate, and seen on front
view spiral. (Pl. 29, fig. 2.)

Kaitz. Bac.;p..129, T. xxix., fig. 82. Wm.Sm., BoD oWiolea
p- 48, Pl. xli., fig. 315. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 808, Pl. iv., fig. 48.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 420.
Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 304. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p. 222.—Striatella serpentina, Ralfs. An. Nat. Hist., Vol. ii., Pl. ix.,
fig. 5. :

Malahide, Co. Dublin. Sea-weeds near town of Wicklow. Tacum-
shane, Co. Wexford. Portrush, Co. Antrim. Arran Islands, Co.
Galway. .

Grammatophora balfouriana, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Frustules small; on front view quadrangular; on side view linear,
elliptical; diaphragms direct, without curvature; strie fine.

Ralfs, following Greville, establishes a new genus Diatomella to
receive this single form, and is followed in this view by Grunow and
Rabenhorst ; but, as it appears to me, the characters are not such as to
distinguish the new genus from Grammatophora.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i, p. 438, Supp. Pl. lxi., fig. 388. Ralfs, in

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 317

Pritch., p. 810, Pl. iv., fig. 51, 52..Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 319. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 300.

Lough Derg, Co. Galway. Ulster Canal, near Newry, Co. Armagh.

Only a few forms were found in these localities, the species being one
of the rarest in Ireland.

Genus IJ. Tapertarta, Ehr.

Frustules attached in zig-zag filaments; valves expanded at the
middle and ends; striee faint.

Tabellaria flocculosa, (Roth.) Fresh water.

Diaphragms numerous, thickened ends alternately placed, and
varying in length. (Pl. 29, fig. 3.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 127, T. xvi., fig. 21. Rab. Stssw. Diat., p. 68,
ano oe Wm. Sm. .B. DD. Vol.m., p. 45, Pi xii y hist 36.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 807, Pl. xiii., fig. 29. Grunow, Verhand. der K.
K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xu., 1862, p. 410. Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p. 70. Castracane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val Intrasca,
p- 15. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 221.—Tabellaria
ventricosa, Kiitz. Bac., p. 127, T. xxx., fig. 74, does not differ from
the present species.

Frequent, especially in sub-Alpine and boggy pools. Kiitzing re-
gards this species as identical with Conferva flocculosa, Roth., on which
authority the species is attributed to Roth.

Tabellaria fenestrata, (uyngb.) Fresh water.

Diaphragms few, and of equal thickness on both sides of the cen-
tral expansion ; frustules much longer than in the preceding species.

Mrizeebace, p. b2i Lo xvite, fet 22, Teva) fie. 2 and ON. xcxx,,
fig. 73, who regards the species as identical with Diatoma fenestratum
Lliyngbye. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 63, T. x., fig. 1. Wm. Sm., B. D.,
Vol. u., p. 46, Pl. xlviii., fig. 317. Ralfs, in Pritch, p.807. Grunow,
Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p.410. Heiberg,
De Danske Diat., p. 71. Castracane Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nell Val
Intrasca, p. 16. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 321.

Common in the same localities as the preceding, with which it is
ustially mixed.

Genus III. Terrracyctus, Ralfs.

Frustules united in parallel filaments; filaments free; thickencd
2P2

318 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ends of the diaphragms alternate; valyes much expanded in middle ;
strongly costate; coste pervious.

Tetracyclus lacustris, (Ralfs.) Fresh water.

Middle expansion of the valve rounded. (Plate 29, fig. 4.)

Ralfs, Ann. Nat. Hist., Vol. xii., 1843, Pl. u., fig. 2. Kiitz. Bac.,
p. 127, DT. xxix., fig: 70. “Rab. Stssw. Diat., p. 68, We ax enemas
Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 38, Pl. xxxix., fig. 308. Ralfs, in Pritch,
p. 806, Pl. viii., fig. 10, and Pl. xi., fig. 24, 25. Grunow, Verhand
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 412. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 222.

River Erne, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Lake near Castlewellan, Co.
Down. River Bann, Verner’s Bridge, Co. Armagh. Tonabrick Moun-
tain, Co. Cork; Wm. Smith. ;

Tetracyclus emarginatus, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

‘‘ Valves constricted towards the extremities, which are rounded
and sub-apiculate ; inflections deeply notched or emarginate ; otherwise
like the last species.” —Wnm. Smith.

Wm. Sm. B. D., Vol. ii., p. 38.-Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 806. Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 412. Rab.
Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 302. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 222.
Smith supposes this species identical with Biblarium emarginatum,
Ehr. Mic. T. xxxiu. 2, fig. 6. On his authority I attribute the
species to Ehrenberg.

Gap of Dunloe, Killarney. Wm. Smith. This species is extremely

rare, not a single specimen having ever come under my notice from
any locality in Ireland.

Genus 1Y. Ruazsponema, Kutz.

Stipes short; diaphragms numerous, on the external margin
strongly costate, broad; extremity of the valves unstriate.

Smith alleges that in this genus the valves have a median line, a
statement which does not appear to be sustained by the facts of the
case.

Rhabdonema arcuatum, (Lyngb.) Marine.
Frustules short; on side view broadly elliptical; costate, with
moniliform striz interposed between the cost; striz pervious; dia-
phragms numerous, parallel, with a single foramen. (PI. 29, fig. 5.)
Kitz. Bac., p. 126, T. xviii., fig. 6, who states that the species is

O’Mearsa—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 319

identical with Diatoma arcuatum, Lyngbye. Wm. Sm. B.D., Vol.i..,
p. 34, Pl. xxxviil., fig. 305. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 804. Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., p. 428. Heiberg, De
- Danske Diat., p. 70. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 306. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 221.

Salt ditch, near Wexford. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Malahide,
Ballybrack, Co. Dublin. Carnlough Bay. Sea-weeds, Portrush,
Co. Antrim. Sea-weeds, Dundalk, Co. Louth. Sea-weeds near
Galway town. Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Rhabdonema minutum, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Valves small; expanded in the middle; attenuated towards the
rounded ends; strie moniliform, pervious; diaphragms few; appa-
rently alternate, with a single foramen.

inte bac, p- 126, T. xx., fig. 2:4. Wm: Sm:, Be D:, Volon:,
p. 35, Pl. xxxviii., fig. 306. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 804, Pl. iv., fig. 41.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p. 428.
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 70. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 306.
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 221.

Sea-weeds, Malahide; on piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount
Strand, Ballybrack, Salt Hill, Co. Dublin. Sea-weeds, Portrush.
Larne, Co. Antrim. Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Dundalk, Co. Louth.

Rhabdonema adriaticum, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Frustules very large; valves narrow, linear elliptical; strix
moniliform ; diaphragms numerous, not so wide on margins nor so
strongly costate as on R. arcuatum, with two or more foramina.

Maraebees po 126, ie xvii. fic, 7. Wan. Sm:,<b-D., Vol. 1.
pcos elexccxyiil., fic. 805.a; b. Ralfs, in Pritch., p..805,, Pl. x111.,
fig. 27. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii.,
1862, p. 424. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 306. Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska Diat., p. 221.

Malahide, Co. Dublin. ‘‘ Cork Harbour. Belfast Bay, near Car-
rickfergus.”” Wm. Smith.

Genus VY. Srerarerta, Agardh.

Frustules stipitate ; stipes long; valves elliptical, lanceolate, with
a median line, without central or terminal nodule; strie obsolete ;
diaphragms numerous, on front view linear, unstriate, strongly
marked at one end, and gradually attenuated towards the other; not
reaching the entire breadth of the valves; arranged alternately ; on
side view not reaching the full length of valve; open the greater part
of the length.

320 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Striatella unipunctata, (Lyng.) Marine.

Diagnosis same as that of the genus. (Pl. 29, fig. 6.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 125, T. xvui., fig. 5, who considers the form
identical with Fragilaria unipunctata, Lyngbye. Wm. Sm., B. D.,
Vollu., p. 36, Pl. xxxix., fig. 307. Ralfs, im Pritch., py 80s sbleay,-
fig.40. Grunow, Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862,
p- 427. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 72. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1,
p- 807. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 222.

Sea-weeds, Bray, Howth, Salt Hill, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of
Ascidians, Co. Clare. Sea-weeds, Co. Galway. ‘‘ Larne and Belfast
Bays, Cork Harbour,” Wm. Smith.

Genus VI. Tersserza, Ehr.

Frustules stipitate, stipes short; not filamentous; diaphragms
apparently reaching not further than the middle of the valve, alter-
nate, arched, and in opposite directions on the opposite sides of the
frustule; external edges of the diaphragms slightly striate.

Tessella interrupta, (Ehr.) Marine.

Diagnosis of the species same as that of the genus. Of the side
view of this species, I have never been able to obtain a satisfactory
observation. (Pl. 29, fig. 7.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 125, T. xviii., figs. 41, 2. This author states with .
hesitation that there is no stipes in this species, as also does Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 804, Pl. vii., fig. 5—Striatella interrupta, Grunow, Ver-
hand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, p.427. It is tobe
noticed that this species cannot be confounded with Striatella inter-
rupta, as described and figured by Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 75,
T. v., fig. 15, and Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 307.

Sea-weeds, Co. Galway. Sea-weeds, Co. Clare; in both which
localities it occurs in company with Striatella unipunctata.

Famity VII. AMPHIPLEUREA, Kiitz.
Frustules free; lanceolate on side view, with median line and long

narrow end nodules, but without central nodule, and exhibiting a sub-
marginal keel at each side.

Genus I. Ampurerevra, Kiitz.

The characters of this genus may be regarded as those of the
family. It will be found that the structure of the frustules in

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 321

this genus has not hitherto been described with sufficient accuracy
for their satisfactory diagnosis, and consequently its relations with
other genera have been very variously represented. Kiitzing in-
cludes it among the Naviculee; Smith places it between Amphi-
prora and Nayicula, while Ralfs, Grunow, and Heiberg, agree in
assigning to it a position of near relationship to the Nitzschieer.
The remarks of the last named author are noteworthy:—‘‘ Amphi-
pleura is a genus which stands in need of a more precise reyi-
sion. Grunow, in his first treatise, placed the genus in the group
Surirelleze, with which it has no very close relationship; but sub-
sequently this author established the genus as the type of a special
group, Amphipleurez, and at the same time gaye a valuable contribu-
tion towards a more precise limitation of the genus: but notwithstand-
ing, much remains still to be done. I have placed the genus with the
Nitzschieze, because Amphipleura sigmoidea, the only species tho-
roughly examined by me, seems to agree essentially with Nitzschia,
and in fact to possess the same unsymmetrical relation of the connect-
ing membrane with the front view. As to the other of the under-
named species (Amphipleura pellucida), I have not as yet had sufficient
material to institute a more exact examination, and have been able
only to satisfy myself as to its identity with the species of the author
named.”’—De Danske Diat., p. 116. The above remarks indicate the
source of the confusion which exists, namely, the supposition that the
form described as Amphipleura sigmoidea belongs to the genus
Amphipleura; I regard it as not at all distinguishable from Nitzschia
sigma. Assigning this latter form to its proper place, we have a
distinct and satisfactory diagnosis of the genus Amphipleura, founded
on the presence of the median line without a central nodule, and the
elongated character of the end nodules, as well as the presence of the
submarginal lines. Referring to the last named peculiarity of struc-
ture, Smith notices Ehrenberg’s ideal transverse section of the frus-
tule, ‘‘ which represents the ridges as springing from the surface of a
convex yalve, having between them a depression which corresponds
with the ordinary median line of the Navicule,” and adds, ‘‘I am
unable to confirm this description.”—B.D., Vol.i., p. 45. Grunow,
however, asserts that “‘ each valve has three kcels; the two submargi-
nal ones springing out so far in one aspect as to stand on the valves at
right angles with the margin. In the aspect of the entire frustule
as seen from the side, the submarginal keels appear, and the median
line forms the contour of the valves.’’—Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.
Gesel. Band xii., 1862, p. 467.

Amphipleura pellucida, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valves narrow, lanceolate; strie obscure. (PI. 29, fig. 8.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 103, T. iii., fig. 52, T. xxx., fig. 84. In neither of
these figures is the peculiar form of the end nodules noticed. Wm.
Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 45, Pl. xv., fig. 127. Here the valve is repre-

322 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

sented without the median line, and having a longitudinal row of
moniliform puncta interposed between the margin and the submar-
ginal keels: the latter I have never been able to detect. Ralfs, in
Pritch:,'p.'783; Plt ivs, fig. 30, Pl. ix, fig: 140, and (Pitan ies
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xu1., 1862, p. 468.
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p.117. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 143.

Limestone quarry near Mullingar, Co. Westmeath. Marl-pit, Inch,
near Gorey, Co. Wexford. Feighcullen, Co. Kildare.

Amphipleura danica, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Similar to the preceding in all respects, save that it is shorter and
relatively broader.

Kutz. Bac., p. 103, T. xxx., fig. 38. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 783.
Grunow, Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii., 1862, pp. 468
and 470. Grunow is uncertain as to whether the median line has the
elongated end nodules; but of this there is no doubt, my specimens
invariably exhibiting the same: and he seems to regard the species as
identical with Amphipleura rigida, Kiitz, this latter being in fact the
same as Amphipleura sigmoidea, Wm. Sm., and belonging not to the
genus Amphipleura, but to Nitzschia.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Famity VIII. NAVICULEA:, Kiitz.

Frustules oblong, having both valves furnished with a median line,
central, and two terminal nodules.

In this group I include all those forms with symmetrical frus-
tules, more or less oblong elliptical in their outline, and having
both valves furnished with a median line, also with a central and two
end nodules ; quite irrespective of their mode of growth, in tubes, stipi-
tate, or free, filamentous or simple. So limited, Gomphonema, and
Cocconeis, included by Heiberg as Naviculeze cuneate, are necessarily
excluded on account of the unsymmetrical structure of their valves ;
while the species which normally occur, surrounded by a more or less
amorphous mass of gelatinous investment, as Dickiea and Mastogloia,
as well as those which grow in tubes more or less composite, as Ber-
kleya, Colletonema, Schizonema; Doryphora, which is stipitate, Dia-
desmis, which is filamentous, as well as the genera which grow free,
and without any investment, are included, because their frustules, how-
ever varying in minor details, ever exhibit the same general features. If
Kiitzing, Smith and others, assigning too much value to the secondary
modes of growth, have widely separated genera which are intimately
related by a common structure, Heiberg on the other hand regards as

O’Merara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 323

of little or no significance these peculiarities of growth, which, although
subordinate to the general structure of the frustules, should not be
overlooked. These differences, as they occur normally, are doubtless
assignable to some peculiarity in the structure of the plants which
regularly develop them. They therefore demand the careful atten-
tion of the students of nature, and, as I think, ought to be marked
by a special designation.

(a). Chlamydiae—Frustules enveloped in a more or less definite frond.
Genus I. Masroetora, Wm. Smith and Thwaites.

Mucous frond in such species, as have been observed i situ, papil-
late, the frustules imbedded in the top of the papille; frustules fur-
nished with narrow-marginal silicious plates interposed between the
valve and the connecting band.

Kiitzing, (Bac. p. 92, T. xxx., fig. 37,) describes a form under the
name of Navicula meleagris, which evidently belongs to this genus.
Thwaites, Ann. Nat. Hist., March, 1848, gives a description of another
form belonging to this genus, under the name of Dickiea danseu, but
when the characteristic difference in the form of the mucous invest-
ment was pointed out by Smith, (B. D., vol. 1., p. 64), he estab-
lished the genus Mastogloia to receive a new form discovered by
himself, as well as some others that had meanwhile been brought
under his notice. The genus therefore may in some measure be
attributed to Smith; the more so because he first seems to have
noticed and described one of the most important features in the
structure of the frustule. He says, ‘‘The frustules of Masto-
gioia are notably distinct from those of any other genera of the tribe
haying the annulate structure, described under the genus Rhabdonema
with the conspicuous canaliculi of a Surirella. In the present case,
the canaliculi which take the form of loculi are, however, formed
differently from those of Surirella, not being connected with the
valve, but with the annulus, which projects as a septum into the body
of the frustule.” And again, ‘‘ Normally the annular septum extends
only partially across the interior of the frustule, but occasionally the
loculi are seen to reach nearly as far as the median line of the valve.”
—B. D., Vol. u., p. 638. In reference to this description, Grunow re-
marks, ‘‘ [ have been unable to convince myself of the correctness of
Smith’s supposition, that the coste which according to him form dia-
phragms are attached to the connecting membrane. After numerous
observations, I find they are quite analogous to the coste of other
Diatoms, and are an inner layer of the silicious plate which in this in-
stance separates itself from the outer layer more easily than in other
Diatoms.”—Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860,
p- 5/74. Heiberg’s views on the subject of dispute are thus ex-
pressed: ‘‘ Smith on the contrary took an erroneous view of the genus

324 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

as such, inasmuch as he regarded the inner layer of the valves on
which the characteristic coste are situated as an annulus or dia-
phragm of the same structure as that which we find in the Striatelleee :
also he considered the cost to be canaliculi, which does not corres-
pond with the actual facts of the case. Grunow has the merit of
having been the first to point out the error of the opinion of Smith
above referred to.’”,—De Danske Diat., p. 92. Whether the plate bear-
ing the loculi is more intimately associated with the connecting
membrane, as Smith thought, or with the valve itself, as Grunow and
Heiberg are of opinion it is, this is certain, so far as my observation
extends, that, as Grunow remarks, the plate seems to attach itself more
frequently to the valve than to the connecting membrane; but as the
valves frequently occur without the plate, and the plate is often
found detached, I am disposed to consider it not so much an inner
layer of the silicious epiderm as a separate formation, and much more
intimately related to the diaphragms of the Striatellee than to the
inner layer which bears the coste in the Epithemiz. Smith describes.
the loculi as opening by foramina along the line of suture, a statement
which Ralfs repeats. I have however failed to notice any such open-
ings, the plate having ever appeared to be perfectly solid. Inasmuch
as Thwaites considered the occurrence of the frustules in gelatinous
cushions the distinctive character of the genus Mastogloia, and other
distinguished writers have entertained the same opinion, Grunow’s
remark on the subject is deserving of attention : ‘‘ Whether the species
of the genus Mastogloia occur invariably in a gelatinous investment, 1s
a matter concerning which I am very doubtful, as in a fresh collection
I okserved Mastogloia Smithii free, while I found no specimens in a
gelatinous cushion’’—Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x.,
1860, p. 575. However this mar be, the occurrence of the plate with
loculi in the perfect frustule is a mark of distinction which identifies
the genus. Further, it was considered by Grunow, that the occurrence
of the inner layer with its costate striation, so different from the
sculpture of the valve, constitutes a strong bond of affinity between
Mastogloia and Cocconeis. If, however, the opinion I have expressed as.
to the distinctness of the plate from the valve be correct, this resem-
blance fails, and in the general details of structure the two genera are
widely distinct. The process of reproduction in this genus has been
observed by Liiders: according to his observations, two mother cells.
produce two auxospores. Pfitzer, Untersuchungen tiber Bau und
Entwicklung der Bacillariaceen, p. 74, remarks, ‘‘that in this
feature the genus corresponds with the Naviculez, and not with the
Cocconeideze in which Grunow placed it; for the latter, out of two
mother cells, develop but a single auxospore.”’

Mastogloia lanceolata, (Thwaites.) Marine or brackish water.

Valves lanceolate ; marginal plate wide at middle, and gradually
tapering to the ends; loculi narrow, and numerous; median lne
slightly undulate ; strongly marked at the central nodule, and greatly

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 325

attenuated towards the ends; striz linear, fine; slightly radiate; not
quite reaching the median line, but terminated by two strongly
developed sulci, which bend in shghtly towards the central nodule at
either end, leaying a narrow lanceolate space about the median line
free from striae.

Smith and Grunow, the former doubtfully, regard this form as
identical with Navicula meleagris, Kiitz. Bac., p. 92, T. xxx., fig. 37.
Rabenhorst, however, regards Kiitzing’s form as distinct from the
present; and in this I am disposed to agree with him, as I have seen
specimens exactly corresponding with that of Kiitzing, and as I think
quite distinct from Mastogloia lanceolata.

Wauissm= be DP Vol. i) p)i64, Pivlivycic. 340.4 The, fleure
and description are correct, as far as they go, but neither the longi-
tudinal sulci about the median line, nor the strie are described.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 924. Grunow, Verhand. der Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band x. 1860, p. 576. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 94. Rab. FI.
Kur., sect. 1, p. 261. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 230.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Salt marsh,
Kilcool, Co. Wicklow. Salt marsh near the town of Galway. Dolly-
mount Strand, Co. Dublin.

Mastogloia convergens, N.S. Marine or brackish water.

Valve broadly elliptical; length -0018; breadth -0008; rounded
at ends; median line straight, strongly marked, and of equal breadth
throughout ; central nodule small and round: marginal plates broad
in the middle, gradually attenuated towards the ends, at some dis-
tance from which they bend outwards; the space between the plates
is broadly lanceolate at either end, and narrower in the middle, where
the boundary line curves very gently towards the margin; loculi
broader than in the last; striz fine, linear, convergent in the middle
of the valve, where they are stronger and farther apart, and for the
remainder gently radiate. (Pl. 29, fig. 9.)

On first view, this form might readily be confounded with the
preceding ; but the more carefully it is examined, the more apparent
are its distinctive characteristics. In its outline, it is broader for the
length than Mastogloia lanceolata; its ends are broader, and more
round. In the latter, the loculi are more numerous, shorter in the
middle, and gradually diminishing towards the ends; in the present
case, the loculi are wider in the middle, and suddenly become attenu-
ated towards the ends. The longitudinal sulci near the median line,
so marked a feature of M. lanceolata, are wanting in this. In M.
lanceolata, the strize are uniformly radiate; in M. convergens, they
are convergent in the middle, and for the rest more decidedly radiate
than in the other.

Salt marsh near the town of Galway. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry,
accessible to the tide.

326 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

Mastogloia closevi, N.S. Marine or brackish water.

Valve somewhat rhomboid; length -0018; breadth -0008; ends
narrow, lanceolate; median line straight; central nodule very small ;
marginal plates wide in the middle for a short space, and rapidly
attenuated long before reaching the ends; loculi generally four in
number, two large in the middle, and one at either side narrow, at-
tenuated; space between the inner margin of plates wide, shaped
somewhat like an hour-glass, with pointed ends; striz fine, linear,
radiate, reaching the median line. (PI. 29, fig. 10.)

Found first in a gathering by Rev. Maxwell! H. Close, from rock
pools in the bay called Lough Kay, between Cahirciveen and Doulus
Head, Co. Kerry. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Sea-weeds, Giants’ Cause-
way, Co. Antrim.

Mastogloia portierana, (Grunow.) Marine.

Valves narrow, lanceolate; slightly produced at the apex; mar-
ginal plates narrow; gradually attenuated towards the ends; loculi
numerous; striz very obscure. (PI. 29, fig. 11.)

This form is very similar in some respects to large specimens of
Mastogloia lanceolata, but differs in many details; it is longer, and
proportionately narrower; the sulci at either side of median line in
the case of M. lanceolata are absent in this; the apices, too, are
slightly produced, and the strie much finer than in that species.
Grunow states that, with an amplifying power of 400 times, the striae
are scarcely noticeable; but in the several specimens examined by me
with a one-eighth objective and deep eye-picce, the striz could not be
discovered. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band xii. ;
18638, p. 157, T. iv., fig. 138. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 286.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Mastogloia danseit, (Thwaites.) Marine or brackish water.

Valve linear, elliptical ; broadly rounded at ends; strie reaching
the median line, but slightly shortened around the central nodule ;
radiate, formed of close puncta; marginal plates on inner margin
straight till near the ends, where they are suddenly attenuated ;
loculi numerous, parallel; space between the plates narrow, and
slightly expanded at the ends.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 64, Supp. Pl. lxii., fig. 388. Rallis,
in Pritch., p. 924, Pl. xv., fig. 80. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 576. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1,
p. 261.—Dickieadanseii, Thwaites, Ann. Nat. Hist., March, 1848, p.171.
Smith seems to think that this species hardly differs from Mastogloia
lanceolata, but a careful consideration of the two forms will, I think,
prove that in all the details they are essentially different.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Lough Foyle, Co. Londonderry.
Larne, Co. Antrim. Salt marsh, Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.

O’ Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. O27

Mastogloia apiculata, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valves broadly elliptical; slightly produced at the ends; median
line fine, with two sulci, one at» either side, and very close to it;
parallel for greater part of length, and converging towards the ends;
central nodule small; marginal plates narrow, gradually attenuated
towards the ends, where they suddenly decrease in breadth; loculi
numerous; space between the inner margins broadly elliptical, and
slightly expanded at the ends;-striz fine, closely punctate, slightly
radiate.

Wm. Sm., B. D. Vol. u., p. 65. Supp. Pl. lxu., fig. 387. Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 925. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band x., 1860, p. 577, T. vii., fig. 9. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 262.

Dollymount Strand, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians, Round-
stone Bay, Co. Galway.

Mastogloia smithii, (Thwaites.) Fresh or brackish water.

Valves elliptical ; frequentiy produced at the ends ; marginal plates
relatively broad; attenuated at the ends; space included between the
inner margins narrow; slightly expanded at the ends; strie fine,
linear; slightly radiate. (PI. 29, fig. 12.)

This form varies greatly in size and shape, as well as in the habitat.
It seems essentially a fresh water form, for I have found it frequently
in localities far remote from marine influences; and also in places
where, so far as I could judge, there was no likelihood of mixture of
fresh water withthe salt. Under the circumstances, I was anxious
to submit the forms to the most rigid examination, but could detect
no specific difference between them. Grunow observes that, in the
specimen that came under his notice, there was even a tolerably wide
transversely expanded central nodule, which he considers should be
established as the characteristic distinction between this species and
Mastogloia lanceolata. I may mention that this feature, though
frequently noticeable, is not of universal occurrence.

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 65, Pl. liv., fig. 341. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 925. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860,
Pp. 9/0, 1. vui., fig. 11. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 261. ‘Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 230.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Kileool,
Co. Wicklow. Newtownlimayady, Co. Derry. In all which gatherings
there was a mixture of fresh and brackish forms. Tide pool, Greystones,
Co. Wicklow, where the forms were mostly marine. Lough Corrib,
Co. Galway, wholly free from marine influence.

Var. capitata, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Agreeing with the typical form, only that the produced ends are
capitate; the strie, also, which are similarly arranged, may easily be
resolved into minute dots.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii., p. 65, PI. liv., fig. 3413. In all pro-

328 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

bability, this is identical with the form described by Greville, Q.J.M.S.,
October, 1862, p. 235, Pl. x., fig. 11; although that author remarks
that in his form the strize were much more obscure than in the form
figured by Smith as above. *

Lough Corrib, Co. Galway, mixed with the typical form.

Mastogloia grevillii, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve linear; cuneate at the obtuse extremities; marginal plate
nearly linear on the inner margin, suddenly attenuated towards the
ends; loculi numerous; strie fine, linear, radiate, shortened at the
central nodule, so as to give a stauro-form appearance to the valve.

Wm. Sm. B. D. Vol. i1., p. 64, Supp. Pl. lsu, fig. 389. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 925. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel.,
Band x., 1860, p. 575. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 94. Rab. FI.
Kur., sect. 1, p. 260.

Kileool, Co. Wicklow. Lough Neagh, Co. Antrim. Ballyshannon,
Co. Donegal. Carrickhugh, Co. Derry.

Mastogloia costata, N.S. Fresh water.

Valve linear; cuneate at ends; length -0013, breadth -0005 ; mar-
ginal plates broad, on inner margin perfectly linear till near the ends,
where they very slightly expand, in shape of a spear head; loculi
numerous; strie strongly costate, converging in the middle, and for
the rest radiate; shortened at the central nodule. (Pl. 29, fig. 13.)

In shape and size, this form is so like Mastogloia grevillu that it
might easily be confounded with it; but, however, on closer investi-
gation it will appear quite distinct. In M. grevilli, the fine lnear
striz can by proper focusing be easily seen along with the loculi of
the marginal plate. In the present species, either from the convexity
of the valve, or the coarseness and closeness of the costate striz, or
perhaps owing to both these circumstances, the plates are not easily
detected, except at the inner margin, where their boundary may be
detected by the clear intervening space into which the ends of the
strong coste are seen to project.

On a moist rock, Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal.

Genus II. Dricxrera, Berkeley.

Frond flat, leaf-like ; unbranched; frustules scattered without re-
gular arrangement.

Smith attributes this genus to Ralfs; but Ralfs himself ascribes it
to Berkeley. It is adopted by Kiitzing, Smith, Grunow, and Raben-

ee

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 329

horst, but Heiberg rejects it as being unnecessary, the forms being, as
he thinks, ranged properly with the Navicule.

Dickieia ulvoides, (Berk.), Marine.

Gelatinous frond, more or less perfectly ovate; entire, and having
a distinct pedicel; valves linear, elliptical ; central nodule transversely
dilated ; strie fine, parallel. (Pl. 29, fig. 14.)

Berkeley and Ralfs, Ann. Nat. Hist., Series 1., Vol. xiv., Pl. ix.,
Kitz. Bac.,p.119. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. u., p. 66, Pl. liv., fig. 342.
Ralis; in Pritch., p. 925, Bli.xv., fig. 3h.-- Rab.) El. Eur., sect. '1,
p. 264.

Greystones, Co. Wicklow.

Dickieia pinnata, (Ralfs), Marine.

Frond lasciniated ; valves narrow, elliptical; strice fine, parallel;
nodule small, round. -

Ralfs. Ann. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, Vol. vii., Pl.v., fig.6. Ralfs,
an Pritch., p. 925. Wm.Sm., B. D. Vol. u., p. 66; Pl. liv., fig: 343:
Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 264.

On piles of the wooden bridge, Dollymount strand ; Wooden piles
on strand, Clontarf ; Sea-weeds, Malahide ; Ireland’s eye; Rock-pools,
Ballybrack, Co. Dublin: in the last named locality it occurs in greatest
abundance. Larne, Co. Antrim.

Genus III. Cotztetonrema, De Bréb.

Gelatinous frond filiform, simple or sparingly divided at the ends.

The first known forms of this genus were discovered by Thwaites,

and published by him in Ann. Hist., March, 1848, under the generic -

name of Schizonema. De Brébisson subsequently separated these
forms from Schizonema, and instituted the present genus for their
reception ; the distinguishing characters being their fresh water habi-
tat, and the simple tubular frond. Whatever value may attach to
the latter peculiarity, the former is utterly untenable as a generic dis-
tinction. Smith alleges that in this genus the frustules are more
firmly silicious than in Schizonema, a statement I cannot corroborate ;
but even though it admitted of no doubt, this fact could scarcely be
regarded as a sufficient generic distinction. Rabenhorst, Siissw. Diat.,
p- 51, who himself observed none of the species, adopts the genus,
characterising it by the fact of the frustules occurring in rows within
a structureless gelatinous investment. Ralfs adopts Smith’s definition,
but doubts ‘‘if any of the above characters sufficiently distinguish
Colletonema from the allied genera,” in Pritch., p. 926. Grunow’s
observations on the genus are noteworthy; he says: ‘‘The genus

330 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Colletonema is in a twofold aspect uncertainly founded. On the one
hand, it can scarcely be rightly separated from Schizonema, in which
small forms occur in simple sheaths, and on the other hand its separa-
tion from Navicula is very uncertain. It appears to me that many
species of Nayiculee may, under certain conditions, occur, as well in
gelatinous masses as inclosed in gelatinous tubes, and two of the
forms which I have with some hesitation placed in this genus appear
to me to confirm this impression.”’ Farther on, in his observations on
Colletonema neglectum, he remarks: ‘‘ I once observed this species in
an unused mill-stream in which Nayicula gracilis occurred in uncommon
abundance, and for the most part certainly in a free state; very fre-
quently also were found gelatinous tubes filled with perfect frustules
of Navicula gracilis, just as Smith has described it, and also very un-
frequently bands consisting of double rows of the same Navyicula
without any sheaths; nor could I by the most careful examination dis-
criminate between these forms and those of Navicula gracilis from
other localities, where no gelatinous tubes were discovered.’’—Verhand.
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, pp. 570, 571. These
observations coincide with the supposition of Wm. Smith, that ‘‘ Pin-
nularia radiosa may be merely a free state of Colletonema neglectum
and Nayicula crassinervia, the same condition of Colletonema vulgare.”
B. D., Vol. ii., p. 69. I take the opportunity of remarking that, in a
gathering made by me from Lough Aron, on the summit of the Slieve-
anieran mountain, Co. Antrim, in the summer of 1872, Navicula rhom-
boides occurred in great abundance ; some of the forms were free and
active, others were inclosed in gelatinous tubes, invariably arranged in
single files, and by no means uncommonly the frustules were seen in
long files, attached apparently one to another by the ends, without the
slightest appearance of tubes, just as in Grunow’s case of Navicula
gracilis. Rabenhorst restores the species of this genus to Schizonema ;
and Heiberg, rejecting the generic distinction founded on the gelati-
nous tubes in which the frustules are invested, unites them with
Navicula.

Reproduction has been observed by Thwaites in the case of Colle-
tonema subcoherens; he says: ‘‘The Sporangia of this species are
produced by the conjugation of a pair of frustules outside the filaments ;
but sporangial frustules are frequently found in a filament intermixed
with ordinary frustules, from which they differ only in size.””—Ann.
Nat. Hist., March, 1848. Pfitzer superadds, that “two cells produce
two auxospores.” Untersuchungen, p. 73.

Colletonema eximium, (Thwaites), Fresh water.

Frond filiform, frustules arranged in one or more rows; valve

sigmoid, striz fine, parallel.

Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 51. Wm. Sm.:, B.D., Vol. 1-5 p. Go eielaae:
fig. 350. Ralfs, in Pritch., p- 926, Pl. vii., fig. 43. Grunow, Ver-
hand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 573, who remarks,
regarding this species: ‘‘it must either be transferred to Pleurosigma,

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. B31

or a new genus established to receive it.”—Schizonema eximium,
Thwaites, Ann. Nat. Hist., March, 1848. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1,
p- 266.—Gloionema sigmoides, Ehr. Abh., 1845, p. 78.—Encyonema
sigmoides, Kitz. Alg., p. 62.—Endosigma eximium, De Bréb.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Near Railway station, Newtown-
limayady, Co. Derry.

Colletonema vulgare, (Thwaites). Fresh water.

Frond occasionally divided; frustules elliptical, lanceolate, strize
very fine.

In Smith’s figure the strie are described as radiate, but I have
never been able to resolve them.

Wineesmey 5) 0):> Vol. 11.5 pi 70, Pl. ivi; fic. 351. -Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 572. Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 926.—Schizonema vulgare, Thwaites, Ann. Nat., Hist.,
2nd Series, Vol. i., p. 10, Pl. xu, fig. H. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1,
p- 265.—Navicula vulgaris, Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 83.

Carrickmacreilly Mountain near Glanealy, Wicklow: the species is
very uncommon.

Colletonema neglectum, (Thwaites.) Fresh water.

Frond slightly divided; frustules closely packed; elliptical, lan-
ceolate ; extremities obtuse; strie finely costate, radiate. (Pl. 29,
fig. 15.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.u., p. 70, Pl. lvi., fig. 352. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p- 926. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x.,
p- 571.—Schizonema neglectum, Thwaites, Ann. Nat. Hist., 2nd
Series, Vol.i. p. 11, Pl. xu., J. Rab. Fl. Kur., sect. 1, p. 265.

Genus lV. Berrxetrys, Greville.

Frond branched, the branches springing from a basal tubercle.

Most authors adopt this genus, but Heiberg rejects it as unneces-
sary, and includes the species under Navicula.

Berkeleya fragilis, (Greville.) Marine.

Frustules closely packed in the tubes. Valves elliptical, lanceo-
late, broadly rounded at the ends. Striz obscure. (Pl. 29, fig. 16.)

Grey. Scot. Crypt. Flora. tab. 294. Do. Brit. Flora, p.416. Ralfs,
Ann. Nat. Hist., 1st Series, Vol. xvi., Pl. ii., fig. 2. Do., in Pritch.,
p- 926. Kiitz. Bac., p. 109. Wm. S8m., B.D., Vol. ii., p. 67, Pl. liv.,
fig. 344. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x.,
1860, p. 512. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 264.—Navicula fragilis, Hei-
berg, De Danske Diat., p.84. Bangia micans, Lyngbye, Tent. Hydro-

R.1I, A. PROC., SER. Il., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2Q

332 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

phyt., p.84. This last synonym is given on the authority of Heiberg,
who had the opportunity of inspecting authentic specimens.

Cork Harbour, Wm. Smith. Rock-pool, Salt Hill, Co. Dublin.
Coast of Galway, from collections by M‘Calla, in the Herbarium,
Trinity College, Dublin.

Genus V. Scuizonema, Agardh.

Frond usually much divided. Frustules arranged in one or more
files within the gelatinous tubes which constitute the frond.

Smith remarks justly that “‘ the fronds in this extensive genus
were amongst the earhest Diatomaceous organisms recognised by
naturalists, and have been the perplexity of all subsequent observers.”
Nor is this to be wondered at, when the difficulties attendant on their
examination are taken into consideration. The frustules enveloped
in the fronds are generally minute, so that even though they were
free it would be no easy matter to examine them satisfactonly, and
the difficulty is much enhanced by the intervention of the fronds as
well as by the manner in which the frustules are packed within them.
Kiitzing attempted to arrange the species on the basis of the charac-
ters of the fronds, but with how little success the student will be
convinced who endeavours to make himself master of the subject by
the aid of his minute descriptions, and of his very indefinite figures.
Heiberg falls into a mistake the very opposite to that of Kiitzing—
discarding from consideration not only the characters of the fronds in
the various species, but regarding the fact of the frustules being normally
incased within fronds as an unreliable generic distinction, and so he
ranks the species under the genus Navicula. De Brébisson had ob-
served that ‘‘the greater part of the species needed reconsideration,
and to be studied with regard to the character of the frustules.” and
Smith, with his characteristic sagacity, taking this hint, at the same
time not overlooking any reliable character exhibited by the fronds,
dispelled the confusion which had hitherto existed, and reduced the
species into an order, which seems, all the circumstances considered, to
admit of little improvement.

As to the mode of reproducing the sporangia in the genus, opinions
differ, as the following extract from Pfitzer will sufficiently show :—
“In Schizonema Grevillii, according to Smith, a single mother-cell
produces a single auxospore, while according to Liders this occurs
but seldom, namely, when one auxospore becomes defunct; usually, on
the contrary, two cells co-operate, and form two auxospores. The
development of the latter occurs outside the tubes in a large and fine
mucous investment. The mode of proceeding, according to Liiders, is
that each mother-cell divides itself, and the halves unite in pairs.
However, in other forms in which, according to Liiders, a similar

—— oh» feliaiaaati

O’Mrsara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. Soo
-

state of things occurs, I have not found this view confirmed. So that
probably Schizonema does not differ in this respect from the rest of
the Navicule.’’—Untersuchungen iiber Bau und Entwicklung der Bac-
illariaceen, p. 73.

(+) Frustules with parallel strie.

Schizonema crucigerum, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

‘“‘Frond filiform; filaments implicate below, free above, much
divided. Frustules crowded. Valves with a distinct stauros, lanceolate,
acute” (Wm. Smith) on side view ; on front view wider in the middle
than at ends: Strize distinct, close, linear. (Pl. 29, fig. 17.)

In Smith’s figure, the strie are described as slightly radiate, but
in my specimens, I find them parallel.

Wartpont b>) Vol. i170 p74. Ple Ive owe go4,, ands Bik Ivar
fig. 356. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 928. Rab. Fl: Eur. sect. 1, p. 266.
—Stauroneis crucigera, Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 88.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Malahide, Portmarnock, Salt-hill,
Co. Dublin. Rostrevor, Co. Down. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

Schizonema smithit, (Agardh.) Marine.

‘¢ Frond, filiform, robust, simple below, much divided, fosciculared
and fastigiate above. Fr ustules in numerous closely set files. Valves
elliptico-lanceolate, acute.”’—Wm. Smith. To which I would add, strie,
obyious, extending to median line. Front view of frustule regularly
quadrangular. (Pl. 29, fig. 18.)

Agardh. Conspectus, p.18. Kiitz. Bac., p. 114, T. xxvii., fig. 5.
Riana sme Voli: p. 75, Plo lar... fig. 3625, Rab) Bl Bur,
sect. 1, p. 269.—Micromega Smithu, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 980.

Howth, Salt Hill, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Seacoast, Co. Antrim.

Schizonema divergens, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

‘Frond, simple below, sparingly divided, or by cohesion irregu-
larly submembranous above; ultimate ramuli short, obtuse.”,—Wm.
Smith. Valve, shorter and wider than the last, and more rounded at the
ends. Striee fine, linear, reaching the median line.

Wm. Sm., B. D., V ol. ii. 5 ide aC, Pl. lvu., fig. 363. Rab. FI. Eur.
sect. 1, p. 269.—Micromega idivevecns, Ralts, in Priteh.,.p. 931

Besides the locality named by Wm. Smith, Larne Lough, where it

was collected by Dr. Dickie, this species has been gathered by myself

at Malahide and Salt-hill, Co. Dublin; and by Dr. David Moore, at
Carrickfergus and Carnlough Bay, Co. Antrim.

Schizonema mucosum, (Kiitz.) Marine.
‘Frond filiform, gelatinous, simple below, by cohesion sub-mem-

2Q2

3e4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

branous aboye. Margin irregularly ramulous. Frustules in files, few,
sub-distant. Valve elliptical, delicately striate.’ Wm.Smith. Not
unlike the last, except that it is more delicately striate, shorter,
broader, and more rounded at ends.

Kutz. Bae., p. 116, Tf. xxvi., fig.9. Wm. Sm. Bobs iela
p. 75, Pl. lvu., fig. 360. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 268.—Micromega
mucosum, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 933.

With seaweeds, Galway, Dr. David Moore. Malahide, Howth, Co.
Dublin.

Schizonema ramosissimum, (Agardh.) Marine.

‘‘ Frond filiform, much divided from the base, and irregularly sub-
membranous by cohesion above. Ramuli short, obtuse. Frustules
numerous, in closely packed files. Valves elliptico-lanceolate, acute.’”’—
Wm. Smith. Striz fine, linear.

Agardh. Syst., p. 11. Harvey’s Manual, p. 210, who, according
to Smith, had the opportunity of inspecting authentic specimens.
Wan. Sm., B.D., Vol. u., p. 78, Pl. lix., fig. 369. .Rabsieiee
D- 272,—Micromega ramosissimum, Agardh. Consp., p- 22. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 934.

Near Larne, Carnlough, Co. Antrim, collected by Dr. David
Moore.

(tt). Frustules having radiate stria.

Schizonema grevillii, (Agardh.) Marine.

** Frond filiform, much divided from the base, Ultimate ramuli
acute, larger divisions with several files ; ultimate ramuli with a single
file of frustules. Valve lanceolate.”—Wm. Smith. Strie fine, gently
radiate. On the front view, frustules are very wide, quadrangular.
The side view appears nearly as far as the median line. The central
nodule thus seen is depressed. The connecting band exhibits longitu-
dinal lines. (PI. 29, fig. 19.)

Agardh. Conspect., p. 19. Kiitz. Bac., p. 114, T. xxvi., fig. 4.,
i y., ug. 1. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. u., p. 77, PlyanSeaeeeee
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 928. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 267.—Schizonema
quadripunctatum, Harvey’s Manual, p. 214.

Larne, Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim, collected by Dr. David Moore.
Malahide, Merrion, Co. Dublin. River Nannywater, near Laytown,
Co. Meath.

Schizonema helmintosum, (Chauyin.) Marine.

‘* Frond filiform, or by cohesion irregularly sub-membranous ; much
andirregularly divided; ultimate divisions short, abrupt.”
Frustules linear, elliptical, sometimes sharp, sometimes more rounded

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 339

at the ends. Striz fine, obscurely punctate, convergent about the
central nodule, and for a considerable distance from it, towards the
ends straight and radiate.

Agardh. Conspect., p. 20. Grev. Brit. Flora, p.412. Harvey’s
Manual, “p. 210. Kitz. Bac:, p. 114, T. xxvu., fig. 6. Wm. Sm.,
B. D., Vol.u., p. 74, Pl. lvi., fig. 355. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 268.—
Micromega helmintosum, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 830.

Howth, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Carnlough Bay, collected by Dr.
David Moore.

Schizonema comoides, (Agardh.) Marine.

‘Frond filiform, simple below, much divided and fasciculated
above. Frustulescrowded.’”’—Wm. Smith. Frustulessmall, length about
"0010, somewhat rhombic on front view, rounded slightly at the ends.
Striz strong and distant at centre, finer and closer towards the end ;
on front view linear, in outline rounded at ends.

Agardh. Conspect., p. 19. Harvey’s Manual, p. 213. Wm. Sm.,
ee pevol a, ps. 75, Plo lvne, fig. 858, Rab. Ely Burs) sect.2:, p-
268.—Schizonema araneosum, Kiitz. Bac., p. 113, T. xxiv., fig. 2, T.
xxy., fig. ix.—Micromega comoides, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 934.

Carnlough Bay, Co. Antrim, collected by Dr. David Moore. Howth,
Malahide, Co. Dublin.

Schizonema parasiticum, (Harvey.) Marine.

“Frond capillary, branched, filaments slightly cohering above.
Ramuli short, patent. Mucus oftenrugose. Frustules crowded in files,
more or less distant. Walves elliptico-lanceolate, acute. Length of frond
5” ; length of frustule -0011; breadth of valve :0002.”—Wm. Smith.
Striz extremely fine. Frustule on front view quadrangular.

Harvey’s Manual, p. 218. Wm. Sm. B. D., Vol. ii., p. 79, Pl. lix.,
fig. 37. Rab. Fl. Eur., p. 273.—Micromega parasiticum, Kiitz: Bac.,
pewlion Ale xxvu., fig. 2. ‘Ralfs, im Pritch., p. 932.

Malahide, Salt Hill, Co. Dublin.

Schizonema laciniatum, (Harvey.) Marine.

‘‘Frond filiform, much branched, filaments often adhering into
rope-like tufts. Ramulivery long. Frustules numerous, crowded in irre-
gular files. Valves elliptical, somewhat acute. Length of frustule-0018;
breadth of valve 00035.”,— Wm. Smith. Valves striate ; strize punctate,
gently radiate. On front view frustules broader at middle than at
ends, ends rounded off; side view coming largely into sight when
observed in front, the inner margins nearly meeting the connecting
membrane, and at the ends receding therefrom.

On careful inspection of authentic specimens of Schizonema imphi-
catum (Harvey), I find the frustules on side and front view so like one

306 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

another in all respects that, judging from the frustules alone, I am
disposed to consider that itis not distinct from the present; nor does.
the general appearance of the fronds differ so much as to be irrecon-
cilable with this impression:

Harvey’s Manual, p. 210. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol i1., p. 79, Pl. lix.,
fig. 370. Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 273.—Schizonema scoparium,
Kitz. Bac., p. 114, T. xxvu., fig. 1—Micromega laciniatum, Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 932.

Carrickfergus to Antrim, collected by Dr. David Moore. Galway,
collected by M‘Calla.

Schizonema gracillimum, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

‘‘ Frond capillary, simple below ; sparingly branched and sub-mem-
branous towards the apices. Frustules crowded in irregular files.
Valves elliptico-lanceolate. Length of frustule .0009, breadth of valve
*00015.”—Wm. Smith. Striz linear, very slightly radiate. Frustule on
front view narrow, quadrangular. So far as the frustules are concerned,
in outline and general appearance the species differs little from Schi-
zonema parasiticum. The strie may be a little coarser and the valve
somewhat narrower.

Wm. Smith, B. D., Vol. ii., p. 79, Pl. lix., fig. 872.—Micromega
gracilimum, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 934.

Nannywater, Laytown, Co. Meath.

(ttt). Lrustules without striae.

Schizonema obtusum, (Grev.) Marine.

‘Frond filiform, sparingly branched, apices abrupt. Frustules:
exceedingly numerous, in irregular files; valves elliptical. Length of
frond 1”; length of frustule ‘0011; breadth of valve -00025.””> Wm.
Smith. To which should be added that the valves are rounded at the
ends.ja (E129) fies) 205)

Greville, Brit. Fl., p. 418. Harvey’s Manual, p. 209. Rab. FI.
Eur., sect. 1, p. 272.—Micromega obtusum, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 981.

Near Dunluce Castle, Portballintrae, Co. Antrim, collected by
Dr. Dayid Moore. Merrion, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Galway.

Schizonema dilwynti, (Agardh.) Marine. ,

‘«Frond capillary throughout, sparingly branched, tenacious; apices.
acute. Frustules exceedingly crowded towards the apices, scattered and
remote in the older portions. Valves lanceolate, acute. Length of frond
2” to 5”, or upwards ; length of frustule -0008 ; breadth of valve 0002.”
Wm. Smith. So far as the frustules are concerned there is but little
difference between this and the preceding species; the only difference:

O’Mxrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. Biv

being that while in the former case the valve is rounded at the ends, in
the present case they are acute. I have sometimes found both species
in the one gathering.

Agardh. Syst., p. 10. Id.Consp., p. 20. Grev. Brit. Fl, p. 412.
Harvey’s Manual, p.212. Ktitz., Bac., p.118, T. xxvi., fig. 8. Wm.
pm., B. D:, Vol. u., p. 77, Pl. lviu., fig. 366. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 928.
Rab., Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 272.

Rathlin Island, Carrickfergus, Carnlough Bay, Co. Antrim—all
collected by Dr. David Moore. River Nannywater, Laytown, Co. Meath.
Merrion, Co. Dublin.

(b). Achlamydie. Frustules without a gelatinous investment.

Genus VI. Drapesmis, Kiitz.

Frustules united in a filament.

Diadesmis williamsonti,(Wm.Sm.) Marine.

On front view margins of frustules undulate, and exhibiting the
striation of the valve; on side view, valve linear, acuminate ae the
ends. Stri moniliform. (LES is res PAN)

This form was first partially described by Wm. Smith, B. D., Vol.
l., p. 14, Pl. xxxui., fig. 287, who, having seen only the front view
so accurately figured by him, doubtfully referred it to the genus
Himantidium. Subsequently Gregory, who had opportunity of more
thoroughly investigating it, transferred it to the genus Diadesmis, to
which it properly belongs. Grunow refers this species to the genus
Dimeregramma, and makes the following observations :—‘‘ Of the
Eunotia-like structure of the same there is no question; the margins
of the front view are never so distinctly triundulate as in Smith’s
description ; for the most part the middlemost elevation is found much
stronger than the other two, in consequence of which it approaches
= ne minor.’’—Verhand. der K. K., Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band

i., 1862, p. 377.

he Diat. of Clyde, p. 25, Pl. x., fig. 40, in which both side
and front views are accurately delineated. “Ralfs, in Pritch, p. 923.
Rab. Fl. Eur., sect. 1, p. 260.

From stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Genus VII. Bresrssonta, Grunow.

Frustules simple, stipitate.

The only species of this genus was by Smith described and figured
under the name of Doryphora Boeckii. The genus Doryphora had

338 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

been adopted by Kiitzing for the reception of a single species which
was named by him Doryphoraamphiceros. His definition of the genus
was, ‘‘frustules simple, depressed on the secondary side, punctate,
elliptico-lanceolate, stipitate.”’ Bac. p. 74. Influenced, no doubt, by
the consideration of the last named characteristic, Wm. Smith adopted
the genus as the proper place for another form named by him Dory-
phora Boeckii, and to some extent amended the definition: ‘‘ Frustules
stipitate, lanceolate, or elliptical ; valve with a median line; nodules
obsolete.”—B. D., Vol. i., p. 77. This definition is not quite correct
as respects either of the species included under this generic designa-
tion, for Doryphora amphiceros has no median line, properly so called ;
and the nodules, though small, are not obsolete inthe case of Dory-
phora Boeckii. The latter species, Ralfs, as Ehrenberg had done before,
refers to the genus Cocconema, but properly remarks, ‘‘ This species is,
no doubt, wrongly referred to Cocconema, since both margins of the
lateral valves are symmetrical. We regard it as a stalked Navicula;
and find a central, though inconspicuous nodule, a fact which forbids it
being placed in Doryphora, as Professor Smith proposed.””—In Pritch.,
p- 878. Grunow transfers Doryphora amphiceros to his new genus
Rhaphoneis, and recognising the intimate relationship of Doryphora
Boeckii to Navicula, suggested the adoption of a new generic designa-
tion, Brebissonia. defining it simply as a stipitate Navicula.

Heiberg recognises the proper relationship of the species, as Ralfs
and Grunow had done, but rejecting the stipitate character as of no con-
sequence, described the formas Nayicula Boeckii.—De Danske Diat.,
p. 85. At all events, it is better to drop the genus Doryphora, which has
been so ill defined, lest confusion should arise from maintaining it,
even though witha more precise definition ; and, as I think that the
stipitate mode of growth should not be regarded as of no importance,
I adopt the suggestion of Grunow above referred to.

Brebissonia boeckit, Khr. Marine.

Valve on side view lanceolate. Striz costate, close, radiate, median
line obvious, with large end nodules, and ending towards the central
nodule, in pin-head-like expansions; central nodule long and narrow,
with a narrow free space at each side of the median line. (Pl. 29,
fig. 22.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K., Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860,
p. 512.—Coceonema boeckii, Ehr. Infus., T. xix., fig. 5. Kiitz. Bac.,
p. 81, T. vi., fig. 5. Kalfs, in Pritch., p. 878, Pl. yu., fig: 485" Rab.
Fl. Eur., sect. 1., p. 83.—Doryphora boeckii, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.
1., p. 77, Pl. xxiv., fig. 228.—Navicula boeckui, Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p. 85.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. Salt ditch on
banks of Slaney, near Wexford. River Slaney, Killurin, Co. Wex-
ford.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 339

Genus VIII. Navicuza, Bory.

Frustules simple, free.

Ehrenberg separated the forms included in this genus into two dis-
tinct genera, Navicula and Pinnularia, founded on the fact that in the
former the strize are moniliform, in the latter costate. Considerable
difference of opinion has existed as to whether or not this distinction
is tenable. Kitzing rejected it, while Wm. Smith and Rabenhorst
maintained its validity. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 892, included the species of
Pinnularia under the genus Navicula for the following reasons :—
‘“ Were the coste always plainly developed, as in Pinnularia nobilis and
its allies, no difficulty could occur in determining the genera; but in
many of the more minute s species it is often very difficult to distinguish
between striz and coste. We have not admitted Pinnularia here,
partly for the reason just given, but principally because we cannot
decide to which genus 2, large number of Ehrenberg’s species should
be referred.”” The existence of the distinctive characteristic is here
admitted, but the genus founded upon it is discarded on account of the
difficulty of applying it in many cases. Grunow regards the distinction
between costate and moniliform striz, in this case, as founded on
insufficient observation. He says, ‘‘ The so-called coste in the Pinnu-
larize are quite distinct from the ribs of other genera of Diatomaces,
and consist of a union of more or less confluent puncta, which cannot,
indeed, be clearly discriminated, except by the help of good amplifica-
tion and well-managed illumination.”—Ueber neue oder ungentigend
gekannte Algen, Verhand der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860,
p. 513. This eminent author thus discards the distinction between
Nayicula and Pinnularia, and is followed by Heiberg, Cleve, and
others. Schumann, who adopts the same view, indicates a peculia-
rity in some of the larger forms of Pinnularia, (P. nobilis and P. major,
for example,) which is worthy of special notice here, namely, the
interposition of very fine strie between the costs, which he says are
indistinct in P. nobilis, but quite distinct in P. major; these intersti-
tial markings I have never been able to discover, and Pfitzer makes
the same remark concerning them. The last-named author, in his
tr eatise “ Untersuchungen ueber Bau und Entwicklung der Bacillaria-
ceen” maintains the distinctiveness of the genus Pinnularia, not on the

’ ground of the different character of the striation, but on the following

peculiarities :—I1st. The so-called coste are depressions on the surface
of the valve. 2nd. The valves themselves are unsymmetrical. 3rd.
The arrangement of the cell-contents exhibits a marked difference
from those of Navicula, as well in the normal condition as also in the
process of self-division.—Regarding the characteristics just named,
some remarks are here required. As to the first, supposing it to be
true, there is great difficulty in applying it in the more minute forms.

340 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

As to the second, Pfitzer is at variance with most other authors whe
have regarded the forms included under the genus Pinnularia as per-
fectly symmetrical, and to me they have ever appeared just as symme-
trical as those of Navicula. The third characteristic is that which is
most worthy of notice, but the forms in which the peculiarity has been
observed are comparatively few. So that we are not as yet in a posi-
tion to regard it as satisfactorily established. For myself I have long
since regarded the distinction between Navicula and Pinnularia as unsa-
tisfactory, and have felt obliged to abandon it in consequence of having
observed forms in which the costate character of the Pinnulariz is.
combined with the moniliform strize of the Naviculz. In consequence
of this there is no alternative but the abandonment of the genus Pin-
nularia, or the adoption of a new genus to receive these forms in
which the characteristics of Navicula and Pinnularia are combined. The
former appears the more satisfactory course, which I have accordingly
pursued. The forms belonging to this genus are now so very nume-
rous some more satisfactory grouping of them than that of Smith and
Ralfs, founded on the outline of the valves, 1s necessary. Grunow
has done much towards supplying this desideratum, and, if I have
succeeded in effecting an improved arrangement, I am indebted to the
hints supplied by that distinguished naturalist.

Conjugation has been observed in some species of Navicula. Two
mother cells produce two sporangial cells or auxospores, as Pfitzer
designates them, which latter are found to lie in a position parallel to
that of the former.

(a.) Wobzles.

Strie strongly costate, not extending to the median line, but leaving
a broad, smooth, longitudinal middle space, which is expanded around the
central nodule, and occasionally extending to the margin.

Navicula nobilis, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve large, varying in length from :012 to :015; oblong, inflated
both at the middle and ends; coste broad, converging in the middle,
and slightly radiate towards the ends; longitudinal free median space
expanded greatly at the centre and ends. (Plate 30, fig. 1.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 98, T. iv., fig. 24. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 895. Gru-
now, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 515. Cleve,
Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 223.—Pinnularia nobilis, Ehr.
Proc. Berl. Acad., 1840. Wm.Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 54, Pl. xvu.., fig. -
161. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 44, T. vi., fig, 2; Rab. Fl. Eur., Alg., sect.
Pp: 209.

Bantry, Co. Cork. Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. Lugna-
quilla, Co. Wicklow. Lough Mourne deposit, Co. Antrim. Dromore
sub-peat deposit, Co. Down. River Bann, at Coleraine, Co. Derry.
Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Co. Kerry.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 341

Navicula mayor, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve about the same length as that of N. nobilis; oblong, but very
shghtly expanded in the middle, and at the rounded, somewhat conical,
ends; longitudinal free space narrower than that of N. nobilis; coste
broad, converging in the middle, and nearly parallel for the remainder.
On front view frustule linear with rounded angles.

Kitz. Bac., p.97, T. iv., fig. 19. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896. Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K, Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p.515. Heiberg,
De Danske Diat., p. 80. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p.
223.—Pinnularia major, W.Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 54, Pl. xvi., fig. 161.
Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 42, T. vi., fig. 5. Do. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect..1,
p. 210.

Lower Lake, Killarney, River near Glencar, Co. Kerry. River
Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Derry. Marl pit, near Arklow, Streamlets
on Carrickmacreilly Hill, Greenane, Co. Wicklow. Derrylane Lough,
Co. Cavan. Killakee, Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. Slieve
Donard, Co. Down. Lough Mourne deposit. Dromore Sub-peat
deposit. Lough Islandreavy deposit. Pond near Camolin, Co. Wex-
ford.

Navicula cardinalis, (Khr.) Fresh water.

Valve cblong-linear, length about -0125; breadth about :0022,
rounded at the ends; median line undulate; end nodules large; free
intermediate space wide, reaching the margin in the middle, forming a
broad stauroform space; coste broad, converging in the middle, nearly
parallel for the remainder. (PI. 30, fig. 2.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 806, Pl. xii., fig. 72. Grunow, Verhand. derK. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 515.—Pinnularia cardinalis, Ehr.
Wirmasnom., BiD:, Vol. 1., p. 65, Pl. xix., fig, 166. Rab. Fl. Hur. Alg.,
sect 1, p. 220.—Stauroneis cardinalis, Kiitz. Bac., p. 106, T. xxix.,
fig. 10.

Lough Mourne deposit; found also living in a pond near the city
of Armagh.

Navicula viridis, (Nitzsch.) Fresh water.

Valve varying much in size; linear elliptical, with rounded ends ;
intermediate free space narrower than in the three preceding species,
and not so much expanded in the middle; costze broad, but not so much
so as in the preceding. (Pl. 30, fig. 3.)

This species has been attributed to various authors, but if Kiitzing
be right in supposing it to be = Bacillaria viridis, Nitzsch, 1817, it
should be attributed to the last named author, as Heiberg has done.
Smith assigns the species to himself, although regarding it as = Navyi-
cula viridis, Ehr. Rabenhorst attributes it to himself, while Grunow
attributes it to Kiitzing. Grunow makes this form the type of the
group Virides, but seems to regard Nayicula major, which he includes

342 Proceedings of the Loyal Irish Acadeny,

among the Nobiles, to be only a variety of Navicula viridis. Speaking
of this former, he says, ‘‘it appears to me to be only a variety of Nay.
viridis, tolerably numerous figures (especially from specimens out of
the Kieselguss of Franzensbad), which lie before me, present such
manifold transitions, as well in respect to the appearance of the stria-
tion as to the outline of the form, that in most cases it is difficult to
decide whether the specimen should be referred to one or the other.”
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 515.

The correctness of this remark is obvious to all careful observers,
but still the species seem to be distinct. The following characters
seem to distinguish Navicula viridis from N. major; the costz are
finer and less radiate; the median free space is narrower and less ex-
panded around the central nodule, and the normal outline is linear
elliptical.

Kutz. Bac., p. 97, IT. 1v., fig: 18. Ralis, im Prtch?)p: 90 pele:
figs. 1385, 1386. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band
x., 1860, p. 518. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 80. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 223.—Pinnularia viridis, Wm. Sm.,
B.D., Vol. i., p. 54, Pl. xviu., fig. 163. Rab. Stssw. Diat., p. 42; 7-
v1., fig. 4.

Featherbed Mountain, Friarstown, Co. Dublin. River Erne, near
Crossdoney, Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Ditch near Cushendun,
Co. Antrim, Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Lower Lake, Kil-
larney. River near Glencar, Co. Kerry. Greenane Carrickmacreilly
Hill, Lugnaquilla, Co. Wicklow. Lough Corrib, Co. Galway. Lough
Mourne deposit, Sub-peat deposit, Dromore, Co. Down.

Navicula alpina, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Length of valves about -0060, breadth about :0018; broadly ellip-
tical, with rounded ends; intermediate free space wide, but slightly
expanded around the central nodule; coste broad, convergent in the
middle, and radiate towards the ends. (Pl. 30, fig. 4.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. -
522.—Pinnularia alpina, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 55, Pl. xviui., fig.
168. Rab. Fl. Kur. Alg., sect. 1, p. 213.

On the slopes of Slieve Donard, Co. Down. Kiullakee, Featherbed
Mountain, Co. Dublin.

Navicula pachyptera, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Frustules regularly quadrangular on front view; length of valve
about -0034, breadth about -0013; slightly inflated in the middle,
rounded at the ends; intermediate free space but slightly expanded in
the middle; cost broad, slightly converging in the middle, and nearly
parallel for the remainder. (Plate 30, fig. 5.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 98, T. xxvii. fig. 58. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896,
who considers the species distinct from Pinnularia lata, Wm. Smith,

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacce. 343

which latter he refers to as Nayicula lata, p. 908. Grunow, Verhand.
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 515.—Pinnularia
pachyptera, Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 44, T. vi., fig. 11.—Pinnularia
iataeWwin, om., 5.1). Vol; 1., p55, Pl. xvaiu., fig.-167. Kuitzine
deseribes a form as Navicula lata, Bac., p. 92, T. 111., fig. 51, which is
obyiously different from the present:

Pool, Glencree, Co. Wicklow. River Dodder, Featherbed Moun-
tain, Co. Dublin. River Bann, near Hilltown, Co. Down.

Navicula distans, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Frustule on front view slightly constricted in the middle, and
gently attenuated at the ends; valve lanceolate, length about :0045,
breadth about -0010; costz not so robust as im the preceding; conyer-
gent; intermediate free space lanceolate, much expanded in the
middle and narrow towards the ends. (Plate 30, fig. 6.)

Grunow, Verhand., der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 523.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 907. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 224.
—Pinnularia distans, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i. p. 56, Pl. xvii., fig. 169
Rab. Fl. Kur. Alg., sect. 1, p. 214.

Sea-weeds, Bannow, Co. Wexford. Sea-weeds, Malahide, Sto-
machs of Pectens, Dalkey, Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount
Strand, Sea-weeds, Howth, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians,
Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim. Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Sea-
weeds, Kilkee, Co. Clare.

Navicula undulata, N.S) Marine.

Length of valve -0060, breadth, -0015; lanceolate with rounded
ends; median line undulate, intermediate free space lanceolate, greatly
expanded in the middle; coste strong, convergent. (PI. 30, fig. 7.)

Sea-weeds, Giants’ Causway, Co. Antrim.

Navicula rectangulata, (Gregory.) Marine.

Valve linear; length about -0040, breadth about -0010; slightly
expanded at the middle and ends, which latter are rounded; inter-
mediate free space narrow at ends, but roundly expanded in the
middle; costae strong, converging in the middle, and radiate towards
the ends; frustule on front view constricted in the middle. (Plate
30, fig. 8.

eee. Diat. of Clyde, p. 479, Pl. ix., fig. 7. Donkin, N. H.
Brit. Diat., p. 66, Pl. x., fig. 5—Pinnularia rectangulata, Rab. FI.
Kur. Alg., sect. 1, p. 215.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen, Co. Galway.

344 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula trevelyana, (Donkin.) Marine.

Frustule on front view deeply constricted, with truncate extremi-
ties; middle and end nodules apparent, with a narrow slightly lunate
unstriate band at either side of the central nodule; valve linear, rounded
at ends; length about :0048, breadth about -0008; median line some-
what undulate; intermediate free space narrow, except around the
median nodule, where it is much and roundly expanded; coste strong,
converging in the middle, and radiate towards the ends. (Plate 30,
eee),

Dace Q. J. M. S:, 1861, p. vin., Pl. 1, fie 22 Dom Nearest
Diat., p. 66, Pl. 10, fig. 6.—Pinnularia trevelyana, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg.
sect. 1., p. 210.

Bannow, Co. Wexford.” Malahide, Co. Dublin.

Navicula oblonga, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Frustules on front view quadrangular, narrow; valve narrow,
elliptical ; length about -0058, breadth about -0007; apices broad,
rounded ; cost strong, convergent; intermediate free space narrow,
except in middle, where it is roundly expanded. (Pl. 30, fig. 10.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 97, T.1v., fig. 21. Ralfs, in Pritch’; ps 907 eGru-
now, Verhand. der K. K., Zool. Bot. Gesel, Band x., 1860, p. 528.
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 225.—Pinnularia oblonga,
Wm. Sm. B. D., Vol.i., p. 54, Pl. xvin., fig. 165. The form described
by Rabenhorst, Sitissw. Diat., p. 45, T. vi., fig. 6, as Pinnularia
oblonga, is obviously different from the present species.

Castlebridge, Co. Wexford. River near Glencar, Co. Kerry.
Pond, Newcastle-Lyons, Co. Dublin. Powerscourt Demesne, Kilcool,
Co. Wicklow.

Nawvicula oblonga, var. lanceolata, (Granow.) Fresh water.

Valve shorter and broader than in the typical form, lanceolate,
with rounded ends; intermediate free space narrow.

Grunow remarks that this variety ‘‘ stands near to Pinnularia pere-
grina, as described by Wm. Smith,” but it is certainly distinct, being
found in localities beyond the reach of marine influence. It may
be distinguished from Navicula peregrina by the intermediate free
space, expanded in the middle, which that form does not exhibit.

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1866, p.
523, T. iv., fig. 25.

Lough Mcurne deposit, Co. Antrim.
Navicula longa, (Gregory.) Marine.

Valves lanceolate; length about -0060; breadth about -0010;
coste strong, distant, slightly radiate in the middle, more radiate

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 345

towards the ends; intermediate free space narrow, except in the cen-
tre, where it is somewhat rhombically expanded. (Pl. 30, fig. 11.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 906. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 55, Pl.
vil., fig. 3.—Pinnularia longa, Gregory, Q. J. M.S., Vol. iv., 1856,
p- 47, Pl. 5, fig. 18. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 218.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of <Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co.
Galway.

Navicula divergens, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve oblong; length from about -0085 to 0055, breadth, from
about -0007 to :0012. Gibbous in the middle, attenuated towards the
slightly constricted and rounded extremities. Coste strong, con-
vergent in the middle, and radiate towards the ends. Intermediate
free space narrowed towards the ends, where there is a slight expan-
sion; greatly expanded in the middle, reaching the margin in a tole-
rably broad stauroform band.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896. Grunow, Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot.
Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 523. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska
Diat., p. 225.—Pinnularia divergens, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 57;
Peeaau., ie, 177. Rab. Fl. Kur. Alg. sect. 1., p. 221.

Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, County Kerry. Featherbed
Mountain, Killakee, County Dublin. Bantry, County Cork. Lake
near Castlewellan, County Down. Lough Mourne deposit, County
Antrim.

Navicula divergens, var. longa, (O’Meara.) I’resh water.

Valve oblong, linear. Length about 0059; breadth about :0008;
very slightly expanded in the middle and at the rounded ends. Coste
as in the typical form; intermediate free space as in typical form, but
scarcely reaching the margin, compared with which it is relatively
narrower in middle, and broader at the ends. (PI. 80, fig. 13.)

Pond near the City of Armagh.

Nawvicula divergens, var. elliptica, (O’Meara.) Fresh water.
Like the typical species but broadly elliptical.

Lough Mourne deposit, Co. Antrim.

Navicula borealis, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve narrow, elliptical, with rounded ends. Length about:0015;
breadth about -0004. Costs short, parallel; intermediate free space
relatively wide, elliptical. (Pl. 30, fig. 14.)

Kiitz. Bac. p. 96. T. xxviii., figs. 68 72, (where it is identified with
Pinnularia borealis, Ehr.) Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.
Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 518.—Pinnularia borealis, Rab. Siissw.

346 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Diat., p. 42, T. vi., fig.19. Do. Fl. Kur. Alg., sect. 1, p.216 (where itis
identified with Pinnularia latestriata.) Gregory Q. J. M.8., Vol. ii.,
S54 RE ive mioclge a MV. Sma, 13:1). Wola. ono As

Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Co. Kerry. Pond near Glen-
chree, Co. Wicklow. Ulster Canal, near Poyntzpass, Co. Armagh.
Loughbrickland, Co. Down. Cushenden, Lough Neagh, Co. Antrim,
Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin.

Navicula menapiensis, N.S. Marine.

Valve small; length :0016; breadth -0005; linear, ends rounded
and slightly conical. Coste marginal, distant; intermediate free
space tolerably wide, linear elliptical. (Pl. 30, fig. 15.)

This form is, in some respects, similar to the last, but striz are
longer; otherwise distinguished by its marine habitat.

Sea-weeds, Bannow, Co. Wexford. Stomachs of Ascidians, Broad-
haven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula tabellaria, (Khr.) Fresh water.

Valve oblong, slightly expanded at the middle and ends. Length
about -0050; breadth about ‘0007. Coste strong, convergent in the
middle, then parallel and radiate towards the ends; intermediate free
space wide, roundly expanded in the middle. (Plate 30, fig. 12.)

. Kitz. Bac., p. 98, T. xxvi., figs. 79, 80, where the coste are
described incorrectly as reaching the median line; also T. xxx., fig.
20, where the coste are represented as marginal, whereas they extend
much further towards the median line. Grunow, Verhand. der Kk. kK.
Zool. Bot. Gesel., Band x., 1860, p. 516. MRalfs, in Pritch., p. 896,
PI. xu., fig. 21. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p: 224.
Donkin., N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 70, Pl. xu., fig. 4.—Pimnularia
tabellaria, Hhr. Wm. Sm., B.D: Vol.1.; p» 58,) Bie xaxs sire amitgie
Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 44, T. vi., fig. 24. Do. Fl. Kur. Alg., sect. i.,.
p21:

Friarstown, Piperstown, Featherbed Mountain, Killakee, Co.
Dublin. Glenchree, Lugnaquilla Mountain. Co. Wicklow. Glencar,
Co. Kerry. Lough Corrib, Co. Galway. Lough Mourne deposit, Co.
Antrim.

Navicula tabellaria, var. acrospheria, (De Bréb.) Fresh water.

Like the typical form. The coste, however, are marginal.

Navicula acrospheria, Kitz. Bac., p. 97, T. v., fig. 11, where-
it is alleged that the form is identical with Frustulia acrospheeria,.
De Brébisson, to whom, on this account, I attribute the species.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896.—Navicula tabellaria, Grunow, who observes,
that ‘‘ Wm. Smith’s figures and descriptions of Navicula acrospheeria
and N. tabellaria differ only in the different size and the somewhat

O’Mrarsa—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 347

thicker striation of the former species.’”” Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 516.—Navicula acrospheria. De Bré-
bisson, Consid. sur les Diat., 1838, p. 19. Donkin, N.H. Brit. Diat.,
p. 72, Pl. xi., fig. 2.—Pinnularia acrospheria, Wm. Sm., B. D.,
Vol. i., p. 58, Pl. xix., fig. 183.—Pinnularia tabellaria, var. acrosphe-
ria, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 211.

Carnew, Greenane, Co. Wicklow. Lake near Castlewellan, Co.
Down. Camolin, Co. Wexford.

(b.) Gibbosa.

Similar to the Nobiles; the strie finer; the intermediate free space
narrower, expanding around the central nodule, and sometimes extending
to the margin in a stauriform band.

Nawicula clepsydra, (Donkin). Marine.

Frustules on front view constricted in the middle; ends angular;
side view largely apparent. Valves narrow, elliptical; ends rounded.
Length about -0040 ; breadth about :0009. Strize punctate, converg-
ing in the middle; slightly radiate towards the ends; intermediate
free space linear, narrow, except in the centre, where it is roundly
expanded. (Plate 30, fig. 16.)

onic Qed) Mi. S.,11857; pe 8, Pl. 1 fie. 3) Dos IN. EY Brit:
Diat., p: 63, Pl. x., fig. u. Rab. El. Hur. Alg., sect. i., p. 181.

Treland’s Eye, Co. Dublin.

Navicula rupestris, N. 8.: Fresh water.

Valve in length -0025; breadth :0008; linear, elliptical, very
gently attenuated towards the rounded ends. Striz costate, fine,
waved, converging in the middle, radiate towards the ends; interme-
diate free space narrow, except in the middle, where it is expanded
inarhomboid form. (Pl. 80, fig. 17.)

Found on moist rock, Portrush, Co. Antrim.

Nawicula ceres, (Schumann). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical; gently attenuated towards the rounded
ends. Length -0022; breadth 0007. Striz costate, in some lights
appearing as if closely moniliform ; convergent inthe middle; slightly
radiate towards the ends; intermediate free space narrow, except in
the middle, where it is greatly expanded. (PI. 30, fig. 18.)

Schumann, Preussische Diatomeen; Zweite Nachtrag, p. 56, T. ii.,
fig. 38.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

R. I. A. PROC., SER, II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2R

348 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

Navicula gibba, (Khr.) Fresh water.

Valve nearly linear; very slightly constricted towards the ends,
and very gently expanded in the middle. Length about -0044;
breadth about -0008. Strive finely costate; convergent in the middle,
and radiate towards the ends. Intermediate free space narrow, except
in the middle, where it is roundly expanded. (Pl. 30, fig. 19.)

Kiitzing, (Bac., p. 98, T. xxvii. fig. 70), has described a form under
this name, which he regards as Pinnularia gibba, Ebr. With this the
form so named by Rabenhorst (Stissw. Diat., p.45, T. vi., fig. 27), agrees.
Ralfs’ description seems tolerably well to correspond, ‘‘ lanceolate,
with dilated capitate ends.’’ In the above cases the figures represent
the form more gibbous in the middle than the present species, and
with capitate ends; the striz also are parallel, while in the present
form they are convergent in the middle, and radiate at the ends, just
as Wm. Smith has figured Pinnularia gibba, B. D. Vol. i., p. 58, Pl.
xix., fig. 180. The present form is less capitate at the ends, and the
intermediate free space more roundly expanded in the middle than in
Smith’s figure. Grunow, comparing the species he has named Navi-
cula gibba with Navicula tabellaria, says it stands distinct from it ‘“‘ by
the narrower expansion of the ends, and the more gradual tapering in
the middle.”” Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 517. This description corresponds exactly with the present form.

Lough Corrib, Co. Galway. Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare,
Co. Cork. Carn Lough, near Tralee, Co. Kerry. ° Derrylane Lough,
Co. Cavan. Carrickmacreely Hill, Lugnaquilla Mountain, Rathdrum,
Co. Wicklow. Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. Lough Mourne
deposit, Co. Antrim.

Navicula gibba, var. boeckit, (Rab.) Fresh water.

Valve smaller than the typical species; length -0032, breadth
°0007; margin very slightly gibbous; ends somewhat capitate; strize
finely costate; intermediate free space narrow, except at the middle,
where it expands considerably, sometimes reaching the margin at one
side, but not at the other. (Plate 30, fig. 20.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 517, T. iv., fig. 17. This author regards the form as identical with
Staurophora pecki, Rab. Bacil. Sachs.

Lough Corrib, Co. Galway. Pond near the city of Armagh.

Nawvicula gibba, var. parva, (O’Meara). Fresh water.

Valve small; length -0015, breadth :0003; slightly gibbous at the
margins; much attenuated towards the somewhat-capitate ends; strie
costate, fine, convergent in the middle, and slightly radiate towards the
ends; intermediate free space relatively broad, expanding at the
middle, and sometimes reaching to the margin. (Plate 30, fig. 21.)

There is a form somewhat similar to this described by Grunow

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 349

under the name of Nayicula stauroptera, var. parva, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 517, T. iv., fig. 19. The
striation in the present form is, however, coarser than in Grunow’s
figure, the latter also being more robust, for which reasons I hesitate
to identify the present form with that of Grunow.

Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Camolin, Co. Wex-
ford.

Navicula hemiptera, (Kitz). Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical, with rounded ends; length -0025, breadth
"0005; striz costate linear, convergent at the middle, and radiate to-
wards the ends; intermediate free space narrow, somewhat expanded
in the middle. (Plate 30, fig. 22.)

iiupzaiac.. p. 97, T. xxx., fie. 112 Ralfs; im Pritch., p. 908)
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 519.
This author considers the form may be only a variety of Navicula
viridis, which it greatly resembles, except that it is smaller, and the
striation very much finer. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p. 223.—Pinnularia hemiptera, Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. u., p. 95. Rab.
Pes Wiat., p. 42, T. vi., fig, 17.- Do. FI. Hur. Aig.) sect. 1.
p. 212.

Lucan, Featherbed Mountain, Friarstown, Co. Dublin. River
Erne, near Crossdoney, Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Lough Erne,
Co. Fermanagh. Lough Neagh, near Lurgan. Ulster Canal, near
Poyntzpass, Co. Armagh. Pool near Glengarriff, Co. Cork. Streamlet,
Cushendun, Co. Antrim. River Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Derry.
Sub-peat deposit, Dromore, Co. Down.

Navicuia apiculata, (De Bréb.) Marine.

Valve linear in the middle, gradually tapering towards the ends,
which run out into acute short beaks; length -0026, breadth 0008;
coste fine, converging in the middle, radiate towards the ends; inter-
mediate free space narrower towards the ends, expanded in the middle.
(Pl. 30, fig. 23.)

Pinnularia rostellata, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 488, PI. ix., fig.
20, 1857.—Nayicula apiculata, De Brébisson Diat. du Littoral de
Cherbourg, p. 16, Pl.i., fig. 5, 1867. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 903. Donkin
N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 56, Pl. vii., fig. 6. Kiitzing has described
a form as Navicula rostellata, which is quite distinct from the present ;
it is therefore necessary to drop the specific name adopted by Gregory,
and substitute for it De Brébisson’s name, Nayicula apiculata.

Gregory and De Brébisson describe the strie as reaching the
median line; Donkin more correctly represents them as falling short
of it, but does not describe the central expansion of the free inter-
mediate space.

2R2

300 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula brebissonii, (Kitz). Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical; ends somewhat rounded; length -0016,
breadth -0005; cost fine, radiate; intermediate free space narrow,
except in the ’ middle, where it expands, reaching the margin in a
stauroform band widening towards the margin. (Plate 30, fig. 24.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 93, T. ii., fig. 49. Ralfs, in Pritch., pasar.
Grunow, Verhand, der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 519.
—Pinnularia stauroneiformis, Wm. 8m., B.D., Vol.i., p. 57, Pl. xix.,
fig. 178. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 222.

Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Bantry, Co. Cork. Derry-
lane Lough, Co. Cavan. Rathdrum, Featherbed Mountain, Co. Wick-
low. Killakee, Co. Dublin. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

Nawvicula brebissoni’, var. angusta, (Grun.) Fresh water.

Valve narrow, elliptical; ends attenuated, and slightly rounded;
length -0016, breadth -00025; cost fine, radiate; intermediate free
space narrow, except in the middle, where it expands, reaching the
margin in a stauroform band narrower than in the typical species.
(Plate 30, fig. 25.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
polo: An ve, eS:

Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Camolin, Co. Wexford.

Nawvicula tcostauron, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical; length -0028, breadth -0006; coste fine,
radiate; intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where
it expands into a narrow stauroform parallel band reaching the margin.
(Plate 30, fig. 27.)

Stauroptera icostauron, Ehr., as Grunow suggests, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 519.—Stauroneis icostauron,
Kiitz. Bac., p. 106, T. xxix., fig. 10.—Pinnularia viridis, var. B., Wm.
Sina. DE Vol. isp. 54, Pl xvii, tes 163ebe

Terrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Adrigoole, Co. Kerry. Featherbed
Mountain, Co. Dublin. Lake near Castlewellan, Co. Down.

Navicula stauroptera, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical, with rounded ends; length :0025, breadth
‘0007; coste coarse, convergent in the middle, radiate towards the
ends ; intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where it is
much expanded, appearing sometimes to reach the margin, but really
not so. (Plate 30, fig. 28.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p.
516. Stauroptera parva, Ehr., according to Kiitzing.—Stauroneis
parva, Kiitz. Bac., p. 106, T. xxix., fig. 23. Gregory has described a
form as Pinnularia parva, Q.J.M.S., 1854, p. 98, Pl. iv., fig. 11. To

O’Mrarsa—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. dol

ayoid confusion, the specific name adopted by Ehrenberg and Kiitzing
for this species had best be abandoned, and the designation proposed
by Grunow as above substituted for it.

Raphoe, Co. Donegal. Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh,
Sub-peat deposit, Dromore, Co. Down.

Navicula bacillum, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valves linear; ends rounded; cost fine, strongly marked in the
middle, radiate; intermediate free space narrow, slightly expanded in
the middle; length about -0018, breadth about -0005. (Plate 30,
fig. 29.)

Ehrenberg has given many figures of a species so named, some of
which are utterly undistinguishable; one from a marine habitat in-
dicated cannot be the same. Two, however, of his figures are plain
enough for satisfactory identification.

ihe Mace I xy., A.fig. 88> T. 1:; 2. fio’ 142) Katz. Bac, p: 96,
ileexyan, ie. 69. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. 1i., p. 91., Ralis; im Pritch.,
p..907. Gwanow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x.,
1860, p. 551, T. iv., fig. 1. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 39, T. vi., fig. 76.
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 85.

Ditch near town of Wexford. Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry.
Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Cushendun, Co. Antrim.
Derrylane Lough, Co. Cayan. Sub-peat deposit, Dromore, Co. Down.
Lough Mourne deposit.

Navicula americana, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, oblong, with rounded ends; length -0035, breadth
-0010; slightly constricted; cost fine, convergent in the middle, and
nearly parallel towards the ends; intermediate free space wide, greatly
expanded in the middle; central nodule large, median line very
strongly marked. (Plate 30, fig. 30.)

Ehr. Mic. T. I1., m., fig. 16. Kitton, Science Gossip, June, 1868,
p- 131.

This species in a fossil state is widely dispersed; besides the
locality indicated by Ehrenberg, it has been found by Mr. Kitton of
Norwich, in Perley’s Meadow deposit, Sth. Bridgton, Maine, U. S. A.
I found it in great abundance in a fresh water deposit discovered by
Dr. Moss, R.N., in Vancouver’s Island, as also in a sub-peat deposit
from Dromore, Co. Down. Rey. George Davidson has furnished me
with specimens found in a fossil state in Lough Canmore, near Aber-
deen. I have found it in tolerable abundance in a living state in
Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh.

Navivula isocephala, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve long, narrow; length 0055, breadth ‘0007; undulate on the
margin, with three nearly equal and slight inflations; ends constricted

302 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and capitate; coste strong, convergent in the middle, and radiate to-
wards the ends ; intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle,
where it is much expanded, reaching to the margin. (Plate 30,
fig. 31.

a. Bac., p. 101, without a figure. This author identifies the
species with Pinnularia isocephala, Ehr. Kitton, Science Gossip,
June, 1868, p. 182.—Pinnularia monile, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1.,
p. 220.

Pond near the city of Armagh. Friarstown, Co. Dublin.

Navicula nodosa, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve long and narrow; length :0024, breadth -0005; margin un-
dulate, with three nearly equal inflations; costz short, not very close,
convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; intermediate free
space wide, expanded in the middle. (Plate 30, fig. 26.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 101. T. xxviii., fig. 82. This author regards the
form as identical with Navicula nodosa, Ehr. Infus., 1838, p. 179, T.
xi., fig. 9. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 41, T. vi., fig. 86. Gregory,
Q.J.M.S., Vol. iv., 1856, p. 8, Pl.i., fig. 5. Pinnularia nodosa,
Wansom: |, BADE Vol: 11-5 sp. 96:

Friarstown, Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. River Slaney,
near Killurin. Camolin, Co. Wexford. Lake near Castlewellan, Co.
Down. Kilcool, Lugnaquilla Mountain, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula nodosa, var. staurophora, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valve smaller than in the typical species; length :0016, breadth
"00025; inflations not so distinct; intermediate free space expanding
in the middle into a distinct stauroform band reaching the margin.
(Plate 30, fig. 26 a.)

Navicula nodosa, Grunow, Verhand, der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell.,
Band x., 1860, p. 521, T. ii., fig. 21.

Nawvicula bicapitata, (O’Meara). Fresh water.

Valves small; length -0020, breadth -0006; linear, attenuated
towards the capitate ends; coste fine, convergent at the centre, radiate
towards the ends; intermediate free space narrow, except at the
middle, where it is roundly expanded, not reaching the margin.
(Plate 30, fig. 32.)

Pinnularia biceps, Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 8, Pl.i., fig. 28.
Kiitzing has described a form under the name of Navicula biceps, Bac.,
p- 96, T. xxvii., fig. 51, which is widely different from the present.
Gregory’s specific name must therefore be dropped.

Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Co. Cork. Cawn Lough,
near Tralee, Co. Kerry. River Bannow, near Clonegal, Co. Carlow.
Kalcool, Co. Wicklow. Camolin, Co. Wexford. :

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 358

Navicula bicapitata, var. erucifera. Fresh water.

Valve linear in the middle, attenuated towards the capitate ends.
Length -0024; breadth -0006. Coste fine, radiate ; intermediate free
space narrow, except in the middle, where it expands into a narrow
stauroform band, reaching to the margin, and wider there than at the
centre. (PI. 30, fig. 33.)

Pinnularia interrupta, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 59, Pl. xix.,
fig. 184. Were it not for the figure of Smith, just referred to, it
would be difficult to identify this form. Smith alleges that it is iden-
tical with Stauroneis parva, Kitz. Bac., p. 106, T. xxix., fig. 23; but
that form, as described by Kiitzing, is elliptical, and has not capitate
ends, in consequence of which I consider the species quite distinct.
The specific name adopted by Smith was previously appropriated by
Kiitzmg for a form belonging to the genus Nayicula, which that
form still retains ; for which reason I have changed the specific desig-
nation.—Navicula parya, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 897. This description is
given obyiously on the supposition that Pinnularia interrupta, (Wm.
Sm.,) was identical with Stauroneis parva, Kiitz. Buta comparison
of the figures renders the accuracy of this supposition more than
doubtful.

Pool near Glengarriff, Co. Cork. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. River
at Port-na-Crush, Co. Donegal. Ditch, Cushendun, Co. Antrim.
Gayagh, Co. Derry. Pool near Glenchree, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula bicapitata, var. constricta, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valves slightly incurved in the middle; ends much produced, nar-
rowed, and but slightly capitate. Length -0025, breadth in middle
"0006. Costze fine, radiate. Intermediate free space narrow, except
in the middle, where it expands to the margin in a narrow stauroform
band, widening at margin. (Pl. 30, fig. 34.)

Nayicula mesolepta, var. constricta, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 521, T. iv., fig. 22, C. Inas-
much as the typical form of Navicula mesolepta has persistent coste,
whereas in the present case the cost are obviously interrupted in the
middle, I prefer to regard this form as a variety of Navicula bicapitata.

Featherbed Bog, Co. Dublin. Camolin, Co. Wexford.

Navicula termes, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve narrow, oblong. Length -00385, breadth -0006; slightly
incuryed in the middle; ends much produced, slightly constricted.
Coste short, slightly radiate ; intermediate free space wide, sometimes
reaching the margin in a stauroformband. (PI. 30, fig. 35.)

‘ Navicula termes, var. nodulosa, Kiitz. Bac., p.101, T. xxviii., fig. 71,
in which the coste are represented as reaching the median line,
whcreas in the present form they are marginal. Kiitzing regards the

304 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

species as Pinnularia termes, Ehr.—Navicula mesolepta, var. nodulosa,
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 320.

Featherbed Bog, Co. Dublin. Camolin, Co. Wexford.

Nawicula microstauron, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, oblong, attenuated towards the broadly rounded
ends, which are slightly, if at all, capitate. Length -0026; breadth
"0006; cost convergent in the middle, radiate towards ends ; inter-
mediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where it expands

into a narrow stauroform band, slightly wider at the margin than -

towards the central nodule. (PI. 30, fig. 36.)
Stauroneis microstauron, Kiitz. Bac., p. 106, T. xxix., fig. 13.
—Stauroptera microstauron, Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 49, T. ix., fig. 7.

Featherbed Bog, Co. Dublin. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

Navicula crucifera, N.S. Fresh water.

Valve linear, oblong, narrow. Length ‘0026, breadth -00038.
Slightly attenuated towards the scarcely capitate ends. Coste con-
vergent in the middle, slightly radiate towards the ends ; intermediate
free space relatively wide, expanding in the middle into a narrow
stauroform band. (PI. 30, fig. 37.)

This form strongly resembles one described by Schumann as Navi-
cula nodulosa, 8, Die Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 77, T. iv., fig. 53.
It is, however, longer and narrower, the coste shorter, snd the stauro-
form band not so wide.

Featherbed Bog, Co. Dublin. Lough Mourne deposit, Co. An-
trim.

Navicula pinnularia, (Cleve). Marine.
_ Valve linear, elliptical, ends rounded. Coste strong, nearly paral-
lel. Length from -:0020 to ‘00034, breadth from -0006 to -0008.

Intermediate free space very narrow, except in the middle, where it

expands in a broad strauriform band. (Pl. 30, fig. 38.)
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 224, T. iv., fig. 1.

Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. Portmarnock, Co. Dub-
lin.

Navicula scalaris, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical, ends rounded. Length -0014, breadth
"0008. Strize nearly parallel; intermediate free space very narrow,
except in the middle, where it expands into a broad stauroform band,
reaching the margin. (Pl. 30, fig. 39.)

Navicula borealis, var. scalaris, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 309

Bot. Gesell., Band. x., 1860, p. 518, T. iv., fig. 15, which represents the
coste as stronger and more distant than they are in my specimens.
—Stauroneis scalaris, Kitz. Bac., p. 106, T. xxix., fig. 37. In this
figure the form is wider than in my specimens, and the stauroform band
is much narrower than in Grunow’s figure, as well as in my specimens.
—Stauroptera scalaris, Ehr., Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 49, T.1ix., fig. 8.

Camolin, Co. Wexford.

Navicula cuneata, N.S. Fresh water.

Valve linear, cuneate at the ends. Length .0025, breadth -0006.
Coste strong, convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends;
intermediate free space broad, expanded in the middle. (Pl. 30,
fig. 40.

ae form in outline much resembles Pinnularia acuminata, Wm.
Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 55, Pl. xvii., fig. 164, but differs from it
in the following details :—In the latter the striz are coarser, shorter,
and parallel, the intermediate free space is much wider than in this,
and haying no expansion such as is very obvious in the present form.

Featherbed Bog, Co. Dublin.

Navicula acuminata, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, ends cuneate. Length -0029, breadth -0006. Coste
coarse, nearly parallel in the middle, and slightly radiate towards the
ends; intermediate free space wide. (Pl. 30, fig. 41.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 909.—Pinnularia acuminata, Wm. Sm., B.
Peeves) p. 50, Pl. xvi, fig. 164. Rab. Fl. Bur. Alg., ‘sect: 1,
p. 216.

Featherbed Mountain, Killakee, Co. Dublin. Kilcool, Co. Wick-
low. Rostrevor, Co. Down.

Navicula retusa, (De Brébisson). Marine.

Valve narrow, oblong, rounded at the ends; strie course, distant,
nearly parallel; intermediate free space relatively wide; length -0026,
breadth -0004; frustule on front view constricted; angles much
rounded. (Plate 30, fig. 42.)

De Bréb., Note sur Diat. de littoral de Cherbourg., p. 16, fig. 6.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 908. Donkin, Q.J.M.S., 1857, p. 14, Pl.i., fig.
17. Do. N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 64, Pl. x., fig. 3. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg.,
sect. i., p. 186. Donkin agrees with Walker Arnott in regarding this
form as identical with Navicula pectinalis, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. ii.,
p. 91,

Malahide, Co. Dublin. Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians,
Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

306 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

Navicula integra, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve narrow, elliptic, incurved, then angularly expanded towards
the ends which are narrow and papillate; stric fine, radiate; inter-
mediate free space narrow, except at the middle, where it is slightly
expanded. (Plate 30, fig. 43.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 895, who describes the strize as reaching the
median line. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 40, Pl. vi., fig. 8, where
the character of the strize is correctly delineated.—Pinnularia integra,
Wim Sm.) B.D:, Vol: i, p.°96. Rab. Fl. Bury les mseciamr
p. 220.

Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow.

Nawicula pachycephala, (Rab.) Fresh water.

Valve elliptical, with capitate ends; length :0022, breadth -0006 ;
costee short, convergent; intermediate free space broad, reaching the
margin in a narrow stauroform band. (Plate 30, fig. 44.)

Pinnularia pachycephala, Rab. Sitssw. Diat., p. 43, T. vi.,
fig. 40.

Featherbed Mountain, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

Navicula subcapitata, (Gregory). Fresh water.

Valve narrow, linear, with subcapitate ends; coste coarse and
distant ; intermediate free space relatively wide, linear; length -0015,
breadth -0002. (Plate 30, fig. 45.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 902.—Navicula gracillima, var. subcapitata,
Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 200.—Pinnularia subcapitata, Gregory,
Ora MSs 1856, p. 9, bl. 1., fie. 30:

Friarstown, Featherbed Mountain, Killakee, Co. Dublin. Glencar,.
Co. Kerry. Lake near Castlewellan, Co. Down,

Navicula gracillima, (Gregory). Fresh water.

Valve narrow, linear, with produced slightly capitate ends, length
"0018, breadth -00025; coste very fine, convergent in the middle,
slightly radiate towards the ends; intermediate free space narrow,
except in the middle, where it is roundly expanded. (Plate 30,
fig. 46.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 902. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.1., p. 199.
Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 70, T. iv., fig. 49.—Pinnularia
gracillima, Gregory, Q. J. M.8., 1856, p. 9, Pl.i., fig. 31. Wm. Sm.,
BHD. solar, p. 95:

Friarstown, Piperstown, Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. Rath-
drum, Lugnaquilla Mountain, Co. Wicklow. Drumoughty Lough,
near Kenmare, Co. Cork. Glencar, Co. Kerry. Lake near Castle-
wellan, Co. Down.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. oot

Nawicula macula, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, with narrowed truncate ends; length
-0014, breadth - 0008; coste fine, parallel; intermediate free space
narrow, except in the middle, where it expands greatly in quadrangu-
lar form. (Plate 30, fig. 47.)

Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 43, Pl. v., fig. 9. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 896. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 189.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

Navicula zellensis, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valve narrow; length :0016, breadth :0003; ends produced ;
margin triundulate; strie very fine; intermediate free space narrow,
except at the middle, where it expands in a short narrow stauroform
band. (Plate 30, fig. 48.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 521, T. iu., fig. 34. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1, p. 207.

Lough Derryyaragh, Co. Westmeath. Camolin, Co. Wexford.

(c.) Cuspidate.

Valves more or less distinctly lanceolate; ends sometimes produced ;
median line distinct ; intermediate free space narrow, bounded by two
weil-defined longitudinal ridges, one on either side of the median line.

Navicula cuspidata, (Wm. Smith). Fresh water.

Valve large, lanceolate; ends cuspidate; length about ‘0070,
breadth -0015; striz close, fine, linear, parallel; median line with
slightly elongated expansions near the central nodule. (Plate 31, fig. 1.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 94, T. 1., figs. 24 and 27. Wm. Sm. B.D., Vol.
ip. 21, el. xvi., fig. 131. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p: 37, T-. vi., fig. 16.
This latter author remarks, that this form is very like Navicula fulva,
but never attains the same size. This observation is not borne out by
the specimens I have had the opportunity of examining; Nayicula
cuspidata is usually the larger, sometimes very much so. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 905, Pl. xi., fig. 5. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 528. The form referred to by Grunow
may possibly be different from the present, as he describes the strie
as somewhat radiate in the middle; the strie in N. cuspidata being
_ parallel all through. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 82. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 228. Donkin, N. H., Brit. Diat., p. 39,
Pl. vi., fig. 6.

Castlebridge, Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. JDerrylane Lough,
Stream, Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Cushendun, Co. Antrim. Pond,
Botanic Gardens, Belfast, Co. Down. Bellarena, Co. Derry. River

308 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Dodder, Co. Dublin. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Powerscourt, Co.
Wicklow. Lough Mourne deposit.

Navicula fulva. (Donkin). Fresh water.

Valve very much as the preceding, but smaller, and having the
strie somewhat radiate; length -0032, breadth -0007. (Pl. 31,
fig. 2.

fee is great difficulty in identifying this form with that named
Nayicula fulva by Ehrenberg, which several authors identify with
Navicula cuspidata.

This latter Smith has so accurately described, that there is no diffi-
culty in identifying it, and therefore, under the circumstances, I
attribute it to him. Donkin, too, has so figured Navicula fulva as
to render it equally distinctive, and for this reason I assign the
species to him.

Donkin, N. H., Brit. Diat,, p. 41, Pl. vi., fig. 9.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Dysart, Co. Waterford.

Navicula cuspis, N.S. Marine.

Valves narrow, lanceolate; length about :0044, breadth about :0008 ;
longitudinal sulci close to median line. Strie linear, slightly radiate ;
ends cuspidate ; dry valve a light straw colour. (Pl. 31, fig. 3.)

From stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Navicula rhombiea. (Gregory). Marine.

Frustules on front view subquadrate; slightly constricted angles,
rounded. On side view, valve elliptical. Striz fine, linear, converging
in the middle, radiate ; much finer and closer towards the ends; length
"0026, breadth 0008. (Pl. 31, fig. 4.)

Gregory, Q. J. M. 8., 1856, p. 38, Pl. v., fig. 1. Ralfs, in Pritch,
p. 903. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 181.

Barrow, Co. Wexford. Malahide, Co. Dublin. Lough Gill, Co.
Kerry. Seashore near town of Galway. Breaches, Co. Wicklow.
Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim. Stomachs of Asci-
dians, Co. Clare.

Navicula cearulea, N.S. Fresh water.

Valve narrow, lanceolate: ends much produced. Length -0022,
breadth -0005; longitudinal sulci close to median line. Striz linear,
convergent in middle, slightly radiate towards the ends; dry valve of
apale colour. (PI. 31, fig. 5.)

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 309

Nawicula decipiens, N.S. Marine.

Valve narrow, elliptical, rounded at ends; length :0080, breadth
0008. Striz fine, close, slightly radiate; in some lights apparently
punctate; seemingly disappearing in the middle, and presenting the
appearance of a narrow stauroform band, extending to the margins;
this however is deceptive. (Pl. 31, fig. 6.)

Tide-pools, Galway Bay, near the town of Galway.

Navicula tumens. (Wm. Smith). Brackish or marine.

Valve elliptical; ends produced. Length from -0024 to -0040,
breadth from -0010 to 0015. Striz fine, punctate, slightly radiate ;
when not exactly in focus appearing to be moniliform. (Galle oDhe safer 7),

Smith has correctly described the character of the strie in this
species; but the figure represents the striz as they appear when not
in focus. -

Donkin, N. H., Brit. Diat., p. 15, considers this form as identical
with Nayicula rostrata, Ehr., and Navicula sculpta, Ehr. These
forms it appears were found by Donkin in the Bergmehl of Santa
Fiore, and in the fossil deposit of Franzensbad, which I believe are
both fresh water deposits, though that author assigns Navicula ros-
trata to brackish localities. The form under consideration has been
found by Smith only in brackish water; and I have found it only in
localities decidedly brackish or marine. However similar the forms
may be, they seem to me perfectly distinct, and distinguishable b
this feature, that in Nayicula tumens the striz run uninterruptedly
from the margin to the longitudinal sulci, whereas in N. rostrata they
are interrupted, and present an unstriate space between each sulcus
and the ends of the strie. Wm.Sm., B. D., Vol.i. p. 52, Pl. xvii.,
fic. 150. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 900. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 541. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 192.

Salt ditch, near Newtownlimavady Junction, Co. Londonderry.
Salt ditch, near the town of Galway. Seaweeds, Salt Hill, Co.
Dublin. Salt ditch, Breaches, Co. Wicklow. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

Nawicula rostrata. (Ehr.) Fresh or brackish water.

Valves elliptical, produced into long rounded apices; length
0046, breadth -0015. Striz punctate, slightly radiate, disappearing
in the middle of the space between the margin and the longitudinal
sulcus, and appearing again upon the edge of the sulcus. (PI. 31, fig. 8.)

There is some doubt as to whether this species belongs to fresh
or brackish water. The fact that Donkin identified the form, so well
delineated by him, with specimens from the Santa Fiore deposit, as well
as that of Franzensbad, would seem decisive as to its proper habitat
being in fresh water. The localities, however, to which he has
assigned the species found by him in a living state are brackish ;

360 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and the only three localities in which I have found it in Ireland, if
not marine, are certainly brackish.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 94, T. iii., fig. 55, who attributes the species to
Ehrenberg. Raltfs, in Pritch., p. 901, who regards it as distinct from
Navicula sculpta, Ehr. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.
Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 540, who states that he did not find the
form in the Santa Fiore Bergmehl. examined by him, but confirms
Donkin’s statement of haying obtained it in the Franzensbad deposit.
Donkin, N. H. Brit., Diat., p. 15, Pl. ii., fig. 9. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg.,
SEChe eps LON;

Seashore, Queenstown, Co. Cork. Breaches, Co. Wicklow. Salt
Hill, Co. Dublin.

Navicula tenuirostris, N.S. Marine.
_ Valve elliptical, with long produced narrow apices; length -0018,
breadth -0006; strie fine, parallel in the middle, and slightly radiate
towards the ends; less distinct midway between the margin and the
longitudinal sulcus; intermediate free space narrow, apparently ex-
panding in the middle in a short and very narrow stauroform band.
(Plate 31, fig. 9.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Nawvicula ambigua, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valves elliptical, ends produced and capitate; length -0032,
breadth :0010; stric fine, parallel. (Plate 31, fig. 10.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 95, T. xxvii., fig. 66, who attributes the species to
Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 51, Pl. xvi., fig. 149. Rab.
Sissw. Diat., p. 40, T. vi., fig. 59. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 902. Gru-
now, Verhand, der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 529, T.
iv., fig. 83. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 228. Donkin,
INSEE erties sDiat. ep .wo9y 2b. varie:

River Erne, near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Pool near Glencar, Co.
Cork. River Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Londonderry.

Navicula spherophora, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve elliptical; ends considerably produced and capitate; strie
fine, punctate, slightly convergent; length -0080, breadth -0010.
(Plate 31, fig. 11.)

Kiitz. Bae., p. 95, T. iv., fig. 17. .Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. 1.,/pr 52,
Pl. xvi., fig. 148, who represents the strize as moniliform, an appear-
ance they present only when not in focus. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 40,
T. vi., fig. 65a, 65b being, as it would appear, a very distinct form.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 899. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 361

Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 540, T. iv., fig. 34. Cleve, Om Svenska och
Worska ‘Diat., p. 227. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 34, Pl. v.;
fig. 10.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Moist rock,
Portrush, Co. Antrim. MRiver~Bann, near Coleraine, Co. London-

derry.

Navicula quarnerensis, (Grunow). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, slightly produced towards the apiculate
ends ;.striz fine, obscurely punctate, radiate; length -0028, breadth
-0012. (Plate 31, fig. 12.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p.
530, T. i1., fig. 8, found in the Adriatic Sea, from two to four fathoms
in depth.

Salt ditch, near Galway town. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone
Bay, Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula Davidsoniana, N.S. Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; ends slightly produced, apiculate; strice
fine, linear, parallel in the middle, and slightly radiate towards the
ends; central nodule large, elongate, longitudinal ; sulci very distinct,
slightly expanded in the middle. (Plate 31, fig. 13.)

From stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Navicula ovulum, (Grunow). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; striz fine, linear, slightly radiate in the
middle, and more so towards the ends; longitudinal sulci strongly
marked, and quite parallel through their entire length; central nodule
small; colour of dry frustule pale yellow; length -0024, breddth
*0011. (Plate 31, fig. 14.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p- 519, T. ii., fig. 19.—Navicula litoralis, Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat.,
meee bly. fig. 2.

Malahide.
(d.) Latiuscule.

Valves generally elliptical; ends sometimes produced; strie fine ;
intermediate free space generally broad, and expanded in the middle; a
submarginal longitudinal sulcus more or less distinctly developed.

Nawicula latiuscula, (Kutz.) Fresh water.

Valve broadly elliptical; strize delicate, parallel; length about
‘0048, breadth -0014; intermediate free space much expanded.
(Plate 31, fig. 15.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 93, T. v., fig. 40. This form could scarcely have

362 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

been identified, were it not that authentic specimens were seen by
Wm. Smith, who considers it identical with his Navicula patula,
B..D., Vol. 1., p. 49, Pl. xvi., fig. 1389. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 9055 Rap:
Siissw. Diat., p. 38, T. vi., fig. 61. Ifin this case the figure be cor-
rect, it can scarcely be identified with Navicula latiuscula, Kitz.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 534,
tT. iv., fig. 38. Donkin, N.H., Brit. Diat., p. 27, Pl: avs feels
Fl. Eur. Alg., sect: 1., p. 182.

Lough Corrib, Co. Galway. Killurin, Co. Wexford. Newtown-
limavady, Co. Derry. Breaches, Newcastle, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula barkeriana, N.S. Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, gradually attenuated towards the produced
ends; striz linear, fine, close, distinctly radiate; intermediate free-
space wide, greatly expanded in the middle; median terminating to-
wards the central nodule in elongated expansions; length -0052,
breadth -0014.

This form might be easily confounded with Navicula latiuscula,
from which it differs in the following features: the intermediate free
space is much wider, the ends are produced, and the strie are radiate,
and somewhat coarser. (Plate 31, fig. 16.)

On sea-weeds, Dalkey, Co. Dublin. Breaches near Newcastle, Co.
Wicklow. In both these gatherings there was a considerable admix-
ture of fresh water forms; the marine forms, however, greatly prepon-
derated.

Navicula grunovii, (O’Meara). Fresh or brackish water.

Valve broadly elliptical, longitudinal, marginal sulci very distinct >
intermediate free space wide, lanceolate, greatly expanded in the mid-
dle; median line slightly undulate; strie fine, slightly radiate ;
length *0040, breadth -0016. (Plate 31, fig. 17.)

Navicula elegans, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell.,
Band x., 1860, p. 584, T. iv., fig. 37. This author confounds this. ~
form with Nayicula elegans, Wm. Sm., of which he states he had
neyer seen a specimen; and suggests that in case it should prove to be
different from the last-named species it should be designated Navicula
lacustris. Cleve, in his Diatoms of the Arctic Sea, p. 17, perceiving
that the form was obviously distinct from Nayicula elegans, adopts
Grunow’s alternative designation, which, however, must be aban-
doned, as the name had been applied by Gregory to designate a very
different form. Grunow found this species in fresh water as well as
in shghtly brackish water, so that there is a difficulty in ascertaining
the habitat. I cannot clear up this difficulty, inasmuch as the only
gathering in which the form occurred to me contained both marine and
fresh water forms.

Bellarena, Co. Derry.

‘oo

O’ Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 363

Nawicula amphisbena, (Bory). Fresh water.
Valve broadly elliptical, with produced capitate ends, longitudinal

sulci close to the margin; intermediate free space lanceolate, broad

in the middle. Strie fine, linear, close, radiate; length -0035,
breadth -2018. (Pl. 31, fig. 18.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 95, T. u1., figs. 41 and 42. This author regards
the species as identical with Navicula amphisbeena, Bory, 1824, to
whom, therefore, it should be attributed. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p.
alee exvi, fic, 147. Ralfs im Pritch., p-899, Pl: -vir., fig: 72. ‘Kab.
Sussw. Diat., p. 40, T. vi., fig. 66. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 36. Heiberg, De Danske Diat.,
p- 82. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 227. Donkin, N. H.
Brit. Diat., p. 36, Pl. v. fig. 13.

River Dodder, Dundrum, Blackrock, Malahide, Co. Dublin. River
Bann, Coleraine, Bellarena, Co. Derry. Caumlough, near Tralee.
Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Breaches, near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow.
Tacumshane, Co. Wexford.

Nawicula subsalina, (Ehr.) Brackish water.

In all respects resembling Navicula amphisbeena, except that the
ends are not capitate, nor so much produced.

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 24, Pl. iv., fig. 2.—Navicula am-
phisbena, var. 8. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 51; Pl. xvii., fig. 147 B.
The last-named author attributes the species to Ehrenberg. Cleve,
Diatoms from Arctic Sea, p. 18. This form occurs frequently, mixed
with Nayicula amphisbena, in places accessible to marine influences,
but I have never found it in perfectly fresh water. So that, with
Donkin, I am disposed to consider it may be a distinct species.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Breaches, Co. Wicklow. Caumlough,
near Tralee. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Malahide, Co. Dublin.

Navicula elegans, (Wm. Sm.) Marine or brackish water.

Valve elliptical, lanceolate; longitudinal sulci marginal. Strie
distinct, linear, convergent in the middle, afterwards radiate; inter-
mediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where it expands
considerably ; length about -0038, breadth about 00065. (PI. 31,
fig. 19.

A sm, B: D:, Voloz, p: 49. Pl. xvi. fig. 137. Ralfs; invPrtch®
p. 907. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 85. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.
eapts2-- Donkin, N. He Brit., Diat., p. 23, Plijiv., fie. 1.) his
form is obviously distinct from that described under the name of Navyi-
cula elegans by Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band
x., 1860, T.iv., fig. 37.

Blackrock, Co. Dublin. Caumlough, near Tralee. Lough Gill,
Co. Kerry. Galway Bay. Breaches, Kilcool, Co. Wicklow. Tacum-
shane, Co. Wexford. '

R I. A, PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIBNCE. 258

364 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula palpebralis, (De Bréb.) Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, lanceolate at the ends; striz distinctly
costate, linear, radiate, marginal ; intermediate free space wide, ellip-
tical-lanceolate ; length -0034, breadth -0013. (PI. 31, fig. 20.)

Wm. Sm., B.D. Vol.i., p. 50. Supp., Pl. xxx) fo2 ome
figure represents the striz as minutely punctate; im reality they are
strongly costate. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 905. Grunow, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 160, p. 536, T. i., fig. 27. The
form here described exactly resembles that of Smith, being very small,
and with minutely punctate strie. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 25,
fig. 8. This author regards the species as identical with Nayicula
barclayana; Greg. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 182, who describes
the striz as distinctly granulate.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Arran Islands, Co. Gal-
way.

Navicula angulosa, (Greg.) Marine.

Similar to the preceding, but strie finer and closer, and longer,
convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; intermediate
free space, instead of being elliptical, is lanceolate ; length -0050,
breadth -0010.

Gregory, Q. J. M. S., 1856, p. 42, Pl. v., fig. 8. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 905. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p.176. Donkin, N. H. Bnit.
Diats, p: 26. Pk ive sue. 4:

River Slaney, Killurin, Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Breaches,
near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow. Malahide, Co. Dublin. Arran Islands,
Co. Galway.

Navicula semiplena, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve as in the preceding form, but much narrower, and the in-
termediate free space not angular in the middle.

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 26, Pl. iv., fig. 5.—Pinnularia an-
gulosa, var.. 8, Gregory, Q. J. M.S., 1856, p. 42, Pl. v., fig. 8*—
Pinnularia semiplena, Greville, Q. J. M. §., 1859, p. 84, Pl. vi., fig. 12.

Malahide, Co. Dublin. Fintragh Bay, Co. Donegal. Rostrevor,
Co. Down.

Nawicula hebes, (Ralfs). Fresh water.

Valve gibbous in the middle, ends somewhat attenuated, but
still broad, and rounded. Strie fine, linear, nearly parallel ; interme-
diate free space wide in middle, lanceolate towards the ends. (PI.
31, fig. 21.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896, who regards the species as identical with
Navicula obtusa, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i. p. 50, Pl. xvi., fig. 140,
with which I find it impossible to identify it. Donkin, N. H. Brit.,
Diat., p, 23, Pl. ii., fig. 12.

Marl, Co. Down. Lough Mourne deposit.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacew. 365

Nawicula lineata, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, with cuneate ends; margin slightly
curved. Striz strong, convergent in the middle, and radiate towards
the ends ; longitudinal sulcus dividing the striz into two nearly equal
parts; intermediate free space broad, lanceolate towards either
end, and expanded in the middle; length about ‘00384, breadth
about -0010. (Pl. 31, fig. 22).

Wonka iQ Je MAS 71859ny p32.) PL ni figs 175) 7 Also mNCPEE
Brit. Diat.; p. 8, Pl. i., fig. 8.

Seashore near the town of Galway.

Navicula liber, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve narrow elliptical, with rounded ends. Strie fine, slightly
radiate, divided into two nearly equal portions by the longitudinal
sulcus; intermediate free space narrow towards the ends; slightly
expanded in the middle; length from :0030 to °0045, breadth
from -0009 to 0012. (Pl. 31, fig. 23.)

Wane Simen B.D). Vol. ip) 48, Pl. xvin figs 1335) Ralis, ini
Pritch., p. 907. Grunow, Verhand. der Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x.,
1860, p. 547. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 227. Rab.
Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 180. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 62,
Halex. fio. 1S.

Salt ditch, near the town of Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.
Seaweeds, Kilkee, Co. Clare. Lough Foyle, near Newtownlima-
vady, Co. Derry. Breaches, near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow. Galway

Bay.

Navicula bicuneata, (Grunow). Marine.

Valve deeply constricted in the middle, with long cuneate ends,
somewhat rounded at the apex. Striz linear, parallel; longitudinal
sulcus nearer to the median line than to the margin; intermediate
free space narrow, except in the middle, where it is slightly ex-
panded; median line strongly developed; central nodule small,
roundish; length -0056, breadth at the shoulders -0018, at the
middle 0015. (Pl. 31, fig. 24.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 546, T. ii., fig. 4. This author considers the form may be only a
variety of Navicula liber, from which, however, it differs both in
form and structure. The strie in this are parallel, in Navicula
liber slightly radiate. My specimens are generally wider at the
shoulders, and more constricted than Grunow’s figure represents them.
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 227, T. i, figs. 8 and 4.
The form, as represented by this last-named author, is even less
constricted than Grunow’s figure represents it. Cleve remarks :—
““Grunow has not described the front view, which in the specimens
examined by me were cuneate, as is the case in Gomphonema

282

366 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. °

or Noyilla; for which reason this species ought to be transferred to a
new genus, distinguished from Navicula by the cuneate front view.
The side view was sufficiently conformable with Grunow’s description.”
The cuneate appearance of the front view just referred to, I am
inclined to think, was casual, arismg from the separation of the
valves at one end, while at the other end they retained their
normal position. In the specimen I was able to observe on the
front view, there was but a single valve, which did not exhibit any
tendency to a cuneate outline.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Arran Islands, Co. Galway.
Bantry Bay, Co. Cork. '

Navicula griindleriana, N.S. Marine.

Valve linear elliptical ; somewhat cuneate at the ends ; interme-
diate free space narrow, except’ in the middle, where it expands into
a broad, subquadrangular area. Striz linear, slightly radiate; longi-
tudinal sulcus marginal. (PI. 31, fig. 25.)

This form strongly resembles a Navicula figured by Schmidt, Atlas,
T. vi,, figs. 81 and 82; and by this author attributed to Grindler.
It differs however, inasmuch as the strie in the latter are described
as punctate; in the present case they are linear. The free area
around the central nodule in this form is much larger than im that
figured by Schmidt. The strong similarity has suggested the specific
name.

The present form upon first view might be easily confounded with
Navicula macula, Greg., from which it may be discerned by the
fact that the ends in the latter are contracted and rounded; in this
they are cuneate. The striz, too, in this are yery much coarser and
more distant than in Nay. macula.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

(e) Limose.

Longitudinal sulci more numerous than in the last, and generally more
highly developed ; intermediate free space narrow.

Javicula wriéis, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical, rounded off at the ends. Striz fine, linear,
parallel; intermediate free space narrow towards the ends, expanded
in the middle; length from -0046 to -0072, breadth from -0010
to -0016. Longitudinal strie distinct at the margin. (Pl. 31,
fig. 26.

2 ee Bac., p. 92, T. xxviil., fig. 42. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 907.
Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i, p. 171. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat.,
p: 30, Pl. v., fig. 6.—Navicula firma, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 48,.

ry

O’ Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 367

Pl. xvi., fig. 138. Smith’s figure does not represent the longitudinal
strie, which more particularly characterize this species. Kiitzing’s
figure, though representing this peculiarity, does not give to it its due
prominence.

Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Co. Cork. Marsh, Kilcool,
Glenmalure, Co. Wicklow. Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry.
Ditch, Cushendun, Co. Antrim. Pond in Botanic Gardens, Belfast.
Lough Mourne deposit, Co. Down.

Var. amphigomphus, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Like the typical form in its general characters, but linear in its
outline and cuneate at the ends; length from 0025 to -0045, breadth
from :0010 to -0016. (Plate 31, fig. 27.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 93, T. xxvii., fig. 40. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 38,
T. vi., fig. 47.—Navicula firma, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 909. Donkin,
N.H. Brit. Diat., p. 31, Pl. v., fig. 7.—Navicula firma, var. cuneata,
Lagerstedt, Sotv. Diat. fran Spetsbergen och Beeren Eiland, p. 29.

Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry. Piperstown, Co. Dublin.
River Erne, near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.

Var. affinis, (Khr.) Fresh water.

Valve'like the typical species, but narrow and linear in outline ;
ends produced, broad, rounded, and slightly constricted. (Plate 31,
fig. 28.)

Navicula affinis, Kiitz. Bac., p. 95, T. xxviii., fig. 65, who attri-
butes the species to Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol.i., p. 50, Pl.
xvi., fig. 143. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 902, Pl. xii., fig. 32. Rab. Siissw.
Diat., p. 40, T. vi., fig. 58.. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p- 228. Donkin, N.H. Brit. Diat., p. 33, Pl. v., fig. 8. Lagerstedt,
Soty. Diat. fran Spetsbergen och Beeren Hiland, p. 29.

River Erne, near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Drumoughty Lough,
near Kenmare, Glengarriff, Co. Cork. Bellarena, Co. Derry. Pond,
Botanic Gardens, Belfast, Co. Down. Near Newcastle, Kilcool,
Lugnaquilla mountain, Co. Wicklow. Killakee, Co. Dublin.

Navicula dubia, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve like that of Navicula iridis, var. amphigomphus, but much
smaller and broader in proportion; the cuneate ends extended into
short apices; striae im many specimens seen very slightly radiate ;
length -0018, breadth -0008. (Plate 31, fig. 29.)

Navicula dubia, Kiitz. Bac., p. 96, T. xxviii., fig. 61, who attri-
butes the species to Ehrenberg. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 40, T. vi., fig.
60. This latter figure is quite unlike the present species. Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 902. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 30, Pl. v., fig. 5.—
Navicula peisonis, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K., Zool. Bot. Gesell.,

368 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Band x., 1860, p. 544, T. ii., fig. 28: and likely also identical with
Navicula limosa, var. bicuneata, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 545, T. v., fig. 7

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Kilcool, Co. Wick-
low. Lough Guill, Co. Kerry. Pond in Botanical Gardens of Trinity
College, Dublin.

Navicula limosa, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve triundulate on the margin, more expanded in the middle
than at the ends; ends cuneate; strie fine, parallel; longitudinal free
space narrow, except in the middle, where it is slightly expanded ;
longitudinal strie easily observed, with good illumination; length
about -0034, breadth in the middle 0006. (Plate 31, fig. 30.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 101, T. ii., fig. 50. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 41, T-
vi., fig. 31. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 894, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 544, T. v., fig. 86. Donkin,
N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 73, Pl. xu., fig. 61. Cleve, Om Svenska och
Norska Diat., p. 227. Lagerstedt, Sotv. Diat. frin Spetsbergen och
Beeren Eiland, p. 30, T.1., fig. 6

Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow. Botanical Gardens of Trinity College,
Dublin.

Var. gibberula, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Like the typical species, ditfering only in this, that the one instead
of being cuneate are rounded.

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 544, T. v., fig. 8a. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 73, Pilexaie fig. 6a.
~_Navicula gibberula, Kiitz. Bac., p. 101, T.iii., fig. 50. Wm. “Sm.,
Dae Yolen sip sol), cb exaarpttc: AGO: Schumann, Diat. der Hohen
Tatra, p- B., Lagerstedt, Soty. Diat. fran Spetsbergen och Beeren
Eiland, p. 38.

River Erne, Crossdoney, Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan. Glengar-
riff, Co. Cork. Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Streamlet
in Powerscourt demesne, Co. Wicklow. Lough Mourne deposit.

Var. truncata, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve nearly linear, with rounded ends; the longitudinal sulci
waved; length -0025, breadth -00055. (Plate 31, fig. 31.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 545, T. v., figs. 8e and 9.—Navicula truncata, Kitz. Bac., p. 96,
deaths “a 34, and T. v., fig. 4. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 39, T. vi.,
fig. 67

Friarstown, River Dodder, Co. Dublin. Lough Neagh, near Lur-
gan, Co. Armagh. Lough "Mask, near Tourmakeady, ‘Co. Mayo.
Dundalk, Co. Louth. Wet rock, Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal. Castle-
Gregory, Co. Kerry.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 369

WNavicula undosa, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve broadly elliptical, slightly triundulate; apices produced,
very narrow, and slightly capitate; longitudinal strie distinct; trans-
verse strize obscure; length 0016, breadth -0006. (Plate 31, fig. 32.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 101, T. xxvii., fig. 83. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 41,
T. vi., fig. 56.

River Erne, near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan.

Navicula esox, (Ehr.) Habit. doubtful.

Valve lanceolate, with an angular expansion in the middle; margin
slightly triundulate; ends cuneate; striz distinct, linear, punctate,
nearly parallel in the middle, slightly radiate and closer towards the
ends; median line strongly developed; terminal nodules at some dis-
tance from the ends; length ‘0034, breadth -0010. (Plate 31,
fig. 33.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 94, T. xxviii., fig. 58, who regards the species as
identical with Pinnularia esox, Ehr. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896, Pl.
xu., fig. 43. The description in this case is tolerably accurate, but
the figure is incorrect.—Pinnularia esox, Rab Stissw. Diat., p. 45,
T. vi., fig. 7. This figure does not at all represent the peculiarities
of the species.

It is doubtful whether this is a fresh-water or marine form.
Rabenhorst includes it among the former; the only gathering in which
I found it was marine, yet containing some fresh water forms.

Mud from salt water, coast of Clare, supplied by Doctor Sullivan,
President Queen’s College, Cork.

Navicula trochus, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve inflated in the middle, greatly contracted towards the ends,
which are slightly capitate; transverse striz indistinct; longitudinal
strize distinct; intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle,
where it is expanded. (Plate 31, fig. 34.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 99, T. ui., fig. 59. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 899.—
Navicula follis, Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 44, Pl. vi., fig. 15.
There is considerable difficulty as to the synonymy of this species.
Donkin considers it identical with Nayicula follis, Ehr., Navicula crux,
Ehr., and Nayicula inflata, Kitz. Supposing the figures of the last named
as delineated by Kiitzing (Bac., T.ii1., fig. 36), and by Rabenhorst (Stssw.
Diat., p. 41, T. v., fig. 10), to be correct, and that the former author
was correct in supposing Navicula inflata to be identical with Navicula
follis, Ehr., I cannot think that the latter is likely to be identical
with Navicula trochus. Kiitzing has figured Navicula trochus so accu-
rately, that it is easily recognisable; it is identical with that under
consideration, and also, as it appears to me, with that named Navicula
follis, by Donkin.

Lough Mourne deposit.

ofOR = Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Javicula producta, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical; ends produced and slightly capitate;
transverse striz distinct; linear-punctate parallel; longitudinal stric
distinct ; intermediate free space very narrow; length -0040, breadth
-0010. (Plate 31, fig. 35.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i., p. 51, Pl. xvil., fig. 1445) Raliceas
Pritch., p. 902, Pl. vii., fig. 62. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 543.—Navicula affinis, var. producta,
Rab. Fl. Hur. Alg., sect. i., p. 197.

Botanical Gardens of Trinity College, Dublin. Lower Lake, Killar-
ney, Co. Kerry. Sub-peat Deposit, Dromore, Co. Down.

Navicula coccononetformis, (Gregory). Fresh water.

Valve elliptical ; transverse strie very fine, linear slightly radiate;
longitudinal strie more obvious; intermediate free space narrow,
lanceolate; length -0016, breadth ‘C008. (Plate 31, fig. 36.)

‘None of the authors I am acquainted with have alluded to the
longitudinal strie, which notwithstanding are very obvious when the
valve is observed in a dry state. When mounted in balsam, they are
quite undistinguishable, except with very high powers, and with good
ilumination.

Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 6, Pl. i, fig. 22. Wm. Sm., B.D.,
Viol i peng: Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 896. Grunow, Verhand. der
- K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p- 550, T. iv., fig. 9. Rab.
Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1, fi. 186 and p- 189. Done N. H. Brit. Diat.,
p. 22, Pl. iti., fig. 11. Lagerstedt, Sotv. Diat. fran Spetsbergen och
Beeren Eiland, p. 32, T. u1., fig. 8.

Lough Mask, near Toumakeady, Co. Mayo. Lough Mourne
deposit.
Navicula Kotzchyi, (Grunow). Fresh water. Sapien: ee
Valve small, elliptical, lanceolate; ends slightly oSeaneeet and
occasionally slightly constricted ; central nodule lar ge and quadrangu-
lar; strie fine, linear, in the middle more distinct than towards the
ends, radiate ; longitudinal strie distinct; length -0013, breadth -0005.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 588, T. iv., fig. 12. This author represents the strie as moniliform,
but in the few forms that came under my notice I could not verity
this representation. The longitudinal strie are not noticed by Grunow,
but with careful manipulation they were very apparent in my speci-
mens. Grunow gives three figures of this species; of these the short-
est and broadest, and that in which the strie are not so distinct is the
form with which my specimens are most in accordance.—Nayicula
Kotschyana, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., scct. i., p. 193.

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. o71

Navicula maxima, (Gregory). Marine.

Frustules on front view slighly constricted in the middle, rounded
at the ends; valve linear, ends rounded; transverse strie fine, linear,
parallel; longitudinal strie two or three; intermediate free space
narrow, slightly expanded in the middle; length about -0050, breadth
about ‘0011. (PI. 31, fig. 38.)

Gregory, Q. J. M. S., 1855, p. 41, Pl. iv., fig. 10. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 909, Pl. vui., fig. 75. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat.—The last
named author regards this species as identical with Navicula bicuneata,
Grunow. There is certainly a strong resemblance between the two
forms in many particulars, but nevertheless they seem to me perfectly
distinct. Navyicula bicuneata is much broader, ever constricted, some-
times very much so, but one longitudinal sulcus is noticeable in it,
whereas in Navicula maxima the longitudinal lines are more nume-
rous, and not so distinctly marked. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 172.

Portmarnock, Ireland’s Eye, Co. Dublin. Breaches near Newcas-
tle, Co. Wicklow. Seaweeds, Kilkee. Stomachs of Ascidians, Co.
Clare. .

Var. linearis, (Grunow). Marine.

Valve much narrower and shorter than the typical form, trans-
verse striz finer; longitudinal striz obvious; intermediate free space,
narrow, not expanded in the middle; length -0032; breadth -0008.
(Pl. 31, fig. 39.)

Navicula linearis, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell.,
Band» x., 1860, p. 546, T. mi., fig. 2. Rab. FI. Eur. Alg-, sect. 1.,
p. 180.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians, Round-
stone Bay. Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Var. lata, (O’Meara). Marine.
Valves as in the typical form, but relatively shorter and wider, the
ends somewhat cuneate; length -0030; breadth -0010.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Navicula subula, (Kiitz.) Marine.

Valve lanceolate, transverse strie very obscure, longitudinal, ob-
vious; the dry valve pale straw-colour ; intermediate free space very
narrow ; length about :0024; breadth about -0004. (Pl. 31, fig. 40.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 91, T. xxx., fig. 19. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 548, T. i1., fig. 24. Rab. Fl. Eur.
Alg., sect. 1., p. 175. The specimens I have met with are much
shorter than that figured by Kitzing, and agree with the figure of
Grunow.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians, Round-
stone Bay, Co. Galway. Malahide, Co. Dublin.

372 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula translucida, N.S. Marine.

Valve lanceolate, transverse strize obvious, costate, radiate; longi-
tudinal strie, two or three obvious; length, *0020, breadth, -0003.
(Pl. 31, fig. 41.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Navicula papillifera, N.S. Marine.

Valve elliptical-lanceolate, ends produced, papilliform; median
line incurved and expanded towards the central nodule; imtermediate
free space narrow; transverse striz obsolete, longitudinal striz ob-
vious, numerous; length -0020, breadth ‘0006. (Pl. 31, fig. 42.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay.

Navicula liburnica, (Grun.) Marine.

Valve elliptical, lanceolate, transverse striz fine, linear, slightly
radiate ; longitudinal strize indistinct, yet with good light noticeable ;
intermediate free space narrow, lanceolate. (Pl. "31, fig. 43.

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell, Band x., 1860, p.
547, T. i1., fig. 25. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 172.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians, Round-
stone Bay. Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula plumbicolor, N.S. Marine.

Valve linear, with rounded ends; length, ‘0018; breadth, -0007;
transverse strize very obscure, punctate, radiate, longitudinal sulcus
sub-marginal ; longitudinal striee more easily observed than the trans-
verse; intermediate free space narrow, linear; dry valve of a leaden
colour. (PI. 31, fig. 44.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula veneta, (Kitz.) Brackish water.

Valve minute; length, -0010; breadth, -0003; lanceolate, ends
slightly produced ; transverse strie faint, conver cent in the middle ;
longitudinal striz noticeable with good. illumination ; longitudinal
free space narrow, linear. (PI. 31, fig. 45.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 95, T. xxx., fig. 76. Donkin (N. H. But. Diat.,
p. 43, Pl. vi., fig. 13,) rightly observes that the form ‘‘is abun-
dant in estuaries and harbours between tide marks.” Rab. Stissw.
Diat., p. 39, T. vi., fig. 88. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 901. None of the
above authors refer to the longitudinal strive, which, however, by
careful illumination may be easily detected if the valves be dry.

Mouth of Bray River, Co. Wicklow. Dollymount Strand, Co.
Dublin. Galway Bay, near town of Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacec. 373

Navicula johnsonit, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve long and narrow ; length, -0060; breath, 0005; inflated in
the middle and at the ends; transverse striz very fine, parallel, longi-
tudinal striz more easily detected; colour of dry valve whitish.
(Pl. 31, fig. 46.)

Pinnulariajohnsonii, Wm. Sm. B. D., Vol. i., p. 58, Pl. xix., fig.
179. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 211. Rabenhorst considers the form
identical with Nayicula scopulorum, De Brébisson. In this opinion he
agrees with Ralfs, in Pritch., p.895, and Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p.73,
Pl. xii., fig.5. I cannotfindany figure of De Brébisson’s species, Navicula
scopulorum, and consider the identification of the last named with the
present species more than doubtful, inasmuch as Kiitzing regards that
form as identical with Navicula mesotyla, figured by him, Back wlaves
fig. 3, and T. xxyii., fig. 84. These figures are obscure as to detente.
but from the size and outline I would think it impossible to confound
Nayicula johnsonii with them, and therefore I attribute the species to
Smith, who has described and figured it with unmistakable accuracy.
This course commends itself the more to my judgment, inasmuch as
Grunow has described and figured under the name of Nayicula scopu-
lorum a form which is obviously distinct from that under considera-
tion.

Bannow, Co. Wexford. Malahide, Portmarnock, Co. Dublin.
Mouth of the River Nannywater, Laytown, Co. Meath.

Navicula simulans, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve linear, with long cuneate ends; transverse strie very faint;
longitudinal strize quite noticeable with good illumination, if the valve
be dry; longitudinal free space narrow, except in the middle, where
it spreads out to the margin in a narrow stauroform band; length
‘0030, breadth -0006. (Plate 31, fig. 47.)

The present species I consider to be identical with that so named
by Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 60, Pl. ix, fig. 3. Donkin considers
it the same as Amphiprora constricta, Ehr., but in this opinion I can-
not concur. Donkin does not notice the longitudinal striz ; but in all
other respects the present form is, in my mind, not distinguishable
from the species named Nayicula simulans by that author.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. Malahide,
Co. Dublin.

Navicula delginensis, N.S. Marine.

Valve rhomboid, gradually attenuated towards the broadly rounded
ends ; transverse strize very faint; longitudinal striz easily detected,
more ‘especially at the margin, where there i is a strongly marked sul-

; intermediate free space narrow, lanceolate towards the ends, and
slightly expanded in the middle; length -0020; breadth in the ‘mid-
dle 0006. (Pl. 31, fig. 48.)

This form is in outline very similar to a species described and

O14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

figured by Grunow as Navicula scopulorum, in Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 547, T. iii. fig. 6. The present species,
however, is shorter, broader, and more rhombic; the transverse striz
more obscure, and not reaching the median line, but leaving a distinct
intermediate free space.

Seaweeds, Dalkey Island, Malahide, Co. Dublin.

(f£) Crassinerves.

“ Forms for the most part lanceolate, with very strong median lines
and very fine scarcely noticeable structure, in which the longitudinal strie
come out more distinctly than the transverse. These approach the group
Limose, from which, however, they differ essentially by the colorless condi-
tion of the valves in a dry state. In the appearance of the median line
there is an approximation to some forms of the group Cuspidate not to be
mistaken.” —Grunow.

Navicula rhomboides, (Khr.) Fresh water.

Valve rhomboid; lanceolate; ends slightly rounded; median line
distinct, with two longitudinal lines elose to and nearly parallel with
it; slightly expanded in the middle, united towards the ends; the
median line extending slightly beyond the point of junction; strisz
very faint ; length about 0045; breadth about ‘0009. (Plate 31, fig. 49.)

With a high objective and very skilful illumination the striz are
found to be parallel. It is noteworthy that in a gathering made by
me at Lough Awn, on the summit of the Slieveanetran Mountain, this
form occurred in abundance, for the most part free, but frequently in
mucous tubes, ever in single files, and in some cases the frustules were
placed end to end, without any mucous investment.

Kitz. Bac., p. 94, T. xxvii, fig. 45; and T. xxx., fig. 44. This
author attributes the species to Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm., B. D., vol.i.,
p. 46, Pl. xvi., fig. 129. Rab. Stissw. Diat., p. 38; T. v., fig.13. This
figure represents the form as much smaller than it is generally found
to be. MRalfs, in Pritch., p. 903; Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell, Band x., 1860, p. 549. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 42,
Pl. vi., fig. 11. Schumann, Die Diat. der Hohen Tatra., p. 68.

Pool, Glencar, near Glengariff, Bantry, Co. Cork.. Lower Lake,
Killarney, Arraglen, near Castlegregory, Co. Kerry. Friarstown,
Piperstown, Co. Dublin. River Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Derry. Con-
nemara, Co. Galway. Rathdrum; Glenchree, Co. Wicklow. Deposit,
Tollymore Park, Co. Down.

Navicula serians, (De Bréb.) Fresh water.
Valve elliptical-lanceolate ; ends slightly rounded; median line dis-
tinct, as are also the two longitudinal lines, close to and parallel to the

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 370

same; transverse striz obscure, slightly oblique ; longitudinal striz dis-
tinct; length about -00388 ; breadth about -0009. (Plate 31, fig. 50.)

ete bacy ps 92) a xxx,, fie.) 23. xvi, fies) 43.4 7 his
author considers the species identical with Frustulia serians, De Brébis-
son, and with Navicula lineolata, Ehr. . He adds, ‘‘I have no doubt
that the Ehrenbergian form, which has been described in our T. xxviil.,
fig. 43, according to Ehrenberg, is perfectly identical with that of De
Brébisson.” That form is rather smaller than Navicula serians, and
therefore some doubt may reasonably be entertained on the subject.
_ It seems better then, with Donkin, to attribute the species to De Bré-
bisson than to abandon the specific name by which the species has been
so long known. Wm. Sm., B. D., vol. i., p. 47, Pl. 16, fig. 130.
Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 38; T. vi., fig. 51; Ralfs, im Pritch., p. 904.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell, Band x., 1860, p. 549 ;
T. y., fig. 18. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 228. Don-
fan, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 41, Pl. vi., fig. 10.

Pool, Cushendun, Co. Antrim. Piperstown, Co. Dublin. Glen-
chree, Co. Wicklow. Pool near town of Wicklow. ‘Tollymore Park
deposit, Co. Down.

_ Navicula crassinervia, (De Bréb.) Fresh water.

Valve small, elliptical-lanceolate ; ends produced and slightly con-
stricted ; longitudinal sulci parallel to the median line, distinct ; strice
obsolete; length about °0024 ; breadth about -0005. (Plate 31, fig. 51.)

MWimesm=, Ba Dy Volo, p47, Suppeekl. xxx sic. 271 who
describes and figures the species according to specimens furnished by
De Brébisson. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 900. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 548, T. v., fig. 12. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 228. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 42,
Pl. vi., fig. 12. This last named author considers this species identical
with Frustulia saxonica, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 227.

Friarstown, Piperstown, Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. Lough
Gill, Co. Kerry. Bantry, Co. Cork. Rostrevor, Co. Down. Rath-
drum, Glencree, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula dirhynchus, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve nearly linear, narrow; ends produced, and slightly capitate.
Longitudinal sulci parallel with median line, distinct. Transverse
striz obsolete; longitudinal striz distinct; length, -0022, breadth,
"0005. (Plate 31, fig. 52.)

Kitzing, Bac., p. 95, T. xxvii., fig. 48, by whom the species is
attributed to Ehrenberg. Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 40, T. vi., fig. 48.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 901. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 29, Pl. v.,
fig. 3. The last named author remarks that ‘in outline this species
has a strong resemblance to Navicula affinis, but it is much smaller,

376 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and distinguished by the apparent absence of striz.’’ If the valve be
examined in a dry state, the longitudinal striz are distinct, but much
less numerous and distinct than in Navicula affinis; the margin
also, instead of being perfectly linear as it is in the last named species,
is slightly elliptical.

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Featherbed Moun-
tain, Co. Dublin.

Navicula rostellum, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valves broadly elliptical; ends produced into very short narrow
apices; longitudinal sulci parallel to median line distinct; strie
obscure; length -0020; breadth -0010. (Plate 31, fig. 53.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. 5:93. Ralis, m Putch:, p900seGume
now, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 550,
T. iv., fig. 10. This form, as described by Grunow, is narrower, and
the apices much wider than in my specimens; the transverse strie as
described, are very fine and parallel, but as my specimens were mounted
in balsam, I could not detect the striz. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat.,
p. 40, Pl. vi., fig. 7. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 195. The last
named author describes the striee as very delicate and parallel.—Navi-
cula apiculata, Gregory Q.J.M.S., Vol. iv., 1856, Pl.i., fig. 13, who
attributes the form to Wm. Smith.

Killakee, Co. Dublin.

Navicula levissima, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve colourless, slightly expanded in middle, slightly constricted
towards the broad rounded ends; median line strongly developed ;
transverse strize very fine, slightly radiate ; longitudinal strie distinct ;
intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where some-
times it seems to expand in a short narrow stauroform band; at the
extreme end a distinct transverse line is noticeable at right angles
with the median line; length -0015, breadth 0004. (Plate 31, fig. 54.)

Kutz. Bac. p: 96, T. xxi., fig. 14. Wm. Sm. BoP Volume
p- 91. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K., Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x.,
1860, p. 549, T. iv., fig. 5. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1.) ps uss:
Donkin’ iN: He Brit. Diat.,-p. 28, El. v.. fies:

Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry. Derrylane Lough, Co. Cavan.
Lough Neagh, near Antrim town. Ulster Canal, near Poyntzpass,
Co. Armagh. Loughbrickland Lake, Co. Down. River Bann, near
Coleraine, Co. Derry. Trinity College Botanic Gardens, Co. Dublin.
Killeshin, Queen’s Co. Feighcullen, Co. Kildare.

Nawicula oblongella, (Naegeli?) Fresh water.
Valve small, linear, elliptical; ends rounded; longitudinal sulci
close to median line, strongly developed, parallel; transverse stricz

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 377

fine, but easily detected, parallel; longitudinal striz generally obscure;
intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where it expands
into a quadrangular area; length about 0008, breadth about -0008.
(Plate 31, fig. 55.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell, Band x., 1860,
T. iv., fig. 4. Grunow, with a note of doubtfulness, refers the species
to Naegeli. Schumann, Die Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 70. Rab. FI.
Bur. Alg., sect. 1, p. 185.

Lough Derg, Co. Galway. Killakee, Co. Dublin. Ditch near
‘town of Galway.

Navicula ineurva, (Greg.) Fresh water.

Valve shghtly incurved in the middle ; ends broadly produced, sub-
capitate ; longitudinal sulci parallel, with median line distinct; stric
obscure; length about -0020, breadth -0005. (Plate 31, fig. 56.)

Gregory, Q.J. M.S. 1856, p. 8, Pl.1., fig. 26. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
pogo.) Rab. Fly Kur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 203. “Donkin, N. E.. Brit.
Diatempess Pl.jyi., fig. 2.

Portmarnock, Co. Dublin. Callows, near Ballinasloe, Co. Galway.

(g) Monilfere.

Valves more or less lanceolate; strie obviously moniliform, not reach-
tng the median line; free intermediate space narrow, except in the middle,
where it is generally more or less expanded.

Navicula punctulata, (Wm. Smith.) Brackish or marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, with slightly apiculate ends; intermediate
free space narrow, slightly expanded in the middle; striz close, radiate ;
length about -0026, breadth 0012. (Plate 32, fig. 1.)

Wm. Sm., B.D., vol.i., p. 52, Pl. xvi., fig. 151. Grunow, Verhand.
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 5837.—Navicula marina,
Ralfs, in Pritch., p.903. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 202. Donkin,
N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 19, Pl. iu., fig. 5. The last named author
remarks, ‘‘ Although this species is described as marine in the Synop-
sis of Prof. Smith, I have never found it in purely marine localities,
where its congener N. granulata is found.”” Some of the undernamed
localities in which I have found the species are decidedly marine.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim. Seaweeds,
Bannow, Co. Wexford. Portmarnock, Co. Dublin. Rostrevor, Co.
Down. Seaweeds, Kilkee, Co. Clare. Laytown, Co. Meath. Dre-
hednamaud, near Castlegregory, Co. Kerry.

Nawvicula granulata, (De Brébisson). Marine.
Valve broadly elliptical, with slightly produced broad rounded
ends; intermediate free space narrow, linear, except at the cen-

378 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,

tre, where it expands considerably ; expanded area somewhat rounded ;
striz moniliform, convergent in the middle, then strongly radiate ;
length -0035; breadth ‘0017. (Plate 32, fig. 2.)

Donkin, Q. J. M. S., 1858, p. 17, Pl. in., fig. 19, who attributes
the species to De Brébisson. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 903. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 226. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p.
201-2 Donkin Ne He Brit. iat] p: 17, Ply an. tie sale

Drehednamaud, near Castlegregory, Co. Kerry. Stomachs of As-
cidians, Roundstone Bay, Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay,
Galway Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula humerosa, (De Brébisson.) Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, gradually contracted towards the broad, pro-
duced, rounded ends; slightly constricted in the middle; striz close,
moniliform ; puncta small, convergent in the middle, radiate towards
the ends; intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where
it is broadly and somewhat roundly expanded; length, about -0032,
breadth, about -0013, and in middle about -9012. (Plate 32, fig. 3.)

Wm. Smith, (B. D., Vol. i., p. 93), who attributes the species to
De Brébisson. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 903. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i.,
p. 201.

Bannow, River Slaney, near Killurin. Co. Wexford. Portmar-
nock, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Seaweeds, Portrush, Co. Antrim.
Caum Lough, near Tralee, Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Kilkee, Co.
Clare. Salt marsh, Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.

Var. fuscata, (Schumann). Marine.

Like the typical form, but having the ends slightly capitate, and
the margins perfectly linear; length -0038, breadth -0014. (Plate 32,
fig. 4.)

5 Likely the same as Navicula fuscata, Schumann, Die Preussische
Dieta gpeioe idle 43.

Drehidnamaud, near Castlegregory: Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. quadrata, (Gregory). Marine.

Like the typical form, but much shorter and relatively broader ;
the margins linear; the ends, too, being broader and less produced ;
length :0020, breadth -0012. (Plate 32, fig. 5.)

Navicula quadrata, Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 41, Pl. v., fig. 5.
Donkin (N.H. Brit. Diat., p. 18) considers this identical with Navicula
humerosa, and Ralfs adopts the same opinion in Pritchard, p. 908.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay,
Co. Galway. Seaweeds, Portrush, Co. Antrim.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 379

Navicula latissima, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve large, broadly elliptical; ends shghtly produced, rounded ;
intermediate free space broad, lanceolate, greatly expanded around the
central nodule; striz linear, with moniliform striz interposed, conver-
gent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length :0060, breadth
-0032. (Plate 32, fig. 6.)

Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 40, Pl. v., fig. 4. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p: 903, Pl. vu., fig. 70. Rab, Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.1., p. 201. Donkin,
N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 17, Pl. m., fig. 2.—Pinnularia divaricata,
O’Meara, Q.J.M.S., 1867, p. 116, Pl. v., fig. 7.

Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co.
Galway.

Navicula meniscus, (Schumann). Fresh water.

Valve broadly elliptical; ends slightly produced, not capitate ;
intermediate free space narrow, except in the middle, where it
expands into a large stauroform band, wider towards the margin than
at the central nodule; striz linear, with moniliform striz interposed,
convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length -0026,
breadth -0013. (Plate 32, fig. 7.)

Schumann, Die Preussische Diat., p. 55, T.11., fig. 32. Schumann’s
account of the locality in which the form was found by him leaves
some doubt as to whether the deposit in which the form was discovered
was marine or fresh water; his words are: ‘‘In deposito Regimon-
tano, in portu Pillawensi, in Mari Baltico. Lagerstedt, however, in-
cludes the form among fresh-water species, under the name of Nayi-
eula punctata, var. asymmetrica, Sotvat. Diat. fran Spetsbergen, p. 29,
T. u., fig. 7.” This figure so precisely corresponds in all respects with
the form here described, as to render the identity perfectly certain.
Lagerstedt states that the frustule on front view is slightly unsymme-
trical on the longitudinal axis. This seems to me to have been acci-
dental, arising perhaps from the valves having been separated at one
end while adhering at the other; he adds, ‘only a single specimen of
this variety was found.” And I have precisely the same report to
make. So distinct is this form in its leading characters that I consider
it a perfectly independent species, and not to be regarded as a variety
of Nayicula punctata.

Pond near the city of Armagh.

Navicula lucida, N.S. Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, with sub-lanceolate ends; intermediate
free space lanceolate, narrow, except in the middle, where it expands
considerably; a strongly marked suomarginal sulcus is present ;
strie moniliform; puncta very close; convergent in the middle;
divergently radiate towards the apices ; "length 0020 : breadth -0012.
(Plate 82, fig. 8.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

R.I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2T

080 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula ciuthensis, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, with rounded ends; ‘intermediate free
space narrow, linear, but slightly expanded at the central nodule ;
strie moniliform; puncta smail, close, nearly parallel in the middle,
and divergently radiate towards the ends; length, -0020; breadth,
‘0013. (Plate 82, fig. 9.)

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 478, Pl. ix., fig. 2. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 909, Pl. vu., fig. 73. Rab. Fi. Eur. Alg., p. 184.—Navicula
erythrea, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Geseil., Band x.,
1860, p. 539, T. v., fig. 17.

River Slaney, near Killurin, Co. Wexford. Stomachs of Ascidians,
Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. producta, (O’Meara). Marine.
Precisely as the typical species, but having the ends slightly pro-
duced; length -0025, breadth ‘6011. (Plate 82, fig. 9a.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Nawicula punctata, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve elliptical, ends produced, narrow, capitate; intermediate
free space narrow, except in middle, where it expands into a
tolerably broad stauroform band, widening towards the outer end;
strie moniliform; puncta small; radiate; length ‘0032, breadth
0010. (Plate 382, fig. 10.)

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 36, Pl. v., fig. 12. Lagerstedt,
Sotvat. Diat. fran Spetsberger och Beeren Eiland, p. 29.—Stauroneis
punctata, Kutz:, Bac., p. 100, T. xx. fic. 9. Wim. Sma hesDs
Vol. i, p. 61, Pl. xix., fig. 189. Ralis, in Pritch:, p. 912. (Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 565. Castra-
cane, Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nella Val Intrasca, p. 11. Cleve,
Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 228. Rab. Fl. Eur., Alg., sect. _
i., p. 245.—Stauroptera punctata, Rab. Siissw. Diat., p. 50, T. ix.,
fio ils

River Slaney, near Killurin, Co. Wexford. Drumoughty Lough,
near Kenmare, Lower Lake, Killarney, Lough Giil, Co. Kerry.
Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Lough Mourne deposit,
Co. Antrim.

Navicula lacustris, (Gregory). Fresh water.

Similar to Navicula punctata, but the striz are very much finer ;
and the intermediate free space expanded roundly, instead of a
stauroform band; length about -0020, breadth :0006. (Plate 82, fig. 11.)

Gregory, (Q. J. M. &., 1856, p. 6,- Pl. i, fig. 28.) describes
two distinct varieties, one elliptical, the other with linear margin
and produced ends. He also refers to an intermediate form, which-

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 381

latter, I presume, to be the present one. Ralfs, (in Pritch., p. 9038),
says the only species with which this could be confounded is
Navicula firma, but it appears to me that it is more likely to be
confounded with Navicula punctata. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i.,
p. 200.

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Lough Neagh, near
the town of Antrim. Lough Gill, Lower Lake, Killarney, Pedlass
Lake, near Dingle, Co. Kerry.

Navicula maculosa, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve hnear, elliptical; ends slightly produced and somewhat
cuneate; intermediate free space linear, narrow, slightly expanded
around the central nodule; strize distinctly moniliform, parallel in
the middle, and divergently radiate towards the ends; length 0027,
breadth -0008. (Plate 32, fig. 12.)

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 25, Pl. v., fig. 1.

Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount Strand, Co. Dublin.

Navicula seutellocdes, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve nearly orbicuiar, minute; intermediate free space narrow,
linear, slightly expanded in the middle; striz distant, moniliform,
divergently radiate ; length, 0009; breadth, -0008. (Plate 32, fig. 13.)

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 91. Grunow, (Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 533, T. v., fig. 15), places it in
intimate connexion with Nayicula lyra and Navicula hennedyi, but the
position I assign to it seems to me more appropriate. Rafls, in Pritch.,
p. 909. Rab. Fl. Hur. Alg., sect.i., p. 185.

Lough Neagh, near Antrim. Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady,
Co Mayo.:

Navicula pusilla, (Wm. Sm.) Brackish water.

Valve small, broadly elliptical, ends produced; narrow, rounded;
intermediate free space narrow, linear, expanded in the middle; strie
distinctly moniliform; convergent in the middle, and radiate towards
the ends; more distant in the middle, closer towards the ends;
length -0015; breadth, 0008. (Plate 32, fig. 14.)

Mimeriom.,. B. 1); Vols 1. p. 52, Pl: xvai., fie: 145.” Ralfsy am
Pritch., p. 900. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 227. It is
likely that the form mentioned by Cleve may be a distinct species, as
he attributes it to fresh water. Rab. Fl. Eur. sect. i., p. 193.
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 20, Pl. i1., fig. 6—Navicula tumida,
var. subsalsa, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band
me 100, p. 507, T.iv., fig. 43.

Brackish ditch near town of Wexford; Tacumshane, Co. Wexford.
Ballysedare, Co. Sligo. Breaches near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow.
2T2

\
\
l

382 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry, River Bann, near Coleraine; Bellarena, Co.
Derry. Brackish ditches near town of Galway. Portmarnock, Co.
Dublin.

Var. lanceolata, (Grunow). Marine or brackish water.

Valve lanceolate, ends produced; relatively longer and narrower
than the typical species. Length °0024, breadth -0008.

Navicula tumida, var. lanceolata, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 537, T. iv. fig. 44. This as well
as the preceding species, being both incidental to marine or brackish
water, can scarcely be regarded a as varieties of Navicula tumida, which

is a fresh water species.

Portmarnock, Co. Dublin. Breaches near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula tumida, (Wm. Sm.) Fresh water.

Valve small, elliptical, with short capitate ends; intermediate free
space narrow, slightly expanded in the middle; striz close, monili-
form; convergent in the middle, and radiate towards the ends;
length varying from -0013 to -0020; breadth from 0005 to -0008.

Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i, p. 53, Pl. xvi., fig. 146. Grunow,
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 537, T. iy.,
fig. 43a. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 226.—Navyicula
Anglica, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 900. Rab. FI. She. Alg., sect. i.,
p. 193. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 35, Pl. v., fig. 11a.

Kilcool; streamlet in Powerscourt demesne, Co. Wicklow. Lough
Mask, Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Ditch near town of Sligo.

Var. linearis, (O’Meara). Fresh water.

Similar to the typical form, but sides linear, ends slightly pro-
duced; striz coarser, obviously moniliform, radiate; length -0011,
breadth -0005. (Plate 32, fig. 15.)

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Mask, Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

Navicula pulchra, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve lanceolate ; intermediate free space narrow, expanded in the
middle; strie distinctly moniliform, radiate; length °0027, breadth
"0008. (Plate 32, fig. 16.)

Gregory, Q. J. M.S8., 1856, Trans., p. 42, Pl. v., fig. 7. Ralfs, in
Britches, p-.906—) Rabo), Buri Ailes sect. 17.0. te.

Galway Bay near the town of Galway.

~~ =

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 383

(h) LPuscate.

Valves more or less elliptical ; strie divided into two portions on each
side of the median line, by two longitudinal sulci, forming a tolerably
broad rhomboidal space about the median line.

Navicula fusca, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve oblong elliptical; strize obviously moniliform, radiate ; inter-
mediate space lanceolate, divided into three compartments, one unstri-
ate, and haying the median line in the centre, and one on either side
striate; central nodule large; length about -:0047, breadth about
“0022. (Plate 32, fig. 17.)

Ralisweme Pritch?) ps 898 7) RabsoRl. Hur, VAile’) sectaat ip. 19:
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 7, Pl.i., fig.5.—Navicula Smithii var.
fusca, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 486, Pl. ix., fig. 15. Schmidt’s
Atlas der Diat., T. vii., fig. 1.

Arran Islands; stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhaven, Co. Galway. Rostrevor, Co. Down.

Navicula smith, (De Breb.) Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; striz moniliform, slightly radiate ; inter-
mediate space narrow, lanceolate, consisting of three distinct por-
tions, one unstriate about the median line, and one on either side of the
latter striate; length about -0027, breadth about -0012. (Plate 32,
fig. 18.

Wa Sm., B. D., Vol. i1., p. 92. Smith assents to the suggestion of
De Brébisson, to change to Navicula smithii the form he haa previously
named Navicula elliptica, B. D., Vol.i., p. 48, Pl. xvii., fig. 152. For this
reason Grunow, Heiberg, and Donkin rightly attribute the species to
De Brébisson. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band
x., 1860, p. 531. Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 81. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 898. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 178. Donkin, N. H.
Brit. Diat., p. 6, Pl.i., fig. 4. Schmidt’s Atlas der Diat., T. vii.,
fig. 16.

Arran islands; Stomach: of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. Rostrevor, Dun-
drum Bay, Co. Down. Bannow, Co. Wexford. Seaweeds, Kilcool,
Co. Wicklow.

Var. subrotunda, (O’Meara). Marine.
Like the typical species, but nearly orbicular.
Schmidt’s Atlas der Diat., T. vii., fig. 17, fig. 22?

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Arran Islands, Co. Gal-
way.

384 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

Var.“rhombica, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve like that of the typical form in general structure, but dif-
fering in its distinctly rhombic outline, as well as in the rhombic form
of the inner band of striz.

A form which seems to me to be identical with this is described by
Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. vu., fig. 18.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Javieula collisiana, N.S. Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical. Nearly linear at the margin, with broadly
rounded ends. Intermediate space wide, oblong, elliptical. Striz cos-
tate. Marginal striate band wide, striz distinctly moniliform, nearly
parallel in the middle; more and more radiate towards the ends ;
length -0026, breadth -0016. (Plate 32, fig. 19.)

This form is distinguished from Navyicula fusca, and Navicula
smithu, which in other respects it strongly resembles, by the broad
oblong elliptical outline of the inner striate band, and more specially
by the fact that the strie in this portion of the valve are distinctly
costate, while in the others they are moniliform. It was first ex-
hibited by me at a meeting of the Dublin Microscopical Club, some
years since, at the house of the late Surgeon Maurice Collis.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Arran Islands, Co.
Galway. Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula estiva, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical ; striee fine, obscurely moniliform, parallel in
the middle, slightly radiate towards the ends; inner striate band narrow,
elliptical ; length about 0022; breadth about 0010. The distinctive
character of this species is the fineness of the striz. (Plate 32, fig. 20.)

Donkin, Q. J. M. S. Trans., 1858, p. 32, Pl. ui., fig. 18; and
N.H. Brit: Diat., p. 6, Pl.i., fig.3. Donkin’s figures represent the spe-
cies as much larger than my specimens would lead me to regard it.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 899. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 184.

Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

Navicula elliptica, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve elliptical; strive of the marginal band distinctly moniliform,
converging in the middle, radiate towards the ends; inner striate band
very narrow; free space about the median line greatly expanded,
forming a rounded rhombic outline ; median line strongly pepe
length about :0020, breadth about -0011. (Plate 32, fig. 21.)

‘Kiitz. Bac., p: 98/0.: xxx 5 e55) Wma: B. D. Vor a;,
p-. 92. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 899. Sai Pl. Eur. Ale. ., Sect. 12, ps aoe |

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 385

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 7, Pl. i. fig. 6. Grunow, Verhand. der
K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 531. Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p.81. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat, p. 226. Schumann,
Die Diat. der Hohen Tatra., p. 69. lLagerstedt, Sotvat. Diat. fran
Spetsbergen och Beeren Kiland, p. 27. Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T.
vii. figs. 31, 32.—Navicula ovalis, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. 1., p. 48,
Pl. xvu., fig. 153a.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry.
Glenchree, Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow. Lucan, Killakee, Bohberna-
brena, Co. Dublin. Feighcullen, Royal Canal, near Enfield, Co. Kil-
dare. Pond, near the city of Armagh.

Var. costata, (O’Meara). Fresh, or brackish water.

Valve strongly resembling the typical species, but strie distinctly
costate, and intermediate free space included between the inner mar-
gins of the inner striate band lanceolate, but slightly expanded in the
middle.

This variety has been found in localities where marine and fresh
water forms are mixed.

Breaches near Newcastie, Co. Wicklow. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.

Var. davidsonit, (O’Meara). Fresh water.

Valve ovate-elliptical. Strize very fine, moniliform ; space included
within the inner margin of the inner striate band linear, roundly
expanded in the middle.

This variety was first brought under my notice by my valued corres-
pondent, Rev. George Davidson, of Logie, Coldstone, near Aberdeen,
who found it in his neighbourhood. It has since been noticed by me
in various localities in Ireland. On first view this form would seem
to belong to Navicula estiva, and when first noticed by me in a fresh
water gathering, I considered it was a stray form of the species men-
tioned, which had come there by accident ; but subsequent observation
induced me to give up this view, and to consider the form a well marked
variety. It is likely the same as that figured by Schmidt in his Atlas
der Diat., T. vu, fig. 33.

Moist Rock. Portrush, Co. Antrim, Lough Mask, near Tourma-
keady, Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh.

Var. ovalis, (Wm. Smith). Fresh water.

Valve linear, oblong, with rounded ends; striz much finer than in
the case of the typical form; length about :0016, breadth about
-0005. (Plate 32, fig. 22.)

Navicula ovalis, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 48, Pl. xvu.., fig. 153 a.
Under the impression that this form and Navicula elliptica were iden-
tical, Smith abandoned the specific name of ovalis, and merged the two

386 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

forms under the one designation Navicula elliptica. However close
the resemblance must be acknowledged to be, there is such a difference
in the details of structure as to require notice. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p- 899, regards the form as identical with Navicula elliptica, and the
same view is adopted by the following authors: Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska Diat., p. 226. Rabenhorst, Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 179.
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat. Lagerstedt, Sotvat. Diat. frin Spetsbergen
och Beeren Eiland, p. 27, and probably Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p.531. Castracane includes the two
forms under the designation of Navicula ovalis; Catalogo di Diat. rae-
colte nella Val. Intrasca, p.12. Schmidt, treating the two forms
as distinct species, describes the present as Navicula ovalis; Atlas der
Diat. T. vi., figs. 34 and 35.

Camolin, Co. Wexford. Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Mourne deposit.

Var. parva, (O’Meara). Fresh water.

Valve like the last variety, but very much smaller, and the stria-
tion extremely indistinct ; iength -0008, breadth -0004.

It seems not improbable that this variety is identical with that de-
scribed as Navicula oblongella by Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. vui.,
fig. 53.

Camolin, Co. Wexford.
(i) Clavate.

Valves elliptical; strie in two distinct bands, one marginal, another
close to the median line, with a wide elliptical intervening space. Mar-
ginal band of strie lunate on the inner margin.

Navicula clavata, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; ends broadly produced and rounded;
strize moniliform, marginal band broad, narrowing towards the ends;
inner bands of striz separated from the median line by a narrow
unstriate space, bending outward near the central nodule, where they
terminate sharply, making a wide free space about the central nodule ;
space intervening between the inner and outer bands of strie un-
striate, broad and lunate; length about -0050, breadth about -0026.
(Plate 32, fig. 23.)

Gregory, Q. J. M.S. Trans. 1856, p. 46, Pl. v., fig. 17. Raltis,
in Pritch., p. 898. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 15, Pl. i1., fig. 8.—
Navicula lyra, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 178.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians, Round-
stone Bay; stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Arran Islands,

Co. Galway.

O’Mnara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 387

Navicula hennedyt, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, ends not produced; strize moniliform ;
inner and outward bands of strie, narrower than in Navicula clavata,
but in other respects very similar; length about ‘0030, breadth
about -0020. (Plate 382, fig. 24.)

Wir-eisme. bb. DS Volos ps. 9o, Gregory, @. J. Me iS .siiranst
1856, p. 40, Pl. v., fig. 8. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 898.. Rab. Fl. Eur.
mlcmsecont. p: 178. Donkin N. He But. Diat.p.. 11, Plan, fies 3:
Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. i1., figs. 17, 18.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim. Stomachs of
Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay,
Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Nawicula nebulosa, (Gregory). Marine.

Valves in outward form similar to those of Navicula hennedyi, but
narrower; the space intervening between the outer and imner bands
of striz obscurely marked with very fine parallel lines of puncta,
which do not extend throughout; length about 0042, breadth about
°0020. (Plate 32, fig. 25.)

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 480, Pl. ix., fig. 8. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
Paolo ekab. El. Kur. Ale: sect. 7... px179. 1) Donkun,.N. Ho Bit:
Diateep. wl, PE i., fig: 2: Schmidt, Atlas der Diat:, Dian. fie, 1
The clouded appearance of the space intervening between the inner
and outer bands of strize, as represented in the figures of Gregory and
Donkin, is found with good illumination to arise from the fine punctate
strize above referred to.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Arran Islands, Co.
Galway.

Var. suborbicularis, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve shorter and relatively broader than that of the typical
species; marginal band of strie relatively broader; that next the
median line relatively narrower ; termediate space between the inner
and outer bands of strie narrow, and occupied by irregularly disposed
puncta; length -0024, breadth 0014. (Plate 382, fig. 26.)

Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co.
Galway.

Navicula pretexta, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; marginal band of strie broad, distinctly
moniliform ; median bands of striz broad, distinctly moniliform ; inter-
mediate space between the outer and inner bands of striz ornamented
with iregularly arranged large, round puncta; free unstriate space
between the median line and the inner margins of the inner band of
strize expanding in the middle, with a narrow stauroform band ; length
about -0040, breadth about :0025. (Plate 32, fig. 27.)

Ehrenberg, in Proceedings of Berlin Acad., 1840, p. 20. Kiitz.

388 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Bac., p. 98. Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 481, Pl. ix., fig. 11. Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 898. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg. sect.i., p. 183. Donkin, N. H.
Brit. Diat., p. 10, Pl. ii., fig. 1. Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. 11.;
fig. 31.

Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula morevi, N. Sp. Marine.

Valve very large, broadly elliptical, somewhat rhombical ; marginal
band of strie br oad in the middle, diminishing towards ‘ihe pase
median band of striz narrow, terminating considerably short of the
central nodule; intermediate space between the inner and outer bands
of striz broad, ‘unstriate ; strie fine, but distinctly moniliform ; nearly
parallel in the middle, shghtly radiate towards the ends; length -0075,
breadth -0037. (Plate 382, fig. 28.)

Nayicula kittoniana, Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. u1., fig. 10.
The form having been exhibited by me some years ago at the Meeting
of the Dublin Microscopical Club, under the name of Navicula morei,
the latter designation has the priority. Schmidt’s locality is Rio
Janeiro.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay; stomachs of Ascidians,
Rounvdstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula sandriana, (Grunow). Marine.

Vaive nearly orbicular ; marginal band of strie narrow, of equal
breadth till near the ends, ayiheme it widens, and then suddenly nar-
rows; median band of strie very narrow, not reaching the median
line, and terminating at some distance from the central nodule ; inter-
mediate space between the inner and outer bards of strize wide, orna-
mented with uregularly disposed indistinct puncta, and having in
the middle a narrow, longitudinal lunate band of small, but distinct,
puncta; striz of the marginal band moniliform, radiate; strie of the
inner band punctate, and parallel; length about -0040, breadth about
"0030. (Plate 32, fig. 29.)

This form was exhibited by me at a Meeting of the Dublin Micro-
scopical Club as Navicula ceelata, but subsequently I discovered that
the species had been described in 1863 by Grunow as Navicula san-
driana, which designation, having the priority, must be permitted to
stand.

Grunow, Verhand. der K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band xii., 1863,
p. 153, T. iv., fig. 5. Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. m., fie. 10:
Grunow’s locality for the species is the Adriatic Sea. I may here
remark that my specimens differ from those figured by Grunow and
Schmidt, by the fact that in mine the outer band of strie expands
perceptibly near the ends, a feature which is not noticeable in the
figures referred to above.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 389

Navicula franciscea, N.S. Marine.

Valve nearly orbicular; marginal band of strie narrow; median
band of strie narrow, distant from median line, leaving a lanceolate,
unstriate space between the inner margins; intermediate space
between the inner and outer bands of strie broad, unstriate; strice
moniliform, parallel in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length
0038, breadth 0030. (Plate 32, fig. 30.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Nawvicula hibernica, N.S. Marine.

Valve elliptical oblong; marginal band of strie narrow, slightly
broader in the middle than at the ends; inner band of strie narrow,
roundly expanded at the ends; intermediate space between the inner
and outer bands of strie broad, ornamented with irregularly disposed
_ distinct puncta; striee of the marginal band linear, with moniliform strize
interposed, parallel in the middle, radiate towards the ends; strie of
the inner band punctate, parallel. (Plate 32, fig. 31.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Arran Islands, Co. Gal-
way.

Navicula nitescens. (Gregory). Marine.

Valve elliptical, lanceolate ; striz apparently strongly costate,
divided by a longitudinal sulcus into two nearly equal compartments ;
free space between the inner margins of the inner bands of strice nar-
row, lanceolate; slightly expanded in the middle. (Plate 82, fig. 32.)

Raticpanebriteh. p. 898. Rab. Bl) Murs Ale sect: 1:,, p> hig!
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat.,.p. 8, Pl. 1. fig. 7—Navicula smithu, var.
nitescens, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 487, Pl. ix., fig. 16.—Pinnularia
arraniensis, O’Meara, Q. J. M. 8., 1867, p. 116, Pl. v., fig. 6

Arran Islands. Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; sto-
machs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula richardsoniana, N.S. Marine.

Valve narrow, elliptical; ends rounded; mner band of striz broad
outer band of strie very narrow; striz strongly costate, sub-distant,
radiate; length 0024. breadth -0006. (Plate 32, fig. 33.)

This ‘form strongly resembles Navicula nitescens, but differs so
much as to be entitled to be regarded as a distinct species.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula stokesiana, N.S. Marine.
Valve large, rhombic, lanceolate; marginal striate band wide;
inner striate band narrow, elevated above the surface ; free space in-

390 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

cluded within the inner margins of the inner striate bands narrow, linear,
forming in the middle a very narrow stauroform line; space interme-
diate between the outer and inner striate bands occupied by lines of
strie, which are prolongations of the striz of the marginal band;
striz close, punctate, radiate; length -0045, greatest breadth -0018.

This form is one of very rare occurrence, only three specimens
having been noticed. The only forms I have seen figured which bear
resemblance to this very striking species are those of Mastogloia jeli-
ninekiana, Grunow, Reise 8. M. Novara um die Erde, T.1. A., fig. 11;
and Navicula irrorata, Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T.11., fig. 19. As
to the former, even a cursory examination suffices to show that this
form is perfectly distinct. As to the latter, the inner and outer bands
of strie are separated by an intervening blank space, whereas in the
present case the corresponding intermediate space is distinctly striate.

This beautiful species I wish to identify with the name of the
present respected President of the Royal Irish Academy. (Plate 382,
fig. 34.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; stomachs of Ascidians,
Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

(j) Lyrate.

Similar to the last sub-group, and distinguished by the bending im at
the middle of the marginal striate band, which consequently is bilunate on
the inner margin. The intermediate free space is more or less distinctly
lyrate.

Navicula wrightit, (O’Meara), Marine.

Valve linear elliptical; ends broadly produced; marginal band of
strie tolerably wide, projecting inwards slightly in the middle; striz
moniliform, nearly parallel at the middle, slightly radiate towards the
ends ; inner band of strie narrow, expanded at the ends; intermediate
space between the inner and outer bands of strize wide, unstriate; length
"0045, breadth -0018. (Pl. 382, fig. 35.)

Navicula wrightii, var. Q. J. M. S., 1867, p. 116, Pl. v., fig. 46.—
Nayicula caribea, Schmidt, Atlas, T. i1., fig. 17. :

Arran Islands ; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay ; Stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula spectabilis, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; marginal band of striz broad in the
middle, and gradually decreasing towards the ends; imner band of
strize wide; strie moniliform, nearly parallel in the middle, slightly
radiate towards the ends; intermediate space between the inner and
outer bands of strie very wide, unstriate, but interrupted by a

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 391

narrow longitudinal nebulous belt, which runs conformably with the
inner edge of the marginal band of striz; length -0044, breadth
"0025.

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 481, Pl. ix., fig. 10. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 898. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 178. Donkin, N. H.
Brit. Diat., p. 12, Pl. i, fig.5. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p. 226.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay ; Stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. sub-orbicularis, (O’Meara). Marine.

In all respects resembling the typical species, but nearly orbicular ;
the marginal band of strie relatively broader, the inner band of strie;
as well as the intermediate space between the inner and outer striate
bands much narrower; length -0024, breadth -0018. (Plate 32,
fig. 36.)

Navicula spectabilis, var.? Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. ii. fig. 31.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Stomachs
of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

WNavicula tyra, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valve linear elliptical; ends broadly produced; marginal band of
striz broad ; inner band broad, incurved in the middle; intermediate free
space between the inner and outer bands of strie very narrow; ends
pointed and directed outwards ; strize moniliform ; length, about -0040,
breadth, about -0014. (Plate 33, fig. 1.)

Kitzing, Bac., p. 94, T. xxvii., fig. 55, who refers the species to
Khrenberg. Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 485, Pl. ix., fig. 13d. Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 897, who remarks, ‘‘ Either Navicula lyra is very vuria-
ble, or more than one species has been included under the name.’
Heiberg, De Danske Diat., p. 80, who includes this form and the
variety elliptica. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 226.
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 14, Pl. u., fig. 7. Schmidt, Atlas der
Diat., T. u., fig. 16. :

River Slaney, Killurin, Bannon, Co. Wexford. Malahide, Port-
marnock, Co. Dublin. Seaweeds, Portrush, Co. Antrim. Caum
Lough, near Tralee, Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Salt marsh, Kilcool, Co.
Wicklow. Kilkee, Co. Clare. Arran Islands; Stomachs of Asci-
dians, Broadhaven Bay; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay Co.
Galway. Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough.

Var. elliptica, (Wm. Smith). Marine.

Valve elliptical; greatly attenuated at the ends; marginal band of
strie very broad; inner band of strie narrow; intermediate free
space between the inner and outer striate bands narrow; incurved in

392 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the middle, converging at the attenuated extremities ; strie obviously
moniliform; length, about -0056, breadth, about :0024. (Plate 33,
fig. 2.)

”'This form was first described by Wm. Smith, who doubtfully
considered it a sporangial variety of Navicula elliptica, B. D., Vol. i.,

p. 48, Pl. xvu., fig. 152 a. Subsequently the same author regarded

it as identical with Navicula lyra, Ehr., B. D., Vol. u., p. 93; but
judging by the figure which Kutzing has given of the latter, there
ean be little doubt that the forms are not altogether identical. Still,
so similar are they, that it seems desirable to represent them as
merely varieties. Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. 1. fig. 29.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast Lough. Stomachs of Ascidians,
Kilkee, Co. Clare. Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone
Bay; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. Bally-
sodare, Co. Sligo. Bannow, Co. Wexford.

Var. grunovit, (O'Meara). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; marginal band of strie very broad ;
inner band of striz narrow; intermediate space between the inner
and outer bands of strie narrow, converging, and anastomosing at the
ends; striz very close, radiate, minutely punctate; length -0028,
breadth -0015. (Plate 38, fig. 3.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p- 582, T. v., fig. 22. The author just named regards the form as
identical with Navicula Lyra, Ehr., as described by Kiitzing, Bac.,
p. 96, T. xxvii, fig. 55; but comparison of specimens of both will
convince the observer that the forms are not identical; so distinct are
their details that the present form might almost be regarded as entitled
to a distinctive specific name.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay ; Stomachs
of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. minor, (Grnnow). Marine.

This variety resembles that last described, but differs from it in
the following characters ; the form is much smaller, the ends are broadly
rounded, and the lyrate space between the two bands of striz is much
more convex ; length -0015, breadth .0009. (Plate 33, fig. 4.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 032, Pl. v., fig. 23.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Arran Islands, Co.
Galway.

Var. forcipata, (Greville). Marine.

Valve elliptical, oblong; marginal and inner bands of strie sepa-
rated by a broad lyrate, blank space ; convergent at the ends; striz,
minutely moniliform ; length about -0024, breadth about -0010.

Greville, Q. J. M. & 1859, p. 83, Pl. vi., figs. 10, 11. Ralfs, in
Pritch., p. 897. Rab. Fl. Eur., Alg., sect.1., p, 178. Donkin, N. H.

O’Mrara—Report on the Trish Diatomacee. 393

Brit. Diat., p. 12, Pl. ii., fig. 4. And likely the same as that figured
by Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. u., fig. 36.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. Bannow, Co.
Wexford. Malahide, Portmarnock, Piles of wooden bridge, Dolly-
mount strand, Dalkey, Co. Dublin. Rostreyor, Dundrum Bay, Co.
‘Down. Lough Gull, Co. Kerry.

Var. abrupta, (Gregory). Marine.

Like the last described variety, but the strizee are costate, and the
intermediate lyrate free space does not extend so near the ends.

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 486, Pl. ix., fig. 14. Rab. Fl. Eur.,
Alg. 3 sect, 1, p.1¢8... Donkin,» N; EH Brit) Diats,: p.. 135; Plsais
fig. 6. Gregory and Donkin figure the species with ‘obscurely moni-
liform strie ; and therefore I have a doubt of the identity of the pre-
sent variety with that so described. Supposing the figures referred to
be exact in this particular, I could scarcely distineuish between the
former and Nayicula lyra, var. elliptica.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. costata. (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; marginal band of strize broad; inner band
of strive narrow ; strie distinctly costate, close, parallel in the middle,
slightly radiate towards the ends, which latter are slightly cuneate ;
intermediate lyrate space very narrow, convergent at the ends, and
reaching to the apices; length -0024, breadth -0012.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. seductilis, (Grindler). Marine.

Valve narrow, linear-elliptical; marginal band of striz relatively
wide; inner band of strize narrow; striz very fine, linear, parallel in
the middle, slightly, radiate towards the ends, lyrate smooth space
very narrow; length about -0020, breadth about -0006.—Navicula
seductilis (Grimdl), Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. i, fig. 35.
Yokohama. (Plate 33, fig. 5.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Var. constricta, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, slightly constricted in the middle, ends
cuneate, rounded at the extremity; strie, fine, moniliform, lyr ate ;
free space narrow, converging at the ends ; length -0042, oreatest
breadth -0016, breadth in the middle -0015. "(Plate 8 30, fig. 6.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. cae

394 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula pygmea, (Kiitz..) Marine or brackish water.

Valve linear, elliptical; marginal band of striz narrow, with a dis-
tinct ridge on the inner margin; inner band of striz relatively broad,
reaching the median line, and haying a distinct ridge on the outer mar-
gin ; strie fine, linear, nearly parallel; space intermediate between
the inner and outer bands of strie narrow, lyrate; apparently un-
striate, but on closer inspection it will be found that the strie which
seem to be interrupted are really pervious; length about -0015;
breadth about -00066, but often of much larger dimensions. (Plate
33, fig. 7.)

Wm. Smith (B. D., Vol. u., p. 91), who attributes the species to
Kitzing. Rabenhorst (Stssw. Diat., p. 39) refers toa form under this
name without a figure; the species is not correctly included among
those incidental to fresh water. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 899, who says ‘‘ the
species occurs in brackish or fresh water;”’ but though oftenfound by me
in marine gatherings, it never once occurred to me in fresh water.
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat. p. 10, Pl. i., fig.10. Lagerstedt, Sotvat.
Diat. fran Spetzbergen och Beeren Eiland, p. 27.—Nayicula minutula,
Wm.8m., B.D., Voli, p. 48, Pl. xxx1., fig. 274.

Bannow, salt ditch near town of Wexford, River Slaney, near
Killurin, Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Malahide, Portmarnock, Piles
of wooden bridge, Dollymount Strand, Co.-Dublin. Galway Bay,
near town of Galway. Portnacrush, Co. Donegal. Lough Guill, Co.
Kerry. On seaweeds, Kilkee, Co. Clare.

Var. cuneata, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, with cuneate ends; marginal band of striz
broad; inner band of strie narrow; striz coarse, linear, distant,
parallel in the middle, shghtly radiate towards the ends, lyrate ;
free space narrow, and sometimes difficult to detect; length -0017;
breadth -0010. (Plate 33, fig. 8.)

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.
(k) Zrifasevate.

Distinguished by having the intermediate space between the inner mar-
gins of the marginal bands of stri@ divided into three distinct longitudinal
compartments, one about the median line, and one on either side of the same.

+ Wot constricted in the middle.

Navicula expleta. N.S. Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical; median compartment nearly linear,
slightly incuryed towards the ends, next compartments narrow,
lunate; marginal band of strie relatively wide; striz linear, undu-
late, divided by about five longitudinal sulci; length about -0018; —
breadth about -0012. (Plate 33, fig. 9.) !

This form appears to me obyiously identical with that described

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 395 -

under the name of Navicula notabilis, passing into the variety expleta,
by Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viti., figs. 50, 51 and 52. It seems
to be perfectly distinct from Navicula notabilis, and deserving of
being marked by a distinct specific name.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Stomachs of Ascidians,
Broadhaven Bay; Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Nawicula cynthia, (Schmidt). Marine.

Valves broadly elliptical; ends rounded ; median compartment nar-
row, linear, slightly incurved at the ends, and slightly constricted in
the middle compartment at either side, narrow, arcuate, unstriate ;
marginal striate band broad; striz fine, close, linear, slightly radiate,
divided into two nearly equal parts by a longitudinal sulcus; length
"0012, breadth -0007. (Plate 33, fig. 10.)

Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. vii., fig. 41. This figure does not
indicate the longitudinal sulcus which in my specimens divides the mar-
ginal band of strie into two compartments; still I am disposed to
regard the present form as at best a variety of the form described by
Schmidt.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula sansegana, (Grunow). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, ends rounded ; median compartment narrow,
linear throughout ; compartments on either side narrow, very slightly
arcuate, striate ; marginal striate band relatively broad; strie linear,
sub-distant, parallelin the middle, slightly radiate towards the ends;
length 0020, breadth 0009. (Plate 33, fig. 11.)

Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viii., fig. 27, who attributes the spe-
cies to Grunow, but I cannot find it noticed in any of the many papers
of that author which I have had the opportunity of consulting.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Nawicula arraniensis, N.S. Marine.

Valve small, elliptical ; median compartment narrow, slightly con-
stricted in the middle, slightly incurved at the ends ; compartments at .
either side narrow, arcuate, striate; marginal band of strie narrow;
strie strongly costate, distant, nearly lmear. Length -0012, breadth
"0006. (Plate 33, fig. 12.)

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Navicula schmidtii, N.S. Marine.

Valve broadly elliptical, ends rounded; middle compartment nar-
row, linear, strongly marked; very slightly constricted in the middle,
very slightf*-incurved at the ends; compartments at cither side

R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL, Il., SCIENCE. 2U

Uae

396 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

arcuate, unstriate; marginal band of strie relatively broad; striae
coarse, costate, nearly parallel in the middle, but distinctly radiate
towards the ends. (Plate 338, fig. 17.)

Navicula eugenia, Krit., form from Java, Schmidt, Atlas der Diat.,
T. vill. fig. 45. In my form the costs are stronger and more remote
than in the form described by Schmidt; still I have little hesitation
_ in regarding them as the same species.

Arran Islands. Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

Nawicula eugenia, (Schmidt). Marine.

Valve linear elliptical; ends rounded ; median compartment slightly
constricted in the middle, slightly incurved at the ends ; compartments
at either side arcuate, nearly as wide as the marginal band of strie,
striate; strive fine, linear, nearly parallel throughout; length -0002,
breadth, -0007. (Plate 33, fig. 13.)

Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viii., fig. 44. From Campeachy Bay.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula scutellum, (O’Meara). Marine.
Valve broadly elliptical, narrowed and rounded at the ends ; median

compartment broad, linear, slightly incurved at the ends, slightly con- °

stricted in the middle ; central nodule large, quadrangular, but slightly
incurved at the ends ; compartments at either side narrow, unstriate, the
ends of the strize of the marginal band sometimes appearing as beads on
the outer edge; marginal striate band broad: strie costate, nearly
parallel in the middle, more and more radiate towards the ends; length
about °0025, breadth about -0015. (Plate 383, fig. 14.)

Pinnularia scutellum, O’Meara, Q. J. M. 8., 1869, p. 151, Pl. xii.
fig. 5.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.
Nawvicula suborbicularis, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve suborbicular, linear; median compartment wide, with mar-
gins distinctly marked, slightly inflexed at the ends, considerably

constricted in the middle ; compartments at either side tolerably broad ; -

bilunate on the inner margin; marginal striate band broad, lunate on
inner edge; stric radiate, finely costate, with obscure moniliform strize
interposed; the coste only continued across the contiguous compart-
ment; length -0025, breadth -0016. (Plate 33, fig. 15.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 898 ; Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 9, PE a;
fig. 9. Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viii., fig. 5—Navicula smithii,
var. suborbicularis, Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 15, Pl. ix., fig. 17.

Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 397

Var. forficula, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve elliptical, median compartment as in the typical species ;
compartments at either side very much narrower; marginal striate
band wide, projecting towards the central nodule; inner margin bilu-
nate; striz radiate, costate, with obscure moniliform striz interposed,
the coste only penetrating the contiguous compartment; length
-0023, breadth :0014. (Plate 33, fig. 16.)

Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. vui., fig. 3.—Pinnularia forficula,
O’Meara, Q. J. M.S., 1867, p. 117, Pl. v., fig. 9.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Var. parva, (Schmidt). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical; median compartment narrow, inflexed at
the ends, shghtly constricted in the middle; compartment at either
side very narrow, bilunate; marginal striate band broad, bilunate on
the inner margin; striz fine, linear, nearly parallel throughout;
length -0014, breadth -0008.

~ Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viii., figs. 1 and 2.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula coffecformis, (Schmidt). Marine. -

Valve small, broadly elliptical; median compartment narrow, in-
flexed at the ends, slightly constricted in the middle; compartments
on either side narrow ; median striate band relatively wide; stric fine,
linear, slightly radiate; length -0010, breadth -0005. (Plate 33,
fig. 18.)

Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viil., fig. 7.

Arzan Islands, Co. Galway.

1} Valve constricted to the middle.

Navicula eudoxia, (Schmidt). Marine.

Valve elliptical, slightly constricted, ends broadly rounded ; median
compartment narrow, inflexed at the ends, slightly constricted in the
middle; compartments at either side narrow, striate; striz linear,
nearly parallel and very faint; marginal striate band narrow; strize
linear, slightly convergent in the middle, slightly radiate towards
the ends; length -0016, breadth at the constriction ‘0007, greatest
breadth -0008. (Plate 33, fig. 19.)

Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. viil., fig. 19.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.
2U2

398 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula donkinia, (O'Meara). Marine.

Valve slightly constricted; ends somewhat cuneate, rounded;
median compartment narrow, slightly inflexed at the ends, slightly
constricted in the middle; compartments at either side narrow, arcu-
ate, having very faint strize; marginal striate band narrow; stric
costate, coarse, sub-distant; nearly parallel in the middle, slightly
radiate towards the ends; length :0015, breadth at the constriction
"0006; greatest breadth 00066. (Plate 33, fig. 20.)

Schmidt, Atlas, T. xu., fig. 63.—Navicula musca, Donkin, N. H.

Brit. Diat., p. 50, Pl. vii., fig. 6, exclusive of Synonyms.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

Nawicula marginata, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve very slightly constricted; median compartment broad, slightly

inflexed at the ends, slightly expanded in the middle; compartments
at either side nearly linear; strie extremely faint; marginal striate
band narrow ; strize costate, not reaching the margin, nearly parallel ;
length :0036, breadth -0011. (Plate 33, fig. 21.)

Pinnularia marginata, O’Meara, Q.J.M.S., 1869, p. 15, Pl. xuz.,
fig. 4.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula subeincta, (Schmidt). Marine.

Valve large, slightly constricted, ends somewhat cuneate, rounded ;
median compartment broad, inflexed at the ends, shghtly constricted
in the middle; compartments on either side broad, unstriate ; marginal
striate band divided into two equal portions by a longitudinal sulcus ;
striz costate, close, parallel in the middle, slightly radiate towards the
ends; length :0042, breadth at the constriction -0015; greatest
breadth, 0016. (Plate 33, fig. 22.)

Schmidt, Biolog. Untersuch. der Nordsee. Diat., p. 87., T. x1., fig. 7.

Arran Islands. Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

Nawieula archeriana, N.S. Marine.

Valve large, slightly constricted ; ends somewhat cuneate, rounded ;
median compartment broad, inflexed at the ends, constricted in the
middle; compartments at either side broad, arcuate; marginal striate
band narrow ; striz costate, parallel in the middle, radiate towards the
ends; length :0026, breadth’ :0012; at constriction, ‘0011. (Plate
33, fig. 23.

O'Meara, Q. J. M.S., 1874, p. 260, Pl. viii., fig. 9.—Navicula don-

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 399

kinii, Schmidt, Atlas, T. xii., fig. 64. This species is at first view
extremely like Navicula donkini; it is, however, considerably larger,
the strize finer and closer, and valve more deeply constricted.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

Nawicula incurvata, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve slightly constricted; median compartment tolerably wide,
‘slightly inflexed at the ends, very slightly inflexed in the middle;
compartments at either side about the same width as the median,
shghtly arcuate, unstriate; marginal band of strie narrow; striz
nearly parallel throughout, fine, tolerably close ; indistinctly punctate ;
puncta very close; length -0028, breadth 0009; at constriction,
"0008. (Plate 33, fig. 24.)

Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 44, Pl. v., fig. 13. In this figure
the marginal band of striz is represented as very much wider than it
appears to be in any of the very numerous specimens I have met with,
and also the compartments on either side of the median line are much
narrower; in consequence of this, I was induced to consider the form
distinct from that of Gregory, and named it Nayicula pellucida,
CEES. 807, up. Lo, HPI vi he 3.) sRaltss im! ritcht. pasoor
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 49, Pl. vi, fig. 4. This figure does not
describe the incurved ends and middle of the median compartment.
Donkin regards the species as = to Navicula interrupta, Grunow, Ver-
hand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 531, T. ii1., fig. 20.
If so, Grunow’s figure is liable to the same remark as that of Gregory.
Navicula splendida, var. incurvata, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1.,
p. 204. I think the form obviously distinct from Navicula splen-
dida.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. Stomachs of Asci-
dians, Co. Clare.

Navicula musea, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve small, deeply and suddenly constricted ; ends sharp ; median
compartment relatively broad, inflexed at ends, slightly constricted in
the middle; compartments at either side narrow, arcuate, unstriate ;
marginal band of striz narrow, obscurely punctate, extremely short in
the middle, radiate towards the ends; length :0012, breadth -0006 ;
at the constriction, ‘0004. (Plate 383, fig. 25.)

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 479, Pl. ix., fig. 6. This figure by no
means agrees with the description nor the measurements of the text.
So that it is not at all to be wondered at that Donkin should have con-
sidered it identical with that which he has figured as Navicula musca.
Donkin’s form referred to was properly regarded by Schmidt as a dis-

400 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tinct species, and named Navicula donkinu, the name which I had’
given to it in my list before the Atlas had come under my notice.
The form here described agrees precisely with Gregory’s description of
Navicula musca, which may readily be distinguished from Navicula
donkinii, by its much deeper constriction, and the sharp outline at the
ends, in consequence of which it resembles the abdomen of a fly;
the strie, too, in this are punctate, while in the other they are
costate.

Piles of wooden bridge on Dollymount Strand, Co. Dublin.

Navicula interrupta, (Kiitzing). Marine.

Valve deeply constricted; lobes suborbicular; median compart-
ment broad, greatly inflexed at the ends, considerably constricted in
the middle; compartments on either side very narrow, bilunate,.
unstriate ; marginal band of-strie very narrow in the middle, where
the strize seem to fail, but tolerably wide in the middle of the lobes;
strie costate, nearly parallel in the middle, radiate towards the ends ;
length 00238, breadth, -0010 ; at constriction ‘0007. (Plate 33, fig. 26.)

Kutz. Bac., p. 100, 1) xxix.” fe. 93. alts) imi ricehe omer
Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.1., p. 205. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 47,
Pl. vii., fig. 2. Schmidt, Atlas, T. xu., fig. 2—Navicula didyma,
Wane Sim. B De) Viola ips oo wll (xcvin. stone tas

Ballysodare, Co. Sligo. Lough Guill, Co. Kerry. Arran Islands ;
Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay ; Stomachs of Ascidians,
Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. Seaweeds, coast of Co. Clare.

Navicula apis, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valve deeply constricted, ends narrowed and rounded; median
compartment broad, with well-defined boundary lines, slightly inflexed
at ends, slightly constricted in the middle; compartments at either
side unstriate, narrow, tapering to a point at the ends; marginal
band of strie narrow in the middle, increasing considerably, and then
narrowing towards the ends; striz in the middle apparently costate,
convergent towards the ends, radiate, and having the appearance more-
of fine coste interrupted by close longitudinal sulci, than of being
moniliform; length -0038, breadth -0011; breadth at the constric-
tion -0008. (Plate 33, fig. 27.)

There is great difficulty in identifying the species so named, and
with some hesitation have I come to my conclusion on the subject.
Kiitzing’s figure of Navyicula apis is shorter and stouter than the pre-
sent, and the strie are so indistinct as to furnish no help. Donkin’s
figure in outline is precisely the same as in the form under considera-
tion; the striae, however, are represented as more decidedly punctate,
and the compartments on either side of the median one are distinctly
striate. Inthe present case, there is sometimes an appearance of striw-

O’Meara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. — 401

there, but with precise focusing they disappear, or, if they appear at
all, are very faint. Schmidt’s figure represents the species as more
robust than mine, but the compartments on either side of the median
one are just as in mine. 2

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

Navicula bombus, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valves much constricted, lobes much inflated; median compart-
ment very wide, the boundary lines strong, and having the edges
milled, greatly curved at the ends, slightly constricted in the middle ;
compartments at either side narrow; scarcely striate, or if striate, the
striz very faint; marginal band of strie very wide; striz remote, dis-
tinctly moniliform, the beads being distant, parallel in the middle,
more and more radiate towards the ends; length °0036, breadth
0016; breadth at the constriction -0010. (Plate 33, fig. 28.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 893, who attributes the species to Ehrenberg.
Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 484, Pl. ix., fig. 12. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg.,
Receipes 204. Donkin} Ne HeBrit.. Diat., ps oO} eRly val etic aan
This figure fairly represents the characters of the species, but in my
specimens the constriction is deeper, and the compartments at either
side of the median one are much narrower. Cleve, Om Svenska och
Norska Diat., p. 226.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay ; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway. Ballysodare, Co.
Sligo. Malahide, Portmarnock, Co. Dublin. Bannow, Co. Wex-
ford. Stomachs of Ascidians, coast of Co. Clare. Stomachs of Ascidians,
Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Nawicula entomon, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valves not so deeply constricted as in Navicula bombus; median
compartment narrow, inflexed at the ends, slightly constricted in the
middle; compartments at either side narrow, unstriate, or striz very
obscure; marginal band of strie broad; striz distinctly moniliform,
distant, parallel in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length
"0030, breadth -0012; breadth at the constriction -0010.

This species strongly resembles Navicula bombus in the character
of the moniliform striz ; the constriction is, however, not so deep, nor
are the lobes so much expanded; the median compartment also is
much narrower in this species than it is in the other.

Kiitz. Bac., p. 100, T. xxviil., fig. 74. In this case, the figure is
very obscure. Kiitzing attributes the speciesto Ehrenberg. Ralts, in
Pritch., p. 893. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 49, Pl. vii., fig. 5.
This figure represents the species as much larger, and the compart-

402 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ments on either side of the median one wider than they appear in my
specimens. Schmidt, Atlas der Diat., T. xu., fig. 51. In outline,
this figure exactly represents the present species; the striation, how-
ever, seems different.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

Nawvicula didyma, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valves slightly constricted; median compartment wide, inflexed
at the ends, greatly constricted in the middle ; compartments on either
side very narrow, exhibitmg a row of moniliform dots on the inner
margin ; marginal striate band broad; striz radiate throughout, closely
moniliform; length about -0030, breadth -0011; breadth at the con-
striction “0010. (Plate 33, fig. 29.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 100, T. iv., fig. 7, T. xxvui., fig. 75. In the former
figure, the compartments at either side of the median one are repre-
sented as much wider than in my specimens; in the latter figure the
strie are represented as running up to the outer margin of the median
compartment, the compartments at either side being thus wholly
obliterated.. Kiuitzing attributes the species to Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm.,
B. D., Nol. 1., p.. 53,. Pl. xvu., fie. 54. -. Ralfs*in Pritche apse.
Pl. xii., fig. 15. Ralfs’ figure of the species, Pl. vu., fig. 61, is more
like Navicula interrupta than Navicula didyma. Grunow, Verhand.
der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 530. Cleve, Om Svenska
och Norska Diat., p. 225. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 51, Pl. vu,
fig. 8.

The form described by Rabenhorst as Pinnularia didyma, Sissw.
Diat., p. 46, T. vi., fig. 26, is probably the same as the present spe-
cies, but if so, its occurrence in fresh water must have been casual.

Bannow, River Slaney, at Killurin, Tacumshane, Co. Wexford.
Malahide, Portmarnock, Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount Strand,
Co. Dublin. Lough Foyle, Co. Derry. Salt-marsh, near town of
Wicklow. Kilkee, Co. Clare. Arran Islands ; Stomachs of Ascidians,
Roundstone Bay; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, sea-
weeds near Westport, Co. Galway. Stomachs of Ascidians, Belfast
Lough, Co. Antrim.

Navicula splendida, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve large, deeply constricted; median compartment wide,
greatly inflexed at the ends, greatly constricted in the middle; com-
partments at either side narrow, haying the inner edge milled; mar-
ginal band of striz narrow in the middle, widening in a graceful curve
towards the middle of the lobe, then narrowing towards the somewhat
lanceolate ends; striz convergent in the middle, radiate towards the

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 403

ends, moniliform, the beads being quadrangular; length -0040,
breadth -0012; breadth at the constriction -0007. (Plate 33, fig. 30.)
Gregory, Q. J. M. 8., 1856, Pl. v., fig. 14. Ralfs, in Pritch.,
p. 893. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1., p. 204.— Navicula entomon.
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 49, Pl. vu., fig. 5. The outline of this
form greatly resembles that of Nayicula incurvata, which Rabenhorst
makes a variety of this species. So different, however, is the character
of the striz, that they eannot properly be considered as nearly related.
The present form differs so much, both in outline and striation, from
Navicula entomon, that it ought to be considered a very distinct
species,

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Navicula gregorit, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valves considerably constricted, lobes much expanded, median
compartment wide, greatly inflexed at the ends, slightly constricted
in the middle; central nodule large, quadrangular, with three short
spine-like projections at each side; compartments on either side nar-
row, attenuated to a point at the ends, roundly expanded in the mid-
dle; marginal band of strie wide; strie convergent in the middle,
radiate towards the ends, moniliform; beads large, quadrangular ;
length -0045, breadth -0028; breadth at the constriction ‘0016.
(Plate 33, fig. 31.)

Nayicula didyma, var. y. Gregory, Q. J. M.S., 1856, p. 45,
ve pues 1G.

Arran Islands, Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co.
Galway.

Navicula williamsonii, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valvelarge ; margin incurved, rather than constricted ; median com-
partment wide, inflexed at the ends, constricted in the middle; com-
partments at either side scarcely so wide as the median one, narrowed
to a point at the ends, greatly expanded, and anglewise in the mid-
dle, striate; marginal band of striz wide; strie slightly convergent
in the middle, radiate towards the ends, moniliform; beads large,
quadrangular; length -0072, breadth -0029; breadth at the middle
"0026. (Plate 33, fig. 32.)

Navicula didyma, sporangial var.? Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. 1.,
p. 53, Pl. xvu., fig. 154*.—Navicula smithu, Donkin, N. H. Brit.
Diat., p. 6, Pl.1., fig. 4. This form on first view would appear to be
an incurved variety of Navicula fusca, which it resembles much more
than it does Navicula smithu. I believe it is only necessary to see
the form, which is extremely rare, in order to be convinced that it is
as distinct from Nayicula didyma as it is from Navicula fusca. Pro-
fessor Smith informs us that the species came under his observation

- in a collection made by Professor Williamson in the Isle of Skye.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, 2c ur/stone Bay, Co. Galway.

404 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula incisa, N.S. Marine.

Valve deeply constricted ; median compartment narrow; inflexed
at ends, slightly contracted in the middle; compartments at either
side narrow, striate; strie faint; marginal band of strize narrow in
the middle, wide towards the middle of the lobes; strize convergent
in the middle, nearly parallel for some distance, and slightly radiate
towards the ends; costate, divided into four distinct equal bands, by
three deep sulci, which he conformably with the outer margin; the
costze in each band appear slightly curved; length -0035, breadth
"0015; breadth at the constriction ‘0010. (Plate 33, fig. 33.)

This form somewhat resembles that figured by Schmidt, Atlas der
Diat., T. xi., figs. 21 to 24, without a name, and which he thinks
stands between Navicula apis and Navicula splendida, but £ doubt
its identity with either.

Arran Islands, Co. Galway.

Navicula crabro, (Ehr.) Marine.

Valves large, slightly constricted ; median compartment narrow,
slightly inflexed at ends, constricted in the middle; compartments on
either side wider, gently tapering towards the ends; striate, the ends
of the striz appearing as large puncta on the elevated margin of the
inner edge; marginal striate band wide; strize convergent in the
middle, radiate towards the ends; costate; length -0073, breadth
°0021; breadth at constriction -0015.

Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. u., p. 94. Donkin, N. He Baie
p. 46, Pl. vii., fig. la. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 894. Rab. Fl. Kur. Alg.,
sect. 1., p. 204.—Diploneis crabro, Ehr., Mic., T. xix., fig. 29.
—Navicula pandura, De Brebisson, Diat. du Littoral de Cherbourg,
p. 16, Pl.i., fig. 4—Pinnularia pandura, var. elongata, Gregory, Diat.
of Clyde, p. 489, Pl. ix., fig. 22. Though Ralfs and Rabenhorst seem
to regard this form as distinct from Nayicula pandura, I am inclined
to think with Donkin, that there is no distinction between them.
Smith describes the striz as obscurely moniliform; but all the figures I
have seen represent the striz as distinctly costate, and such I consider
is their normal character. Donkin’s figure represents the compart-
ments at either side of the median compartment as unstriate, except
on the inner edge, where there is a row of large bead-like detached
puncta. In all the specimens I have seen, the coste in this portion,
though of a fainter colour, are clearly traceable all through; the
large puncta described by Donkin being simply the ends standing out
distinctly on an elevated ridge.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co.
Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 405

Var. intermedia, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve considerably smaller than that of the typical form; the
lobes are more expanded; the ends of the costz on the inner edge of
the compartments on either side of the median one are longer, the
ridge seeming to be in this case wider, and not so much elevated.

This is, perhaps, identical with Navicula crabro, Grunow, Ver-
hand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 524, T. v.,
fig. 21, and with Navicula nitida, Gregory, Q.J.M.S., 1856, p. 44,
Blow fe: 1.2.

Broadhayen Bay. Roundstone Bay.

Var. denticulata, (O’Meara). Marine.

Valve very much smaller than the preceding variety, not so much
constricted, the ends of the strize appearing on the inner edge of the
compartments on either side of the median one being of the same
breadth, or nearly so, as that of the coste of the marginal band of strie,
which are very narrow. (Plate 33, fig. 34.)
| Navicula denticulata, O’Meara, Q. J. M.S., 1867, p. 115, Pl. v.,
fig. 2. Inthe description at first given of this form it would appear as
if the space between the two bands of costee were unstriate; but upon
more close examination, with better illumination than I then possessed,
I have satisfied myself that the coste pervade the interspace. They
are indeed very indistinct, but still traceable.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay ; Stomachs
of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula pfitzeriana, N.S. Marine.

Valve small, slightly constricted; median compartment very nar-
row, lanceolate; compartments at either side become wider in middle
than at ends; striate; marginal striate band relatively wide; strie
linear, close, convergent in the middle, thence finer, and nearly paral-
lel; length -0017, breadth -0005; breadth at constriction ‘0004.
(Plate 33, fig. 35.)

This form was a considerable time ago exhibited by me among
other interesting species collected by Mr. Mozely, H. M.S. Challenger,
on the coast of Patagonia. It is identical with a specimen from Val-
paraiso, figured as Navicula divergens by Schmidt, Atlas der Diat.,
T. xii., fig. 53; but as my designation has the priority of publication,
it has a right to stand. ;

Stomachs of Ascidians, coast of Co. Clare.

Nawicula vickersti, N.S. Marine.

Valve very large, deeply constricted; median compartment linear,
wide; compartments on either side wide, unstriate, bilunate on the
outer margin; marginal striate band narrow in the middle, widening
towards the broadest part of the heart-shaped lobes, and thence decreas-
ing in width towards the rounded ends; striz costate, nearly parallel

406 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

in the middle, convergent towards the ends; a strongly developed sub-
marginal, longitudinal suleus appears conformable with the outer
margin of the valve; length -0055, breadth -0020 ; breadth at the con-
striction 0011. (Plate 33, fig. 36.)

This very striking form was exhibited by me some years ago, at a
meeting of the Dublin Microscopical Club, at the house of Mr. Henry
Vickers, with whose name it is associated.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay, Co. Gal-
way.

(l.) Perstriate. Strie reaching the median line.
| Directe. Stri@ parallel.

Navicula directa, (Wm. Sm.) Marine.

Valve narrow, lanceolate ; median line distinct; striz finely cos-
tate; length -0025, breadth -0003. (Plate 34, fig. £.)

Ralfs, m Pritch., p.906. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p. 224.—Pinnularia directa, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. 1, p.56, Pl. xviu.,
figs 172. Rab. Fle BuriAle:sect.1:)ap-: 2c

Malahide, Co. Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians, Co. Clare.

Navicula lanceolata, (Kitz.) Fresh water.

Valve lanceolate; strie punctate; length -0016, breadth :0004.
» Kitz. Bac., p. 94, T.-xxvii., fig. 38; T. xxx, fig.48. -Neither
of these figures indicates the character of the strie; it is therefore
impossible to identify Kiitzing’s species with certamty. Wm. Sm.,
B. D., Vol. i., p. 46, suppl. Pl. xxxi., fig. 272... Rab. Fl. Hur: Alg.,
sect.1., p. 171. This author attributes the species to Wm. Smith,
who has described it so that it can be easily recognised, and regards it
as distinct from that so named by Kiitzing.

~~ River Bann, near Coleraine, Co. Derry. Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.
Adregoole, Co. Galway.

Navicula exilis, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve small, narrow, elliptical; ends produced and slightly capi-
tate ; striz obscure; length -0013, breadth -0003. (Plate 34, fig. 2.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 95, T. iv., fig. 6. This figure does not represent
the strie. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x.,
1860, p. 553, T. iv., fig. 30. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.1., p. 198.

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 407

1 + Radiose. Strie more or less distinctly radiate.

Navicula radiosa, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve lanceolate, obtuse; striz strongly costate; convergent in
middle, radiate towards the ends; length about -0020, breadth about
"0005. (Plate 34, fig. 3.)

Katze Bac. p.i91,-T. iv., fig; 23.) Ralis,, im Pntch.,. p. 905.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860. Cleve,
Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 225. Lagerstedt, Soty. Diat. fran
Spitzbergen och Beeren Eiland, p. 25.—Pinnularia radiosa, Wm.
par bs DS) Vol.1., p. 56, Pl xyuil, figy 173.) Rabbis Kur, Ale:,
sect..1., p. 214.

Pool, Glengariff, Co. Cork. Lower Lake, Killarney, Co. Kerry.
Stream Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. River Dodder, Bohernabreena, Glenas-
mole, Killakee, Co. Dublin. Lake near Castlewellan, Co. Down.

Navicula gracilis, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve lanceolate, attenuated towards the ends, which are obviously
produced ; strize costate, convergent in the middle, radiate towards
the ends; length about -0022, breadth about :0005. (Plate 34, fig. 4.)

Kiitz., Bac., p..91,,T. ii; fig. -48, T. xxx., fig. 57, who regards
the species described by him as identical with Navicula gracilis, Ehren-
berg, Infus., 1838, p. 176, T. xiu., fig. 2. Smith is doubtful as to
the identity of the form described and figured by him with that of
Kiitzing just referred to and comparison of the figures of Kutzing
with specimens of the form, so accurately delineated by Smith will
impress’ something more than doubt upon the observer’s mind. Ralfs,
in Pritch., p. 906. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell.,
Band x., 1860, p. 526, T. iv., fig. 27. The species is broader, more
attenuated at the ends, than this figure representsit. Schumann, Diat.,
der Hohen Tatra, p. 69. Rab. Fl. Eur., Alg., sect. 1., p. 174.—Puin-
mularia gracilis, Wm. Smith, B..D., Vol.i., p.. 57, Pl. xviu., fig.
174.

Drumoughty Lough, near Kenmare, Co. Kerry. Stream, Bellarena,
Co. Derry. Stream near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Stream, Killiney,
Stream, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

Nawicula acuta, (Wm. Smith). Fresh water.

Valve, narrow, lanceolate; ends acute; strize costate, convergent
in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length -0046, breadth 0005.
(Plate 34, fig. 5.)

Pinnularia acuta, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i, p. 56, PI. xyiu.,
fig. 171.—Navicula radiosa, var. acuta. Grunow, Verhand. der K.
K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p.526. Thereisa form described

408 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and figured by Kiitzing under the name of Navicula acuta, the de-
tails of which are so'indistinct that identification would be impossible,
but the outline of the valve is such as to make it certain that it is
distinct from the present form. Kiitz. Bac., p. 93, T. 11, fig. 69.

In a fossil state, it occurs abundantly in the Lough Mourne de-
posit. In a living state, I have found it in the following localities :
River Erne, near Crossdoney, Co. Cavan. Lower Lake, Killarney,
Caumlough near Tralee, Co. Kerry. River Dodder, Pond in Botanie
Gardens of Trinity College, Co. Dublin. Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula acutiuscula, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve narrow, lanceolate, with acute ends. Strize costate, shghtly
radiate throughout; length :0040, breadth -0005.

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 906.—Pinnularia acutiuscula, Gregory, Q. J.
M. 8. 1856, Trans., p. 48, Pl. v., fig. 21. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. 1,
p. 218.

Stomachs of Ascidians, seacoast, Co. Clare.

Navicula peregrina, (Ehr.) Marine or brackish water.

Valves broadly lanceolate, ends obtuse. Strie costate, sub-distant,
radiate ; length -0046, breadth -0010. (Plate 34, fig. 6.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 97, T. xxviil., fig. 52. The form was considered
by Kiitzing to be identical with Pinnularia peregrina of Ehrenberg.
Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 906. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat.,
p. 225, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x.,
1860, p. 523.—Pinnularia peregrina, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p. 56,
Pl. xvii., fig. 170. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 218.

Salt ditch near the Town of Wexford, River Slaney, near Killurin,
Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Bellarena, mouth of the River Roe, Co.
Derry. Rostrevor, Co. Down. Breaches near Newcastle, Co.
Wicklow. Kilkee, Co. Clare. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Howth, Co.
Dublin. Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway. A
small variety of this species occurred from stomachs of Ascidians
Belfast Lough, Co. Antrim.

Navicula zostereti, (Grunow). Marine.

Valve, large lanceolate with sharp ends. Strie strongly costate,
sub-distant, radiate ; length -0056, breadth 0002. (Plate 34, fig. 7.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 528, T. iv., fig. 23. The locality in which this form was found by
Grunow was the Adriatic Sea, from a depth of from two to four
fathoms. I know of no other locality in which the species has been
discovered save that specified below.—Pinnularia zostereti, Rab. FI.
Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 218.

Stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bay, Co. Galway.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 409

Nawicula cleviana, N. 8. Marine.

Valve narrow, elliptical. Strize strongly costate, convergent,
rounded, and sub-distant in the middle, radiate, linear, and closer
towards the ends. Two very short coste are interposed in the middle
between the next which run to the median line; length -0084
breadth :0008. (Plate 34, fig. 8.)

From stomachs of Ascidians, Broadhaven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula digito-radiata, (Gregory). Fresh water.
Valve elliptical, with obtuse ends. Striz costate, convergent, and
distant in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length :0028, breadth

» -0008. (Plate 34, fig. 9.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 904.—Pinnularia digito-radiata, Gregory, Q.
Breve SalSo6) p. 9, Pl. 1., fig. 32. Rab. Fl. Kur, Als.) sect. 1., p. 215.

Bowen’s Court, Co. Cork. River Slaney, near Killurin, Co. Wex-
ford, Lower Lake, Killarney. Caumlough, near Tralee, Co.
Kerry. River Barrow, near Clonegal, Co. Carlow. Ditch near Kil-
cool, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula ergadensis, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve linear, elliptical, ends obtuse, rounded. Strize costate, con-
vergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length -0026, breadth
-0006. (Plata 34, fig. 10.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 907.—Pinnularia ergadensis, Gregory, Q. J.
M.S. 1856, Pl. v., fig. 22. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 215.

Portmarnock, Malahide, Co. Dublin. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry.
Salt ditches near the Town of Galway.

Navicula cyprinus, (Khr.) Marine.

Valve rhombo-lanceolate, ends somewhat cuneate. Strie costate,
convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length -0025,
breadth -0007. (Plate 34, fig. 11.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 99, T. xxix., fig. 35. The species is here ascribed
to Ehrenberg. The figure, it must be observed, is very inadequate to
describe the species, the ends being rounded instead of cuneate, and
the striz parallel instead of being as above described.—Pinnularia
Cyprinus, Wm. Sm., B. D. Vol.i., p. 57, Pl. xyiii., fig. 176. Rab.
mi Hur. Ale, sect. i., p. 215.

Bannow, River Slaney, near Killurin, Co. Wexford. Lough Foyle.
Mouth of River Roe, Co. Derry. Seaweeds near Town of Wicklow.
Malahide, Portmarnock, Dalkey, Co. Dublin. Kilkee, Co. Clare.

oe
7 *

410 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navieula galvagensis, N. 8. Marine.
Valve oblong, elliptical, ends narrowed and rounded. Striz cos-
tare, radiate; length ‘0024, breadth -0005. (Plate 34, fig. 12.) -

Salt marsh near town of Galway ; Stomachs of Ascidians, Broad-
haven Bay, Co. Galway.

Navicula solaris, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve elliptical, with obtuse rounded ends. Strie fine, linear,
convergent in the middle, and very distinct, radiate towards the ends
and less distinct. (Plate 34, fig. 13.)

Gregory, Q. J. M. S. 1856, Trans., p. 43, Pl. v., fig. 10. This
figure represents the striz as shortened in the middle so as to leave a
blank space round the central nodule. And such is the appearance
presented by the specimens that have come under my notice; but
when well focused the blank space disappears, and the strize are found
to reach the median line. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 904. Rab. Fl. Eur.
Alg.; sect. 1., p. 181. :

Ballarena, Co. Derry. Adregoole, Co. Galway. Malahide, Co.
Dublin.

Navicula viridula, (Kitz.?) Fresh water.

Valve elliptical, lanceolate, sometimes slightly produced. Strize
fine, linear, convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends;
length -0016, breadth -0005. (Plate 34, fig. 14.)

Kitz., Bac., p. 91, T. xxx., fig. 47; T. iv., figs. 10 and 15. ~The
only one of these figures which at all resembles the present form is
the last. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 905. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska
Diat., p. 225. Lagerstedt, Soty. Diat. fran Spetsbergen och Beeren
Eiland, p. 25.—Pinnularia viridula, Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 57,
Pl. xviil., fig. 175. The description is accurate, but the figure
represents the coste as greatly coarser than they are in reality. The ~
effect is to make this species appear scarcely to differ from Pinnularia
gracilis. Lagerstedt indeed remarks, ‘‘ I have considered it right to
unite under the above name (Navicula viridula) the two species of
Smith, Pinnularia viridula, and Pinnularia gracilis,” p. 25. The
strie, however, in the former, are extremely fine, whereas in the
latter they are very coarse. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 214. I
think it not unlikely that this form is identical with that which
Grunow has described as Navicula rhyncocephala, var. brevis.
Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 529, T. iy.,
fig. 3le. ;

Camolin, Co. Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Killakee,
Stream near Clontarf, Co. Dublin .Ditch near town of Sligo. Well,
Strokestown, Co. Roscommon.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 411

Navicula heuflerit, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valve very small; lanceolate; central nodule large. Strie fine;
linear, radiate; length about ‘0009, breadth about -0008. (Plate
34, fig. 15.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p. 528, T. ii., fig. 82. Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra., p. 68.
Rab. FI. Eur. Alg., sect.1., p. 214.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow.

Navicula fortis, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve small; broadly lanceolate; rounded atends. Strie costate,
convergent in the middle, radiate towards the ends; on front view,
frustule slightly constricted, with the angles slightly rounded; length
‘0017, breadth -0006.

Ralisomm |Pritch., p. 905. Donkin, N. Hs But. Diat:; p. 57,
Pl. viii., fig. 8.—Pinnularia fortis, Gregory, Q.J.M. S., Trans.,
1856, p. 47, Pl. v., fig.19. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 215.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Arran Islands, Co. Galway. Malahide,
Co. Dublin.

Navicula northumbrica, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve narrow, lanceolate; ends acute. Stric linear, convergent in
middle, where they are strongly marked; length -0019, breadth
0004. Frustule on front view slightly constricted. (Plate 34,
fig. 16.

ieee Gr JLIMES., 186lip.19) Blin ae. 5 seN ae. BriteDiat
p. 54, Pl. vii., fig. 1. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 176.

Bannow, Co. Wexford. Salt ditches near the town of Galway.

Navicula arenaria, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve lanceolate, narrow; ends acute, produced and slightly
constricted. Strice costate, convergent; length :0019, breadth -0004,
Frustule on front view very slightly constricted. (Plate 34, fig. 17.)

Wonkin, @. J. M.S., 1861, p. 10, Pll 1, fig. 9; N. He. Brit.Diat.,
p. 56, Pl. viii., fig. 5. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p..177.

Portmarnock, Co. Dublin.

Nawvicula inflexa, (Gregory). Marine.

Valve lanceolate; slightly depressed at the extremities. Strie
costate, convergent; length :0018, breadth :0004. (Plate 34
fig. 18.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 905. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 54,

R.1, A. PROC, SER, II., VOL II., SCIENCE. 2X

412 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Pl. vii., fig. 2.—Pinnularia inflexa, Gregory, Q.J.M.8., 1856,
Trans:; 0p. 48, Pl. v., figs 20. Rab. Fl. Hur. ‘Ales “‘sectaasaps 2s:
The depression of the valve at the ends is marked by a well-defined
line which renders the species easy of identification.

Ballysodare, Co. Sligo. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Malahide, Co.
Dublin.

Navicula hungarica, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valve small, oblong; elliptical, ends rounded. Strie subdistant,
strongly costate, radiate; central nodule large; length ‘0009, breadth
"0045. (Plate 34, fig. 19.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
p- 539, T. i., fig. 80. Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p.76. Rab.
Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 190.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Ditch near town of Sligo. Lough Mask,
near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

Navicula carassius, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valves small, broadly elliptical; ends broadly and shortly pro-
duced. Strie costate; radiate; length 0007, breadth :0003. (Plate
84, fig. 20.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 95, T. xxviii., fig. 67. The description and figure
represent the valve as unstriate, but the strie are quite obvious.
Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., p. 537,
T. 1i., fig. $1, and T. iv., fig. 11. Ralfs, in Pmtch=gpaeguor
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 20, Pl. i., fig. 7. It is more than
doubtful if the form described by Donkin as Navicula carassius
belongs to this species. The figure represents the form as very much
longer, the ends finer and more produced, than is the case in Navicula
carassius ; the strie too, are described as granular, the strie in Navicula
carassius are linear. Donkin regards the species as identical with
Navicula lacustris, Gregory, Q.J.M.8., 1856, p. 6, Pl.1., fig. 23b.,
but the true Navyicula carassius is broadly elliptical, and not linear,
as the former is represented to be. Schumann, Diat der Hohen
Tatra, p. 68.

Glenchree, Kilcool, Co. Wicklow. Kilcock, Royal Canal, Enfield,
Co. Kildare: Dundrum, Co. Dublin. Killeshin, Queen’s Co. Caum
Lough, near Tralee, Arraglen, Co. Kerry.

Navicula mutica, (Kiitz.) Fresh or brackish water.

Valve small, broadly elliptical. Strie punctate, radiate; length
-0005, breadth :0003. (Plate 34, fig. 21.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 95, T. iii., fig. 32, who found the form in rain
pools mixed with salt water. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 413

Bot. Gesell., Band x., p. 538, T. v., fig. 16, who found the species in
fresh water as well as in brackish. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 905. Schu-
mann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 69. Rab, Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i.,,
p. 185. It is not improbable that this species is identical with the
form described by Gregory as Nayicula lepida, var. B.? Q.J.M.S.,
HSoo, p. 7, El. it, fic. 25,°B:

Bannow, Co. Wexford. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. In these, fresh
water forms and marine were mingled. Glenchree, Killakee, Co.
Dublin. Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. The three last-
named localities were wholly free from marine influences. Hence I
consider that though the form has been found in brackish water, it is
essentially a fresh water species.

Navicula semen, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve linear, elliptical, broad; ends broadly and shortly produced.
Strie costate; convergent in middle, radiate towards ends; length
‘0018, breadth :0008. (Plate 34, fig. 22.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 99, T. xxviil., fig. 49, who attributes the species
to Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm., B. D., Vol.i., p. 50, Pl. xvi., fig. 141. Hei-
berg, De Danske Diat., p. 82. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 900. Donkin,
N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 21. Pl. ii., fig. 8. Schumann, Diat. der Hohen
Tatra, p. 68.

Stream, Bellarena, Co. Derry. Lough Mourne deposit, Co. Antrim,

Navicula humilis, (Donkin). Fresh water.

Valve small, inflated in the middle, with broad capitate ends. Strie
costate, coarse, subdistant, radiate; central nodule large; length ‘0010,
breadth 0003. On front view, frustule quadrangular, slightly con-
stricted in the middle; coste divergent, leaving a considerable space
about the central nodule, which latter appears very highly developed.

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 67, Pl. x., fig. 7. Donkin considers
this form identical with Navicula inflata, var. Gregory, Q. J. M. S.,
1855, Pl. i1., fig. 20 c.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co.
Mayo.

Navicula inflata, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve small, inflated in the middle; ends narrowed, produced,
and scarcely capitate. Striz closely granular, radiate; length -0010,
breadth -00035. (Plate 34, fig. 23.)

itz. Bac., p. 99, T. ii:., fig: 36. Wm. Sm.; B.D:, Vol. 1.,’p. 50;
Pl. xvu., fig. 158. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell.,
Band x., 1860, p. 588, T. iy., fig. 41. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 899. Hei-

414 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

berg, De Danske Diat., p. 82, Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 21,
Pl. iii., fig. 9.

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Ditch near town of
Wexford. River near Glencar, Co. Kerry. Rock Mills, Co. Cork.
Stream Bellarena, Co. Derry. Glenchree, Kilcool, Co. Wicklow.
RiverDodder, Killakee, Co. Dublin.

Navicula mesolepia, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve narrow, triundulate; ends narrowed, capitate; stri costate,
radiate. Length :0025, breadth -0006.

Kitz. Bac., p. 101, T. xxviii., fig. 83, and T. xxx., fig. 34, who
attributes the species to Ehrenberg. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K.
Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 520. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 894.
Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 225.—Pinnularia mesolepta,
WaneiSm., BD. Vole i. p55, bl. xix, tome.

Lough Mourne deposit. Common specially in mountain districts.

Navicula anglica, (Ralfs). Fresh water.

Valve broadly elliptical; ends produced ; striz costate; convergent
in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length 0015, breadth-00066,
(Plate 34, fig. 24.)

Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 900, who considers the form identical with
Navicula tumida, Wm. Smith. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 35,
Pl. v., fig. 11. The latter author likewise coincides with Ralfs as to
the identity of the species with that of Smith referred to. There is,
however, a considerable difference between the forms. In Navicula
anglica the valve is larger, the ends less capitate, the strie more dis-
tant than in the case of Navicula tumida; and whereas in the latter
the strize are punctate, in the present form they are plainly costate.
Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 68.

Killakee. Trinity College Botanical Gardens, Co. Dublin. Ditch
near Sligo. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady,
Co. Mayo. Dundalk, Co. Louth.

War. sublinearis, (Donkin). Fresh water.

Valve in all respects like the tpyical species, except that the out-
line is nearly linear, and the produced ends wider; length :0012,
breadth -0005.

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 35. Pl. v., fig. 11.b.

Killakee, Co. Dublin.

Navicula cryptocephala, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve small, narrow, elliptical, with produced slightly capitate
ends. Striz fine, linear radiate; length :0012, breadth -0003. (Plate
34, fig. 25.)

Kitz. Bac. p. 95, T. iii., fig. 20. Wm, Sm., B. D., Vol. i., p.53, .

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 415

Pl. xvyii., fig. 155, Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 901; Cleve, Om Svenska och
Norska Diat., p. 228. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 37, Pl. v., fig. 14.
Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 68.

Tacumshane, Co. Wexford. Bowen’s Court, Co. Cork. Lough
Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Dysart,
Co. Waterford.

Navicula angustata, (Wm. Smith). Fresh water.

Valve very narrow, elliptical; ends produced and slightly capitate.
Striz fine, linear, radiate; length :0016, breadth -0003. (Plate 34,
fig. 26.)

Warrsm) bb. 1), Vol. 1., p. 52, Pll xvit., fig. 156. Walts, in
Pritch., p. 901. Castracane, Cataloga di Diat. raccolte nella Val. In-
trasca, p. 12. Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra, p. 68.—Navicula
eryptocephala, var. rhyncocephala, Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool.
Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 527, T. iv., fig. 286.

Bantry, Co. Cork. Black Castle, Co. Wicklow. Malahide, Co.
Dublin. Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

Navicula lagerstedtii, N.S. Fresh water.

Valve small, rhombic; ends slightly produced. Strie obviously
punctate, radiate, sub-distant; when the centre is not exactly in
focus, thereis the appearance of a narrow stauroform band, which dis-
appears when properly focused; length -0010, breadth -0005. (Plate
34, fig. 27.)

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Lough Gill, Co.
Kerry. In the latter, marine and fresh water species were mingled,
but in the former locality marine influence was impossible; the form
is therefore to be regarded as inhabiting fresh water.

Navicula gastrum, (Ehr). Fresh water.

Valve rhombic; ends scarcely produced. Striz linear, convergent
in the middle, radiate towards the ends; length -0018, breadth -0009.
(Plate 34, fig. 28.)

Kiitz. Bac., p. 94, T. xxviii., fig. 56, who regards the species as
identical with Pinnularia gastrum, Ehrenberg. MRalfs, in Pritch.,
p.900. Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 22, Pl. ii, fig. 10. This figure
represents the form as much narrower, and the ends more produced
than is the case in my specimens.—Pinnularia gastrum, Rab. Siissw.
Diat., p. 44, T. vi., fig. 15. This last figure represents the strie as
parallel, which is not accurate. Gregory, Q. J. M.S., 1855, p. 41.
Plate iv., fig. 20.

Dundalk, Co. Louth. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Mask, near
Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo. Lough Mourne deposit.

416 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Nawicula binodis, (Ehr). Fresh water.

Valve small, narrow, incurved; ends produced, apiculate. Strie fine,
linear, radiate; length -0012, breadth :0004; breadth in the middle
700035. (Plate 34, fig. 29.)

Kiitzing (Bac., p. 100, T. ii1., fig. 35,) considers the form iden-
tical with that so named by Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i,
p. 58, Pl. xvii., fig. 159. Rab. Sitissw. Diat., p. 41, T..v., fig: 5, and
Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i., p. 203. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 893. Castracane,
Catalogo di Diat. raccolte nella Val. Intrasca, p. 12. Heiberg, De
Danske Diat., p. 88. Cleve, Om Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 227.
Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 38, Pl. vi., fig. 3. Schumann, Diat. der
Hohen Tatra, p. 77.

Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow. Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Donkin
considers this species as one which occurs frequently in England; it
is, however, one of very rare occurrence in Ireland.

Navicula dicephala, (Ehr.) Fresh water.

Valve small, narrow, linear, narrowing towards the produced
slightly capitate ends. Striz obvious, convergent in the middle, radiate
towards the ends; length :0014, breadth :00055. (Plate 34, fig. 30.)

Kitz. Bac., p. 96, T. xxviii., figs. 60 and 62; these figures incor-
rectly describe the strie as parallel. Kiitzing attributes the species
to Ehrenberg. Wm. Sm., B.D., Vol. i, p. 58, Pl. xvi, fig. 157.
Grunow, Verhand. der K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x,, p. 538, T. iv.,
fig. 45. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 902.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Lough Neagh, near Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
Camolin, Co. Wexford. Friarstown, Lucan, Killakee, River Dodder,
Co. Dublin. Cushendun, Co. Antrim. Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow.
Lough Mourne deposit.

Navicula rhyncocephala, (Kiitz.) Fresh water.

Valve narrow, elliptical; ends considerably produced, not capitate.
Strie distinct, closely moniliform, radiate; length :0025, breadth
‘0006. (Plate 34, fig. 31.)

Kutz.) Bac:; p. 152) T) xxx’, fio, 85:4 Wm. (Sm: Bb DP avioles.,
p. 47, Pl. xvi., fig. 1382. Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot.
Gesell., Band x., 1860, p. 530, T. iv., fig. 32. Heiberg, De Danske
Diat., p. 82. Ralfs, in Pritch., p. 900, Pl. vii., fig. 68. Cleve, Om
Svenska och Norska Diat., p. 227. Schumann, Diat. der Hohen Tatra,
p. 68. Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect. i, p. 196. Donkin, N. H. Brit.
Diat., p. 38, Pl. vi., fig. 4.

River Dodder, ditch, Dundrum, Co. Dublin. Caumlough, near
Tralee, Co. Kerry. Ulster Canal, near Poyntzpass, Co. Armagh.
Kilcool, Co. Wicklow. :

O’Mrara—Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 417

Navicula globifera, N.S. Fresh water.

Valve narrow, margin slightly constricted; ends constricted and
broadly capitate. Striz extremely fine, close, convergent; length
"0018, breadth :0003. (Plate 34, fig. 32.)

This form is very similar to that described by Gregory as Pinnu-
laria globiceps, Q. J. M. S., 1856, p. 10, Pl.1., fig. 34; but differs in
the following respects: in Gregory’s form the valve is obviously ex-
panded in the middle; in this it is linear, with the appearance of a
slight constriction in the middle; the striz in this are much finer, and
reach the median line, instead of leaving a central stauroform free
band, as is the case with Pinnularia globiceps.

Camolin, Co. Wexford.

Nawicula rostellifera, (Gregory). Marine or brackish water.

Valve minute, narrow, linear; narrowed towards the ends, which are
apiculate. Strie costate, convergent in the middle; frustule on front
view constricted in the middle; length of valve .0013, breadth 0003.
(Plate 34, fig. 33.)

Pinnularia apiculata, Gregory, Q. J. M.8., 1856, p. 41, Pl. iv.,
fig. 21. This form appears to be the same which Donkin describes as
Navicula apiculata, De Brébisson, and Pinnularia rostellata, Gregory,
Diat., of Clyde, p. 488, Pl. ix., fig. 20. See Donkin, N.H. Brit.
Diat., p. 56, Pl. vui., fig. 6. Gregory himself evidently regarded the
forms as distinct; and comparison of the two compels me to coincide
with that eminent observer. Navicula apiculata, De Brébisson, and
Pinnularia rostellata, Gregory, are obviously identical, and quite
different from the present, which is much smaller and narrower in
proportion ; the strize being very strong, and reaching the median line,
while in this other they leave a considerable blank space about the
central nodule; the rostrate ends too in the latter are much produced,
while in this species they are very short. Gregory’s specific term
apiculata having been appropriated by De Brébisson, ought to drop,
and the form so distinctly described by Gregory bear another desig-
nation, to avoid confusion.

Lough Gill, Co. Kerry. Portmarnock, Co. Dublin.

Nawicula cancellata, (Donkin). Marine.

Valve large, narrow, linear, with cuneate ends. Strive strongly
costate; convergent in the middle, nearly parallel towards the ends ;
length :0036, breadth :0006. Frustule on front view slightly con-
stricted, the coste appearing in a broad band. (Plate 34, fig. 34.)

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 55, Pl. viii. fig. 4. Navicula trun-
cata, Donkin, Q. J. M.8., 1861, p. 9, Pl. i., fig. 4, and changed for
the present designation, the former name having been anticipated by
Kiitzing.—Pinnularia truncata, Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg., sect.i., p. 217.

Arran Islands; Stomachs of Ascidians, Roundstone Bay; Sto-
machs of Ascidians, Broadhayen Bray, Co. Galway. Malahide, Port-
marnock, Co, Dublin.

—

418 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Navicula minor, (Gregory). Marine or brackish water.

Valve small; linear with cuneate ends, strie linear, nearly
parallel in the middle; slightly radiate towards the ends; length
‘0012, breadth -0004. (Plate 34, fig. 35.)

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde, p. 477, Pl. ix., fig. 1. Gregory mentions
that in this species the strie do not reach the median line. In this parti-
cular, the present form does not answer Gregory’s description,
inasmuch as the striz plainly reach the median line, but in all other
respects there is such agreement as to make me think the forms are
identical. Ralfs agrees with Gregory in all particulars, p. 909.
Donkin describes a form under this name which he regards as iden-
tical with that described by Gregory. See N. H. Brit. Diat., p. 57,
Pl. vui., fig. 7. The forms, however, are obviously different, that of
Donkin being elliptical, lanceolate, while Gregory’s is linear, with
cuneated apices. -

Piles of wooden bridge, Dollymount Strand, Co. Dublin. Lough
Gill, Co. Kerry.

(m) Diaphane. Strie not observable.

Navicula perpusilla, (Grunow). Fresh water.

Valve minute, linear, oblong, with rounded ends, and slightly
expanded in the middle; length :0005, breadth :0002. (Plate 34,
fig. 36.)

E Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
Pood, Le iV., He. as

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

Navicula seminulum, (Grunow). Fresh water. :

Valve very minute, oblong, elliptical, with rounded ends; length
0006, breadth -00025. (Plate 34, fig 37.)

Grunow, Verhand. der K. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell., Band x., 1860,
Po O02 eevee.

Lough Mask, near Tourmakeady, Co. Mayo.

( 419 )

EXPLANATION OF CONTRACTIONS AND LIST OF REFERENCES.

Agardh, Conspect.—Conspectus Criticus Diatomacearum. 1830.
» Syst.—Systema Algarum. 1824.

A. N. H., or Ann. Nat. Hist.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

Bailey Mic.—Microscopical Observations in Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge. 1850.

Berkeley.—Papers in Ann. Nat. Hist.

Brightwell.—Papersin Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.

Castracane, Catalogo, &c.—Catalogo de Diatomea raccolte nella Val Intrasca.
Genova. 1866.

Cleve, Om Svenska, &.—Om Svenska och Norska Diatomacéer Ofversigt af K.
Vetenskaps-Akad. Férhandlingar. Stockholm. 1868.

De Brébisson, Notes on, &c.—Notes on some French Diatoms, Journal Queckett
Club. April, 1870.

De Brébisson, Diat. du, &«.—Diatomées marines du Litoral de Cherbourg.

Donkin.— Papers in Quart. Jour. Micros. Science.

Donkin, N. H. Brit. Diat.—Natural History of the British Diatomacee.
London. Van Voorst (in course of publication).

Er. Abh.—Ehrenberg, Abhandlungen, Berlin Akademie.

Ehr. Infus.— Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthierchen. 1888.

Ehr. Mic.—Ehrenberg, Microgeologie.

Gregory.—Papers in Quart. Jour. Micros. Science.

Gregory, Diat. of Clyde.—New forms of Marine Diatomaceze found in the Frith of
Clyde. HKdinburgh, 1857.

Greville.—Papers in Quart. Jour. Micros. Science.

Grey. Brit. Flora.—In Hooker’s British Flora (Cryptogamia).

Grunow.—Verhand. &c., Ueber neue oder ungentigend gekannte Algen in Verhand-
lungen der K. K. Zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien.

Grunow.—Reise 8. M. Novara um die Erde. 1868.

Harvey, Manual.—Manual of the British Algee. London, 1841.

Heiberg.—De Danske Diatomeer. Kjobenhayn. 1863.

Kitton.—Papers in Science Gossip.

Kitz. Bac.—Kiitzing, Die Kiesselschaligen Baccillarien. 1844.

Kiitz. Sp. Alg.—Kiitzing, Species Algarum. 1849. s

Lagerstedt, Séty. Diat., &c.—Sétvattens-Diatomaceer fran Spetsbergen och Beeren
Eiland. Stockholm. 1873.

Lyngbye, Tentamen Hydrophytologie Danice. 1819.

Pfitzer—Ueber Bau und Entwicklung der Bacillariaceen. Bonn. 1871.

Rab. Fl. Eur. Alg—Rabenhorst, Flora Europea Algarum. Leipsic. 1864.

Rab. Siissw. Diat—Rabenhorst, Die Stisswasser Diatomaceen. Leipsig. 1853.

Ralfs.—Papers in Ann. Nat. Hist.

Ralfs in Pritchard’s History of Infusoria. London. 1861.

Roper.—Papers in Quart. Jour. Micros. Science.

Schmidt, Atlas, &c.—Atlas der Diatomaceen Kunde. Parts 1 to4. 1875.

Schmidt.— Die Diatomaceen aus den Grundproben der Nordseg fahrt. Berlin. 1875.

Schumann, Diat.—Die Diatomeen der Hohen Tatra. Wien. 1867.

Schumann, Die Preussische Diat.—Die Preussische Diatomeen, vide Schriften der

Physik-Oek. Gesellschaft zu Konigsberg. 1867.

Thwaites.—Papers in Ann. Nat. Hist.

W.S., B. D.—W. Smith, Synopsis of British Diatomaceee. 2Vols. 1853 and 1856.

Wallich.—Papers in Quart. Jour. Mic. Science.

Walker-Arnott.—Papers in Quart. Jour. Mic. Science.

Weisse.—Papers in Bull. del’ Acad. Imp. des Sciences St. Petersbourg. Tome xii. 1867.

R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 2 Y¥

( 420 )

INDEX TO REPORT, PART I., ON THE IRISH DIATOMACEA.

—————<>—_—_

The Families, Sub-families, and Genera are printed in Small Capitals, the Species
in ordinary type. Synonyms are marked with an asterisk.

abrupta, 293.
ACHLAMYDI®, 837.
acicularis, 304.
ActinocycLus, 268.
ANTINOPTYCHUS, 266.
acrospheeria, 346.
acuminata, 355.
acuta, 407.

acuta,* 282.
acutiuscula, 408.
adriaticum, 319.
eequalis, 282.
estiva, 384.

affinis (Syn.), 311.
affinis (Nav.), 367.
affinis,* 367.
alpina, 342.
alternans, 278.
ambigua, 360.
amblyoceros, 278.
americana, 3dl.
amphicephala, 299.
amphiceros, 295.
amphigomphus, 367.

AMPHIPLEURA, 281, 320.

AMPHIPLEURER, 320.
amphirhynchus, 307.
amphisbeena, 363.
AMPHITETRAS, 275.
anglica, 414.
anglicus, 270.
angulosa, 364.
angusta, 350.
angustata, 415.
anomalum, 287.
antediluviana, 275.
antiqua, 257.
apiculata (Mast.), 327.
apiculata Nav). 349.
apiculata,* 376, 416.
apis, 400.

ARAcHNorpiscus, 265.
archeriana, 398.
arcnatum, 318.

arcus, 511.

arenaria (Orth.), 251.
arenaria (Nay.), 411.
areolata. 268.

argus, 269.
arraniensis, 395.
ASTERIONELLA, 281.
atmospherica,* 259.
Av.Lacopiscus, 270.
AULACOSEIRA.* 254.
Auvtiscus, 270.
aurea,* 283.
aurichalcia, 251.
aurita, 274.

bacillum, 851.
baculus, 297.
bayleyii, 275.
balfouriana, 316.
barbatula, 310.
barkeriana, 362.
BeErkeELerya, 331.
biceps, 302.
biceps,* 352.
biccapitata, 352.
Bipputputi, 272.
biddulphia,* 275.
biddulphianum,* 275.
BinpuLrPutesx, 271.
binodis, 416.
boeckii (Breb.), 338.
boeckii (Nav.), 348.
bombus, 401.
borealis, 345.
borrerii, 246.
BREBISSONIA, 337.
brebissonii, 350.

|

Index to Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 421

cerulea, 358.
cancellata, 417.
capitata (Syn.), 305.
capitata (Mast.), 327.
capucina, 282.
carassius, 412.
cardinalis, 341.
centralis, 260.
Crrarautus,* 271, 278.
CrraronFis,* 281.
ceres, 347.

cervinus, 262.
chrystallinum, 297.
clavata, 386.
Cravarm, 386.
clepsydra, 347.
cleviana, 409.

closeii, 326.
cluthensis, 380.
cocconeiformis, 370.
coffeiformis, 297.
CoLLEeToNEMA, 329.
collisiana, 384.
comoides, 335.
concinnus, 261.
Conrerva,* 248.
constricta (Nay.), 353.
constricta, var. (Nav.), 393.
construens, 283.
convergens, 320.
Coscrnopiscus, 259.
coscinodiscus, 255.
costata (Dent.), 285.
costata (Mast.), 328.
costata (Nay.), 393.
costatum, 290.
crabro, 404.
CRraAsPEDODISCUS, 266.
CRASSINERYES, 374.
crassinervia, 379.
erassus, 269.
crotonensis, 283.
crucifera (Nay.), var., 353.
crucifera (Nav.), 364.
crucigerum, 333.
chryptocephala, 414.
crux, 369,

cuneata, 350.
cuneata, var., 394,
cuspidata, 357.
CusPipaTm, 357.
cuspis, 358.
CycLoTELua, 255.
CymatoseErra, 281.
cynthia, 395.
cyprinus, 409.

dallasiana, 259.
danica, yar. (Syn.), 309.

danica (Amph.), 322.
danseil, 326.
davidsoniana, 361.
davidsonii, 385.
debilis, 318.
decipiens, 359.
delginensis, 373.
delicatissima,* 300.
denarius, 267.
DentIceLia,* 272.
Denticuta, 280, 285.
denticulata, 405.
desmogonium, 281.
Drapesmis, 337.
Diatoma, 280, 281, 291.
dicephala, 416.
Dickie, 328.
dickieti, 252.

didyma, 402.
didyma,* 400, 403.
digito-radiata, 409.
dilwinii, 336.
Dimerecramma, 280, 281, 288.
directa, 406.
Drirecrm, 406.
dirhynchus, 375.
DiscopiEa, *

distans (Mel.), 248.
distans (Dim.), 289.
distans (Nav.), 343.
divaricata,* 379.
divergens (Schiz.), 333.
divergens (Nav.), 346.
divergens,* 408.
donkinea, 389.
donkinii, 399.
Doryrnora,* 281.
dubia, 367.
duodenarius, 267.

ehrenbergii (Cos.), 264.
ehrenbergii (Arach.), 265.
elegans (Odont.), 288.
elegans (Nav.), 363.
elliptica (Nav ), 384.
elliptica, var., 391.
elongatum, 292.
emarginatus, 318.
enervis, 280.

entomon, 401.
entomon,* 403.
ergadensis, 409.
erythrea,* 380.

esox, 369.

Evcamptia, 271.
eudoxia, 397.

eugenia, 396.
Evroptscus, 269.
excentricus, 270.

422 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

exigium, 278. hemiptera, 349.
exilis, 406. hennedyi, 387.
eximium, 330, heufleri, 411.
expleta, 390. hibernica, 389.
hibernicus, 271.
fasciculata,* 305. hormoides, 250.
favus, 277. humerosa, 378.
fenestrata, 317. humilis, 413.
fimbriatus, 264. hungarica, 412.
firma,* 366. hyalina, 293.
flocculosa, 317. Hyoprosera, 272.
follis, 369. hyemale, 287.
forcipata, 392.
forficula, 397. icostauron, 350.
fortis, 411. incisa, 404.
Fragrant, 280, 281. incurya, 377.
FRAGILARIER, 280. incuryata, 399.
fragilis, 331. inflata, 413.
franciscze, 389. inflata,* 369.
frauenfeldi, 312. inflatum, 288.
Frusturia,* 375. ; integra, 356.
fulgens, 298. intermedia, 405.
fulva, 358. interrupta (Tess.), 320.
fulvus, 269. interrupta (Nav.), 400.
fusca, 383. investiens, 299.
fuscata, 378. iridis, 366.
Fuscata#, 383. Istumia, 279.

IstHMIER, 279.
GALLIONELLA,* 248.

gallioni, 310. johnsonii, 373.

galvagensis, 410. jurgensi, 283.

gastrum, 416.

gibba, 348. kittoniana, 388.

gibberula,* 368. kotzschyi, 370.

giberrula, 368. kutzingiana, 256.

Gipposm, 347.

gigas, 261. laciniatum, 335.

globifera, 417. lacustris (Tetr.), 318.

gracillima, 356. lacustris (Nay.), 380.

gracilimum, 336. leevissima, 367.

gracilis (Syn.), 300. lagerstedti, 415.

gracilis, var., 303. lanceolata, var. (Syn.), 304.

gracilis (Nav.), 407. lanceolata (Mast.), 324.

GRAMMATOPHORA, 316. lanceolata, var. (Nav.), 344.

GRAMMONEMA,* 281. lanceolata, var. (Nav.), 382.

grande, 291. lanceolata (Nay.), 406.

granulata, 254. lata, 371.

gregorii (Cos.), 263. latissima, 379.

gregorii Ne, 403. latiuscula, 361.

grevilleii (Mast.), 328. LarruscuLz, 361.

greyilleii tSche? 334. lepida,* 413.

grundleriana, 366. leptoceros, 295.

GrunowiA,* 286. liber, 365.

grunovil, 362. liburnica (Raph.), 296.

grunoyil, var., 392. liburnica (Nay.), 372.
limosa, 368.

harrissonii, 296. Limos, 366.

hebes, 364. linearis, var. (Syn.), 305,
helmentosum, 334. | linearis, var. (Nayv.), 371.

Index to Report on the Irish Diatomacee.

linearis, var. (Nay.), 382.

lineata, 365.
lineatus, 264.
lineolata,* 375.
litoralis,* 361.
longa, 344.
longiceps, 306.
longissima, 307.
lorenziana, 296.
lucida, 379.
lunaris, 301.
Lyratz, 390.
lyra, 391.
Lysiconrum, 248.

macula, 357.
macilenta, 316.
maculata, 250.
maculosa, 381.
major, 341.
marginata, 398.
marginatus, 264.
marina, 315.
marina,* 252, 377.
marinum, 289.
Mastoetora, 3238.
maxima (Frag.), 283.
maxima (Nay.), 371.
Metostra, 246.
MeEtostrew, 246.
menapiensis, 346.
meneghiniana, 256.
meniscus, 379.
Menrinion, 281.
mesodon, 287.
mesolepta (Frag.), 284.
mesolepta (Nav.), 414.
microstauron, 354.
minima, 293.

minor, 265.

minor, var. (Nav.), 392.

minor (Nay.), 418.
minor,* 262.
minus, 289.
minutissima,* 304.
minutula,* 394.
minutum, 319.
Montirer®, 377.
moniliformis, 268.
moniliformis,* 248
montagnei, 250.
moreii, 388.
mucosum, 333.
musca, 399.
musca,* 398.
mutabilis, 285.
mutua, 412.

nanum, 289.

Navicua, 339.
NavicuLEs, 322.
nebulosa, 387.
neglectum, 331.
nervosa, 279.
nitescens, 389.
nitidus, 263.
Nrirzscuta, 281.
nitzschiodes, 312.
Nosizezs, 340.
nobilis, 340.
nodosa, 352.
normanni, 263.
northumbrica, 411.
notarisii,* 306.
nummuloides, 248.
nummuloides,* 250.

obliquata,* 280.
obliquatum,* 280.
oblonga, 344.
oblongella, 376.
obtusa (Dent.), 285.
obtusa (Syn.), 308.
obtusa,* 364.
obtusum, 336.
ocellata,* 287.
oculus iridis, 260.
ODONTELLA,* 272.

Opontrpium, 280. 281, 286.

Oponvopiscts, 270.
OMPHALOPELTA, 268,
operculata, 257.
orichaleea, 353,
ornatus, 266.
OrtHostRa, 250.
ovalis, 385.

ovulum, 361.
oxyrhynchus, 306.

pachyptera, 342.
palpebralis, 364.
pandura,* 404.
papillifera, 372.
papillosa, 258.
Paratta,* 252.
parasiticum, 335.
parva, var. (Nay.), 348.
parva, var. (Navy.), 386.
parva, var. (Nav.), 397.
pectinalis,* 355.
personis,* 367.
pellucida, 321.
pellucida,* 399.
peregrina, 408.
perforatus, 261.
pertrusilla, 418.
PERSTRIATH, 406.
pfitzeriana, 405.

424 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

pinnata, 329.
PINNULARIA,* 339.
pinnularia, 354.
pixidicula,* 266.

PractiocramMa, 280, 281, 290.

plumbicolor, 372.
Popostra, 249.
preetexta, 387.
producta (Nay.), 370.
producta, var., 380.
pulchella (Bid.), 275.
pulchella (Syn.), 303.
pulchra, 382.
punctata (Orth.), 254.
punctata (Cyce.), 25°.
punctata (Nav.), 380.
punctulata, 377.
punctulatus, 265.
pusilla, 381.

putealis, 312.
pygmea, 394,

quadrata, 378.
quarnerensis, 361.
quinquelocularis, 275.

radians, 309.
radiata, 273.
radiatus, 262.
radiatus,* 273.
radiolatus, 262.
radiosa, 407.
Raviosm, 407.
RatrstA, 298.
ralfsii, 268.
ramosissimun, 334.
rectangulata, 343.
regina, 278.
retusa, 350.
RHABDONEMA, 318.

RuaPuHonets, 280, 281, 294.

rhombica (Navy.), 358.
rhombica, var., 384.
rhomboides, 374.
rhombus (Bidd.), 274,
rhombus (Rhap.), 295.
rhyncocephala, 416.
rhyncocephala,* var., 416.
richardsonii, 389.
roeseana, 251, 235.
rostellata,* 349.
rostellifera, 417.
rostellum, 376.
rostrata, 399.

rotula, 258.

rupestris, 347.

salina, 310.
sandriana, 388.

sansegana, 399.
scalaris, 354.

schmidti, 395.
ScHIzONEMA, 382.
scopulorum,* 373.
scotica, 259.

sculptus, 270.
scutelloides (Rhap.), 295.
scutelloides (Nay.), 381.
scutellum, 396.
sedenarius, 267.
seductilis, 393.

semen, 413.

seminalum, 410.
semiplena, 364.
senarius, 267.
septemlocularis, 275.
serians, 374.
serpentina, 316.
simulans, 373.
sinuatum, 286.

smithii (Cos.), 262.
smithii (Syn.), 313.
snuthii (Mast.), 327.
smithii (Schiz.), 333.
smith (Nay.), 383.
smithii,* 403.

solaris, 410.

spathulata, 310.
spectabilis, 390.
spheerophora, 360.
spinosa,* 253, 255.
splendens, 308.
splendida, 402.
splendida,* 399.
staurophora, 352.
staurophorum, 290.
stauroptera, 350.
Stravurosima, 281.
stellaris, 261.
stokesiana, 389.
STRIATELLA, 319.
STRIATELLE®, 314.
striatula, 283.
sub-capitata, 356.
sub-cincta, 398.
sub-flexilis, 247.
sub-linearis, 414.
sub-orbicularis, var., 387.
sub-orbicularis, var., 391.
sub-orbicularis (Nay.), 396.
sub-rotunda, 383.
sub-salina, 363.

subula, 371.

sulcata, 252.

superba, 299.
SURIRELLE®, 281.
SyNnEDRA, 280, 281, 296.
SysTEPHANIA,* 271.

Index to Report on the Irish Diatomacee. 425

TABELLARIA, 317.
tabellaria (Raltfsia), 293.
tabellaria (Nav.), 346.
tabellaria,* 283, 284.
tabulata, 311.

tenera,* 300.

tenue (Odont.), 288.
tenue (Diat.), 292.
tenuicollis, 283.
tenuirostris, 360.
tenuissima, 300.
termes, 353.

TESSELLA, 320.
TETRACYCLUS, 317.
Toxartum, 301.
translucida, 372.
trevelyana, 344.
TRICERATIE®, 275.
TRICERATIUM, 275, 277.
TRIFASCIATH, 394.
trilocularis,* 275.
TRINACRIA, 275, 278.
TRIPopiscus,* 269.
truncata, 368.
truncata,* 368, 417.
tumens, 359.

tumida, 382.

tumida var. sub-salsa,* 381.

tumida var. lanceolata,* 382.

turgida, 273.

ulna, 306.

ulvoides, 329:
undata, 284.

undosa, 369.
undulata (Syn.), 301.
undulata (Nav.), 343.
undulatus,* 267.
uni-punctata, 320.

varians, 247.
vaucherie,* 313.
veneta, 372.
vicenarius, 267.
vickersii, 405.
virescens, 282.
viridis, 341.
viridula, 410.
vulgare (Diat.), 291.
vulgare (Coll.), 331.

westii, 248, 249.
williamsonii (Diad.), 337.
williamsonii (Nav.), 403.
wrightii (Lys.), 249.
wrightii (Nay.), 390.

zellensis, 357.
zostereti, 408.
ZYGOCEROS,* 272, 274.

KR. I. A. PROC., SER. Il., VOL. II., SCIENCE.

224

426 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XXXVIII.—Nortrs on some ANOMALIES IN THE CoURSE oF NERVES IN
Man. By Avexanper Macarisrer, M.B., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy, Dublin University, M.R.1.A.

[Read November 8, 1875.]

Tue following are some varieties which I have noticed in the course
of nerves, in the Dissecting Room of the University of Dublin.

Ist. In a thin middle-aged female subject, a nerve, about as large
as the buccal, arose from the temporo-auricular, after the union of
the two roots of that trunk, it then passed over the internal maxillary
artery (which was normal) and was joined by a small twig which
arose from the inferior dental nerve, directly below the foramen ovale
(thus making a loop around the artery). The trunk so formed de-
scended anterior to the usual inferior dental trunk, and pierced the
mandible at a point on the inner side of the bone opposite the mental
foramen, entered the inferior dental canal and supplied the incisor
teeth. The normal inferior dental nerve was smaller than usual, and
lay posterior to this anomalous trunk, from which it was separated by
the internal maxillary artery; the mental nerve was large, and was
the terminal branch of the inferior dental, all the filaments of that
nerve leaving the inferior dental canal at this point.

Cruveilhier and Sappey describe a fine anastomosis between the
auriculo-temporal and the inferior dental, but I am not aware of this
variety of that union having been previously observed.

2nd. In a female subject the hypoglossal nerve, about half-an-inch
internal to its thyro-hyoid branch, gave off a transverse branch of
communication to its fellow of the opposite side; this medial branch
arose below the twig for the genio-hyoid, and passed superficial to that
muscle and under the mylo-hyoid; in size the communicating trunk
was nearly equal to the continued trunk of that nerve.

Communications between the hypoglossals of the two sides are on
record thus: Szabadfoldy (Virchow’s Archiy. Band 38, s. 177) saw
twigs of the hypoglossus of one side passing through the septum of
the tongue to the opposite side; Bach (Annotationes Anatomice de>
nervis hypoglosso et laryngeis: Turici, 1834, p. 10) noticed a sling-
like union of the two hypoglossi in the tip of the tongue, and my
case seems to be a variety, on a lower level and large scale, of that
method of union.

3rd. The last specimen to which I will at present allude is one of
not very uncommon occurrence. In a female subject the phrenic
nerve arose as usual by a large root from the fourth cervical nerve (its
main root as shown by Luschka and others), but its usual accessory
branch from the fifth came off rather larger than usual, and lower
down than usual from its parent trunk; it then ran down parallel to
the main root but 0°5” behind it, under the subclavian vein, and the
transversalis humeri and colli arteries, passed outside the internal mam-
mary, then across it, and joined the other portion of the phrenic at the
level of the upper edge of the first rib. Varieties in the position of
these two roots and in their place of union are not uncommon, but
I have never seen so low a union before.

Rosinson—On the Cup Anemometer. 427

XXXIX.—On toe Turory or THE Cup ANEMOMETER, AND THE

DerrerMryation oF its Constants. By the Rev. T. R. Ropryson, —

DD. M.RB.LA., FBS, &e.
{Read December 13, 1875.]

I wave described this instrument in a paper which the Academy did
me the honour to publish in their ‘‘Transactions,”* and I endeavoured
to approximate to its theory by applying to it Borda’s Theorem for
Undershot Wheels, and adding terms for the resistance due to the
motion of the cups in quiescent air, and to friction. In respect of
the coefficients, I determined in actual wind the ratio of the pres-
sures on the concave and convex surfaces of the cups at perpendicular
incidence, and measured the difference of these pressures, by a spring-
balance connected with the axle of my Anemometer (12-inch cups
with arms of 24) for velocities of wind given by a smaller instrument,
of known relation to the large one. The resistance due to the rotation
was measured by the forces required to make the cups revolve with
given velocities, and the friction similarly measured. These data
enabled me to compute the ratio of the wind’s velocity to that of the
Anemometer, supposing friction null, which I found=2-999, and to
make corrections for that element of resistance. There were in this
three doubtful assumptions; that the mean ratio of the antagonist
pressures was the same as that at a perpendicular incidence; that
Borda’s formula is strictly applicable to curved surfaces moving in a
free current; and that the resistance in quiescent air is the only one
to be considered in that term of the equation which includes v?, I
therefore had very little confidence in this theory. However, I tested
it by experiment. A small Anemometer was fixed to a whirling
machine which carried it through the air with velocities varying from
11-69 miles an hour to 3°93. And 383 such observations gave for the
ratio 3:004. In water it gave 3:020, the results with 2, 3, and 4 cups
being almost identical. I tried to ascertain the agreement of this
instrument with the large one, by comparing their simultaneous read-
ings, but the irregularity of the wind, even at a few feet distance,
made the trial ineffectual. However, the agreement of the two
ratios given above seemed satisfactory, and I pursued the investigation
no farther, till my attention was recently recalled to it by a memoirt
by M. Dohrandt, of the Petersburgh Meteorological Observatory, which
appeared in the ‘‘Repertorium fiir Meteorologie,” containing an
elaborate series of experiments made chiefly to determine the relation
between the rotation-velocity of the Cup Anemometer and that of the
wind.

* Transactions, Vol. xxii., Part I., Science, p. 155.
+ Repertorium fiir Meteorologie, Band iy., 1874.

428 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

They were made by means of the whirling machine invented by
Robins 130 years ago, and subsequently used by other English phy-
sicists for experiments on the air’s resistance. This apparatus was
established in the Hall of the Central Physical Observatory at St.
Petersburgh on a grand scale. Its horizontal arms were 11:26 feet
long, braced to prevent flexure, and 20°3 feet above the floor. The
Anemometers were attached to one of the arms at 10°92 feet from the
centre of rotation, and, except in one instance, with their planes of
rotation parallel to that of the arms. The number of turns of the
latter was recorded by an electric register, and the seconds of each
experiment noted with a chronometer. These gave the velocity with
which the axis of the Anemometer passed through the air. It was
moved, in a way not corresponding to the general excellence of its
details, by two men impelling opposite bars projecting from the axle;
and therefore the velocities communicated to it were not very uniform.
The greatest speed obtained was 40 kil. = 25 miles per hour.

The velocity with which the centre of its cups revolved was given
by the number of its revolutions and its radius. M. Dohrandt was
well aware of the circumstances which make a difference between
the motion of an Anemometer carried through quiescent air, and of one
acted on in a fixed station by acurrent of wind; and he showed great
sagacity and experimental skill in trying to eliminate the influence of
the two most important of them.

First, it is obvious that a cup which is within the track of its axis
meets the air with less velocity than one outside, and therefore receives
a less impulse than when outside ; from which it follows that when the
machine revolves in the same direction with the Anemometer, the
latter revolves more slowly than in the reverse case. He, therefore, in
every case took the mean result of the two directions.

Secondly, the rotation of the apparatus drags with it a quantity of
air, producing a circular current which is sensible even at the floor
20 feet below; therefore the Anemometer meets the air with a less
velocity than if that were quiescent. He measured this draught by
a ‘“‘ Woltman’s Fly,” a light windmill, established with its axis nearly -
in the plane of the Anemometer’s rotation, and parallel to the tangent
of its track, and from 12 inches to 20 inches from that track. He
estimated its velocity to be about 0°05 of that of the machine, and,
allowing for it, concluded that V, the velocity with which an Anemo-
meter is moved through still air, is connected with v the velocity of
the centre of the cups by the equation V=a@-+ 6v (in kilom.)

He determined these constants for five Anemometers by the whirl-
ing machine; and four others by comparison with them. I give
their values for the first set, adding for each the length of its arms
and diameter of its cups in inches.

Rosinson—On the Cup Anemometer. 429

Name or MAKER. | akan b Length of | Diameter.
Browning, . ‘ | 3°66 2:2271 11:99 5-84
Casella, 317 : | 2°56 2°7548 6°75 3015
Casella, 318 | 1:90 28472 6-76 3-015
Nowikof, . “eine St 2:8979 8-61 3°77
NOW. ot | O49 2°5293 4°85 4-11

He gives also the result of a trial to determine the constants for
Browning by carrying it on the tender of a locomotive to and from
Zarsko-Selo, a distance of 19 versts=20°27k. He gives the mean V
going 32°14 and returning 26:90; and v = 13°76 and 9:17. This
reference to hourly velocities rather masks the result, and it is sim-
pler to say that while the engine traversed 20°27, the Anemometer
showed 8°675 going and 6°837 returning. The difference is referred
to a light wind which blew. He endeavoured to estimate the effects
of this by means of an Anemometer Breguet fixed on the tower of
the Observatory ; but as this was 77 feet above the ground, and from
4 to 25 k. from the rail, he attaches little importance to its data,
except inferring that the direction of the wind made a mean angle of
22° with that of the rail; and comparing the V’s going and coming,
he deduces for the mean velocity of the wind along the rail (by his
formula, first assuming a= 2 and then 3) 2°8; (Breguet would give 5:2).
From these he finds for Browning a@= 8°11; 6=2°3091.

Lastly, he placed the two Casellas and Browning on the Observatory
tower, where two others were permanently established. But, as the
platform was only 10 feet 5 inches square, they must have been too
close to act freely. However, he got by his equations very nearly
accordant results for the three.* The remainder of the paper is occu-

* Similar but more extensive experiments were made by the Rev. Fenwick
Stow (‘‘ Meteorological Journal,” vol. i.), of which I learned the existence from
M. Dohrandt’s paper. Six Anemometers of different types from the Kew one,
r = 24 inches, d = 9 inches, to Casella r = 6.7, d = 3.01, were established on open
ground, and their indications were taken during a considerable period, and with
values of V, as given by the Kew, ranging from 3™ to 34m. He finds that instru-
ments with short arms do not agree even approximately with the Kew one, except
at low velocities; that those which have the smaller cups relative to the arms,
maintain at all velocities a tolerably even percentage of Kew, and that, in all
cases (supposing the V given by Kew to be that of the wind), they move more
rapidly in proportion to the wind as V is smaller. This is in complete opposition
to Dohrandt’s results, and (as will be seen) to theory. Comparing Casella and Mr,

430 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

pied with determining equations for Woltman’s Fly, and Wilde’s Wind
Tablet. Too much praise cannot be given to the ability and care with
which these experiments were carried out, and it is not from any
failure in these respects that they cannot be depended on to give reli-
able values of Anemometer constants, or correct the theory of these
instruments ; but they are all liable to several causes of uncertainty.
Even had the apparatus been established in free air, it is probable
that the Anemometer’s indications would be different from those given
by the same instrument if stationary, and acted on bya current of
wind. Experiments show that a plane surface moved through water
in a direction perpendicular to itself is less pressed than when a
stream of water impinges on it with the same velocity. I know Colonel
Duchemin’s researches only by M. Dohrandt’s reference to them,
and his results seem excessive; but De Buat’s experiments give
that the ratio is as 1:186:1; Vince makes it 1:2: 1. The pressure is
also differently distributed over the surface in the two cases. It is
possible that if the plane were moved down the stream with a less
velocity than it has, the difference might be still greater. I am not
acquainted with any experiments of this kind made on curyed surfaces.
Similar differences may be expected to exist between the motion of the
body and that of the fluid im elastic media, though we cannot say
what would be their amount, supposing them to exist, though probably

Stow’s No. 5, »=9, d=4 inches, with Nowikoff for V nearly equal, and taking
v = of his number, as all the instruments register 3v, I find—

|| |
Casella. Stow. | Casella. Dohr. || No.5. Stow. Nowikofi. | Casella. Robinson.

Vee Red Ls tyne Coal t. yet ae ye} 2 ye}
34°8 | 3-936] 34:19 | 3-163] 36-0 | 3-696 | 33-31 | 3-225 i 21:96 | 3°263
26:2 | 3:855|| 25-94 | 3-275] 24-7 | 3-681|| 27-29 | 3-347|| 16-00 | 3-564
22°7 | 3°895|| 21°16 | 3-380]| 21-8 | 3-644|| 29-37 | 3-361]] 11-40 | 3-654
20-2 | 3-816|| 20-27 | 3-573|| 16-3 | 3-645|| 15-98 | 3-463|| 10-58 | 3-861
16-2 | 3°754|) 15:31 | 3-599] 7-9 | 8619] 7-74 | 8957] 9-79 | 4-140
NCO 8°76 | ell-12 WWS:635i|l etal hee lat ce 7-10 | 4-170
7-4 | 3-768 | |

They are also inconsistent with my own observations, made many years ago, to
compare a Casella with my own Anemometer; the resuits of which I give. I re-
gret that I was not acquainted with Mr. Stow’s experiments during their progress,
as I would have requested him to measure for each of his instruments my con-
tants %'+ 6, and f. A knowledge of these might have modified his numbers
considerably. He seems to have not duly appreciated the extent to which very
slight modifications of the figure of the ground will influence the yelocity of the
wind, and the considerable variations of it which occur even at small lateral dis-
tances. From my own observations of these facts I cannot place any reliance on
this mode of determining Anemometer constants.

YOBINSON—On the Cup Anemometer. 431

they would be less.* But, in the investigations which we are consi-
dering, the air was farfromfree. The part of the Hall occupied by the
apparatus was 27-4 feet by 26-9 feet; 26°3 feet high in the centre, 22°6
feet at the walls. The rotating arms were 20°3 feet from the ground ;
but the cross of the Anemometer was only 17°64 inches from the roof
(this was necessary from the nature of the frame supporting the vertical
axis, which had been constructed for another purpose), and the centres
of the cups were from 34 inches to 30 inches distant from the main
line of the walls. Part of the Hall communicating with this nearly
cubical space was only 11-7 feet high, and on the east wall was a small
gallery 15-4 feet above the ground, in which an observer was stationed.
It is evident from these details that the air put in motion by the
rapid rotation of the arms (11°25 feet long, and 2°4 inches dia-
meter, with braces 8°68 feet long, and 0°6 inches diameter), and by
the fixed parts of the Anemometer must have been thrown into irre-
gular eddies, interfering with its action on the curved surfaces of the
cups, and that they must have been differently impelled when nearest
to the walls, and when opposite to the angles of the room. The
current measured by the Woltman cannot be regarded as representing
that in the Anemometer track, for, besides being outside that, it
must be modified by the gallery and observer’s body. He tried to
examine it by small balloons filled with coal gas, and loaded so as to
be in equilibrio, ‘‘ but they travelled irregularly, sometimes within,
sometimes without the Anemometer’s track, sometimes above, some-
times below it.”

He found, also, that the revolutions of the Anemometer tried were
sensibly diminished, when another one, or even the small Woltman,
was put on the other arm 22 feet distant. (I think some useful in-
formation as to the motion of the air might have been obtained by
placing over the Anemometer.a tube as long as its diameter, perforated
with several holes, and discharging through these jets of smoke, as
was done by Dr. Ball in his experiments on “vortex rings). M. Doh-
randt has here overlooked three disturbing elements. A part of the
resistance to an Anemometer is work done in throwing out from 7s
centre a quantity of air by centrifugal force; this must be interfered
with by the walls, &c. Another is, that the rotation of the whirling
machine itself must, by the same centrifugal force, produce an outward
current. He refers to this as increasing the density of the air near the
walls, but it must escape above and below, and the stream so pro-
duced must help to turn the cups. What its amount is cannot, under
the circumstances, be determined a prior?, but it probably more than
counteracts the circular current.

* It is, however, to be remarked, that the small Anemometer mentioned in the
beginning of this paper gave almost identical results when carried through air, and
when immersed in running water.

432 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Thirdly, the centrifugal force due to the circular track of the
Anemometer’s axle must make it press against its upper bearing, and
thus increase the friction, unless, as in my original instrument, there
are mechanical antitriction appliances at this part; but this does not
seem to have been the case in those used by M. Dohrandt. With
his machine, when V = 40 4, this lateral pressure will be 3°78 times
the weight of the moving parts, and the additional friction at the
bearing about 0:1 of this.*

It is not quite correct to assume that the mean of the results ob-
tained by rotating the machine in opposite directions is identical with
what would have been given by a rectilinear motion; for it cannot be
doubted that the equation which gives the relation between V and 2,
must contain V*, v?, and Vv; and it is obvious that half the sums of
these will differ from those of the mean, V and v, though not consider-
ably. M. Dohrandt tried to avoid the necessity of this double rota-
tion by (as I had done) making the plane of the Anemometer’s rotation
perpendicular to that of the arms. In this case the direction of the
rotation should make no difference, and the centrifugal current beimg
perpendicular to the Anemometer plane should, but for the eddies,
have no effect.{ But this is far from being the case. Allowing 0°05 FP,

for the circular current, the ratio as in the two cases

Vv
V V
V- M=382-01 K. —=3-050; Viz M= 32-37 aKe —2:770
Vv
No. 4 24-57 2-558 22-31 2-809
rr 19°53 3-179 21-84 2:805
18-74 3°362 15°13 2-974

He remarks that nothing can be made of this, and the reason is ob-
vious, for the axis of the Anemometer is only 2°8 feet from the roof
and its cups 2°3 feet. Ina freer space, he remarks, this mode would
be preferable to the one he employed. With respect to 7, I think the

preceding remarks will suffice to show that it is very doubtful whether —

his V represents the wind which it is supposed to represent, and that
instead of deducting any allowance for the circular current, it might
be nearer the truth to add one for the centrifugal forces and the eddies;
and certainly the resistance is different from that which would occur
in the ordinary use of an Anemometer.

The railway experiment is not more conclusive. No reliance can

* In one of Casella’s construction, of the same dimensions as C318, the moveable

parts weigh 3500 grs. Hence, for Y=25 miles, the additional friction would be ©

19°6 grs. Six times the normal one.

+ An Anemometer, with 3-inch cups, fixed to the axle of the vane of my Ane-
mometer, so that its axis was always in the direction of the wind, made 48 reyvolu-
tions in 6™. In M. Dohrandt’s experiment the eddies were probably much stronger
than in the above case.

Rosinson—On the Cup Anemometer. 433

be placed on his estimation of the wind’s effect; and any attempt to
combine the results for each verst going and returning seems hopeless.
The space, for instance, traversed by the cups, in passing No. 2, are
546-11 me. and 319°25 me.; the Vs are 21°22 k, and 24:38; the
a 1:958 and 3-342; for No. 10, they are 403°3, 886°5; 36°58, 35°98,
v

and 2°645, 2-741.

M. Dohrandt only considers that part of the wind which acts in
the mean direction of the rail, but its rectangular component cannot
be omitted, for it can turn the Anemometer both going and coming.
And there is uncertainty about the real velocity with which the air,
in such trials, passes the instrument; a body moving through a fluid
carries before and behind it a mass of quiescent fluid, but at the side
of a ship it is well known that the water moves astern, in consequence
of its displacement in front.

The same is probably the case on the tender of a train, especially
between embankments, in which case the V will be greater than what
is given in the Table.

His determinations of the ratio differ, as might be expected from
the preceding remarks, considerably from mine, always in defect, but
unequally in the different instruments. It must, however, be observed,

that we mean different things by the term ratio. My m= u being

Wea
b

VU+U

a variable, depending on the friction and v ;* his is , @ being acon-
stant.t I must also remark that his equation V=a+ bv is strong evi-
dence that the circumstances under which his experiments were made
are abnormal. In this instrument, when a permanent state of rotation
is established, the mean impelling force must be equal to the mean
resistance. Now, with all the defects of this branch of Hydrody-
namics, it is certain that the equation expressing this equality must
contain V*v? and Vv; and one in which they do not appear cannot
give the V which corresponds to a v produced by the action of the real
wind.

* T wish to correct a mistake in my paper on the Anemometer (1. c.) I stated that
m is independent of the size of the instrument, forgetting that 4’, the co-efficient of
that part of the resistance which is caused by centrifugal force, is in part inversely
as the arm of the Anemometer. Therefore m must be larger in small instruments
than in large ones. On the other hand, the divisor of f is less.

t This constant differs considerably, and more than can be explained by mere
friction in his instruments. The two Casellas, which are quite ‘similar, are special
examples of this. In those cases where he extends the interpolation to v?; the @
differs from that of the simple equation so much that we can scarcely suppose either
to be a true friction co-efficient. It is to be regretted that it did not occur to him
to determine the friction of each Anemometer, and the V at which they began to
move ; a knowledge of these would have made his results more useful.

434 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

Notwithstanding these defects in M. Dohrandt’s experiments, I
think they show the necessity of further investigation; and as I am
convinced of the advantages which this instrument possesses as a
recorder of the wind’s velocity, I think it may be useful to point out
the processes by which, as it seems to me, a closer approximation to its
theory may be obtained, and the co-efficients of the resulting equation
deduced with sufficient certainty. Ifin doing this I seem to go too
minutely into details, I must plead im excuse the great complexity of
the inquiry, and my desire to omit nothing of importance.

Considering a single cup of an Anemometer exposed to a current
of air of velocity ¥, making an angle 6 with its arm, and incident on
its concave surface; its pressure on that sur- 4
face = SV? x a; a being a co-efficient depending
on @, and on the figure of the cup, and S the
area of its mouth: the power of this pressure to
make the cup revolve is SaV?x sin 6. But Vv
suppose the cup in motion with the velocity v,
and convex foremost, this motion lessens the D
effect of V, and instead of V, we must use the
resultant of it andv. This resultant also makes
with the arm an angle 4, different from @; let
AR be the arm, 4V a line proportional to V. B
AB | to AR, as v; the diagonal BV of the

parallelogram under them = #& the resultant 0 R
when Vand v are inthe same direction; C4 =R’
that when they are in opposite ones. Drawing A

BD |\to AR, VBD=¢. It is obvious that A? = V? +0? + 2 Vv sin 6, and

VsinOzv V cos 6

a a Ror R'’ CORIO. Teenie

the lower signs belonging to the case &’. Hence for SaV? sin 6 we
must use Sal? sin d= Sa (V?+0?=2Vv sin @)xsin gd. ¢ is best found -
by the equation—

secant 0

A V
, m being = —.
v

tan ¢=tan 6 =

It will be shown (V.) that m, though changing with v, varies
little ; and taking its mean value, no important error will arise from
assuming it constant.

This is the positive or impelling pressure. (1.)

When sin @=4, it should vanish; but in fact I found that one cup
exposed to the wind has a positive pressure far beyond this point, not
resting till 210°. I could not determine the opposite point of rest,
because the least eddy of the wind set the cup in rotation. I do not
know whether this curious fact arises from the wind eddying into the

Rosinson—On the Cup Anemometer. 435

concave, or from minus pressure behind the cup;* but it is the more
remarkable, because in this case more than half a hemisphere is
exposed to negative action. This seems to imply that the original
expression for the rotating power SV? x a sin @, should be of the form
asin@+6cos@. Asin this case a and b cannot be separated by any
experimental process, it will be best to make @ include the functions
of #, which express the rotation, so that the power to turn the cup
shall be SaR? $3 and this in general.

Secondly. Putting the opposite cup in its place, while the concave
of the first moves from the wind the convex moves against it, and
meets a resistance = Sa’R” (2.) The co-efficients a and a’, are diffe-
rent functions of 6. When it is 90, I determined their ratio to be
4-011: on either side of this the ratio is greater, though the absolute
values are less. Both positive and negative pressures are increased a
little by the so-called friction of the passing air. Since this acts by
producing eddies, it may be expected to vary as A? and #”: indeed,
Mr. Froude has shown that in the case of water it is as the square of
the relative velocity. Here its influence must be very small.

Thirdly. There are two resistances as v*, which may be grouped
together. The first of them is the amount of power expended in
throwing outwards the air in the Anemometer’s track by centrifugal
force, as in a blowing fan; this will be probably as

2 Sbv?

pot

I measured its amount in quiescent air, by making two cups similar to
those of my instrument, and with the same length of arm, revolve
with various velocities, by weights acting on a thread coiled on their
axles, whose pull at their centres was measured. When the concayves
moved foremost, I thus obtained a; when the convex dy + 6; and as
I had found the ratio of dy and a’, = 4:011, 6’ was found to be
ay, x 0, 9535. Whether it will have the same value in moving as in
quiescent air is uncertain; the escape of air against the wind will be
impeded, but will be accelerated with it, so that the above mode of
computing it may be provisionally assumed.

The other part of this resistance is one arising from the motion of
the convexes against the air independent of the wind, which is still
more difficult to estimate. At @=0 or 180, they move at right angles
to the wind, and are resisted as if it were null, therefore as

/ .
2Sa 90 X* vs

at 90 and 270, this action (as separate from that of V ) vanishes ; at

* Tt is possible that eddies from the following conyex may reach into the con-
eaye, and increase the force.

436 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

intermediate positions its amount is doubtful. There will be some
due to the component of v perpendicular to V, and some to that part
of the convex which is not reached by £ or FR’.

The combined effect of these and the centrifugal resistance may be
put = Sdv.

Fourthly. The last resistance is friction, which may be of three
kinds. It is independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing sur-
faces, but is as their pressure.

(1). In the ordinary use of the Anemometer, its axis is vertical and
the friction due to its weight is constant; this is easily measured by
attaching weights to a thread passing over a pulley (whose friction is
known), and coiled on its axle or a cylinder fixed on it of known
radius =p, till it just moves on tapping. This weight multiplied by
2 is f. (2). The pressure of the wind on the cups is another cause of

friction by pressing the axle against the upper bearing. As in perma-
nent rotation the impelling = the retarding forces, and they balance at
the axle, the pressure there = their sum, or twice the impelling force.
This, as is evident from equation (1.)=(@-a@’)x(V*+v2*). Let f” be
the friction due to a unit pressure | to the axis, then this friction
=2fa(V?+v*). The effect of this is simply to substitute for a in (I1.)
a(1—2/f,). Ittherefore need not be taken into account, as it will be
included in any determination of that co-efficient. The pressure will
be something greater than the above from resultants in the direction
of the arms, but since these also are as V* they do not alter the result.
(3). When an Anemometer is carried by a whirling machine, its move-
able parts are urged outwards by centrifugal force, which produces
pressure on its bearings and therefore friction. Let f,,, be the friction
due to a unit pressure parallel to the arm A of the whirling machine ;
P the centrifugal pressure due to the unit V

We iG.
————
Ces
W being the weight of the moving parts, and G the distance of their
CG from the centre of the whirler; then f,,, P V? is the centrifugal
friction ; this is equivalent to multiplying a by (1 — f,,, P) and need
not be computed. But the a ofund by a whirling machine must be
divided by this factor to make it apply to real wind measurement.
Combining these four forces, and putting for R and #’ their values,
we obtain for the moving force in the position 6,

fF

\ /
4° (ayaa 7? 2 Pol as+a'| sin 0-1" b+als—as = Jenne ED

If we have a series of values of a,and a’, through the ares on which

Rozsrnson—On the Cup Anemometer. 437

they have positive values, we can get their mean values. For a and a’

a
this value = lad 6’ and 6” being the limits between which a is posi-
T

ie (a+a’) sin 6d0

T

tive ; for the second co-efficient it =

The integration is easily done by quadratures, and the mean values
must be taken, I then gives

aV?—28,x Vo-vxy-f=0, (IL.)

which coincides inform with my original equation, the chief difference
being in y. .

Adding a second pair of cups at right angles to the former, the
forces are all doubled, except f: that is increased by the increased
weight of the cups and their arms; but the friction due to the weight
of the axle and to the registering apparatus is unchanged. This should
always be measured as before described. With four cups the motive
force is more uniform than with two, and the period of its variations
is half that of the other.

Solving this quadratic, we have

7) eet (III.)
| a a a’ al
Calling =m’; if f were to vanish,

m = ale (IV.)

This value of m is independent of the size of the instrument, except as
relates to the part of y which depends on centrifugal force, unless it be
so small that the impulse on one cup interferes with its neighbour; it is
also independent of v. The correction for an instrument which records
V as mv is hence easily found; for if m’ = m + p, we have V=mv+ po;
po is therefore the correction. Now

(mau-E) =(m+E) 4 fF

a av
hence

a

aces eee fat

438 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

This decreases as v increases, and vanishes when it is indefinitely
increased.

Then comes the question, how are these co-efficients to be deter-
mined? Not, I fear, by any observations with actual wind, for none
of the methods which have been proposed to measure its velocity are
satisfactory. I should prefer determining them by immersing the
Anemometer in a stream of water, were it certain that the elasticity of
the air makes no difference. But here also the velocity of the current
varies in different parts* of its section, and should be meaned through
that part occupied by the instrument. Such experiments would be
very desirable, when fit opportunity could be obtained ; but this is not
easily found, and we should, in the first instance, try to get from
the whirling machine ?ts best possible results, which, I think, with
proper precautions, will be far better than those which M. Dohrandt
was able to obtaim under the conditions of his experiments. I will
therefore point out, first, the mode in which it and the Anemometer
connected with it should be constructed; and secondly, the way in
which I think it should be employed.

To begin with the whirling machine :—It must combine a strong
framing with facility for transport, since it should be used in a room
of large dimensions; and such are generally employed for public ob-
jects, from which they cannot be long diverted. The framing should
therefore be easily taken asunder. I think it essential that the cups
in their rotation should not be nearer than ten feet to ceiling, walls, or
floor. This, if the arms of the Anemometer be two feet, will require
the horizontal arm to be twelve feet from the ground. Its length
should be as great as the locality permits, in accordance with the above
conditions. If too short, there would be a difference of pressure on the
inner and outer sides of the cups, which might disturb the results. I
think eight feet would be sufficient. A single arm with a counter-
poise alone is required. The arm (and all that it carries) should pre-
sent as little resistance to the air as possible. That which I used was
made of sheetiron 4 inch thick, filed to sharp edges, and made inflexible
by ties of steel wire attached to the top of the axle. It was only two
feet long; but the same construction will be fully available in the
present instance. The vertical axle is a tube strong enough to resist
the driving force; it turns in collars, one at the top of the frame,
another carried by cross-pieces about two feet from the ground. This
last has a disc, on which, by means of three balls, or by conical rollers,
and a flange attached to the tube, this latter revolves. This perfora-
tion of the axle—an idea for which I am indebted to Mr. Grubb—
simplifies greatly the mechanism of the apparatus.

A cord passing to the brake-lever of the Anemometer over a pulley
at the top of the tube-axle supports an inner tube, adjusted central to
it by guides. This tube carries, below the axle, a stage on which cir-

* As to this see page 430, note.

Rosinson—On the Cup Anemometer. 439

cular weights, up to 10 or 12 lbs., can be placed; below which is
' attached a conical vessel to receive shot for small additions of weight,
which can be removed by a valve at its bottom.

It is important that the machine shall be capable of being driven
with a uniform speed of any amount, which can be gradually increased.
This may best be effected by the descent of a weight connected with
the axle, and continually wound up by means of an arrangement like
the well-known contrivance of Huyghens. The velocity can be increased
by adding to the weight. At the speed of 25 miles per hour, the
maximum resistance to the cups would be about 2 lbs., and the power
expended that of 75 lIbs., falling 1 foot ma second. This is only ? of
a man’s power.

The Anemometer to be used in connexion with this machine should
also present as little resistance to the air as possible. For this pur-
pose its frame should consist of a strip of sheet iron, twice bent at right
angles. The uprights so formed should have bearings for the axle,
which must be set parallel to the arm of the whirling machine, and
need not be more than 6 inches long and 4 inch in diameter. The
cross of the Anemometer is fixed to ‘its outer extremity : this should,
in the first instance, be of the Kew type, cups of 9 inches, and the
track of their centres 48 diameter. On the axle is secured a brass disk,
6 inches diameter, on whose circumference acts a circular brake, one
lug of which is screwed firmly to the bottom of the frame, the other
one is pressed towards it by the short arm of a right-angled lever,
turning on a centre similarly secured, and its longer arm connected
with the cord coming from the whirling machine.* _Itis evident that
by placing weights on the stage, we can apply considerable pressure
to the brake, and thus increase the Anemometer’s friction without at
all interfering with the whirl. Any of these frictions is easily
measured. Let the mouth of a cup be horizontal; place small weights
at its centre till it just moves on slightly, jarring the frame as by
light taps, or drawing a float over it. Repeat this for the other cups,
andtake the mean. This force is less than what is required to start
them from a state of rest, but it corresponds to that which will exist
during the rotation of the machine. I expect it will be found thatthe
friction will be constant for a givenload onthe stage. The centrifugal
friction may be determined by attaching to the outer end of the Anemo-
meter axle a thread, pulling in its direction over a pulley of known
friction, apply to it a weight = P. and measure the friction; the excess
of this over the normal friction divided by P=. As it is desirable
that the normal friction should be kept as low as possible, the axle
should rest on vertical friction wheels, and a horizontal one bearing
on the back of the brake disk will lessen the centrifugal one. Fora

* Mr. Grubb suggests that the brake apparatus should be brought close to the
vertical axis, and the axle of the Anemometer lengthened. This would materially
lessen the disturbance of air caused by the whirl, and the centrifugal friction.

440 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

purpose to be soon mentioned, this disk should have on one face a
graduation ; to 5° will be sufficient.

Both the whirling machine and the Anemometer should be pro-
vided with electric registration in some form. For instance, springs
of platinum attached to their axles, and making at each revolution
contacts actuating small electro-magnets depressing pens to make dots
on a cylinder covered with paper and driven by a clock. Either the
cylinder or penholder must have a transverse motion, so that the dots
may be arranged in helices if the experiment should last for more than
one revolution of the cylinder. If the circumference of the cylinder
and the time of its revolution be known, these will probably give the
time with sufficient accuracy to compute V. It need scarcely be said
that time must be allowed for the whirl to become uniform before the
register is made to act.

The most obvious mode of using this apparatus to determine the co-
efficients is similar to that used by M. Dohrandt ; but using the equation
(II.), and measuring f, and obtaining corresponding values of V and v
through as wide arange as possible. Then by minimum squares obtain
the other co-efficients. I do not like this, because it gives no special in-
formation as to the variability of the co-efficients, should it exist ; and
because since V, except for the very small values of v, is nearly as mv,
neither minimum squares, nor common elimination, give accurate
results without carrying the calculation to a large number of decimals.

The co-efficient a may be determined without difficulty. It -<,
0

V, being the velocity which just moves the Anemometer from a state
of rest. If we increase the speed till it begin to move, we get Vp.
This instant may be observed by the dropping of a disk of card, held
by friction against a stop, or by employing the electric register of
the Anemometer (which is not wanted here), to rmgan alarm. One of
the cups should be set by means of the graduation on the brake disk
to 6 =0, then to 5, 10, &e., to 90; and the mean should be taken
through the quadrant to give a. Then the friction should be increased _
and the a obtained for higher values of Yj. Should these agree with
the former, this co-efficient is independent of V; if not, their relation
can be found and (II.) modified accordingly.*

As to the other co-efficients, I have already said that the process of
minimum squares is not satisfactory on account of the small variation
of m’ in a series of ordinary observations. But our apparatus enables
us by increasing f to increase m’ to any extent. Put (I1.) inthe form

am’? — 2Bm! - y - f =0. (VI.)
v
* Perfect agreement is not to be expected; for, as already remarked, the velocity

of the whirling machine gives only approximately the action of the airon the
eups; and the difference will increase with the speed.

Rosinson—On the Cup Anemometer. 44]

Having three such equations with different values of f and 2»,
we can, of course, find the three co-efficients with much greater pre-
cision. It is desirable that V should be unvaried for the three obser-
vations, to avoid its influence on the result. Here, also, taking V as
large as possible, several such triplets may be obtained; and if they
all give the same results the co-efficients are independent of v.

Should a be shown by experiment to be constant, the co-eflicients

B ue are easily obtained; for two of the above equations give
a a
io teals
(eater += PF)
D F iD
aoe m’ + m' — ——; Dn = Sp! ey (Oe)
a mm — Nr a a av

Tf this work should show that additional powers of V or v must
be introduced into (II.), m will not be constant, and the instrument
should be constructed to show not mv, butv; and a table of V should
be computed with v as argument which would serye for all Anemo-
meters of the same type.

Having fully examined this Anemometer, others should similarly be
tried, varying inthe size of cups and arms; and this will show whether
a and y areexactly as the area of the cups, whether the eddies caused
by one cup interfere with the motion of that which follows it, and
whether there be any maximum relation between the cups and arms,
and how y varies with the latter:

All this, however, rests on the assumption that the V given by the
whirling machine acts similarly to an equal one of real wind. I
think that most of the defects of M. Dohrandt’s apparatus may be
avoided, except the difference between the action of a quiescent and a
moving fluid. Yet if this were determined in water for a cup ex-
posed perpendicularly and at 45, for the concave and convex surfaces,
it is highly probable that we should be able to reduce with sufficient
precision the results of the machine to those of the wind. Should
any further experiments like those of Mr. Froude, already referred to,
be undertaken, I hope this question will not be lost sight of.

There are two other differences; the Anemometer must produce
eddies in the air which in the case of wind are swept away from the
instrument ; but when it travels in confined space they may con-
tinue till in the course of its revolution it returns into them. It is not
easy to predict their effect or ascertain how long they last. The
circular current established in M. Dohrandt’s work will probably (if
produced at all) be insignificant in a freer space and better constructed
apparatus. It may be best examined by stopping the whirl, and at
the instant projecting smoke into the track of the Anemometer. Useful
information on this point might be obtained by attaching to the revoly-
ing arm a small rectangle of sheet iron inside the Anemometer so as
to increase its resistance and observing what change this produces on».

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3A
.

442 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Ifwe might assume the a observed as above to represent that be-
longing toreal wind (and especially when found with a low velocity
of whirl when the eddies must be small), we could obtain B and y by
its action. Let the Anemometer above described be detached from the
whirling machine and placed in open air with its axle vertical, and
near it another as a standard, having its cups and arms of the same
dimensions. They will have the same a, 6 and y, and the same un-
known V may be supposed to act on both.

The observations of v with the two must be synchronous, and calling
m’' that belonging to the standard, m” and m’” those belonging to the
other with two different values of f obtaimed by hanging weights to
the longer arm of the brake lever, we have, as V is given,

, U

m” = =n sm =n! my,

and by (VII.)

28 F ‘
ao =m'(n+1)- =m(n' +1) —- Hi
a

m'(n—1) m’(n!’ — 1)’
whence
Mr ea bamwere a) ee Ne (VIIL.)
(n’-1 a ‘nn
Knowing m’ we have
Vs ip , and iL
Qa a

The difference of these values from those given by the whirling
machine will show how far the latter method can be relied on in this
inquiry.

To avoid the irregularities already referred to as caused by local
circumstances, the cups of the two instruments should be at the same
height above the ground, their placement should be quite open, and
their position occasionally interchanged. But the wind itself is irre-
gular to an extent of which I had no idea till I examined the pressure
curves from which I deduced the a of my Anemometer. In one of
them whose time was only 99 seconds, the force at the axle varied
from 26 to 9 pounds, andin none vot them was itnearly uniform, Such
variation will affect m’ and m” differently; but possibly the mean
results, especially if each experiment lasts for several minutes, will
not be much astray.

I think it may be expected, with some confidence, that the line
of research which I have indicated will lead to useful results, both in
theory and practice, and give values for these constants, which, if not
absolutely exact, will be a close approximation to the truth. The
experiments which I propose would not be very costly if the appara-
tus were not constructed for permanent use; and I am not without
hopes that I may myself be enabled to execute them. -

a

Konanan— Tidal Currents and Wind-icares. 443

XL.—Txse Drirrive Power or Trmat Currents versus THat or Winn-
waves. By G. H. Kryanan, M.R.I.A., &e.

[Read November 30th, 1875.]

Ir might have been supposed that the exhaustive report on Waves,
by J. Scott Russell, F. R.S., &c.,* should have decided the relative
merits of the tidal currents t+ and wind-waves in regard to their drifting
powers. This, however, seems not to be the case, if we may judge
from the recent paper on the Chesil beach, Dorsetshire, read by Pro-
fessor Prestwich, before the Institution of Civil Engineers, Feb. 2nd,
1875, and the discussion that followed the reading of it.

In the report above mentioned, Scott Russell divides waves into
four orders. To the first of these, or the Wave of Translation, belongs
the great tidal wave; while wind-waves, according to that observer,
with a certain limitation, belong to the second order, the limitation
being, that those wind-waves that are im the act of breaking on a
beach change into waves of the first order. Indirectly, however, the
wind forms a different order of waves, for if water is piled up ina
narrow by the wind, the waves induced are “waves of translation.”’
Scott Russell also proves that a wave of the second order has little or
no carrying power; consequently wind-waves can have little of this,
except when actually running up the beach, when they change to
“‘waves of translation ;’ and even there their action is limited to a
quite narrow line. ;

In a tideless sea, wind-wayes breaking on the coast line form con-
siderable and permanent banks, as in the Mediterranean, where the
detritus brought down by the Rhone is piled up during storms on the
neighbouring shores, forming banks and lagoons. Considerable wind-
wave action also will be found in freshwater lakes and in brackish-
water lagoons, if in the latter the cross tides counteract one another;
but, as far as my experience goes in the seas round Ireland, the wind-
wayes do very little permanent work, if unaided by thetidal currents. If
wind-wayes did effect permanent driftage, it ought to be apparent on
the coast lines, the direction of its movement corresponding with that
of the prevailing winds resolved along the trench of the coast. The
direction of the prevailing winds is always registered by the lean of
the trees on a coast line, while the course of the driftage is marked by
the sand ridges or banks forming the knee-shaped invers or mouths
to the streams, the inver being shifted laterally, in the direction in

* © Report on Waves,” Brit. Assoc. Reports, Vol. xiii. 311, 1844

tT Tidal Currents are due to the “‘ Flow”’ and ‘“‘ Ebb” of the tides; these ave
quite distinct from the “ Rise’”’ and “ Fall” of the tides. This subject is fully
explained in the tract on ‘“ The Tides and Tidal Currents of is Trish Sea and
English Channel,” by the Rev. S. Haughton, F.T. C. D., &c., p. 3, et seg.

3A2

® 4.

+44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

which the driftage tends ; but the lean of the trees and the driftage of
the beach are often in opposite directions. We also find that a float-
ing body, such as a ship at anchor, always swings with the tide, except
in a very excessive gale; and fishermen’s nets, when they break loose,
always drift with the tidal current; so also floating timber drifts with
the tide, unless it comes so near the shore as to be under the influence
of the wind-wayes, after they have changed into ‘“‘ waves of transla-
tion.”

The study of the tidal currents on the coast of Ireland teaches us
that they have little or no driftage power when the tide is on the ebb,
even when confined in narrow channels; to this, however, there are
exceptions, as the quantity of water flowing out through a channel
may be considerably increased by land drainage, thus causing the
efiux to be of longer duration than the influx ; in some places the tide
runs out of an estuary for hours longer than it flows into it, the efflux
being augmented by floods in rivers, and the like. It appears also that
the driftage is greater during spring than neap tides; and that the
maximum driftage occurs when the direction of the incoming current
is the same as that of the prevailimg wind. We also learn that the
‘‘ set’? of the tidal current in-shore depends very much on the shape of
the coast line. If the coast line is straight, the direction of the set of
the tide along the shore, and outside in the deep water, will probably
be similar; but if the coast line is indented, or islands lhe off the coast,
in-shore currents back, or ‘‘ counter-tides,”’ and cross currents, will be
induced, which form off-shore banks, and thus lead to various com-
plications; large rivers may also form ccunter-currents and off-shore
banks.

In a bay, fig. 1, let the normal incoming tidal wave run in the

direction of the arrow A; this forms a primary current from the head-
land (2) to the headland (4), but from it in-shore or secondary currents
branch off into the bay, in the directions of the arrows (e', ¢, @), which
seem to decrease in power from ¢' to ¢; as the flow of the primary cur-
rent is usually much more rapid than that of the secondary, the tide
outside generally comes in fasterthan in the bay, consequently we often

* In all the woodcuts arrow A represents the direction of the flow tide,
_and C the ebb tide—wwhile the arrows B and D mark the directions of effective

winds.

il

Kryanan—TVidal Currents and Wind-waves. 445

find that, towards the end of the flow of the tide, there is a counter in-
shore tide from the headland (4), in the direction of the arrow (d). The
figure represents a regular bay, with equal headlands; but in nature
we often find the shore line of the bay more or less irregular, or a con-
siderable river flowing into it, which causes various complications in
the set of the secondary currents inthe bay. Let us suppose one head-
land to be longer than the other; if the first headland is the longer,
off-shore shoals may form across the mouth of the bay, and, after they
are formed, the force of the secondary currents seems to increase from
ce to &, fig. 1. The formation of shoals, however, seems to depend
also very much on the nature of the rocks forming the sea margin ;
for if the margin of the bay and the coast up-stream, or in the direc-
tion from whence the tidal current comes, are of hard rocks, there may
be no materials to form shoals out of ; while if the margin of the bay,
or even the coast line up-stream, is of frail materials, there will be
shoals: a river might, in some places, also bring down materials suffi-
cient to form shoals; this, however, is an exceptional case in Ireland.
Or, as in fig. 2, a third headland (¢) may be opposite the headland (4),
forming a narrow, asin the English Channel between Portland Bill and
Cape la Hogue,* in which case the primary current (A) seems often to
strike against the second headland (4), while the secondary currents
increase in strength from d* to d'. That the secondary currents vary
in power, as mentioned above, seems proved, for the following reasons.
Im such a case as that represented in fig. 1, the beach margining the
bay is made up, in nearly all places, of materials very similar, both in
quantity and size, which travel round the beach from a to 4; while in
such a case as represented in fig. 2, the materials forming the beach

Increase considerably, both in quantity and size, in the vicinity of the
second headland (6), while the major portion of them travels across

* Here, in addition to the narrow in the sea, the force of the current is increased
as it approaches Portland Bill, by the “‘ Nodal”’ or “‘ Hinge line” of the Tides in
the English Channel, being immediately east of Portland.—(Haughton, on “ The
Tides,’ §¢., pp. 22, et seg.) To this, thus augmented current, is probably due the
assorting and piling of the gravel and shingle of Chesil beach on the east side of
Lyme Bay, immediately N.N.W. of Portland Bill.

ee eee ee

446 Proceedings a the Royal Irish Academy.

the bay, and not round its margin; being sorted in their carriage, the-

largest going furthest, and forming a shingle beach at the back of the
second headland (0).

Banks off a coast line are connected with counter-currents, but
whether such currents have induced the banks or the banks the cur-
rents, it is hard to determine. Off a head will be found the end of a
shoal, or shoals, and farther up the coast, at a second headland, often
very slight, we find that a counter-current has been generated, which
flows back along the coast to the first headland, where meeting
the current in the opposite direction, both flow seaward, forming a
‘‘race,’’ till they meet the ‘‘ tail” of the shoals. Such races seem
seldom, if ever, to form bars or half-tide banks, although they sensibly
affect the soundings. The genesis of the ‘‘ counter-tides’” is very
obscure, as also the manner in which they finally join into the main
tide.

It is not unusual for rocky islands off a coast line to affect the run
of the tides. Such islands usually lie off a headland, being a portion
of the rocks of the headland, disconnected from it by denudation.
Under some circumstances, such an island will split the tidal cur-

rent, causing a portion on the up-stream side to form a counter-tide -

that will flow backwards along the coast line; while from the main-

land, toward the island, a half-tide ridge often forms. If there-

are many islands off a headland, the currents may be much more
complicated.
Off the inver or mouth of a large river a bank often forms,

owing to the driftage of the tide being partially stopped by the-
water flowing out of the river; let (4) fig. 3 represent such a bank.

Fie. 3.

In this case, if the bank is only covered during very high tides, when
the tide begins to flow into the estuary (a) there will be a current run-

ning between the bank and the shore, in the direction of (d); but after ~

half or three-quarters of the tide has come in, there will be a ‘‘ coun-
ter-tide’’ in the direction of (c) ; while, after the tide has turned, and
the tidal current is running in the direction of the arrow (C), there
will be a current into the estuary between the bank and the shore,

in the direction of the arrow (¢); and this latter current will continue-

KinauHan—Tidal Currents and Wind-waves. 447

until the tide begins to flow out of the estuary, which in some cases
(when the estuary widens considerably inside) may be hours after the
true turn of the tidal wave. If, however, the bank (4) is low, after
it is covered (say at quarter or half-tide), the tide will flow over it in
the direction of the arrow (f), and there will be no ‘‘ counter-tide”’
in the direction of (c). The ‘‘counter-tide’’ (c) has a considerable
drifting power ; its effects, however, are much modified by the after
current (¢). From this it will be seen that, if the bank (4) is only at
times submerged, the channel (e) between it and the shore will be shal-
lower than if the shoal is covered during the greater portion of the
flow of the tidal wave. Other driftages take place in connexion with
such a bank; they are, however, usually so slight as not to affect the
general question, besides that in a great measure they modify one
another.

It has been already mentioned that the unaided outgoing tidal
current appears to have little or no drifting power, not even when flow-
ing through a narrow, where we find the seaweed-covered stones are
rarely moved. This, however, may be more apparent than real ; for if
the bottom of a narrow is covered with shingle or coarse gravel, sea-
weed may grow on these, and prevent them being disturbed ; while, if
the bottom is small gravel or sand, a portion is carried off by the out-
going tide. It seems, however, to have very little effect on mud, and
in the Ivish estuaries the detritus brought in, or forced back, by the
tide is usually in excess of that carried out. This is very apparent in
the tidal flats and banks, where the tributaries of the main stream
nearly always flow into it up-stream, as shown in fig. 4, where J, d are
the tidal muddy flats,the arrow A indicates the direction of flow tides,

and the arrow C the direction of ebb tides—a being the stream when
the tide is out, into which the tributaries (c, ¢, c, c) enter with the
direction of the incoming tide. Even in some places the bed of a
large river will be banked up by materials brought up by the tide and
the stream forced out of its proper course: for example, the Slaney,
Co. Wexford, where, at the point of Park, a mud bank has accu-
mulated, and forced the bed of the river northward. Such tidal

448 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

accumulations, however, are greatly modified during floods in the
rivers, as a large freshet may effect considerable denudation during
the time the tide is out. Considerable denudation can also be effected
by artificial means; for, by judicious arrangement, as in the Boyne,
counties Louth and Meath, the tidal waters can be changed into cur-
rents that act like freshets in rivers.

Scott Russell has shown that, at the centre, a ‘‘ wave of transla-
tion’? is stronger and swifter than at its margins; somewhat in the
same way, the driftage of the in-coming tidal wave off-shore is usually
much stronger than itis in-shore. This is a fact well known to the fisher-
men, who often dredge and fish worked-out ground, rather than fish fresh
eround further out, on account of the additional labour that would be
incurred in the latter piace, consequent upon the augmented velocity of
the tides. In-shore, if there is a wide and long shelving beach, the
driftage effected is spread over a large expanse, and the results are not
very conspicuous or easy to study. This, however, is not the case on
quickly-shelving beaches, where the driftage solely due to the tidal
-wave is conspicuous, as when there is not a breath of wind blowing;
if the beach is composed of fine sand or gravel; each wave, according
to its intensity, carries up numerous particles in more or less oblique
lines. The major portion of the particles go up and come down, as
represented by the curved arrows (g and 9’, fig. 5); some, however, re-

Fl a | x Kk oh Wei
CH SEAT [eo eee lig ie aa BY: | Eee Zags ee Fm ~---5------f/----------- e
ee ee en AMINE In
——————————— == = == — Se
Fic. 5.*

main behind, and eventually reach the top of the beach, in a track
somewhat similar to that marked by the curved arrows (f, /’ and f”).
In a mixed beach, most of the fragments go with the arrows
(g and g'); but many of the larger fragments ascend the beach in the
irregular course indicated by the arrows (f, f’ and f”), especially dur-
ing spring tides;.these lodge on the top, and form a more or less
marked gravelly or shingly margin. It is, therefore, not unusual to
find a sloping beach constituted as follows :—Above, at the margin of
high-water of spring tides, a more or less well-marked terrace or accu-
mulation of coarse gravel or shingle (8, fig. 5); at the high-water of

* ain this figure represents the shore-line, to the left-hand the three perpendi-
cular black lines represent artificial groins.

a? ee ee ee ee ne ee ee ee Oe ee ee ee

Kinanan—Zidal Currents and Wind-waves. 449

neap tides, a second (c); this, however, is small and temporary, as it
is obliterated and removed during springs. Between high and low-
water of neap tides (¢ and d), there is a shelving beach of gravel
and sand, and immediately below d is an accumulation of shingle
or coarse gravel, forming the base of the steeply-shelving beach;
while between the latter and the line of lowest spring tide is a flattish
space, often composed of fine, immoveable sand, the outside or lower
margin of the regular-moving beach being at the shingle accumulation
below the line d. On the slope between ¢ and d there are always more
or less large isolated fragments scattered about the surface ; the shingle
at 6, except under peculiar circumstances, will ordinarily be much less
in quantity than at d; the latter moves, more or less, every tide, while
the upper accumulation (6) only is moved durimg springs. After
storms, however, patches of gravel and shingle will be scattered over
the slope between the line ¢ and d.

This travelling of beaches accounts for the accumulation of shingle
on the up-stream side (relatively to the direction of drift movement) of
an artificial grom, whichstops the travelling of the materials of a beach,
as the larger fragments ascending a beach are forced to travel along
the courses indicated by the arrows (hand 7, fig. 5), and are prevented
from descending by the groins, while the smaller particles are
sucked out by the backwash, some accumulates in the space above
the arrow (/). Or, ifthe groins are at considerable distances apart, the
materials are assorted by the offshoots (4 and/), from the main current
(J), the larger particles going with the latter. Many natural groins
act somewhat similarly, but as some run out into deep water for
greater or less distances beyond the margin of the beach, their action is
not alike in all cases, as will appear from the following. Usually asa
beach while travelling meets with a natural groin (as the headland
a, fig. 6), the sand, &c., is sucked out to sea in the direction of the
arrow (g), to be driven into the next bay obliquely (A). If, however,
the bay (e¢) is narrow and regularly formed, the wash will be directly

in and out (7 andj), and in such bays the tidal action seems to tend to
accumulate larger beaches than in more open bays. If there is a suc-
cession of bays (d, e, f, &c.), with strands, and the headlands between
them (a, 6, c, &c.) are formed of materials not easily denuded, there
will be no source to supply shingle, consequently the materials in the
beaches (£, /, m, &c.) will decrease in size from wear, till eventually the
beach will be solely composed of fine sand, without shingle or gravel
margins, either above or below (é and J, fig.5). This refers to the drift-
age along the margin of the coast; there might, however, be deep sea
driftage of coarser material, that would be carried obliquely on to the
coast, that may modify the above results; as shingle and gravel often
are carried direct from one headland to another, although very far
apart.

So far the driftage considered has been that solely due to the tidal
currents ; their action, however, can be modified or augmented by wind-
wayes. Wind-waves, as shown by Scott Russell, are usually waves of the

450 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

second order, and have no drifting power, but locally they may be waves
of the first order or ‘‘ waves of translation ;’’ also, wind may pile up
water and form ‘‘ wavesof translation.”” Thusina continued heavy gale
from the south, the wind will pile up the waterin the Irish Sea, to which
piling is due heavy large waves that break on the east coast of Ireland.
In-coming tidal currents, augmented by the wind blowing in the same
direction, are capable of doing the maximum amount of driftage on a
coast line, while, if the wind blows adverse to the in-coming tidal
current, it modifies the coast work, or even for a time may wholly stop
it. Adverse wind and tidal waves pile the gravel and sand on a beach
in transverse sloping ridges. If the wind and tide are equal the ridge
will be regular; if the tide is greatest, the top of the ridge will slope
in the direction the tide is flowing, while the upper end of the ridge
slopes with the direction of the wind if the latter is im excess. This
ridging of a beach may also occur under other circumstances, for the
waves of translation due to the piling of water by wind breaking on
a coast line will ridge the beach, also heavy wind blowing against an
outgoing tide may force it on to the beach, and piles the latter in
ridges. If wind and tidal action are contrary, the maximum power of
the wind-waves seems to be during the ebb of the tide, and especially
at the low-water of spring tides, when they root up portions of the
sea bottom (between d, ande, fig. 5), that under ordinary circum-
stances remains undisturbed.

If there are continuous heavy gales blowing obliquely to the in-com-
ing tidal wave (in the direction of the arrow B, fig. 6), accumulations

Fie. 6.

of sand and gravel, due to the wind waves, will form at and p, while
accumulations due to tidal action will collect at o and g. To form the
accumulations at 2 and y, continuous gales will be necessary, while a
good gale of forty-eight hours’ duration in the direction of D will carry
them all away; and even this time would not be necessary, but that
before the accumulation at p can be carried away, that at gq must be
dissipated, for as long as there is any sand at g, it will be carried by
wind and tide to y, and so prevent the latter from decreasing in
size.

Kinanan—Tidal Currents and Wind-waves. 451

S.E. Coast or IRELAND.

To illustrate the foregoing, the following statistics on the south-
east of Ireland (Charts xiv. and xv.),* are given, as this coast has been
carefully examined, and the results mapped.

The area contained in these charts includes the south coast between
Brattan Head and Carnsore Point, and the south-east coast between
Carnsore Point and Wicklow Head. On the south coast the normal
set ofthe in-coming tidal current is about west to east, on the south-east
coast from about south to north; while on the south coast the more
prevailing heavy winds are from about the south-west, and on the south-
east coast from about the north-east.| Commencing towards the south-
west, we find that at Tramore Bay, the eastward tidal driftage has piled
up aridge enclosing a lagoon called the Back Strand. This ridge having
grown eastward, until its farther progress was stopped by the rock-
bound coast of Brownstone Head. Such a coast is not easily denuded,
and seems to force the driftage seaward in all cases; allowing the
mouth of a lagoon or river to remain permanent, the growth of a
ridge being thus stopped.

We next meet with the estuary called Waterford Harbour ; here
a lagoon could not form, for although the eastward driftage has
attempted to bar it across, yet on account of the large efflux of water
from the Suir, Barrow, and Nore, and the rock-bound shore of Hook
promontory, which prevents the channel from moving eastward, the
detritus carried in by the tidal wave is carried out again to sea during
ebb tides. East of Waterford Harbour isa large bay extending 8. W.
and N.E., bounded on the N.W. by Hook promontory, and on the
S.E. by the Saltee islands and Crossfarnoge Point. Here the main
tidal current, when it passes Hook Point sends a secondary current
to the N.K. to Bannow Bay; while between Hook and the Saltees,
other secondary currents branch off running N.E. to the sound
between the north Saltee and the mainland, where they turn to the
N.W. into Ballytiegue Bay, forming a counter-tide, which meets the
tide from Bannow Bay at the Keeragh islands. The current that

* Admiralty Chart, Sheet xiv., from Brattin Head to Wexford, surveyed by
Commissioner Frazer, M.R.I.A., 1847; and Sheet xv., from Wextord to Wicklow,
surveyed by Commissioner Frazer, in 1844, and in part re-surveyed by Staff-Com-
missioner J. R Keer. in 1873.

+ Winds from the S.W. do not affect the S.E. coast; winds from the south do in-
directly, as they pile up water in the Irish Sea, while the winds that blow from the
S.E. have the greatest effect on the driftage. On this S.E. coast from Carnsore to
Wicklow, the trees lean to the N.E., as the prevailing winds (from the 8.W.) have
full power across the low lands of the Co. Wexford. Although these winds have
such an effect on the trees, they have no effect on the denudation of the coast, the
wind-waves generated not acting on this coast line. This accounts for the most
effective wind-waves being due to winds that come in an opposite or transverse direc-
tion to that of the prevailing winds.

~ 452 Proceedings of the Royai Irish Academy.

runs N.E. along the Hook promontory carries fragments of the
Hook promontory rocks as far as the Keeragh islands; it has also,
in part, formed a lagoon occupying the inside portion of Bannow
Bay, a considerable ridge of blowing or ‘‘ Aolian drift” having
accumulated as aridge, extending from the headland N.E. of Fethard.
This ridge, however, cannot extend farther, for here, as at Tramore
Bay, the opposite coast (Bannow Island) is rock-bound. When this
tidal current passes Ingard Point it runs northward to the opposite
coast, part from thence going N.E., and part 8.W., to the gut called
Fethard Bay, the latter current forming a ridge or bar extending
toward the 8.E. from the north shore of Fethard Bay.

The ‘‘ counter-tide’”’? which runs N.W. from Crossfarnoge Point
has a considerable driftage, and to it in a great measure is due
the -Alolian sand-ridge, over six miles long, which separates the
lagoon™ called the Ballyteigue Lough from the open sea. The coast
opposite the end of this ridge is of drift, easily denuded, consequently
the ridge is yearly extending westward. Since the Ordnance maps
were made (1840) it has grown nearly two hundred yards. This
seems to be a good example of the effect of tidal currents, pure and
simple, as the most continued and effective winds on this coast are
from about the §.W., and opposite to the direction of the driftage
due to the ‘‘ counter-tide.”’

The secondary current which generates the counter-tide just
mentioned runs N.E. along the N.W. of the Saltees; but along
the S.E. of those islands, there is also a secondary current running
in a nearly similar direction; these meet in the sounds, between
the islands and the. mainland, forming ‘‘counter-tides,’”’ “races,”
and half-tide banks: the most marked of the last is called St. Patrick’s
Bridge, and extends nearly from the mainland, a little east of Cross-
farnoge Point, toward the north Saltee Island. Between this bank
and Crossfarnoge, at Kilmoye, a pier was erected to shelter fishing
boats from the 8.W. winds; the anchorage, however, is rapidly fill-
ing up, on account of the tidal driftage. ;

In the bay between the Saltees and Carnsore, there are “‘ counter-
tides,” the most marked being due to an in-shore stream, that runs
westward from Carnsore, during three-quarters of the tide, while
during the other quarter the current runs to the eastward. These
different currents cause a great complication in the driftage, they
also seem to assist the wind-waves considerably, as, during storms
from the southward, the ridges enclosing the lagoons called Tacumshin
and Lady’s Island lakes are moved inland, while the coast line in places
between Kilmore and Carnsore is being rapidly denuded. South
of Tacumshin lake, there is a ‘‘counter-tide’” running eastward
to Kilturk bank; this drifts the bank westward, thus causing the
natural embouchure of the lake to be at the western end of the bank,

* This lagoon is now for the mast part reclaimed.

Kon anan—TZidal Currents and Wind-waves. 453

as marked in the Chart of 1847. Since then an artificial cut was
made, near the centre of the bank, but in subsequent years an
attempt was made to reclaim the lagoon, and this cut was replaced
by a tunnel. The reclamation and tunnel, however, have failed,
and now the natural opening is gradually again forming at the western
end of the bank.*

On the S.E. coast between Carnsore and Greenore, the drittage
seems to be regularly northward along shore; but after the latter
point is passed there are two lines of driftage, the main driftage
direct towards Cahore Point, and a secondary driftage round Greenore
Point, and along the shore of Ballygeary Bay to the Dogger bank.
There is also at times, in all the bays on this 8.E. coast, a drift-
age direct on shore, occurring after continuous south gales, and appa-
rently due to the water being banked up in the Irish Sea by the wind.
Theat the two first mentioned tidal driftages occur is quite palpable, as
portions of the rocks forming the coast at Carnsore and Greenore are
found along the shore of Ballygeary Bay as far as the Dogger bank,
also in the shingle beach which margins the coast for three miles on
the south of Cahore Point, while between the Cahore shingle beach
and the Dogger bank they are very rare. Such pieces must come from
Greenore, and not from the local drift, as all fragments and blocks in
the drift have come from the northward or north-eastward, and not
from the southward. If we trace the beach driftage from Greenore
we find in various places along the shore a little shingle, which
increases in quantity and size as we approach the Dogger bank ; on te
which, and from its N.E. end north-eastward to the Blackwater bank,
in the deep water, most of it seems to be carried. Some, however,
goes through the Hantoon channel, between the Dogger bank and the
Rosslare sand ridge, a small portion of which is carried round the
north end of that ridge, to be lodged on its west side. In Ballygeary
Bay, a pier and viaduct was commenced in 1878. This has now quite
changed the features of the coast-line on the east of the pier, as a fore-
shore has formed between the old cliff and the sea. This accumula-
tion extends from the pier to the Point of Ballygillane, is over 100
yards wide, and in places over eight fect deep.

The efflux from the Wexford lagoon stops the tidal anitrane to the
northward, and thus forms the Dogger bank; and formerly, prior to
the in-take of a considerable portion of this lagoon, this driftage accu-
mulated in a massive, irregular east and west tidal shoal, as repre-
sented in the chart made in 1847 by Comm. Fraser, R. N. ;} showing
that the force of the efflux and of the tidal wave was nearly equal.

* Since the above was written, the occupiers of the adjoining lands have cut the
bank near the former artificial embouchure.

+ Admiralty Chart, Sheet xiv., a.p. 1847, which compare with the bank as
marked on Sheet xv., a.p. 1873, and enlarged plan Wexford Harbour, a.p. 1847,
and Wexford Harbour, A.D. 1878.

454 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Now, however, the force of the efflux is much less, and the Dogger
bank has changed into a long, narrow N.E. and S.W. shoal,* consider-
ably overlapping the mouth of the estuary and the end of the Raven
ridge. This shoal is gradually accumulating, so that now there is a
long, narrow N.E. and 8.W. island formed. The change in the efflux
from the Wexford lagoon has not only affected the Dogger bank at its
immediate embouchure, but also the off shore shoals; as when the
current from Wexford harbour was pushed northward, the Lucifer
shoal began to be denuded, and is now gradually wasting away: the
outline of the Blackwater bank is also changing. The present Dogger
bank also forms a half-tide ‘‘counter-tide,’”’ running to the 8.W.,
which strikes on the Rosslare ridge, and is rapidly cutting a passage
through it. On account of the present eurrents and driftage, the
passage and bar of Wexford harbour are ever changing; this, how-
ever, could be materially prevented by an artificial regulation of the
currents, and consequently of the driftage.

Between the North bay and the Cahore shingle beach there are
high drift cliffs, which are weathering rapidly, as high tides wash
their base; some of this drift is very stony, but the stones out of it
do not form a shingle beach at the base of the cliff, but are sucked out
seaward to low-water of neap tides (d, fig. 5), along which line they
are drifted northward, some of them eventually to be cast up to
augment the Cahore shingle beach. In the neighbourhood of Cahore
Point there is a slight ‘“‘ counter-tide,’’ in connexion with the shoals
called the Rush bank and the Ram; this forms a race called the
‘Sluice of the Ram.” This counter-tide slightly affects Cahore
shingle beach, on which account the largest fragments are not found
at its northern end.

The Cahore shingle beach margins a ridge of Kolian sand, and
when the sea was at the height of the present Ordnance twenty-five
feet contour line, there was an island at Cahore Point having a con-
siderable sheet of water to the 8S. W. of it; this was subsequently a peat
bog, when the land was about thirty feet higher than at present;
afterwards a lagoon, separated from the sea by a ridge, and now it is
all more or less reclaimed. At first, to drain it, a canal was made
through the centre of the ridge on the S.W. of Cahore Point. This,
however, was always being filled by the driftage from the south, and
now the tract is drained by a canal which empties itself into the sea
through a culvert in a pier that has been built at Pollduff, a little
N.W. of Cahore Point. This canal, unfortunately, is not effective, on
account of the site of the pier; opposite to the mouth of the culvert
is a breakwater, behind which the sand collects and dams up the water;
and between the Point and the pier is a bay, in which the driftage
collects: this, during N.E. winds, which are those that most prevail at

* Admiralty Chart, Sheet xy., 1873, and cnlarged plan Wexford Harbour,
A.D. 1873.

Koinanan— Tidal Currents and Wind-waves. 455

the time the canal ought to be acting, causes the pier to be silted up by
sand and gravel. Here the sand and gravel, collected during months by
the N.EK. winds, will be carried away by one good continuous gale
during spring tides from the §8.W. A short gale would do the work,
were it not for the sand in the bay between the pier and the Point,
this haying first to be removed, as otherwise the tidal driftage from
the south will replace the sand on the north of the pier as fast as it
is removed.

From Cahore to Kilmichael Point, the driftage seems to be in
general even and regular, its direction being to the northward. Be-
tween these two points is Courtown, on the Owenavorragh river,
where piers and other works have been constructed, but unfortu-
nately, the harbour is almost useless, as its embouchure is nearly
always silted up. Here, also, is an example of the superior driftage
power of the tidal currents over the wind-waves. Some years ago, a
storm swept away the end of the south pier, after which the N.E.
gales used to clear out the bar in the mouth of the harbour, but lately
the end of the south pier was rebuilt, since when similar gales do not
clear the bar. The reason for this is quite apparent, as, prior to the end
of the south pier being rebuilt, galesfrom the N.E. excavated out, not
only the accumulations forming the bar, but also the accumulations be-
tween the piers and the headland (Breanoge Head), a little to the south ;
now, however, such gales can only affect the bar, the south bay being
protected from their influence; consequently, asfast as the bar is re-
moved, the tidal driftage replaces it with other materials. This place
seems to be more favourably situated for the construction of a harbour
than any other on the 8.E. coast, if the driftage was taken into con-
sideration and provided against.

A mile due east of Kilmichael Point, is ‘‘the tail’’ of the Glass-
gorman bank, and in a nearly east and west line between them is
the ‘‘race of Kilmichael.’’ This is due to the tide from the south here
meeting a counter-tide generated near Arklow Head. Immediately
north and south of Kilmichael promontory, as in many other places on
this coast, there were in years gone by considerable bays, which have
been since filled up by accumulations, principally of /olian sand,
while of late years these sand hills have been considerably denuded
at their southern ends. In the bay to the south of Kilmichael,
over thirty-five acres in area have been carried away since the
Ordnance maps were made (1840), and in that to the north about
thirty acres.*

In the tract to the south of Kilmichael, the encroachments on the
AXolian drift only take place during galesfrom theS.W. Thisis, as might

% There are no reliable records prior to the Ordnance Survey, but the old men
remember when the land extended much more seaward than is indicated by the
Ordnance maps. In confirmation of their statements, they point to the old road-
ways, which now lead to nearly perpendicular cliffs.

456 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

be expected, the wind action being combined with the tide, and thus
creating an increased driftage; but in the tract to the north, the wind-
waves act against the drittage of the ‘‘ counter-tide;” yet the princi-
pal denudation is at the south end of the accumulation, and what
apparently is more remarkable, immediately to the northward, between
Clogga and Arklow Head, there is another similar accumulation of
Eolian sand, where the principal driftage is not northward with the
wind-waves, but southward with the counter-tide. This exception in
the bay between Clogga and Kilmichael is the only place on the
whole of the coast line in these charts, where the drifting power ot the
wind-waves seems to exceed, or even equal, that of the tidal current ;
possibly, however, this apparent anomaly may be due to the tides
during springs running direct on to the coast hereabout, from ‘‘ the
tail” of the Glassgorman bank; but in support of such a supposition I
could get no evidence. Under ordinary circumstances, the driftage
hereabouts seems to be southward with the ‘‘ counter-tide,” as the
fragments of the rocks are carried south along the beach.*

North of Arklow Head, opposite the valley of the Ovoea river, there
was formerly a large Aolian sand accumulation enclosing a lagoon,
and from what now remains it is evident that formerly the driftage
from the southward shifted the embouchure of the Ovoca river some-
what northward; now, however, by piers and other artificial means,
an entrance has been made and kept open near the centre of the sands.
Here also, as at Pollduff and Courtown, the works have not been effi-
cient. Formerly, N.E. gales cleared out the bar, but of late years
the south pier was lengthened, which has had the same effect (and
for a similar reason) as the rebuilding of the south pier at Courtown,
previously mentioned.

From Arklow to Mizen Head, and from that to Ardmore Point, the
tide and driftage seem very regularly northward. In the different bays,
in all of which there are A‘olian sands, the tide cuts a little from the
southern extremities of the banks, while more or less is added to the
north end; except in Jack’s Hole, where the bank has been added to
considerably all along. Here it may be mentioned, that on this coast
the outer margin of the sand hills is now generally more regular than
when the Ordnance maps were made, in general all the jutting out
portions haying been cut away, or the hollows filled up.

Between Ardmore and Wicklow} there are various complications
on account of the points and shoals that generate ‘‘ races” and ‘‘ coun-
ter-tides.”’ Of these ‘‘ counter-tides” the larger one begins near Five

* These ‘counter-tides’’ seem to have been very little studied, and are not
marked on the chart. Neither the coastguards nor the fishermen seem to be per-
fectly acquainted with them. They all know the ordinary “set,” and allow that
this at times changes, but the exact time of the change, and the cause of it, they
cannot tell.

+ Wicklow is situated immediately outside the north margin of the area included
within the limits of the Chart, Sheet xv.

——————— a! le CO

Konanan—TZidal Currents and W ind-waves. 457

mile Point,* on the north of Wicklow, and flows southward to Bride
Head, off which there is a considerable ‘‘race.”’ This ‘‘ counter-tide”’
drifts the beach southward, and thereby has formed a shingle and gra-
vel ridge, which has pushed the Vartry southward, until its farther
progress in that direction was stopped by the hard rocks that form the
Wicklow Head promontory, the pent up waters forming a lagoon and
marshes. Here, at the south end of the ridge, the driftage seems to
be carried to sea; for, as in other places where a rock-bound coast stops
the further growth of a ridge, the embouchure out of the lagoon seems
to have a permanent bar: but, what here appears remarkable, this bar
has not changed during late years, although half the waters that used
to come down the Vartry are now diverted to supply Dublin.

These notes record what has been going on during late years, but
it has to be remembered that, during comparatively recent years, large
bays existed, that are now filled up with Aolian sand.| Why the
sand banks accumulated in these bays seems to be due to a slight rise
in the height of the land, as, when the sand has been removed by wind,
ancient sea beaches are found under them. If, therefore, their accu-
mulation was due to a rise in the land level, it appears probable that in
those piaces where the sand banks are now being denuded, there must
be a slight fall going on in the levelofthe land. The difference, how-
ever, in the levels is so slight that changes in the height of the Rise
and Fall of the tide (Full and Change), possibly, might account for the
denudation, without the level of the land changing.

REsvtts.

The information gathered on this portion of the coast of Ireland
goes to prove the following :—

First—The driftage due to the incoming tidal current is always,
during its progress, going on in deep water, and more or less in shal-
low water.

Second.—The driftage due to wind-waves only occurs during gales,
and even then is only due to the waves that break on the shores.

Third.—To prevent the tidal driftage (arrow A Fig. 7), groins, or
piers, should be erected; and if the pier (6) is to form a harbour Ga;
transverse groins (¢ c') should run out from it, to stop the back wash
generated by the pier, for otherwise this back wash would carry the
driftage seaward, in the direction of the arrow (d), to be sucked round
the pier into the harbour (f).

Fourth.—As the wind-wave driftage occurs during gales, and then
only on the shore line, it might be prevented from filling up a harbour,

* Admiralty Chart, Sheet xvi.

+ About a mile S.S.W. of Kilmichael Point, the writer was shown a rock cliff,
recently exposed by the denudation of the Rolian drift, that, prior to the accumu-
lation of the latter, seems to have been quarried by man.

R.1.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3B

458 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

or damaging the shipping in it, by placing a breakwater (e, fig. 7)
across the direction (arrow B) from which the prevailing storms come.

Tf such a breakwater were a fixed one, built of stone or wood, it must
more or less affect the tidal driftage, and probably would help to fill up
the harbour. But if it was floating, it ought to break the wind-waves
in deep water, thus destroying their drifting powers, while there would
be no impediment to interfere with the tidal driftage. The exact form
of the pier, whether straight, or slightly curved, as represented in the
figure, would have to be determined on, after experiments on the sets
of the currents, at the place where the pier was to be built.

SruppDERT—On Free and Albuminoid Ammonia. 459

XLI.—An Estrmation oF THE FREE AnD ALBUMINOID AMMONIA
YIELDED BY THE STaGNaNT WaAtvTERS OF THE DvusiiIn STREETS,
AS COMPARED WITH THE QUANTITIES OF THOSE SUBSTANCES OB-
TAINED FROM THE LIFFEY WATER, AFTER RECEIVING THE SEWAGE.
By Lancetor SruppErtr, LL.D., Ex-S.T.C.D.

[Read 10th January, 1876. ]

Durine the Session of 1874-5 of the Royal College of Science,
‘Stephen’s-green, several examinations were made there of Dublin well-
waters ; and also some determinations like those that follow for the river
water. Asa sequel to those analyses, the suggestion of the Professor
of Chemistry in that college, Mr. Galloway, induced me to undertake a
series of estimations of the ammonia yielded by the surface-water of
some streets and squares in Dublin, taking as the standard of compa-
rison the water of the Liffey, near where the sewage is discharged into
the river.

The results of my examination, conducted during November and
December last, in the College of Science Laboratory, are now laid
before the Royal Imish Academy.

Altogether twenty-nine of these street waters were examined: the
samples dealt with were collected, in my presence, at the times and
places stated in the Table appended to this paper: the mud, also, left
from some of these pools, was examined for ammonia, which reached
two parts in the hundred, calculated after allowing for moisture ex-
pelled at 212° Fahrenheit. The river water was collected at inter-
vals during the two months, from four different places, namely, at
Eden-quay, Aston’s-quay, Burgh-quay, and Sir John Rogerson’s-quay,
four hours after high water at Dublin bar.

The method employed for determining the quantity of ammonia
' yielded by these waters and muds is that devised by Messrs. Wanklyn
and Chapman. This process is almost universally allowed to be the
best yet made known for ascertaining the character of the nitrogenous
matter in waters; its quantitative results are accurate, and they are
obtained with rapidity. It may be well to state, for the information
of any unacquainted with the Wanklyn and Chapman process, that
under the term ‘‘ free ammonia,” these chemists include ammonia not
only present as such, or in combination with acids, but also the ammonia
that, after adding a saturated soda carbonate solution, is evolved by
distillation from urea, or other easily decomposable nitrogenous organie
bodies. The term free ammonia is therefore not strictly correct; but,
taking it in this special sense, it would be difficult to substitute any
other term more convenient, or less open to objection.

The Table of results gives the figures for the Liffey standard at the
head of the list. The quantities of the free and the albuminoid
ammonia obtained from the several street and Liffey waters are calcu-
lated as grains in the gallon, and also as milligrammes in the litre
of each water, respectively, examined.

R. I, A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. TI., SCIENCE. zi

460 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The average of free ammonia from the four samples of the river is
(0-0982, or under 33> of a grain in the gallon ; the average of albuminoid
ammonia from the same is 0°0779, or under 35 of a grain in the gallon.

It may be interesting to note that the examination of the river
water referred to as haying been made by other workers in the College
ot Science Laboratory in 1874, gave a result equal to my average in
1875 : thus shewing a remarkable constancy in the state of the Liffey.

It may also be remarked in passing that my average for free am-
monia is less, but for albuminoid ammonia is greater, than the average
Messrs. Wanklyn and Chapman reported as that of the Thames at
London-bridge, in June, 1867: that river, the tide being at two hours
flood, yielding free ammonia = 0°1232 of a grain per gallon ; and albu-
minoid ammonia = 0°0245 of a grain to the gallon.

The average of free ammonia obtained from the 29 street waters
is 17 grains to the gallon; that is, over 170 times the lke average
from the river. The average of albuminoid ammonia from the street
water is 3 grains to the gallon, or 38 times the Liffey average.

It will be seen by the Table, that from three out of the four river
samples, the quantity of free ammonia was under that yielded by any
of the street waters, except at Stephen’s-green, East and South.

The maximum of free ammonia from the river was at Burgh-quay,
and only reached 0°175, or less than } of a grain to the gallon; whilst
the maximum of free ammonia from the street waters, namely, at
Moss-street and Poolbeg-street, was 105 grains to the gallon, that is
exactly 600 times greater than the river maximum.

The /east impure of the 29 street waters yielded nearly three times
more albuminoid ammonia than the most impure sample of the river
water; for instance, the surface-water at Merrion-square, South,
being the best of the street waters, yielded 0-280 of a grain, against
that obtained from the river at its worst, namely, 0-098 of a grain, or
nearly 3 to 1.

But the bad preeminence of the water in Moss-street and at
Peter-place (corner in Adelaide-road), and in Lee’s-lane, off Aston’s-
quay, namely, 10 and 10-15 and 11-2 grains of albuminoid ammonia
from one gallon of each water, respectively, is more than 100 times
greater than the Liffey maximum.

Messrs. Wanklyn and Chapman conclude from a wide induction
of experiments that ‘‘ the disintegrating animal refuse mm the river
[Thames] would be pretty fairly measured by ten times the albuminoid
ammonia which it yields.” In this way, the average of such refuse
in the Liffey is 0°779, or just ? of a grain in the gallon; whilst the
average of such refuse in the street waters is 29 grains to the gallon.

That much of this enormous amount of animal matter thus in our
midst must, if not rapidly removed, take forms that will vaporise,
seems all but certain, since the conditions for spontaneous decompo-
sition may be said to be always present: there are the moisture and
heat required for this chemical change, and then there occurs at in-
tervals the drying up of these stagnant pools.

_ >

SrupDERT—On Free and Albuminoid Ammonia. 46]

My examination of these street waters found, as might be
expected, sulphuretted hydrogen, with other sulphides and very offen-
sive volatile substances.

What the effect must be on the people’s health who dwell in an
atmosphere contaminated by exhalations such as these, it is not for
me to determine; this paper simply records the facts of the case,
leaving conclusions to those physicians whe make such researches their
peculiar study. But without knowing the least of the little that is
known, even to the medical faculty, about either the chemical or the
germ-theory as to the propagation of disease, yet one of the unlearned,
like myself, haying but ordinary sagacity, might correctly conclude
that the continued presence of so much dirt in the streets would go
far to account for the high death-rate (33 to the 1000, yearly) lately
recorded for Dublin ; a city whose situation, other things being equal,
might mark it out as one of the healthiest in the Empire. The
London ‘‘ Times,” last week, reviewing “‘ Ireland at the close of 1875,”
laid this to our charge—that ‘‘ dirt reigns, and slays its thousands in
Dublin and elsewhere.”

Whatever is to be done with our street sewage, whether it is still
to defile the natural purity of the river, or to be applied to improve
the land, or only to be thrown away, with great cost, into the sea;
whatever be the destination of this noxious mass, whether it is to be
good, bad, or indifferent, it certainly appears, from the results now
laid before the Academy, that better scavenging and a level surface
for the streets is at once required.

The Professor of Hygiene and Public Health in University
College, London (Dr. Corfield), in reference to this subject, in the
‘‘Manual of Public Health,” edited by Hart, states that :—‘‘If the
streets, roads, and ways of a town or district are allowed to become
or to remain so out of repair as to become receptacles for filth, or to
afford, by their inequalities, depressions in which foul water accumu-
lates, it is in vain to look for beneficial results from other sanitary
measures.”

TaBLE OF ReEsvtts.

| FREE AMMONIA. ALBUMINOID AMMONIA.
Date CE sorecr Place of collection of | :
wer WEIS | Grains per | Milligram. | Grains per | Milligram.
| gallon. per litre. gallon. per litre.
1875. Lirrey STANDARD. |
November 11, | Eden-quay, ' 0°0840 1:20 0-0980 1:40
55 29, | Aston’s-quay, | 0°0812 1:16 0°0910 1:30
December 15, | Burgh-quay, ' 0°1750 2°50 0:0875 | 1:25
» 17, | Sird.Rogerson’s-q.| 0-0525 0-75 0:0350 | 0:50
Total=| 0:3927 | Total=| 0-3115
Average=| 0°0982 |Average=! 0:0779 | |

462

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

TaspLE oF REesutts—continued.

FREE AMMONIA.
Date of collec- Place of collection of
tion‘of water: water: Grains per | Milligram.
gallon. per litre.
1875, Nov. 1, Stephen’s-gr., N., 0°126 1:8
i 2 f E., 0-670 1:0
A 3, 5 S., 0-070 1:0
- 5, FA W., 0-315 4:5
B 15, | Stephen-st., lower, | 12°600 180-0
‘ 17, | Cross Kevin-st., 2°800 40:0
. 18, | Patrick-street, 4-900 70:0
is 19, | Townsend-street, 4°550 65:0
Peter-place, at
fe eA corner on Ade- 5:600 80:0
laide-road,
», 9380, | Baggot-st., lower, 0-700 10:0
December 1, | Duke-lane, : 1:190 17:0
Lemon-street (late : 4
ae yt { Little Grafton-st.), \ DE pus
s 2, | Leeson-st., lower, 1-540 22:0
Bs 2, | Leeson-lane, . 10°500 150:0
4 7, | Creighton-street, . 1°540 22:0
s 7, | Sandwith-street, . 1:820 26:0
* 7, | Boyne-street, . 4200 60:0
= 8, | Abbey-street, Mid. 3°780 54:0
coh yi0, { Lees-lane, Astons’ - | 98-000 | 1400-0
QUaysev i ee
Sir J. Rogerson’s- j d
mia 10" { Poa | 70:000 | 1000-0
ss 10, | Moss-street, 105:000 | 1500°0
em 10, | Poolbeg-street, 105:000 | 1500-0
a 14, | Peterson-lane, 9-800 140:0
m3 15, | Frederick-lane, S., 7-000 100°0
17, | New-street, 3 13-500 150°0
20, | Fitzwilliam-sq.,W. 0:490 70
mh 90) i Be 175500), 1260-0
iy 20, | Merrion-sq., N., 0°350 5-0
iF 20, yaaperiiust suai 0°420 6:0
Total= | 492861 Total =

Average = 17 grs. of free am- | Average = 3 grs. of
monia per gallon of water

(surface).

albuminoid
monia per gallon
of water (surface).

Lower Stephen-street, 0°3780

Mud dried at 212° F.

Percentage.— Free Ammonia. Albuminoid Ammonia.
Peter-place corner,

Boyne-street,

1:2857 + 0°6163 =2p.c.
0-1001
0°4861 0°3640.

ALBUMINOID AMMONIA.
Grains per Milligram.
gallon. per litre.
0:238 | 3°4
0°420 6:0
0°378 5:4
0°490 7:0
5:800 80:0
1-400 “| 20-0
1°750 52°0
4-900 70:0
10°150 145-0
0:800 12:0
1:190 17:0
2:030" | 29-0
0:910 13:0
2°380 34:0
0-980 14:0
1:400 20:0
2°110 31:0
1:820 26:0
11:200 160:0
7:000 | 100-0
10:000 145:0
7:000 100:0
0:980 14:0
1°820 26:0
3°500 50:0
0°350 5:0
1750 25:0
0°525 75
0-280 4:0
83°646
am-

Batit—On Lagrange’s Equations. 463

XLIT.— On .an Etementary Proor or “ Lacraner’s Equations oF
Morton ry Generatizep Co-orprnaTEs.”’ By Rosert 8. Batt,
LL. D., F. R.8., Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Dublin, and Royal Astronomer of Ireland.

[Read 24th January, 1876.]

Tue proofs generally given of these most useful equations depend
upon D’Alembert’s principle. It is possible that these equations
would be more used, even in elementary Dynamical problems, if
the method of establishing them were simplified. I can hardly
believe that the proof here given is new; but I have read altogether
seven proofs in seven different books, and of these, five depend upon
D’Alembert’s principle, while the two remaining ones have little
or nothing in common with the method I here give.

Let V denote the potential energy of a Dynamical system, and 7
the kinetic energy. Let gq be one of the m generalized co-ordinates
by which the position of the system is specified.

Suppose the system receive a displacement dg: then the particle
of mass m, of which the co-ordinates are x, y, 2, receives a displace-
ment, of which the components are

= S95) OU =O
dq i dq a dq
The forces acting on m, at x, ¥, 3, are
ac d*y dx
m—, M=~, m—

U2
dt?’ dt?’ dt?

Hence the quantity of work done, while the displacement 6¢ is
made, is

(dz dx dy dy dz Ws
ZU . de aF dy . dé * ig 5 i)
the symbol & extending to all the particles of the system.
The potential energy of the system is therefore diminished by this -
amount, whence

dV (dx @x dy @y ds Wa

F er apt Pa ae ee : dé}

We have also

464 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

whence

US (da ae th dy Wy dz @s
dq" \dé ° didq dt" didg* at” aa

Suppose the other generalized co-ordinates be 7, s, &c., then we

have
dx dx dq de dr d« ds

Tee Os an ae

CHO CHB {
dg UNE Te Pi ors Mista
whence
Dae
dg \dt dq

We therefore have

aT ., (dx adifdx\ dy. df(dy\ dz 4d (dz }
FR aa ag)" dt ala alg \’

(da dx dy ay ds |

/

Seca Od “Gq aoe

whence by differentiating,
d (F aT d i
CB\ Gi Gh he

The remaining (» — 1) equations are to be similarly proved.

ee

PrunkEett—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Care. 465

XLIII.—On tHe Exprorarion or tHE Knocxninny Cave. By T.
Prunxert. Wits an Account oF THE ANIMAL Remains. By Rev.
Professor Haventon, M. D., F. R.8., and Professor MacaristEr,
M. D.

[Read 24th January, 1876. ]

Trove the pen of Mrs. Hall, as well as some other writers, who
were less graphic in their delineations, Lough Erne is far-famed for
its beautiful and varied scenery, combining almost everything that is
lovely and picturesque in nature—the very sight of which is cal-
culated to produce the ‘‘ joy of elevated thoughts,” and inspire feelings
that only a Wordsworth could adequately pourtray.

In an archeological point of view, it is also very interesting,
as, scattered round its shores and some of its numerous islands, there
are a number of rude stone monuments, of unknown antiquity. There
are also numerous remains of an early Christian people, who must
have attained a high level of culture and civilization, as the architec-
ture of their churches and monasteries—even in their hoary ruins—
testify, together with the round tower of Devenish Island, which
is one of the finest in Ireland; but, according to Mr. Bourke’s theories,
enunciated in his late work (Aryan Origin of the Celtic Race), the
round towers must be removed from their recognised place in the
architectural history of the country, and pushed back into the dark
mysterious past, or pre-Christian times.

The cave, and its interesting contents, the subject of this paper,
add a new feature to the antiquities found in the valley of Lough
Erne, and probably, in some respects, it is unique in Europe. As far
as I can ascertain, the large cinerary urn (fig. 7), which I found in an
upper stratum of the cave-earth, containing burnt human bones, is the
first of this kind found in any cave in Europe.

Knockninny, the name of the rocky hill where the cave occurs,
rises abruptly on the southern shore of Upper Lough Erne, ten miles
from Enniskillen, and two from the village of Derrylin. Its elevation
is neary 700 feet above sea level; and, speaking in the language of
geologists, was recently an island. It is bounded on the north-east
side by the waters of Lough Erne, and south-west by a flat alluvial
plain, including some patches of bog.

On approaching the hill by the road from the west side, it pre-
sents a bold and majestic appearance, calculated to inspire feelings of
awe. Owing to these natural features, probably, the early Pagans
regarded it as a sacred spot, and chose it as the last resting-place for
their departed chiefs, and not of one alone, but of several tribes, as we
may infer from the fact that three different modes of sepulture are
found on its summit, including the cinerary urn found in the cave.

On three rocky hillocks, at intervals along its top, there are

466 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy.

three Pagan carns, and one of them the finest in Fermanagh. B
accident, when the owner of the place was making a deep ditch along the
south side of this carn, he disentombed two ornamented urns, contain-
ing burnt bones. On its eastern slopes there are two “‘ giants’ graves,”’
one of which I assisted Mr. Wakeman to explore. It was an oblong
square, formed of rough limestone flags, set on edge, and measured
about 17 fect long, and 4 feet broad ; it yielded human bones, mingled
with those of animals. There were traces of charcoal round the
margin of the grave. It was Mr. Wakeman’s opinion, from the pre-
sence of the charcoal and animal remains, that they had funeral
feasts at the time of burial.

The top of the hill is about half a mile broad at its widest diame-
ter. A county road encircles its base, and is united by a short
junction to the road leading from Enniskillen to Derrylin.

The hill commands one of the most magnificent and comprehen-
sive views to be obtained in the fifty-two miles of country through
which Lough Erne passes. Standing on its top, and looking towards
the north on the opposite side of the lake, there appears, sequestered
in a shady nook on the wooded island of Belleisle, the square tower
attached to the residence of J. G. V. Porter, Esq., and lately occupied
by the Earl of Rosse; and on the same spot, during the fourteenth
century, Charles Maguire compiled one of the best collections of the
annals of Ireland, which are known as the Annals of Ulster (Wake-
man’s Guide to Lough Erne). Looking to the west, about four miles
distant, the eye rests on the palatial residence of the Karl of Ennis-
killen, situated at the base of Benaughlin mountain. Eastward, in the
dim distance, may be recognised the last of a group of mansions which
stud the shores of Upper Lough Erne in this locality—I mean the
seat of the Earl of Erne, contiguous to which the old ivy-clad Castle
of Crom, which stood many a hot siege, raises its roofless but vener-
able walls.

Mr. Porter, whose residence I have described, is owner of a large
portion of Knockninny hill, and has built a neat hotel at its base |
on the shore of the lake. Were it not for his enterprising and
generous spirit, the public would have no means of visiting the
scenery and antiquities of Lough Erne, as he, at considerable ex-
pense and pecuniary loss, keeps a neat steam-boat on the lake for the
accommodation of tourists. But for this gentleman Knockninny cave
would probably still remain unexplored. During the month of June
last I had been exploring some caves in the mountains west of Ennis-
killen, when I happened to meet Mr. Porter, and had some conversa-
tion with him on cave-hunting. He at once asked me to make
a preliminary imspection of the ‘‘fox cave” at Knockninny, and
ascertain if it was worth exploring, proposing at the same time to
supply any labourers I might require. I at once accepted his kind offer,
and on a convenient day visited the cave, bringing with me two
labourers who were in Mr. Porter’s employment, working in a quarry
at Knockninny.

PiunKEt1—On the Exploration of the Rnockninny Cave. 467

The cave penetrates an escarpment in the south-west side of the
hill, and has an altitude of about 330 feet above the adjoining valley.
Leaving the road in the valley which surrounds the base of the hill, we
ascended a steep acclivity towards the east entrance of the cave, which
opens into an indentation in the face of the rock (fig. 1). On reaching

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it I made a careful examination of the rock adjoining the entrance,
and found that through atmospheric agencies several feet at the
entrance had crumbled away. Seeing this, I ordered the men to
commence digging on a grassy slope, fully six feet outside the door of
the cave. After removing a quantity of debris, and blocks of stone,
we found charcoal, some human remains, also bones of animals. Dig-
ging a little deeper, the original floor of the cave was laid bare—
I mean when it extended nearly six feet further out. After clearing
away this accumulated stuff towards the entrance, I found from the
depth the cave-earth presented, when we had penetrated a little inside,
that, although the cave appeared small, yet when excavated, it

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

468

Prunkett—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 469

would be aconsiderable size, as it contained such a quantity of cave-
earth. Having obtained a vertical section at the mouth of the cave,
4 feet deep, and finding the remains above mentioned, I came to
the conclusion that it would repay the trouble of exploring, as I con-
jectured from what I found that it would yield interesting relics.
Without further delay I decided on making the necessary arrange-
ments to have it thoroughly explored.

It being on the property of Lord Erne, this nobleman, on being
asked, kindly gave permission to have it examined.

Haying provided crowbars, picks, and buckets, we set to work ;
and before giving a detailed account of the exploration, I should state
that the cave passes (fig. 2) into the hill with a gentle curve for a dis-
tance of 35 feet, when it narrows to a width of 2 feet, and 4 feet high.
Passing through this narrow door the cave immediately enlarges to a
width of 6 feet, and 10 feet high; then, taking a sudden bend,
passes out westward on a rocky shelf on the top of a precipitous
rock. The distance from the east entrance to where it passes out
in the west is 51 feet, and varies in height from 10 to 4 feet.
These observations apply to the cave when excavated. When we
had progressed with the exploration a few feet inside the cave, on
examining the strata, I found it was composed of five distinct layers.
The method I adopted in removing the stuff was—first, to remove
the top layer for a distance of 3 feet (horizontally), and so on,
layer after layer, to the bottom, putting in a separate place any
object of interest which I found in each or any of the layers. I
examined each stratum separately as it was carried out in buckets,
turning it over with a trowel so carefully that the smallest object
could not escape my notice.

The upper layer was entirely composed of small angular lme-
stones, somewhat larger than’ road stones, in which there were no
objects of any interest found. It covered the whole surface of the
cave from the east to the west end, and had an average depth of
from 1 foot in the east to 18 inches in the west end. I was greatly
puzzled to know how these stones could be introduced, especially
when I found them so uniformly deposited; but when I was ex-
ploring the west end of the cave I believe I was able to solve this
problem, which I shall explain presently.

The next layer was composed of black mould, and had an average
depth of 16 inches: it contained traces of charcoal, some human and
animal bones, quite dark in colour, produced by the dark earth in
which they were embedded.

The third, or next stratum, consisted of a pecuhar kind of brown
compact earth, containing some angular blocks of limestone, which
bore marks of fire; these stones must have been carried in by the
eave dwellers, as no stones fell from the roof in this end of the cave,
as it formed an irregular pointed arch, the surface presenting a smooth
appearance, the result of water at the time it traversed the cave.
There were also found in it a great many fragments of rude
pottery, which had a dark smoked appearance, which it is evident

470 Proceedings of the Royal Inish Academy.

were portions of a cooking vessel; they corresponded exactly with
some fragments I have found in crannoges; there were no marks of
any kind on these pieces of pottery indicating ornamentation. On the
same floor there were human and animal remains found scattered far
apart; and in no instance during the whole exploration of this end
of the cave did I find human remains huddled together.

The fourth layer was composed of yellow clay traversed by veins
of brown earth, and yielded traces of charcoal all through, together
with human and animal remains.

The next and lowest stratum rested on the solid rocky floor of the
cave, and to my mind is the most important of the series, as it bears
evidence showing the extraordinary changes which the surrounding
country has undergone since its deposition. In depth it varied from 14 to
2 ft., and consisted of gravel with a covering of sandy clay of a yellow
colour about 3 or 4 inches deep. I found no human or animal remains
in the gravel, but imbedded in the sandy clay on its surface I picked up
two rude flint implements of Paleolithic type; one of them (fig. 3) was

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of a jet black colour, the other (fig. 4) a dusky brown, and measuring
about 3 inches each. I submitted the black flint to the Rev. Dr.

Fig. 4.

Haughton, who pronounced it Lydian stone. None of the material
from which the flint flakes were manufactured is found in Fermanagh.
I also found in the same bed of yellow clay human remains, including
several portions of a skull, the hollow sides of which were filled with
the material comprizing the layer. After I brought these portions of
skull out of the cave I picked out the clay, which was firmly packed
in their hollow sides, and found it identical with the stratum from
which they were taken. My object in going so minutely into detail
is to show that these portions of skull could not possibly have fallen
during the process of exploration from a higher stratum. There were

PLunKETI— On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 471

also some animal remains mingled with charcoal found in the same
layer.

: Haying thoroughly explored this end of the cave up to the narrow
part which intervenes between the east and west end, and finding
it very inconvenient to advance any further with the excavation from
this side, I determined to try the other end. Up to this point there
were 35 feet excavated, leaving 16 feet still unexplored. I directed the
men to pass round a steep rocky declivity to the west entrance, which
opens out on a shelf on the top of a precipitous rock, and was hid
from view by briar and stunted blackthorn bushes—after the removal
of which we found the entrance almost closed with debr’s measuring
only 13 feet high, by 2 feet broad. This end presented the same de-
nuded appearance as the other. The cave ran nearly parallel with the
escarpment, and would have been entirely obliterated only for the
hardness of the rock in which it is, which appears as a bulge on the
face of the cliff, and is merely a fragment of a much larger cavern.

Finding that the cave formerly extended on this side to the very
edge of the cliff, 7 feet from the present entrance, I had all the debris and
stones removed which covered this space, and found, as I anticipated,
the old cave floor. In this earth and debris I found traces of
charcoal. After removing this pile, which had accumulated before
the entrance, and having now exposed a good vertical section of the
mass of earth which filled this end of the cave, we removed each layer
separately, as was done at the other end; the first was composed of
small stones, being a continuation of the same stratum from the other
end, but 6 inches deeper, being 18 inches thick. Being anxious to
know how so large a quantity of stones could be conveyed in and
deposited so uniformly over the surface, I made a careful inspection of
the rocky surface round the entrance. In passing up a steep rugged
surface of rock which ascended from the entrance, I found that owing
to atmospheric agencies small stones became detached and rolled down
its surface, falling over the cliff below, and forms the greater portion of
the ¢alus abutting its base. When the cave extended to the edge of
the cliff these stones could not possibly fall into it ; but when it became
‘“‘ weathered,” and the roof tumbled in, forming a pile before the pre-
sent entrance, almost as high as the roof of the cave, which caused the
entrance there to be vertical for a few feet, and had the external
appearance of a ‘‘pot-hole;” right above this aperture there was a
shallow trough which ran up the face of the mass of rock from which
the small stones were detached, causing a great many of them in their
course down from the higher slopes to roll into the mouth of the cave.
Then rains and melting snows, owing to this descending hollow, con-
verged towards the entrance, and there being a considerable incline
from this to the east end of the cave, formed a current of water with
force enough to carry the stones over the surface from the west to the
east end of the cave.

The above facts lead me to infer that the cave when occupied by
man, and even up till the time the urn was deposited in the top

ee

472 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

stratum, on which these stones rested, that it extended (as I have
already said) to the edge of the cliff, as none of these small stones were
found in any part of the cave except the surface. Therefore, I conclude
that 7 feet of the rocky strata composing this end of the cave has worn
away since the urn was deposited, in which were the last human
remains introduced into the cave. The next or second layer was com-
posed of dark unctuous mould three feet thick. During the course of
its removal we did not find any remains except charcoal till we had
penetrated to a distance of 9 feet from the entrance; at this point there
appeared a recess or niche in the side of the cave. One of the men
working here struck a large stone with the pick ; after 1t was removed,
and clearing away the clay where it rested, the large cinerary urn was
discovered, and unfortunately fractured. It (fig. 5) was inverted on

a flag, and covered burnt human remains. The urn was packed in the
recess in the rock with dry mould, and protected on the side next the
cave with the large flag, which measured 2 feet 4 inches long, and 20

PiunKxerr—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 473

inches broad. There were fragments of a much smaller vessel found
near this niche, which appeared to be rudely ornamented (fig. 6), but

no traces of human remains were found in connexion with it, although
I carefully examined the spot; probably it was placed beside the re-
mains of the departed as a food vessel.

The burnt bones found in the urn must have been subjected to
powerful heat, as their contorted appearance indicated. They repre-
sented a male and female, as may be seen by the appended report.

There were no other remains, or any objects of interest, found in
this layer.

The next stratum was about 2 feet deep, and consisted of pale
brown and rather compact earth, including some limestone blocks,
which had evidently fallen from the roof, as its appearance indicated.
During the removal of this layer there was nothing of interest found
except small pieces of charcoal, which I observed under some of the
stones as they were being removed.

The last layer was now uncovered, which corresponded exactly
with the lowest stratum at the other end, being composed of yellow
sandy clay and gravel; nothing of any importance was found in it
except the remains of an ancient hearth, consisting of ashes and char-
coal, which was partly covered with patches of stalagmite. This was
found at the very lowest and most commodious part of the cave bottom,
bemg 10 feet high when excavated, and 5 feet broad. A large
stone, about 6 cwt., rested with its larger end on the surface of the
hearth, the other and smaller end leaning against the side of the cave.
I measured all its surfaces, and found that it had fallen from the roof,
as it corresponded in every way with a cavity directly above it, and
if it could have been raised up to the roof in the position in which it
lay, it would have fitted into the cavity. The reason I describe this
stone so minutely is to show that it was not placed designedly there.

474 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The smaller end formed part of the base on which the flag which
supported the urn rested; I infer from this that at the time the urn
was deposited there was at least 6 feet deep of earth in this end of
the cave. From the hearth to the spot where the urn was found
there is a vertical space measuring 5 feet, and from the urn to the
surface 8 feet, making a total of 8 feet of cave earth, includ-
ing the small stones on its surface, all of which it is quite evident
accumulated very slowly. A long interval of time must have elapsed
since the early dwellers occupied the hearth till the time the urn was
placed in the upper layer of cave earth.

Dr. Joyce says (‘‘ Irish Names of Places’’): ‘‘ In early ages it was
usual to burn the body and place the ashes in an urn, which was
deposited in the grave. It seems very extraordinary [he continues]
that all memory of this custom should be lost to both history and
tradition, for I am not aware that there is any mention of the burning
of bodies in any, even the oldest, of our native writings.”

According to Dr. Joyce, the people who practised this custom in this
country must have been very ancient; but according to the chronology
of the cave, they are comparatively modern. In ancient Greece and
Rome, burning the dead gained ascendancy over other modes of burial
as civilization advanced; and, strange to say, as Europe is attaining

a higher level of culture and civilization, this sentiment is evolved,
and appliances invented to carry out this advanced (/) mode of burial. .
The large urn (fig. 7) was rudely but very strongly formed, and com-

Piunxett—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 475

posed of coarse material: brick, earth, and angular pebbles of small size
seemed to be what it was composed of. It stood 143 inches high, 15
in diameter, and 3 fect 11 inches round the neck; the rim was 1}

inches broad, and bottom 2 inches thick: the latter was measured
after it was fractured. VEEDSEOXE

It was almost devoid of ornamentation, except a few lines that
may haye been scratched across the rim when the clay was soft.

The lines slanted upwards, like the fibres of a leaf, to right and
left, and closely resembled some of the scratched lines on the terra
cotta wheels figured in Dr. Schleiman’s book on ancient Troy, which
he regarded as symbols of the chariot of the sun.

Professor Macalister—who assisted the Rev. Dr. Haughton in
inspecting the human remains found in Knockninny cave, together
with a large quantity of animal bones and some human remains,
which I found in caves west of Enniskillen—was of opinion, from
the small proportion of animal remains found at Knockninny, compared
with what I discovered in the Knockmore caves, that the human
remains found in Knockninny, in the strata below where the urn was
found, were introduced for the purpose of sepulture.

There was not a single feature connected with the strata or the
remains found therein to indicate burial. The Knockmore caves were
nearly in every respect different to Knockninny. They passed into the
rocky mass with a considerable dip, and when the waters which tra-
versed them became intermittent, angular stones of various sizes
choked up some of the narrower parts of the caves, causing a quantity
of rock debris and gravel to accumulate in the cave, while the water
still percolated through ; and the principal portion of all the animal
remains which I found, including horse, wild boar, wolf, deer and
dog, together with many other species, were washed into the caves;

R. I. A, PROC., SER. II., VOL. I., SCIENCE. 3D

476 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeny.

and while the water percolated through the cave, the animal bones
were caught in the rock debris. ThisI have evidence to prove beyond
doubt, although these caves at the present time stand high above the
level of any current of water in the locality.

Knockninny cave was quite different; it was horizontal, and (as I
have said before) only a fragment of a cave which passed through a
bulge in the face of the escarpment from east to west, a distance of
only 51 feet, and open at both ends: and after the water which origin-
ally ran through it found a lower level it became dry, and no doubt
was sought as a place of shelter and refuge by nomadic tribes.

Through the whole strata of the cave the remains were found
apart; even portions of the same skull were found in different parts of
the cave, but always in the same stratum. These facts would support
the theory that cannibals occupied the cave from time to time, or dur-
ing the course of ages solitary individuals, who sought it as a shelter
and occasionally died there. Their bodies becoming decomposed, their
bones became scattered over the surface of the floor by animals which
itis quite evident inhabited it ; and each successive floor of the cave, as
it was slowly formed, furnished its own quota of animal and human
remains. The presence of charcoal in each layer of cave earth would
corroborate the hypothesis that it has at various intervals been used
as a habitation.

I might observe, before I pass on to explain the nature of the lower
stratum of the cave, that there is hardly any branch of the human
race but who at one period of their history were cave-dwellers, from
the savages found in various parts of the world at the present time
back through a long past, even before that ancient institution was
established, the Chinese Empire. ‘‘ The Chinese,’ says Tylor (‘‘ Pri-
mitive Culture ’’), ‘‘ can show with all due gravity the records of their
ancient dynasties, and tell us how in old times their ancestors dwelt
in caves, and ate raw flesh till, under such and suchrulers, they were
taught to build huts and prepare skins for garments.”

Then if we turn to the Homeric Cyclops :—

“¢ Housed in the hills they neither buy nor sell,
No kindly offices demand or show,
Each in the hollow cave where he doth dwell
Gives law to wife and children as he thinketh well.”’

In a late volume by H. H. Bancroft on ‘‘The Wild Tribes of the
Pacific States of North America,” we read that a great many of these
tribes are cave-dwellers, and ‘‘ love the inhospitable mountain and
their miserable burrowing-places better than all the comforts of ciyi-
lization.”

I need not go into prehistoric times, as the caves found in all
countries bear witness to the same fact. I will now wind up this
paper with some observations on the lower stratum of the cave, in
connexion with the denudation of the surrounding country.

Piunkett—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 477

This stratum (I have already stated) is composed of gravel with a
coating of yellow sandy clay, both of which, it is quite clear, were
carried in and deposited by water. On a careful examination of this
_ material, I was rather surprised to find that a large proportion of this
old silt and gravel was foreign, not only to the formation which the cave
penetrated, but even to the hill. Here in a cave near the top of this
isolated hill, I find the debris of a gritty sandstone, not found in the
locality except in a mountain ridge on the other side of the valley
nearly a mile distant, the cave having an elevation of 330 feet above
the valley bounding it on the one side, and 349 feet above Lough
Erne, which bounded it on the other. From whence did it come?
This was the question I had to answer. In order to solve this difficult
problem, I commenced to investigate the physical phenomena connected
with the geology of the district, with which I was slightly familiar
before, but now felt that a closer inspection was necessary and impor-
tant, as I had found imbedded in this lower stratum containing the
foreign matter, the two wrought flints and portions of a human skull
described above.

I shall describe the outlines of the country west of Knock-
ninny, and give a detailed account of facts I discovered, which clearly
show the extraordinary amount of denudation which has taken
place in this locality.

Knockninny skirts a group of mountain ridges which lie on its
south-west side, and cover an area of about 15 square miles. This
area is represented on Jukes’ map as a patch of coal-measures. The
slopes of one of these mountain-ridges rise from the other side of the
valley adjoining Knockninny, and terminate at an altitude of 1100 feet
above the sea level. The valley intervening between the base of this
mountain and Knockninny is about three-quarters of a mile broad.
Cuilca mountain raises its lofty crest further west, and at a distance of
5 miles from Knockninny, and is the highest of the group, and has an
altitude of 2188 feet above the sea. Standing on its summit you may
see a group of hills, to which I have referred above. The ridges or
hills (for they are of various shapes) lying next Cuileca approach
nearest to it in altitude ; and the hills forming the borders of the group
have a much lower altitude, especially those on the north-east side,
which pass from Cuilca with a gradation down to the valley of Lough
Erne.

Cuilca is a ridge about 23 mileslong, and is entirely composed of sand-
stone; but in the slopes below its base the carboniferous limestone crops
out and is continuous round through the valleys and the base of the
mountains immediately surrounding. The hills also which form the
outskirts of this area (already referred to) with a similar altitude to the
valleys around Cuilca, are entirely composed of limestone, with the
exception of a thin patch of sandstone along their tops. Cuilca being
the backbone of the district divides the drainage system of the country,
and from its base there radiates in various directions a series of valleys
with a considerable incline for several miles, which broaden from one to

3D 2

478 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

five miles as they extend. Through one of these valleys the infant
Shannon meanders southwards, and issues out of a cavern at the base
of Cuilea known as the ‘‘Shannon pot.”

I have traversed all these mountains and examined their strata, .
escarpments, and intervening valleys. (The latter reveal the lime-
stone surface). On the face of some of these escarpments thin seams
of coal crop out, and in the escarpment in the opposite side of
the valley there are corresponding seams, and similar strata as found
on the other side, and on both sides horizontal. Some of these valleys
have been scooped out to a depth of 1600 feet. Notwithstanding the
presence of these deep valleys, all the geological phenomena found in
the locality bear evidence in favour of the hypothesis that all these
mountain ridges which rest on a portion of the great limestone
plain which covers the centre of Ireland, and are principally com-
posed of sandstone, at one period formed one continuous undulat-
ing plateau covering the limestone formation in this part of the
country; but the greater portion of it has been removed by denuding
forces, leaving these ridges behind—presenting now the appearance of
streaks and patches of snow, which sometimes remain on higher sum-
mits after a thaw, when the sheet which covered the country has
passed away.

The rain water which courses down the sides of these mountain
ridges converges into little rivers which traverse the surface until they
reach the limestone formation at a lower level, when they generally
penetrate its strata, and form subterranean passages which often result
in deep ravines. I have examined a great many of these ‘‘swallow
holes’? which form the entrance to these underground water ducts,
and found rounded sandstones amongst the debris in their bottoms, of
considerable size, which were transported hither by the current from
higher levels, where the sandstone thins out on the surface of the
limestone. This description of the geological features of the loca-
lity, confused as it is, may help us to understand more about the denu-
dation of the sandstone formation, which was continuous from this
locality over Knockninny hill before it became detached by denuding
forces from the main formation in the locality.

Standing on the east shoulder of Cuilca you observe a valley which
passes from its base (to which I have already referred) eastward, and
broadens and deepens as it.extends, and passes at almost right angles
through the mountain ridge which bounds the valley on the south-
west side of Knockninny, then broadens into the valley of Lough Erne
and encompasses Knockninny at its extremities; and supposing a
current of water filled this valley from the base of Cuilea down to
Lough Erne, a distance of five miles, Knockninny, which is situated
at its lower end, would appear an island, and before the valley which
surrounds it was sculptured out by subaerial agents, the waters which
passed down the slopes of Cuilca passed over the top of Knockninny
into Lough Erne.

The evidence supporting this hypothesis I have found on the sur-

PriunKxett—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 479

face of Knockninny, which I shall now adduce. Along the top of the
hill there are several large ‘‘swallow holes’? corresponding in every
feature almost with those I have examined in the valleys surrounding
Cuilea, with this exception, that no water passes through them. I
went down into these holes, and after removing the rubbish and dedris
on the surface, I found in every one of them rounded sandstones of
various sizes mingled with limestones. I also saw similar stones here
and there in the ditches which form the fences on the hill, which were
gathered off the surrounding surface. Now the nearest sandstone
‘strata in the locality are in the mountain ridge rising in the south-west
side of the valley adjoining the hill, and the intervening valley is 400
feet lower than the top of Knockninny, where the ‘‘ swallow holes”’ are.
All these phenomena to my mind clearly show that Knockninny gradu-
ally rose like a huge boss or outlier, as the surrounding and softer strata
were being worn away by denudation. I have examined its slopes, from
its east and west shoulders to its base, and found beds of gravel at inter-
vals down the whole way, which I regard as the debris left behind
when nature’s sculpture was forming the hill. One of these beds
‘occurs 26 feet below the mouth of the cave, and is exactly the same as
is found in the bottom of the cave underneath the sandy clay. I ex-
amined an escarpment in the ridge opposite, intervening between Cuilca
and Knockninny. Through it the valley passes on its way from the
base of Cuilca to the lake ; in the centre of the valley Knockninny rises,
and I found at an elevation of about 700 feet above the valley, gritty
sandstone, the debris of which I found in the rivulets which traversed
its surface, and it corresponded with what I found in the cave, mingled
with limestone gravel. All these facts poimt to extraordinary changes
of the surface of the country which surrounds Knockninny.

Since the water which formerly passed through the cave retreated
to a lower level, leaving the floor dry and covered with this deposit,
the adjoining strata haye been removed to a depth of 330 feet below
the entrance of the cave. A question here suggests itseli—did man
inhabit the cave immediately after it became dry, or not until the
surface of the country had assumed its present outlines? The evidence
found in the cave is in favour of the former hypothesis, as there was
not a single particle of cave earth associated with the flint implements
or human remains found in the lower stratum. And it is hardly pro-
bable that, during the long period which must have elapsed from the
time the cave became dry, and formed a refuge or dwelling for savage
tribes, till the time the valley assumed its present appearance, no cave
earth would be deposited.

Suppose we assume that the cave was not occupied until the sur-
rounding surface of the country presented its present configuration,
then we are bound to believe that the cave earth must have accumu-
lated very slowly, so much so that an inch would not be formed while
330 feet of rocky strata were washed away. And if we take Croll
and Geikie’s calculations as to the rate at which valleys are scooped
out (which is extremely slow), although they state that they have

480 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

discovered the ‘‘unexpected rapidity’ with which the surface is wasted
by denudation, this ‘‘rapidity” amounts to 1 foot in 1500 years.
Denudation varies exceedingly, and there is evidence in this locality
that the denuding forces were much more powerful formerly than at
present.

No matter from what side we view the evidence furnished by the
cave deposits and its environs, we must, I presume, be convinced that
the tribes whose relics I found in the lower stratum are of enormous:
antiquity. j

By going into detail so much I may have extended this paper to a
weary length, but I thought it better to leave all the facts connected
with the exploration, together with a description of the physical features.
of the surrounding country, before the Members of the Academy, and iet
them form their own conclusions.

At the request of the Rey. Dr. Haughton, I forwarded the large cine-
rary urn to the Museum of the Academy, also its contents, together
with the fragments of pottery found in the cave.

I am deeply indebted to the Rey. Dr. Haughton and Professor
Macalister for the appended Report on the human remains found in
the cave.

Report ON THE BoNES FOUND IN THE KNocKNINNY Cave.
1st. Human Remains.

A.—Deepest Series. Bones of an adult man of unusually large size,
includinge—

. Right parietal, large fragment.
. Squama occipitis, As

. Right temporal, complete.

. Left parietal, several fragments.
. Left squama temporis, fragment.
. Portion of frontal, glabellar region.
. Lower lateral incisor tooth.

. Lower left bicuspid tooth.

. Upper left third molar tooth.
10. Lower left third molar tooth.
11. Third rib.

12. Piece of lower true rib.

13. Right malar.

14. Left ulna, fragment.

15. Right second metacarpal bone.
16. Right ischium, fragment.

17. Left tibia, ¥5

18. Right femur,

19. First phalanx of right hallux.

C CTS Or He CoN

PuiunKkett—On the Exploration-of the Knockninny Cave. 481

B.—Second Series. Bone of adult, moderate size.

1. Left temporal, nearly complete, petrous and mastoid ; of
much smaller size than A 3.

C.—Third Series. Bones of a child, aged about 10-13.

. Right ilium, crest and acetabular epiphysis absent.
Selett wim: | ,, i
. Portion of squama occipitis.
. Right scapula; body, wanting all epiphyses.

. Left scapula, cs 5 af

. Epiphysis of tibia.

. Left maxilla, with undeveloped last molar teeth.

9) ”?

“TO or Go bo

The jaw appears more advanced than the other bones, and may
have belonged to a second child.

D.—Fourth Series. Remains of three adults.

a 1. Lower first molar tooth, left.
a 2. Lower first molar tooth, right,
3. Left ilium, fragment.

4. Left humerus, lower end.
5. Right third (?) metatarsal.
6. Right tibia.

7. Right fourth metatarsal.
8. Right radius, fragment.

. Right ulna, ”
10. Left radius, i
11. Left ulna, 99

12. Right scapula, ee
13. Left femur, ah

gsSggggagsvr gages
CO

. Left humerus, lower end.
2. Fragment of right humerus.

NS oO
—_

e 1. Right humerus, enormously large.
These differ in size from a 4. Both sets, @ and b, are much
darker in colour than Series A, B, and C; ¢ is much larger than a 4,
or 6 1 or 2.

E.—Bones found in the urn, burnt.

a 1. Left frontal, with remains of persistent frontal suture,
and moderate sinuses. (Fig. 10.)

6 2. Left frontal, with smaller sinus, and much feebler external
angular process. (Fig. 11.)

482 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

3. Fragment of left frontal, agreeing with No. 1.
4. Fragments of right frontal, three pieces.

@ 5. Fragments of left parietal, six pieces.
6
7
8

ES)

. Fragments of squamosal right (?).
. Fragment of left petrous bone.
. Fragment of right petrous and mastoid.
9. Squama occipitis, left side, two fragments.
. Squama occipitis, left and middle, does not fit No. 9.
11. Left malar.
12, Right malar.
13. Left ascending ramus of mandible, small adult.
14. Right femur, four fragments.
15. Left femur, fragment of condyles.
16. Lower end of right fibula.
17. Right tibia, fragment of shaft.
18. Left tibia, back of inner condyle.
19. Crest of ilium, right.
20. Left femur, back of popliteal ridge of.
21. Right humerus, upper end, two fragments.
22. Left humerus, lower end.
23. Right radius, middle of shaft, two fragments.
24. Fragments of ribs and scales of long bones.

WAR
—"
i=)

From Nos. 1, 2-9, and 10, it is obvious that the remains of two
individuals were in the urn—one a well-marked male, the other
smaller, probably a female.

The individuals whose remains are found in the cave are thus
at least eight—possibly nine—viz. :

A Large adult man.

Moderate adult man (?).

Child (one, or possibly two).

D 6, two moderately large adults.
Very large adult man.

. Male.

Female (?).

EBaebdyaw
Q

SAD

It is possible, anatomically, that D e may belong to A, and B to
either Da, or D 4, if the geological evidence does not forbid such
afusion. The absence of all trace of upper extremities in A and B
would seem to indicate such a relationship. This would reduce the
minimum number of individuals to seven.

2nd. Animal Bones found in Knockninny Cave.

1. Canis lupus, very large jaws and femora, &c.
2. Canis familiaris.

Priunxert—On the Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. 483

Canis vulpes, one jaw, and several teeth.
Capra hircus.

Ovis aries (?).

. Sus scrofa, some large tusks.

. Bos taurus, one rib notched.

. Lepus variabilis.

. Lepus cuniculus.

Sturnus vulgaris, skull.

OO OTM Ob CO

pt

The smaller number of animal bones in proportion to the human
(hardly two of the former for each one of the latter) is so different
from the proportion found in the Knockmore caves, that it suggests
a different method of the introduction of the human remains.

484 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

XLIV.—Own Personat Errors 1n AstronomicaL Transit OBsERvA-
_ tions. By Jounw L.K. Dreyer, M.A., F.R.A.S., Astronomer at the Karl
of Rosse’s Observatory.

[Read February 14th, 1876.]

THe numerous observations which during this century have been
made at the astronomical observatories, have made astronomers discover
a cause of errors in the observations, which contributes to diminish the
accuracy which might otherwise be expected from our excellent in-
struments. Itis the ‘‘ personal error.”” And this error exists ottener
in transit observations than in any other, for which reason it becomes
of great importance in determinations of longitude, and in every com-
parison of the results of the determination of different observers as to
the meridian passage of a star.

While working at the Copenhagen Observatory, my attention was,
two years ago, turned to the study of this special subject, by the
prize question of the University, for the answer to which I received
the Gold Medal. When I, later, as astronomer at the Earl of Rosse’s
Observatory, had been examining several catalogues of nebulae, and
even in these found the influence of the observers’ individuality, I
was induced to extend my researches on the subject. Added to this, I
have been encouraged by several men of science, in whose opinion I
could not but place the highest confidence, who thought it would be

of some use to astronomers, if I published at once all the results of my ©

studies of the literature, and my examination of all observations,
which might contribute to the explanation of the phenomenon. In
the paper I have the honour to lay before the Royal Irish Academy,
will be found many facts generally known, but I have thought it
advisable to treat the subject in its whole extension, in this way giv-
ing to astronomers a complete account of all the results which can be
derived at present, with respect to personal equations.

Transits are now-a-days observed in two different ways, by the eye-
and-ear method, and by means of the chronograph, of which the former
method has been used since Bradley’s time.- Using this method, the
observer counts the seconds of the clock, aud compares the distance of
the star from a vertical wire in the field of the telescope, at the last
second-beat before the transit over the wire, with its distance at the
first beat after the transit. In this way the observer judges what
fraction of a second has passed between the first second and the
transit.* In the chronographic method, the beats of the clock, by
means of an electric current, make marks on a strip of paper, which is

* Sometimes, but rarely, observers use another method, directly estimating the
interval between the second-beat and the transit (see, for instance, Briefwechsel
zwischen Gauss und Schumacher, 1., p. 368).

Dreyver—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 485

folded round a slowly revolving cylinder, while the observer himself,
in the moment he sees the star bisected by the wire, establishes (or in
some apparatuses, interrupts) a current with a key, and in this way
makes a mark on the paper, between two second-marks. He can then,
afterwards, measure the distance between these marks, and determine
the fraction of the second with great exactitude. In both methods of
observing, it has been found that there exists a difference between the
moments of culmination of a star, as found by different observers,
using the same instrument.

It is to Bessel that we owe the discovery of this personal differ-
ence. He was not, however, the first who remarked a different
estimation of transits, but his researches on this subject were
occasioned by his finding in the Greenwich observations from 1795,
that one of Maskelyne’s assistants, Mr. Kinnebrook, had got into
the habit of observing transits over the wires of the transit instru-
ment 0*5 to 0*8 later than Maskelyne himself. In 1794 and the
beginning of 1795, the observations of the two astronomers had agreed;
but in August, 1795, Kinnebrook began to observe half a second later,
which difference, in 1796, rose to 0*8. As it was Maskelyne’s opinion
that his assistant did not use the above mentioned way of observing
by eye and ear, but some other irregular method of his own, he dis-
missed this, in other respects, skilful man. The matter was looked
upon in this way by everybody; no one thought that there had been
found a physiological phenomenon, which was perfectly independent
of the observer’s will.*

Bessel examined the matter again, and showed by his excellent
investigations, which in 1828 were published in the eighth section of
the Konigsberg Observations, that most observers have a different way
of estimating transits. He studied the equations between himself,
Walbeck, and Argelander, and communicated the results cn extenso,
together with researches on the variations of the equations from time
to time, the influence of the magnifying power, and other circum-
stances. With his usual acuteness, he gives, besides, several hints
respecting the origin of the phenomenon. The remarkable result of
Bessel’s investigutions was, that he himself observed about a whole
second earlier than the two other astronomers. He found :—

In 1820, Bessel— Walbeck =-— 1°04.
In 1823, Bessel— Argelander = — 1°22.}

* Compare the history of the Greenwich Observatory in vol. u. of Linde-
nau’s and Bohnenberger’s “Zeitschrift fur Astronomie’”’ (1816).

Ss
¢ Everywhere in this paper a difference A - B=+ 5 is to be understood in

s ] ter
this way, that A observes Ti sae than Be

486 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In the different equations which, in the course of years, were found
between Bessel and W. Struve, there was a regular variation:

1814°8. B.-S.=— 0°04.

18209. . — 0°68.
1821°1. he — 0°80.
1823°5. e — 1:02.
1834°5. — 0°77.4

The two comparisons from 1821 and 1828 are indirect, derived
from the differences, Struve— Walbeck and Struve — Argelander, found
in Dorpat by direct comparison. The variation is very striking, and
this circumstance, as well as the considerable amount of the personal
equations, whose reality now was beyond doubt, showed the necessity
of examining this remarkable source of error in all its details. It is,
however, very seldom that personal differences are as large as between
Maskelyne and Kinnebrook, or between Bessel and his assistants. The
accordance between the different equations found in Konigsberg,
with respect to quantity and sign, makes it most probable that Bessel
observed about a second earlier than most astronomers do; and he
would probably have agreed tolerably well with Maskelyne, as the
difference B. — Kinnebrook, in the opposite case, would have amounted
to nearly 2°.

As soon as the existence of the personal equations had been
acknowledged in the scientific world, other astronomers began to make
researches in this direction. First of all observatories, that in Altona,
directed by Schumacher, imitated those in Konigsberg and Dorpat,
and the following remarkable differences were found there in 1833 :—

Nehus — Wolfers = + 0°78.
Petersen — Madler = + 0°52.

These observations were made during a determination of longitude
by transport of chronometers, and since that time very few determi-
nations of longitude have been undertaken, without the observers hay- -
ing compared their method of observing, as the whole amount of the
personal equations otherwise would make a part of the result. The
investigations of personality in observing transits, which have been
made on the occasion of determinations of longitudes, are very impor-
tant, and have produced many of the most reliable results we have
derived on this special subject. Besides, the plan for the observations
adopted in several observatories has rendered constant determinations
of the personal faults of the observers necessary; and this has espe-
cially been the case in Greenwich, where all the instruments are
used alternately by several observers. From the year 1838, the
volumes of the Greenwich Observations contain interesting discussions
on the equations between the different observers, which we shall often
have occasion to quote in the following pages.

* Konigsberger Beobachtungen, viii., pp. 5, 6; ibid. xx. p. 31.
t Astronomische Nachrichten, xiii., No. 308; xlix., No. 1154.

DrevyER—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 487

1%

Before entering on the examination of the different results which
can be extracted from modern researches, we shall shortly consider the
methods by which the personal difference between two observers, and
the absolute personal error of a single observer, may be found.

The most convenient, as well as the simplest way, to find the
equation between two persons is to let the one observe the transits of
stars over the one half of the wires in the telescope, and the other person
observe the transits over the remaining wires. The single transits,
reduced to the middle wire, give immediately the equation. By
changing the half of the system of wires observed by each person, the
influence of faults in the distances of the wires is eliminated. A
change of this method is the use of a binocular eye-piece, which, by a
prism, divides the rays coming from the object-glass into two parts,
so that two observers at the same time may observe the transit of a
star across all the wires. This method has for some time been used in
Greenwich, but it causes often a change in the personal error to arise
from the position of the observer, east or west; therefore, it cannot be
recommended.* Itis also in another way possible to use all the wires,
by letting the two persons observe the projected image of the sun on
a piece of white paper.{ But as the observation of the luminous edge
of the sun is very different from that of a star, a personal difference
in the former need not be identical with that in the latter, so that a
control by star-obseryations, at all events, is necessary.

Besides these methods—of which the first one is the simplest and
the one most commonly used—several other methods of finding per-
sonal differences may be used. When Bessel, for instance, compared
himself with Walbeck, each of them observed five stars a day, and
every second day the same. By comparing the observations made on
two consecutive days, two values of the clock-rate were obtained, the
difference of which was equal to the double personal equation.{ The
equation B.—Argelander was, at the same time, found in another
manner. Bessel had, in 1821, six times observed seven stars (used
by Bradley and Maskelyne for determining the collimation error of
the Greenwich quadrant); Argelander observed twice the same stars
in 1823, while Bessel found the clock-error. A. found now the right
ascensions to be larger than B. had done: the equation B.— A. was,
therefore, on an average =— 1°22. A similar method is used in
Greenwich, where the different observers at the transit instrument,
from a series of stars, determine the clock-error separately, and reduce

* We shall afterwards come back to this peculiar case.

+ About this method see Washington Observations, i. (for 1845), p. 49;
Monthly Not., R. A. S., xix., p. 388; Monatsberichte der Berliner Academie,
1858, p.615. We shall also later come back to the solar observations.

{ Konigsberger Beob., viii..p. 4. B. compared himself in 1832 with Busch
and Argelander in the same way.—Ibid. xvii, p. 1.

488 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

their results by means of the clock-rate (found independently of per-
sonal errors) to a common epoch (0* Sid. time). The differences be-
tween the resulting clock-errors for this epoch are then equal to the
equations between the observers (with reverse sign, according to the
mode of designation chosen in this paper).

During determinations of longitude, the personal equation between
the observers has often been eliminated, by letting them exchange
their stations, and begin observing again. The mean of the two result-
ing values for the difference of longitude is then the exact value, and
half their difference is equal to the personal equation. This method
supposes the personal error of both observers to be constant during the
whole operation, but as this is not always the real case, it is the safest
to determine the equation in one of the usual manners, best by letting
the observers compare themselves with both instruments used at
the two stations. Sometimes the equation has also been found by
letting the two astronomers observe simultaneously at the same place,
each using his own instrument; but as the uncertainty in the deter-
mination of the instrumental errors gets a considerable influence on
the result, this method ought never to be used.

But the comparison between the habits of two observers does not
give us any information about the absolute error of each of them,
which it, of course, is of far greater interest to study; and it has,
therefore, during the last twenty years, been attempted by several
astronomers to construct an apparatus by which the personal error of
an observer could be found. As we shall often, in the following pages,
quote results obtained by such apparatuses, it will not be superfluous to
give a short description of them, only entering a little into details
respecting those with which important and trustworthy results have
been obtained.*

Hartmann has described an apparatus in Grunert’s ‘‘ Archiv fur
Mathematik,” XX XI., 1858 (also in the Astron. Nachrichten, LXV.),
which only allows observations by eye and ear. A centrifugal pendu-
lum turns in one second an axis on which a small disc, cut like an |
Archimedes-spiral, is fixed. At a certain phase of the rotation, an
arm, which slides on the spiral, falls down and produces audible
second-beats, while it, in the same moment, sets an escapement free,
and causes a system of wheels, which before were at rest, to begin to
move, and after having moved a certain part of a rotation—which,
when the instrument is stopped, may be conveniently measured—
causes an artificial star to pass behind the wire in a small telescope.
While this goes on, the observer estimates the moment between two
consecutive second-beats, in which the star (a steel pearl, on the cir-
eumference of a wheel, illuminated sideways) is bisected by the wire.

* Prazmowski in Warsaw seems to have been the first one who has invented
such an instrument, which was very much on the same principle as the modern
“Time-collimators.’”’ As far as we know, no researches made with it have been
published.—Cosmos, T. LY. (1854), p. 446. :

DrevErR—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 489

A comparison between this estimated moment and the true distance of
the transit from the preceding second-beat gives then the personal
error. This instrument has only been used a little by the inventor
himself, and it is too complicated.

Simpler, and therefore depending less on the exact manufacture of
all the details, is the instrument used by MM. Plantamour and Hirsch,
at the determinations of longitude in Switzerland.* Like the in-
struments of C. Wolf and Kaiser, it makes use of electricity; but in
another way, in conjunction with the ‘‘chronoscope”’ for measuring
very small intervals of time. This chronoscope is a fine clockwork
with two hands, which turn once, respectively, in 0*'1 and in 10°; as
the dials are divided into 100 parts each, the one can show 0*001, the
other one, 01. The axis of the former hand—which moves the axis
of the latter by a toothed wheel—can be pushed backwards and for-
wards, by the establishing and interrupting of an electric current. In
the former case, a cog-wheelon the axis is pressed against another
wheel, which is moved by the clock and has 100 teeth, so that the
two wheels will move together after less than 0°°001. When the cur-
rent is closed again, the axis goes forward and the wheels separate;
accordingly, the two hands are stopped. The passage of a luminous
point behind a wire suspends the current, while the observer himself,
in the moment he remarks the transit, closes it again. The hands of
the chronoscope will, therefore, indicate the personal error of the ob-
server, but, of course, only if it is negative; as the hands in the oppo-
site case (when the observer closes the current before it has been
opened) are not moved at all, so that it can only be seen that the ob-
server has anticipated the transit, but not how much.t The artificial
star is produced by a board, movable by a pendulum, with a small hole
in it, through which the light of a gas-flame shines. Once during
each oscillation, in the moment it passes the vertical line, the pen-
dulum interrupts a metallic contact, and suspends the electric current,
thereby letting the hands of the chronoscope join in the motion of the
clockwork, until the observer, with a key, closes the current again,
and stops the hands. The pendulum, board, and gas-flame were
placed in the meridian-mark-room of the Observatory in Neufchatel.
An assistant has to move the pendulum towards the east; the ob-
server lets it pass the vertical line towards the west, and presses the
key when he sees the star go back again and (when the pendulum
again is vertical) pass behind the movable wire in the transit instru-
ment, which he, before the beginning of the observation, has made
bisect the star. The metallic contact can be regulated by a micro-

* Détermination Télégraphique de la Différence de Longitude entre les Observa-
toires de Genéve et de Neufchatel. Par E. Plantamouret A. Hirsch, Genéve, 1864.

+ This case happened several times during Plantamour’s observations. Before
calculating the probable value for the personal error, he, therefore, left out an
equal number of the largest negative errors.

490 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

meter-screw, so that it is interrupted exactly in the moment when the
pendulum is vertical, and the star in reality behind the wire.

The simple construction of this instrument guarantees the non-
existence of constant errors in the results obtained by it.* But it is
a fault in it, that a very considerable time is necessary for taking any
great number of observations, as it has to be stopped, read off, and
set going again after every single wire-transit.

A more suitable apparatus was invented by M. C. Wolf, of the
Paris Observatory, who has described it, as well as a great number of
observations and special researches on the personal errors and their
origin, in the ‘‘ Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris,’”’ Mémoires, T.
VIII.t The artificial star is produced by asmall opening in a board
(illuminated from behind), whose image, by a system of lenses, is
thrown on the plane of five wires in a small telescope. The board is.
at one end-of an arm, which by a clockwork can be made turn round
its centre. In this centre of the rotation is a lens of very short focal
length; the image of the star produced by this lens is seen through
another lens placed before the object-glass of the telescope. The
image of the star, seen by the observer in the plane of the wires, is in
this way made to move very slowly, so that the board moves 16 centi-
meters, while the image of the star only goes from the first to the
fifth wire or 12 millimetres. The transits are observed by eye and
ear, while the small ‘‘ carriage ’’ at the end of the arm, underneath
the board, is furnished with a contact apparatus which automatically
registers the transits on a strip of paper on which, also, the second-
beats of the clock are marked. ‘This apparatus consists of a steel
spring (fixed on the carriage) with a very small ball or knot at the
end, which is dragged along the surface of a wooden board, in which,
at equal distances, five thin copper strips are inlaid. The latter must,
before the beginning of the observations, be adjusted by fine mi-
crometer screws, so that the star will be behind a wire in the tele-
scope when the contact of the small ball with any of the copper strips.
closes an electric current, or, during a retrograde motion of the star, .
opens it. In either case the absolute moment of the transit will,
therefore, be registered on the same paper on which (by another cur-
rent) the seconds are marked, so that a comparison of the marks on
this paper with the moments of transits estimated by the observer,
gives the value of the personal error.

The observation is made in the following way :—The apparatus is:
adjusted, and the observer sets the clockwork going. The contact
apparatus and the star will, however, stand still till a small weight is
put on a plate. This causes the transit to take place. When it is
over, the weight is put on another plate, and the star will now go back

* The very important researches for which this apparatus has been used are,
however, independent of constant errors, as we shall see further on.
+ Recherches sur 1’équation personelle dans les observations de passage. Par

M. C. Wolf.

Drever—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 491

again, and pass the wires a second time, this time registering its tran-
sits by the interruption of the current. By placing a prism before the
eye-piece during this second transit, the motion of the star will, to the
observer, seem to take place in the same direction as during the first
one. By this arrangement of the observations, small imperfections in
the contact apparatus (which would establish or interrupt the current
a little before or after the right moment) will have no influence at all
on the mean of two consecutive transits, and the bending of the
spring will only cause an imperceptible fault in the same. Wolf's
determinations of his personal error were always founded on 40 tran-
sits, 20 in each direction, and as the instrument was very carefully
treated, and all sources of faults examined, his results deserve the
highest confidence.

The instruments we hitherto have mentioned have not been gene-
rally used by astronomers, but only by their inventors and a few other
persons. This is not the case with the different instruments successively
constructed by the late Professor Kaiser, in Leyden, which are well
known in the scientific world, especially the latest constructed, which
has often been used in determinations of longitude on the Continent, as
well as in Pulkowa, and which is generally termed a time-collimator.
Kaiser has in the course of years constructed three apparatus. As
early as in 1851, this eminent astronomer proposed to apply the prin-
ciple of the nonius to determinations of time, and promised later to
describe an instrument based on this principle, and suitable for finding
absolute personal errors.* This promise he carried into effect in 1863
by publishing a paper which, besides the description of the apparatus,
contains a great many observations taken with it.t The arm which
earried the artificial star interrupted a current in the moment of the
transit, which caused an electro-magnet to let its armature fall, whereby
a pendulum, which hitherto had been kept in its greatest elongation
from the vertical position, was set going. By the coincidences of this
pendulum with the clock used for the observation, the true moment of
the transit could be determined with great accuracy. Numerous
experiments were made with this instrument by the astronomers in
Leyden, and Kaiser introduced now the custom to let astronomical
students practise with observations of artificial stars.

The two other instruments of Kaiser are in principle more like
C. Wolf’s apparatus, but may be used for chronographic as well as for
eye-and-ear observations.{ The first of them has several arms fixed on

* Tijdschrift voor de Wis -en Naturkundige Wetenschappen, xv., page 9.

t ‘‘De volledige bepaling van personlijke fouten bij sterrekundige waarnem-
ingen,” in the xy. vol., page 173, of the Verslagen en Mededelingen der K.
Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Naturkunde (Amsterdam, 1863). As it
was found that this paper was very little known on account of the language, the
apparatus alone was again described in the Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences
exactes et naturelles, vol. i., Hague, 1866.

{ The first of them, as well as observations made with it, are described in the
‘‘Verslagen en Mededelingen e. c.,”’ m. series, vol. il., pp. 216 and foll. (1868) :

R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. I., SCIENCE. 3 E

492 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

a perpendicular axis, which by a simple small clockwork can be
turned around itself. Each arm carries on the end a lamp which, by
the help of a screen with a small hole in it, and a lens, can produce an
artificial star, which, by the rotation of the axis, passes across a wire
represented by a very thin strip of black paper pasted on a piece of oil
paper, curved cylindrically, and opposite which a small telescope is
placed. In the moment one of the stars is bisected by the strip of paper,
an electric current is made. This is done by a copper fork, with two
prongs fixed at the end of the arm, and at the same time touching two
drops of quicksilver in which the conducting wires end. The forks
may be moved a little by screws, and must be adjusted carefully,
so that they establish the current exactly when the star is placed
behind the wire.

The second instrument, which at present is most in use, is only a
modification of the first one. It has only one arm, which by clock-
work is drawn from one side of a mahogany board, in which one end
of it (that at which the lamp is placed) isfixed. The velocity of the
motion can be easily altered (as also in the former instrument). At
the free end of the axis is a lens, which causes an image of asmall hole
in a screen before the lamp to fall on a piece of oil paper (curved as a
cylinder) on which any number of dark perpendicular lines may be
drawn. Within reach of the observer (as he stands before the tele-
scope) is a string, by which he, when a transit is over, can bring the
arm back to its original position (hereby winding up the clock again),
so that a new transit may take place. The metallic contact is here, as
in the former instrument, produced by a drop of quicksilver, but this is
placed at the end of the arm, and accordingly moved along with it,
while the thin brass wires which successively dip themselves into the
drop are fixed on a brass arch, on the mahogany board. ‘These wires
are leaning heavily against small levers, which may be moved a very
little around their centre by means of screws. In this way, each
contact apparatus may be carefully adjusted. The instrument may be
used for either kind of transit observations; the different electric
currents may be arranged for the method of observing, by a commu-—
tator, without any loss of time.

A slight modification of this apparatus has, under the name of time-
collimator, been much in use on the Continent, only haying a strip of
metal instead of the quicksilver drop.*

We have now given a short description of all the instruments for
finding personal errors which haye come into practical use.t It is

“‘ Ueber einen neuen Apparat zur absoluten Bestimmung von persénlichen Fehlern
bei astron. Beobachtungen.’’ Both instruments are shortly described in the
Annals of the Observatory in Leyden, ii., 1870, pp. 19 and foll. (Beschreibung
der Zeitcollimatoren der Sternwarte in Leiden).

* Bericht der Conferenz der Europaischen Gradmessung, Berlin, 1867. Annual
ae of the Pulkowa Observatory. (Jahresberichte, e.c., 1869, page 8; 1870,
page 5).

+ Professor Harkness has suggested a very simple apparatus (Report on the

DreveER—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 493

alifficult to say whether these instruments answer their purpose per-
fectly. Each single one of them must of course be most carefully
examined, in order that constant errors in its results may be detected,
and their causes done away with. When this has been done (as in the
ease of C. Wolf's apparatus), there is no reason for not relying upon
the exactness of the results obtained with it, within a reasonable de-
gree. And several of these instruments have, by a careful construction
of all the details, furnished us with results which agree extremely
well. Kaiser, for instance, found, with his first instrument, the pro-
bable error in a single determination (that is, by a single wire transit)
=+ 0° 081, from the results of four observers,* while Wolt’s apparatus
gives the probable error of a double observation over one wire
=+0*038., The possibility of the existence of constant errors in the
results is certainly not excluded by this, nor by another control which has
been tried by comparing the results of artificial transits with those of
real ones. We give the following examples here :—

Apparatus—stars= 0°035 Plantamour and Hirsch.
0:02 Albrecht and Van Hennekeler.
0:004 Albrecht and Valentiner.
0°03 ‘Tietjen and Valentiner.
0:002 Backlund and Valentiner.

All these differences are within the degree of exactness possible to
be attained, as we shall see presently. But artificial stars have not
always agreed so well with the real ones as in the determinations of
personal equations which we have just quoted. ‘There appeared, for
instance, during the determination of the difference of longitude
between Leyden and Brussels, in 1868, a perfect discordance between
the transit instruments and the time-collimator; but the observations
with the former instrument differed just as much, ¢nter se, and there
can hardly be any doubt that a special cause of variation in the per-
sonal equations has influenced the observations.t The mistrust in
his own apparatus which Kaiser, by this, was led to express,§ was
therefore apparently unfounded, and the results furnished by time-
collimators may be considered as very fairly representing the true
errors of the observer.

After haying considered the accuracy of artificial transits, it is
natural to test the degree of exactness which may be attained in de-
terminations of personal differences by means of simultaneous observa-

difference of longitude between Washington and Havanna, 1870, page 13), but we
do not know of any published observations taken with it. A proposal of Dr. E.
Kayser’s (Astron. Nachrichten, No. 1665) seems perfectly impracticable.

* Verslagen en Mededelingen, xv., 1868, page 207.

+ Annales de 1’Observatoire Impérial de Paris, t. viii., page 178.

{ We shall further on consider this circumstance fully.

§ Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden, ii., page 1538.

3E 2

494 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tions with a transit instrument. The greater number of observations
which may be consulted for this purpose allow us to enter more fully
into this research.

When we want to find a general expression for the probable error
of a personal equation, deduced from simultaneous observations of a
single star across the two halves of the system of wires, we must take
into account a circumstance which has been experienced in nearly
every series of observations. We allude to the fact that a far greater
uncertainty in the value of the equation is found by comparing the
results of different stars with one another, than might be expected
from the accordance between the transits of one star over the different
wires. Itmust be supposed that a new cause of errors arises from
the observer’s passing from one star to another, or that the observer,
in the intervals between the observations, gets out of practice, and
each time has to form for himself a new habit of estimating the tran-
sits. C. A. F. Peters finds, for instance, as mean of five results, the
probable error of a personal difference :*—

By comparing the By comparing the
single wires reduced to the results of different stars
middle wire. with the mean of them.
a ree Ue ee ee Sen ——————EE
Eye & Ear. Chronograph. Hye & Ear. Chronograph.
+ 0071. + 0°051. + 0°141. + 0°-061.

It has, besides, been remarked by experienced astronomers, that
the transit over the first wire often does not agree as well as the
others do, after having been reduced to the middle one, and it is, there-
fore, not improbable that zone observations, which sometimes only are
made over one or two wires, may be affected by constant errors.}

For these reasons we cannot but approve of the expression for the
probable error of a personal equation found by one star, which has
been proposed by Dr. Albrecht:

We = Ae ae,

in which 4 is the probable error, found by comparing the transits over
the single wires with one another, and # the error produced by the
variation of the equation in going from one star to another. As we
here only consider the most common method of finding a personal
equation, we may suppose that each observer observes x wires, and

* Astronomische Nachrichten, vol. xlix., page 27.

t See Argelander’s remarks in “ Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen Gesell-
schaft,” vil. (1872), page 16. ;

+ Ueber die Bestimmung von Lingendifferenzen mit Hiilfe des Elektrischen
Telegraphen, Leipzig, 1869, page 26. -

Drever—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 495

that their probable errors of a transit over one wire are respectively
a and a”. We find then—

ONO -- \|EEEEE
. a \" a \" a*+ a

a == beck bile] é :
Vn Vn n

As the probable error in a single wire-transit, for experienced ob-
servers, generally amounts to nearly the same quantity, we may in
the above formula introduce a = }(a’+a”) instead of a’ anda’. We
have then—

9
A =o ii=

’
vt

and accordingly (as there is no reason why £& should be dependent on
the number of wires)—

W? = ( 2) + £7.
A) 2

W is here the probable error, which appears from the accordance
between the results of different stars. From this we, therefore, find
the probable uncertainty in a personal equation, arising from the ob-
server’s passing from one star to another—

If we, for instance, from the observations given in the Report on
the determination of the difference of longitude between Berlin and
Lund, compute the value of #, we may either deduce W from the de-
viations of the single values of the equation between the observers
(Valentiner and Backlund) from the average value for one night, or
we may put all the observations, made on different nights, together,
and deduce JV from their accordance with the mean of them all. In
the former way I find as mean of four nights’ results—

W = 0°:068 and £ = 0°:053;

and in the latter way

W = 0°:066 and # = 0°:050.

Dr. Albrecht has, in his above-quoted book, computed # from a
number of observations ; we have computed it from several others, and
find that chronographic observations, on an average, give about 0°04
as the value for #, whether we compute JV in one or the other of the
above-mentioned ways. As the eye-and-ear method is now-a-days
very seldom used for determinations of longitude, it does not furnish
us with such rich materials for the calculation of # as the chrono-

496 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

graphic method does; the values for # (0°:06, computed in the first
way, and 0°05, in the second way,) are, therefore, rather uncertain.

It does not seem that any considerable element of change enters
into the personal equation by the passing from one night’s obserya-
tions to another. But we shall see afterwards that a personal error is
not an absolutely invariable quantity, and it is, therefore, in any
case, of importance to extend a determination of it over a greater
number of nights. With respect to time-collimators, we possess too:
few observations to deduce a trustworthy value of #from them. But
the artificial observations are certainly, in this respect, not essentially
ditferent from the real ones, as experiments made in Leyden and in
Berlin have shown.*

IE

After having considered the different ways in which an obseryer’s
personal error, or two observers’ personal equation, can be found, we
shall now try to find what general results can be derived from the
great number of observations and remarks upon this subject, which
are scattered about in the annals of different observatories, and in
papers about determinations of longitude, etc.

The first important question which is to be answered is, whether
the error is constant or not? When we compare several values of an.
error, found at different times, with each other, of course, only such
deviations can be considered as real variations, which are too great to
be caused by the common uncertainty in a transit observation.t We
have already mentioned the regular variation in the equation Bessel—
W. Struve, which seemed to arise from changes in Bessel’s large
personal error. Another instance of such a regular variation is the
eye-and-ear equation between Main and Rogerson in Greenwich.

In 1840 M. — R. was =— 0°15

1841 + 0:08
18438 + 0-20
1844 + 0:18
1845 + 0-20
1846 + 0°26
1847 + 0°35
1848 +0 °37
1849 + 0°39
1850 + 0°45
1851 + 0°47
1852 + 0°65
1853 OPO

* Albrecht, Z.c. page 32.—The probable uncertainty FZ, fora single day, was found
= + 05018, while natural transits, taken by the same observers, gave # = + 0°-026.
The cirenmafnce that a real star moves more unsteadily than an artificial one, may
have contributed to make the latter value of HZ larger than the former one.

+ Valuable investigations of the exactitude in transit observations have been

Drever—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 497

This regular variation is really surprising. There are several othe”
examples to be found in the Greenwich observations, but none so
striking as the above-mentioned one; for instance, the equation W.
Ellis — Rogerson was—

In 1846 —0*11
,, 1847 — 0-22
,, 1849 +0°12
,, 1850 +0°45
,, 1851 4:0'°36
,, 1852 + 0°44
1853 +062

From these two examples we learn that it was Mr. Rogerson
whose error was gradually increasing in the course of years. On the
other hand, there may be found examples of a nearly perfect immu-
tability, but most commonly a personal equation will be found to
vary a little, without following any distinct law. In order to illus-
trate how the relations of two observers can be at different epochs, L
have promiscuously taken the following specimens from the Green-
wich observations :—

EyrE-AanD-EAR METHOD. | CHRONOGRAPH METHOD.
i| |

Dunkin Main Dunkin Stone Dunkin
Year. and and |} Year. and and and

Henry. Henry. | Criswick.| T. Ellis. { Stone.
1841.| — | — 0:-09 || 1855.| —0s-03 | — et
1842. | ~= — 0:01 || 1856. | = (1) (0) — —
1843. — — 0 02 || 1857. | — 0-10 _- —
1844. | + 0s-30 | — 0-05 || 1858. |} — 0 -08 —- —

1845. | —0 -15 | — 0°12 |] 1859. | — 0-13 — . —

1846.| 0-00 | - 0 -05 || 1860. | — 0 -14 | + 05-02 | + 05-07
1847. | + 0-24 | — 0-03 || 1861.|-0-15 | 0.00 |+0-18
1848. | —0 -01 | — 0 -04 || 1862. | — 0-15 | + 001 | + 0-14
1849. 0-00 | — 0 05 || 1863. | — 0-16 | + 0 -02 | + 0-14
1850. | — 0 08 | — 011 || 1864. | —0 -12 | + 0 -04 | + 0-13
1851. | — 0-11 | — 0-11 || 1865. | — 0 -12 | + 0-06 | + 0 -09
1852.| —0-13 | 0-00 |} 1866.|—0 i/+0-12/ +40 -04
1853. | — 0°12 | + 0-03 || 1867. | —0-13 | + 0-13 | + 0 -02
1854.|-0-17| — _ || 1868. | —0-10 | + 0-13 | + 0 -05

1869. | — 0-11 | + 0-17 |+0 -03

1870. | -0 11 |—0-01 | + 0-17

|

It has often been said, that a large personal error in many cases
can, by practice, be reduced to a considerably smaller one. C. Wolf

undertaken by Pape (Astr. Nachr., liv.), Dunkin (Monthly Notices, R.A.S., xx.,
xxiy.) and Albrecht (Ueber die Bestimmung yon Langendifferenzen, page 8).

498 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

reports, for instance, that, during the first three months he used his
apparatus, he found an error = + 0*3, but that he, by constant prac-
tice, reduced it to + 0°11, at which rate it continued for more than
six months.* He, therefore, recommends young astronomers to be
“educated” by practising with the artificial apparatus, as large errors,
eventually appearing in this way, may be diminished, when the ob-
server has remarked their existence. Kaiser has been of the same
opinion, and has always kept his apparatus ready for work. The
have, however, been very little used,} and it is still doubtful whether
such an ‘‘ education” is of much use. Of course, the apparatus ought
to be very carefully adjusted during such exercises, and experienced
astronomers (who, it is to be supposed, are not in want of any such
“education”’) ought to observe with them at the same time. It
is not improbable that the personal error may be changed by practice,
in the eye-and-ear method, as well as in the chronographic method ;
indeed, my own experience, however limited, makes me inclined
to think so. We know that a perfectly unexperienced observer’s
error, within a very short interval of time, even on one and the same
evening, has changed considerably ;{ and besides, an observer has
often himself felt that he performed a certain act (for instance, the
touching of the key) too early or too late, and when he has found
this out, it is comparatively easy to correct the fault.§ But it seems
to be but very seldom that such a case happens, and until experience
has taught us otherwise, it must be considered as very doubtful whe-
ther an ‘‘ education,” such as the one above mentioned, is of much use.
It is certainly an unpleasant circumstance that personal equations
and errors are often variable, as one may fear that the value used
for the reduction of a series of observations is not the right one, if it is
not found exactly at the time when these observations were made,
which is not always possible; for instance, at determinations of longi-
tude. The invention of the chronographic method was about twenty-
five years ago hailed with pleasure, as it was expected that the per-
sonal error by this method should become more constant, as well.
as smaller.|| But these expectations have only partly been realized,

* Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris, Mém., t. viil., p. 171.

+ Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden, ii., p. 26.

{In the Mémoires des Astronomes de Poulkova, t. ii.: Expéd. Chronom.
de 1845, p. 52, there is mentioned a Lieutenant Alexandrow of the topographic corps,
whose error (found by comparisons with the other experienced members of the
expedition) varied enormously. It seemed as if A. only for a few hours kept the
same custom in observing, but that his error changed (often 05-3 or 05-4) when
there was a larger interval between the different observations. It was at first
expected that A. by practice could become more regular, but this was not the case.

§ So, for instance, when the chronographic method was introduced in Leyden,
(Kaiser, Verslagen, ii., p. 232). We shall afterwards see how an excellent
observer, Schénteld, in the course of years, has changed his way of estimating
transits of nebule, when it had been remarked that his mght ascensions were
too small.

|| W. C. Bond, in the Report of the British Assoc., 1851.

Drever—On Astronomical Transit Oucmarione 499

and in this respect the new method is not much superior to the old one,
except that very large errors, as Bessel’s, never have been found by
the chronographic method. However, the personal equation or error
by the new method is most commonly very different from that
of the old one, as might be expected from the great difference between
the two methods. The following examples show this :—

| Eye-and-Ear Method. | Chronograph Method.

Dunkin— Hugh Breen, .. . — 08-14 + 05:09
Wimmksin—wenty, My i) a) 8 —0°17 + 0-01
Wank odds ea +0 -01 +0 05
Crswick—linymittiy., = ss | = 0-37 - 0°14
Wieissenorsteres.s 9. 3 4. | — 0-27 0 -00
Absolute personal error: Kam, +0 16 — 0-03

x “f ,, Hennekeler, | +0 -12 — 0-07

5 sf », F. Kaiser,§ —0°14 - 0°07

It is an advantage in the determination of absolute errors that
one is able to see which of the observers changes his way of estimating
transits, while a determination of personal differences only shows that
one of the two observers (or both of them) has a different way of
observing by the two methods.

Considering the importance of the question about the constancy of
personal errors, especially in determinations of longitude, we shall here
examine a case, in which this question was investigated in a very nice
andremarkable way, which has hitherto not, I think, been noticed suffi-
ciently. For the determination of the difference of longitude between
Gotha and Leipzig the eye-and-ear method, as well as the chrono-
graphic method, was used by the two observers, Auwers and Bruhns.||
On eight evenings the culminations of a certain number of standard-
stars, observed with eye and ear, were by both observers compared
with the registered culminations of another group of stars, taken from
the same catalogue as the first stars, and the two groups were so ar-
ranged, that the uncertainty in the rate of the clock could have no
influence. The clock-corrections, found by the two groups, gave
a mean difference, which contained the difference in the errors of
the right ascensions, the difference between the personal errors for
one observer in using the two methods, and the interval between the
moments in which the contact-apparatus of the pendulum in each

* Greenwich Observations, 1854, Introd.

+ Greenwich Observations, 1859.

{ Bestimmung der Meridiandifferenzen, Berlin-Wien-Leipzig. Vienna, 1872.

§ Verslagen, e. c. 2nd series, vol. ii., pp. 229-231. (Series C-G).

|| P. A. Hansen: Bestimmung der Langendifferenz zwischen den Sternwarten
zu Leipzig und Gotha, ausgefiihrt von C. Bruhns und A. Auwers. Leipzig, 1866.

000 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academvy.

movement marked the closing of the current on the chronograph, and
the moments when the pendulum gave the audible second-beat. That
the last-mentioned interval was constant was found with certainty by
observing the two moments, when the coincidences of the beats of the
two ‘‘assisting-clocks’’ (observed by the ear) with the beats of the princi-
pal clocks on both stations, also observed by the ear, and the coincidences
of the contact-signals of the principal and assisting-clocks, registered on
the same chronograph, took place. It was found in this way that, m
a certain absolute moment, the difference, Leipzig clock-time minus
Gotha clock-time, as found by the ear, was always a little less than the
same difference, as found by the chronograph, and the mean deviation
of the eight evenings, agreeing very well with each other, was found to
be = 0°282 (/.¢., p. 69). It appears from the single results that
both observers (who twice exchanged their stations) agreed per-
fectly well in their estimation of the differences by the ear. But as
the constant relation of the two time-scales to one another was proved,
the personal error must necessarily have changed, if there appeared
perceptible changes in the clock-corrections, found in the two different
ways. And the following mean differences between the two clock-
corrections were found :—

By Bruhns in Leipzig, 0s-43 (5 evenings). | By Auwers in Gotha, 05°42 (5 evgs.)
a » 9, Gotha, 0 °33 (4 evenings). | ,, » . 9 Leipzig, 0 -7o) (Sevgs:)

According to Bruhns the difference between the registered and the
heard clock-correction in Gotha was + 0°10 different from the one in
Leipzig; according to Auwers, + 0°33. Above we have seen that
the heard second-beats in Gotha came 0°28 later after the registered
ones than in Leipzig. We see now that the difference in estimating
registered and heard culminations in Bruhns’ case has changed 0°18 ;
in that of Auwers’ only 0°05.

This result controls very well the direct comparisons. By eye-and-
ear was found :—

1865. April 12, in Leipzig, B—A. = +4 05°32 + 05-04 (B. — A., in Leipzig).
», October 2, ,, Gotha, » =+0-11+0-03 | = (B. —A., in Gotha).
»” ” 3559 9 » =+ 07194008 | = 08-17.

We see that it was to Bruhns the change in the eye-and-ear-
equation was due, and probably the explanation which the observers
themselves give of the phenomenon is the right one. In Leipzig the
clock gaye double beats (with an interval of about one-third of a
second between the single beats), and this had probably disturbed
Bruhns, so that he perceived the moment midway between the
two beats instead of the last one.* It is a pity that the personal

* The author has found a similar anomaly in himself by taking transits in.

a room, in which a mean-time clock and a sidereal one were placed.

Dreyver—On Astronomical Transit Observations. DOL.

equation in the chronographic method was determined only once, and

a long time after (B.—A.=+4 011, January 2, 1866) in Leipzig.
In the determination of the difference of the longitude between
Leipzig and Gotha, the personal equation was not eliminated by
taking the mean between the results, found before and after the
observers changing stations, but in the reduction of the series of
observations during which B. observed in Leipzig, the equation found
at this station was used, and likewise, in the reduction of the
other series, the equation found in Gotha. According to the above-
mentioned experiences, it would have been impossible to use the
common method, which is only practicable when direct comparisons
show that the personal equations between the two observers had not
changed in the mean time. To change the stations without examin-
ing the equation at all (as in the determination of the difference of
longitude between Berlin and Leipzig) seems doubtful.

Passing from the variation of the personal error, during longer inter-
vals of time, and in the different methods of observing, we shall now
consider a series of circumstances which, until a short time ago, were
rather enigmatical, and have contributed a good deal to make many
astronomers look upon personal equations as a very weak point in
modern practical astronomy.* We allude to the changes in the personal
errors, which often arise from the reversal of the instrument. In itself
it sounds absurd that the position of the instrument should have any
influence upon the error of the observer; but if we remember that a
great number of such observations, for which several observers are
wanted, and which accordingly require the determination of the
personal equations, are made with transit instruments, with what is
known as a broken telescope, the matter becomes diferent, because the
direction of the star’s passage through the field in such an instrument
is different in its two positions. If we observe a star passing the
meridian south of the zenith, it will, in both positions of the instru-
ment, go from left to right through the field, but the inclination of the
path to the horizon will be different, depending not only on the zenith
distance, but also on the position. When the observer is at the eastern
end of the axis, the star will go from the third quadrant to the first
one, and when he stands at the western end, it will go from the
second to the fourth. A star which culminates in the zenith will go
vertically through the field, observed from east upwards, from west
downwards. Between the zenith and the pole the motion will take
place in a similar way from right to left.

We shall first consider therresults obtained by artificial stars. C.
Wolf has taken 11 groups of observations with his eye-and-ear appa-
ratus, each group consisting of 40 transits; and by placing a prism

* From Bruhns’ Biography of Encke we learn that the latter ‘felt disgust at
personal equations” (letter to Gerling from 1855). Upon the whole Encke seems
to have been rather sceptical with respect to the attainable exactitude in astronomi-
cal observations.

502 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

before the eye-piece, he made the star go horizontally in the same
direction during 20 transits. The results are as follows :—

1864. From Right | From Left
to Left. to Right.
May 11| +0508 | +0=17
12} 40:11 + 0°12
12 + 0:09 + 0°16
12 + 0°18 + 0°15
June 2} +0°12 + 0°18
8 + 0:11 + 0°12
8; 40:10 + 0:16
8 +0:10 + 0°14
July 16} + 0:09 + 0°18
23 + 0:08 + 0°13
23 + 0:09 +0:138
Mean + 0:10 + 0°14

There is here a distinct though slight difference, and the mean
result must be considered reliable, as the arrangement of the observa-
tions excluded the influence of faults in the apparatus.* Similar very
small differences were found with Hirsch’s apparatus (using the
chronographic method).

Reis een ation Plantamour + 0°01 + 0%02
Bi re Rudolph Wolf + 0°04 = 0-01
ie eras oe WE Traclt + 0:06 + 0-03

It is remarkable that these small differences have the same sign as C.
‘Wolt’s.t

In Leyden there has been made a series of experiments with the
second time-collimator, but only one of the observers found a slight differ-
ence which was very uncertain, as the chronographic method had only
lately been introduced at the observatury.t Researches on this sub-
ject have also been made by Wagner, in Pulkowa, with a time colli-
mator on Kaiser’s principle, but his observations, which he has been
kind enough to communicate to me, and of which we shall hear more
further on, show no perceptible influence of the direction of the star’s
motion. We have heard of no other investigations of this kind except
of a series of transits ot artificial stars in perpendicular direction (ana-
logous to transits of zenith-stars in a broken telescope), taken im
Leyden, but the four observers, all of whom had a very small absolute
error, found it to be a matter of no consequence whether the star was
going upwards or downwards.§ Several observations of artificial stars,

* Annales de l’ Observatoire de Paris (Mémoires) vili., p. 174.

+ Détermination Télégraphique de la Différence de Longitude entre Righi-Kulm,
Zurich et Neuchatel, Genéve et Bale, 1871, p. 187.

+ Verslagen en Mededelingen der K. Académie von Wetenschappen, 2 ser., ii.,
p. 236.

DreveEr—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 503

moving along the line from left to right, under an angle of 45° and of
315° with the horizon, taken in Leyden and in Berlin, have given no
difference at all between the two directions.*
The result of all observations with time-collimators seems to be,
that it is never of any great importance in which direction the artifi-
cial star goes, as the difference in the estimation never exceeds a
few hundreths of a second. If such a difference really exists (as in
C. Woit), it must arise from an unsymmetrical arrangement of the
fibres of the nerves in the retina of the eye; and Wolf really found, by
looking at two dots of ink, made on a piece of paper, at equal distances
from both sides of a straight line, that the space between the line and
the right dot always seemed to him, if he looked at it with the right
eye, a little larger than the space between the line and the left dot.
This experiment shows that he would always fancy the space between
the wire in the telescope and a star to the right of it to be larger than
it really was.

But in perfect opposition to these results were many observations
of real transits, with broken telescopes, as by these differences of consi-
derable size were oftenfound. Weiss, for instance, remarked, in 1868,
by reducing the observations for determining the longitude Leipzig —
Dabletz, that the clock corrections were different, according to the
position of theinstrument. He and Bruhns found the following mean
differences :|—

Obs. East minus Obs. West.

Weiss. Bruhns.
Eye and Ear —- 0°17 + 0°07
Chrongr. — 0°21 — 0°10

The variation of the personal error with the position of the instru-
ment (circle west and observer east, or circle east and observer west)
may be seen by the following examples which are found in Dr.
Albrecht’s book about determinations of longitude (pp. 21-2). The
observations were made by the chronograph, each observation com-
prising 5 wires :—

1. Transtr Instrument rn Lerezic, 25rH Marcu, 1867.

ALBRECHT — VALENTINER.

West. East. West — East.
— 05°33 | + 09°45 — 05:78
—0°389 | + 0°49 — 0°88

Each number is the mean result from 7 —9 stars.

* The observations are given in Albrecht’s Bestimmung yon Langenditferenzen,
Leipzig, 1869, p. 20.
+. Astr. Nachrichten, Ixviii., No. 1668.

504 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

2. Transit Instrument In BERLIN.

ALBRECHT — TIETJEN. ALBRECHT — VALENTINER.

1867. West: East. W.—E. 1867. West. East. W.—E.

March 9 | — 05:27 | — 0803 | — 08-24 || July 13 | — 05-14 | + 05-13 | — 08:27

15 | —0°18 | - 0°03 | — 0°16 14| —0:14 | +0°09 | —9 -238

July 14 | —0°33 | - 0:16 | —0°17 15 | —0-05 0:00 | —0:05
15 | —0:29 | —0°18 | —0°-11 16 | —0-03 | +0°05 | — 0-08

16 | — 0:28 | —0°14 | — 0°14 |) Nov. 9] —0:°12 | +0-09 | — 0-21
Sept. 26 | —0'23 | —0-:07 | — 0:16 12} —0:14 | —0°01 | —0°18

27 | —0-05 | +0713 | —0°18

TIETJEN — VALENTINER. |

1867. West. East. W.-—E.

July 13 | + 05-02 | + 05-30 | — 05-28
15) #'0-05 |'+ 0-31 |) 0-96

Each number is the mean result of from 5 to 12 stars.

But the following results were found in Lundin Sweden, with the
Leipzig instrument, after the illumination had been altered* :—

VALENTINER — BackLunp.

1868. West. East. Wi. VE

June 26 | — 05:02 0s:00 | — 0s:02
27 | + 0:02 0:00 | + 0:02
280 — 006 — 003s — 003
30 | + 0:03 0°00 | + 0°03

Each number is the mean result of from 6 to 12 stars.

Compared with these results, which are founded on numerous
observations, the researches made in Greenwich in 1852 and 1858,
with a ‘‘ Binocular eye-piece,”” become of less importance, being
founded on rather few observations, but they are of a similar nature.
As already mentioned, this binocular eye-piece divides by a prism the
rays coming from the object-glass of the transit-instrument into two
parts, so that two observers simultaneously may observe a transit

* Bestimmung der Lingendifferenz zwischen Berlin und Lund. Lund, 1870.

DreyveER—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 505

across all the wires. The transits look, of course, as if seen ina
common broken telescope. We take as examples* :—

RoceErson — Dunxn.

1852. D. east. | Stars. | D. west. | Stars.

Jan. 28,| — 0:69] 4 | 0852] 4
Aprils |= 101-89) 14-3. |r 0-4 7a aes
April 26, -0°65| 3 |—0-21| 3

Dounxin — ELLIs.

1853. D. east. | Stars. | D. west. | Stars.

Oct.14, | 9-00] 8 |—0#21] 3
Ode Ni), (PSORI 9s pe@ay he
Nov. 9, | -0-08| 3 |-0-19| 3

We have now seen from a great number of instances that the diffe-
rent direction of the motion has no influence on the personal error in
observations of artificial stars, but that the different position of an
instrument with a broken telescope often has a very considerable
influence on the estimation of the transits. It is impossible to explain
this otherwise than by supposing the existence of a disturbing circum-
stance in the instrument itself. Already, eight or nine years ago, it
was suggested, for instance, at the conference in Berlin, 1867, on the
European measurement of arcs of meridian, that such a disturbance
might arise from an eccentric illumination, causing an apparent
shifting of the whole system of wires. The above-quoted observations,
taken with the instrument of the Leipzig Observatory before and after
the change of the illumination, show clearly how great an influence
this had had. The matter was, however, not yet sufficiently examined,
as long as it was unknown why the influence of the illumination was
a different one for different observers. But the determinations of
longitudes, which, during the last few years, were undertaken in Swit-
zerland, have thrown light on these phenomena, and the investigations
of Messrs. Plantamour, Hirsch, and Rudolph Wolf have considerably
elucidated the question about the constancy of the personal error.

These three astronomers have taken the observations for the said de-
terminations of longitude. The personal equation of the two first-men-
tioned was several times determined in the course of the years 1868 to
1870, and varied but little. Butit was found in August, 1867, in
Ziirich, that the equation (Hirsch — R. Wolf) was now quite different to

* Greenwich Observations, 1852 and 1853 (introd.)

ie,

906 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

what it was a few months before in Neufchatel. It was, therefore, sup-
posed that there might be some cause for this change, and in order to
obtain a certain value for his error, Wolf went in March, 1869, to Neuf-
chatel, and took, jointly with Hirsch, observations with the transit-
circle for two days. But, strange to say, they now found almost the same
result as that found two years before with the same instruments;
besides, artificial stars had in 1867 given a value for the equation
nearly midways between the two results of real transits which com-
pleted the confusion :—

H.-— R. W. =— 05162 + 05009 by equator-stars ) in Neufchatel,

ae i 067 +0016 ,, artific. ,, § May, June, 1867.
=+ 0056 + 0-009 ,, equator-stars ee Zurich, Aug. 1867.

—0:°1894+0°018 ,, as = in Neufchatel, March, 1869.*

This was not the first time that such abrupt changes had taken
place when the personal equation had been determined at different
times with different instruments ; but such a change had generally been
explained by one of the observers using a strange instrument. For

example :—
Ernest Quetelet -Kam = + 05°60 78 stars, tr.-circle in Leyden, August, 1868.
+ 0-13 artificial stars, a me 4 5
+0 :40 transit-instr. in Brussels, September, ,,
+016 20 stars, mural-circle, Brussels, Sept., ,,

It was the variation of this equation which made Kaiser doubtful
about his time-collimators, which seems strange, as the real transits.
differed just as much in their results. Another example is :—

Jamnefalt — Fuss = + 05:10, June 27, July 4, ¥ " +
+ 0°41, July Fs06, \ 1870, Pulkowa.t

Although it was, therefore, nothing new that such strange results
should appear in determinations of longitude, still, in the summer of
1869, Wolf undertook a series of researches in conjunction with his as-_
sistant, whereby it was found that the principal cause of the deviations
between the different values was the position of the eye-piece. As is.
natural, when two. persons observe immediately after one another the
passages of the same star over the two halves of the system of wires,
Hirsch and Wolf had placed the eye-piece midways between the two
positions, which were convenient for their eyes; accordingly the eye-
piece was for the short-sighted W. too far from the focus, but for H.’s
normal sight it was too near this. Wolf derives the following results
from all the observations printed in his ‘‘ Mittheilungen,”’ page 265 :-—

* R. Wolf, Astronomische Mittheilungen, xxv. (Vierteljahrsschrift der Natur-
forschenden Gesellschaft in Ztirich, xiv., 1869, page 250).

t+ Annalen der Sternwarte in Leiden, ii., page 169.

t Bestimmung der Langendifferenz zwischen Pulkowa, Helsingfors, Abo, Lo-
wisa und Wiborg, von J. Kortazzi: St. Petersburg, 1871, pp. 68-9.

Drever—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 507

1. When the field of the telescope is illuminated from the west,
upper transits are observed too early if the eye-piece is drawn out too
far for the observer’s sight, and too late if it is pushed in too much.

2. With eastern illumination the case is reversed; the transit is
taken too late with the eye-piece drawn out, and too early with it
pushed in.

3. If the field is illuminated by the diffused daylight, the position
of the eye-piece has no influence on the personal error; and this error
is also, on the other hand, independent of the direction of the illumina-
tion, if the eye-piece is exactly adjusted.

As during the above-quoted observations by R. Wolf and Hirsch,
the eye-piece had always been drawn out too far for the sight of the
former, it was now clear why he had observed too late in Neufchatel,
where the illumination came from the east, and too early in Ziirich,
where it came from the west.* Notwithstanding all this, the problem
was not yet solved, as this effect of the position of the eye-piece and of
the illumination was unexplained, and besides, how was it that Hirsch
and the long-sighted Plantamour, in their numerous determinations of
their personal equations, had never remarked such an effect? These
questions were important enough to deserve a nearer investigation,
and such a one was, therefore, made by Hirsch and his assistant,
Schmidt, in Neufchatel, during the spring of 1870, as follows} :—
Each observer observed a certain number of stars over all the wires,
haying the eye-piece adjusted for his eye during the transit across half
the wires, and having it drawn out or pushed in a little during the
transit over the remaining half. The eye-piece was in either case
moved to an equal distance from the normal position, and the part of
the wires observed with the adjusted eye-piece was constantly
exchanged for another. The observations, which are communicated in
the ‘‘ Astron. Mittheilungen,” xxvi., gave the following results. By
a we designate adjusted eye-piece, by d drawn out, and by p pushed in.
The illumination came from the east :-—

Difference between

Number of the Transits
1870. Shae reducedto the |MeanError.}| Observer.

Central Wire.

pI ce

April 20, 14 a—d =+ 08259 | + 05-021 S.
April 22, 10 a—d=+ 0-280 0-019 H.
April 25, 14 a—p=—90°276 0 009 8.
April 26, 15 p-—d=+ 0 -464 0-011 iS)

* Tn both the instruments in use the illumination was from east or west sent
down to the wires by a small mirror under an angle of 45° with the axis.

+ Détermination télégraphique de la différence de longitude entre la station
astronomique de Righi-Kulm et les Observatoires de Ziirich et de Neufchatel. Genéye,
1871, pp. 171 and foll.

R, I. A. PROC., SER. If., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3) Jt

508 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

These numbers allow of no doubt as to the reality of the influence
of the eye-piece: besides, the extent of this influence must be inde-
pendent of the observer (as both H. and 8. found nearly the same
result), and it seems to be proportional with the distance of the eye-
piece from its adjustment. The result found in this manner in Neuf-
chatel by illumination from the eastern end of the axis was identically
the same as the one found in Ziirich by illumination from the west, the
transit having been taken too late, while the eye-piece was too near
the wires, and too early, when it was too far from them.

The results were accordingly in perfect opposition to the observa-
tions taken in Ziirich, and it seemed, therefore, that the placing of the
lamp at one or the other end of the axis could not be the cause of the
change in the anomaly. As the matter, therefore, seemed worth a closer
examination, Hirsch took a series of observations with his artificial
apparatus.* From these it was again seen that the day observations
are independent of the position of the eye-piece, while the night obser-
vations showed not only again the influence of the eye-piece, but also
that the variations are opposite when the lamp is placed east and west.
And this time the influence of the illumination, strange enough, was the
same as that in Ziirich, and opposed to the one that only a few days
previously had been found in Neufchatel. For the transits were now
observed with illumination from the east.

By H. too early (on an average 05°18) with eye-piece pushed in.

99 Se 99 99 099 ” 08-19) ,, ” ” ” ”
jy daly pleats ( 99 ” 0s-12) ” ” », drawn out.
9 Ns 9999 2» ” 0 ‘15) ” ” ” ” ”

But observed with illumination from the west,

By H. too late (on an average 05:21) with eye-piece pushed in.
Hy Se gp early (,, 5. >» O24) ” », drawn out,

The question as to how the position of the eye-piece influences the
observation seemed, therefore, to become more and more abstruse, while
the existence of this influence was constantly felt if the field was
illuminated by artificial light. What remained was to explain the
contradiction between the Neufchatel observations of natural and arti-
ficial stars, with respect to the direction of the influence (retarding or
accelerating) for the same position of the lamp and the eye-piece.

An observation by Hirsch gave at last the key to all the phe-
nomena. The apparatus for the artificial star was in Neufchatel
placed before the meridian-mark, and when the telescope was directed
towards the latter, the middle of the field was seen strongly illumi-
nated by the gas-flame behind it, so that the wire in the telescope,
across which the transits were observed, was projected partly on this

* Communicated in his “ Difference de Longitude, Righi-Kulm,” &e.

DrevER—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 509

bright circle, partly on the dark border round it, where it was seen
only by the field illumination in the telescope. The 3rd May, while
the eye-piece was too far from the wire, Hirsch remarked that the latter
was not seen as a straight line, but as a broken one, as the part which
was seen on the bright ground seemed to be moved out of its place to
the right. With adjusted eye-piece the line was seen straight ; with
a pushed-in one it appeared broken, and its central part moved to the
left. And this apparent shifting of the wires was found to be inde-
pendent of the placing of the lamp.

At once awakened to this fact, Hirsch soon remarked that an
observer always would see two images of the wire if the eye-piece was
not exactly adjusted; besides the principal one, which, from want of
adjustment appeared diffused, a secondary, much fainter but sharper,
image was seen. The latter image seemed to occupy the real place of
the wire, and the relative position of the two images was reversed for
the two motions of the eye-piece. This gave, evidently, the explan-
ation of the principal fact, the acceleration or retarding of the
transits, caused by the abnormal position of the eye-piece; and by
measuring the distance between the two images, by means of a moy-
able wire, this was found = 0°29, or nearly equal to the difference
a—d and a—p on page 507.

This discovery, however, did not explain the observations made in
Ziirich, nor those taken in Neufchatel on the 2nd May. It had been
suspected that the position of the reflecting mirror in the telescope
might influence the phenomenon, and this was confirmed by an obser-
vation of Schmidt on the 4th May. According to this, a change in
the inclination of the reflector caused the secondary image to change
its position. While the reflector (whose inclination could only be
changed a little) was in an extreme position, he could see the image
on the bright background of the meridian-mark, and the other one on
the comparatively darker field-background; but on the latter he could
not see the secondary image, which Hirsch had seen on the preceding
day. This image, however, became visible when he turned the re-
flector a little to the right; it changed its place according to the
position of the eye-piece, but without coinciding perfectly with the
image projected on the bright back-ground. After the reflector had
been turned still more towards the position in which it would give
most light, there came a moment when the two images in the part of
the field only illuminated by the reflector had the same intensity ; when
the reflector was turned still more in the same direction, the secondary
image disappeared again, while the principal one became more dis-
tinct. It was also found that the distance between the two images
decreased gradually, while the eye-piece was approached to the ad-
justment in which they coincide; by moving it beyond the normal
position, the secondary image appeared again, but on the opposite
side. .

All these results were confirmed a few days later by MM, Planta-

3 F2

510 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

mour and R. Wolf. The latter recapitulates the influence of the
reflector in the following way :*¥—

OBJECT-GLASS

4 EYE—PIECE 3

Position Relative position of the image illum. by the reflector,
Place of of the Field. with respect to the image on the bright ground.
the Lamp-| Reflector.

Eye-piece drawn out. Eye-piece pushed in.
West. 1 Bright. To the right. To the left.
—— 2 Dark.t
— 3 Bright. To the left. To the right.
Kast. 4 Bright. To the right. To the left.
_- 5 Dark.t
— 6 Bright. To the left. To the right.

We have here so fully described the results of the investigations
of the Swiss astronomers, because it is evident that they are of very
great importance, not only for our knowledge of the personal error,
but for practical astronomy in general. They explain most probably
the sudden changes in the equation of two observers, which have
often been remarked, and they have, besides, confirmed the suggestion
that the illumination of the wires causes the difference between the
errors in the two positions of a broken telescope, which sometimes
appear. ‘Two of the weakest points in the art of observation have
in this way been made clear. And it is easy to avoid the causes
of the disturbances, now that they are known. If the observer has
only adjusted the eye-piece according to his sight, he may be sure

* Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Ziirich, xy., 1870,
p. 249.
i t Only so in the Ziirich instrument, owing to the large aperture of the re-
ector.

ae le ie) oy gi

Dreyver—On Astronomical Transit Observations, 511

that nothing but his common personal error will influence his obser-
vations.

After having considered the variation of the personal error during
shorter and longer intervals of time, and the influence of the eye-piece
on the estimation of a transit, we shall now turn our attention to two
circumstances which may have a similar influence, the magnifying
power and the apparent velocity of the motion of the star, varying
according to its polar distance. These two circumstances have often
been considered as perfectly identical. Bessel, for instance, tells us *
that he, acknowledging the importance of the question as to whether
the personal error varies according to the polar distance, had made
numerous experiments with several powers, whereby it was found to
be of no consequence whether he observed stars near the equator with
a power of 180, or with one of 66; and as stars with a N. P. D. not
smaller than 20°, seen with the former power, move as quickly or
‘more quickly, than equatorial stars seen with the latter, he concluded
that there was no fear of faults in his right ascensions arising from
the difference in polar distance. But this conclusion is not quite
certain, as C. Wolf has already remarked,+ because the thickness of
the wire is increased by a higher power, whereby it may be difficult
to estimate its axis in hke manner before and after the transit. It
seems, therefore, more correct to treat the two questions separately ;
moreover, neither have been examined sufficiently hitherto. With
respect to the magnifying power, the following tables show the few
results hitherto published :—

I. Eyr-anp-Ear Mernop.

Power. C. Wolf.

34 + 08168

43 +0161

17 + 0-111

133 + 0 104

- Power. F, Kaiser, P. J. Kaiser. Kam. van Hennekeler

50 — 0s°094 + 08-032 + 05-188 + 08055
200 —0°141 + 0-018 + 0 °160 +0°125

* Kénigsberger Beobachtungen, vill., p. 8. _ ie
+ Annales de |’ Observatoire de Paris, Mémoires, t. viil., p. 175.

512 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

II. CuronocrarHic Metnop.

Power. | F. Kaiser. P. J. Kaiser. Kam. van Hennekeler
50 — 08-094 — 05-096 + 05028 — 05°074
200 — 0-067 —0:051 - 0°029 — 0°084
Power. | Plantamour. R. Wolf. Hirsch. |
70 || ~— 08063 — 05°243 — 08°154 |

200 | — 0:039 — 0-170 — 0°134 |

We see from this that the changes (if such appear at all) are very
small, and there does not seem to exist any law, as it would probably
be too early to say that a higher power decreases the error, consider-
ing the small number of cases.

With respect to the influence of the declination, there cannot at
the present moment be said anything in general, as this important
question has been very little examined. In itself, it 1s very impro-
bable that personal equations should vary much according to the
declination of the stars, as only the difference between the two
observers’ dependence could be visible. And there is no reason to
expect that a personal error, generally, should vary regularly according
to the apparent velocity of the star, as even in rather high declinations
(50° or 60°) the space passed through by the star in a second is large

enough to be divided with certainty. And that the error should in- -

crease with sec 6, as R. Wolf thinks has been found by the observa-
tions in Ziirich,* does not necessarily result from them, and is besides
very improbable, as personal errors must arise from faults in the
sight, or in the hearing, or in the co-operation of these senses, and
in the chronographic method, from faults in the pressing of the key.
Faults of the latter kind, or in the hearing, must necessarily be the
same everywhere; while faults in the sight, as already said, can
hardly change until in very high declinations. C. Wolf’s observations
show certainly a regular but very small variation of the error, as the

* Astron. Mittheilungen, xxv. (Vierteljahrsschrift der Gesellschaft in Ziirich,.
xiv.), 1869, p. 265.

Drever—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 513

following table illustrates, but they are the only ones which have
given such a result.*

Velocity | Number of

(the equato- Personal Error. Complete De-
tial one = 1). terminations.
11) + 05:141 + 05014 6
1°5 + 0-120 + 0-010 8
13H + 0-108 + 0-012 5
0-7 +0:091 + 0-015 6

Most probably a velocity greater than the equatorial one was
strange to the observer, and therefore more likely to cause an increase
of the error. But that personal errors might be quite different in
observations of polar stars, has for along time been suspected, not only
from Pape’s and Peters’ observations,t but for many other reasons.
We shall here mention only the considerable difference between the
determinations of the right ascension of the polar star by Bessel and
Struve, which probably arose from a different error for equatorial
and for polar stars. With still greater certainty must such a variation
account for the great difference between Struve and Preuss, which
appeared through Peters’ researches on the right ascension of the
polar star, from the observations in Dorpat. We know also from
Newcomb’s “ Positions of Fundamental Stars,” that the R. A. of the
polar star has been found considerably different by the different
observers in Washington; so that, for instance, Mr. Thirion differed
more than two seconds from Professor Hall.

Astronomers who propose the construction of standard catalogues
must therefore in future enter more fully than hitherto into an
examination of their personal errors. Such a one has lately been
undertaken by M. Wagner, Vice-Director of the Russian Central
Observatory in Pulkowa, who has been kind enough to communicate
to me his important results, of which I shall now, with his permission,
give a short account.

When the chronographic method was introduced in Pulkowa, it
was soon found that the right ascensions of polar stars not only
depended on the observer’s individuality, but also on the method of

* Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris, viil., p. 187.
t The equation Pape—Peters was:

Eye-and-Ear. Chronograph.
for equatorial stars — 05*11 — 08-14
» the polarstar —0-°02 — 0°33

(Astron. Nachrichten, liv., p. 187.)

514 ~~ ~—— Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

observing (that is, using the old or the new method), and that the
appearing differences were a good deal larger than the probable errors
of a single observation. Before deducing final results with respect to
the positions of northern stars, it seemed therefore necessary directly
to find the above-mentioned differences between the different princi-
pal observatories; or better, to determine the absolute personal errors
by one of the artificial instruments. For the first reason, M. Wagner
went in the summer of 1868 to Greenwich, where he, on seven nights,
compared himself with the transit observers there; for the second
purpose, a time-collimator was placed in one of the meridian-mark
houses in Pulkowa, so that the transits of the artificial star could be
observed by lenses of proper focal length, in the large transit instru-
ment.

Polar stars are in Greenwich still observed with eye and ear
alone. As the observations are taken by several observers, M.
Wagener could only obtain mean results. While his equation with
the Greenwich observers for equatorial stars was very small,* he
found for stars near the pole:

N. P. D: W.-— Greenwich. ee
oo toe = 0°02 3
4 22 = 0-d1 3
3 24 —~ 6:02 7
2 45 — 0°50 5
The — 0°34 1
0 —1°14 5

The negative sign and the increase towards the pole seems certain.
This result became more interesting, when it appeared that some of
the observers differed more than others. By adopting the expression

sin 2°45)
~ Y sin WPD
the following differences were found :
sin 2°45’
.~Dunkin=~ 0°56 ——~—"-
De ae ee cD)
: sin 2°45/
.-Ellis =- 0°17 ——
WwW is sin NPD’

the probable errors of the coefficients being respectively = + 0°15,

* Greenwich Observations, 1868, Introd. (Dunkin — Wagner) = — 0°05 by chrono-
graphic observations.

Dreyver—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 515

and = + 0°11. As it therefore seemed probable that the different
observers would find different values for the R. A. of the polar star,
M. Wagner, justly thinking it of interest to ascertain this, extracted
from the volumes of ‘‘Greenwich Observations,” published before
1869, the R. A. of a Ursae minoris separately from the observations of
every single assistant. In order to be independent of the uncertainty
in the azimuth, only such results were used, for which two consecu-
tive culminations were observed by the same person. The following
R. A.s for 1865-0 of a Ursae minoris were found in this way :

Dunkin, £99739" 19 from 58 observations.
Ellis, 38-54 RAS iB
J. Carpenter, 38 °43 fn 0 =
Criswick, 38 -12 » 44 =
Kerschner, 37 82 nls fe
Stone, 36°47 eS 3

This has again confirmed the possibility of a different estimation
of transits of polar and equatorial stars.

The observations of artificial stars in Pulkowa began in 1870.
The apparatus used was the modified time-collimator of Kaiser,
manufactured by Tiede in Berlin, and, as already mentioned, placed
so that the circumstances under which the transits were observed
were as much as possible like those under which the natural transits
were taken. The following tables give the results of M. Wagner’s
observations. When the star was made to go more slowly, a less
number of wire-transits were taken than when the star was going
with the velocity of an equatorial star. The column 6 indicates the
apparent velocity of the artificial star.

1870. Morton Drrect.

| . 5 Number EE + Chr.

eee 8: EeeeOmDY, Error by — of Obser- | Chr.—EE. |

log.sec ie and Ear. Chronogr, | tava Cc EE 2
0-02 iN 7ralisy — 0018 — 05°089 35 — 0s-070 — 05:053
0°12 40 40 — 0-001 — 0:063 7:6 — 0-062 = 0-032
0:46 69 43 + 0-028 — 0:088 8 — 0-116 — 0:030
0°67 77 39 —=(0)40)83 — 0:165 Uf — 0-126 — 0°102
111 85 33 + 0-05 — 0°12 3 — 0:17 — 0°035
1:21 86 28 + 0°02 ~ 0°31 6 — 0°29 — 0°17
1°55 88 23 + 0°22 — 0:30 if — 0°52 — 0°04
1-76 89 0 +0°31 — 0:24 7 — 0°55 + 0°03

516 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

1871. Morton RetrocRapE.*

fa s
E b | 4B b Number EE. + Chr.
log.sec. | 8. Eye andiBacd|eiChroncee of Obser- | Chri 1054 saa
} |
0-06 29°26! ~ 05055 | —0s-061 | eacaeey — 08006 | —0=053
0-41 67 6 — 0:28 — 0-085 8-9 —0:057 | —0-057
0-67 77 39 ~ 0-001 =0-112 8 —0-1l11 | —0-056
1:15 85 57 + 0-04 — 0°28 9° )| 9 7-62-| * 10-89 ee ear
1°50 88 11 + 0-14 — 0°32 8 — 0-46 — 0-08
1:77 89 2 +046 | —0-02 8 — 0-48 + 0-22

M. Wagner considers these results worthy of some credit, as the
differences between his registered transits, and those observed with
eye and ear, agree very well with what has appeared from his observa-
tions of the real stars. The constant faults (caused by defects in the
apparatus) can, for equatorial velocity, only amount to a few thou-
sandths of a second ; for the slowest motion, they may be considerably
larger, on account of faults in the adjusting screws, but the mean
results contained in the last column of the above table may, notwith-
standing this, be considered as a very fair approximation to the
truth.

The last question we now have to answer is, has the apparent
brilliancy of the objects observed any influence on an obseryer’s esti-
mation of its transit? That a personality is distinctly visible in
observations of the first and second limbs of the sun or the moon, has
lately been shown by Mr. Dunkin, in Greenwich, in two papers laid
before the Royal Astronomical Society, t the personal errors being
detected in the tabular errors of the R. A. of the moon and of the sun.
The different habits of observing these two celestial objects by the.
four principal observers in Greenwich, are essentially the same im the
observations of both of them, as the following table shows :§—

* Corresponding to the direction of the motion of a star between the Pole and
the Zenith.

t To be found in the column headed: ‘‘ Chr. — EE.”

t On Personality in observing Transits of the limbs of the Moon—‘“ Monthly
Notices,” Vol. xxix., p. 259. On Personality in observing Transits of the first and
second limbs of the Sun. —Tbid., xxxv., p. 91.

§ For the moon Mr. Dunkin has not only used the observations taken with the
transit-instrument (quoted here), but also those taken with the altazimuth, which,
upon the whole, give similar results, although made under quite different circum-
stances.

Dreyver—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 517

TapuLtar Errors or R. A.

OF THE Sun. Or THE Moon.

ist Limb. | 2nd Limb. 1st Limb. 2nd Limb.

Criswick — Dunkin, .| + 05052 | +0s-002 |+0 5084 | + 05032
C.— Ellis, 6 5 op ESO) OIL} +0 :019 + 0:112 +0 :077
C.—J. Carpenter, . | +0-150 —0 001 POM oe + 0 °0388

There can hardly be any doubt that this personality principally
arises from the irradiation, as it is a well-known fact that the diameter
of the sun, as well as that of the moon, is measured differently by
different observers, as also by different telescopes. But there is ano-
ther circumstance, the condition of the atmosphere and the quality of
the images (which depends thereon) whose great importance for obser-
vations of such very luminous objects must not be undervalued. The
observations of the sun made in Pulkowa by Wagner and Gyldén
(especially by the former) show very distinctly that the apparent
diameter of the sun increases, as the images get worse,* and the circum-
stances under which the limbs of the sun and the moon are taken
differ therefore, in every respect, from those of star observations, so
that personality in the former cannot be treated from the same point
of view as in the latter.

While the observer’s individuality thus has a different influence in
observations of the different limbs of the sun and moon, we must
leave it to the future to decide whether observations of faint stars,
compared with those of brighter ones show a similar anomaly (that is,
a change in the common personal error) or not. It is impossible to
find anything respecting this question by examining any of the
published observations of personal equations, as these only extend
over three or four of the first classes of magnitude, where, no doubt,
a distinct variation of the personal errors never will be found.

The matter is certainly of importance. If we suppose that an
observer’s personal error is not subject to very sudden variations (as
we have seen is not the case with tolerably experienced observers),
it will for common astronomical observations be of no importance
whatever, how large his error is, if he only determines the correc-
tion of the clock himself. But the case becomes quite otherwise, if
his error is different for stars of a different magnitude. If he, for
instance, observes a zone of small stars of 8 to 9°10 mag., and uses

* Vierteljahrsschrift der Astron. Gesellschaft, yili., pp. 48-65.

518 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

a clock-correction derived from four or five standard stars, the dif-
ferent estimation of bright and faint stars will cause a constant
fault of all the right ascensions of the zone.

In order to explain the deviations of Nyrén’s constant of pre-
cession from those of Bessel and Struve,* we might seek the origin
of the undeniable difference: Schjellerup — Bessel — Weisse = — 0°:095
in such a different estimation in one of the two observers, which
would be more likely to have existed in Bessel’s case, as Schjellerup’s
right ascensions can hardly be affected with any large constant error,
considering their excellent agreement with those of the Gottingen
zones, { which are founded on ‘the same standard stars. Before leay-
ing the Copenhagen Observatory, I tried to find whether the above
difference could be explained in this way. From the original obser-
vations of Schjellerup’s and the ‘‘ Konigsberger Beobachtungen,” I
wished to derive diiferences of right ascension between zone stars ap-
pearing in both catalogues, and standard stars, which the two observers
would have had in common, if such had been observed together on one
night in Konigsberg, as well as in Copenhagen. But it appeared
soon that any certain and reliable result could not be obtained in this
way, as Schjellerup nearly always had used other standard stars (one
or two classes fainter) than Bessel, so that only a very small number
of zone stars occurring in both catalogues, could be compared with
one and the same standard star. However, the difference between
the right ascensions of the two catalogues has probably another and a
deeper origin, as neither of the two constants of precession used now-a-
days seems derived in quite a satisfactory way.{ Besides, according to
Argelander’s comparison between Bessel’s zones and Struve’s ‘‘ Posi-
tiones medie,’’ it does not seem likely that the former are affected
with any constant error as the one suggested above.

It cannot, however, be doubted that a different estimation of
transits of bright and faint stars may exist,|| and an example has been
found by Argelander by comparing Santini’s fifth catalogue, contain-

ing positions of stars between 96° and 93° N. P. D., from observations |

* Détermination du coefficient constant de la précession au moyen d’étoiles
de faible éclat. Par M. Nyrén (Bulletin de Académie Imp. des Sciences de
St. Pétersbourg, 1869).

+ Gottingen — Schjellerup =— 0s:005 (R. Copeland und C. Borgen: Mittlere
Oerter der in den Zonen—0° und — 1° enthaltenen Sterne: Gottingen, 1869
p. 18).

( + Bessel has, for instance, used Lindenau’s constant of nutation, which is
0”-25 too small, while O. Struve has founded his researches on his father’s deter-
mination of the relation between the mean distances of stars from different classes.

¢ Vierteljahrsschrift der Astron. Gesellschaft, vil., p. 17.

|| Bessel has already suspected this (Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Bessel, ii.,
p. 358).

DrevyER—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 519

by Trettenero, with the catalogues of Schjellerup and Bessel. He
found by dividing the stars according to the magnitude :*¥—

| Magn. | Schj.—Tr. | Stars. Aa.
6™ | + 087023 14 — 08°018
te + 0-081 By) +0 :017
78 + 0 -089 23 — 0 :022
8 + 0 -084 68 + 0 °002
| 8°9 +0 °105 74 0 -000
9 + 0 °124 120 0 -000

The increase of the difference with the decrease of the brightness
of the stars seems beyond doubt. The last column contains the
deviations of the differences from the formula :-—

Schj.-— Tr. = + 0°°010 + 0-038 [ Magn. — 6™-0].

The comparison between the Padua zones and those of Bessel gave
a similar result, which, however, is more uncertain than the above
one, owing to constant errors in some of Bessel’s zones, uncertainty
of proper motions, &c. <Argelander informs us also that the third
Padua catalogue has been found by himself to contain a similar devia-
tion of the faint stars.

It seems, therefore, that Trettenero really observed faint stars
earlier than bright ones, probably because his attention while observ-
ing the former was more concentrated in the work of the eye, or
because he regularly first heard the beats of the clock, and then
saw, while he observed bright stars in the reverse way. Argelander
has already, in Vol. VI. of the Bonn Observations (p. 12), suspected
that a fault in his own R. A.s might arise in this way, and he has
later examined his own observations of variable stars, in order to find
whether any certain influence of the magnitude on the R. A. would
appear from these. The result was, that Argelander seemed to
observe stars down to 9°1 magnitude in the same way, but stars of the
magnitude 9-2, and still more those of magnitude 9:3, a little earlier ;
but that the error for the latter could hardly amount to more than
0°15. For stars below the 9°3 magnitude, the accidental errors
seemed to amount to more than the constant one, so that the latter
could not appear distinctly.t

As observations of variable stars in their different phases of bright-
ness are included in the programme of the zone observations, at present
undertaken by different observatories, under the direction of the Inter-
national Astronomical Association, we shall, probably, soon possess

* Vierteljahrsschrift, vii., p. 19. + Astron. Nachrichten, Ixxiy., p. 268.

520 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

a number of trustworthy results respecting the personal errors of faint
stars.

Closely connected with the question of personality in observations
of faint stars is another important matter, to which the great number
of nebular observations, made during the last twenty-five years, has
turned our attention. We allude to the constant differences between
the right ascensions found by different astronomers. It is especially
Schonfeld, whose results, published in Vol. I. of the ‘‘Mannheim Ob-
servations,’’ show a remarkable deviation from those of all other
observers of nebule, as the following equations show :—

Schonfeld — Laugier =— 0*21.
— (Arrest =— 0°38.*
— Schmidt =-— 0°39.
— Schultz =-—0°30.f
— Oppolzer = — 0:38. f
— Vogel =- 0°21.

Although it seemed unquestionablethat Schonfeld’s right ascensions
are too small, I thought it would be of interest to compare them with the
‘« Micrometrical Observations of 500 nebule by Dr. Herman Schultz,”
which were published in Upsala, in 1874, in order to see, whether the
very striking difference between the Mannheim and the few earlier
Upsala observations would appear again, when all the observations
of later years were employed in the comparison. It is safest only to
compare objects which have been determined by both observers by
means of the same comparison-star, as the small differences between
the positions of the different star catalogues might produce here too
ereat an effect upon the value of the small personal equation. Of
the 163 objects which occur both in Schultz’s and Schonfeld’s obser-
vations, I, therefore, only took 114, which have been compared with
the same star. Of these 114 the neb. h 393 could not be used, as it
seemed most probable that a different point had been observed. The
remaining 113 equal differences nebula-star gave for the equation
Schonfeld — Schultz

Aa cos 6 = — 0°338.

As only thirteen nebule gave a very small positive value Aa cos,
there is no doubt, that one of the two observers has a different way of
estimating the transits of stars and nebule.

That these indications of personal equations in nebular observations

* Mean of all the comparisons contained in the “ Observationes Haynienses.”’
This number is, of course, of less value than the others, as d’ Arrest only observed
most nebule approximatively. The comparison between Schonfeld and d’Arrest’s
“First Series’? (Leipzig, 1856) gave a similar difference, which, however, disap-
peared when only nebulz observed with the same star were compared.

+ Astron. Nachr., lxiii., No. 1504.

tele

DrevER—On Astronomical Transit Observations, 521

do not depend on instrumental circumstances, but really on the
observer’s individuality, can be proved in several ways. Although
Schonfeld observed with an annular micrometer, whose construction,
certainly, may give rise to constant errors, it is impossible in this way
to explain the differences between Schonfeld and the other observers
of nebule. Schmidt observed also with an annular micrometer, and
still his observations differ about as much from Schonfeld’s, as those
of Schultz, made with a wire-micrometer. Between the right ascen-
sions obtaimed with nearly equal telescopes, and by means of wire-
micrometers in Leipzig and Upsala, I found, besides, a difference
(Vogel — Schultz) :
Aa cos 6 = — 0*10,*

which agrees very well with the difference between the equations
Schonfeld—Schultz and Schonfeld- Vogel = — 0°34 — (—0*:21)=— 0°13.
But the second series of Schonfeld’s observations, published only a few
months ago, have made the reality of the influence of the observer’s indi-
viduality quite unquestionable. This series contains 153 objects, which
also occur in Schultz’s observations, and the author has himself com-
pared their R.A.s with those in Schultz’s ‘‘ Preliminary Catalogue of
Nebule,’’} which is less troublesome than the way of comparing chosen
by me. The result is:

Aa cos § = — 0°150,
while a comparison between this series and the first one gave
I. — IT. = — 0°21.

These two comparisons agree most perfectly with my result given
above, and show with certainty that Schonfeld, being aware of the
fact that he made his right ascensions too small, or was inclined to
observe transits of nebulz too soon, in the course of years has altered
his method of estimating the latter. This proves to some extent that
the personal error is not perfectly independent of the individual’s will,
which must be considered as one of the most important results we
hitherto have found respecting this abstruse subject.

My examination of Schultz’s observations has given another
result, which also, I think, is of some importance. Julius Schmidt
had already, by comparing his own observations with those of
Schonfeld, found the equation to be different according to the con-

* From fifty-five identical differences: nebula star. I have already mentioned

‘this equation, as well as the preceding one, in a review of Dr. Schultz’s work in

the Vierteljahrsschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, x., pp. 64-73.
+ Monthly Notices of the R. Astron. Society, xxxv., p. 135.
4 pepe nomeche Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Mannheim, ii., Carlsruhe,
1875, p. 8.

522 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

densation and apparent size of the nebule (Astr. Nachr., Nos. 1463
and 1513), so that large and uncondensed nebule gave the greatest
equation. But as the Athens observations are few in number, this
result could not be very reliable. I, therefore, thought it of interest
to see whether Schultz’s comprehensive observations would show a
similar dependency, when compared with those of Schonfeld. The
result of my examination is found in the following two tables. As
might be expected, the condensation of a nebula has more influence
upon the estimation of the transits than its size.

Tasre I.

Nebule classified according to their apparent Size.

Ginco Diameter of Number of

Nebulz. Aa cos 6. Nebulz.
if 0-2 — 0'°6 — 05:28 57
II. 0:6—1°d — 0°36 22
IGHE, 1°56 —3°5 —0 -40 20
IV. 3°9 —8°d — 0°46 14
Taste II.

Nebula classified according to the Degree of Condensation.

H | Number of
Class. DEResTavee. Aa cos 6. Nebule.

| I. | Planetary, or witha

starlike nucleus, .| — 08-15 Sie

II. | Less condensed, more
irregular, . . .| —0°39 53
| III. | Large & uncondensed.| — 0-44 28

We haye now come to the end of our researches about the
different circumstances under which personal equations and errors
appear, and shall at last consider the probable origin of the pheno-
mena.

iGOE,

When Bessel had first remarked the considerable equation between
himself and his pupils, in the winter of 1820, he tried at once to explain
this remarkable phenomenon from the co-operation of the two senses,
sight and hearing, which takes place when an observation is made by .

ee ene oe ee ee

DrevER—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 523

eye and ear.* If we suppose that impressions on the eye and ear
cannot be compared instantaneously with one another, and that two
observers take an unequal time to transfer the one impression to the
other, there will arise a personal difference or equation, which will be
still larger, if one observer begins with seeing and ends by hearing,
and the other observer does the reverse.

There can hardly be any doubt that the explanation here inti-
mated, in many cases, especially when the equation is of a consider-
able size, is the right one. In the eye-and-ear method the mind is in
reality at work in three different ways: hearing, seeing, and count-
ing the seconds; perhaps one might say in four ways, considering the
expecting of the coming beats of the clock. The longer the interval
between the beats, the longer time this expectation will of course
take; and this is perhaps the reason why Bessel’s personal error was
found half a second smaller, by using a half-second watch, whose
single beats were counted, so that he, with this watch, observed 0°:494
later than with a clock beating whole seconds, while Struve and
Argelander found no such difference.t However, Bessel’s very con-
siderable error cannot be explained perfectly in this way. Encke has
tried to explain it, simply by supposing that Bessel counted a second
too early, and this certainly agrees with the decrease of the error by
using the half-second clock.{ C. Wolf is of the same opinion,§ and
he tells us that a few years ago an analogous case occurred at the
Observatory in Paris, where an observer noted all the transits one
second later than all the others.|| But although this proves the
possibility of such a mistake, it hardly seems probable that Bessel’s
personal error should arise from such a very simple cause, and besides,
how should we explain personal equations of 0°-5, 0°°6, 0°°7, of which
we have several examples in the eye-and-ear method,§{] and how can
an observer continually change his way of estimating transits in the
course of years (in which case we could not think of a new way of
counting the seconds)? We have already, in the foregoing, given
several examples of such alterations, and the equation Bessel—Struve
increased besides, continually, until it reached its maximum

* Koénigsberger Beobachtungen, viil., p. 7.

+ This explanation of Bessel’s error has already been suggested by Albrecht
(Lingendifferenzen, &c., p. 36). Several observers in Leyden observed in 1861
and 1862, with two chronometers, one beating single seconds, the other giving 130
beats in one minute; but none of them found any certain variation in their small
errors, caused by the use of the latter (Verslagen, &c., xv., pp. 212 and 217).

+ Monatsberichte der Berliner Academie, 1858, p. 617.

§ Annales de l’Obseryatoire de Paris, Mémoires, t. vili., p. 186.

|| According to Radau (Sur les erreurs personelles, p. 29, Moniteur Scientifique,
1866), the said observer, to his great surprise, was convinced of his mistake
by observing the disappearance of an artificial star behind a screen, and counting
the seconds aloud, while another person (in the moment of the disappearance) gave
him a slap on the back.

§ Nehus— Wolfers =+ 08:73 Nese Main — Rogerson = + 08°70 (1853).
Petersen — Madler =+ 0 °52 (1833). | Jacob —SashooJengar = + 0 °80 (1858).
Gerling — Nicolai =+0°78 ean). Quirling — Lucas + 0 67 (1868).
Dunkin — W. Ellis = + 0 -84 (1847).| Main — Lucas =+0 °70 (1868), &e.

R. I. As PROC., SER. II., VOL, I., SCIENCE. 3G

i ul

O24 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

value in 1823. Wolf proves his assertion by the fact, that the equa-
tion Bessel—Argelander, by occultations of stars, was found = — 0°:222,
but by transits =— 1°:222. I do not understand this argument, as
there is no reason why Bessel should count the seconds properly while
observing occultations, but not when he observed transits.

Notwithstanding these but slightly proved objections to Bessel’s
explanation of his great error, nobody has attempted to deny the great
influence of the ‘‘superposition”’ of the two senses on the appearance
of the personal error. Faye has tried to elucidate the matter by a
comparison.* We might imagine, he says, that the intellect was an
eye in the interior of the brain, observing the effects which the im-
pressions of the senses make in the fibres of the nerves. If impres-
sions of the same nature are made in the same point, this interior eye
can easily decide whether they are simultaneous or not; but if it
should observe different perceptions, by fibres extending to different
portions of the brain, the interior eye would have to move from one
portion to another, the time spent in this movement would not be
remarked, and perceptions divided by a real interval of time might
therefore erroneously be considered as simultaneous. The time lost
in passing from one perception to another is different in each indivi-
dual, and in this way personal equations may arise. This is only a
comparison, but a very good and instructive one.

We cannot, however, be satisfied with this, but we must examine
the question more closely in order to see how a personal error can
arise, both in the eye-and-ear method, and in the chronographic one.
Let us begin by considering the different effects of the senses, and the
time spent in their completion, as this time already gives the possibi-
lity of a personal error. There are three processes by which a per-
ception is made: an impression on a receptive organ (the eye or the
ear), the passing on of this impression through the nerves to the
brain, and at last, the mind’s perception.

It is quite clear that there must be some time lost during the two
first processes, and this is besides proved in different ways. The
impression on the receptive organ is quite material, and lasts some
time; very brilliant objects are, for instance, visible to the eye a
short time after this organ has been closed. That the passing on to
the brain through the nerves requires time may be seen from direct
experiments. Helmholtz has, for instance, found the velocity of the
propagation of a nervous irritation equal to about thirty-four metres
in a second,} so that the time lost in bringing an impression to the
brain is often quite perceptible.

In like manner, a certain time must elapse before the material
irritation causes the mind to be aware of what has happened. As we
do not know at all how the perception arises, that space of time can-
not be determined, but its existence can indirectly be felt if we deter-
mine the velocity of the sensation, or the time in which the mind can
only be occupied by a single perception. We may determine this by

* Comptes rendus, t. lix., p. 475. + Poggendorf’s Annalen, Bd. lxxix., p. 329,

—————————————=——— ee

DrreveEr—On Astronomical Transit Observations. 525

seeking the minimum of time in which two different efforts of the
mind can follow each other. We could, for instance, find the time
which elapses between the observation of an instantaneous sound, or
of a glimpse of light, or the touch of an external object, and the
immediate completing of a galvanic current through the pressure
of a key by the hand. Experiments to this effect have been made by
Hirsch, Hankel, and others. On an average we can consider the velo-
city of the perception of a sound, of a glimpse of light, or of the sense
of feeling = 0°20. This number contains the velocity of the propa-
gation in the nerves, and, besides, the time which elapses between the
arrival of the nervous irritation from the brain to the muscles of the
fingers, and the contraction of these.* But as these intervals are very
small, compared with the above numbers, they prove with certainty that
a limited time is necessary for the accomplishment of the mental process. +

The above-mentioned experiments show that the velocity of the
sensation contributes to the formation of a personality in the percep-
tion of a phenomenon, as the single observers did not find exactly the
same results. In the chronographic method, where the eye and the
hand work together, a different estimation of the coincidence of the
star and the wire can be joined by a different way of pressing the
key. The former circumstance seems to be of great importance,
especially if we observe bright stars with instruments of small aper-
ture, which often do not give sharply-defined images of the stars. In
the eye-and-ear method the different velocity of perception may be
joined by the ‘‘ superposition ”’ of the two active senses, as well as by
a different manner of estimating the beats of the clock, perhaps, also,
by the expectation of them; while the chronographic method only
requires the action of two of the senses, the eye-and-ear method takes
in reality four actions of the mind. One might conclude from this
that personal errors in the chronographic method, within shorter
intervals of time, change less than in the eye-and-ear method, and that
greater variations do not appear as suddenly in the former as in the
latter, in which greater variations may be expected even within
shorter intervals. As we have seen in the foregoing pages, obser-
vations have in part confirmed this conclusion, and it is a fact that
errors of such an extent as Bessel’s, and some of the observers,
mentioned in the note of page 523, have never been found in the
chronographic method, which certainly proves the great influence the
simultaneous working of the senses and the expectation of the beats
of the lock have on our estimation of a transit.

A general theory cannot be given of the origin of the personal
error. We can only point out different circumstances which contribute
to the formation of a personal error, and there can be no doubt that

* By Helmholtz found = 0-01.

+ If it is necessary to prove more fully the duration of an impression on the
senses, we need only remember that glimpses of light or sounds which follow
one another with shorter intervals than about 05:05, cannot be perceived as separate
phenomena.

3 G2

626 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the cause of one observer’s error is not the same as the cause of
another observer’s. Wolf tries, in the paper we have so often quoted,
to give a general theory of the personal error, which, however, does.
not include the very large ones, with respect to which he contents.
himself with Bessel’s explanation, simply adding, that constant
practice may diminish them. He recounts so many ingenious ex-
periments that this is sufficient reason for us to examine his
ideas more closely, especially as several of his experiments show
that the causes we have mentioned on the foregoing pages are
certainly not the only ones which give rise to the personal faults.

We have already seen that Wolf’s error in the commencement was.
found = + 0°°8, and that it was afterwards brought down by-and-bye
to 0°1, at which value it remained constant. In order to see whether
this small correction arose from the confusion of hearing and seeing at
the same time, he placed before the telescope a Geissler’s tube, which
gives a glimpse every second, and in this manner marked the time.
One evening he found by common eye-and-ear observation of eighty
angle transits, the error =+ 0°11, and by a series of observations with
the tube, instead of the clock (intermixed with the former) the error
= 0°10. Another time the seconds were marked by the star itself,
which, as an electric spark, blazed up every second, so that a sudden
flash showed the position of the star in the field at the beginning of
each second. By stopping his ears, in order to avoid hearing the noise
of the spark, the error was found = + 0*-08, while common observa-
tions at the same time gave + 0°10. Accordingly, Woltf’s error was
always constant, whether the observation was made by sight alone, or
with the assistance of the ear. However, he tried in another way,
whether ‘‘le temps mort” existed, as if so, its duration would depend
on which organ was used. He substituted feeling for hearing by
receiving light electric shocks in the left hand with a second’s interval.
Eighty transits of this kind gave his correction = + 0°11 exactly the
same as common observations:*

Having convinced himself that the simultaneous working of two
senses could not give rise to his personal error, as it remained the
same, whether one sense was working or the sight and the feeling
co-operating, instead of the sight and hearing, Wolf produced by
means of holes in a moveable board three artificial stars, situated one
above the other, in a line perpendicular to the direction of their
motion. The central star was always visible, the upper and lower
one at the same time, but only for an instant, for example, regularly
with a second’s interval. There appeared, then, a remarkable circum-
stance, that at the moment the two outer stars flashed up the observer
imagined he saw the central one had moved a little in advance of the
other two, and this advance seemed proportional with the velocity.
However, the foremost star always seemed to be furnished with a ray
of light behind (reaching to the spot it should have occupied between

* Annales de 1’ Observatoire de Paris, yill., p. 189.

a tie

Drever—Qn Astronomical Transit Observations. 527

the other two) when the outer ones appeared with regular intervals ;
and it was only sharply defined, if these latter flashed up at irregular
intervals. But if the steadily shining star had been caused to dis-
appear at the moment when the others appeared, they were all seen
in a straight line.

Wolf explains these phenomena in the right way, I think, when
he says, that by the irregular sudden appearance of the outer stars,
the eye, taken by surprise, is principally occupied with them for a
moment, and in the meantime ceases to observe the central one, which
can only be seen again after that moment, at a time when it has
moved in advance. ‘This last impression seems now to the mind to be
simultaneous with the sudden appearance of the other two stars.
But if they appear at regular intervals, the mind is prepared for their
appearance, and the observation of the motion of the steadily luminous
star is not perfectly interrupted during the sudden impression. While
this lasts, the observer will therefore see all the places which the star
has occupied, and it depends now entirely on his individuality as to
which place he will select out of this series, and consider simultaneous
with the sudden appearance of the outer stars. To conclude, from
the sign of Wolf’s personal error, he selected the place which was
reached by the central star at the end of the sudden impression. But
when the eye begins to see the flashing sparks, it retains all the posi-
tions which the central star successively occupied during a space of
time equal to the duration of a luminous impression; it is, therefore,
also possible that an observer imputes the position of the star in the
moment of the flashing up to some point in this ‘‘parcours antérieur.”
Lastly, if we abolish the steady illumination of the central star, it is
not possible to see a series of its positions during the sudden impres-
sion, and the personal error is done away with, at least for an antici-
pating observer.*

Such impressions on the senses, which, to the mind, seem to last for
some little time (although their duration in reality is extremely short),
must, according to the above, be of great importance as the sources of
personal errors. Wolf tries on these experiments to found a theory
for all kinds of personal equations in transit-observations, without
being quite successful, as far as we can see. He remarks that the
above explanation of personal errors, in case of our perceiving the
seconds by the eye, cannot without alteration be applied to the eye-
and-ear method, as a considerable difference between the duration of
perceptions by the eye and by the ear has been found by his own
direct researches, as well as by those of Helmholtz and Emsmann.
If we perceive the seconds by the ear, the impression will certainly
last for an extremely short time (less than 0°01), but owing to the

* Hartmann has found something similar by his apparatus (Grunert’s Archiy.
fiir Mathematik, xxxi., p. 17). If he placed a scale in the telescope and before the
observation remarked at which division the star should be at the second- beat, he
often fancied when he concentrated his attention on the motion of the star, that he
saw it a little in advance of its real position. He oftener saw it in the right place
when he was tired.

528 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

duration of the luminous impression, we will, during this short time,
see the star, not only in its real place, but also in all the places it
has occupied during an interval equal to the duration of the luminous
impression.

It does not seem possible that there can be any objection to this ;
but in order to account for those errors by which the position of the
star is anticipated, Wolf supposes that the transient impression from
the place which the star really occupies in the moment of the second-
beat, also may allow the mind to impute the following positions which
the star occupies during this, to the instantaneous audible second-beat
as simultaneous with it. This last supposition seems a little difficult
to understand.

As we, therefore, cannot fully adopt Wolf’s theory, we must be
content to consider the question about the origin of the personal
errors, as elucidated in different ways by the foregoing. In order to
give a short review of what we have already said, we may mention
among the principal causes producing personal errors: the co-opera-
tion of the different senses; the expectation of the regularly returning
beats of the clock; the different velocity of the sensation ; and lastly,
the difference of habit in the mechanical actions.

APPENDIX.

Since the above paper was read before the Royal Irish Academy,
Professor Bakhuyzen kindly sent me some results of observations made
by himself and the assistants at the Leyden Observatory, which con-
firm several conclusions arrived at in the foregoing pages. It deserves,
for instance, our attention that observations of Polaris by day and by
night have again shown the considerable influence which an eccentric
illumination of the wires can exercise over the personal error. That
this is the only circumstance through which it is possible to account
for the anomalies which so often have appeared in observations with a
“broken telescope,” has anew been proved by Dr. Valentiner’s and
Dr. Becker’s observations with the time-collimator, as the different
direction of the motion of the star was found to have very little or no
influence on the personal error.

Observations haye been made in Leyden in order to try whether
the observers estimated the transits of bright and faint stars differ-
ently. The observations which were taken with the meridian-circle:
and chronograph gave the following results :

Stars 3 — 6 magn. Stars 8 — 9 magn. pereti
Valentiner — Becker =— 0530 (12 stars), — Os:21 (15 stars), -—05-09.
Valentiner— H. G. Bakhuyzen = + 0°13 (84 stars), + 0°18 (63 stars), -—0-00.
Valentiner — E. F. Bakhuyzen =— 0°16 -— 0:17 +0°01.

The difference in the equation Valentiner—Becker for bright and
for faint stars has been confirmed by the zone-observations ae stars.
between 30° and 35° northern declination made in Leyden.

HarpMan—On Analysis of Coals and Iron-stones. 529

XLY .—Awnatyrsis or Coats anp IRon-stoNEs FRoM THE DunGANNON
Coat-Fretp, Co. Tyrone. By Epwarp T. Harpman, F.C.S.,
&e., of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

[Read February 28th, 1876.]

Awatyses of one or two of the coals of Dungannon have been
already published by Sir Richard Griffith,* and Sir Robert Kane.t

During a stay of over a year in the neighbourhood, while making
a survey of the coal-field, I had opportunities of obtaining good
average samples of all the more important coals at present being
worked, and haying examined them, I now propose to place the re-
sults before the Academy.

Thavealready, elsewhere, published more or less detailed descriptions
of this coal-field,t and shall enter no further at present into what would
only be repetition than to say that the coal measures there, although
occupying but a small area, are about 2,000 ft. thick, and contain from
22 to 24 coal seams; all of them of fair, and some of excellent quality.
These vary in thickness from 10 in. to 9 ft.

Appended isa list of the more important of these coals in order :

TABLE OF THE Coats AT PRESENT BEING WORKED.
Dungannon Coal-Field.

ft. in.
Annagher Coal,t 2) 50)
Middle Bone Coal, 05 LO)
Coal Shining Seam, omen O
Measures. | Brackaville Coal, é oun 0
Gortnaskea Coal (with 22 in. cannel),¢ 6 1000
(Coal Island | Beltiboy Coal, 23 SS Tape proms 0
series). Derry Coal, 3 6to 5d ft.
Yard Coal, : } 370
ee Creenagh Coal { (with 14in.cannel),f 4 6
Lower Coal
Measures. { Main Coal of Drumglass,t i 4s 10) to Gehte
(Drumglass ( Lower ,, - Le kg be Cyto oaks:
series).

Those marked with an asterisk are included in the following ana-
lyses, being the only seams which were worked upon when I was in
the district.

* Geological and Mining Surveys of Tyrone, &c. (Dublin, 1839), p.12. These
analyses are unfortunately nearly useless by reason of misprints.

T Industrial Resources of Ireland.

¢ See “‘On the Present State of Coal Mining in the Co. Tyrone.” By Edward
dip Hardman, in Jour. Roy. Dub. Soc., Vol. vi., part 42, p. 366. Also ‘ Geolo-
gical Structure of the Tyrone Coal-fields.” Report Brit. Assoc. ., 1874, Belfast.

530 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

By the kind permission of Professor Galloway, the analyses were
for the most part performed in the very complete laboratory under
his control at the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

ANALYSES OF THE Coats oF THE Duncannon Coat-FIeLp.

LoweErR CoAL-MEASURES.

No. 1.—ain Coal or Drumglass Coal. Lurgaboy (Top).

ANALYSIS.
Volatile matter (including sulphur and water), 48°00
Care Fixed carbon, (0. ye aces) a eee
AGH) ee tga (ge eh kee) sik Shin ae OG
100-00
Water at 212°F., . 2°49 per cent.
Sulphur wen. frais hen sO One
Ash in coke, sito OO Ee

Specific Gravity, . 1°295

Heatine Powrr.—1 lb. of the coal evaporates 12°86 lbs. of water
at 212° F.; and 1 cubic ft. of the coal evaporates 1109-68 Ibs. of water
at 212° F.

The above forms the uppermost portion of the main seam. It is
an extremely good coal, not yielding in quality to the best English
specimens. Although somewhat hard, and occasionally difficult to
kindle, it burns with a very brilliant flame, abounding, as it does, in
gas-forming materials. The ash is small in quantity, and light coloured.
The heating power is very high. This portion of the seam varies in
thickness from 1/4” in Lurgaboy, to 1/10” in Drumglass, and nearly
3’ in Congo, and is separated by a band of black shale or fire-clay
called ‘‘ clearing,” which is three feet thick in Lurgaboy*—from the
bottom coal.

No. 2.—Main Coal. Lurgaboy (Bottom).

ANALYSIS.
Volatile matter, including sulphur and water, . 37:19
+Coke Fixedcarbons! 2 A 21.0) oO oh
oss) cae ae ee a aor Siti Ts hs ITO)
100°00
{ Water at 212° F.,. 5°72 per cent.
Sulphur. ee: <9 -aeel Goyder
IAshvain COKE, eait milo 0) eee
Specific gravity, . 1°385

* Towards the west of the Coal-field the ‘clearing ’’ diminishes to a couple of
layers, a few inches thick only.
t Mean of two experiments.

a

i

HarpmMan—On Analysis of Coals and Iron-stones. 581

Heattne Power :—1 lb. of the coal evaporates 12°15 lbs. of water
at 212° F.; and 1 cubic foot of the coal evaporates 1043-382 lbs. of
water at 212° F.

This portion of the coal is of rather inferior quality, as it contains
layers of shale or slate, sulphate of lime, &c. The ash is large in
quantity, and of a heavy, dirty, red appearance. The heating power is,
however, high, and it is on the whole a good strong coal, very useful
for furnaces, &c.

The next coal of value above this is the Creenagh coal, which is
made up of several portions, the section being :—

ft. in.
Upper “‘ soft coal,” . yO
Cannel coals: nc. 2 sraen eguele
Cracker, Zig a 0 4
Lower, ‘‘scft coal,” lB
4 6

No. 3.—Creenagh soft coal. From Castlestuart Colliery, Creenagh.

ANALYSIS.

Volatile matter, including sulphur and water, . 43°40

i Hixed carbone itsne aCe oar oUr80
CO ONG eee ae ie nd eSO
100-00

Water at 212°F., 7°46
Sulphur, A ie it LOC a
Ash in coke, . . . 21°30
Specifie gravity, 1°45

per cent.

9

2

Heatrve Powrr.—1 lb. of the coal evaporates 10°45 Ibs. of water
at 212° F.; and 1 cubic foot of the coal evaporates 930°75 lbs. of water
Gis DAT ONS th

The Creenagh soft coal is rather tender, but is sometimes obtained
in large blocks. It is, however, very ashy, and contains many layers
of sulphate of lime, which both add to its weight and deteriorate the
quality. The ash is heavy and dirty, and the heating power is lowest
of any seam in the district. It is at the same time a useful coal, and
in good demand in the neighbourhood.

It may be mentioned that the pit from which the specimens used
in the above analysis were obtained was very wet, owing to the
encroachment of water through a fault. This will probably account
for the extreme amount of hygroscopic moisture estimated.

* Mean of four experiments.

532 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

No. 4.—Creenagh Cannel Coal. From Castlestuart Colliery, Creenagh.

ANALYSIS.
Volatile matter, including sulphur and water, . 52°87
Coke Fixed. carbon, £ ....0letaliue. oe eens
2s AtASHT un ananonees Derg. crate ey Sai meee
100-00
Water at 212°F, . 3:20 per cent.
Sulphuretet mene 204 ae
Ashinicoke stoma (00:0 2:niee,
Specific gravity, . 1:396

Heattne Power :—1)b. of the coal evaporates 12°37lbs. of water at
212° F.; and 1 cubic foot of the coal evaporates 1070-64lbs. of water
at 212° F.

This coal is an extremely valuable band, and although thin, has
been worked very profitably, fetching large prices. In quality
and yield of gas, it is considered much superior to Wigan cannel, and
equal to the best Lesmahago coal. Appended is part of a report
written for Messrs. Young, formerly owners of the colliery, Castle-
stuart, Creenagh, by Dr. Wallace, Gas Examiner to the City of
Glasgow, whose determination of the proximate analyses closely
resembles my own (see note below).*

Mrippte Coat-MEasvres.
No. 5.—Derry Coal. From Mr. King’s Pit, Annagher, Coal-Island.

ANALYSIS.
Volatile matter, including sulphur and water, . 26-43
+ Coke Fixed.carbon=. (i -5 .3. =o) We ooo
2a JASE bs eee Se Sie ieee ee ne rn coe
100°00
Water at 212° F., Not estimated.
Sulphur, Bay. i
Ashin coke, . . 24°65 per cent.
Specific gravity, . 1:499
* ANatysis OF CREENAGH CANNEL.—By Dr. WALLACE.
Volatile matter containing 0°76 sulphur, . 47°68
Fixed carbon,. . 33°49
Coke™ <@Sulphurv ef pee sll? . . 49°26 carbonin coke, 68 percent.
ASH (eee ep cero nl 4:60
Water at 212° F., <‘ireaet Fe 3°06
100-00
Gas per ton at 60° F., and 30” Bar. . . . . . . 11:600 cubic feet.
Illuminating power in standard sperm candles, . . 34:09

Dr. Wallace considers it could be made to yield even as much as 14-000 cubic feet
per ton.
t+ Mean of two experiments.

HarpMan—On Analysis of Coals and Iron-stones. 583

Heatine Powrr.—1 lb. of the coal evaporates 12°65 lbs. of water
at 212° F., and 1 cubic foot of coal evaporates 1125-06 lbs. of water at
PHP ae

This coal is now only worked in two pits in the townland of
Annagher, where both in quality and thickness the seam has greatly
deteriorated, according to the reports of those who have been engaged
working it. The specimens obtained were of very poor appearance,
being dull, slatey, and lumpy, and composed of thin bands of coal
alternating with layers of shale and sulphate of ime. The seam is 3’
to 3/6” thick. Only a partial analysis has been yet made. The ash
is plentiful, and of a dirty, red colour, and the coal contains much iron
pyrites (sulphide of iron).

It is remarkable that this coal has such a high heating power,
considering the very large amount of ash it contains. But as much of
the ash consists of iron oxide, resulting from the ignition of the iron
pyrites, so abundant in the coal, some of the heat is, no doubt, due to
the combustion of the sulphur in the pyrites.

No. 6.—Beltiboy Coal. From Mr. Slone’s pit, Gortnaskea.

ANALYSIS.
Volatile matter, including sulphur and water, . 49°40
Gore IPpxed CarpOm,, .ca i-th sos tua AL Oped
2 pid NT pie Sa alae ate ai I CER ee SOG
100°00

Water at 212° F., 4°30 per cent.

Sulphur, . TIARA OD 3.

ASHpIN COKE sy itp pow AacOueT 74

Specific gravity, 1-266

Heatrne Powrr.—1 Ib. of the coal evaporates 12°82 lbs. of water
at 212° F.; and 1 cubic foot of the coal evaporates 1006-25 lbs. of water
at 212° F.

This is the next workable coal above the Derry coal, but between
them, in 50 yards or so, there are 4 or 5 thin coals of very good
quality which have been occasionally wrought at the outcrop. The
Beltiboy coal is about a yard thick, or 3’6” sometimes, and like most
coal seams, consists of several bands of various quality; some parts
have eyen been used for gas.

No. 7.—Gortnaskea Coal.

Above this coal comes the Gortnaskea seam, a coal 6 feet thick,
including 22 inches of cannel at the top. I have only been able as
yet to make a partial analysis of the cannel. In appearance, however,

* Two experiments.

534 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

this is an extremely fine coal, quite equal, if not even superior, to the
Creenagh cannel.

Ashe ig. ed 8a), Pate: 0 Gaper cent:
Specific gravity,. . 1°2382

It is rare to find a cannel coal with such a small percentage of ash.

Next in succession comes the Brackaville coal, the Shining seam,
and the Bone coal.* Those I could not obtain specimens of, as the two
former were not being worked when I was in the district; the last
coal I saw in a new pit, on old workings, and it may give some idea of
the expensive style of mining there when I mention that a fortnight
after the pit-men opened it, it was found untenable on account of the
water from the old workings, and other causes. As I had deferred
collecting specimens until the solid coal should be reached, I was dis-
appointed in obtaining any. The seam is 2’6” to 3’ thick.

A few yards above this lies the Annagher coal. This seam is in
most places 9 feet thick, and is an extremely fine bed; a soft, rich,
black coal, full of gas, containing a mere trifle of ash, and but little
sulphur. It is very difficult to work on account of its having a very
thick bed of soft fire-clay for a seat. This often swells up, and makes
the levels quite impassable.

The samples from which the analyses were made were obtained at a
small ‘‘Gin Pit,” sunk on the outcrop of the coal in Annagher. The
pit was only 14 yards deep, and mostly in drift.

No. 8 .—Annagher Coal. From a small pit in Brackayille.

ANALYSIS.
Volatile matter, including sulphur and water, . 45°62
Cates (FBixedscarbonts [e945 20 iy teem ners oer
Te Pe arate SON Soe ah el gat ss pty yo Act ot) ne
100-00
Water at 212° F., 9°89} per cent.
Sulphnrg 9. 3... 2200 ss
Ash in coke, 3°59
Specific gravity, 1:250

Heattxe Powrr:—1 lb. of the coal evaporates 12°48 Ibs. of water
at 212° F.; and one cubic foot of the coal evaporates 967°20 lbs. of
water at 212°F.

The above analyses will give a very fair idea of the character of the
coals in the Dungannon Coal Field; and it will be seen that
many of these will bear favourable comparison with the best

* Could this name be merely the French Bon 2 It is not improbable that the
name may have been applied by Ducart, an Italian engineer, who worked these
mines 100 years ago, especially as it ts a coal of superior quality.

a

HarpMan—On Analysis of Coals and Iron-stones. 535

English coal in point of purity and heating power. They are all
highly bituminous, and yield such a quantity of gaseous matter that
any of them, except the Derry coal, might be used with great advan-
tage in Ireland for gas manufacture, with profit, both to the colliery
owner and to the gas company: a point which ought to be thought
of if, as I hope, these coals some day come to be properly and exten-
sively mined.

The heating power is extremely high; 10 to 11 lbs. of water eva-
porated is considered very good work for 1 Ib. of coal; nearly all these
give over 12, the best of them yery nearly 13 lbs. The heating power
was determined directly by Thompson’s very elegant and simple appa-
ratus. This is both more exact than the methods of calculation from
the ultimate composition, or by actual experiments with a furnace
and boiler, and infinitely more convenient than the latter process.

The analyses show that several of these coals contain an excessive
amount of water, e. g., the Creenagh, Annagher, and Bottom Lurgaboy
coals. This, however, is, I think, entirely due to the state of the pits ;
the specimens from the two former seams being obtained from pits lite-
rally swimming in water, which were either surrounded with old work-
ings, or only on the very outcrop of the coal. It is not unlikely that
under more favourable conditions this item would be much diminished ;
and it must be remembered also, that none of the pits at present
being worked on the coals enumerated herein are sunk on the best
portions of the seams, or under anything like favourable arrangements.

One thing worth noticing in these coals is the complete proportion
between their specific gravity and the amount of ash they contain.
It has been a subject of no little discussion as to whether there is any
relation between the amount of ash and the specific gravity, and I
find it stated in Knapp’s Technicology * that no direct connection can
be deduced. However, Professor Johnson, a well-known American
geologist and chemist, is referred to as believing ‘‘ such to be the case
with coal from the same coal-field, and considers the specific gravity
to be an index of the purity of the coal. In analysing anthracites
from Beaver Creek, Luzerne County (Pennsylvania), he found in four
varieties the following relative quantity of ash :—

{Braver Creex, PennsyLvania.

Specific Gravity.| Ash per cent.

1°560 1:28

1
2 1-594 4-00
3 1°613 5°01
4

| 1630 5°063

* Knapp’s Chemical Technicology. Drs. Ronald’s and Richardson, yol. 1,
pt. 1, p. 47-8 (1855).

t It must be remembered that the specific gravity of anthracite is always
higher than that of bituminous coal.

536 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In the coal from the basin of Maryland, bordering on Pennsylvania,
a similar result was obtained. The coals are bituminous.

Maryann Coat Basin.

Mean Sp. Gravity.|Mean amount Ash
Two Specimens. | Two Specimens.

1 1:320 7°52
2 1:350 9-58
3 1-360 10°35
4 1:385 11°75
5 1-485 14°41

My analyses show a very close agreement in this respect with some
of the Maryland coals, as will be seen from the following Table :—

Dungannon Coat-FIerp.

| Specific Gravity. | Amount of Ash.
1 | Annaghercoal,.. . 1:250 1:92
2 Beltiboy ” 1:266 2°43
3 | Gortnaskea coal, cannel, 1:232 4°06
4 | Lurgaboy top coal, : 1:295 _ 4:67
& |}.) JDO} bottom coal, . 1°385 11-28
6 | Creenagh coal, cannel, 1°386 12°95
7 | Do. soft ‘coal, Seat 1-452 16-80
Ski Dermacoals. ‘te ty-pur- 1-499 18-00

With the exception of the Gortnaskea cannel, whieh slightly
breaks the series, this increase of ash with that of the specific gravity
is extremely well marked here. Some of these, compared with those
determined by Professor Johnson, exhibit an agreement that is very
striking indeed. It is useless comparing the anthracite coals, for,
as I have already remarked, the specific gravity is always higher,
ceteris paribus ; but I have given below some other analysis of bitu-
minous coals, and they agree fairly well in the relation between the
specific gravity and the amount of ash.

BetievittE District, Itrrors.*

Specific Gravity. Ash.
pf |
1 1°293 4-50 to 5:40
2 1-296 8°60
3 1°315 8:90
4 1°340 13°01

* Coal Regions of America. J. Macfarlane, M.A., p. 425.

HarpmMan—On Analysis of Coals and Iron-stones. 587
Inprana Coat-Fretp.*

Specific Gravity. Ash.

1-176 0
1:230 2°0 to
1/264 2°
1°28 6
1:29 4
1°32 6

Oxuto.—Btock Coat.

In six analyses the specific grenty ranges from 1:247 to 1°284.
And the ash from, . . fe ronl Santon olGs
Apparently reversing the matter. However, both the range of ash

aud of the specific gravity is very small here.

Among English and Scotch coals, as well as other Irish coals, a
tolerably fair relation seems to exist in this way, as the following
examples will show.

Name of Coal. SpaGrs Ash Where Published.
Scotch (Fordel Splint), 1-25 4:0 ! Coal Fields of Great Britain.
Newcastle (Cans. Hartly, 1-25 5-0 Prof. Hull, p. 406.
Alfreton, Derbyshire, 1°235 2°04 Chemical Technicology.

Ps Cannel, 1:278 4-64 Drs. Ronald and Richardson.
Liverpool Coal, . . 1-260 4-62 Vol. i pt. u., Analytical
Newcastle-on-Tyne Birtley 1-270 4-00 Table, p. 1.

Ballycastle, Ireland, 1:2738 4-20 Laboratory Notes, Mus. Iv. Ind.
Technicologist. 1864.
Lough Allen, Leitrim, 1°336 752 Do. do.
Do. Gs 5 6 1°369 7°63 Do. do.
Do. GOs, a3 L382 allie tl L. Studdert, LL.D.,“‘ Jour. RI.

Geo. Soc. I.,” Vol. ii.,p.135.

So far then, it would appear, that within certain limits the specific
gravity of a coal is a tolerably fair guide to the quality of it. For
instance, one would not be far wrong in putting down a coal of 1°35
specific gravity as containing over 10 per cent. of ash, while one of
1:25 would be almost free from it.

Tron-stonrs.—In the shales and fire-clays of the middle series of
the Tyrone coal-measures there is a good deal of iron-stones, which
occur both in beds and nodules, the former, in one or two instances,

* Op. cit., p. 401.

538 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

from 1 to 2 feet thick, the latter abundant. None of them have been
ever worked to any extent so far as is known.* ‘They have the usual
composition of clay-ironstone, and contain about the average per cent-
age of iron. I have examined some of them, but only for the amount
of iron, and the presence or absence of sulphur and phosphorus, as a
more complete analysis would add nothing interesting to our know-

ledge of such minerals. The specimens were all obtained from the
neighbourhood of Coal-Island.

ANALYSES OF [ron-stonEs, Duncannon Coat-F rex.

No. 1.—Thin seam of ironstone from above the sHINING SEAM.
Metallic iron, . . 85°50 per cent.
Neither sulphur nor phosphorus present.
No. 2.—Iron-stone nodules above GorTNASKEA COAL.

Metallic iron, . . 984-40 per cent.
Neither sulphur nor phosphorus present.

No. 8.—Iron-stone nodules above Brtrrsoy coat.
(a.) Metalliciron, . . 82°50 per cent.
Neither sulphur nor phosphorus.

(d.) Metallic iron, . 21:70 per cent.
No sulphur: a trace of phosphorus.

(c.) ? Black band ironstones.
Metalliciron, . . 23°50 per cent.
No sulphur: a trace of phosphorus.

No. 4.—Iron nodules above Derry coat.

Metalliciron, . . 28°80 per cent.
. No sulphur: no phosphorus.

* Traces of an old iron furnace are found in the townland of Derry, near the
road.leading from Derryvale to Stewartstown, and a quantity of slag lies about.
It is possible, therefore, that some of the iron-stones above the Derry coal were
formerly smelted.

EE

Krtiy—QOn a Case of Polydactylism. 539

XLVI.—On 4 Case or Potypactyrism. With Plates 36, 37,38, and 39.
By J. E. Kerry, Surgeon to the Jervis-street Hospital, Lecturer
on Anatomy and Physiology, &c., &c.

[Read 14th February, 1876. ]

Tue peculiarities which I have noted were observed in the body of
a female, aged about 45 or 50, spare, with good muscular development,
and anatomically a virgo intacta. She presented no other external
congenital peculiarities besides those represented by the casts ex-
hibited, except that she appeared to have had a strabismus,
and her incisor teeth projected almost directly forward. The
right hip afforded an excellent example of a traumatic dislo-
cation of very long standing, with contraction of the acetabulum,
atrophy of the head of the femur, remarkable development of liga-
mentous tissue anteriorly and inferiorly, and a fissure in the capsular
ligament leading to the abnormal receptacle for the head of the femur,
which was a smooth cavity under the gluteus medius muscle (no trace
of the gluteus minimus remaining), lined by a glistening membrane
which, at that part over the dorsum ili, covered a very dense layer
of fibrous tissue. The psoas muscle was represented by a thin cord of
fibrous tissue, but the iliacus and all the other muscles about the joint
were well developed. The arterial system was highly developed, and
cutaneous vessels, ordinarily imperceptible, attained a remarkable
size; both ulnar arteries were of the aberrant type, and lay over the
fascia in their course. Both stylohyoid muscles were absent; the left
renal vein passed posteriorly to the aorta; the vermiform appendix
was about five inches long, and dilated towards its termination. I ob-
served no other peculiarities worth noting except those affecting both
hands and the left foot.

The hands were both heptadactylous, and the left foot was an ex-
ample of spurious tridactylism, owing to the double syndactylism which

’ had occurred. The supernumerary digits were on the radial or volar

side of the hands, and may be regarded as cases of reduplication of
the pollex. This was indicated by the length and direction of the meta-
carpal bones, the muscular attachments, and the vascular and nervous
relations. The points of opposition for the digits of the right hand
weresthree: the apex of the first thumb or the spine; the dorsal sur-
face of the head of the first phalanx of the second thumb ; and the
distal extremity of the third thumb. On the left hand there was but
one point, the head of the first phalanx of the second thumb, off
which the next (second) phalanx was dislocated. Over these points
were developed burs, and the cuticle was thickened.

The Bones of the Right Hand :-—

The lower end of the radius normal. The ulna:—On the apex of
the styloid process was a facet which articulated with the os trique-
trum and the unciform.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL II., SCIENCE. 8 H

540 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

The scaphoid :—Defective at that part normally articulating with
the trapezoid.

The semilunar :—Prolonged very much to ulnar side, where it ar-
ticulated with the entire of the inter-articular fibro-cartilage—a very
large facet for the unciform.

The cuneiform :—Indistinguishable as a separate bone.

The pisiform :—Also indistinguishable.

The trapezium had an additional facet at the site of the external
angle, for articulation with the first metacarpal bone. The groove on
the anterior surface indistinct. Another facet for the ‘‘anterior tra-
pezoid.”

The trapezoid posterior :—Very large, extending upwards to the
level of the head of the os magnum, which it resembled. A constriction
was indicated at the level of the ordinary bone, and the additional
portion seemed to be borrowed from the scaphoid, which was deficient
to a corresponding extent. The bone did not reach the anterior surface
of the carpus.

The anterior trapezoid(?) :—About the size of a large pea; wedge-
shaped, with the base anteriorly occupying the position of the anterior
surface of the trapezoid proper. It articulated above with the poste-
rior trapezoid and the scaphoid, below with the third metacarpal bone
(that of the index finger), and latterly with the trapezium and the os
magnum.

The os magnum :—The head was not rounded on the outer side;
an additional facet for the anterior trapezoid.

The unciform :—Large, no process; a very large facet for the semi-
lunar bone, and another on its anterior and upper surface for the os
triquetrum.

The ‘‘os triquetrum”’ :—Situated anteriorly to the unciform and the
ulnar extremity of the semi-lunar bone, internal to which one of the
angles projected backwards, and presented its apex on the posterior
surface of the carpus. It presented two surfaces, three margins, and
three angles. The surfaces were both rough, and had triradiate de-
pressions, indicating the fusion of the bones ; the inner or ulnar surface.
gave attachment to the hypothenar muscles, the outer or radial entered
into the formation of the anterior carpal concavity. The anterior margin
gave attachment to the annular ligament; the superior edge had attached
to it a very strong radio-triquetral ligament. The posterior margin
was divided into two parts: the inferior narrow, and attached by a
ligament to the anterior surface of the unciform, corresponding te the
position of the process; the superior portion broader, with an articular
facet for the unciform bone. ‘The anterior angle was-tubercular, and
gave attachment to the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The pos-
terior angle had a smooth facet for articulation with the apex of the
ulnar styloid process, and it also gave attachment to the internal lateral
ligament. The inferior angle had attached to it hgaments extending
to the bases of the last two metacarpal bones.

Krtty—On a Case of Polydactylism. 041

The metacarpus consisted of six bones :—

I. Two facets on base for trapezium and second metacarpal; head,
round and articular.

II. Two facets on base for trapezium and first metacarpal; the head
expanded and indicating a tendency to subdivision; one large facet
for both phalanges.

III. Deficient in its normal characters as second metacarpal bone ;
five facets on base, the additional one for the anterior trapezoid.

IV., V., VI., normal, or rather corresponding to the third, fourth,
and fifth metacarpals.

Phalanges :—That on first pollex, and the terminal on second pollex,
ended in a spine, and bore no nails; nails were developed on all the
other fingers.

The Bones of the Left Hand:—I shall only allude to those which
differ from the corresponding bones of the right hand, as both members
presented the same general peculiarities.

The scaphoid :—Very large. It seemed to have attached to it the
portion which was in excess in the trapezoid of the right hand, and
here also a constriction indicated the fusion of two bones. This dis-
puted portion, or complemental process, in the right hand, was attached
to the scaphoid by a very strong interosseous ligament.

The trapezoid :—Comparatively small.

The os triquetrum :—In two segments, the upper and lower, the
latter resembling the unciform process in size, position, and attach-
ments. It was bound to the unciform bone and to the upper segment
by strong ligaments ; no indication of a synovial articulation. In¢ every
other respect the bone resembled that in the right hand.

The metacarpus :—

I. Instead of having a head with an articular facet, as on the right
side, ended in a spine which was capped by a cartilaginous ferule ;
a rudimentary phalanx, which was separated by a synovial cavity, and
gave attachment to some of the muscles.

Il. Base articulated with first and third, as well as with the tra-
pezium. The head articulated with only one phalanx.

All the digits except the first pollex bore nails.

III. As before mentioned, the base articulated with that of II.,
an abnormality which did not occur in the right hand, and of much
anatomical interest.

Phalanges :—First phalanx of third pollex was rounded off at its
proximal end, and attached by a dense fibrous cord to the side of the
metacarpo-phalangeal articulation of pollex two, where there was a
normally placed sesamoid bone on the inner side. Another sesamoid
bone was in the fibrous cord.

The second and third phalanges of the same pollex (three) were
united, but their original separation was indicated by a node, and by
the difference in the direction of their axes.

The Muscles of the Right Hand: Anterior Surface :—Flexor carpi

3 H 2

042 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

radialis and ulnaris, normal; palmaris longus, absent; p. brevis, normal ;
flexor sublimis and profundus digitorum, normal; lumbricales, normal.

Musculus access. ad lumbricalem primum :—A slip about the size
of a lumbricalis arose from the deep surface of the annular ligament
by a tendon; inserted with the first lumbricalis.

Flex. pol. long. :—Origin normal ; the tendon divided at cleft be-
tween second and third pollices into two slips, which were inserted
into the third or terminal phalanges, and gave off slips to the conti-
euous sides of the bases of the second phalanges of their respective
digits.

Abductor pollicis :—Origin normal; insertion, in two parts: one into
the base of the terminal bone of the first pollex, on its inner aspect;
the other, by a narrow tendon, which ran along the same side of that
bone to its apex, where it ended in a fibrous cap. Action, to abduct
and flex first pollex.

Opponens pol.:—Origin normal; insertion into the radial edge of
the metacarpal bone of first pollex.

Adductor pol.:—Origin normal; insertion into the base of first
phalanx of third pollex.

Flex. brey. pol. :—Only one head, the deeper ; origin normal; two
insertions: the first into the outer edge of the metacarpal bone of first
pollex, close to its head; the second, into the base of the first phalanx
of the third pollex. The first portion might be regarded as an add.
pol. primi.

Transversus manus :—Origin, the anterior surfaces of the meta-
carpal bones of the middle and ring fingers, and the adjacent metacarpo-
phalangeal hgaments; the two slips united, and were inserted into
the base of the first phalanx of third pollex, on the inner side.

Mus. access. ad transversum manus:—Origin, the fibrous tissue
giving common insertion to the numerous muscles inserted into the
base of the first phalanx of third pollex, on its mner side; insertion,
_ radial side of base of first phalanx of second pollex.

Interpollicaris :—Three slips:—First: origin, inner side of first
phalanx of third pollex; insertion, outer edge of metacarpal of first
pollex, where it was overlapped by abduct. pol. prim. and oppon. pol.
Second slip: origin, anterior metacarpo-phalangeal ligament of third
pollex; insertion, inner side of base of terminal bone of first pollex, and
the anterior surface of its metacarpal bone. Third slip (interosseous) :
origin, from anterior surface and inner edge of metacarpal of first
pollex ; insertion, into base of first phalanx, and by tendinous slips into
base of second phalanx of second pollex.

Flexor pol. secundi et tertii:—Origin tendinous, from the tra-
pezium and the anterior trapezoid. It divided into two fleshy bellies,
which were inserted into the bases of second and third pollices.

The Muscles of the Left Hand: Anterior Surface :—AIl the long
muscles normal, except the flexor pol. long., the tendon of which
divided at cleft between second and third pollices: one part went to

Keniy—On a Case of Polydactylism, 043
second pollex, and at head of first phalanx divided into three slips, the
central of which passed on to the terminal phalanx; the two lateral
were inserted into sides of base of second phalanx; that part of the
tendon going to the third pollex was inserted into the base of the ter-
minal phalanx.

Lumbricales :—The first was very large, and divided into two slips :
one had the normal insertion; the other, into the first phalanx of
third pollex (lumbricalis ad pollicem tertium ?).

Abductor pol. :—Origin normal ; three insertions: first, into anterior
‘surface of metacarpal of first pollex; second, into an aponeurotic arch
extending from the apex of first pollex to base of first phalanx of
second pollex ; third, partly into base of first phalanx of second pollex,
and partly into the aponeurotic arch.

Oppon. pol.:—Origin normal; insertion into radial edge of the
metacarpal bone of first pollex, and tendon of extensor oss. metacarp.
pol.

Add. pollicis :—Origin normal ; insertion into base of first phalanx
of third pollex, and slightly in that of second pollex.

Flex. brey. pol. :—Three origins: two corresponding with the heads
of the normal muscle, the third from base of metacarpal bone of third
pollex. Insertions, four—first, into outer edge of first pollex; second,
into the inner edge of the same bone; third, by a small tendon into
the cartilaginous ferule on the apex of first pollex; fourth and largest
(consisting of the entire of the portions from the trapezium and annular
ligament, and that from the base of the metacarpal bone of pollex
three), inserted into base of first phalanx of third pollex. The third head
was separated from the rest of the muscle by the deep palmar arch.

Musculus access. ad trans. manus:—The transversus manus was
absent, but I have applied the term ‘“‘accessorius”’ to this muscle, owing
to its similarity to that muscle in the other hand, in origin and inser-
tion; but it differed in position, as it overlapped the interpollicares,
while the others lay under these muscles.

Interpollicaris:—Two slips, both wedge-shaped, with their apices
reversed. First, superficial ; origin, fleshy, from base of first phalanx
of second pollex ; insertion, tendinous, into inner side of metacarpal
bone of first pollex. Second slip: origin, from inner edge of meta-
carpal bone of first pollex, and its anterior surface; insertion, into the
base of the first phalanx of second pollex.

The Muscles of the Right Hand: Posterior Surface :—Supinator
long. and extensor carp. longior, normal; ext. carp. rad. brev. sends
slip to base of metacarpal bone of index finger; ext. carp. ulnaris,
normal,

Ext. digitorum communis :—The tendon to the index finger was
‘small, and ended in the tendon of ext. indicis; none to the little finger.

Ext. min. digit.—Sends a slip to aponeurosis over the last inter-
osseous space.

Ext. oss. metacarp. pol.:—Origin normal ; course normal; divided
into two slips, as is frequently seen : one inserted into base of metacarpals

544 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

bone of first pollex ; the other, into the base of the terminal bone of
same (ext. internod pol. primi).

Ext. prim. internod. pol.:—Origin normal; insertion into base of
second phalanx of second pollex. An aponeurosis from the tendon of
last, and from the bone close to its insertion, passed this tendon, to the
maj jority of the fibres passing over it.

Ext. secundi int. pol.:—Origin and course normal; joined with
tendon of last muscle to form a common tendon, which divided at the
cleft between second and third pollex. The portion corresponding to this
muscle divided at head of first phalanx of third pollex into three slips =
the middle passed over the joint, and was inserted into base of terminal
phalanx; the two lateral were inserted into the base of second phalanx.
This is the reverse of the arrangement with ordinary dorsal digital
aponeurosis, and approximates to the flexor arrangement of tendon.

Ext. indicis :—Origin normal, but prolonged up as far as the at-
tachment of the supinator brevis; course normal; insertion normal ;
tendon joined by small slip from ext. com. dig.

The Muscles of the Left Hand :—Posterior surface : supinat. long.
and extensors of the carpus, normal.

Extensor com. digitorum :—Divided into two tendons only, which
went to the middle and ring fingers; no trace of a tendon to the index
or little finger.

Extensor ossis met. pol. :—Origin normal; divided into three slips :
first, inserted into base of metacarpal bone of first pollex (ext. oss.
met. pol. prim.); second, into cartilaginous nodule, at apex of first
pollex, which is the homologue of the terminal bone of first pollex on
right hand (ext. internod. pol. prim.); third, into an aponeurosis on
the back of the first phalanx of second pollex, which was formed by
the tendon of this and three other muscles (ext. primi internod. pol.
secund.) Between the two tendons last mentioned a web of dense
fascia extended, which was closely connected with both, and resembled
the structure described in theright hand. The concave margin con-
stituted the arch into which were inserted some of the short muscles.
of the anterior group.

Ext. primi internod. pol.:—Origin normal; insertion into the
same aponeurosis as last.

Ext. sec. internod. pol. :—Origin normal, divided into two tendons ;
the external much the larger, inserted together into the same aponeu-
rosis as last two muscles. This aponeurosis, formed by union of the
four tendons, expanded towards the head of the first phalanx, and
formed a cap which enclosed it, and was inserted into the base of the
second phalanx.

Ext. indicis:—Origin normal; insertion normal. It received no.
slip from ext. digit. communis.

The Arteries of Right Hand :—The ulnar artery gave off a poste-
rior carpal and a communicating branch, and then passed across the
palm to the radial side of second pollex, along which it continued as its
external digital artery. The superficial palmar arch was completed

Ketty—On a Case of Polydactylism. 545

by a very large superficialis vole, which lay superficial to the muscles
of the thenar eminence. The arch sent a branch to the inner side
of the little finger; one, before mentioned, to the outer side of the
second pollex ; and branches to the clefts between all the digits except
to that between second and third pollices, which received a transverse
branch which subdivided, from that between the third pollex and the
index finger. The radial side of first pollex got a branch from the
radial artery, while in the intertendinous space; while the other side
received a branch from the superficialis vole.

The radial artery wound round the wrist, passmg under a distinct
tendinous arch to the back of the hand, whence it passed forward be-
tween the second and third metacarpal bones. It distributed its
usual branches, and certain others which might be termed dorsalis
pollicis primi, d.p. secundi, and d. p. tertii. The deep palmar arch
was small. This description suits the left radial artery also.

Left Hand :—The ulnar artery, as in the right, crossed to the
radial side of pollextwo. It was completed by a similarly placed super-
ficialis vole, which, however, was much smaller than the right, and
gaye off an equal number of branches, which were similarly distributed,
except that the digital artery between pollex two and three was given
off from the outer of the two branches supplying the compound digit.
A remarkable branch, larger than either the radial or ulnar artery,
passed under the annular ligament, with the median nerve, and joined
the superficial palmar arch. Apparently, this was a very large arteria
mediana from the interosseous artery.

The Nerves, Right Hand:—The ulnar: the superficial portion
normal, the deep branch supplying all the short muscles, except the
abductor and opponens pollicis.

The median nerve :—The inner division supplied the middle finger
and the contiguous sides of the index and ring. It received no com-
municating branch from the ulnar. The external division suppled
the radial side of the index finger, both sidesof second and third pollices,
and the ulnar side of first pollex. The radial side was supplied by a
branch from the radial nerve which came from the back of the wrist.
A distinct branch ramified between the second and third pollex, but
the vascular supply was only collateral. On the posterior surface of
- the hand the posterior branch of the ulnar supplied two and a-half
fingers ; the remainder received branches from the radial nerve.

The Left Hand :—The same description is applicable to the nerves
of this member, with a few trivial exceptions. The ulnar sent a com-
municating branch to the median, and the latter nerve, in addition to
supplying, as in the right hand, the opponens and abductor pollicis,
also sent filaments to the superficial portions of the flexor brevis
pollicis.

The Foot :—The left foot, having but three distinct digits, was a
specimen of double syndactylism, as well as of talipes valgus. The
anatomy of this member presented few peculiarities. The normal

046. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

arches of the foot were obliterated, and the most projecting portion of
the tarsus was the anterior tubercle of the os calcis.

The Muscles: —Extensor brevis digitorum: insertions; first and third
normal, second and fourth into the base of first phalanx of corresponding
toe. Peroneus longus: inserted into a well-marked tubercle on the
outer side of the os calcis, which most probably represented its own
sesamoid bone. A fibrous band was continued from this tubercle to
the normal insertion of the muscle.

Tibialis anticus :—A slip from the tendon of this muscle passed
forwards to be inserted into the head of the first metatarsal bone.

In the Vessels nothing peculiar was observed.

The Nerves:—The anterial tibial, in addition to the normal
branch between the first and second toes, sent a much larger branch
directly to the space between the second and third toes, where the
separation was complete. The fusion between the toes was most
marked at their anterior extremities.

Synovial cavities were developed between the heads of the first,
second, third, and fourth metatarsal bones. An articulation also ex-
isted between the bases of the first and second metatarsal bones.

Moss—On the Exploration of Ballybetagh Bog. 547

XLVII.—Reporr on tHe Expnoration or Batryseracu Boe. By
Ricuarp J. Moss, Keeper of the Minerals, Royal Dublin Society.

[Read April 10, 1876.]

Axour thirty years ago the late Mr. Sigismund Moss, of Kilternan,
discovered an extensive deposit of the remains of the Cervus Mega-
ceros, in a cutting which was made through the boggy land on the
south side of Ballybetagh House, in the parish of Kilternan, county
Dublin. In addition to the great horned deer, only one other animal,
the reindeer (Cervus tarandus), was represented amongst the remains
found. The fine specimen of the horns of this animal discovered on
this occasion is now in the Museum of the Royal Dublin Society. The
cutting in which these remains were discovered was made for the pur-
pose of turning the water of the spring known as the White Well,
into the stream that flows through Kilternan, and not with any scien-
tific object; and thus it happened that no accurate account of the dis-
covery has been published, and therefore it has had but little scientific
value. Professor A. Leith Adams and I visited the locality early last
summer, and at his suggestion I undertook to re-investigate the matter
in conjunction with Dr. Carte, of the Royal Dublin Society. The
ground being in the possession of the Rey. Mr. O’Sullivan, of Leopards-
town, we applied to him for permission to conduct the investigation.
This he most liberally granted, and | take this opportunity of express-
ing our thanks to him.

Ballybetagh Bog lies at the bottom of a glen, between two hills,
running almost due south from Ballybetagh House. The lower of the
two hills is on the east side of the glen; it is 700 feet above the sea
level, and about 100 feet above the bottom of the glen. The hill on
the other side of the glen is one of the range of the Dublin mountains.
The rock of this district is granite, being part of that band of granite,
about five miles broad, which extends from the south coast of Dublin
bay, in a south-westerly direction, into the county Waterford.

The first difficulty encountered was rather formidable. No trust-
worthy information could be obtained as to the precise spot in which the
remains had been found; it might have been any place along a cut-
ting half a mile in length. The opinions of old residents in the
neighbourhood were obtained, but were very contradictory. Not
wishing to trust entirely to tradition or chance, I decided upon making
an attempt to probe the ground at different places along the sides of
the old drain. For this purpose I obtained an iron tube, twelve feet
in length by two inches in diameter; it was longitudinally bisected,
the two halves being held together by end-pieces screwed on, while a
movable iron collar clasped the middle of the tube. The end-piece
was sharpened to enable it to be driven into the soft earth, this being

548 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

done by means of the apparatus employed for sinking the so-called
Abyssinian pumps. After a few trials in various places along the
side of the old drain—now quite full of water—I obtained a com-
pressed section, which appeared to correspond with the strata said to
overlie the bones of Megaceros (Oldham, Journal Geol. Soc., Dublin,
vol, iii., p. 252). Here, accordingly, a trench was commenced, seventy
feet long, andirom nine to twelve feet broad (fig. 2, a): This trench
is represented in section at a, fig. 1. The direction in which this

é

OY AnD,
Wig an AUT nergy yNORULNM GY ALANA re ro iy) : Sd
Fi

SCALE 2 INCH= 72 YARDS
—_—_———————_—— 4

h Fig:2 1 ea
sd
— a
fe
ze H
TR tas ai g

SCALE J INCH=220 YARDS
See

R-.MOSS.DEL=

section is taken is indicated by the dotted line, 7, fig. 2. The first foot
of material removed consisted of peat ; under this there was a stratum of
sand of an average depth of about two feet. The sand lay upon a brown-
coloured clay, which extended for about two feet, and lay upon a bed
of rounded granitic boulders. The spaces between the lower parts of
the boulders were filled with a fine bluish-grey clay. Amongst the |
boulders, and surrounded with the brown clay, we found mneteen
skulls of Megaceros, with the attached antlers greatly broken; also
many broken pieces of horn, and a number of bones. The heads and
horns were huddled together promiscuously, often so tightly locked
together that there was some difficulty in removing them from their
rocky bed. In many cases they were securely wedged between the
boulders, and generally so situated that they could only be extricated
by raising them directly upwards ; some part would have been broken
by any attempt tomove them laterally. The smaller bones were found by
carefully examining between the boulders after the heads had been
removed. On several of the granite boulders I noticed a net-like
coating of vegetable matter, closely resembling matter contained in
the cavities of many of the skulls. This is so decomposed that I fear it
is impossible to determine its nature with any degree of certainty. I
was not satisfied with merely coliecting the bones that lay amongst

Moss—On the Exploration of Ballybetagh Bog. 549

the boulders, but had many of the stones turned over to see if bones
lay under them. Inno case, however, did I find a stone resting on
any of the bones. Two of the larger boulders were quite too heavy to
move; bones were found in cavities partly under these, in each case
on the north side of the boulders. Near one of these boulders twenty-
nine bones were found within a space of little more than four square
feet. The general appearance which the bottom of the trench pre-
sented, when the remains of Megaceros were removed, reminded me of
the rocky margin of a mountain tarn. It dipped slightly towards the
west side, as shown in the accompanying sketch (fig. 1, a). Judging
from the present appearance of the ground, the water of such a tarn
could not have extended more than a few yards to the east ; for on this
side rises the southern base of the hill which forms the eastern side of
the glen. I decided upon excavating the next trench further from
the supposed margin of the tarn, and therefore at the west side of the
drain. The point selected is marked 6 on the map (fig. 2). This
trench was only eight feet square, but extended to a much greater
depth than the first trench. At a depth of ten feet there was no sign
of a stony bottom, although we had reached blue clay resembling that
found between the boulders at the bottom of trench a. The blue clay
was probed in every direction with a stout stick, which was easily
forced into it to the extent of about 3 feet, but no hard substances
were encountered. The only bone found was a solitary rib in the brown
clay, about 6 feet from the surface. The position of the stratum in
which this rib occurred is shown by vertical shading at ¢, fig. 1.
Although this represents the section of a trench made subsequently, it
illustrates equally well the section of trench 6. This excavation was
not sufficiently large to be worked with advantage, so it was aban-
doned, and another one commenced at a spot where I thought there
would be less difficulty in reaching the bottom. The position of this
trench is shown at ¢, fig. 2, and the section of it at ¢, fig. 1, where
the various strata, corresponding with those encountered in the first
cutting (¢, fig. 1), are connected with them by straight lines. It
will be observed, that the peat in trench ¢ is nearly twice as deep as
that in a; while the stratum of sand has thinned out to a mere trace.
The next stratum in ¢ is one that was not observed at allina. It
consists of a grey-coloured friable clay, containing layers of vegetable
matter, often moss. This clay contained in some places numerous
white specks, which turned blue on exposure. I found a few frag-
ments as large as hazel-nuts. On analysis, this matter was found to
consist almost entirely of ferrous phosphate, or Vivianite. The next
stratum encountered in this trench consisted of brown clay, corres-
ponding in appearance with that in which the bones were found in the
first cutting. The only bones found in this, however, were two
decayed fragments. The brown clay stratum was about 4 feet deep,
and under it lay blue clay, like that which filled up the interspaces
between the boulders in trench a. I cannot tell how far the blue clay
extended.. When the trench had reached the depth of 12 feet, we

00.0 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

found a few small stones, two of granite and one of limestone ; one of
the granite stones was polished on one side. Although a pump was
constantly at work, the water which leaked in from the sides of the
trench gained on us rapidly; and it was evident that a greater depth
could not be reached without considerable difficulty, so I was reluct-
antly compelled to abandon this trench.

- The next excavation was made about 30 yards north of the first
trench, and on the same side of the drain, but a little further from it
(fig. 2, d). The section of this cutting closely resembled that of
trench a. The peat was a little deeper, and contained a large log of
wood in a horizontal position, probably a portion of the stem of a pine-
tree of considerable size. At the north end the stony bottom was reached
at a depth of only 4 feet; it dipped towards the southern end, where it
was about 5 feet from the surface. The northern half of this trench did
not contain a single fragment of bone or horn; the southern half was
literally packed with them. The antlers were all very much broken,
and fragments of horn were numerous; but the smaller bones of the
skeleton were not as numerous here as in trench a. By continuing
the excavation in a southerly direction, I should certainly have
obtained a large number of heads, but there appeared to be little
prospect of gaining additional information by such a course.

There can be little doubt that the trenches a and d occupy a posi-
tion corresponding with the margin of the lake or tarn which once
stretched along the bottom of the glen; while the trench ce, where we
failed to reach the bottom, and found no bones, must have been near
the centre of the tarn. Judging from the general appearance of the
surface, I concluded that the opposite margin of the supposed tarn
must have been situated about the place marked e, fig. 2; and
considering it important to learn if bones also abounded there, I
decided upon exploring this part of the bog. A few yards to the west
of this spot the ground suddenly rises several feet, and then, after a
gentle slope of about 50 yards, there is another sudden rise, as we
reach the high ground forming the southern end of the hill, which
flanks the west side of the glen: the hill on the east side of the glen
is not so high. In other respects the two sides are not dissimilar.
As might be expected, the results of this cutting closely corresponded
with those obtained in trench a. The strata passed through, however,
were more conformable to those of trench c, the chief difference being
in the thickness of each stratum, as may be seen from the section
(e, fig. 1), which needs no further explanation. The stony bottom
of this trench was so even and regular, that it presented the appear-
ance of apayement. It dipped towards the east about as much as the
bottom of trench a did to the west. The remains found here were
about the same in point of numbers as those of trench a, but they were
in a very much worse state of preservation; indeed, several antlers
were not removed, as it was found impossible to disturb them without
breaking them into fragments. It was in this trench that most of the
ribs and jaw-bones were found. At the southern end of it, a log of

a

Moss—On the Exploration of Ballybetagh Bog. 551

wood, about 4 feet long and 18 inches in diameter, was found, with
one end resting on the stones, and the other close under the turf.
This log was the only piece of wood found accompanying the bones in
any of the cuttings. Its decayed condition rendered identification a
matter of difficulty ; it most resembled oak.

The next trench (fig. 2, /) was cut at the southern end of the first
excavation, for the purpose of ascertaining how far the brown clay in
which the bones were found extended towards the east. At the east
end of this cutting the granite rock was reached, after passing through
3 feet of granite sand, no brown clay having been encountered. A
little to the west of this spot a narrow tongue of brown clay protruded
into the sand, dividing it about equally into an upper and a lower
stratum. The lower stratum of sand thinned out towards the west,
being replaced by the brown clay. About the spot where the lower
stratum of granite sand disappeared, and the brown clay rested upon
the stony bottom of the trench, several long bones were found between
the granitic boulders. A little to the west of these bones we found a
head, with large antlers, in a good state of preservation.

In none of these excavations did we find a true marl: the clays
which have been referred to were almost entirely free from calcium car-
bonate, and had every appearance ofa granitic origin. Not many yards
north of the place where these clays were found, a light-coloured marl,
rich in calcium carbonate, makes its appearance, almost immediately
under the turf. A trench extending into this marl was opened at the
north end of the glen (fig. 2, g), about 300 yards south of Ballybetagh
House, and the same distance north of the other trenches. One end
of this cutting was at the very base of the hill which flanks the east
side of the glen. Here granite boulders were met with immediately
under the surface, and as the excavation progressed, the bed of

boulders was found to dip towards the west to about the same extent

as the side of the adjoining hill. The turf varied from a few inches
to about 3 feet in depth, and lay upon a stratum of fine granitic sand,
traversed by occasional layers of coarse sand. Under the sand there
was a stratum of brown clay, about 2 feet deep at the west end of the
trench, and gradually thinning out towards the east end, where it
became sandy in character. In the sandy part of this brown clay
were found two fragments of bone, much decayed. Under the brown
clay lay the marl, containing a large quantity of vegetable matter,
but without any visible traces of shells. The marl, when examined
microscopically, was found to abound in diatoms, in which respect it
differed entirely from all the clays, as no diatoms could be detected in
any of them. At a depth of 10 feet, the marl continued unaltered in
character. The influx of water prevented the excavation from being
conducted to a greater depth. It is noteworthy that the only frag-
ment of bone which this trench yielded was found in a clay corres-
ponding in appearance with that in which the bones were found at
the other end of the glen. In the latter case, however, the brown

002 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

clay lay upon granite boulders; while in the former case, the clay is
separated from the boulders by a deep stratum of marl.

The remains found in the course of this exploration represent
about fifty individuals of Cervus Megaceros. Taken in conjunction
with those previously found here, we have a total of about eighty in-
dividuals of the great-horned deer, apparently all males, and one rein-
deer; and yet by far the greater part of this remarkable Pleistocene
formation remains still unexplored.

Dr. Carte has examined the bones, and supplied the following list
of them :—

List of the bones of Cervus Megaceros found in the cuttings made at
Ballybetagh, during the month of August, 1875.

Thirty-six skulls, with antlers more or less broken, and many
fragments of antlers.

Fifteen shed antlers, much mutilated.

Six Mandibular rami, representing three individuals.

Ten Atlas bones, perfect, and two broken.

Two Axes.

Six Cervical vertebree.

Three Dorsal do.

One Lumbar do.

Two portions of Sternum.

Two fragments of Iuum, with glenoid cavity.

Thirteen ribs, nearly perfect, and a number of fragments.

Four Humeri, perfect, and three imperfect, representing six indi-
viduals, one very young.

Six Scapule, all more or less broken, representing five indi-
viduals.

Five Radii, and one imperfect.

Two Sacra, and one broken.

Four Femora, representing two individuals.

Three Tibiae, one broken, representing three individuals.

Five Metacarpals, re presentin g four individuals.

Four Metatarsals.

One Os Calcis.

Two Astragali, representing two individuals.

Six Phalanges—three pes, and three manus, including an ungulate

- phalanx.

One Patella.

One Lett Os Hyoides.

The majority of these bones belonged to youthful individuals.

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 503

XLVIII.—Rerorr on tHe Frora or Intsu-Borry, Gatway. By
AS G., More BieS:; MER. I. A.

[Read April 24, 1876.]

Havine received from the Academy a grant for the examination of the
Flora of the West of Ireland, I paid, in August, 1875, a short visit
to the remote Island of Bofin, feeling desirous to compare the vegeta-
tion of another Atlantic island belonging to a different geological for-
mation with that of Aran, which latter has at various times attracted
the notice of botanists, and of whose Flora a tolerably complete cata-
logue* has been lately published by my friend, Mr. H. C. Hart. An.
additional inducement to the choice of this locality was that Mr.
M‘Millan’s recent discovery of the rare Helianthemum euttatum
seemed to promise some chance that other rare plants might reward
the exploration of Inish-Bofin, especially as this island has seldom
been visited by any experienced botanist.

I was accompanied by my friend, Mr. R. M. Barrington, whose
zealous co-operation I cannot too gratefully acknowledge, and whose
untiring activity and botanical skill enabled me to accomplish much
more than I could have done single-handed. We landed together on
the afternoon of Sunday, the 15th of August, and left the island
on the Friday following, having given one day to a cursory examina-
tion of the adjoining Island of Inish-Shark, which we found very un-
productive in a botanical point of view, as we did not gather upon it
a single plant not seen in Bofin. On Inish-Turk we landed for a few
hours on our way to Westport, and gathered twenty species which we
had not found in Bofin. We obtained excellent quarters and a most
friendly reception in the house of the late Mr. M‘Cormack, close to
the Harbour of Inish-Bofin, and in all our excursions, we found a
most trustworthy and intelligent companion in Sergeant O’Connor, of
the Royal Irish Constabulary, whose name is already well known as
the discoverer in Bofin of the gigantic cuttle-fish, Architeuthis dux,
and who proved himself a most obliging and useful guide to all parts
of the island. His local knowledge and influence, exerted on our
behalf, in many ways facilitated our explorations.

The Island of Bofin, or in Ivish, ‘“ Inis-Bo-finne,” the Island of
the White Cow—so called from the legend of a white cow which is
traditionally reported to rise at uncertain intervals on the surface of
the small! lake named Bofin—hes in the Atlantic Ocean, off the junc-
tion of the two counties, Mayo and Galway, thirteen miles west from

* “A list of plants found in the Islands of Aran, Galway Bay.” By H. C.
Hart: Dublin, 1875. See also another list, published by Professor EH. P. Wright,
in “ Dublin Natural History Society Proceedings, 1866.”

504 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the entrance of the Killary Harbour, and about six miles from the
nearest point of the mainland of Connemara. It is about 33 miles
long, and 2 miles wide at its greatest breadth, containing an area of
2312 acres (nearly four square miles), with a population of 663 in-
habitants. Inish-Bofin was formerly attached to Mayo, but is now
included in the county of Galway.

The geological formation belongs to the Lower Silurian Schists,
with one narrow band of serpentine on the south-west, and a few trap-
dykes at Royal Oak Cave, and at Bunnamullan Bay.

There is a fair extent of tillage, occupied by crops of potatoes,
oats, barley, rye, &c., also of pasture-land; but the greater part of the
surface consists of undulating, hilly moor, which rises at a few points
to nearly 3800 feet. There are four small lakes, and a few pools,
together with a considerable extent of moist and boggy ground, pro-
ducing a fair proportion of water-plants, sedges, rushes, &c. No trees.
occur; some alders and willows have been planted here and there, but
the few stunted bushes of blackthorn and aspen, with several bram-
bles, represent the entire arboreal vegetation.

The coast is almost everywhere bounded by rocky cliffs, with the
exception of a small piece of low sand at the east end of the island,
opposite Inish-Lyon, and some hillocks of blown sand to the south of
the harbour, which, however, do not reach down to the shore itself.

The neighbouring island of Inish-Shark (581 acres) lies close to
Inish-Bofin at less than a mile, and Inish-Turk (1445 acres) five miles
to the north-east. Both these belong to the same Silurian formation,
and were both visited by us, though we had not sufficient time to
examine them thoroughly.

In the course of four days spent in Inish-Bofin, during which we
were almost constantly at work, sometimes walking together, some--
times taking different beats, we gathered altogether more than 300
flowering plants and ferns, including several species eminently cha-
racteristic of the west coast, and some very rare or local in Ireland;
and we succeeded in obtaining the desired materials for a yery
interesting contrast with Aran.

Inish-Bofin has seldom been visited by botanists. In August,
1801, Dr. Wade, then Professor of Botany to the Dublin Society, ex-
plored Galway under the auspices of the Society, and in the course of
his tour landed in Bofin, where, in his report,* he records finding
Arbutus uva-ursi (not seen by us), Artemisia absinthium (called
““common wormwood”’ by Dr. Wade, and probably given by him in-
stead of A. vulgaris), Empetrum nigrum, Juniperus communis, and
Asplenium marinum—a short list, it must be confessed, and one which
includes scarcely one of the most remarkable or characteristic plants.

Mr. W. M‘Millan, one of the inspectors of National Schools, was.

*“ Catalogus Plantarum Rariorum in Comitatu Gallovidiex”—Dublin Society’s
Transactions, vol. ii., part 2, 1802.

Mort—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 555

more successful in 1872, when he discovered Helianthemum euttatum
in its second Irish locality, and Euphorbia hiberna, in the neigh-
bouring island of Inish-Turk.

Of the 303 plants collected by Mr. Barrington and myself, some
of the most characteristic are the species which grow in water, or are
attached to wet, heathy, or boggy localities, and such as I have
usually observed upon a sandy or granitic soil; these will be sufficiently
shown when we come to compare in detail the vegetation of Bofin
with that of Aran.

Ii we follow Mr. H. C. Watson’s method of grouping, we may
place under the

Attantic TypE:

Saxifraga umbrosa. Sedum anglicum. A.
Eriocaulon septangulare. Crithmum maritimum. <A.
+ Senebiera didyma. Pinguicula lusitanica.
Helianthemum guttatum. Scirpus Savi. A.
Raphanus maritimus. A. Lastreea emula.

Only four of these have been observed in Aran.

Nortuern Tyre:

Juniperus nana. A. Pinguicula vulgaris.
Isoetes echinospora. Empetrum nigrum.
Sagina subulata. A.? Sparganium affine.
Lobelia Dortmanna. Callitriche hamulata.

Of these last only one, or at most two, have been found in
Aran.

Hence, we can see how in Inish-Bofin the western and northern
elements are as strongly represented as in Aran, but by quite a diffe-
rent series of plants. The same mild and equable climate produces
the same preponderance of the western and northern types, and while
the different soil exhibits the same general results, the species them-
selves are different. In the main, the Flora of Inish-Bofin agrees
fairly with that of the opposite coast of Mayo and Galway, although
we miss Dabeocia polifolia, Vaccinium myrtillus, Viola Curtisii,
Drosera anglica, Rhynchospora fusea, Utricularia intermedia, Juncus
obtusiflorus, and a few other species which are common in Conne-
mara.

That several of the ordinary ‘“‘ colonists”? and other weeds should
be wanting, is no more than might be expected in so remote a locality,
cut off by the sea from constant communication with the mainland.
No poppies, and few of the usual weeds of cultivation, infest the
crops; but, at the same time, it is well worthy of remark that, judg-
ing from the circumstances of growth, and their restricted localities,
many plants, elsewhere truly natives of Ireland, appear to have been
introduced into Bofin.

R, I. A. PROC., SER. If., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3 I

906 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In many species we noticed an unusual habit of growth, as in a
large-flowered variety of Campanula rotundifolia, which my friend,
Professor Babington, pronounces to be a singularly fine form, and the
most remarkable which he has seen. Euphrasia officinalis, when on
the exposed grassy slopes, grows with a dense spike of firm, fleshy
leaves, and I have observed the same in Achill. Matricaria inodora,
on the wild rocky ledges of the cliffs, offers a handsome flower as
large as Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. On the tops of the gravelly
hills, Erica tetralix, and Calluna vulgaris, grow close to the ground,
with their leaves crowded on a few short branches. Erythrea cen-
taurium scarcely raises its blossoms above the rosette of radical leaves.
Agrostis pumila, and a very dwarf form of Plantago maritima, are
abundant, and many other examples might be given of a stunted
habit of growth.

The rarest plants gathered were :

Helianthemum guttatum. Eriocaulon septangulare.
Calamagrostis epigejos. Sparganium affine.
Elatine hexandra. Isoetes echinospora.

Sixteen are hitherto unrecorded, as occurring in District VIII. of
our ‘‘ Cybele Hibernica,” West Galway, and West Mayo, viz.:

} Fumaria pallidiflora. Rubus villicaulis.

+ Sinapis nigra. } Arctium intermedium,
Polygala depressa. * Salix Smithiana.
Elatine hexandra. Calamagrostis epigejos.
Vicia angustifoha. { Avena fatua.

Rubus discolor. { Lohum temulentum.
R. thyrsoideus. Glyceria plicata.

R. carpinifolius. Isoetes echinospora.

When compared with that of Aran, which is typically a limestone
Flora, the vegetation of Inish-Bofin presents a striking contrast, as
will be best seen from the following list, which exhibits, side by side,
the plants which have been found in one only of the two islands.
The species most characteristic of each formation are printed in italics.
The plants which are not certainly native are marked with the usual
signs of *, certainly, {, probably, and }, possibly, introduced; and
the few species which were gathered on Inish-Turk, though not in
Bofin itself, are enclosed in brackets. I have ventured to append a
mark of suspicion to some of the Aran plants whose nativity was left
unchallenged by Mr. Hart, but whose conditions of growth or distri-
bution are such as to give them the appearance of doubtful natives
in Aran. The abbreviation ‘‘col.” (colonist), indicates weeds found
only in cultivated land, all of which are generally admitted to have
been originally sown with the crops among which they now grow.

Viola hirta.
V. tricolor ?
V. Curtisii.

Viola canina (flavicornis).

312

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 07
COMPARISON WITH ARAN.
PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN PLANTS IN BoFIN NOT FOUND IN
Borin. ARAN.
Ranunculacee.
Ranunculus heterophyllus. | Ranunculus Baudotii.
Ranunculus lingua ?
t Aquilegia vulgaris.
Thaketrum minus.
Nympheacee.
(None in Aran.) | Nuphar luteum.
Papaveracee.
{ Papaver dubium (col.) (None in Bofin.)
Glaucium luteum.
Fumarvacee.
{ Fumaria officinalis (col.) | | Fumaria confusa (col.)
Crucifere.
Crambe maritima. + Senebiera didyma.
{ Thlaspi arvense (col. { Brassica napus (col.)
[ Cochlearia officinalis. ] | { Sinapis arvensis.
Cardamine hirsuta.
* Hesperis matronalis. |
Matthiola sinuata.
Arabis ciliata.
A. hirsuta.
“+ Barbarea vulgaris.
Nasturtium palustre.
“+ Erysimum alliaria.
Resedacee.
Reseda luteola. (None in Bofin.)
{ R. lutea.
Cistacee.
Helianthemum canum. | Helianthemum guttatum.
Violacee.

558 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN PLANTS IN BoFIn NOT FOUND IN
Bor. ARAN.
Droseracee.
(None in Aran.) | Drosera rotundifolia.
Polygalacee.
Polygala vulgaris. | Polygala depressa.
Llatinacee.
(None in Aran.) | latine hexandra.
Caryophyllacee.

Sagina apetala. Sagina subulata.*

S. maritima. t Spergula arvensis (col.)
Spergularia marina. Spergularia salina.
Alsine verna. Cerastium tetrandrum.
Cerastium arvense.

+ Silene inflata (col.) | Lychnis flos-cuculr.

Linacee.

| Radvola millegrana.

Malvacee.

+ Lavatera arborea. |
Hypericacee.
| Hypericum elodes.

Geraniacee.

Geranium lucidum.
G. sanguineum.
+ Erodium moschatum.

Oxalidacee.
(None in Aran.) | Oxalis acetosella.
Celastracee.
Euonymus europeus. | (None in Bofin.)

* Sagina stricta (maritima), and not S. swbulata, was the plant gathered by
Professor Oliver near Kilronan, and this misquotation of ours, in the “Cybele
Hibernica,’’ seems to have misled later observers; as I haye always found S. sud-
ulata decidedly attached to a sandy or granitic subsoil.

—_—_ .

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 909

PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN PLANTS IN BoFIN NOT FOUND IN
Bor. ARAN.
Rhannacee.

Rhamnus catharticus. | (None in Bofin.)
Leguminosee.

Ulex nanus ?

+ Medicago lupulina.
Trifolium procumbens.

{ tT. ... arvense]. |
Lotus major.
Astragalus hypoglottis. |

| Vicia angustifolia.

Rosacce.

Geum urbanum. Comarum palustre.

Fragaria vesca. | Rubus discolor.
Rubus sazatilis. R. thyrsoideus.
R. cesius. | R. carpinifolius.
Poterium sanguisorba. R. villicaulis.
Alchemilla vulgaris. |

+ A. arvensis.

+ Crategus oxyacantha. |

Onagracee.
Epilobium hirsutum. Epilobium palustre.
Circea lutetiana.
Haloragacee.
Hippuris vulgaris. | Calhitriche hamulata.
Lythracee.
| Peplis portula.
Portulacee.
| Montia fontana.
Crassulacee.
{Sedum rhodiola].
Cotyledon umbilicus.
Saxifragacee.
Saxifraga hypnoides. | Saxifraga umbrosa.

S. tridactylites.

560

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN | PLANTS IN BoFrIN NOT FOUND IX

Borr.

Sanicula europea.
Eryngium maritimum.
Smyrnium olusatrum.
Apium grayeolens.
Helosciadium nodiflorum.
Pimpinella magna.
Aethusa cynapium (col.)
Haloscias seoticum ?
Pastinaca sativa.
Torilis anthriscus.

T. nodosa.

[ Anthriscus sylvestris].
A, vulgaris.

Cornus sanguinea.

Sambucus ebulus.
Viburnum opulus.

Rubia peregrina.
Galium sylvestre.
G. boreale.

{ Sherardia arvensis (col.)

Asperula cynanchica.

Valeriana officinalis.

{ Valerianella olitoria (col.)

Crepis virens.
Hieracium anglicum.
Carduus nutans.
Carduus Marianus.

C. tenuiflorus.
Carlina vulgaris.
Eupatorium cannabinum.
Artemisia absinthium.
Antennaria dioica.
Filago germanica.
Tanacetum vulgare.

N.

Umbellifere.
| (Bofin is very poor in Umbelliferz.}

|
|

Cornacee.
Caprifoliacee.

|

Rubiacee.

| Galium sazatile.

Valerianacee.

I

Composite.

Thrincia hirta.
Carduus palustris.
Senecio sylvaticus,

C—O

Morre—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin.

PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN

Borny.

[Ilex aquifolium].

{ Fraxinus excelsior.

Gentiana verna.
Chlora perfoliata.

Convolvulus soldanella.

+ C. arvensis (col 7).

Solanum duleamara.

Scrophularia nodosa.
+ Verbascum thapsus.
Veronica serpyllifolia.
Y. officinalis.
1 Y. hederifolia (col.)

Orobanche hedere.

Lycopus europzeus.

+ Mentha arvensis (col.)
+ Calamintha officinalis.
Ajuga pyramidalis.

Ajuga reptans.
Stachys sylvatica.
Nepeta glechoma.

{ Marrubium vulgare.

| PLAN
4

ARAN.

Campanulacee.

Jasione montana.
Lobelia Dortmanna.

FEricacee.

|

Erica tetralix.

Aquifoliacee.

Oleinee.

Gentianacea.

Convolvulacee.

Solanacee.

(None in Bofin.)

Scrophulariacec.

Scrophularia aquatica.
Pedicularis palustris,
{ Veronica polita (col.)

Orobanchacece.

(None in Bofin.)

Labiate.

Scutellaria minor.

561

Ts IN BoFryn NOT FOUND IN

062 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

PLants Iv ARAN NOT FOUND IN PLANTS IN BoFIN NOT FOUND IN
Borin. ARAN.
Boraginacee.

Myosotis palustris. Myosotis ceespitosa.

M. versicolor.
Lithospermum officinale. |

Symphytum officinale.
Pinguculacee.
(None in Aran.) Pingucula vulgaris.
P. lusitanica.
Utricularia minor.
Primulacee.
{Lysimachia nemorum ]. | Centunculus minimus.
Plumbaginacee.
Statice occidentalis. |
Chenopodiaceae.
Atriplex littoralis ? Atriplex Babingtonii.
Beta maritima.
Sueeda maritima.
Salicornia herbacea.
Polygonacee.
Rumex conglomeratus. + Rumex crispus.
Polygonum Raii.
Empetracee.

| Empetrum nigrum.

Euphorbiacee.
} Euphorbia peplus (col.) |
E. paralias.
E. portlandica. |
Urticacee.
* Humulus lupulus.
Parietaria officinalis.
Amentifere.

*

Quercus robur. Populus tremula.
[Corylus avellana]. * Salix Smithiana.
Populus alba (planted). S. aurita.

Salix caprea. | Myrica gale.

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 563

PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN

Bor.

Spiranthes autumnalis.

Orchis mascula.
O. pyramidalis.
O. cunopsea.
Haoenaria viridis.

* Narcissus biflorus.

Alisma ranunculoides.

Triglochin maritimum.

Arum maculatum.

Luzula campestris.

| PLANTS IN BoFIN NOT FOUND IN

ARAN.
Orchidaceae.
| Orchis maculata.
|
Amaryllidacea.
LInliacee.

| Narthectum ossifragum.

Alismacee.

|

Naiadacea.

Potamogeton pusillus.
P. polygonifolius.

Typhacee.
| Sparganium affine.

Aracee.

Restiacee.

| L£riocaulon septangulare.

Juncacee.

Juncus lamprocarpus.
J. supinus.
J. compressus.
J. squarrosus.
| Luzula multiflora.

564

PLANTS IN ARAN NOT FOUND IN |

Bor.

[Scirpus lacustris].
S. setaceus.
S. maritimus.

[Carex vulpina].

t Phleum pratense.

P. arenarium.
Alopecurus geniculatus.
Sesleria cerulea.

[ Aira ceespitosa ].
Sclerochloa maritima.
S. rigida.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

PLANTS IN BoFEIN NOT FOUND DY

ARAN.

Cyperacea.

|
|

Rhynchospora alba.
Eleocharis palustris.
E. multicaulis.
Scirpus flutans.
Eriophorum angustifolium.
Carex pulicaris.

C. stellulata.

C. extensa.

C. binervis.

C. panicea.

C. preecox.

C. ampullacea.

Graminee.

Aira flexuosa.
Avena fatua (col.)
‘Triodia decumbens.
Koeleria cristata.
Poa trivialis.
Festuca sciuroides.
F. elatior.

{ Lolium temulentum (col.)
Nardus stricta.

Filices.
Ceterach officinarum. | Lastreea filix-mas.
Polystichum angulare. L. emula.
Asplenium trichomanes. Athyrium filix-femina.

Scolopendrium vulgare. | Osmunda regalis.
Adiantum capillus- Veneris. |

Lycopodiacee.

| ILsoetes echinospora.

Equisetacee.

Equisetum hyemale ? Equisetum arvense.

E. Lmosum.

This gives 161 plants peculiar to Aran; 92 to Bofin; but if we
deduct the naturalized plants on both sides, we have about 120 for
Aran, and 80 for Bofin.

From the above it will be easily seen that each formation has its
own peculiar plants. Aran, which consists solely of carboniferous
limestone, shows in a remarkable degree both the predominance of

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 565

lime-loving plants, and also the greater variety of species which is
usually observed upon calcareous soils. Bofin exhibits, as clearly, a
series of plants which prefer schistose, granitic or siliceous soils;
indeed, the only two lime-loving species which I observed in Inish-
Bofin were Sinapis alba (an introduced weed), and Asplenium ruta-
muraria, which grows upon the walls of the ruined church of St.
Coleman.

The only scarce plants common to Aran and Bofin are Calama-
grostis epigejos, a true native, and Allium Babingtoni, a leek which
was, no doubt, formerly cultivated in many parts of the west of
Treland, as well as in Cornwall.

The three Aran Isles, with a much larger area than Inish-Bofin,
and with a greater extent of coast line, sea-sands, and muddy shore,
have hitherto yielded 372 species, to which we may, perhaps, safely
add about 40 more, which will give an estimated total of 410 for the
whole Aran group. Inish-Bofin itself reckons 303, or with Inish-
Turk, 323, and in the silurian group of Inish-Bofin, Inish-Shark, and
Inish-Turk, it is probable that the whole number does not exceed
300.

With further exploration, the plants now apparently peculiar to
each group will, no doubt, be considerably reduced, so that instead of
221 species common to both, these will probably be found to be nearly
300, leaving about 50 plants peculiar to the three Isles of Bofin, Shark,
and Turk, and about 100 to the Aran group.

This is, indeed, a very striking difference between the floras of two
groups of islands, situated under the same conditions of climate, and
separated by a distance of only thirty-five miles, and shows very
plainly how much the vegetation is influenced by the nature of the
subsoil.

LIST OF THE PLANTS FOUND IN INISH-BOFIN.

RANUNCULACE.

Ranunculus Baudotii, Godron.—In Church Lake, and in the small lake
called Lough-na-brand, on the sand-hills south of the harbour.

R. trichophyllus, Chaix.

R. hederaceus, Linn.—In many places, but we did not observe R. Le-
normandt.

R. flammula, Linn.—A|so var. pseudo-reptans, Syme.

R. acris, Linn.—(tomophyllus, Jordan).—Frequent.

R. repens, Linn.

R. bulbosus, Linn.—On the sand-hills south of the harbour.

NYMPH HACER.

Nuphar luteum, Sm.—Plentiful in Church Lake.

066 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

FUMARIACER.

{ Fumaria pallidiflora, Jord.—Cultivated ground near St. Coleman’s
Church or Abbey. |
tF. confusa, Jord.—In several places, a colonist.

CRUCIFERE.

Cakile maritima, Scop.—On the sands opposite Inish-Lyon.

} Senebrera coronopus, Poir—Common about the harbour, but always
near houses, as if introduced.

{ S. didyma, Sm.—In several places along the road side, and among
rubbish near the harbour.

| Capsella bursa-pastoris, D.C.—Waste places and a weed in gardens,
probably introduced.

Cochlearia danica, Linn.—Rare.

Curdamine pratensis, Linn.—Common.

Nasturtium officinale, Br.

| Sisymbrium officinale, Scop.—Chiefly about houses.

t Brassica napus, Linn.—A colonist in cultivated land.

+ Stnapis arvensis, Linn.

t S. alba, Linn. All four colonists in cultivated

tS. nigra. ground, or borders of fields.

+ Raphanus raphanistrum, Linn.

R. maritimus, Sm..—On the sands opposite Inish-Lyon, and a few
plants near the harbour.

CIsTACE®.

Helianthemum guttatum, Mill (var. Brewer’, Planch).—Plentiful in
many places, especially on high ground, both in Bofin and Shark,
but we did not observe it on Inish-Turk.

VIOLACER.

Viola palustris, Linn.—Frequent.

V. sylvatica, Fries.—Shady banks.

V. canina, Linn. (flavicornis, Sm.).—Stony or heathy margins of the
lakes in several places.

DrosERAcEz.
Drosera rotundifolia, Linn.—Frequent.
PoLyGALACER.

Polygala depressa, Wender.—This was the only form found, well
marked by the crowded oval leaves.

ee

Morr—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 067

ELATINACER,

Elatine hexandra, D.C.—In shallow water on the gravelly bottom of
Lough Gowlanagower, Lough-na-grooaun, and Lough Fawna,
abundantly.

CARYOPHYLLACES.

Silene maritima, With.—Not common.

Lychnis flos-cuculi, Linn.—Only near Church Lake.

Honckenya peploides, Epr.—Sands opposite Inish-Lyon.

Sagina procumbens, Linn.

S. subulata, Wimm.—TIn one place only, at south side of the island.

S. nodosa, Mey.—Damp rocky ledges near St. Coleman’s Church
or Abbey.

+ Spergula arvensis, Linn.—A weed in cultivated land. Both forms,
S. arvensis (Reich.) and S. vulgaris (Boénng.), occurred, and
most of the specimens which we examined belonged to the
former.

Spergularia rupicola, Lebel.—About the cliffs at west end of Bofin,
im many places.

S. salina, Prest.—On damp ground at foot of the cliffs in south-west
of the island.

Arenaria serpyllifolia, Linn.—Typical form only.

Stellaria media, With.

Cerastium glomeratum, Thuill.

C. triviale, Link. All three frequent.

C.. tetrandrum, Curt.

LINACEm.

Linum catharticum, Linn.—In many places.
Radiola millegrana, Sm.—Plentiful.

MaAtLvacEe®.

+ Dalva sylvestris, Linn.—Near the harbour and about the village.
A variety with leaves deeply angulated and their base wedge-
shaped, instead of cordate, was gathered.

HYPERICACER.

Hypericum androsemum, Linn.—On rocks near Church Lake.
HI. quadrangulum (tetrapterum, Fries).—Frequent.

Hf. humifusum, Linn.

FT. pulchrum, Linn.

Hf. elodes, Linn.

568 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

GERANIACER.

Erodium cicutarium, Sm.—Shady places, frequent.
Geranium molle, Linn.—Rocks near Church Lake.
+ G. dissectum, Linn.—Waste and cultivated ground, rare.
G. Robertianum, Linn.
var. purpureum, Forst.—On heaps of stones near the old ruin
of St. Coleman’s Church.

OXALIDACE.

Ozxalis acetosella, Linn.—Near Church Lake.

LreuMinose.
Anthyllis vulneraria, Linn.
+ Trifolium repens, Linn.
+ T. pratense, Linn. All three probably introduced.
{+ Z. minus, Relh.
Lotus corniculatus, Linn.—In many places.
Vicia cracca, Linn.
V. sativa. Var. { segetalis, Thuil—In stubbles and along hedges or
borders of fields, probably the remains of former cultivation.
V. angustifolia, Roth.—Sandy ground, eastward of the village.
V. sepium, Linn.—Shady banks and bushy places.
Lathyrus pratensis, Linn.—Shores of harbour.

RosacEz.

Prunus spinosa, Linn.—Grassy banks on the east side of the harbour,
very sparingly.

Spirea ulmaria, Linn.

Potentilla anserina, Linn.

P. reptans, Linn.—Rather rare.

P. tormentilla, Linn.—Both typical, and also the variety or hybrid,
P. procumbens, Sibth.

Comarum palustre, Linn.

Rubus discolor, W. et N.

hk. thyrsoideus, Wimm.

R. carpinifolius, W. et N.

LR. villicaulis, W. et N.

These four brambles were all gathered on the east side of the vil-
lage and about Church Lake. I am much indebted to my kind friend
Professor C. C. Babington, who was good enough to take the trouble
to examine the specimens which I collected, and who has thus approx-
imately determined their names, though from their incompleteness
the specimens were not quite sufficient for certainty.

Rosa spinosissima, Linn.—In several places.

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 569

R. canina, Linn.—Rare ; east side of the harbour only.
+ Agrimonia eupatoria, Linn. -—Rare ; roadside towards Church Lake.

(R. M. B.)
ONAGRACES.
Epilobium parviflorum, Schreb.
E. montanum, Linn. All three frequent.

E. palustre, Linn.
E. tetragonum, Linn.—Only the form obscurum, Schreb.

HALORAGACER.
Nyriophyllum alterniflorum, D. C.—Frequent.
Callitriche verna, Linn.
C. platycarpa, Kutz.—On muddy borders of streams.
C. hamulata, Kutz.—Frequent, and a plant very characteristic of

mountain lakes. A small form, with very narrow leaves, grows
in Lough Gowlanagower.

LyYrHRacez.

Lythrum salicaria, Linn.—\n many places.
Peplis portula, Lann.—Frequent.

PoRTULACE®.

Montia fontana, Linn.—Common.

CRASSULACEZ.

Sedum anglicum, Linn.—Frequent, and of very large size, on stone
fences round the harbour.
S. acre, Linn.

SANIFRAGACE.

S. umbrosa, Linn.—On the rocks south of Church Lake, and found
also on Inish-Turk. As in Achill, and I believe throughout Con-
nemara, the prevailing, if not the only, form is serratifoha. Our
euide in Inish-Turk called it the ‘‘ Leaf” (not Cabbage) ‘‘ of St.
Patrick.”

ARALIACER.

Hedera helix, Linn.—Frequent on the cliffs, &c.

UMBELLIFER.

Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Linn.—Plentiful.
+ Conium maculatum, Linn.—About the harbour and near houses
along roadsides, on rubbish, probably introduced.

570 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Helosciadium inundatum, Koch.—In seven places, and found also im ¥
Inish-Shark.

Crithmum maritimum, Linn.—Plentiful ae the south-west shore.

Angelica sylvestris, Linn.—On damp ledges of the cliffs ; ; also in Inish-
Turk, where it is fully exposed > the atelaumiine gales.

Mr. M! Unamesole s earden, “where it was, in all probability, sown
unintentionally.
Daucus carota, Linn.—Rocks, banks, and pastures ; frequent.

CAPRIFOLIACER.

* Sambucus nigra, Linn.—A few shrubs only, and evidently planted,
near some cottages in the centre of the island.
Lonicera periclymenum, Linn.—About Church Lake, &e.

RUBIACER.

Galium verum, Linn.

G. palustre, Linn.—Chiefly as the most usual form called G. Wither-
imgit, but a few robust plants in the marshy borders of Church
Lake are nearer to G. elongatum, Presl.

G. saxatile, Linn.—In many places, and a very characteristic species.

* G. aparine, Linn.—Only in and about cultivated land, no doubt
introduced.

Dresacacem.

Scabiosa succisa, Linn.

Composit.
Thrincia hirta, Roth.
Oporinia autumnalis, Don.
Hypocheris radicata, Linn.
t Sonchus arvensis, Linn.—A colonist among the crops.
t+ S. asper, Hofftm.
1 S. oleraceus, Linn.
Hieracium piloselia, Linn.—Near St. Coleman’s Church.
| Taraxacum officinale, Wigg.—Perhaps introduced.
+ Lapsana communis, Linn.—A colonist.
{ Arctium lappa (intermedium, Lange).—This was, as in other parts
of Ireland, the only form seen.
+ Carduus lanceolatus, Linn.
C. palustris, Linn.
{+ C. arvensis, Curt.—Rather rare, and perhaps introduced.
Centaurea nigra, Linn.
1 S. scabiosa, Linn.—Only on the sand-hills among the rabbit burrows,
and perhaps introduced.
t Artemisia vulgaris, Linn.—Borders of fields, waste places, and in
cultivated land. Now apparently a colonist, whatever its origin.
A. absinthium was not observed, and probably Dr. Wade entered
the wrong species in his list. 7

Both possibly introduced.

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 571

Gnaphalium uliginosum, Linn.

Tussilago farfara, Linn.

Aster tripolium, Linn.—On the south-west shore. ‘

Solidago virgaurea, Linn.

} Senecio vulgaris, Linn.—Perhaps introduced.

S. sylvaticus, Linn.

S. Jacobea, Linn.—On the sand-hills south of the harbour we found a
variety with the ligulate florets much broader and shorter than
usual, giving the ‘flower an ¢ appearance something like a Cine-
raria. The rayless form did not occur.

S. aquaticus, Huds.

Inula dysenterica, Linn.—Near St. Coleman’s Church.

} Bellis perennis, Linn.—Possibly introduced.

t Chrysanthemum segetum, Linn.—A weed in the crops.

WMatricaria tnodora, Linn. y, with large and conspicuous
flowers; grows on rocky ledges of the cliffs, both in Bofin and in
Achill.

Achillea ptarmica, Linn.

A. millefolium, Linn.

CAMPANULACES.

Campanula rotundifolia, Linn.; var. speciosa.—A large-flowered and
very handsome variety grows among the rabbit burrows south of
the harbour. The stems are from nine to twenty inches high,
the leaves broader and more crowded than usual, lanceolate and
linear-lanceolate on the middle of the stem. Flowers from one
to twelve, with a corolla at least an inch long. This plant, in
some of its characters, comes near to the variety arctica, figured
in ‘‘Flora Danica,” XVI., Tab. 2711, but has much larger
flowers. It also agrees to some extent with a var. lancifolia,
described in Hartman’s ‘‘ Skandinaviens Flora,’ but the stem is
not recumbent. Being apparently distinct from any described
variety, I believe this beautiful plant quite deserves a separate
name, as var. speciosa, which I here propose for it.

Jasione montana, Linn.—Plentiful, and one of the most characteristic
species.

Lobelia Dortmanna, Linn.—Plentiful in Lough-na-grooaun; very rare
in Lough Gowlanagower.

ERICACER.

Erica tetraliz, Linn.—Common even on the tops of the barren stony
hills, ~hene it assumes a dwarf, stunted habit, offering only two
or three branches, on which the leaves are densely crowded.

E.. cinerea, Linn.—Plentiful.

Calluna vulgaris, Salisb—In exposed stony places it occurs quite
stunted, and with leaves crowded in the same way asin Z. tetraliz.
R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3K

572 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

GENTIANACER.

Gentiana campestris, Linn.—Frequent, and of large size. A variety
with white flowers also occurred.

Erythrea centaurium, Pers.—Chiefly in the form with broad radical
leaves, and little or no stem, which has often been miscalled ‘‘ 2.
littoralis.”’

Henyanthes trifoliata, Linn.—Church Lake.

ConvVoLVULACE.

Convolvulus sepium, Linn.—Frequent in bushy places and on fences,
and nearly always with pink flowers.

ScROPHULARIACEA.

Veronica arvensis, Linn.

V. anagallis, Linn.—Streamside near St. Coleman’s Church.

V. beccabunge, Linn.

V. chamedrys, Linn.

| V. agrestis, Linn. Cultivated land and roadsides; probably in-

| V. polita, Fries. troduced.

| Bartsia odontites, Huds.—All the plants which we observed belonged
to the form #. serotina, Reich ; perhaps a colonist only.

Euphrasia officinalis, Linn.—Both the typical form and £. gracilis,
Fries, the latter rather more frequent of the two. Also a mari-
time variety with stiff fleshy broad leaves, and bracts closely
crowded; a form which I have also noticed in Achill.

Rhinanthus crista-galli, Linn.

Pedicularis palustris, Linn.—Rare, near Church Lake.

P. sylvatica, Linn.— Frequent.

Scrophularia aquatica, Linn.—Rare, observed in one place only, east of
the village.

LABIATA.

Mentha aquatica, Linn.—Frequent.

Thymus serpyllum, Linn.

Teucrium scorodonia, Linn.

+ Lamium purpureum, Linn.—A weed in gardens, etc.

+ Galeopsis tetrahit, Linn.—On rubbish, and in borders of fields about
the village, probably introduced.

Stachys palustris, Linn.

+ 8. arvensis, Linn.—Cultivated ground, a colonist.

Prunella vulgaris, Linn.

Scutellaria minor, Linn.—Near Church Lake.

-

Morr—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 373

BoraGInNacE-E.

Myosotis cespitosa, Schultz.—Frequent.
MM. arvensis, Hoffm.

PINGUICULACEZ.
Pinguicula vulgaris, Linn.—F requent.

P. lusitanica, Linn.—Rather rare.
Utricularia minor, Linn.—At west end of the island, in one place only.

PRIMULACER.

Primula vulgaris, Huds.—Near Church Lake ; a few plants flowering
so late as August 19th.

+ Anagallis arvensis, Linn.—A colonist probably.

A. tenella, Linn.

Centunculus minimus, Linn.—Not common, but found at both east and
west ends of the island.

Samolus Valerandi, Linn.—Frequent.

Glauxz maritima, Linn.

PLUMBAGINACE.

Armeria maritima, Willd.—Frequent.

PLANTAGINACER.

| Plantago mayor, Linn.—About Church Lake, &c.; not common, and
probably introduced.

| P. lanceolata, Linn.—Perhaps introduced.

P. maritima, Linn.—Common, and a dwarf form is abundant all over
the tops of the hills.

P. coronopus, Linn.—Frequent.

Lnttorella lacustris, Linn.—Borders of Lough Fawna, &c.

CHENOPODIACE®.

| Chenopodium album, Linn.—Both varieties : C. candicans, Linn; and
C. viride, Linn.

Atriplex Babingtoni, Woods.—Common about the harbour, &c.

A. patula, Linn.—The vars. angustifolia and terecta were both
frequent. The last occurs only in cultivated ground, as if a
colonist.

Salsola Kali, Linn.

Sands opposite Inish-Lyon.

PoLYGONACER.

Polygonum amphibium, Linn.—In the small lake in the sand-hills, called
Lough-na-brand, and here the terrestrial form was flowering
freely.

3 K 2

o74 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

P. persicaria, Linn.
P. hydropiper, Linn. All three frequent.
P. aviculare, Linn.
| P. convolvulus, Linn.—A. weed in cultivated land and borders of
fields.
{ Rumex crispus, Linn.—Frequent, but perhaps not native.
| BR. obtusifolius, Linn.—Like the former, perhaps introduced.
R. acetosa, Linn.—Not uncommon.
R. acetosella, Linn.—Ditto.
Obs.—We could not find F. sanguineus nor R. conglomeratus.

EMPETRACER.
Empetrum nigrum, Linn.—Very rare; observed only in one place near

a blowhole west of Moylanboy Bay (R. M. B.) Also on Inish-
Turk.

EUPHORBIACER.
+ Euphorbia helioscopia, Linn.—Among crops; rare.
Urticace.

* OUrtica urens, Linn. ) Waysides and waste places; both no doubt in-
* (7, dioica, Linn. troduced.

AMENTIFERZ.

Populus tremula, Linn.—Sparingly on rocky banks at east end of the
harbour. Also on Inish-Turk.

* Salix vininalis, Linn. aes

* 8. Smithiana, Willd. Join sn areclneeel

S. aurita, Linn.—The only sallow observed.

S. repens, Linn.—Frequent.

Myrica Gale, Linn.— Plentiful in one locality only, near Bunnamullen
Bay. (R. M.B.)

ConIFER.

Juniperus communis, Linn.—Only the form or variety, J. nana, Willd

ORCHIDACE®.

Orchis maculata, Linn.—Rather rare, near Church Lake.

TRDAcEz.

Lris pseudacorus, Linn.—Near Church Lake, &e.

“I
Or

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 5

LIZiAcez.

* Allium Babingtonii, Borr.—Among the ruins of a deserted cottage,
east of the harbour (R. M. B.) Also in a garden enclosure close
to a cottage, to the south of Lough Gowlanagower ; several of the
heads viviparous. This is, no doubt, a relic of former cultivation,
as it appears also to be in all the other localities, wherever I have
seen itin the West of Ireland. At Roundstone it occurs only
along the borders of garden enclosures. On the south side of
Clew Bay, and near Menlough, Galway, always about the ruins
of cottages or deserted gardens.

Narthecium ossifragum, Hads.—At west end of the island.

ALISMACE.

Triglochin palustre, Linn.—Along the south-west shore.

NATADACE®.

Potamogeton pectinatus, Linn.—North end of Lough Bofin.

P. pusillus, Linn.—In Church Lake.

P. natans, Linn.—Very fine and plentiful on Lough-na-grooaun.
P. polygonifolius, Pourr.—Common in damp boggy places.
Zostera marina, Linn.—In the harbour.

LEMNACE.

Lemna minor, Linn.—Frequent in pools and slow streams.

TYPHACER.

Spargurium affine, Schn.—Plentiful in Lough Gowlanagower and Lough-
na-grooaun.

REsflace®.

Eriocaulon septangulare, With.—Several large patches along the west
side of Lough-na-grooaun.

JUNCACER.

Juncus communis, Mey.—Both forms, conglomeratus and effusus, were
observed.

J. acutiflorus, Ehrh.—Frequent.

J. lamprocarpus, Ehrh.—Frequent.

J. supinus, Moench.—Plentiful, and the submerged variety, with seta-
ceous leaves, 1s abundant in most of the lakes.

J. compressus, Jacq. ; var. Gerardi, Lois.—Along the south-west shore.

76 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

J. bufonius, Linn.—Common.
J. squarrosus, Linn.—Hilly ground at west end of the island.
Luzula multiflora, Lej.—L. campestris was not seen.

CYPERACE®.

Schenus nigricans, Linn.—Above Bunnamullen Bay, with Dyrica
(R. M. B.) Also on Inish-Turk.

Rhynchospora alba, Vahl—Rare. At Bunnamullen Bay, and at west
end of Bofin.

Scirpus Savii, 8. et M.—Frequent.

S. fluitans, Linn.— Frequent, and a very characteristic species.

Eleocharis palustris, Br.—Church Lake, &e.

E.. multicaulis, Sm.—Plentiful and characteristic.

Eriophorum angustifolium, Roth.—Frequent.

Carex pulicaris, Linn.—Near Church Lake, &e.

C. stellulata,Good.—A bundant.

C’. arenaria, Linn.

C. flava, var. lepidocarpa, Tausch.—Common.

C. extensa, Good.—South-west shore.

C. distans, Linn.—South-west shore.

C. binervis, Sm.—West end of the island.

C. panicea, Linn.—Frequent.

C. glauca, Scop.—Common.

C. precox, Jacq.

C. ampullacea, Good.—Church Lake.

GRAMINE.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linn.

Agrostis canina, Linn.

A. vulgaris, With.
var. pumila, Lightf.—Frequent on the higher parts of the hills-

A. alba, Linn.—Common, with many varieties.

Psamma arenaria, R. et 8.

Phragmites communis, Trin.

Calamagrostis epigejos, Roth.—Sparingly on rocky banks at east end
of the inner harbour. It is curious to find both in Bofin and
Aran, two isolated localities, for a grass which is so rare in Ite-
land.

Aira flecuosa, Linn.

A. caryophyllea, Linn.

A. precor, Linn.

+ Avena fatua, Linn.—A weed in the corn crops of Bofin and Inish-
Shark.

t Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauy.—Perhaps introduced, but now an
abundant weed.

Holeus lanatus, Linn.

More—On the Flora of Inish-Bofin. 577

Triodia decumbens, Beauv.

Koeleria cristata, Pers.—Banks opposite Inish-Lyon, &c.

Molinia cerulea, Moench.

Glyceria fluitans, Br.—Common.

G. plicata, Fries.—Rare ; in one place only.

Sclerochloa loliacea, Woods.

Poa annua, Linn.

P. pratensis, Linn.

t P. trivialis, Linn.—Possibly introduced.

Cynosurus eristatus, Linn.

Dactylis glomerata, Linn.

} Festuca sciuroides, Roth.—Very rare on banks, and probably not
native.

F. ovina, Linn.

Ff. duriuscula, Linn.

F rubra, var. sabulicola, Dut.

F’. elatior, Linn.—Al|so on Inish-Turk.

FI’. pratensis, Huds.

Bromus mollis, Linn.
var. subglaber, Sands.—On the sea-shore.

Brachypodium sylvaticum, Beauy.—Kast of harbour, &c.

Triticum repens, Linn.

T. junceum, Linn.—Sands opposite Inish-Lyon.

Lolium perenne, Linn.

t L. temulentum, Linn.—A weed among corn.

Nardus stricta, Linn.—Frequent.

FIIces.

Polypodium vulgare, Linn.

Lastrea filiz-mas, Presl. Frequent.

L. dilatata, Presi.

L. emula, Brack.—Rare, only near Lough Fawna (R.M.B.) On the
west side of Inish-Turk (A.G.M.)

Athyrium filiz-femina, Roth.—Frequent. A variety found among the
rocks near Church. Lake has a frond broader than usual, with
wide ovate pinnules, resembling those of Lastrea dilatata.

Asplenium marinum, Linn.—Abundant in many parts of the cliffs.

A. adiantum-nigrum, Linn.—In its typical form, and no plants
approaching 4. acutum, Bory.

A. ruta-muraria, Linn.—On the ruins of St. Coleman’s Church.

Blechnum boreale, Sw.—Not uncommon.

Prteris aquilina, Linn.

Osmunda regalis, Linn.—Frequent.

LycopoDIAcEa.

Lsoetes echinospora, Dur.—In Lough Gowla-na-gower and Lough-na-
grooaun.

578 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

EQuISETACE®.

Equisetum arvense, Linn.
£. limosum, Linn.

To these should be added 20 other plants gathered by us on Inish-
Turk, an island belonging to the same silurian formation, and which
les five miles north of Inish-Bofin. Those found in Aran are
marked A.

Cochlearia officinalis. A. Corylus avellana. A.
Lychnis diurna. Betula alba.

+ Trifolium arvense. A. Salix cinerea.
Orobus tuberosus. Scirpus lacustris. A.
Sedum rhodiola. A. Carex dioica.
Gnanthe crocata. C. vulpina. A.
Anthriscus sylvestris. A. C. paniculata.
Tlex aquifolium. <A. C. vulgaris.
Lysimachia nemorum. A. Aira cespitosa. A.
Euphorbia hyberna. Orchis incarnata ?

This will make a total of 323 species on the three Islands of Inish-
Bofin, Inish-Shark, and Inish-Turk—a number which further investi-
gation will probably raise to 350.

=I
Ne)

Davy—On a New Chemical Test for Alcohol. 5)

XLIX.—Own a New Cuemicat Test ror Arconor. By Epuunp W.
Davy, A.M., M.D., Professor of Forensic Medicine, Royal College
of Surgeons, Ireland, &c.

[Read May 22, 1876.]

Wauust making lately some experiments on molybdic acid, I observed
that when a soiution of that substance in strong sulphuric acid was
brought in contact with alcohol, there is very quickly developed a
deep azure blue colouration; and this fact, being (as far as I was able
to ascertain) hitherto unrecorded, led me to investigate the reaction to
determine the cause of this production of colour.

As I found that the protosulphate of iron, and the protochloride
of tin, two powerful deoxidizing salts, produced a similar effect on
this solution, there was but little doubt that it was due to the deoxi-
dizing action of alcohol on the molybdic acid. And I afterwards
found that the blue substance which was formed in the case of alcohol
possessed all the characters of the blue compound which is produced
when molybdic acid or its salts are acted on by different reducing
agents, whereby a substance consisting of five atoms of the metal
molybdenum with fourteen of oxygen is obtained, which is usually
regarded as a combination of the binoxide of molybdenum with molyb-
dic acid, the followimg formula (MoO,, 4 MoO;) representing its
composition.

With certain precautions which I shall presently point out, I have
found that this reaction of alcohol on the molybdic solution stated is
extremely sensitive, so that by its indications very minute quantities
of alcohol, even when diluted with large proportions of water, may be
readily detected. Thus, for example, if one part by volume of com-
mercial rectified spirits be mixed with a hundred parts of distilled
water, and one small drop of this mixture be taken, the minute
quantity of spiit contained in it can be easily detected by the deep
blue colouration which will be immediately developed on bringing it
into contact with the molybdic solution, employed in the manner about
to be described. But this is not the limit of the delicacy of this test,
for I have been able by means of it to detect the spirit in one drop of
a mixture of distilled water and anhydrous spirit, m which the latter
substance constituted only the one-thousandth part of its volume;
and as the drop was found to weigh six-tenths of a grain, the quantity
of real or anhydrous alcohol contained in it would be less than the one-
sixteen hundred and sixty-sixth part of a grain of that substance.

Though small quantities of spirit, even when considerably diluted
with water, will produce with the molybdic sclution the blue reaction
without the assistance of any external heat, still where very minute
quantities, diluted with such large proportions of water as those just
stated, are to be detected, it is necessary for the success of the experi-
ment that the reaction should be assisted by a gentle heat, and also

580 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy.

that too great a dilution of the test solution with the liquid under
examination should be avoided, as the blue colouration will not be
developed if water be in excess ; and even after it has been produced,
the addition of a certain proportion of that substance quickly causes
its disappearance. Such being the case, the best way of employing
the test, according to my experience, is to place three or four drops
of the molybdie solution ina small white porcelain capsule, and having
heated them slightly, allow one or two drops of the liquid to be
examined to glide or fall gently on the acid solution, when there will
be developed, either immediately or after a few moments, the blue
colouration. And where the alcohol is very largely diluted with
water, it is better to continue the gentle heating of the test solution
for some time, to concentrate it or expel as much water from it as pos-
sible, before adding the liquid to be tested, for in this way I have
succeeded in detecting the spirit in mixtures so dilute, as to give no
blue reaction when added immediately to the test solution on its being
simply warmed. As regards the application of heat, I must observe
that the temperature of the acid solution must not be raised too high,
for if it be heated till the acid evolves its dense vapours, or begins to
boil, the solution will of itself alone, from its partial decomposition,
develope a more or less blue colouration, which will become more per-
ceptible on its cooling. But such an occurrence can be easily avoided
by employing a water-bath as the heating agent; for I have found
that a temperature of 212° F. is incapable of so acting on the test
solution—at least an exposure of several hours’ duration to that heat -
failed to produce the slightest blue colouration, and a much lower
temperature than that suffices for the application of the test.

I should here state that the molybdic or test solution which I have
generally employed was made by dissolving at a gentle heat one part
by weight of molybdic acid in ten parts of strong and pure sulphuric
acid, but the exact strength of this solution as regards the amount of
molybdic acid it contains seems to be immaterial.

I may observe that the colouration produced in the reaction
stated disappears after a variable interval of exposure to the air—a
circumstance which is due, as I have ascertained, to the absorption of
moisture from the atmosphere, and not to the reoxidation of the
molybdenum compound, as might have been supposed; for amongst
other facts in proof of this, | may state that after it has thus disap-
peared, it may be readily restored either by expelling the water so
absorbed by a gentle heat; or, more slowly, by placing the mixture
under a desiccator, and thus removing it by spontaneous evaporation
at the ordinary temperature. Such being the case, it is evident that,
where the test solution has been too much diluted for the immediate
development of the colouration described, expelling the excess of
water by heating the mixture on a water-bath, it may be made to
exhibit itself.

But the necessity for such evaporation should, if possible, be
avoided, which in most cases will be so, by using only a drop or two

Davy—On a New Chemical Test for Alcohol. o8h

of the liquid under examination, and by employing the strongest
sulphuric acid in making the test solution; for it is very probable
that much of the spirit contained in the liquid would be lost during
its evaporation in the water-bath. Besides there would be some risk
that the indications of the test might be more or less interfered with
from particles of dust or organic matter getting into the mixture
during that process.

The reaction which has been described, I should state, is not pecu-
liar to ordinary or ethylic alcohol, but is, more or less, readily de-
veloped by others—at least I found it to be so in the case of methylic,
propylc, butylic, and amyhe alcohols, those being the only ones
I had for my experiments. But it is more than probable that some
at least of the other alcohols may act in a similar manner; however,
the reaction is much more rapid and striking in the case of ethylic
than in that of any of the other alcohols mentioned. I found also.
that certain salts of the radicles of those alcohols produced a some-
what similar reaction, as well as ethylic ether andaldehyde, and also.
several organic matters which are readily susceptible of oxidation.

The circumstance that the reaction described is not peculiar to
ethylic alcohol will, no doubt, lessen its value as a positive test
for that substance; but a similar objection appertains to all the
other known tests for that compound, as their indications are not
peculiar to that alcohol alone, if we except, perhaps, Berthelot’s test,
which is founded on the development of benzoic ether by the action
of benzoic chloride, along with caustic potash on ethylic alcohol.
But, owing to the trouble attendant on the preparation of benzoic
chloride, and some other practical inconveniences connected with the
application of that test, it is not likely that it will ever come to
be one of very general employment.

The test, however, which I have brought before the Academy has
this advantage over those already known, that it far exceeds (accord-
ing to my experiments) any one of them in point of delicacy. And
though the circumstance that the blue reaction produced in the case
of this test is not peculiar to ethylic spirit lessens, as before observed,
its value for the detection of that substance, this is just what ren-
ders the test of more general applicability; for by its aid certain
impurities or adulterations may be at once detected in different sub-
stances or compounds, which in a state of purity should not contain
any matter capable of acting on the molybdic solution employed in
this test. I may refer to two important substances as examples, viz.,
chloroform and chloral hydrate, which are now so extensively em-
ployed in medicine and surgery for a number of useful purposes; and,
being agents of great power, it is of much importance that they
should be free from the accidental impurities of imperfect preparation,
as well as from the frauds of intentional adulteration, which may
either impair their therapeutic value, or even increase the danger
of their administration. For there can be but little doubt that in some
instances the serious and even fatal effects resulting from their use

BK

82 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

may, in part at least, have been attributable to the impurities or
adulterations of the chloroform, or of the chloral hydrate employed.
Now, as I find that neither chloroform nor chloral hydrate, in their
pure condition, have any apparent action on the molybdic test, but
that many of their usual impurities develope the blue reaction, it
affords us a ready means of testing their purity. Thus, as regards
chloroform, one of its common impurities is ethylic alcohol, which
it may contain either from imperfect preparation, or from fraudulent
addition, the very high price of chloroform offering a great temptation
to the unscrupulous vendor to increase its bulk or weight by the addi-
tion of alcohol, which so readily mixes with it. I have found that
the molybdic test at once enables us to detect such an adulteration,
even where it occurs in very small proportions in chloroform. Thus,
in one experiment, I mixed one part of rectified spirit with a hundred
parts by volume of pure chloroform, and one drop of this mixture
being brought im contact with three or four drops of the molybdie
solution, previously warmed in a water-bath, gave an immediate deep
blue colouration from the spirit contained in it; and, in a second ex-
periment, with a mixture of one part of spirit to a thousand parts of
chloroform, a single drop of the mixture, being similarly treated,
developed a faint blue reaction. Indeed, so searching is this test
as regards the purity of chloroform, that I was unable to obtain any
sample of that substance in commerce sufficiently pure not to give
a blue reaction with the molybdic test, owing to the minute quanti-
ties of volatile oils, and other impurities, they contain; and for my
experiments I was obliged to repurity the commercially pure chloroform
to obtain a sample which would give no coloured reaction with my
test.

In the case of chloral hydrate, it is stated that one of its usual
impurities is the chloral alcoholate (a compound in which alcohol,
instead of water, is combined with anhydrous chloral), and that
this substance has somewhat different effects on the system from
those produced by the hydrate. This compound, owing to the
alcohol it contains, gives the blue reaction with the molybdic test, and
I have found that where the chloral hydrate contained even so small
a proportion of the alcoholate as one part in a thousand parts, a
little of such a sample, being taken, indicated its presence when
examined by the molybdic test; and it is probable that some of the
other impurities which are met with in this important substance may
be similarly detected.

Those two examples are sufficient to indicate the use to which this
test may be applied in the determination of the purity of different
substances used in medicine, as well as in scientific research.

Finally, I would remark that, as the reaction of molybdie acid
on ethylic alcohol is so sensitive and prompt in its action, I entertain
the hope that there may yet be founded on it, not merely this qualita-
tive test, but likewise a means for the quantitative determination of
that important alcohol.

Wricut—On a New Genus of the Family Pandarina. 583

uy

L.—On a New Genus anp SPECIES BELONGING TO THE FamiIty
Panparina. By Epwarp Prrcevan Wrieut, M.D., F.L.8., Pro-
fessor of Botany, Dublin University. (With Plate 35.)

[Read May 11, 1874.]

Rutnopon typicus, Smith, is one of the largest and one of the least
known of the sharks. It was originally described by the late Sir A.
Smith, from a young specimen about 17 feet long, found near Cape-
town. ‘‘It was the only one that had been seen at the Cape within
the memory of any of the fishermen. At the time it was discovered,
it was swimming leisurely near the surface of the water, and with a
certain portion of the back above it. When approached, it manifested
no great degree of fear, and it was not before a harpoon was lodged in
its body that it altered its course and quickened its pace. The pre-
pared specimen is deposited in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes
of Paris.’’*

The true habitat of this remarkable species appears to have re-
mained unknown until during a visit paid to the Seychelles in 1867.
I found it at home in the waters surrounding these pleasant islands.
The size to which this great sluggish fish grows presents many
obstacles to obtaining specimens of it. I have heard of some indivi-
duals being seen of about 70 feet in length; I have seen some that I
believe to have exceeded 50 feet; my friend, Mr. Swinburne Ward,
the then Civil Commissioner of these islands, measured one that
a little exceeded 45 feet in length; and I have had the opportunity
of dissecting two specimens, one of which was 18 feet long from the
tip of the nose to the end of the caudal fin. Rhinodon typicus,
though a large, is a quiet, harmless fish, with a mouth of immense
width, and jaws furnished with very small teeth. I found large
masses of algee in their stomachs, so that at one time I was inclined to
think it was an herbivorous shark. Probably, however, it derives its
nourishment, in part at least, from minute crustaceans and other
oceanic animal forms, which it may take in along with masses of float-
ing weed, and then ejecting the water through the strange mesh-like ~
structures that unite the edges of the great gill openings, obtain by so
doing enough to swallow. Be this as it may, I found on the surface
of these meshes the little parasitic crustacean, which it is the object
of this paper to describe. The absence of parasites was remarkable.
Some forty or fifty of the new form alone rewarded a very careful
search. The sharks had been harpooned in the evening, and brought
ashore by sunset (about 6 o’clock). Word was at once sent to me.
I was at the time stopping exactly at the opposite side of the island,

* Tllustrations of the Zoology of South Africa. By Andrew Smith, M.D.
Pisces, Plate 26.

584 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and was on the spot the next morning before sunrise, so that I was
enabled to examine the specimen while it was still quite fresh. The
following will serve as a diagnosis of the new form :—

Family—PanpDaRina.

Rostrum. longum, angustum. Palpi articulati, foliacei.

Stasiotes rhinodontis, gen. et spec. nov. (Plate 35, figs. 1 to 14).

The cephalothorax is nearly as broad as long, projected somewhat
in front where the frontal lamina becomes conspicuous. It is very
transparent, which will account for the markings to be seen on figure
2, where there is an appearance as if the cephalothorax were seg-
mented. The sides project backwards, forming lobes so as to cover
the free edges of the first abdominal ring. The first abdominal ring
is narrow, not extending at either side so as to touch the prolonga-
tion of the cephalothorax. The second abdominal ring is somewhat
broader and even wider, with delicately ciliated appendages, somewhat
like those to be met with in Demoleus paradoxus, Heller. The last
abdominal ring is furnished with very feebly developed wing-like
projections, which lie slightly over the largely developed genital
ring; the edges of these rings are clothed with bristle-like hairs.

The genital ring is rounded in the front and at the sides, obtusely
truncated, and somewhat notched behind, a little less than one-half in
length of the cephalothorax. The caudal ring is narrow—quite hid under
the genital ring—but the caudal appendages (figure 14) are visible.

The anterior antennee (figure 5) are biarticulate, and spring from
the under surface of the frontal lamina; the first joint is twice as
broad and as long as the second, and just behind its articulation with
the second it is set over with a few minute bristle-like hairs; the
second ends abruptly in two or three bristles. The posterior antenns
(figure 7) are stout and four-jointed; the third joint is twice as long
as broad, and is barely covered by the front portion of the cephalo-
thorax ; the fourth joint consists of a long incurved claw. The
rostrum (figure 6a) is long and narrow, consisting of two halves in-
closed in a sheath each of which (figure 6c) is terminated by a series
of tooth-like projections. The palpi (figure 6a) are small, feebly
biarticulate, and very slightly foliaceous. The base of the rostrum
with the palpiis situated between, and a very lttle below, the origin
of the posterior antenne.

The first pair of maxillary feet (figure 3) are of the shape and form
usually met with in this group, but just at the base of the chele, and
on their outer surface, there is a scale-like body (figure 8a), which is
thickly set with short, stiff hairs of the same nature as those which are
developed along the margins of the pincers. The second pair of
maxillary feet (figure 9) are broad and large: the claw-like terminal
joint can project beyond the edge of the cephalothorax; both the third
and fourth claw-joint carry a stiff bristle.

Wricut—On a New Genus of the Family Pandarina. 585

The four pairs of abdominal feet are two-branched, and in the first
three pairs each of these branches (figures 10, 11, and 12) are two-
jointed, each of the joints being clothed with large bristles lied with
hairs. The first pair possesses the smaller number of bristles, and there
are no bristles on the first joints; the second and third pair have, on
the inner edge of both the first joints, a well marked, long, ciliated
bristle. The fourth pair (figure 18) is not fully furnished with
bristles, and these are not clothed with cilia; and they are also not
two-jointed, and in this, as in the number of bristles, differ very mate-
rially from the first three pairs.

) The average length of the specimens examined is six millim. All
the specimens met with were females. ;

In conformity with the practice of Heller, Steenstrup, Lutken,
and others, I describe the swimming feet as abdominal—(abdominal
fusspaare: bagkropsfodderne); but it would have seemed to me more
natural to have described them and the somites from which they
spring as thoracic. Heller gives* a conspectus of the Family Pandarina,
including all the genera known to him. This new genus it appears to
me might come in after Demoleus. the remi of the third pair not being
‘ biarticulati’, and not being ‘ setis plumosis ornati.’

* Noyara-Expedition. Zoologischer Theil : Crustacea, p. 160, about 1866.

586 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

LI.—Nores on A smatt Conzecrion oF FoRAMINIFERA FROM THE
SrrcHELLEs. By E. Percevan Wricut, M. D., Secretary to the
Academy.

[Read January 24, 1876.]

Waurte at the Seychelles, in 1867, I made several collections of the
Foraminifera met with while dredging. These were, for the most part,
preserved in spirits of wine; and, “unfortunately,” were lost. One
dredging, made in about eight fathoms of water, off the entrance of
the Harbour of Port Victoria, between the Island of St. Anne and
Long Island, was, however, preserved i in a dry state; the bottom con-
sisted for the most part of a coarse, white sand, mixed with fragments
of shells, spicules of alcyonarians, and fragments of coral, and evi-
dently contained numbers of Foraminifera. Iam indebted to my friend
Henry Bowman Brady, F. R.S., for the names on the following list :

FoRAMINIFERA.

1. Cornuspira foliacea, Philippi, sp.
(1844, Orbis foliaceus, Enum. Moll. Sicil., vol. i., p. 147,
pl. 24, fig. 26). Medium-sized specimens, rare.
. Biloculina elongata, V Orbigny.
(1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vil., p. 298, No. 1). Rare.
3. Biloculina contraria, d Orbigny.
(1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 266, pl. 16, figs. 4-6). Very rare.
4. Triloculina trigonula, Lamarck, sp.
(1804, DMiliolites trigonula, Ann. Mus., vol. v., p. 351, No. 3).
Rare.
5. Triloculina oblonga, Montagu, sp.
oe Vermiculum oblongum, Test. Brit., p. 522, pl. 14, fig. 9).
vale.
6. Triloculina Brongniartiana, d Orbigny.
(1840, Foram. Cuba, p. 156, pl. 10, figs. 6-8). Somewhat rare.
7. Quinqueloculina seminulum, Linné, sp.
(1767, Serpula seminulum, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 1264, No.
791). Rather common.
8. Quinqueloculina subrotunda, Montagu, sp.
(1803, Vermiculum subrotundum, Test. Brit., p. 521). Rare.
9. Quinqueloculina Ferussacii, W Orbieny.
(1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii., p. 301, No. 18 — Modéle,
No. 32).
10. Quinqueloculina agglutinans, d’Orbigny.
(1840, Foram. Cuba, p. 168, pl. 12, figs. 11-13). Very

common.

bo

ik

12.

13.

4s,

15.

16.

17.

18.

WN)

20.

21.

22.

23.

2A.

25.

26.

Wricut—On Foraminifera from the Seychelles. 587

Spiroloculina canaliculata, d’ Orbigny.
(1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 269, pl. 16, figs. 10-12). Small,
very rare.
Hauerina compressa, d Orbigny.
(1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 119, pl. 5, figs. 25-27). Small,
very rare.
Alveolina sabulosa, Montfort, sp.
(1808, Ihliolites sabulosus, Conch. Syst., vol. i., p. 174). Me-
dium, rather rare.
Orbitolites complanata, Lamarck.
(1801, Anim. sans Vert., p. 876). Very common.
Lagena squamosa, Montagu, sp.
(1808, Vermiculum squamosum, Test. Brit., p. 526, pl. 14,
fig. 2). Small, very rare.
Lagena marginata, Walker and Jacob, sp.
(1784, Serpula [Lagena| marginata, Test. Min., p. 3, pl. 1,
fig. 7). Small, very rare.
Globigerina bulloides, V Orbigny.
(1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii., p. 277, No. 1—Modeles,
Nos. 17 and 76). Medium, rather rare.
Textularia agglutinans, a’ Orbigny.
(1840, Foram. Cuba, p. 186, pl. 1, figs. 17, 18, 82-34). Medium-
sized specimens, common.
Bolivina punctata, V Orbigny.
(1839, Voyage ?Amér. Mérid., p. 68, pl. 8, figs. 10-12).
Small, rare.
Verneutlina spinulosa, Reuss.
(1849, Denkschr. Akad. Wissensch. Wien., vol. 1., p. 374,
pl. 47, fig. 12). Medium, rare.
Planorbulina farcta, Fichtel and Moll, sp.
(1808, Nautilus farctus, Test. Micr., p. 64, pl. 9, figs. g-:).
Medium, rare.
Discorbina globularis, VOrbigny, sp.
(1826, Rosalina globularis, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. viz., p. 271,
No. 1, pl. 18, figs. 1-4). Medium, rare.
Pulvinulina repanda, Fichtel and Moll, sp.
(1803, Nautilus repandus, Test. Micr., p. 35, pl. 3, figs. a-d)
Rare.
Pulvinulina Canariensis, V Orbigny, sp.
(Rotalina Canariensis, @Orb., 1839, Foram. Canaries, p. 130,
pl. 1, figs. 34-86). Very rare.
Rotalia Beccarti, Linné, sp.
(1767, Nautilus Beccarvi, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 1162, No.
276). Small, rare.
Rotalia orbicularis, V Orbigny, sp.
(1826, Gyroidina orbicularis, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vil., p. 278,
No. 1—Modéle, No. 13). Small, very rare.

R.I. A» PROG:, SER. 1T., VOL. I., SCIENCE. ay Ie

588

21.
28.
29.

80.

ol.

38.

o4.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Cymbalopora Poeyi, V Orbigny, sp.
(Rosalina Poeyi, POrb., 1840, Foram. Cuba, p. 100, pl. 3, figs.
18-20). Large, very common.
Tinoporus levis, Parker and Jones, sp.
(1860, Orbitolina levis, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3rd ser.,
vol. vi., p- 38, No. 7). Large, rare.
Tinoporus vesicularis, Parker-and Jones.
(1860, Orbitolina vesicularis, Ann..and Mag. Nat. Hist., 3rd
ser., vol. vi., p. 33, No. 5). Very rare.
Patellina, sp. S
(A minute discoidal form, resembling a septate Sperzllina; not
corresponding with any figured species I can refer to.
H.B.B.) Very rare.
Amphistegina vulgaris, @ Orbigny.
(1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii., p. 805, No. 8—Modéle,
No. 40). Small, common.

. Operculina complanata, Defrance, sp.

(1822, Lenticulites complanata, Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. xxv.,
p. 453). (This thick Operculina, common in the Red Sea,
Indian Ocean, and Australia, is not the typical O. complanata,
but rather an intermediate form, showing the close relation-
ship to Vummulina planulata). Medium size, rare.

Nummulina planulata, Lamarck, sp.

(Lenticulites planulata, Lamarck, 1804; Ann. Mus., p. 187,

No. 1). Medium, rare.
Polystomella crispa, Linné, sp.

(1767, Nautilus crispus, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 1162).

Small, rare.

. Polystomella striatopunctata, Fichtel and Moll, sp.

(1803, Nautilus striatopunctatus, Test. Micr., p. 61, pl. 9,
figs. a—c). Small, very rare.

. Nonionina asterizans, Fichtel and Moll, sp.

(1803, Nautilus asterizans, Test. Micr., p. 37, pl. 3, figs. e-h).
Small, very rare. :

. Nonionina scapha, Fichtel and Moll, sp.

(18038, Nautilus scapha, Test. Micr., p. 105, pl. 19, figs. df).
Medium, very rare.

. Heterostegina depressa, V Orbigny.

(1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol) vu., p. 303, pl. 17, figs. 5—7).
Large, very common.

Brapvy—On Foraminifera from the Loo Choo Islands. 589

LIT.—On some Foramrirera From THE Loo Cuoo Istanps. By |
Henry B. Brapy, F.R.S.

[Read May 8, 1876. ]

A PRESSED and mounted specimen of a small alga, labeled ‘‘ Laurencia ~
paniculata, Loo Choo Islands,” was recently sent to me by Dr. E.
Perceyal Wright, with the suggestion that some Foraminifera which
had been entangled in its meshes might be worth examination, and
that at any rate it would be interesting to know what particular
species had lived amongst its miniature branches. As the seaweed
itself was of some value, two or three square inches were taken, and
the portion as separated yielded examples of the following species of
Foraminifera, some of them in sufficient number to supply two or
three good mountings.

Hauerina compressa, V Orbigny.
Quinqgueloculina subrotunda, Montagu.
Fe bicornis, Walker and Jacob.
as ornatissima, Kauer.
Peneroplis pertusus, Batsch.
Vertebralina stricta, V Orbigny.
Orbitolites complanatus, Lamarck.
Discorbina rosacea, V Orbigny.

5 globularis, V Orbigny.
Planorbulina Mediterranensis, @ Orbigny.
Calcarina Spenglert, Gmelin.

As calcar, V Orbigny.

is hispida, spec. nov.

Tinoporus baculatus, Montfort.
Cymbalopora Poeyi, @ Orbigny.
LHeterostegina depressa, V Orbigny.

Although a considerable list, considering that the entire weight
of seaweed, shells, and all could not be more than fifteen or
twenty grains, one or two forms were represented by a single speci-
men only, but no species has been retained of which a good charac-
teristic example, large or small, was not present; doubtful forms were
rejected, else the list might have been considerably extended. The
most abundant species of Calcarina was the pretty hispid modification
figured by Dr. Carpenter (Introd. Foram. Pl. xiy., fig. 6), but not
hitherto described or named as far as I know. I propose to call this
C. hispida, and its characters will stand as follow. I have met with
larger specimens in Australasian sands, but have never seen any so
beautifully perfect.

Catcartna Hrsprpa, spec. nov.—Test free, unequally biconvex, ro-

- talian : margin, thin lobulate or rowelled ; segments numerous, slightly

590 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

inflated ; peripheral borders thin, rounded, angular, or produced suffi-
ciently to form radiating spurs. Surface covered with adpressed spiny
processes, obscuring the sutures, except those of the later chambers.
Diameter 5 inch (1°3 mm.) or more. The characters are, indeed, very
much those of Calcarina calcar, excepting for the superficial spiny
armature.

Quinqueloculina ornatissima (Kauer, Sitzungsb. K, Akad. Wiss.
Wien., 1868, vol. lvii., p. 151, pl. 3, fig. 2) deserves a passing notice.
It is an interesting, highly ornate form with transverse crenulations,
crossed by longitudinal strie, and though I had previously found it in
some Polynesian sands, it has not hitherto been recorded as a recent —
species. Dr. Kauer’s specimens were from the Miocene of the Banat,
in Austria. Only a single example was found in this Loo Choo
gathering, and that is slightly broken.

At the time I received the seaweed from Dr. Wright, I was en-
deavouring to summarize what was known of the parasitic types of
Foraminifera in connection with my work upon the Rhizopod-fauna
of the carboniferous rocks, and I had arrived at the conclusion that
adherent growth, at one period of life or another, was a much more
common and more significant character in this group of organisms
than has hitherto been supposed. It was, therefore, of interest to
ascertain not only what species of Foraminifera were present, but how
many of them, if any, were really parasitic, and not simply entangled
in the meshes of the weed amongst which they had lived, or adherent
by the mucilaginous matter coating the surface. The piece of the
alga which had been separated, consisting chiefly of the root and the
commencement of the larger branches, was therefore put into warm
water and allowed to macerate for twenty-four hours, by which time
it had swollen to its original size. Repeated sharp agitation during
the maceration served to liberate most of the Foraminifera. It was
then cut into little pieces, and the filaments of a conferva with which
it had been associated in growth were carefully removed. The pieces
were put into a sieve and washed under a strong stream of warm
water from a tap, using every means even to the extent of some vio-
lence to dislodge anything that had not some connexion with the
surface of the plant beyond mere chance adhesion. The specimens
that remained were comparatively few in number, and pertained to a
limited range of species, but for the most part they had evidently lived
in the parasitic condition in which they were found. They were
chiefly the young of Orbztolites complanatus and Cymbalopora Poeyt with
small examples of Planorbulina Mediterranensis. The last-named needs
no comment, as it 1s an essentially parasitic species, but I am not
aware that either Orbitolites or Cymbalopora has ever before been noticed
in this condition. The little specimens of Cymbalopora might have
passed for the fry of one of the other rotalian genera but for the pre-
sence of larger specimens of the same species.

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 591

LITI.—Report on Intsu Hepaticm. By Davin Moors, Pu.D., F.L.S.
(With Plates 43, 44, and 45).

[Read April 24, 1876].

Herewiru I lay before the Academy the results of many years’ re-
searches among the Irish Hepatice.

Since I received the grant from the Academy, I visited in the early
period of 1874 several parts of the County of Wicklow, which I sup-
posed to be likely habitats of these minute plants, and among other
places the glen of Altadore, or Hermitage Glen, near Delgany, where
the rare Irish fern, Trichomanes radicans, once grew very sparingly,
but has long since been eradicated. In the autumn of the same year,
I went to Connemara, where I made a rather extended search among
the mountains of that country, ascending to the top of Mweelrea, the
highest in that district.

In May, 1875, I visited portions of the Counties of Fermanagh
and Leitrim, where they join near Manorhamilton, and where I found
the sides of the lakes and glens rather favourable for the growth of
eryptogams, especially Hepatice. This district is in close proximity
to the Ben Bulben range of mountains, upon which in Ireland is
found the most distinct trace of a truly Alpine phanerogamic flora.
On the high rocks between the heads of Glenad and Gleniff, Draba
rupestris, Saxifraga nivalis, and Arabis petrea, all three truly
Alpine plants, occur, not occurring elsewhere in Ireland. The faces of
the cliffs are clothed, in many places, with two of the most lovely of
our sub-Alpine species, namely—Saxifraga oppositifolia, and Silene
acaulis; their rosy purple flowers can be seen at some considerable
distance, and, on a nearer approach, appear patches of the rare Arenaria
ciliata; this district being its only British locality. Here I gathered
several rather rare Hepaticee and mosses. . In October I made another
journey to the County of Kerry, where some great rarities among the
Hepaticee were collected, but very few not previously known to grow
there.

This family of plants, lke the Irish mosses, has been well
studied and searched for by former botanists, both Irish and foreign.
When it is remembered that the Counties of Kerry and of Cork are
those in which dwelt two of the most gifted cryptogamic botanists.
that Ireland has produced, namely, the late Dr. Thomas Taylor, and
Miss Hutchins of Bantry, it is not much to be wondered at that few
discoveries remained for their successors. Of Miss Hutchins, Sir James
Smith, when writing his English Flora, is reported to have said, ‘‘ he
believed she could find anything.” To form some idea of her great
success among the Hepaticee, we have only to consult the pages of
Hooker’s ‘‘ British Jungermannie,’’ where her name is more or less
connected with nearly every rare species contained in that grand work.

BR. I. A. PROC., SER. II.) VOL. Il, SCIENCE. 3M

592 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Dr. Taylor has given to the world the results of his researches
among this interesting family of plants, in the second part of
Mackay’s ‘‘ Flora Hibernica,”’ where he describes, under the genus
Jungermannia, all the species which were known to him up to 18386.
Of the foliaceous kinds seventy-five species are enumerated, besides
the Marchantiacee and Anthocerotacee, comprising eight species,
eighty-three in all. Among them are several contributions of rare
species by the late W. Wilson of Warrington, of bryological fame,
who collected them in 1829, when he paid along visit to this country,
and who was the first to publish and describe in the English Flora the
rare Dumortiera irrigua, under the name of Marchantia irrigua. After
the publication of the ‘‘ Flora Hibernica,” Dr. Taylor discovered several
new species, descriptions of which he published in the Transactions of
the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vols. 1-8. In 1848 a list of the
Hepaticze of the County of Cork was included in the Flora and Fauna of
that county, which was published by the Cuyierian Society of Cork.
About fifty species are therein enumerated. From that period up to
1862 little has been published on Irish Hepaticee, except some brief
notes of additional species and new localities by myself in the Pro-
ceedings of the Dublin University Botanical and Zoological Association,
and of the Dublin Natural History Society: Isaac Carroll of Cork
made also a few additions about this time.

In 1861 Dr. Carrington of Eccles, Lancashire, spent eleven weeks
in Ireland, chiefly in the County of Kerry, studying and collecting
Hepatice. In 1863 he published the result of his labours in the
Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. 7, part m1.,
under the heading, ‘‘ Gleanings among the Irish Cryptogams.” In
this important contribution the names of the genera, and sections into
which the large genus Jungermannia had been about that time sub-
divided, are adopted. He does not describe any new species, but he
added to our flora one species, which had not previously been noticed
in Ireland, namely, Jungermannia obovata, Nees. Including those
which he found himself, and those which he gleaned from other sources,
Dr. Carrington raised the list of Irish Hepatice to about 100 species,
with numerous varieties. Another very important contribution has re-
cently been published by Dr. Lindberg, Protessor of Botany in the
University of Helsingfors. At my invitation he paid a visit to Ireland
in June and July, 1873, and was my guest while he remained in this
country. I accompanied him to those parts of Ireland which I knew
to be the richest in this particular family of plants, of which we made
large collections. During the month of July 1878, no fewer than eighty-
seven species of Hepatice were collected, an account of which Dr. Lind-
berg published in the Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice, vol. x.,”” under
the heading, ‘‘ Hepaticee in Hibernia mense Julii 18738 lecte.” Among
them he describes several species new to science, viz., Lejeunia patens,
L. Moorei and Metzgeria conjugata. He also adds to the list Riccia
sorocarpa, Bisch., and Scalia Hookeri (Lyell), Gray, besides raising to
the rank of species a few which had previously been held as varieties.

Moorre—On Irish Hepatice. 593

Altogether, the subject is handled by him in a masterly way, and
whether his new divisions and nomenclature be adopted or not by
future botanists, his paper is a very important contribution to science.
He divides the Hepatice into three sections. 1. Marchantiacee.
2. Jungermanniacee. 3. Anthocerotaces. This is no great departure
from the arrangement of previous authors. These are again grouped
under sub-sections, according to the nature of the valves of the capsule,
whether splitting into pieces when ripe or remaining whole, viz., Schi-
zocarpee and Cleistocarpe.

The Jungermanniz Schizocarpe are divided into two principal
divisions differing from each otherin several important characters, which
are fully described, but chiefly depend on the position which the Game-
cium and Andrcecium occupy on the plants. These he calls (#) Anomo-
gamee ; (6) Homogame, and the latter he still further divides into
* Opisthogame; and ** Acrogame. By these divisions he has
been enabled, in my opinion, to group the species together more
naturally (with a few exceptions) than has been done by any pre-
vious author. What may, however, be found fault with is Dr.
Lindberg’s endeavour to restore the names of genera in exact con-
formity with the law of priority. The dates are so carefully and
clearly set forth along with the name of each genus, that there can be
no disputing the matter. It is well known that Mr. S. F. Gray, father
of the late Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum, was the first to
subdivide the comprehensive genus Jungermannia into smaller genera,
to which he gave names in his “‘ Arrangement of British Plants,”
published in 1821, a fact which had already been established by Mr.
Carruthers, Director of the Botanical Department, British Museum, in
Seemann’s Journal of Botany, vol. i., p. 297. These names of
Gray’s Dr. Lindberg has in many instances adopted, though some of
them sound very oddly, after we have been so long accustomed to the
established nomenclature of such a standard work on Hepatice as the
“Synopsis Hepaticarum,” by Drs. Gottsche, Lindenberg and Nees,
published between 1844 to 1847. That there is a farther want of some
recognised standard in the nomenclature of this family of plants is
obvious, and may be seen from the numerous synonyms of various
authors which Lindberg and Du Mortier have brought together.

The veteran Belgian Botanist, M. Du Mortier, having published
his first work on Hepatice, ‘‘ Commentationes Botanice,”’ so long back
as 1822, and others of importance on the same subject, at intervals
from that period till 1874, when his large work ‘‘ Hepaticee Europe”
was published, has all that time been altering and improving the dis-
tinguishing characters of the sub-orders and so-called genera of
this family of plants, yet in the last work new divisions and new
names of genera are to be found.

The characters of Hepatic, though pretty constant, and sufficient
to distinguish the genera, are by no means s0 satisfactory as those of
the Mosses. Dr. Taylor, all his life, held the opinion that it was
impossible to distinguish satisfactorily the genera of Jungermannia

3M 2

594 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

from the descriptions given of them, and he never adopted them, but
continued to name his new species as they occurred to him by the
old established generic name Jungermannia up to the last, though
he knew they belonged to genera established by modern authors.
Even the late Sir William Hooker, who studied the British Junger-
mannia with a rare discriminating power, did not attempt to divide
the old genus Jungermannia, but was content to place the species in
natural groups, which are pretty much the same as those now adopted,
several of them being represented by modern genera. His great work
on the British Jungermannia is, indeed, one of the most beautiful and
most exhaustive ever written on any subject of natural history. In
the present Report, I have adopted Dr. Lindberg’s arrangement, both
for the sake of uniformity, and because I consider it the most
natural yet published.

Ireland is extremely rich in this family of plants, and produces a

number of remarkable species, which are true indicators of the

climate of the country. These minute vegetables, some of which are
scarcely visible to the unaided eye, tell of heat, moisture, and other
climatal circumstances, much more accurately than the flowering plants.
of the country do, and show that the south-west of Ireland approaches
in climatal conditions some sub-tropical parts of the world.

In a letter from the well-known traveller, Dr. Spruce of Wel-
burn, Yorkshire, who has explored a very large portion of South
America, collecting both the flowering and cryptogamic plants of that
country, he states that ‘‘when gathering mosses and Hepatice on the
slopes of the Andes, he was reminded of the Kerry Mountains, whose
cryptogamic vegetation is the nearest approach in Europe to that of
tropical mountains.” Among the species most characteristic of a
warm and moist climate, I may mention particularly Dumortiera
irrigua, Radula xalapensis (Radula voluta, Taylor), found also in New
Granada, Metzgeria linearis, which grows also in Jamaica, and Guada-
loupe, Frullania Hutchinsie, variety 6., in the Island of Jaya, and
the minute Lejeuniz. Among the mosses we have the beautiful
Hookeria letevirens, which occurs in the West Indies, besides the
Killarney Fern (Trichomanes radicans), another plant which extends.
to the West Indies.

I have spared no trouble to ensure correctness in the names of the
plants, for which purpose I have frequently consulted both Dr. Car-
rington and Professor Lindberg, who have always very kindly assisted
me with their opinion.

The Irish habitats may be relied upon, as I have collected nearly
every one of the plants with my own hands, at some time or other
during the last forty years; having for this purpose travelled over a
very large portion of Ireland, from east to west, and from north to
south, and from the sea-level to the tops of the highest mountains.
The chief merits of this Report may indeed be considered to consist in
its giving as full an account as I am able to render of the Imish Hepa-
ticee, and of their geographical distribution in Ireland. 137 species
of them are enumerated.

Moore—On Trish Hepatice

IRISH HEPATIC.

Section I. Fronpos®. MArcHsantTIAce®.

Plants with stems and leaves confluent in a frond.

A. ScHIzocarPz.

Family 1. Marcwantiex.

Capsules in aggregate capitula, pendent from a peltate receptacle.

Dicecious.— Male receptacle pedunculated.
Loculi of the female receptacle 2-valved.
Colesule 4-5 cleft, .

Dicecious.—Fertile receptacle hemispherical,
ribbed in a ray-like manner, and lobed,
involucres attached to the under side of
the lobes, 1-3 fruited. Male receptacles
peltate, peduncled, with the antheridia
immerscd, : :

Dicecious.—Male receptacle ie disciform.
Loculi of the female receptacle tubulose,
1-fruited. Colesule wanting, :

Moncecious.—Antheridia immersed in sessile
crescent-shaped disks on the frond. Fer-
tile receptacle, 4-5 lobed. Loculi 4-5,
single-fruited. Colesule wanting,

Dicecious.—Male receptacle almost sessile, pel-
tate, hairy. Female receptacle hairy,
elevated on a peduncle, 2- to 6- cleft.
Loculi I1-valved. Colesule wanting,

Dicecious.—Male receptacle sessile. Female
receptacle deeply cleft. Loculi tubulose,
1—valved, fleshy. Colesule wanting,

Family 2. Tanrcioyinx.

‘Capsules solitary, situated near the apex of the frond, subsessile, bi-

valved, without a central columella.

Dicecious.— Male receptacle sessile, inabivalved
loculus. Capsule shortly pedicellated,
situated near apex of frond, opening
irregularly, :

MARCHANTIA.

- PREISSIA.

ConocEPHALUS.

ASTERELLA.

DvUMOoRTIERA.

LUNULARIA.

TARGIONA.

Or

Or

596 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
B. CretsTocarPZ.
Capsules yalveless, imbedded in the substance of the frond. No Elaters-

Family 3. Riccrex.

Fruit immersed in upper surface of frond,
bearing a style, which is protruded above

the surface of the frond, 3 ‘ =. -Ricerae
Fruit globose, adnate to under surface of frond.

Style exserted, : 3 : . RiccleLwa.
Fruit immersed in frond, and not pr pemided on

either surface, ; ; 5 : . RicclocaRPvs.

Section I]. Fontosm. JUNGERMANNIACEZ.
Plants with stems and leaves distinct.
A. ScH1IzocaRPm.

Capsules solitary, elevated on an erect foot-stalk, or subsessile.
Elaters with spiral fibres.

Sub-tribe 1. FrRvuLianrem.
Inyolucral bracts wanting or indistinct.

Colesule trigonal, rarely round, constricted at

the mouth, slightly keeled beneath. In-

volucral bracts wanting or imperfect.

Elaters single-spired, . : . FRvULiANia.
Colesule contracted at the mouth, ee or

toothed. Peduncle articulated. “Capsule

univalved. LElaters double-spired, . . Lervseunta.
Colesule compressed, truncate. Involucral

bracts wanting or indistinct. Peduncle not

jointed. laters with double spires, . Ranpvta.
Colesule compressed, slightly bilabiate. Cap-

sule univalved, globular or cleft. Elaters

double-spired, : : , : . PoreExta.

Sub-tribe 2. Prevroziex.
Invyolucral bracts present and distinct.

Involucral bracts two, deeply bilobed. Colesule
long, cylindrical, mouth denticulate, de-
curved at apex. Capsule quadrivalved, of
thick texture. laters double-spired, . PxLEvrozia.

Moorre—On Trish Hepatice. 597

Sub-tribe 3. Lzprmoziem.

Inyolucre polyphyllous, bracteole in several
rows. Colesule sulcate, toothed,

Involucre polyphyllous, bracteole scale-
like, imbricated on every side. Colesule
cylindrical, mouth compressed. Pedicels
not jointed. Capsule 4—valved. LElaters
two-spired, naked,

Involucre polyphyllous, Herctenin piloved,
imbricated. Colesule cylindrical, cleft
at side, mouth denticulate. Capsule
4-yalved. Pedicels continuous,

Inyolucre polyphyllous, bracteole vari-
ously ciliated and lacerate. Colesule
sessile, round, inflated, denticulate, and
contracted at mouth, 5

Involucre oligophyllous, segments deeply
divided. Colesule sessile, roundish, tri-
lobed, and crested at mouth,

Involucre polyphyllous, larger than stem
leaves, margins undulate and recurved.
Colesule obovate, mouth compressed,
crenate denticulate,

Inyolucre polyphyllous, bracteole scale-
like, imbricated. Colesule cup-shaped,
bilabiate. Calyptra exserted,. : 5

Involucre oligophyllous, segments deeply
lobed. Colesule fusiform, 8-4 cleft at
mouth. Pedicels inarticulate,

Lepmoztia.

BazzanIA.

OpoNnTOSCHISMA.

CEPHALOZIA.

LopHOCcoLEa.

PEDINOPHYLLUM.

CHILOSCYPHUS.

HARPANTHUS.

Sub-tribe 4. SaccoGyNEz.

Inyolucral bracts wanting. Colesule pendu-
lous from under side of stem, smooth,
mouth circular, undulated,

Inyolucral bracts wanting. Colesule pendu-
lous, hairy, attached by the margin of
the apex to the stem,

SACCOGYNA.

KaAntTtra.

Sub-tribe 5. BiepHaroziex.

Inyolucral bracts wanting. Colesule peduncu-
late,; hairy all round, wide-mouthed,
margin of mouth toothed,

Involucral bracts 2-3 lobed and ciliated.
Colesule club-shaped, inflated, mouth con-
tracted and denticulate, .

TRICHOCOLEA.

BLEPHAROZIA.

598 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Involucre polyphyllous, bracteole imbricated,
undivided. Colesule sessile, round, tri-
sulcate, mouth denticulate, . : . MuasricopHora.

Involucre polyphyllous, bracteole much cut
and connate at base. Colesule want-
ing. Capsule 4-valved, smooth, of thick
texture, : . HERBERTA.

Involucre Holyphallons: Decale saeco
all round, palmately cut. Colesule sessile,
roundish, denticulated at mouth, . . ANTHELIA,

Involucre polyphyllous, bracteolee imbrica-
ted, articulately ciliated. Colesule sessile,
erect, roundish ovate, mouth clothed with
long acute cilia, . : 3 : . BriepHarostroma

Sub-tribe 6. JUNGERMANNIEX.

Inyolucre diphyllous, segments bilobed,
conduplicate. Colesule dorsally com-
pressed, mouth truncate, bilabiate, at
first decurved. Elaters bispiral, attached
to centre of the valves, . 2 2 . Scapantra.

Involucre oligophyllous, segments bilobed,
margin entire. Colesule sessile, erect,
round, mouth denticulate. Capsule coria-
ceous, . E , ; : ; . DIPLlopHyLium.

Involucre diphyllous, bracteole convex,
undivided. Colesule laterally compressed,
mouth oblique, truncate, toothed or
fringed. LElaters bispiral, thread-like, . PLacrocuma.

Involucral bracts two, connate at base. Colesule
ovate oblong, laterally compressed. repeats
4—valved, of thick texture, . . Myr.

Involucral bracts several, cut and pifid, dis-
tinct from the aniline leaves. Ciflesuile
terminal on stem or short branches,
tubulose, more or less plaited, laciniated
and contracted at mouth. Calyptra free
within the colesule, f : : . JUNGERMANNIA.

Involucre polyphyllous, bracteole forming
an urceolate receptacle, connate with
the colesule and connecting tissue of the
thalamus, . Nagpra.
Involucral bracts doubts Magee sae eee
leaves, inclosing the immersed calyptra.
Colesule wanting, : : ; i . Cesta.

Moorre—On Irish Hepatice. 599

Sub-tribe 7. AcROoBOLBEX.

Inyolucre terminal on torus, bulbous and
rooting from underside. Colesule want-
ing. Calyptra adhering to the bulbous
base of the receptacle, . . ACROBOLBUS.

Sub-tribe 8. FossomBronIEx.

Involucral bracts two, opposite. Colesule want-
ing. Calyptra exserted, cylindrical, longer
than involucral bracts. Capsule of thick
texture. laters single-spired, . - SCALIA.

Involucre scale-like or wanting. Colesule
campanulate, wide-mouthed, margin un-
dulate or lobed. Capsule one-valved,
globose, bursting irregularly, é . FossoMBRONIA.

Inyolucre connate with the colesule. Colesule
angularly campanulate, mouth wide, un-
dulate-dentate. Capsule spheroid, burst-
ing irregularly, . : 3 : . PETALOPHYLLUM.

Involucre monophyllous, cut and lacerated.
Colesule tubulose, exserted. Calyptra irre-
gularly torn at the apex. Capsule oval.
Andrescium dorsal on the midrib of the
frond.) : : : . : : . PALLAVICINIA.

Inyolucre undivided, bladder-shaped, attached
to apex of frond. Colesule inclosed within
the utricular involucre. Andrcecium im-
mersed in the frond, and covered with
dentate scales, ; : ; ; . Basta.

Involucre cup-shaped, toothed, and lacerated
at the mouth. Colesule wanting. Calyptra
oval, membranous. Andrcecium immersed
in the upper surface of midrib of frond, . Prttra.

Sub-tribe 9. MerzcrrtEx.

Involucre monophyllous, scale-like, ventricose,
and two-lobed. Colesule wanting. Calyp-
tra ascending, oblong-ovate, echinate. In-
‘ florescence dicecious. Antheridia inclosed
by a 1-leafed involucre on the under side

of midrib, . , é , : . MertzcErra.

Cox

600 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Involucre cup-shaped, short, lacerate. Cole-
sule wanting. Calyptra exserted, glo-
bous. Inflorescence dicecious. Capsule
4-valved, of thick texture. laters per-
sistent. Antheridia immersed in recep-
tacles, proceeding from margin of frond,. Rurccarpra.

B. CuLersTocarr”.
Sub-tribe 10. SpuarocarPE®.

Capsule without valves, globular, free, im-
mersed in the membranous frond. Elaters
and Colesule wanting, . : 3 . SPHAROCARPUS.

Section III. AwnrHocrerorace®.

Capsule solitary, filiform, bivalved, stalked, with a free central pla-
centation.

Family 1. AnrHocrroTEZ.

Colesule tubulose. Capsule 2-valved, linear,
elongate, pedicelled, with a free central
placentation. laters imperfect, . . ANTHOCEROS.

Section I. MarcHantTracem.

A. Scuizocarpm, Lindberg.

Family 1. Manrcuanriez.

Perennial plants with spreading fronds, more or less carnose, lying flat
on the ground, and clothed more or less beneath with imbricating
scales, which are frequently coloured, among which numerous
rootlets issue. Dicecious for the most part. Female receptacle
raised on a peduncle, springing from near the apex or back of the
frond, radiate or capitate, with loculi. Colesules present or want-
ing. Male receptacle elevated or sessile, smooth or hairy.

Marcuantia, Linneus.

Male receptacle pedunculated, furnished with scales beneath. Female
receptacle rayed, involucres alternate with the rays, 1-3 flowered;
bivalved. Colesule 4-5 cleft. Calyptra bursting, remaining within
the colesule.

Marchantia polymorpha, Linn. Fertile receptacle deeply cut, star-like,
into eight or ten divisions. Male receptacle peltate, undivided.

Moore—On Irish Hepatice. 601

Marchantia polymorpha, Linn. Sp. Pl. 16038. Marchant fil in Acta
Gal. 1718; Micheli, Nov. Pl. Gen. t. 1, figs. 1, 2, 5; Dill. Muse.
t. 76; and t. 77, fig. 7; Engl. Bot. t. 100; Musc. Brit. ed. 2,
p. 2, p. 219; Lindenberg, Synop. Hep. Europ. p. 100; Taylor, in
Fl. Hib. p. 49; Dumortier, Hepaticee Europe, p. 150.

Hab. In moist situations generally, sometimes in dry places. Espe-
cially abundant on the surface mould of pots in the Botanic
Gardens, where it is frequently subjected to high temperatures,
under which treatment both male and female receptacles are
abundantly produced.

ConocrpHatus, Neck. Dmrt.

Marchantie sp. Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753). Conocephalus, Neck. Elem. Bot.
mi., p. 844 (1790). Dmrt. Comm. p. 115 (1822). Fegatella,
Raddi, in Op. Scient. di Bologna, 11. 356 (1818). Nees, Europ.
Leberm., 4, p. 170.

Dicecious. Fertile receptacle conical or mitriform, covering the loculi,
which are from 4—5, and monocarpous, opening with a vertical
fissure. Colesule wanting. Calyptra bell-shaped, persistent in the
loculus. Antheridia immersed in sessile oval disks, near the apex
of the frond.

Conocephalus conicus, Neck. Dumort. Fronds large, varying much
in width, crenate, undulate at the margins. ‘‘ Buds appear in
winter between the terminating lobes, their margins involute, the
entire ascending, recurved, at length opening into light, shining,
green fronds. The scales beneath are subrotund, oblique, slightly
emarginate. The male receptacle is hemispherical and smooth
below, nearly flat above, immersed in a cayity of the frond, but
not adhering to it except by a central point at the bottom; the
upper surface is rough, with conical elevations, the tops of whitish
antheriferous vesicles; the anthers are linear, oblong, coming to
maturity the summer previous to the ripening of the seeds; female
receptacles fully formed in October remain sessile on the fronds
until the following February, when at length the peduncles
arise.”’—Taylor, in Flora Hibernica.

Marchantia conica, Engl. Bot. t. 504, Muse. Brit. ed. 2, p. 221.
Conocephalus conicus, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 155. Cono-
cephalus vulgaris, Bisch. in Nov. Act. Nat. Curios. 17, p. 979.
Hegatella conica, G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. 546; Rabenhor.
Hep. Europ. exsic. &c., 299-329.

Hab. Damp shady places, where the mass of fronds sometimes spread
over several feet in diameter continuously. If taken in and put
in a pot or box, covering the surface with a pane of glass, the
latter will after a few days become more or less covered with the
antheridia, which are jerked out of their receptacles with such
force as to make them adhere to the covering glass.

602 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Prerssta, Nees.

Preissia, Corda, in Opiz, Naturalientausch (1829); Nees, Europ. Leberm.
(1838).

Dicecious. Fertile receptacle angularly hemispherical, 2-4 lobed,
loculi attached to the under side of the lobes, 1-3 fruited, dehisc-
ing irregularly. Colesule obconico-campanulate, 4-5 lobed.
Calyptra persistent. Capsule pedicelled, dehiscing by revolute
segments. Antheridia immersed in a peduncled peltate recep-
tacle.

Preissia commutata, Nees. Frond oblong, sinuate, frequently bi-
lobed at the apex, from 1-8 inches long, varying very much in
width, according to locality. Fertile receptacle peltate, hemi-
spherical, with keel-like rays. Capsule globose, shortly pedicellate,
often of a dark purple colour. Barren receptacle peltate, pe-
duncled.

Marchantia hemispherica, Linn. Fl. Suec., No. 1052. Conocephalus
hemispheericus, Dmrt. Comm. Bot., p. 118. Marchantia com-
mutata, Lindenb. Hep. Europ., p. 101. Preissia Italica, Corda, in
Opiz, Natural., p. 647. Preissia commutata, Nees, Europ.
Leberm., 4, 117; G. L. et N. Synop. p. 539; Rabenh. Hep.
Europ. exsic. n. 5, 125, 141, 330, 481; Engl. Bot. t. 2545,
exclude figs. at under portion of plate; Carrington, Irish Hepat.
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. vol. 7, p. 443.

Hab. Fissures of damp rocks, and on damp ground in mountainous
parts of the country, particularly in limestone districts ; occasion-
ally on sandy ground near the sea, as at North Bull, near Dublin.
Frequent in Co. Galway. Rocks above Kylemore Castle, and by
the side of the lake at Letterfrack ; abundant near Cong ; Sillagh-
braes, near Larne, Co. Antrim; Co. Kildare; Co. Kerry, about
Killarney, &c., &c. The variety minor on high limestone ridges
of the Benbulben range, Co. Sligo. Glendine wood, Co. Water-
ford, Isaac Carroll, Esq.

Dunmortiera, Nees.

Marchantia, Sw. Prodr. Fl. Ind.-Occ. p. 145 (1788). Dumortiera,
Nees, in Nov. Act. Acad. Ces.-Leop. 12, p. 1, p. 410 (1828).
Lunularia? N. B. in Flora, 13, p.2, p. 401 (1830). Hygrophila,
Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 2, p. 58 (1836). Spathysia, Nees, Nat.
Eur. Leberm. 4, p. 178 (1838).—Lindberg.

Dicecious. Male receptacle very shortly pedunculated, peltate, hairy.
Fertile receptacle convex, pedunculated, hirsute, with scattered
hairs. Colesule wanting, loculi univalved, opening at the top by
a vertical fissure at the outer extremity. Frond without pores.

Dumortiera irrigua, Nees. Fronds large, varying from 2 to 5 inches in
length, and nearly an inch in width, membranaceous, bilobed,
margins slightly undulate, of a bright lively green colour, and with-

ee

Moort—On Irish Hepatice. 603

out pores. Fertile receptacle and involucres hairy, raised on rather
long peduncles, which are chaffy at the apex. Male receptacles
thick, carnose, and nearly sessile, beset with a number of hair-like
scales, which entirely cover the young receptacle, they are flat,
and recurve in a radiating spiral manner, tapering to a point.
These scale-like hairs proceed from the short peduncle, and cover
the base of the receptacle.

Marchantia irrigua, Wilson, 1 in Hook. Engl. Fl. 5, 1, p. 106. Hygro-
phila irrigua, Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 54, Dumortiera, Reinw. B1.,
et Nees, in Nov. Act. Natur. Cur. 12, p. 410; Dumort. Hepat,
Kurop. p. 158 (1874).

Hab. Sheltered, shady, rocky recesses, where water is constantly trick-
ling over, or otherwise very moist. Blackwater bridge, near
Dunkerron, Dr. Taylor (1820). Tore waterfall, near Killarney.
Machanabo glen, near Fermoyle, Co. Kerry, W. Wilson, Esq.
(1829), who first published the plant as a native of the British
Isles, in English Flora (1833). Ballinahassig glen, near Cork, FI.
Cork. Dunscombe’s wood, I. Carroll. Altadore glen, near Delgany,
Co. Wicklow, the Right Hon. Lord Gough. Wehave collected it
in the same glen, 1872 and 1874; also very sparingly near asmall

waterfall at ‘Lugeielaw, Co. Waekliow. This remarkable plant is
very local in Ireland, and only occurs in the warmest and most
sheltered spots. It is amenable to cultivation, and under proper
management produces both male and female receptacles rather
freely, as has been the case in the Glasnevin Botanic Gardens
during a number of years.

ASTERELLA, Beauy.

Marchantia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1188; Fl. Lapp. (1753). Aste-
rella, Beauv. in Encycl. Meth. Suppl. 1, p. 502 (1810). Rebou-
lia, Raddi, in Opuse. Scient. di Bologna, ey 10s Cg (CALSILES))).
Conocephalus, Dumort. Comm. Bot., p. 115 (1822).

Moneecious. Frond rigid, with a broad anid distinct midrib. Fertile
receptacle hemispherical, 4-5 lobed, barbate beneath. Colesule
wanting. Calyptra minute, lacerate, persistent at the base of the
capsule. Capsule globose, rupturing irregularly. Antheridia im-
mersed in sessile crescent-shaped disks.

Asterella hemispherica, Beauv. Frond bilobed or dichotomously
divided at apex, margins crenate, depressed, more or less ob-
viously scariose beneath, with purplish scales. Fertile recep-
tacle barbate beneath and at apex of pedicel, with long white
silky hairs. Antheridia sessile, in crescent-shaped disks.

Marchantia hemispherica, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604; Smith’s Engl. Bot.
t. 508. Asterella hemispherica, Beauv. Encycl. Meth. Suppl.
p. 502.; Lindberg, in Not. pro. Faun. Fl. Fennica, rx. p. 286. As-
terella hemispherica, Dumort. Hep. Europ., p. 154 (1874).

604 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Hab. On damp rocky places, walls of bridges, and on damp sandy
ground. Dunkerron, Co. Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Dingle bay, Dr.
Carrington. Near Cork, and Fermoy, Isaac Carroll, Esq. Abun-
dant on the walls of the bridge at Cong, Co. Galway ; at Sillagh-
braes, near Larne, Co. Antrim; on sandy ground at the North Bull,
near Dublin, David Macardle. This plant is found occasionally
in the vicinity of its near ally Preissia commutata, Nees, from
which the barbate under side of the fertile receptacle, and of the
apex of the pedicel, and the sessile male flowers are ready and
obyious characters which will always distinguish is.

Lonvraria, Micheli.

Lunularia, Mich. Noy. pl. gen. p. 4, tab. 4 (1741); Raddi, in Opuse.
Scient. di Bologna, u1., p. 353 (1818). Marchantia cruciata, Linn.
Sp. Pl. (1753).

Diecious. Fertile receptacle deeply divided into narrow loculi, loculi
tubulose, opening with a horizontal fissure. Capsule 4-valved,
exserted. Male receptacle sessile, with a membranaceous elevated
margin.

Lunularia cruciata, Linn. Dumort. Fronds gregarious, 1 to 8
inches long, lobed and variously divided, waved and ele-
vated at the margins, cuticle rough, with elevated pores, under
surfaces more or less covered with scariose scales. Gemmiferous
scyphi occur on surfaces of both male and female fronds in lunu-
late or crescent-shaped disks, at all seasons of the year. Fertile
receptacle pedunculated, globular when young, at length quad-
rifid, the loculi of which open by a horizontal fissure, and
are usually four in number. Colesule wanting. Calyptra rup-
turing, and remaining in the bottom of the loculus. Male recep-
tacle sessile, immersed in the frond and situated at the top of the
sinuses. The ovate anthers are easily removed from the mass,
they are ovate, with a grumose centre, and have a broad pellucid
border.

Lunularia vulgaris, Micheli, Nov. Gen. 4, t. 4. Marchantia cruciata,
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604; Haller, St. Helv. (ed. 1768), tom. 3, p. 65,
No. 1888; Huds. Fl. Angl. p. 52; Wither, Syst. Arr. Br. Pl. ed.
1801, vol. 8, p. 869. Lunularia vulgaris, Taylor, in Fl. Hib.
p. 52 (1886). L. cruciata, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. (1834) ; Lind-
berg, Hepat. in Hibernia lecte (1875).

Hab. Damp ground, and on moist limestone walls; not very common.
At Altadore glen I have observed continuous patches upwards
of a yard in extent, yet not a single exserted female receptacle on
them, though both sexes occur there. I have only once seen good
fertile receptacles produced, which happened in Glasneyin Botanic
Garden. They were sent to be figured for the supplement to
English Botany, and a pretty good figure was made, which,
however, has never been published.

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 605

Family 2. Tarcronrrx, Dumort.

Involucre bivalved, sessile near the apex of the frond, monocarpous.
Male receptacle in a terminal bivalved loculus.

Tarertonta, Micheli.

Dicecious. Involucre on the under side of the frond, sessile near the
apex. Capsule shortly pedicellate, opening vertically by two mar-
ginate valves. Male receptacle on narrow short fronds, near their
extremities, similar to the female capsules, but smaller, in which
the antheridia are imbedded in a carnose disk.

Turgionia hypophylla, Linn. Fronds closely packed together, some-
what imbricated, 1 to 2 inches long, narrow, almost linear
throughout, obovate at apex, concave, margins purplish black,
nearly entire, of a dull green colour, the cuticle rough with
raised pores, purplish lunulate scales occur on each side of the
midrib as in the other Marchantiee. Fertile involucre large,
compared with the size of the whole plant, and conspicuous at the
apex of the fronds.

Targionia hypophylla, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604; Web. et Mohr, Jr. Germ.
p- 391, t. 12; Engl. Bot. t. 287; Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p. 110;
Hook. Brit. Fl. 1m. p. 55 ; Raddi, in Opusce. Scient. di Bologna, 1.
359; Taylor, Fl. Hib. pt. 2, p. 55. Targionia Micheli, Corda, in
Opiz, Natur. in Sturm, Deuts. Crypt. fasc. 22, p. 73, t. 20; Nees,
Europ. Leberm., 4, p. 299; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 574;
Rabenh. Hep. Eur. exsic., n. 376, 546.

Hab. On warm dry rocks. On the cave hill at Belfast, John Temple-
ton, Esq. On dry limestone rocks, Carrigaline, near Cork, Isaac
Carroll, Esq. On the warm basaltic rocks at Deerpark, Glenarm,
Co. Antrim, 1834, D. M. <A good specimen from the latter lo-
cality isin the Herbarium of the College of Science, Dublin. This
plant is of rare occurrence, and very local in Ireland.

B. Crerstocarpx#, Lindberg.

Family 3. Riccrnm, as emended, Lindberg.

Terrestrial or aquatic plants. Fruit immersed in the frond. Style pro-
truded above the frond. Colesule and Elaters wanting. Spores
with pellucid coats.

Riccra, Micheli.

Riccia, Micheli, Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 6, tab. 4, fig. 6 (1729); Linn.
Sp. Pl., 1 ed., 2, p. 1188 (1758). Riccardia, B. Gray, in Gray’s
Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 684 (1821). Targionia, Braun, in Flora, 4,
p. 2, p. 756 (1821). Ricciella, Braun, in Flora, 4, p. 2, p. 756
(1821). Ricciocarpus, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. 1. p. 651, n. 21

606 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

(1829). Salviniella, Hiibener, Hep. Germ. p. 30, inter Synon.
(1834).—Lindberg.

1. Riceia glauca, Linn. Frond stellately bilobed, divisions linear,
dichotomous, emarginate, fleshy, punctate, membranaceous at the
margin, from + to 1 inch long. Capsules immersed in the upper
side of frond, with brownish black opaque persistent styles.

Riccia glauca, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1605; Engl. Bot. 2546; Lindenb: Monogr.
Rice. p. 417, t. 19; Nees, Eur. Leberm. 4, p. 398; G. lL. et N:
Synop. Hepat. p. 599; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 1. p. 70.

Hab. On damp ground, where water has stood durimg winter; wet
hedge banks, and scattered in more or less abundance over the
whole of Ireland.

2. Riccia sorocarpa, Bischoff. Frond solid, somewhat trigonous,
glaucous green on both surfaces, subdichotomous, divisions thick
and fleshy, margin glabrous, inflexed when dry, upper surface
canaliculate when dry, mid vein distinct. Fruit immersed when
young, at length bursting the epidermis, and allowing the spores
to escape.

Riccia sorocarpa, Bisch. in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur., 17, p. 1053 to 71,
f.11; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 600; Rabenhor. Hep.
Europ. exsic. n. 28,543; Dr. Braithwaite, in Grevillea, for March
(1873),.p. 144; Dr. Carrington, in Grevillea, for December
(1873), p. 86, pl. 18; Professor Lindberg, in Hepat. in Hibern.
lectee, p. 471 (1874).

Hab. Fissures of moist walls, &e. On an old wall near Dingle, Co.
Kerry, July (1873), Professor Lindberg.

Riccretta, Al. Braun.

Riccia, Sp. L. Ricciella, Braun, in Bot. Zeit. (1821); Lindenb. Synop.
Hepat.; Dumort. Hepat. Europ. (1874).

‘“‘Fruit globose, protuberant from the lower surface of the frond, and
inserted on it.”—Dumort. Frond spongy, mixed with large air
cavities, floating.

Ricciella flwitans, Al. Braun. Frond linear, plane, dichotomously
forked, radiating in a stellate.manner, thickened at the apex,
emarginate and cavernous. Fruit protruding from the lower
surface of the frond.

Riccia fluitans, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1606; Nees, Eur. Leberm. 4, p. 439;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 610; Lindenberg, Monogr, Rice.,
p. 443, t. 24-25; Rabenh. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 82, 296, 340;
Engl. Bot. t. 251; Hooker et Taylor, Muscol. Brit.ed. 2, p. 213;
Sullivant’s Musci et Hepat. U.S. p. 684, tab. 6. Ricciella fluitans,
Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 115; Httbener, Hepat. Germ. p. 31;
Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 171.

Hab. Stagnant pools and still places by river sides; generally floating

Moore—On Irish Hepatice. 607

among species of Lemna and other aquatics. Not unfrequent in
ditches near the Shannon, Co. Limerick; by the side of the Bann
River, above Drogheda; still ditches near Lough Neagh, where
the canal joins the Lough at Lurgan.

Riccrocarpus, Corda.

Riccia, Linn. Syst. Nat. Ricciocarpus, Corda, in Opiz, Natur. p. 651
(1829). Hemiseuma, Bischoff, ex Nees, Europ. Leberm., 4, p.
419 (1838).

‘‘ Fruit immersed in the frond, and not protruding in either surface,
at length bared by an incision in the central groove.’”’-—Dum.

Ricciocarpus natans, Corda. Frond inversely heart-shaped, grooved
in the centre of upper surface, from + to 2 of an inch wide,
clothed beneath and at the margin with long, purplish, pendent

rootlets, which latter are fringed with slender cilia-lke serratures.

Riccia natans, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. v. 12, p.2; Engl. Bot. t. 252;
Weber, Prodr. Hepat. p. 117; Hook. et Taylor, Muscol. Brit. ed.
2, p. 214; Lindenb. Synop. Hep., p. 121; Mongr. Ricc., 475,
t. 31-32 ; Nees, Eur. Leberm. 4, p. 419; G. L. et. N., Synop.
Hep., p. 606; Rabenhor. Hep. Hur. exsic. n. 2, 140, 499;
Sullivant’s Musci et Hepat. U. 8. p. 684, tab. 6. Ricciocarpus,
Corda, in Opiz, Naturalientausch, p. 651 (1829) ; Dumort. Hepat.
Europ. p. 172 (1874).

Hab. Stagnant pools and ditches. Rare in Ireland. Abundant in a large
boggy pool about half-way between Drogheda and Navan, near
the Railway, right-hand side going from Navan to Drogheda;
ditch by the side of the Shannon, near Portumna, Co. Galway.
Ditches near Passy, Co. Limerick, Dr. W. H. Harvey. This
and the preceding species have been cultivated in Glasnevin Bo-
tanic Gardens, floated in pans of water, in which condition they
multiply quickly and fruit freely.

Although [have followed Dumortier in his Hepaticee Europe in adopt-
ing the genera Ricciocarpus, Corda; and Ricciella, Al. Braun;
yet the characters as given by these authors for separating them
from Riccia, Linn., &c., seem to me too slight for constructing
good genera on.

Srcrion Il. JuNGERMANNIACER.
A. ScHizocarpm.

a. ANOMOGAMZ.

“¢Prothallium disciform. Stems more or less regularly pinnate, more
rarely dichotomously branched. Leaves incubous, conduplicate,
the hinder lobe smallest—saccate, galeate, cucullate or flattish.
Amphigastria mostly present, rarely wanting. Inflorescence

Re I. A. PROCe, SER. II., VOL. I-, SCIENCE. 3 N

608 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

dicecious, autcecious, more rarely pareecious. Perichetium apical,
or from the posterior face of the stem, next its side above the
axil of the leaves, as a proper branchlet, never from the axil of
the amphigastrium. Colesule generally small, 5-plicate, and some-
times winged or compressed, rarely round or densely plicate,
mouth often narrow and beak-shaped, rarely none. Sete short or
slender. Capsule minute, globose, mostly very thin and pellucid,
as if composed of few strata, generally cleft to the middle, valves
erect. laters 1- or 2-spired, adhering in pencil-like tufts to
the apex of the valves or to the interior face of the capsule.
Andreecia lateral to the stem, like the perichetia. Antheridia
two, or solitary, fixed in the axils of concave bracts, rarely in the
axils of leaves or pericheetial bracts.’””—Lindberg.

Sub-tribe 1. FRULLANIE.

1, Froizanta, Raddi.

Jungermannia, Rupp. Fl. Jen. 1 ed., p. 846 (1718). Heimea, Neck.
Elem. Bot. 3, p. 338 (1790). Jungermannia, Hooker, Brit.
Jung. (1816). Frullania, Raddi,in Mem. Soc. Modena, 18, p.
20, tab. 2 (1818). Salviata, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit.
Pl. p. 687 (1821). Jubula, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112 (1823).
Lejeunea, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. 1, p. 652, n. 4 (1829).

Leaves incubous, distichous, lower segment saccate. Colesule com-
pressed, trigonous, mouth constricted, mucronulate. Elaters
with single spires.

a. JupuLotypus, Dumortier.

1. Lrullania Hutchinsie (Hook.), Nees. Autcecious. Stems cespitose,
prostrate, from one to two inches long. Leaves unequally 2-
lobed, the lower lobe saccate, the upper ovate, spinulose-den-
tate at the margin. Amphigastria rounded at the base, acutely
bifid, segments dentate. Colesule obcordate, slightly trigonal.
Antheridia on short slender ramuli, proceeding from the inferior
face of the stem.

Jungermannia Hutchinsie, Hook. Brit. Junger., tab. 1; Engl. Bot.
tab. 2480. Salviata Hutchinsie, B. Gr. in Gray’s Arr. Br. Pl. 1,
p- 688. Jubula Hutchinsiz, Dumort. Comm. p. 112; Syll.
Jung., p. 86; Hepat. Europ., p. 26. Frullania Hutchinsie,
Nees, Europ. Leberm. 38, p. 240; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.,
p. 426; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 208, 477.

Hab. On wet rocks near waterfalls. Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Killarney,
Cromaglaun, &c.; caves near the sea, Dingle Bay, Kerry. Ballin-
hassig glen, and near Kinsale, Cork, Isaac Carroll, Esq. Fissures
of wet rocks by the lake near Letterfrack, Co. Galway (1874).

Var.

Moorr—On Trish Hepatice. 609
B. tntegrifolia, Nees [ Plate 45 ].

This appears to me avery distinct plant from the typical form of the

The

species. It differs: 1, in the leaves being more obovate and
less spinulose at their margins ; 2, in the absence of an auricle to
the margin of the leaf; 3, in the amphigastria being smaller, and
the margins of their lobes more entire; 4, in the smaller size of
the plant, and its olive-green colour.—The colesules are terminal
on the main branches, and on their middle. They are trigonal
asin the typicalform. The andrcecium consists of small amenta,
which proceed from the middle of the stem branches (autcecious).
This remarkable plant was collected by Professor Lindberg and
myself at Connor Hill, in July, 18738.

few specimens I had were imperfect, and without’ colesules.
In 1875 one of our garden assistants, Mr. D. Macardle, collected
it in larger quantity in Maghanabo glen, near Castlegregory,
Co. Kerry, growing over the fronds of Dumortiera irrigua. The
plants he brought were more perfect, having both the gynoecium
and andreecium in good condition. I have carefully examined a
number of these, and cannot find on any of them auricles to the
leaves. On some, I have observed the slightest folding-in of a
minute tooth-like portion, where the auricle ought to be. The
amphigastria are minute, not more than half the size they are in
the typical form. JI have, however, no doubt that our plant is of
the same kind as that noticed (G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 426)
as haying been found in the island of Javaby Blume; the note of
observation by Dr. Gottsche, which is appended, having reference
to his Java specimens, confirms me in this opinion. Professor
Lindberg, in his paper on Hepaticee collected in Ireland, states that
this plant is found in North America and in the island of Java.

6. Ascotosrum, Dumortier.

2. Frullania dilatata (Linn.), Dumort. Stems prostrate, in dense purp-

lish patches. Leaves incubous, unequally 2-lobed, rotundate,
entire, the lower lobe small, saccate. Amphigastria roundish,
slightly notched at the apex. Colesule obcordate, tuberculated,
angular on the under side.

Jungermannia dilatata, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1600; Hook. Brit. Jung. tab.

3; Tayl. in Fl. Hib. p. 2, p. 67; Lindb. Syst. Hepat., p. 17;
De Notar. Prim. Hep. Ital., p. 10. Frullania minor, Raddi, Jung. in
Mem. Modena, 18, p. 21, t. 2, fig.3; Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 13;
Hep. Europ., p. 27; Nees, Kurop. Leberm., 3, p. 217; G. L. et
N. Synop. Hep., p. 415.

Hab. On the trunks of trees and on rocks. Very frequent in Ireland.
3. Frullania fragilifolia, Taylor. Stems from + to ? of an inch long,

erowing in thin prostrate patches, of a deep brown colour. Leaves
incubous, slightly raised in their centres, oblongo-rotundate, en-
Ar 6
3N 2

610 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tire, auricdelles oblong, helmet-like. Amphigastria ovate and
bifid at the point, plane at the margin. Involucral bracts obtuse,
with few teeth. Colesule obovate-cordate.

Frullania fragilifoha, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 2, p. 48; G. L.
et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 487; Spruce, Muse. et Hepat. Pyren.
in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 3, p. 215; Cooke’s Brit. Hepat. p. 21,
figs. 160, 161; Rabenh. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 180, 200 et 226.

Hab. Shady rocks and trees. Not unfrequent in the Killarney
woods. Dunkerron, Dr. Taylor. On boulders, Bantry Bay,
Glengariff, Dr. Carrington.

4, Frullania tamarisct (Mich., L.), Dumort. Stems spreading in large
patches, two to four inches long, of a brownish colour. Leaves
incubous, closely and distichously arranged, unequally 2-lobed, the
upper ovate-rotundate, the lower smaller and saccate. Amphigas-
tria obscurely notched at the apex, subquadrate. Colesule ovate,
smooth, triangular, attenuated, mouth dentate.

Jungermannia tamarisci, L. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 11384; Hook. Brit.
Jung. t.6; Taylor, in Fl. Hib., p. 68. Frullania major, Raddi,
in Att. Soc. Sc. Modena, 18, p. 20. Salviatus, B. Gr. in Gray’s
Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 687. Frullania tamarisci, Dumort. Rey.
Jung., p. 13; Hepat. Europ., p. 28; G. L. et N. Symop-
Hepat., p. 438. Var. @. microphylla, Gottsche, Rabenh. Hep.
Europ. exsic. n. 209.

Hab. On the smooth bark of trees, Old Weir Bridge, Co. Kerry,
Dr. Carrington.

5. Frullania germana, Taylor. Stems procumbent, bipimnate,
branches complanate, short-spreading. Leaves imbricated, ovate- °
roundish, entire, auricles oblong-ovate, ventricose. Amphi-
gastria obovate, margins recurved, cleft at the apex. Involucral
bracts entire. Colesule tubular, oblong-ovate.

Jungermannia germana, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. 2,
p. 48. Frullania germana, G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 450 ;
Dumort. Hepat. Europ., p. 29. FF. tamarisci, var. «. germana,
Carring. Irish Hepat. p. 457.

Plants of this species are generally larger, and of a lighter brown
colour than those of F. tamarisci. The involucral bracts are en-
tire. The leaves are destitute of the line of moniliform cells,
which are so obvious in F. tamarisci, and the cells in them are
larger, with the walls thicker.

Hab. On rocks and on trees. Frequent in the County of Kerry ;
Co. Donegal ; Lough Bray, Wicklow.
Leseunra, Libert.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen., p. 9, t. 6, figs. 19, 20
(1729); Hooker, Brit. Junger. (1816). Lejewnea, Mademoiselle —

MoorE—On Irish Hepatice. 611

Libert, in Ann. Gén. Sc. Phys. 6, p. 372, tab. 97 (1820). Pandul-
phinia, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Br. Pl., 1, p. 2383 (1821).
Marchesinius, B. Gray, /. c. p. 689. Phragmicoma, Dumort. Comm.
Bot., p. 112 (1823). Colura, Dumort. Recueil, 1, p. 12 (1885).

Colesule obovate, angled or roundish, mouth contracted and dentate.
Capsule 1-valved, deeply cleft, pedicels articulated. laters
doubly spired, adhering to the apices of the segments of the
capsules. Antheridia in axils of pericheetial leaves.

Leseunrotyrus, Dumort. Lindb.

a. Leaves acuminate, or acute at their points.

1. Lejeunea calyptrifolia (Hook.), Dumort. Dicecious. Stems creep-
ing, in very minute compact tufts. Leaves 2-lobed, the upper
lobe large and peculiarly formed, resembling in no small degree
the calyptra of some mosses, the lower obtusely quadrate, invo-
lute. Colesule lateral, oblong, flat campanulate, 5-toothed, and
slightly contracted at the mouth. Antheridia from side of stem,
not in axils of the leaves.

Jungermannia calyptrifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 48; Engl. Bot.,
2538; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 24; Ekart, Synop. Jung. Germ.,
p. 59, t.10, f. 86. Lejeunea calyptrifolia, Dumort. Comm. Bot.,
p. 111; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 403; Cooke, Brit.
Hepat., p. 21, fig. 156. Colura calyptrifolia, Dumort. Rev.
Jung., p. 12; Hepat. Kurop., p. 17.

Hab. On trees, stems of furze, heath, and rarely on bare rocks.
Glengariff, Miss Hutchins. Near Dunkerron, Dr. Taylor, in Flora
Hibernica. ‘Tore Mountain, on the stems of pines, W. Wilson,
and Dr. Carrington. On the bare rock at Connor Hill, Kerry,
where it was observed in some quantity by Dr. Lindberg and
myself, in July, 1873; also near the police barrack, Upper Lake,
Kallarney, on rocks, during same month.

2. Leeunea hamatifolia (Hook.), Dumort. Autcecious. Stems very
slender, minute, creeping and adhering closely to the surfaces on
which they grow. Leaves unequally 2-lobed, the lower about
half the size of the upper, the latter acuminated, incurved,
coarsely serrated. Amphigastria small and bidentate. Colesule
pentagonal, with crested ridges.

Jungermannia hamatifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 51; Engl. Bot., t.
2592; Lindenb. Synop. Hep., p. 23; Taylor, Fl. Hib., p. 2, p.
67. Lejeunea hamatifolia, Dumort. Comm. Bot., p. 111; Syl.
Jung., p. 52, et Hepat. Europ., p. 20; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat., p. 344; Rabenh. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 215-476.

Hab. On the trunks of trees, and on bare rocks. This species, which
is so plentiful in the Killarney woods, is rare on the eastern
coast and northern counties. I collected it at Glenarm, and

612 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Collin Glen, Co. Antrim, in 1837; very fine and bearing capsules.
on trees in Glenfarn demesne, Co. Leitrim, 1875. Dr. Taylor
observed it at Woodlands, near Dublin. At Powerscourt, Wick-
low; on Connor Hill, Kerry, it grows on the bare rock, along
with L. calyptrifolia, both of which were collected in company
with Dr. Lindberg, July, 1873; Kylemore Castle demesne, Co.
Galway, 1874. Near Cork, Isaac Carroll, Esq.

3. Lejeunea echinata (Hooker), Taylor. Autcecious. Stems hair-like,
very minute. Leaves ovate, concave, acuminate, spinulose-den-
tate, saccate at the base. Colesule roundish, pentagonal. Anthe-
ridia singly or in pairs in axils of the pericheetial leaves.

Jungermannia hamatifolia, 8. echinata, Hook. Brit. Jung. 51. Lejeunea
calcarea, Libert, Ann. Gén. Sc. Phys., 6, p. 378, t. 96, f. 1;
Dumort. Syll. Jung., p. 33, t. 1, f. 3, et Hepat. Europ., p. 19;
Nees, Europ. Leberm. 3, p. 293; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.,
p- 544; Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 46, 283, 323;
Cooke, Brit. Hepat., p. 20, fig. 150. Jungermannia echinata,
Tayl. in Spruce’s Muse. of Teesd., Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 2, p. 88.

Hab. On limestone rocks. Woodlands, Dublin, Dr. Taylor. Muck-
ross demesne, Killarney, growing on the stems and leaves of
Thamnium alopecurum, Dr. Carrington. In same situation and
on same moss, Dr. Lindberg (1873.) Limestone rocks, near
Tralee (1875).

4. Lejeunea ovata, Taylor. Diccious. Stems creeping, branched.
Leaves incubous, obliquely set on the branches, and close toge-
ther, margins not serrated, bilobed, the larger lobe ovate-acute,
saccate, and inflated. Amphigastria small, obcordate, notched at
apex, segments obtuse. Colesule obovate, acute, and angled at
the apex.

Jungermannia ovata, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 3, p. 11, tab. 8, f. 6.
Jungermannia serpyllifolia, 8. ovata, Hook. Brit. Jung., n. 42.
Lejeunea ovata, Taylor, in G. L. et N. Synop. Hep., p. 376;
Spruce, Muse. et Hepat. Pyren. in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 3, p.
212; Dumort. Hepat. Europ., p. 20.

Hab. On the moss-covered trunks of trees, and also on the bare bark.
Very abundant at Cromaglaun, Kerry, and through all the
Killarney district. Near Belfast, Dr. Dickie. More sparingly
in the northern and eastern counties. Mr. Spruce has pointed
out good distinguishing characters between this and L. hamati-
folia in the work quoted.

b. Leaves obtusely rotundate.

5. Lejeunea microscopica, Taylor. Parcecious. Plant very minute, and
stain-like. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, concave, acute, bluntly
dentate at the margin, patent. Colesule obovate, contracted at the
mouth, subdenticulate. :

Moorr—On Trish Hepaticw. 615

Jungermannia microscopica, Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 59; Hook.
Journal of Botany, 4, p. 97, t. 20; Nees, Europ. Leberm. 3, suppl.,
p. 566. Lejeunea microscopica, Taylor, in G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat., p. 345; Carrington, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 7, p. 3,
p- 456; Cooke, Brit. Jung., p. 20, fig. 151; Dumort. Hepat.
Europ., p. 19.

Hab. Parasitic on mosses, ferns, and dead stumps of trees. Croma-
glaun, Kerry, Dr. Taylor and Dr. Carrington. On Trichomanes
radicans, Purple Mountain, Killarney; glen at Brandon Moun-
tain, &e. This very minute plant appears like a slight green
stain on the plants on which it grows, and is of frequent occur-
rence, though often overlooked. It has not, however, we be-
lieve, been observed hitherto out of the County of Kerry. To
the unaided eye it has no appearance of an organised plant, but
it is easily detected when placed under the microscope, and mois-
ture applied. The minute stems float and spread themselves and
so do the leaves. It is one of the most distinct species, and can-
not be mistaken or confounded with any of the others.

6. Lejeunea inconspicua (Mich., Raddi), De Notaris. Auteecious.
Stems very minute, hair-like. Leaves distant, ovate-rotundate,
entire, convex. Amphigastria none. Colesule axillary, turban-
shaped, pentagonal and plicate.

Jungermannia inconspicua, Raddi,in Att. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 34, t. 5,
fig. 2. Jungermannia minutissima, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc.
Edin. lLejeunea Taylori, Spruce, in Trans. Bot. Edin. vol. 3,
p. 12. lLejeunea minutissima, G. L. et N.Synop. Hep. p. 387;
Dumort. Hepat. Europ., p. 18.

Hab. On stems of heath and furze, also on trunks of trees. Near
Kenmare, Dr. Taylor; and other parts throughout the counties of
Kerry and Cork. Not very rare, but chiefly confined to the south-
ern counties. This minute plant, which can only be well dis-
tinguished from Lejeunea minutissima, Smith, by wanting am-
phigastria, was mixed up with that species, until Dr. Taylor
published characters for each, and separated them. Dr. Spruce
has, however, shown that Dr. Taylor was im error, in supposing
the exstipulaceous plant to be Smith’s plant. See foot-note in
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. vol. iii., p. 212.

7. Lejeunea minutissima (Smith), Dumortier. Dicecious. Stem creep-
ing, capilliform. Leaves indistinctly 2-lobed, lower lobe
minute, rather distantly placed on the stem, ovate-obtuse. Am-
phigastria bifid. Colesule lateral, obovate- rotundate, x pentages
nal and contracted at the mouth.

Jungermannia minutissima, Smith, Engl. Bot. t. 1633; Hook., Brit.
Junger. t.52. Jungermannia ulicina, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc.
Edin. 1, p. 115. Lejeunea minutissima, Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 33,

614 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

et Hepat. Europ. p. 19; Taylor, in G. L. et N. Synop. Hep.
p. 887; Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 322 ; Cooke, Brit. Jung.
p. 20, fig. 155. ©

Hab. On the stems of trees and on mosses. Abundant in the Kil-
larney woods, and other parts of Kerry and Cork; Kylemore
Castle, Co. Galway; Collin Glen, Belfast; Woodlands, Dublin;
Luggiclaw, and Powerscourt, Wicklow; Glenfarn demesne, Co.
Leitrim.

8. Leeunea serpyllifolia (Mich., Dicks.), Libert. Autcecious. Stems
prostrate or creeping, pinnately branched. Leaves incubous,
2-lobed, lobes unequal, the upper being much the largest and
of a roundish-oblong form, the lower much smaller, and imyo-
lute. Amphigastria wide, roundish, deeply bifid. Colesule some-
what pear-shaped or obovate, mouth angled and protruding.

Jungermannia serpyllifolia, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 4, p. 19; Engl.
Bot. t. 2537 (excl. synon.); Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 42; Lindenb.
Hep. Europ. p. 21. Lejeunea serpyllifolia, Lib. m Ann. Gén.
Sc. Phys. 6, p. 374; Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 3; Syll. Jung.
Eur. p. 33, et Hepat. Europ. p. 21; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p. 874; Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 435.

Hab. On trunks of trees covered with the larger mosses, &c., and on
damp banks among mosses. Generally distributed through
Ireland.

Var. B. thymifolia, Carrington, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 7, p. 456.
“Leaves larger, elliptic-ovate, very convex, closely imbricated,
inflexed.”

Var. y. heterophylla, Carrington. ‘‘ Branches attenuate, microphyllous.
Leaves plane, lobule obsolete, variously shaped, distant, chloro-
phyllose.

Hab. On wet shady rocks. O’Sullivan’s cascade, and near Tore Water-
fall, Dr. Carrington.

Var. B. cavifolia (Ehrh.), Lindb. ‘‘ Leaves crowded, front lobe
convex, incumbent when dry, more spreading from the basal sac,
generally much decurved, oblique, broadly ovate, very blunt,
yet sometimes narrowed distinctly at apex, never pointed, very
entire, basal lobe 3-5 times smaller, cells very full of chlo-
rophyll and thickened, trigonal spaces distinct. Amphigastria
subadpressed, equally large or larger than the hinder lobe, con-
vex, otherwise asintype. Colesule more prominent, rising from a
narrow base, oval pyriform, the upper 4th part 5-plicate, the rest
as in type.” —Lindberg.

Hab. Glena, Killarney, on mosses, and on the stems of trees. Tore
Cascade, among Hypnum eugyrium, 1873, Dr. Lindberg. Dr.
Lindberg states that this form is the common form in Scandi-
navia, W rhere the typical form is much rarer.

Moorze—On Irish Hepatice. 615

9. Leyeunea patens, Lindberg [ Plate 43].

Autecious. ‘‘Shorter and twice as narrow as last species, pale,
very transparent, shining when dry, usually more branched
and interwoven, remarkably convex, or nearly roundish. Leaves
more or less crowded, the front lobe very convex when dry,
also overlying, rising abruptly atanearly right angle from the
basilar lobe, very much decurved and well overlapping the stem—
[ ‘maxime decurvus, intus caulem valde superans,’ | oblique, broadly
oval-elliptic, or very bluntly oval. Cellules very smooth, scarcely
or not at all chlorophylliferous, much thickened, with the trigonal
spaces very distinct. Amphigastria wide, two or three times as
short as the hinder lobe, very convex, subrotund and cleft in the
middle, sinus more or less obtuse, with bluntish segments, every-
where indented with projecting cells. Colesule always on the
lateral branches, slightly projecting, pyriform-clavate, rounded
below, enfolding, the upper 4th part 5-plicate, with prominent
and more flattened crests, crenulate at apex.” —Lindberg.

Lejeunea patens, Lindberg, Acta Soc. Sci. Fenn. x. p. 482 (read 1874,
pub. 1875). L. serpyllifolia, var. y. ovata, Nees, Nat. Eur. Leb.
3, p. 264 (1838).

Hab. Co. Kerry, ‘‘ Connor Hill, supraoppidulum Dingle, ad Pleuroziam
terra turfosa humida (coles) et ad muscos varios in rupibus
sieciusculis; Ventry ad Dingle Bay; Killarney, O’Sullivan’s Cas-
cade ; ‘Supra emortuum Thamniumalopecurum, Glena et Tore Cas-
cade.’ Killarney, Tore Cascade, Dr. Carrington (1861). Co. Sligo,
Benbulben (Dr. Moore).” Glenad, Co. Leitrim, 1875.

10. Leeunea Moore, Lindberg [ Plate 44}.

Auteecious. ‘‘ Rather rigid, yellowish or very green, always opaque
and not pellucid, almost unbranched, and not radiculose. Leaves,
front lobe imbricated, hardly or very little overlapping the
stem—| ‘ intus caulem vix vel parum superans’ |—oblique, ovate-
elliptic, roundly-obtuse, quite entire, the lower margin at apex
of stem recurved when dry, basilar sac and hinder lobe very
small. Cellules covered with minute papille, closely packed with
chlorophyll, slightly thickened. Amphigastria imbricated,
4-6 times larger than the hinder lobe, distinctly cordate at the
base, not decurrent, ovately-oval, very entire, cleft in the centre
by a narrow and acute sinus, the segments obtuse. Perichetia
on the stem itself, and on innovations from the apex of it.”—
Lindberg.

{‘‘ Jungermannia flava, Sw. Prodr. Fl. Ind.-Oce. p. 144, et Fl. Ind.-
Occ. 8, p. 1859; Schwaegr. Hist. Muse. Hep. Prodr. p. 16, n. 17;
Weber (F.), Hist. Muse. Hep. Prodr. p. 29, n. 15 ; Sprengel (L.),
Syst. Veg., 16 ed. 4, p. 1, p. 228, n. 74. LLejeunea flava, Nees,
Nat. Eur. Leb. 8, p. 277, in obs. 2, G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p- 878, n. 157; Gottsche, Mex. Lev. p. 219, n. 46.” |? L. Moorei,
Lindb. Act. Soc. Sci. Fenn. x. p. 487.

616 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Hab. ‘‘Co. Kerry: Killarney, Glena et Cromaglaun, locis umbrosis silya-
rum, ad truncos arborum vetustarum, et supra Isopterygium
elegans in fissuris rupium.”’—Lindb. Glen at the Hunting Tower,
Cromaglaun, 1862; O’Sullivan’s Cascade, 1875.

11. Lejeunea Mackavi (Hooker), Sprengel. Autcecious. Stem creeping.
Leaves distichous, unequally 2-lobed, the upper lobe large and
round, the lower small and involute. Amphigastria obcordate,
roundish, wider than the stem. Colesule compressed, gibbous
below, mouth contracted, toothed. Male branches proceeding
from side of stem, not in axils of the leaves, but directly under
the leaf next above.

Jungermannia Mackau, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 53; Engl. Bot. t. 2573;
Lindb. Hepat. Europ. p. 20; Ekart, Syn. Jung. p. 59, t. 10, fig.
72. Phragmicoma Mackaul, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112; Syll-
Jung. p. 85, et Hepat. Europ. p. 30; Nees, Europ. Leberm., 3,
p. 249; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 293; Rabenhor. Hep.
Europ. exsic. n. 81, 164, 206. Marchesinia Mackayi, B. Gr. in
Gray’s Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 689. Lejeunea Mackaii, Sprengel, Syst.
Vegt.ed. 16, p. 1, p. 233; Lindberg, Hepat. Scand. exsic., fase. 1-

Hab. Limestone rocks principally. Frequent in the south and west
of Ireland, rarer in the north and east. Very large and fine at
Muckross, Killarney, and by the side of a lake near Letterfrack,
Galway; Woodlands, Dublin; near Cork, frequent. The stems
are sometimes quite black, when creeping over the nearly per-
pendicular faces of rocks.

Rapvxia, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Rupp. Fl. Jen., 1 ed. p. 345 (1718); Hooker, Brit.
Jung. (1816); Martinellia, sect. a, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr.
Brit. Pl. 1, p. 690 (1821). Radula, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112
(1823), et Recueil, 1, p. 14(1835); Nees, Nat. Eur. Leberm. 1,
p. 96 (1833). Jubula, Corda, in Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. 2, fase. 26 et
27, p. 152 (1835).

1. Radula Xalapensis, N. M. (1836). Dicecious. Stems procumbent, —
pinnately branched. Leaves incubous, orbicular, cbtuse, entire,
upper lobe large and broad, undulate and somewhat cordate at
base.

Radula Xalapensis, N. M., in Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 series, 5, p. 56; Lindb.
Hepatice in Hibernia lecte (1875). Radula voluta, Taylor, in
G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 253 (1845); Cooke’s Brit. Hepat. p.
18, fig. 186; Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 32.

Hab. On wet rocks near streams. Dunkerron, Dr. Taylor. On boulders
by the side of the stream below Tore Waterfall, Killarney, Dr.
Carrington. Rocks below the Eagle’s Nest, Cromaglaun, George
E. Hunt. Near Derrycunighy Cascade, and at Gortagre. Dr. Lind-
berg states that he can find no great distinction between the Kil-

Moore—On Trish Hepatice. 617

larney plant and specimens of R. Xalapensis, which he possesses,
from New Granada, collected by Lindig, and from Tallulah
Falls, Georgia, U.S.

2. Radula aquilegia, Taylor. Dicecious. Stems ceespitose, compressed.
Leaves distichous, convex on the upper surface, entire, obovate-
roundish, unequally 2-lobed, the lower lobe closely adpressed.

Jungermannia complanata, 8. minor, Hook. Brit. Junger. t. 81,
fig. 17. J. aquilegia, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. of Edinb. 2,
p. 117. Radula aquilegia, Taylor, in G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p- 260; Cooke’s Brit. Hepat. p. 19, figs. 139, 140; Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 32.

Hab. On rocks and trees. Not rare in the Killarney district.

3. Radula complanata (Linn.), Dumortier. Stems creeping, complanatc.
Leaves distichous, imbricated, unequally 2-lobed, upper lobe
large, and nearly round, lower lobe much smaller and ad-
pressed. Colesule terminal, oblong, compressed, truncate.

Jungermannia complanata, Linn. Sp. Pl.; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 81;
Engl. Bot. t. 2499. Candollea complanata, Raddi, Jung. Etr. in
Mem. Modena, xr. Radula complanata, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p.
112; Syll. Jung. p. 38; Hepat. Europ. p. 32; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hep. p. 257; Rabenh. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 17-361.

Hab. On trees and rocks. Very common in every part of Ireland.
Varying considerably in size and general appearance in different
localities, and under peculiar circumstances.

Poretia, Dillenius.

Jungermannia, Rupp. Fl. Jen. 1 ed., p. 845 (1718). Porella, Dill.
Hist. Muse. p. 459, tab. 68 (1741); Linn. in Act. Ups. 1741,
p- 83 (1746) ; Lindb. in Act. Soc. Sc. Fenn. rx., 329-345 (1869).
Cavendishia, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p.689 (1821).
Madotheca, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 111 (1828). Lejeunea, Corda,
in Opiz, Beitr. 1, p. 652 (1829).

Colesule lateral, compressed. Capsule nearly sessile, univalved, 4-cleft.
Elaters with two spires. Antheridia in the saccate bases of the
perigonial leayes.

1. Porella levigata (Rupp., Schrad.), Lindberg. Dicecious. Stems pros-
trate, bipinnately branched, from 2—4 incheslong. Leaves incubous,
broadly ovate, dentate, unequally 2-lobed, the smaller lobe closely
pressed against the base of the larger lobe. Amphigastria quad-
rate, spinulose-dentate. Colesule dentate.

Jungermannia levigata, Schrader’s Sammlung, n. 104; Hook. Brit.
Jung. tab. 85; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 18. Madotheca leevi-
gata, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 111; Syll. Jung. p. 34, et Hepat.

618 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Europ. p. 22; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 276. Cayendishia
levigata, B. Gray, in Gray’s Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 690. " Porella
leevigata, Lindberg, in Act. Soc. Sc. Fenn. 1., p. 385.

Hab. Near Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Near Cork, Isaac Carroll.
Lough Bray, Wicklow.

Far. B. integra (Dill.), Lindberg. Killarney, Glena, on inundated
stones by the margin of the lower lake, Dr. Lindberg (1873).

2. Porella platyphylla(L.), Lindberg. Stems irregularly pinnate, bran-
ches nearly of equal length, sometimes crowded at the apex, where
they are obtuse. Leaves incubous, raised at their upper margin,
which is curved and undulated, more or less concave at the base,
and decurved at the apex, mostly entire at the margin, lobule sub-
oblique, ovate-obtuse, or indistinctly a little acute. Amphigastria
adpressed to the stem, oblong-ovate or ligulate, slightly recurved
at apex. Antheridia ‘in the axille of the perigonial leaves.

Jungermannia platyphylla, L. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., p. 1134; Wahlenb. FI.
Lapp. p. 388, n. 704; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 40, fig. 1; Hartm.
Skand. Fl., 1 ed., p. 435. Cavendishia platyphylla, Gray’s Nat.
Arr. Brit. Pl. 2, p. 690; Carruth. in Seemann’s Journal Bot. 3, p.
301. Madotheca platyphylla, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 111, et Syll.
Jung. Eur. p. 31; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 278, n. 30.

Hab. On rocks and tones generally, but also on trees and moss-covered
banks. Frequent in many parts of Ireland.

3. Porella Thuja, Dicks. Stems tufted, branched subpinnately, con-
vex and smooth above. Leaves closely imbricated, lobed, lower
lobe spreading, entire recurved, anterior ovate-obtuse, margin
reflexed. Amphigastria oblong, acute, entire, margin reflexed,
apex recurved. Involucral bracts for the most part ciliate-serrate.
‘‘Tufts wide, olive-green; the older parts purplish brown, shining,
the shoots acuminated.”’—Taylor.

Lichenastrum Arboris Vite facie, foliis rotundioribus, Dill. Hist. Muse.
p. 502, tab. 72, fig. 33. Jungermannia Thuja, Dicks. Pl. Crypt.
4, p.19; Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 2, p. 116 ; Hook. Brit.
Jung. t. 40, nn. 3-4. Var. 6. major et var. y. Thuja. Madotheca »
Thuja, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 111; Syll. Jung. p. 31, et Hepat.
Europ. p. 24.

Hab. On rocksand stones. Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Near Lough Finnehy,
Dunkerron, Co. Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Lough Bray, Co. Wicklow ;
Brandon, Co. Kerry (1864).

4. Porella Cordeana, Dumortier. ‘‘ Stems bi-tripinnate. Leaves ovate
entire, attached obliquely to stem, auricles oblique, ovate,
slightly acute. Amphigastria subrotund, entire. Colesule bilabiate,
subcrenate.’”’—Dum.

“‘Jungermannia Cordeana, Hiiben. Hep. Germ. p. 291; De Not. Prim.
Hep. Ital. p. 10; Mougeot et Nestl. Crypt. Vog. n. 1044. Mado-

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 619

theca Cordeana, Dumort. Rev. Jung. 1, p.11. Lejeunea Cor-
deeana, Nees et Mont., in Ann. Se. Nat. 1836, p. 7. Madotheca
porella, Nees, Eur. Leberm. 3, p. 201; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p. 281.”—Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 25 (1874). Cavendishia rivu-
laris, Carruth. in Seem. Journ. Bot. 38, p. 301. Porella dentata,
Hartm. Lindb. in Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice, x.

Hab. On wet stones, near rivulets, &. Near Fermoy, Co. Cork, T.
Chandlee. The only Irish specimens I have seen are those col-
lected by T. Chandlee in the locality quoted. They were named

_ Madotheca rivularis when sent to me, and Professor Lindberg, who
examined them in my herbarium, referred them with certainty
to Madotheca porella, Nees.

5. Porella pinnata, L. Stems irregularly pinnate, or subdichotomously
branched. Leaves slightly adpressed, ovate-oblong, plane or indis-
tinctly decurved at the apex, margin quite entire, lobule minute,
plane, not decurved, spreading from the stem. Amphigastria ad-
pressed to the stem, slightly decurrent, obtuse-rotundate.

Porella pinnata, L. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1106. Jungermannia porella,
Dicks. in Trans. L. Soc. 3, p. 239; Schweegr. in Linnea, 13, p. 114.
Jung. Corde, Hiiben. Hep. Germ. p. 291. Madotheca porella, Nees,
Natur. Eur. Leberm. 3, p. 201, n.6; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep.
p. 281, n. 30.

Hab. Near Fermoy, Co. Cork, T. Chandlee, Esq. Connor Hill, Co.
Kerry, Dr. Lindberg (1878). The only Irish specimens I have
seen of this plant are those from T. Chandlee, which were sent
to me under the name of Madotheca rivularis, but referred un-
hesitatingly to Madotheca porella, Nees, by Dr. Lindberg. Not-
withstanding the labour bestowed on the genus Porella by Dr.
Lindberg (Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae, tom. rx., 1869),
I cannot make out clearly the species he refers P. rivularis to.
He quotes some of the same authors, namely, Nees, Hiibener,
and Carruthers’ works, same page and same numper to species, as
synonyms of his Porella dentata, n. 5, and of his Porella pinnata,
n. 6. Not haying any specimens of Taylor's Jungermannia
rivularis (Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 2, p. 16), I am unable to refer
it to either of these. Dr. Carrington notices among his Irish
Hepatice (Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 7, p. 455), Madotheca porella,
Nees, as haying been sent to Dr. Gottsche by Dr. Taylor from
south of Ireland; but to which of Lindberg’s species is it refer-
able ?

Sub-tribe 2. Prevroziem.

Prevrozi1a, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Weiss, Pl. Crypt. Fl. Gott. p. 123 (1770); Sm. Engl.
Bot. tab. 2500 (1818); Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816); Hiiten. Hep.

620 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Germ. p. 275 (1834). Pleurozia, Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 15 (1835).
Physiotium, Nees, Nat. Eur. Leberm. 38, pp. 6 et 75 (1888).

Involucral bracts deeply bilobed. Colesule cylindrical, much exserted,
mouth denticulate, teeth slightly decurved at apex.

Pleurosia cochleariformis, Dumortier. Stems long, varying from
1 to 5-6 inches, ascending. Leaves closely imbricated, unequally
2-lobed, upper lobe larger, concave, bifid, and serrated at the
apex, lower lobe pouch-like, and much smaller, colour dark
brown, inclining to purple.

Jungermannia cochleariformis, Weiss, Pl. Crypt. p. 128; Hook. Brit.
Junger. tab. 68. Pleurozia cochleariformis, Dumort. Rev. Jung.
p. 15; Hepat. Europ. p. 52. Physiotium cochleariformis, Nees,
Europ. Leberm. 3, p. 79; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 235.

Hab. On wet bogs and moors. This is probably the most beautiful
to the unaided eye among all the British or Irish species. Where
it grows freely on wide-spread moors, or in damp situations in the
more mountainous parts of the country, the pretty purplish stems
can be detected at a considerable distance from the spot where
they grow. It ranges from the northern to the southern counties,
and from the eastern to the western, and is especially abundant
in the latter.

6. Homocama”.

‘Stem irregularly branched, with branches from the amphigastrial
axil, or with innovations more or less approximate to the colesule,
rarely dichotomous, pinnate or bipinnate. Leaves succubous or
incubous, sometimes opposite or connate, rarely conduplicate and
then almost always the front lobe is smaller, so as to form very
variable, round or reniform to sublinear, quite entire to broken
up in filiform segments. Amphigastria narrow, more or less ovate-
lanceolate, rarely round, quite entire to broken up into filiform
segments, sometimes wanting. Gamececium dicecious, pareecious,
more rarely autcecious. Perichetium proceeding from the amphi-
gastrial axilla as proper branches, either apical on the stem and
its innovations, or in many frondose forms placed on the inner
face, more or less below the apex of the stem, sometimes saccate
and dependent from the stem. Colesule usually large, from 38-5
plicate, very rarely winged, sometimes complanate or compressed,
occasionally round or densely plicate, very rarely winged, with
the mouth more or less wide, hardly ever beak-shaped. Seta long
or very long, sometimes thickish. Capsule large, globose-cylindrie,
of thick texture, brown and not pellucid, as if formed of at least
two strata, valves cleft to the base, patent or divaricate, for the
most part shewing spiral fibres internally. Elaterstwo-, rarely one-,
tri-, or quadri-spiral, adhering to the inner face of capsule, very
rarely to apex of valves, or free. Spores minute or rather large,
sometimes appendiculate externally. Andreecia proceeding from ~

Moore—On Trish Hepatice. 621

the amphigastrial axils as pericheetia, or antheridia, generally two,
rarely more, or singly in the axils of the uppermost leaves, or
in the frondose forms, fixed over the anterior face of the stem or
immersed in it, the foot-stalk straight, hardly ever arcuately
curved. Paraphyses sometimes present, usually filiform.’”’—Lind-
berg.

Subsection f. OprisrHocam®.

“Stem irregularly branched by bifurcation at the apex, or with
branches from the amphigastrial axils, sometimes pinnate or de-
compound. Leaves incubous or succubous, very rarely condupli-
cate, entire or lobed. Amphigastria present, at least in the
pericheetium of all, very like the leaves, or more or less ovate, undi-
vided or lobed. Gameecium dicecious, autoecious, rarely parcecious.
Female branch proceeding from the amphigastrial axille, almost
always short. Colesule triangular, very rarely round, compressed
or wanting. Antheridia on a proper branch, proceeding from
the amphigastrial axil, hardly ever placed in the foliar axille of
the stem itself. Paraphyses none.’’—Lindberg.

Sub-tribe 8. Leprpozirm.
Lerpipozta (Linn.), Dumortier.

Jungermannia, L. Sp. Pl. 1, ed. 2, p. 1883 (1758); Hook. Brit. Junger.
(1816). Blepharostoma, Dumort. Syll. Jung. Eur. p. 65 (1831).
Pleuroschisma, sect. 2, Lepidozia, Dumort. Syll. Jung. Eur.
Mastigophora, Nees, Nat. Eur. Leber. 1, p. 95 (1833). Lepidozia,
Dumort. Recueil, 1, p. 19 (18385); G. L. et N., Synop. Hepat. p.
200 (1845).

Involucre polyphyllous, imbricated on every side, scale-like and
denticulate at the apex. Colesule cylindrical, sulcate, denticulate
at the mouth, peduncle not articulate.

1. Lepidoziareptans (Linn.),“Dumortier. Stems ceespitose, creeping, and
irregularly branched, varying from one to two inches in length,
flagilliferous. Leaves incubous, decurved, sub-quadrate, acutely
3-4 toothed. Amphigastria wider than the stem, quadrate,
quadridentate. Colesule dorsal.

Jungermannia reptans, Linn. Sp. Pl., 1599; Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 75;
Engl. Bot. t. 608; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 44; De Notar.
Prim. Hepat. Ital. p. 21. Lepidozia reptans, Dumort. Rev.
Jung. p. 19, et Hepat. Europ. p. 109; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat. p. 205; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic., 282-479. Mas-
tigophora reptans, Nees, Leber. Europ. 3, p. 31.

Hab. Woods and bushy banks. This beautiful plant occurs in more
or less abundance in every county in Ireland.

2. Lepidozia cupressina (Sw.), Dum. Stems suberect, densely packed to-
gether and closely pinnate. Leaves subcordate, oblique, quadrifid

622 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

at the points, the lower tooth incurved. Amphigastria quadrifid,
broader than the stem.

Jungermannia reptans, 2. pinnata, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 75. Lepi-
dozia pinnata, Dumort. Rev. Jung., p. 19. Lepidozia tumidula,
Taylor, in G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 206. Lepidozia cu-
pressina, Lindberg, Carring. Irish Hepat., Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin.
7, p. 4538, tab. 2, fig. x1.

Hab. On the ledges of damp rocks and on banks. Very abundant in the
Killarney woods. In the larger size and general appearance of
this plant, it shows a difference compared with the former species.
It varies, however, so much in these respects, according to the
habitats where it grows, that it is not easy to separate them dis-
tinctly. The form and size of the areole are, however, different,
as pointed out by Dr. Carrington, and the imcurved central tooth
of the leaves is constant in the latter. Dr. Lindberg, who has of
late years studied the Hepatic so carefully, considers the Irish
plant to be specifically identical with the American L. cupressina,
in which respect Dr. Carrington agrees.

Bazzanta, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, L. Fl. Suec. 1 ed., p. 885, excl. Synon. Micheli (1758) ;
Hook. emend. Brit. Jung. (1816). Bazzania, B. Gr. in Gray’s
Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 704 (1821). Pleuroschisma, sect. 3,
Pleuroschismotypus, Dum. Syll. Jung. Europ. p. 70 (1881).
Herpetium, Nees, Nat. Eur. Leber. 1, p. 96 (1833). Mastigo-
bryum, G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 214 (1845).

Involucre polyphyllous, bracts scale-like, imbricated on each side.
Colesule dorsal, subacuminate, compressed at the mouth, pe-
duncles inarticulated.

1. Bazzania trilobata (Mich., L.), B. Gr. Stems creeping, branched,
with flagellee. Leaves incubous, ovate, concave, narrowed towards
the points, which are tridentate. Amphigastria broad and quad-
rate, as wide or wider than the stem. Colesule dorsal, slit on one
side, mouth entire.

Jungermannia trilobata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1599; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 76; De Notar. Hepat. Ital. p, 20; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 65.
Jungermannia radicans, Hoff. Germ. 2, p. 87; Engl. Bot. t. 2232.
Pleuroschisma trilobata, Dumort. Syll. Jung. Eur. p. 70, n. 96,
et Hepat. Europ. p. 108. Mastigobryum trilobatum, G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 230.

Hab. Mountain woods, and rocky places, in many parts of the country.
Sleemish Mountain, Co. Antrim; Dart Mountain, Co. Derry.
More abundant in the south, especially in the Killarney woods.
About Kylemore, Co. Galway.

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 623

2. Bazzania triangularis, Schleich. Stems small, decumbent, fragile.
Leaves incubous, ovoid, convex, tri-crenate at the narrow apex.
Amphigastria roundish-ovate, broader than the stem, and notched
at the apex.

Jungermannia triangularis, Schleich. Pl. Crypt. Helv. 2,n. 61. J.
tricrenata, Wahlenb. Fl. Crypt. p. 864; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p.
43; Ekart, Syn. Jung. p. 49, t. 12, fig. 99; De Notar. Prim.
Hepat. Ital. p. 20. J. deflexa, Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. p. 135, t. 3,
fic. 8. Bazzania trilobata, var. f. minor, B. Gr. in Gray’s Arrang.
Be PIP p: 704. Pleuroschisma deflexum, Dumort. Syll. Jung.
p. 71, et Hepat. Europ. p. 100.

Hab. Bushy places and woods. Frequent about Tore Mountain,
Cromagloun, and other places near Killarney, Dr. Carrington.
O’Sullivan’s cascade, and Brandon Mountain, Kerry. Glenbower
wood, near Fermoy, Isaac Carroll, Esq. Glenarrif, Co. Leitrim.
On the high limestone range of Benbulben, Co. Sligo, not un-
frequent.

OpontoscuismMa, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Dicks. Fasc. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 1, p. 6, tab. 1, fig. 10
(1785); Hooker, Brit. Jung. (1816). Martinellia, sect. 6, B. Gr. in
Gray’s Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 698 (1821). Odontoschisma, Dum. Re-
cueil, 1, p. 19, n. 25 (1835). Sphagnocetis, Nees, in G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 148 (1845). Gymnanthe, Mitten, in Jour. Linn.
Soc. 7, p. 166 (1863).

Inyolucre polyphyllous, bracts in several rows, imbricated, bilobed.
Colesule cylindrical, cleft at one side, denticulate at the mouth,
originating from the under side of the branch, and shortly pedun-
culate.

1. Odontoschisma sphagni (Dicks.), Dumortier. Dicecious. Stem ascend-
ing singly or in small patches among mosses. Leaves close, succu-
bous, orbicular, secund. Amphigastria small, lanceolate, and only
on the young shoots. Colesule terminal, upon a short proper
branch, originating from the ventral side of the stem, oblong,
wider in the middle, the mouth denticulate.

Jungermannia sphagni, Dicks. Fase. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 1, p.6; Engl.
Bot. t. 2470; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 83; Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p.
28; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 58: Odontoschisma sphagni,
Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 19, et Hepat. Europ. p. 108. Sphagno-
cetis communis, Nees, in 'G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 148;
Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 300-566, 440.

Hab. In bogs among Sphagnum. Frequent in most parts of Ireland,
but more abundant in the south than elsewhere.

2. Odontoschisma denudatum (Nees), Dumort. Dicecious. Stem pro-
cumbent, branched, branches with flagelle, ascending and leafless
near the points, tipped with gonidiferous gemmz. Leaves small

R. I. A. PROC.—YOL. II., SER. II., SCIENCE, 30

624 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

at the base, or none, increasing in size towards the middle of the
stem, and decreasing from the middle to the apex, succubous,
secund, roundish-ovate, with the points sometimes slightly emar-
ginate. Amphigastria larger and more readily observed than
they are in the former species, confined to the younger branches.
Colesule cylindrical, fringed at the mouth.

Jungermannia denudata, Nees, in Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. p. 14;
Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. Europ. p. 71, n. 69; Hartm. Skand. FI.
8 ed. p. 819. Odontoschisma denudatum, Dumort. Recueil, 1,
p. 19; et Hepat. Europ. p. 108. Jungermannia sphagni, Hook.
Brit. Jung. suppl. t. 38; Ekart, Synop. Jung. Germ. t. 6, f. 48.
Sphagnoecetis communis, 6. macrior, Nees, in G. L. et N. Synop.
Hep. p. 149.

Hab. On rotten trunks of trees, and in wet places in shady woods.
On the side of Corslieve Mountain, near Bangore, Co. Mayo (1859).

CrpHatozraA, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 9, no. 5, tab. 6, fig. 17 (1729) ;
Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816). Cephalozia, Dumort. Recueil, 1, p. 18,
n. 21 (1835). Zoopsis, Hooker, in Tayl. Crypt. Fl. Antarct.
p. 55 (1845). Trigonanthus, Spruce, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 3,
p. 207 (1849).

“‘Tnvolucre polyphyllous, gemmiform, bracteole deeply lacerated,
imbricated in several rows all round the stem and base of the cole-
sule, exterior, stipuliform. Colesule sessile, erect, round, inflated,
contracted at apex, mouth toothed. Capsule 4-valved, of thick
consistence, naked. laters geminate, naked, deciduous.”—
Dumortier.

(a). Amphigastria present.

1. Cephalozia Francisct, Hook. (Dumort.) Stems nearly erect, slightly |
branching. Leavesincumbent, ovate, acutely emarginate. Amphi-
gastria minute, ovate, bifid. Colesule terminal, on short lateral
branches.

Jungermannia Francisci, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 49; Engl. Bot. t. 2869;
Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 64; Nees, Kurop. Leberm. 2, p. 220;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p..183; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ.
exsic. n. 508. Cephalozia Francisci, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 18 ;
Hepat. Europ. p. 88; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 35.

Hab. Shady banks and rocks. Near Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Very
rare in Ireland.

2. Cephalozia divaricata, Smith (Dumort.) Autcecious. Stems creeping.
Leaves roundish and semi-bifid, segments divergent. Amphi-
gastria subulate, bifid. Colesule terminal, cylindrical, truncate,
toothed at the mouth. ‘

Moorre—On Trish Hepatice. 625

Jungermannia divaricata, Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 719; Spruce, in Trans.
Bot. Soc. Edinb. 3, p. 207. J. Starku, G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p. 184. Cephalozia Starki, Dumort. in Cogn. Hep. Belg. p. 35.
Trigonanthus divaricatus, Hartm. Skand. Fl. 10 ed., p. 143.

Hab. On heathy banks in hilly places. Sleemish Mountain, and Fair
Head, Co. Antrim; Brandon, Kerry. Cromagloun, Kerry, Dr.
Carrington. Near Glenarm, Dr. Dickie.

3. Cephalozia elachista, Jack. Parcecious. Stems very small and some-
what rigid. Leaves variable, clined to quadrate, deeply bifid
but sometimes entire, segments nearly linear, bearing occa-
sionally a well-developed tooth or two, but more frequently with-
out teeth. Amphigastria generally present, especially among
the perichetial leaves. Involucral bracts much larger than the
cauline leaves, irregularly lobed, lacerated at the margin, and im-
bricated on every side. Perigonial leaves strongly toothed at
their margins, and terminating in longish incurved points.
Gameecium and Andrceecium on same branch, but separate (parce-
cious). Colesule roundish or inclined to triangular, but rather
variable in form, contracted and ciliated at the mouth. Anthe-
ridia with short stalks in the axils of the perigonial leaves,
singly.

Jungermannia elachista, Jack. in Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ.

exsic. no. 574, with excellent figure and full description by Dr.

Gottsche.

Hab. On moist bare banks at Brandon, Co. Kerry (1864). At
Lough Bray, Co. Wickiow, Dr. Lindberg, June, 1873.

(6). Amphigastria wanting.

4. Cephalozia byssacea (Roth), Dumort. . Stems procumbent, branch-
ing. Leaves remote, incumbent, subquadrate, bifid, segments
acute. Colesule terminal, cylindrical, plicate, toothed at the
mouth.

Jungermannia byssacea, Roth, Fl. Germ. 3, p. 387; Hook. Brit. Jung.
ig WAS Wendt sma IMG Sebo As Hos OOS IMs Wenig ie aly ats ile IDS
Notaris, Prim. Hep. Ital. p. 29. Cephalozia byssacea, Dumort.
Rey. Jung. p. 18; Hepat. Europ. p. 90; Cogn. Hep. Belg.
p. do.

Hab. ‘‘On paths im woods, and on bare crags; common.”’—Dr.
Taylor.

I have enumerated this so-named plant out of deference to some of our
greatest hepaticists, although I am by no means clear about the
characters which distinguish it from C. divaricata. Dumortier
places the two in different sections of Cephalozia, and refers C.
divaricata to the figure in English Botany quoted, and C. byssacea
to the figure in Hooker’s British Jungermannie. I had collected in

302

626 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

various parts of Ireland what I considered to be the latter, but
when my specimens were examined by Drs. Carrington and
Lindberg, they referred all of them to C. divaricata, Engl. Bot.
Dr. Taylor states it to be common in Ireland. The presence or
absence of amphigastria do not appear to be decisive distinguishing
characters, as Mr. Spruce states in his remarks on Jung. divari-
cata (in Hepat. Pyrenees, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., 8, p. 207),
that some of his Speman have stipules, and some are Ageing:
without them.

5. Cephalosia bicuspidata (Linn.), Dumort. Autcecious. Stem creeping,
branched. Leaves incumbent, lax, subquadrate, bifid, segments
long, acute. Inyvolucral bracts 2-3 cleft, imbricated. Colesule
radical and terminal on lateral branches, plicate and toothed at
the mouth.

Jungermannia bicuspidata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 158; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 11;
Engl. Bot. 2239; Nees, Europ. Leber. 2, p. 351; De Notaris,
Prim. Hepat. Ital. p. 27; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 138.
Cephalozia bicuspidata, Dumort. Rey. Jung., p. 18; Hep. Eur. p.
91. Trigonanthus bicuspidatus, Hartm. Skand. Fl. 10 ed., p. 143.

Var. a. major, Nephin Mountain, Mayo.

Var. B. rigidula, Cromagloun, Kerry, Dr. Carrington.

Hab. On heaths and banks. A very common species in many parts of
Ireland.

6. Cephalozia curvifolia (Dickson), Dumort. Autcecious. Stems pro-
cumbent. Leaves semi-verticillate, concave, deeply bifid, segments
long, setaceous at the points, and much incurved. Colesule on
lateral branches, oblong, subplicate, contracted, and toothed.

Jungermannia curvifolia, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. 2, p. 15, t. 3, f. 7; Hook.
Brit. Jung. t. 16; Engl. Bot. t. 1304 (not good) ; Carring. in
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., vol. 7, pl. 11, fig. 4; Lindenb. Synop.
Hep. p. 91; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 60; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat. p. 142; Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 72, 217, &c.
Cephalozia curvifolia, Dumort. Hepat. Europ., p. 93.

Hab. On decaying trunks of trees; also on moss-covered banks, among
mosses. Frequent about Killarney; Connor Hill, Kerry; Kyle-
more, Galway; Glenade, Leitrim.

Var. B. Baurert = Cephalozia Baueri, Lindberg.

Hab. Cromagloun, and elsewhere in the Killarney district.

7. Cephalozia connivens, Dicks. Stem procumbent, slightly branched.
Leaves accumbent, suborbicular, concave, deeply bifid, segments
incurved, connivent. Colesule terminal, on lateral branches,
ovate, contracted and ciliated at the apex.

Jungermannia connivens, Dicks. Pl. Crypt., fasc. 4, p. 19, tab. 2, fig. 15;
Hook. Brit. Jung. tab. 15; Engl. Bot., t. 2436; Tayl. in Fl. Hib., —
p- 2, p-60; De Not., Prim. Hep. Ital., p. 27. Blepharostoma con-

Moorze—On Irish Hepatice. 627

niyens, Dumort. Rey. Jung., p. 18; Hepat. Europ., p. 96 (1874);
Cogn. Hepat. Belg., p. 36.

Hab. Wet banks among mosses, and bogs among Sphagnum. Rather
common in many parts of Ireland, but more abundant in the
southern and western counties.

Var. a. conferta minor. On rotten wood frequent, Carrington.

Var. B. sphagnorum, Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 15, 3. More or less fre-
quent among Sphagnum in many of the bogs through Ireland,
but never in much quantity together.

8. Cephalozia catenulata (Hiibener), Lindb. Stem ascending, flexuose,
rigid. Leaves ovate, concave, acutely bifid, adpressed. Involucral
bracts bi-tri-fid. Colesule cylindrically trigonous, minutely
toothed at the apex.

Jungermannia catenulata, Hiibener, Hepat. Germ., p. 169; Nees, Eur.
Leber. 11, p. 248; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 1388 ; Raben-
hor. Hep. Eur. exsic., p. 435, cwmie. Jungermannia reclusa, Tay-
lor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 11, p. 44; et Lond. Journal Bot. 5,
p- 278; Spruce, Musc. et Hepat. Pyren. in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb.
m., p. 208; Bot. Zeit. 1, p. 694. J. catenulata, Carring. in
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 7, p. 449. t. 11, fig. 2. Cephalozia cate-
nulata, Lindb. in Jour. Linn. Soe. vol. x1. p. 191.

Hab. On shady damp banks, and in woods. Very common in the Kil-
larney and Cromagloun woods; also about Brandon Mountain
as well as elsewhere in Co. Kerry ; about Kylemore, Co. Galway ;
Lackan bay, Co. Mayo; Gleniff, Co. Leitrim; Lough Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

This pretty little plant is rather puzzling at times to distinguish from
certain states of other species of the genus. It bears a greater
resemblance to young forms of C. connivens than to any other.
Dr. Carrington, who has paid great attention to it, and figured it
(Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. /. ¢.), considers Taylor’s J. reclusa identical
with Hubener’s C. catenulata, as also does Dr. Lindberg, who has
had such excellent opportunities for comparing the Irish plant
with foreign specimens of C. catenulata. Dumortier, however,
holds that they are distinct species, and describes them as such
(Hepat. Europ., p. 92 (1874)). Dr. Spruce, another excellent
observer, agrees with Dumortier, and describes J. reclusa, Taylor
(see his Musc. et Hepat. Pyren., in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., m1.
p- 208, asa distinct species).

9. Cephalozia Turnert (Hook.), Lindb. Stems creeping, branched.
Leaves incumbent, acutely bipartite, segments conduplicate, spi-
nulose-dentate. Colesule terminal, contracted and shghtly dentate
at the mouth.

Jungermannia Turneri, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 22; Engl. Bot., t. 2310;
Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 92; Nees, Europ. Leber., 1, p. 265;

628 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 148; Taylor, in Fl. Hib., p. 2, p. 60.
Anthelia Turneri, Dumort. Rev. Jung., p- 18) et Hepat. Europ. ss
Dap 99. i874): Cephalozia Turnen, Lindberg , in Journal of Linn.
NOC VOL exit. spa tO.

Hab. Shady damp banks. By the side of a mountain rivulet near
Bantry, Co. Cork, Miss Hutchins, bearing female fruit in March,
(1811))[i2]_ On a wet sandy bank at Cromagloun, Co. Kerry, bear—
ing autcecious colesules, 23rd July, 1873, Dr. ‘Lindbers. I am
not aware that this exceedingly rare plant has been ‘collected
elsewhere in the British Isles, or by any other person than those-
named.

Lopnocorza, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 8, tab. 51, fig. 12 (1729); L.
Sp- Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1182 (1753); Hooker, Brit. Jung. (1816).
Lophocolea, Dumort. Recueil, 1, p. 17 (1835); Nees, Nat. Eur.
Leber., 2, p. 821 (1836).

Inyolucre oligophyllous, dentate or cleft. Colesule sessile, eylindrical,.
mouth 3-cleft and cristated.

1. Lophocolea bidentata, Linn.(Dumort.) Autcecious. Stem procum-
bent, branched. Leaves accumbent, broadly ovate, slightly decur-
rent and emarginate, acutely bidentate. Amphigastria bi-tri-fid,
laciniated. Colesule oblong-triangular, mouth laciniated. An-
theridia in the axille of the perigonial bracts, two or three
together.

Jungermannia bidentata, Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 606; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 30; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 64. Lophkocolea bidentata,.
Dumort. Rey. Jung., p. 17; et Hepat. Europ., p. 83. Lophocolea
Hookeriana, Nees, G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 161; Cogn. Hepat.
Belg., p. 33; G. L. et N. in Synop. Hepat. Europ. The latter
refer the J. bidentata, Linn., to another species, and state that
the var. y. of it is found near Dunkerron, Kerry, by Dr. Taylor.
We suppose this is the form he mentions in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 64,
which grows near Blackwater bridge, ‘‘ with the calyces acutely
triangular, the angle corresponding to the inferior side of the
stem serrate.”

Var. B. cuspidata (Gottsche). On dead trees, Killarney, Dr. Carring-
ton.

Var. y. gracile, Carrington, Irish Hepat., Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb.,
vol: 7, pato2, pl. 11, fig. 6. Woods, Killarney.

2. Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.), Dumort. Stems ascending,
branched. Leaves roundish, quadrangular, obtusely emarginate.
Involucral bracts lobed and dentate. Amphigastria 2-3 fid, and
dentate. Colesule terminal, mouth crested. ;

MoorrE—On Irish Hepatice. 629

Jungermannia heterophylla, Schrad., Journal Bot. 1, p. 66; Hook.
Brit. Jung. t. 31; De Notaris, Prim. Hepat. Ital. p. 25. Lopho-
colea heterophylla, Dumort. Rev. Jung., p. 17, et Hepat. Europ.,
p- 86; Nees, Europ. Leber. 2, p. 338; G. L. et N., Synop.
Hepat., p. 164.

Hab. In woods and on banks. Tore Mountain, Killarney, Dr. Car-
rington. Near Cong, Co. Galway. Near Fermoy, Isaac Carroll,
Esq. Dr. Taylor unites this species with the former in Flora
Hibernica, and states that he finds in Kerry varieties so inter-
mediate that with the utmost care he found it impossible to
refer them definitely to one more than the other. (FI. Hib.
p- 2, p. 65 (18386)).

3. Lophocolea spicata, Taylor. Autcecious. Stem creeping, branched.
Leaves oval-horizontal, 2-, 38-, or more toothed at the apex.
Amphigastria small, cleft nearly to the base. Colesule terminal,
prismatical, and lacerated at the mouth, lobes toothed.

Lophocolea spicata, Taylor, in G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 167;
Cooke, Brit. Hepat., p. 15, n. 75, fig. 118; Dumort. Hepat.
Kurop., p. 86.

Hab. On shady damp rocks among mosses. Dunkerron, Kerry, Dr.
Taylor. Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Tore Cascade, Killarney, Dr.
Carrington. Glensiskin, Cork, T. Chandlee, Esq. By the side of
the Upper Lake, Killarney, in fruit, June, 1869; Altadore Glen,
Wicklow, 1878.

Prpryopuyiium, Lindberg.

Jungermannia, Nees, Nat. Europ. Leber. 1, p. 165 (1833). Plagiochila,
Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 15 (1835). Pedinophyllum, Lindb. Soc.
Fauna et Fl. Fenn. (Oct. 1874), and in Bot. Not. p. 156 (1874).

Pedinophyllum pyrenaicum, Spruce. Autcecious. Tufts dense,
much interwoven, of a brownish yellow colour. Stems spread-
ing, radiculose, creeping on the surface of earth or rocks where
they grow, sparingly branched, branches axillary, or proceeding
from the under surface of the stem. Leaves somewhat rigid,
slightly shining when dry, densely placed on the stem, and di-
stichous, broad at the base and quadrate towards the apex, which
is variously notched and toothed. Amphigastria very small,
and likely to be overlooked, though they are mostly present,
especially near the points of barren shoots, 1-3 parted, segments
subulate. Involucral bracts much larger than the cauline leaves,
oblong-ovate, slightly emarginate at apex, with recurved mar-
gins. Colesule compressed, a little prominent, short, obovate-oval,
mouth broad and rounded, lips semi-oval, irregularly cut, and
dentate. Andreecium terminal, interruptedly spicate, on same
stem as the fertile shoots, or on distinct branches on same plant.

630 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Perigonial bracts smaller, imbricated, bilobed. Antheridia
usually solitary, in the saccate axils of the perigonial bracts.

Plagiochila pyrenaica, Spruce, Hepat. Pyren. n. 9. (1847), and in
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 1., p. 200 (1849); Lindb. Manipulus
Muscorum secundus, in Faun. et Flor. Fenn., 13, p. 366 (1874).
Plagiochila interrupta, var. 8. pyrenaica, Carring. Brit. Hepat. pl.
8, figs. 2-9 (1874).

Hab. Shady rocks and banks, mostly in limestone districts. On
rather dry banks through the Benbulben range, Co. Sligo, where
I collected it for the first time it was found in Ireland (1871) ;
again at Gleniff, in same district (1875). This plant may be
quoted as an instance of the difficulty which the Hepatice present
to the systematist, in not affording good generic characters, that-
can be stated in words which will enable the student to distin-
guish them clearly one from the other. As Dr. Lindberg well
observes in his description of this plant in his Irish Hepatice,
it possesses nothing in common with Plagiochila, except the com-
pressed colesule. The affinities are altogether with the Chilo-
scyphie. In general appearance it resembles C. polyanthos; yet
it approaches even more both in habit and aspect Saccogyna viti-
culosa.

Curtoscypuus, Corda.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 8, tab. 5, fig. 5 (1729);
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1181 (1753); Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816).
Myla, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 693 (1821).
Marsupella, Dumort. Comm. Bot., p. 114 (1823). Chiloseyphus,
Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. 1, p. 651 (1829); Dumort. Syll. Jung.
Europ., p. 67 (18381).

Involucral bracts imbricated on each side and notched at the margin.
Colesule rather short and bilabiate, the lips irregularly notched,

fruit stalks long, pedicels inarticulate, rising from the under part ~

of the stem.

Chiloscyphus polyanthos, Corda. Stems prostrate, growing in patches.
Leaves in two rows, overlapping, inclining to quadrate, entire
or slightly emarginate. Amphigastria bifid, toothed or variously
cut. Colesule short, cleft into two lips, which are laciniated.

Jungermannia polyanthos, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1597; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 62; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 30. Marsupella polyanthos,
Dumort. Comm. Bot., p.114. Chiloscyphus polyanthos, Corda, in
Sturm, Deutschl. Crypt. 19, p. 33, t. 9; Dumort. Syll. Jung., p. 67,
t. 1, f. 9; et Jung. Europ., p. 101; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.,
p. 188.

Var. 8. rivularis, Nees. Stems dichotomous, succulent. Amphigastria
sometimes obsolete.

Moorr—On Trish Hepatice. 631

Var. y. pallescens, Lindenberg.

Hab. On wet ground, where water often remains during a considerable
period of the year.

’

The var. f. rivularis is also common in similar situations. Lindberg
observes that the inflorescence of this variety is autcecious. Var. y.
pallescens occurs about Killarney, according to Dr. Carrington,
who considers there is no valid distinction between it and the
typical form. Dumortier, however, gives it a place as a distinct
species (see his Hepat. Europ. p. 101 (1874)). TT. Chandlee finds
it also near Fermoy, Cork.

Harpantuus, Nees.

Jungermannia, W.M. Bot. Taschenb. p. 408 (1833); Nees, in Flora, 16,
p- 2, p. 408 (1833). Lophozia, Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 17, n. 19
(1835). Harpanthus, Nees, Nat. Europ. Leber. 2, p. 351 (1836);
Spruce, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 3, p. 209 (1849); Mitten, in
Journ. L. Soc. 8, p. 52 (1864). Pleuranthe, Taylor, in Hook.,
Lond. Journ. Bot. 5, p. 282 (1846).

Colesule fusiform, exserted, 3-4 cleft at the mouth, divisions unequal,
connate at the base with the calyptra. Involucral bracts of one or
two pairs, with amphigastria interposed. Calyptra adhering to
the walls of the colesule for more than half its length.

Harpanthus scutatus, Spruce. Dicecious. Stems mostly crowded
together in incoherent tufts, or smaller and cespitose, quarter to
half an inch long or more, ascending. Leaves succubous, crowded,
acutely emarginate at the apex. Amphigastria ovate-acuminate,
slightly toothed at the base. Colesule obovate, contracted at the
mouth, and subplicate. Calyptra adherent with the base of the
colesule.

Jungermannia scutata, Weber et Mohr, Deutschl. Crypt., p. 408;
Lindenb. Synop. Hep., p. 38; Dumort. Syll. Jung., p. 56, excl.
var. y.; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 64; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p- 101; Rabenh. Hepat. Europ. exsic. 218-466; Cooke, Brit.
Hepat., p. 10, tab. 72. Jungermannia stipulacea, Hook., Brit.
Jung. t. 41; Engl. Bot. tab. 2538; Carring., Brit. Hepat. p. 49,
pl. 7, fig. 52; Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 67.

Hab. Moist banks and on rocks among the larger mosses, &c. This
species is rather local in Ireland, and confined chiefly to the
southern counties. Near Bantry, Cork, Miss Hutchins (1812).
Lough Bray, Wicklow, Dr. Taylor. Killarney, W. Wilson, Esq.
At Cromagloun and Glena, Kerry ; I have collected it during my

occasional visits to these places at various times; also at Lough
Bray, Wicklow.

632 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Sub-tribe 4. Saccocynex, Dumortier.

Involucral bracts wanting. Colesule pendulous, fixed by the margin
to the under side of the stem.

Kantra, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen., p. 8, n. 2, tab. 5, fig. 14 (1729) ;
Dicks. Fasc. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 3, p. 10, tab. 8, fig. 5 (1793);
Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816). Kantia, B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit.
Pl. 1, p. 706 (1821). Cincinnulus, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 113:
(1823). Calypogeia, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. 1, p. 653 (1829).

Colesule dorsal, oblong-acuminate, lobed at the mouth, and hairy,
subterranean.

1. Kantia trichomanis (Dicks.), B. Gr. Stem procumbent, branched.
Leaves succubous, ovate, entire or emarginate. Amphigastria
orbicular, crenulato-emarginate.

Jungermannia trichomanis, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. fase. 3, t. 8, f. 5;
Hook. Brit. Jung. tab. 79; Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 40, tab. 4,
fig. 835; Fl. Dan. tab. 1896; Engl. Bot. tab. 1875 ; Taylor, in
Fl. Hib. 2, p. 64. Calypogeia fissa, Raddi, Mem. Mod. 18,
p. 44; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 198. Cincinnulus tricho-
manis, Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 72; Rev. Jung. p. 21, et Hepat.
Europ. p. 15.

Hab. On wet shady banks and woods. Frequent in many parts of
Ireland; very abundant about Killarney.

2. Kantia arguta(N. M.), Lindb. Dicecious. Stem elongated near the
apex, with smaller and more remotely placed leaves, often tipped
with gonidiferous gemme. Leaves roundish, oblique, apex
bidentate, fragile, divergent. Amphigastria deeply bifid, segments.
subulate, divergent.

Calypogeia arguta, N. M., in Nees, Europ. Leber. 3, p. 24, n. 2;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 199, n. 2; Dill. Hist. Muse. tab. 70,
fig. 12; Engl. Bot. tab. 1875. Cincinnulus argutus, Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 117 (1874). Kantia arguta, Lindberg, in Mani-
pulus Muscorum secundus, p. 363, Helsingfors (1874).

Hab. On wet banks. Very rare in Ireland. The few Irish specimens
known were collected at Luggieclaw, Wicklow, creeping over the
stems of Nardia compressa. Dr. Lindberg detected them among
my specimens when examining them.

Saccoeyna, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen., p. 8, tab. 5, fig. 4 (1729); Sm.
Engl. Bot. tab. 2513 (1813); Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816). Lippia,
B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Br. Pl. 1, p. 706 (1821). Saccogyna,
Dum. Comm. Bot., p. 113 (1828). Sykorea, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr.
1, p. 653 (1829). Calypogeia, Raddi, MSS., Corda, in Sturm, ~

Moorre—On Trish Hepatice. 633

Deutschl. Fl. (1830). Geocalyx, Nees, Nat. Europ. Leber. 1,
p. 97 (1888).

Involucral bracts wanting. Colesule oblong, fleshy, fimbriated at the
mouth with scales, adhering to the base of the stem by its mar-
gin, and pendulous.

Saccogyna viticulosa (Mich.), Dumort. Stem procumbent, branched.
Leayes succubous, flat, ovate, entire. Amphigastria ovate-lanceo-
late, dentate, lacimiate. Colesule subterranean.

Jungermannia viticulosa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1597; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 60 ;
Taylor, in Fl. Hib., p. 63; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 28. Sac-
cogyna viticulosa, Dumort. Syll. Jung., p. 74; Rev. Jung., p. 22;
et Hepat. Europ., p. 117; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 194.

Hab. On damp ground, among mosses, &c. This fine species is of
frequent occurrence in many parts of Ireland, but more espe-
cially in the south and west ; very fine at Lough Bray, Wicklow,
and in the woods about Killarney. It also extends to the coun-
ties of Antrim and Donegal in the north, and Mayo in the west.

Sub-section {{. Ackocamm.

‘‘Stem commonly branched by innovations proceeding from beneath
the perichetium, rarely pinnate or dichotomous. Leaves succubous,
sometimes conduplicate, entire, and broken up in capillary seg-
ments. Amphigastria most frequently absent, commonly small
and ovate, subulate, rarely larger, and, like the leaves, undivided
and broken up into capillary segments. Gameecium dicecious or
parecious. Pericheetium apical on the stem itself and its innova-
tions.

Colesule rounded, commonly five-, or sometimes more densely, pli-
cate, not unfrequently compressed, very rarely none. Antheridia
placed in the highest axils of the stem and innovations. Para-
physes present in some, frequently leaf-shaped.’”’—Lindberg.

Sub-tribe 5. BrepHaroziex.
TricHocoLtEa, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Huds. Fl. Angl. 1 ed. p. 485 (1762); Hooker, Brit.
Junger. (1816). Tricholea, Dum. Comm. Bot., p. 113 (1823), et
Hep. Europ., p.111 (1831). Tricholea, Dum. Syll. Jung. Europ.,
pp. 24 et 28 (1831). ‘Trichocolea, Nees, Nat. Europ. “Leber. 3,
p. 108 (1838).

Inyolucral bracts wanting. Colesule campanulate, hairy, mouth
truncate, without tecth. Capsule 4-valved. Elaters smooth.

634 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Trichocolea tomentella (Ehrhart), Dumort. Stems dichotomous, bi-
tri-pinnate. Leaves unequally 2-lobed, each lobe divided and
sub-divided into long ciliary fringes. Amphigastria cleft mto two
portions, and fringed with cilia. Colesule apical, from the forks
of the stem.

Jungermannia tomentella, Ehrh. Beitr. 2, p. 150; Dicks. Pl. Crypt.
fasc. 2, p. 14; Engl. Bot. t. 2242; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 36; Lin-
denb. Synop. Hepat., p. 19; Cooke’s Brit. Hepat., p. 17, fig. 129;
Tayl. in Fl. Hib., pt. 2, p. 66. Tricholea tomentella, Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 111 (1874); G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 257.

Hab. Mossy banks in woods and rocky places. Widely distributed
through Ireland, from north to south, and east to west. Very
abundant and fine in the Killarney woods.

Briepuarozra, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Linn. Sp. Pl., p. 1601; Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816).
Section Blepharozia, Dum. Syll. Jung. p. 46 (1831). Ptil-
dium, Nees, Europ. Leber. 1, p. 95 (1833); Petit Thouars, Veg.
Afr. Austr. t. 1, p. 11 (1806). Blepharozia, Dumort. Rey. Jung.,
p. 16 (1835).

Involucre oligophyllous, 2-3 lobed, segments with long cilia. Cole-
sule pear-shaped. Mouth small, and plicately contracted.

Blepharozia ciliaris (Linn.), Dumort. Stem prostrate, pinnate.
Leaves unequally 2-lobed, overlapping, lobes ciliated, deeply cleft
into two pointed segments: Fruit lateral. Colesule obovate, con-
tracted and toothed at the mouth. Amphigastria broad, quadrate,
unequally lobed, and ciliated.

Jungermannia ciliaris, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1601; Engl. Bot. t. 2241;
Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 65; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 19. Blephar-
ozia ciliaris, Dumort. Rey. Jung., p.16; et Hepat. Europ. p. 53;
S. O. Lindberg et Lackstrom, Hepat. Scand. fase. 1, n. 10. Ptil-
dium ciliare, Nees, Europ. Leber. 3, p. 17; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat. p. 230; Rabenh. Hepat. n. 9-197.

Hab. Subalpine rocks. Brandon, Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Mangerton and
Ross Bay, Dr. Carrington. Torc Mountain, Killarney, 1861.
Rare in Ireland, and seemingly confined to the south.

MasricopHora, Nees.

Jungermannia, Brid. MSS., Web. (F.), Hist. Musc. Hep. Prodr. p. 56
(1815); Hook. Brit. Jung. p. 18 (1816). Mastigophora, Nees,
Nat. Eur. Leber. 1, p. 95 (1833); Lindley, Introd. Nat. Syst.
Bot., 2 ed., p. 414; Mitt. in Hook. Handb. N. Zealand FI., 2, pp.
752-754 (1867). Blepharozia, Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 16 (1835).
Sendtnera, Endl. Gen. Pl. 1, suppl. p. 13842 (1840). Herberta,
Carruth. in Seem. Journ. Bot. 3, p. 300 (1865).

Moorr—On Trish Hepatice. 635

Mastigophora Woodsii (Hook.), Nees. Stem procumbent, bi-tri-pin-
nate, long, varying from three to six inches in length. Leaves
much overlapping, roundish, convex, unequally 2-lobed, the
upper lobe cleft, segments ciliate-dentate. Amphigastria large,
broader than the stem, cleft into two spinulose-dentate segments,
with a spur at the base on each side.

Jungermannia Woodsu, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 66; Engl. Bot. suppl.
t. 2668; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 20. Blepharozia Woodsii,
Dumort. Recueil, 1, p. 16; et Hepat. Europ. p. 54. Mastigophora
Woodsii, Nees, Eur. Leber. 3, p. 95; S. O. Lindenberg et
Lackstrom, Hepat. Scand. fasc. 1, n. 3. Sendtnera Woodsii,
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 241; Rabenhor. Hepat. Eur.
exsic. n. 367-490.

Hab. On subalpine banks. Mangerton, Kerry, Joseph Woods, Esq.
Brandon, Dr. Taylor. Carrantual, Connor Hill, and Brandon. This
fine species grows in large patches lying flat on the ground, and
appears at first sight to resemble patches of Thuyidium tamarisc-
inum, Schimp. In Iveland it has been seen growing only in the
County of Kerry, and even there it is very local.

Herzerta, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Sw. Prodr. Fl. Ind.-Occ., p. 144 (1788); Dicks.
Fase. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 3; Hook. Br. Jung. (1816). Herberta,
B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 705 (1821); Carruth. in
Seem. Journ. Bot. 3, p. 300 (1865). Schisma, Dumort. Comm.
Bot. p. 114 (1823). Sendtnera, sect. 1, Schisma, G. L. et N.
Synop. Hep. p. 2389 (1845).

Inyolucre polyphyllous, bracts connate at their base with the perianth,
variously cleft and cut. Colesule tubular, deeply cleft at the
mouth, chartaceous at the base.

Lerberta adunca (Dicks.), B. Gr. Stems erect, growing in large
patches of a brown colour, from two to six inches long. Leaves
deeply bipartite, falcato-secund. Amphigastria large, bipartite.
Fruit terminal.

Jungermannia adunca, Dicks. Fasc. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 3, p. 12, tab. 8,
f. 8. J. juniperinum, var. 6., Hook. Brit. Jung., tab. 4. Gym-
nomitrium juniperinum, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. p. 651. Schisma,
Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 76, t. 2, fig. 16 (1831); et Hepat. Europ.
p. 123 (1874). Sendtnera juniperina, var. B., Nees, in G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 289.

Hab. On the sides of mountains, and on bogs. Abundant in the south
and west of Ireland, but not common in the northern or eastern
counties. Gleniff and Glenad, Co. Leitrim. Sir W. Hooker remarks
in his British Jungermannie that J. juniperina has no affinity
to any other British species of Jungermannia, which remark still
holds true. Dumortier, in his late work on the European Hepa-

636 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tice, has placed it in his tribe Acolea, along with Gymnomi-
trium, which is surely unnatural, when the whole appearance
of these plants is taken into consideration.

AntHeEtiA, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Linn. Fl. Lapp. 1 ed. p. 342 (17387); Hook. Br. Jung.
(1816). Anthelia, Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 18 (1835). Chandonan-
thus, Lindb. in Act. Soc. Se. Fenn. 10, p. 19 (1871).

Inyolucre polyphyllous, imbricated, segments sub-palmate. Cole-
sule sessile, cylindrical, plicate at the mouth, and denticulate.

Anthelia julacea (Linn.), Dumort. Stem erect, branching. Leaves
deeply bifid, segments acute, imbricated on every side of the
stem. Colesule cylindrical, subplicate, and toothed at the mouth.

Jungermannia julacea, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1601; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 2;
Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 1024; Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 63; Tay-
lor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 65; Hiiben. Hepat. Germ. p. 56; G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 140; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 126—
152. Anthelia julacea, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 88, tab. 3,
fig. 23.

Hab. Rocks; usually on the higher mountains. Maam Tore Moun-
tain, Connemara; Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, Killarney; Kylemore,
Co. Galway. Forma minor, on Brandon Mountain, and Connor
Hill, Kerry.

BriepHarostoma, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Linn. Fl. Suec., 1 ed. p. 386, n. 921 (1745); Hook
“Brit. Jung. (1816). Blepharostoma, Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 18,
n. 23 (1835). Ptilidium, Mitt.in Journ. Linn. Soe. vol. 5, p. 102
(1861).

Involucre polyphylous, imbricated, bracteole articulate-ciliate.
Leaves transversal. Colesule sessile, terminal, erect, round-
ovate, mouth with long acute cilia.

1. Blepharostoma tricophylla (Linn.), Dumort. Stem creeping,
branched. Leaves imbricated on every side, deeply 3-4 parted,
segments setaceous, jointed, ascending. Colesule terminal,
ovate, contracted and ciliated at the mouth.

Jungermannia tricophylla, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1601; Schmid, Icones,
p. 164, t. 42; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 7; Corda, in Sturm, Deutsch.
Crypt. fasc. 26, p. 173, t. 40; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 145;
Rabenhor. Hepat. Eur. exsic. n. 15-267. Blepharostoma trico-
phylla, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 18; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 36.

Hab. On turfy heaths, and in bogs among Sphagnum. Belfast, Mr.
Templeton. Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Cromagloun, Dr. Carrington.
Kylemore, and other places in Connemara; Nephin Mountain,
Co. Mayo. This pretty plant, which is so unlike any other Bni-’

Moorre—On Trish Hepatice. 637

tish species save the following, is probably more generally dis-
tributed through Ireland than it is known to be at present. It
frequently grows among Sphagnum and other mosses, where it is
not readily noticed.

2. Blepharostoma setacea (Web.), Mitt. Stems creeping. Leaves im-
bricated round the stem, deeply bipartite, the segments setaceous,
jointed, incurved. Colesule on short lateral branches, cylindrical,
mouth open and much ciliated.

Jungermannia setacea, Weber, Spicil. Fl. Gott. p. 143; Hook. Brit.
Junger. t. 8; Smith, Engl. Bot. t. 2482; Dumort. Syll. Jung.
p- 63; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 144. Blepharostoma
setacea, Dumort. Rev. Jung. et Hepat. Europ. p. 93. Lepidozia
setacea, Lindb. Hepaticee in Hibernia lecte, p. 498 (1874).

Hab. Bogs, and moist shady banks in woods, &c. Very abundant in
the Killarney woods, and many other parts in Co. Kerry. Less
frequent through the northern and eastern counties. On moist
banks, parish of Rasharkin, Co. Derry.

Sub-tribe 6. JUNGERMANNIER.
Colesule and calyptra free. Fructification mostly terminal.

Scapanra, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 6, tab. 5, fig. 16 (1729);
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1ed., p. 11382 (1753). Martinellia, sect. a, in Gray’s
Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 691 (1821). Radula, Dumort. Comm.
Bot. p. 112 (1828); Carruth. in Seemann’s Journ, Bot. 3, p. 301;
sect. 2, Lindenb. in G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 63. Plagio-
chila, sect. 2, Scapaniz, Nees, in Lindb. Introduct. Bot. 2 ed.
(1835).

Fructification terminal, involucral bracts two, larger than the cauline
leaves. Colesule compressed, truncate at the apex, dentate or
entire, decurved at first. Capsule quadrivalvous, of thickest
texture. Leaves succubous, bilobed. Amphigastria wanting.

(a). Lobes of the leaves subequal.

1. Scapania compacta, Dumort. Stems procumbent, short, and sparingly
branched. Leaves conduplicate, bilobed, lobes rounded, entire.
Inyolucral bracts denticulate. Colesule crenulate at the mouth.

Jungermannia compacta, Roth, Germ. 3, p. 375; Lindenb. Synop.
Hep. p. 58. Jungermannia resupinata, Hook. Br. Jung. t. 23
(excl. syn.); Sm. Engl. Bot. tab. 2498.

Hab. Banks among heath, &e. Common, Dr. Taylor. We have
not found it to be a common species by any means, but a rare
one in Ireland. The only specimens we have collected of the
true plant are from the neighbourhood of Brandon, Co. Kerry.
Sterile in both places where it was observed growing.

638 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

2. Scapania subalpina, Dumortier. Var. B. undulifolia. Stems sub-
erect, dichotomously branched. Leaves bifarious, semi-amplexi-
eaul, and slightly decurrent, conduplicately bilobed, lobes nearly
equal.

Jungermannia subalpina, Nees, apud Lindenb. Hep. p. 55; Ekart,
Synop. Jung. p. 27, t. 11, fig. 91. Scapania subalpina, G. L. et
N. Synop. Hepat. p. 64, var. 8. p. 65; Dumort. Rey. Jung.
p. 14; Hepat. Europ. p. 36.

Hab. Rivulets where the water is constantly trickling over. Lugna-
quilla Mountain, Co. Wicklow, 1864; Nephinbeg, Co. Mayo,
1862. The Irish specimens, var. 8., have the stems more slender,
radiculose underneath. Leaves broader, lobes more spreading.

3. Scapania nimbrosa, Taylor. Stems ascending or erect, slightly
branched. Leaves bilobed, imbricate, dentate-ciliate, nearly equal
in size, lower lobe oblong-ovate, patent.

Scapania nimbrosa, Taylor, in Lehm. Pugill. Plant. 8 (1844), p. 6;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. Europ. p. 662; Dumort. Hepat.
Europ. p. 836; Cooke, Brit. Hepat. p. 6, fig. 46.

Hab. Among the larger mosses, &c. On Brandon Mountain, Co.
Kerry, Dr. Taylor. I know nothing of this plant farther than
the quotations transcribed testify.

(6). Leaves broader than long ; lobes rounded or blunt.

4. Scapania undulata (Linn., Dill.), Dumort. Stems ascending, slightly
branched. Leaves unequally 2-lobed, entire or denticulate, loose,
patent, rounded, trapezoidal, of flaccid texture. Fruit terminal.
Colesule oblong-incurved, mouth truncate, nearly entire.

Jungermannia undulata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1598; Hook. Brit. Jung. tab.
22; Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2251; Nees, Europ. Leber. 1, p. 184;
Ekart, Syn. Jung. p. 26, t. 2, fig. 14. Radula undulata,
Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112. Scapania undulata, Dumort. .
Jung. p. 14 (1835); Hepat. Europ. p. 37 (1874); G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 65 (1844); Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep.
Eur. exsic. n. 194, 34, 90, 260, 291; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 20.

Hab. Streamlets among the hills. This, one of our largest and finest
British species, is of frequent occurrence in Ireland. The stems.
sometimes attain to the length of 3—4 inches, and are generally
of a purplish colour, or of a bright shining green.

Var. B. purpurascens, Hiiben. Germ. Hepat., is common in Co. Kerry.

Var. ¢. speciosa, Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 442, was collected
near Lugnaquilla, Co. Wicklow. A very large and unusual
form occurs in the deep lake at the top of the glen leading to
Brandon Mountain from the Clogreen side. There the plant
floats in deep water, and has black wiry stems six inches or more
in length, with intensely green leaves, much cut and lacerated by
aquatic insects.

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 639

5. Scapania uliginosa (Nees), Dumort. Stems ascending. Leaves con-
duplicate, unequally bilobed, the lobes roundish and entire in the
margins, larger lobe anteriorly reclined, smaller about one-fourth
the size of the larger lobe. Colesule entire at the mouth.

Scapania uliginosa, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 14; Hepat. Europ. p. 39
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 67; Cooke’s Brit. Jung. p. 6, figs.
44, 45.

Hab. Marshy places among heath on the mountains. Near the Hunting
Tower, Cromaglaun (1875); Connor Hill, Co. Kerry (1878).

6. Scapania trrigua, Nees (Dumort.) Stems creeping. Leaves bi-
lobed, conduplicate, lobes very unequal, anterior lobe much the
smallest, and curved at the apex. Involucral bracts bifid, lobes
nearly equal. Colesule ovate, compressed, toothed at the mouth.

Jungermannia irrigua, Nees, Europ. Leber. 1, p. 198. Scapania irri-
gua, Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 15; Hepat. Europ. p. 37; G. L. et N.
Synop. Hep. p. 67; Carring. Irish Hepat., Trans. Bot. Edinb. 7,
p. 447; Cooke’s Brit. Hepat. p. 6, fig. 47.

Hab. Marshy wet places among the hills. Knockavohila, Co. Kerry,

_ Dr. Taylor. Cromaglaun; Marsh on Benbulben, Sligo; Lough
Bray, Wicklow. This plant bears more of general resemblance to
S. nemorosa than it does to 8. undulata. ‘Only small portions of
it were collected in the localities mentioned.

(ce). Leaves longer than broad ; lobes more or less acute.

7. Scapania equiloba, Dumort. Dicecious. Stems loosely tufted, ascend-
ing. Leaves bilobed, the lobes large, nearly equal, dentate, lower
lobe roundish-ovate, apiculate. Colesule oblong, compressed,
mouth oblique, truncate, denticulate, scarcely longer than the
involucral bracts. Capsule ovate.

Jungermannia equiloba, Schwegr. Prodr. Hepat. p. 214; Ekart, Synop.
Jung. t. 11, fig. 90. Radula equiloba, Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 39.
Scapania equiloba, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 14, et Hep. Europ.
p. 36; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 64; Caring. Brit. Jung.
p. 81, ‘h. 3, pl. 8, fig. 26, ex parte (1875).

Hab. Rocky places in subalpine countries. Near the head of Gleniff,
Co. Leitrim (1875), growing near Saxifraga nivalis. This is the
only Irish locality I feel safe in quoting for this species. All the
other Irish specimens I have seen, which have been named S.
eequiloba by some of our best authorities, are states of Scapania
resupinata, Dumort. = Martinellia gracilis, Lindberg. The verru-
cose epidermic layer of the areolation of the leaves, first observed
and pointed out by Dr. Lindberg, seems the only real character
by which this plant can be distinguished from its near allies.

8. Scapania resupinata, Dumort. Dicecious. Shoots in crowded tufts
for the most part, but sometimes more lax and scattered, mostly
R. I. A. PROC.—SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3P

640 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeny.

fawn-coloured, or of a dirty green. Leaves closely imbricated on
the stem, bilobed, lower lobe roundish, apiculate, reflexed, the
smaller lobe half the size of the other, roundish, concave, margins
of both lobes more or less ciliately dentate. Colesule truncate,
dentate at the mouth. Capsule oval.

Jungermannia resupinata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1599; Engl. Bot. t. 2437
(non Hook.); Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 26, t. x1. fig. 88 (excel.
fig. 3). Scapania resupinata, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 14, et Hepat.
Europ. p. 34; Carring. Brit. Junger. part 4, p. 77, pl. 8, fig. 26
(ex parte) (1845). Scapania eequiloba, var. foliis levibus, Gottsche,
MSS. Jens. in Bot. Tidsskr. 2, p. 288, n. 47 (1868). Martinellia
gracilis, Lindb. in Not. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 13, p. 865 (1874); Acta
Societatis Scientiarum Fennice, x., p. 520 (1875). Jungermannia
recurvitolia, y. recurvifolia, Hook. Jung. t. 21, f. 8.

Hab. Open heathy places chiefly, but also in woods and among rocks
in the more subalpine parts of the country. Very common and
wiaely distributed over Ireland, where it has been doing duty for
Scapania nemorosa, which latter, so far as I have seen or am aware,
israrein Ireland. Dr. Carrington (in British Jungermannie, part 4,
p- 79) states he had done his best to investigate the synonymy of
this species, having devoted several days to it, with anything but
satistactory results. To me the results appear to be more impor-
tant than they do to the author, as they have enabled me to
understand clearly a very common plant in Ireland, which I
never did before, nor do I think any former Irish cryptogamic
botanist understood it. Dr. Taylor’s Jungermannia resupinata
(in Fl. Hib. p. 2, p. 62) is Hooker’s plant (figured at tab. 23, Brit.
Jung. under that name)=J. compacta, Roth; Scapania compacta,
Dumort. Dr. Taylor certainly considered the present species as
a state of nemorosa, and named it so repeatedly. Dumortier has
defined Smith’s plant during a considerable number of years past,
both in his Recueil Jungermannie (1835), and Hepaticee Europe
(1874). Although it varies much in size according to locality, it is
constant to its leading characters, and mostly to the peculiar fawn
colour. On the western coast of Ireland, I have seen it in dense
compact patches, nearly half a yard wide, where the moist winds
from the Atlantic were favourabie for its growth. On Muckish
Mountain, Co. Donegal, I have seen it tall and straggling among
the heath in loose stems, quite unlike the fawn-coloured patches
on the west coast, yet easily recognizable as the same plant.

9. Scapania nemorosa, Dumort. Dicecious, rarely autcecious. Stems
laxly ceespitose. Shoots more or less erect. Leaves of a bright
green colour when fresh, pale green when dried, unequally bi-
lobed, inferior lobe obovate, recurved, smaller lobe about half the
size, both with ciliate-dentate margins. Colesule partly immersed, .
mouth truncate-ciliate.

Moorre—On Trish Hepatice. 641

Jungermannia nemorosa, Linn. Sp., ed. 3, p. 1598; Engl. Bot. t. 607 ;
Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 21 (excel. var. omn.); Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 2,
p- 61; Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. p. 152, t. 4, fig. 28; Lindenb.
Synop. Hepat. p. 51; De Not. Prim. Hep. Ital. p. 10. Radula
nemorosa, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112. Scapania nemorosa, Du-
mort. Rev. Jung. p. 14(1835), et Hepat. Europ. p. 38 (1874); G.
L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 68 (1844); Carring. Brit. Junger.
part 4, p. 74, pl. 5, fig. 15 (1875).

Hab. Damp shady banks and woods. Woods at Kylemore, Co. Galway,
and at Killarney. Among rocks more or less humid at Croma-
glaun and Tore Waterfall, Kerry, Dr. Lindberg.

10. Scapania planifolia, Hook. Stem erect. Leaves quadrifariously
imbricated on stem, bipartite, lobes unequal, inferior largest, ovate,
superior cordate, margins dentate-ciliate.

Jungermannia planifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 67; Engl. Bot. suppl.
t. 2695; Hook. and Tayl. Muse. Brit. ed. 2, p. 232 ; Ekart, Synop.
Jung. p. 23, t. 10, fig. 83. Scapania planifolia, Dumort. Rev.
Jung. p. 14; Hepat. Europ. p. 40; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.,
p- 68.

Hab. On high mountains, growing among the large mosses. Brandon
Mountain, Co. Kerry, Dr. Taylor and W. Wilson, Esq. This
extremely rare plant has not been found in any other locality in
Ireland than that indicated. During my several visits to Brandon
I have sought for it there, but have never been successful in find-
ing it.

11. Scapania umbrosa (Schrader), Dumort. Stem short, decumbent,

slightly branched. Leaves conduplicate, unequally bilobed, infe-

rior lobe tapering to an acute point, which is recurved, smaller

lobe ovate-ligulate, margins sharply serrate. Colesule incurved,

compressed, truncate at mouth. Apex of shoots frequently co-
vered with a dark grumose mass of gemme.

Jungermannia umbrosa, Schrader, Samml., 2, p. 5; Hooker, Brit.
Jung. t. 24, suppl. 3; Engl. Bot. t. 2527; Taylor, in Fl. Hib.
p- 2, p. 62. Scapania umbrosa, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 14, et
Hepat. Europ. p. 388; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 69.

Hab. Moist rocks and banks. Near Dublin, Dr. Taylor. Lough Bray,
Wicklow ; Kylemore, Co. Galway. Frequent in the Killarney
woods, especially where there is shade and moisture; Brandon,
Kerry.

12. Scapania curta, Dumort. Stems very short, ascending. Leaves
distichous, unequally bilobed, inferior lobe largest, roundish,
apiculate, lobule smaller, acute, erect, and spreading, margins of
both slightly and unequally denticulate. Colesule terminal, half
immersed, compressed, mouth truncate, dentate.

Jungermannia nemorosa, var. 6. denudata, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 21,
3P 2

642 Proceedings of the Royal Ivish Academy.

ff. 17-19. Jungermannia curta, Mart. Fl. Crypt. Erlang. p. 148,
p- 148, t. 4, fig. 24; Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p. 56, n. 52; Nees,
Leber. Eur. 1, p. 214. Radula curta, Dumort. Syll. Jung.
p. 40. Scapania curta, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 14 (1885), et
Hepat. Europ. p. 39 (1874); G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 69;
Rabenhor. Hepat. Eur. exsic. n. 895, 196, 882; Cogn. Hepat..
Belg. p. 22; Carring. Brit. Jung. part 4, p. 86, pl. 7, fig. 28.

Hab. Moist shady banks, in woods, &c. Sillaghbraes and Sleemish
Mountain, Co. Antrim; Gleniff, Co. Leitrim; Benbulben range,
Sligo. Abundant at Cromaglaun and other places about the Kil-
larney woods; wet banks near the sea, on an island off Ballinakill
harbour, near Letterfrack, Co. Galway. This species and S.
umbrosa are often found together, when it is sometimes difficult
to define them.

DreLopHytium, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 8, tab. 5, fig. 9 (1729); Linn..
FI. Suec., 1 ed., p. 835 (1745) ; Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816). Diplo-
phyllum, Dum. Recueil, 1, p. 15 (1835). Scapania, Mitt. im Hook.
Fl. Tasm. 2, p. 233 (1858).

Involucre oligophyllous. Leaves conduplicate, bilobed. Colesule-
round, denticulate, peduncle inarticulate. Capsule quadrivalved,
naked.

1. Diplophyllum albicans (Linn.), Dumort. Stems ascending. Leaves.
unequally 2-lobed, conduplicate, dorsal lobe ovate, ventral lobe
larger, oblong-ovate, both with a broad pellucid line in the mid-
dle. Colesule terminal, obovate, contracted at the mouth, and
toothed.

Jungermannia albicans, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1599; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 28; Engl. Bot. t. 2240; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 75; Ra-
benhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 138, &c. Diplophyllum albicans,
Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 16; Hepat. Europ. p. 48; Cogn. Hepat. |
Belg. p. 25.

Hub. Moist banks, and in shady woods, &c. This is probably the most
widely diffused and commonest species in Ireland. It varies
much in size and appearance, according to the localities where it
grows.

2. Diplophyllum obtusifolium (Hook.), Dumort. Dicecious. Stems.
simple, ascending. Leayes bifarious, conduplicate, unequally lobed,.
lobes falcate, rounded at the apex. Colesule terminal, plicate
towards the apex, which is contracted and toothed. Antheridia
in the axils of the perigonial leaves, on the upper portion of the:
male plant.

Jungermannia obtusifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 26; Smith, Engl.
Bot. t. 2311; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 60; Dumort. Syll.
Jung. p. 46; Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 30, t. 7, fig. 37,-

Moore—On Trish Hi epatice. 643

Nees, Europ. Leber. 1, p. 237; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p. 76; Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hepat. Eur. exsic. n. 12-302.
Diplophyllum obtusifolium, Dum. Rey. Jung. p. 16, et Hepat.
Europ. p. 50; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 24.

Hab. On moist clay banks. Near Bantry, Co. Cork, Miss Hutchins
(1812)? Near Dunkerron, Co. Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Dunscome’s
Wood, near Cork, W. Wilson, Esq. (1829). Very rare in Ire-
land. The localities quoted are the only places where it has
hitherto been observed.

Praciocuita, Dumortier.

Jungermannia, h. Nov. Pl.Gen. p. 7, tab. 5, fig. 1 (1729); Linn.
Sp. Pl., 1 ed., 2, p. 1181 (1758); Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816).
Candollea, sect. A., Raddi, in Att. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 22 (1818).
Martinellia, sect. 6, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Br. Pl. 1, p. 692 (1821).
Radula, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112 (1823). Plagiochila, Dum.
Recueil, 1, p. 14 (1835) ; Lindenb. Sp. Hep. fase. 1, 1-5 (1839) ;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 22 (1844).

Involucral bracts two, larger than the cauline leaves. Colesule com-
pressed at the mouth, ciliate-dentate. Antheridia in the angles
of perigonial leaves. Inflorescence auteecious or dicecious.

1. Plagiochila aspleniocdes (Linn.), Dumort. Stems ascending. Leaves
subimbricated, obovate-rotund, ciliate-dentate,’shghtly recurved
at apex. Colesule longer than the involucral bracts, compressed,
oblique, mouth truncate or ciliated.

Jungermannia asplenioides, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1597; Engl. Bot. 1061 ;
Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 138; Nees, Europ. Leber. 1, p. 161. Pla-
giochila asplenioides, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 14; G. L. et N.
Synop. Hep. p. 49; Gottsche and Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic.
nos. 271-320; Carring. Brit. Hepat. p. 55, pl. 4, fig. 12; Cooke,
Brit. Hepat. p. 5, fig. 87; Dumort. Hep. Europ. p. 48.

Hab. Banks among moss, and in woods. This, one of the largest and

finest of the British species, is common all over Ireland. In the

moist shady woods at Cromaglaun, it grows to a very large size,
where the stems not unfrequently attain from 8 to 10 inches
long.

B. minor (Plag. Dillenii), Taylor, in Hook. Journal of Botany, p.

260; Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., 2, p. 16. Dumortier enumerates and

describes this as a distinct species in Hepat. Europ., p. 43. It

grows plentifully in the Killarney woods.

Var. 8. devexa, Ross Bay and Dingle Bay, Kerry, Dr. Carrington.

2. Plagiochila spinulosa (Dicks.), Dumort. Stems creeping, branches
ascending. Leaves ovate, recurved, oblique, spreading, wedge-
shaped, dentate-spinulose on ventral aspect and apex, entire on
dorsal margin. Fructification lateral. Colesule roundish, com-
pressed, the mouth truncate-ciliated.

Var.

~

644 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Jungermannia spinulosa, Dicks. Crypt., fasc. 2, p. 14; Hook. Brit.
Jung. t. 14; Engl. Bot. t. 2228; Taylor, Fl. Hib. 2) p. 58-
Plagiochila spinulosa, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 13, p. 15, et
Hepat. Europ. p. 44; Lindenb. Sp. Hep. p. 6, t.1; G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 25; Carring. Brit. Hepat. p. 59, pl. 4, fig. 14.
Martinellius spinulosus, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. P1.692.

Hab. Woods and moist banks. This common species extends over the-
whole of Ireland, and is of frequent occurrence.

Var. y. Carring. Brit. Hepat. p. 60. Glengarriff and Cromaglaun,
Dr. Carrington.

3. Plagiochila punctata, Taylor. Dicecious. Stems closely tufted, of
a yellowish-green colour. Leaves variable in size and shape,.
rigid, and very caducous, especially after drying, those on the
main shoots broadly ovate, convex, decurrent, upper margin and
apex a little recurved, fringed with spinose teeth. On the ulti-
mate branches the leaves are narrower, scarcely wider than the
stem, cuneiform and spreading, their margins beset with from
two to five distant teeth. Cells largely collenchymatous, very
smooth, punctate—Dr. Taylor describes their appearance, ‘us
if coarsely powdered;’’ Lindberg, as ‘‘ verrucolosis striatulis.’”
Colesule broadly ovate, from a narrow base, compressed at length,
cleft at side, mouth open, beset with long spinulose teeth.

Plagiochila punctata, Taylor, in London Journal of Bot. 1844, p. 371 _
(sub. n. 10), et 1846, p. 261; Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., p. 179;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 626 ; Dumort. Hep. Eur. p. 45, n.
7; Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 211; Lindb. in
Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice, x., p. 524. Plagiochila
spinulosa, 8. punctata, Carring. Irish Crypt. p. 19, t. 2, f. 3
(1863), et Brit. Hepat. part 3, p. 60.

Hab. Shady woods, and banks among heath. Abundant in the Co.
Kerry, especially in the Killarney woods, but not common in the
northern or eastern counties. Altadore glen, and at Seven
Churches, Wicklow; Glenad, Co. Leitrim.

It will be seen from the authors quoted, that considerable diversity of
opinion exists as to the right of this plant to rank as a distinct
species. Dumortier and Lindberg hold it to be a species, while
Carrington considers it only as a variety of P. spinulosa. I have.
long known its habit, and have collected it in widely different
habitats, where the principal characters have been constant. I
have sometimes considered it nearer to P. tridenticulata than to.
P. spinulosa.

4. Plagiochila tridenticulata, Taylor. Stems decumbent, ascending at
apex, flexuose, slightly branched. Leaves distant, wedge-shaped,
two to three times toothed at apex. Androecium spicate.

Jungermannia spinulosa, B. tridenticulata, Hook. Brit. Jung. p. 9, t-
14; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 58, n. 10, var. minuta. Plagio-

Moorr—On Trish Hepatice. 645

chila tridenticulata, Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 15, et Hepat. Europ.
p. 43; G. L. et N., Synop. Hep. p. 26; Carring. Brit. Jung. part
3, p. 63, pl. 3, fig. 10.

Hab. Moist ground, among the larger mosses, &. This pretty and
distinct species is mostly confined to the southern counties in Ire-
land, and is generally scattered in small tufts among other herb-
age. Cromaglaun, Dr. Taylor and Dr. Carrington. Brandon and
Connor Hill, Kerry.

5. Plagiochila exigua, Taylor. Stems straggling, ascending, slightly
branched, crowned with minute capituli, which at length elongate
into new shoots. Leaves round-obovate, remote, patent, the lower
bifid, nearer the apex trifid, or ciliate. Fructification unknown.

Jungermannia exigua, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 1, p. 179;
Carring. Brit. Jung. pl. 4, fig. 13 (good). Plagiochila exigua,
G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 659 ; Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 46 ;
Carring. Brit. Hepat. pl. 4, fig. 13; Cooke, Brit. Jung. p. 5,
fig. 48 (bad).

Hab. About the bases of moss-covered trees at Cromaglaun and
Killarney, where it was discovered by Dr. Taylor, who de-
seribed it in 1843. At same place, 1873, where it is not rare;
O’Sullivan’s Cascade, and Glena, 1875. This singular and very
minute plant is most likely to be observed when some of the
larger kinds are under microscopical examination; among many
of these it frequently makes its appearance in the Killarney
gatherings. ‘The stems are seldom more than one-fourth of an
inch long, being more or less clothed with small, distantly-
set leaves, which increase in size as they approach the apex of
the stem.

Myzra, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Hook. Brit. Jung. p. 15, n. 46, 47 (1816); Dumort.
Recueil, 1, p. 16, n. 16 (1835). Mylia, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat.
Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 698 (1821). Leptoscyphus, Mitt. in Hook.
Lond. Journ. Bot. 3, p. 8358 (1851). | Coleochila, Dumort. Hepa-
ticee Europe, p. 105 (1874).

Involucre oligophyllous, bracts connate at the base. Colesule terminal
(or, from the growth of innovations, axillary), cylindrical, com-
pressed at the apex, mouth cleft.

1. Mylia Taylori (Hook.), B.Gray. Dicecious. Stemsascending, slightly
branched. Leaves 2-ranked, succubous, roundish, concave, reticu-
lations large. Amphigastria subulate. Colesule ovate, slightly
compressed at the mouth, truncate, deeply cleft in a bilabiate
form. Antheridia in the axils of perigonial leaves.

Jungermannia Taylori, Hook. Brit. Junger. t. 34; Engl. Bot. t. 2318;
Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 24; Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 48;

646 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 2, p. 63; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 82-
Coleochila Taylori, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 107.

Hab. On wet banks in subalpine parts of the country. This fine
species frequently grows in large patches among heath. On the
damp ground near mountain rivulets, where its purple-coloured
tops attract the eye of the collector, even when at a considerable
distance from the plant.

2. Myliaanomala(Hook.), B. Gray. Dicecious. This form, with the leaves
varying from roundish concave to nearly acuminate, generally
growsamong Sphagnum. The late Dr. Taylor did not consider it
was even a variety. Dr. Carrington thinks differently, and de-
scribes in his Irish Hepaticee a character by which it may be
distinguished from M. Taylori. He states, ‘‘the cells are of a
different form from M. Taylori, containing curious fusiform cor-
puscles.”” Dumortier, in Hepatice Europe, p. 106, gives it the
rank of a species. I have found both forms frequently growing
together, and so closely resembling each other, that it became
a difficult task to separate them.

JUNGERMANNIA, Linneus.

Jungermannia, L. Fl. Suec., 1 ed., p. 338 (1745); Raddi, in Att. Soc.
“Modena, 18, p. 25 (1818); Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 695
(1821) ; Dum. Nan Bot. p. 113 (1823). Nitophyllum, Neck.
Elem. Bot. 3, p. 836 (1790). Jungermannia, sect. 1, Diplophyl-
lum, Dum. Sill, Jung. Eur. p. 44 (1831); sect. 3, Aplozia, do.
p. 47; sect. 4, Gymnocolea, do. p. 52; sect. 5, Lophozia, do. p. 53;
sect. ie Cephalozia, do. p. 60. Diplophyllum, Dum. Recueil, 1,
p. 15 (1835); Gymnocolea, do. p. 17 (1835); Lophozia, do. p. 17
(1835) (excl. L. scutata) ; Geant do. p. 18 (1885), (sola
C. capitata) ; Marsupella, do. p- 24 (sola M. Miilleri)(1835). Lio-
chlena, Nees, in G. L. et N. Syn. Hep. p. 150 (1845). Solenostoma,
Mitt. in Journ. L. Soc. 8, p. 51 (1864).—Lindberg.

Section A. Apnozta.

Involucre oligophyllous. Leaves undivided, entire. Colesule sessile,
erect, round or angular, mouth denticulate.

1. Jungermannia (A.) eunerfolia (Hook.), Dumort. Stems creeping.
Leaves distant, cuneiform, entire or bluntly emarginate at the
apex. Amphigastria minute, bifid.

Jungermannia cuneifolia, Hook. Brit. Junger. t. 64; Engl. Bot.
suppl. t. 2700; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 153.

Hab. Parasitic on the larger Hepatice, especially Frullania tamarisci.
Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Tore Mountain, Dr. Carrington. On the
stems of trees, creeping over F. tamarisci, between the police
barrack and Upper Lake, Killarney. This singular minute species
appears to be confined to the Killarney district of Kerry. It may,
probably, turn out to be a Harpanthus when the fruit is found ?

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 647

2. Jungermannia (A.) crenulata, Smith (Dumort.). Stems prostrate,
branched. Leaves orbicular, bordered with large marginal cells.
Colesule obovate, compressed, angled, mouth contracted, toothed.

Jungermannia crenulata, Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 1463; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 37; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 66; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p. 90; Taylor, Fl. Hib. 2, p. 58. Aplozia crenulata, Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 57 (1874).

Hab. On moist clay banks in woods, and on heaths. Not unfrequent
through Ireland. Kelly’s Glen, Dublin; side of the river, Seven
Churches, Wicklow; Connemara; Ross Bay, Kerry, Dr. Car-
rington.

Var. B. gracillima, Jungermannia gracillima, Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2238;
Hook. Brit. Jung., at descript.n. 37. J. genthiana, Hiiben. Hepat.
Germ. p. 107. Aplozia gracillima, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 57.

This variety, which is described and held as a species by some authors,
gradually approaches the typical form of the plant in some of its
states. It is, however, usually of smaller size, with the leaves
more distantly placed on the stem, and more amplexicaul at their
base. It occurs in similar places as that of the larger state of the
plant, but at Westaston, Co. Wicklow, the var. 8. is abundant,
and none of the true A. crenulata grows with it.

3. Jungermannia (A.) pumila (With.), Dumort. Stems ascending, short,
sub-simple. Leaves oblong-elliptic, concave. Colesule terminal,
fusiform, plicate, dentate, ciliate at the mouth.

Jungermannia pumila, Wither, Bot. An., ed. 3, p. 866; Hook. Brit.
Jung. t. 17; Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2230; Tayl. Fl. Hib. 2, p. 58.
Aplozia pumila, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 59.

Hab. On rocks at the sides of streams and rivers, not rare, Dr. Taylor.
Glen near the Hunting Tower, Cromaglaun, Dr. Carrington.
Connor’ Hill and glen at Brandon, Kerry ; Lough Bray, Co. Wick-
low; Glenad, Co. Leitrim.

4. Jungermanma (A.) cordifolia (Hook.), Dumort. Stems erect,
branching. Leaves incumbent, cordate, concave, amplexicaul.
Fruit terminal and axillary. Colesule plicate, mouth contracted,
denticulate. Antheridia in the axils of perigonial leaves, spher-
ical, reticulated.

Jungermannia cordifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 32; Engl. Bot. t. 2590;
Lindenb. Synop, Hepat. p. 72; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 93;
Tayl. Fl. Hib. 2, p. 58; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. nos.
271-344. Aplozia cordifolia, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 59.

Hab. Moist banks, and on the rocky bottoms of rivers and streams.
Mangerton, Co. Kerry, in the stream from the Punch Bowl, Dr.
Taylor. River which flows down to Cushindun, Co. Antrim,
three-quarters of a mile above the village, 1836. Coomashana
lake, Kerry, Dr. Carrington. Brandon, 1864. Maghanabo glen,
Kerry, 1875, D. Macardle. This distinct and well-marked species
is rather rare in Ireland.

648 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

5. Jungermannia (A.) spherocarpa (Hook.), Dumort. Stem simple,
ascending. Leaves rather distant, accumbent, orbicular, entire.
Colesule terminal, obovate, contracted at the mouth and cut
into four large teeth.

Jungermannia spherocarpa, Hook. Brit. Junger. t. 74; Lindenb.
Synop. Hepat. p. 68; Fl. Dan. t. 1773; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat. Europ. p. 93; Tayl. Fl. Hib. 2, p. 58. Aplozia sphero-—
carpa, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 61.

Hab. On stones by the sides of rivulets. Near Dublin, and at Tore
Waterfall, Killarney, Dr. Taylor. Kelly’s glen, Dublin; Lough
Bray, Wicklow ; wet rocks, Glenad, Co. Leitrim.

6. Jungermanma (A.) riparia (Taylor), Dumort. Stems procumbent,.
slightly branched. Leaves obovate, obtuse, closely set on the
stem, and subamplexicaul, concave, entire. Colesule terminal,
obovate, apex plicate.

Jungermannia. riparia, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. p. 48; G. L.
et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 97; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 28 ; Cooke’s.
Brit. Jung. p. 9, fig.69. Aplozia riparia, Dumort. Hepat. Europ.
p. 63.

Hab. Sides of streams and pools. Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Benbulben,.
Sligo; Brandon, Kerry; Loughbray, and near Woodenbridge,
Wicklow. Tore Cascade, Dr. Carrington. Enniscona, Cork,
Isaac Carroll, Esq. Dr. Taylor remarks that this plant has been
frequently mistaken for J. pumila. When strong it is more
likely to be overlooked at first sight for Chiloseyphus polyan-
thos.

7. Jungermannia (A.) nana, Nees. Stems ascending or erect, pale green,
radiculose, branches slender. Leaves round or roundish-ovate,.
erect, clasping. Colesule obtuse, at length quadrangular and
shghtly crested, mouth toothed.

Jungermannia nana, Nees, Hep. Europ. 1, pp. 317, 278; 2, p.
466; 3, p. 533; 4, p. 41; Gottsche, Ic. Hep. ined. Jungerman-
nia pumila, Lindenb. Hep. Europ. p. 69, n. 68, t. 2 (excl.
synon.); De Notar., Prim. Hep. Ital. p. 38, n. 48; G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. Europ. p. 91; Carring. Irish Hepat., Trans. Bot.
Soc. Edinb. vol. 7, p. 38, p. 448. Jungermannia lurida, Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 60 (1874). Var. @ major, Jungermannia
lurida, Dumort. Syll. p. 50, n. 49 (1831).

Hab. On wet banks, by the sides of streams. Glengariff, Co. Cork,
Miss Hutchins. Kelly’s glen, Co. Dublin, and near the Seven
Churches, Co. Wicklow. Apparently rare in Ireland. This
little plant is in every way nearly allied to Jungermannia crenu-
lata and J. gracillima. The trigonal colesule, partly crested in
these plants, accords with the character of Lindberg’s section a,
Eucalyx, in his genus Nardia (emend.). I, however, consider them
more naturally placed where Dumortier has placed them—in his.
section Aplozia, with J. spheerocarpa, J. pumila, &e.

Moore—On Irish Hepatice. 649

Section B. SpHenoLoBum.

8. Jungermannia(S.) Dickson, Hook. Stems ascending, mostly simple.
Leaves unequally 2-lobed, lobes narrow, ovate, acute, entire at
the margin, ventral lobe much the largest. Colesule terminal,
slightly plicate, and subciliate at the mouth. Antheridia in the
axils of perigonial leaves.

Jungermannia Dicksoni, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 48; Engl. Bot. 2591 ;.
Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 2, p. 62; Ekart, Synop.Jung. p. 52, tab. 9,
fig. 68; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 79. Diplophyllum Dicksoni,
Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 16, et Hepat. Europ. p. 49 (1875) ; Cogn.
Hepat. Belg. p. 24.

Hab. On rocks and moist banks in subalpine parts of Ireland. Rare.
Mountains near Dublin, Dr. Taylor. Loughbray, Co. Wicklow,
single stems; Gleniff, Leitrim, single stems; north side of
Connor Hill, Kerry, single stems, growing among the larger
mosses.

9. Jungermannia (S.) minuta, Crantz. Stems erect, dichotomously
branched. Leaves patent, bilobed, lobes nearly equal, acute at the
apex, margins entire. Colesule terminal, subspherical, mouth
contracted, denticulate. Antheridia in the axils of perigonial
leaves, several together, spherical, reticulated.

Jungermannia minuta, Crantz. Hist. Gren. p. 288; Hook. Brit.
Jung. t. 44; Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2231; G. L.et N. Synop. Hep.
p. 120; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 2, p. 62. Diplophyllum minutum,
Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 16, et Hepat. Europ. p. 49; Cogn. Hepat.
Belg. p. 24.

Hab. Heathy and rocky banks; rare in fruit. Loughbray, Co. Wick-
low ; also at Seven Churches, Wicklow.

Section C. Lopxozta, Dumortier.

Inyolucre oligophyllous, multifid, dissimilar to stem leaves. Cole-
sule sessile, erect, round, inflated, contracted at the moutb,
and dentate.

(4.) Stipulate.

10. Jungermannia (L.) Bantriensis, Hook. Stems subsimple, erect or
ascending. Leaves roundish-oval, emarginate or bidentate at the
apex. Amphigastria minute, entire, or slightly toothed on the
margin. Colesule obovate, dentate at the mouth.

Jungermannia Bantriensis, Hook. Brit. Jung., in annotatione ad J. sti-
pulaceam, species 41; Nees, Europ. Leberm. 2, p. 24, and 8, p. 540 ;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 100; Rabenhor. Hep. exsic. n. 305;
Cooke, Br. Jung. p. 10, fig. 70; Dumort. Hep. Europ. p. 68.

650 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Hab. Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Glengariff, Dr. Carrington. Brandon,
Kerry ; Benbulben, Sligo; Gleniff, Leitrim.

11. Jungermannia (L.) Hornschuchiana, Nees. Stems subsimple, diffuse.
Leaves suborbiculate, bidentate, sinus shallow, lobes rather
acute. Amphigastria bifid, divisions lanceolate, ciliate-dentate
at base. -Colesule long, cylindrical, mouth acute, gradually ap-
proaching to triangular.

Jungermannia Hornschuchiana, Nees, Europ. Leberm. 2, p. 153; G.
L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 101; Husnot, Hepat. Gall. n. 32.

Hab. Wet places in subalpine parts of the country. . At Cromaglaun,
Co. Kerry, and among rocks near Tore Mountain, July, 1869;
stream near Woodenbridge, Co. Wicklow. This plant is rather
larger than most of those in same section, and might be easily
passed over for J. (A.) riparia, both in a fresh and dried state. Itis
only when the peculiarly notched sub-vertical leaves with their
amphigastria are examined, that its distinguishing characters are
observed. Dr. Lindberg considers J. Hornschuchiana, J. Bantri-
ensis, and J. Milleri forms of one species.

12. Jungermannia (L.) Orcadensis, Hook. Stems erect. Leaves closely
imbricated, erecto-patent, incumbent, appressed, cordate-ovate,
margins recurved, obtusely emarginate at apex.

Jungermannia Orcadensis, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 71; Lindenberg, Syn.
Hep. p. 74; Nees, Eur. Leberm. 2, p. 35; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hep. p. 107; Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 40, 399,
400; De Notar. Prim. Hep. Ital. p. 32. Mesophylla Orcadensis,
Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 80 ; Hepat. Europ. p. 180.

Hab. Among the larger mosses and Hepatice in subalpine parts of
the country, but very rare in Ireland. Brandon, Co. Kerry.
‘‘Connor Hill, among Herberta adunca, Dr. Lindberg (1878).”

13. Jungermannia (L.) barbata, Schreber. Stems ascending, slightly
branched. Leaves subquadrate, 3-5 cleft. Amphigastria acutely
bifid, and laciniated. Colesule ovate, contracted at the mouth, and
toothed. Antheridia in the axils of perigonial leaves, round,
greyish, and slightly reticulated.

Jungermannia barbata, Schreber, Spicil. Lips. p. 107; Schmidel,
Icones, p. 187; Hook. Brit. Jung. n. 70; Dumort. Syll. Jung.
p- 58; Hepatice Europe, p. 72 (1874). J. quinquidentata,
Huds. Angl. Fl. p. 511; Schwaegr. Prodr. Hepat. p. 29; Sm.
Engl. Bot. t. 2547; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 45; Ekart, Syn.
n. 47, tab. 5, fig. 41; De Not. Prim. Hep. Ital. p. 22. Lophozia
barbata, Dum. Rey. Jung. p. 17; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 31.

Hab. Among rocks, and on heathy banks. This plant is of general
occurrence in Ireland, from the northern to the southern counties,
and from east to west; but most abundant in the north, especially
in counties Antrim and Donegal. i

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 651

Var. B. Floerkii. Leaves connivent. Amphigastria long and laciniate.
Jungermannia Floerkii, Web. et Mohr, Deutschl. Crypt. p. 410 ;
Mart. Erlang. p. 144, t. 4, f.17. Muckish, Donegal.

(B.) Ex-stipulate.

14. Jungermannia (L.) Lyoni, Taylor. Stems ascending, sparingly
branched. Leaves alternate, distichous, subquadrate, recurved,
trifid, anterior lacinee roundish, posterior reflexed, all acute or
incised, terminal tooth large. Amphigastria wanting. Involucral
bracts rather long. Colesule oblong, obtuse, inflated at the base
near to the middle, mouth plicate-ciliate.

‘Jungermannia Lyoni, Taylor, in Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 1, p. 116,
tab. 7; Spruce, in Trans. Bot. Soe. Edinb. 3, p. 204; Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 73 (1874). J. socia, var. y.,G. L. et N. Synop-
Hep. p- 112. J. barbata var. G. L. et N. /. ¢. p. 678.

Hab. On rocky banks among mosses. At Glenmaluer, Co. Wicklow,
among tufts of Scapania resupinata, single stems. It will be
observed from the foregoing quotations, that considerable diver-
sity of opinion prevails regarding the position this plant ought to
occupy, Whether as a species, or only as a variety of J. barbata.
Dr. Spruce’s critical observations, which always deserve the great-
est attention, would appear to be decisive on the point, namely,
that it is a good species. He never found the true J. barbata in
the Pyrenees, though he found J. Lyoni.

15. Jungermannia (L.) exsecta, Schmidel. Stems prostrate. Leaves.
9-ranked, spreading, ovate-lanceolate, bilobed, and cut at the
margin, lobes very unequal, sharp at apex. Involucral bracts
quadrifid. Colesule terminal, plicate.

Jungermannia exsecta, Schmid. Ic. et Anal. p. 241, t. 62, fig. 2, excl.
fig. fructf. et 19,20; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 19, and suppl. t. 1;
Taylor, in FI. Hib. p. 2, p. 62; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 77;
Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 130, 358; Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. WBe

Hab. Banks, and in old woods. Bantry, Co. Cork, Miss Hutchins. On
dry banks common, Dr. Taylor. Rotten bogs, Cromaglaun, Dr.
Carrington. Ballinhassig glen, Co. Cork, Isaac Carroll, Esq.
Gleniff, Leitrim ; Sillaghbraes, Antrim.

16. Jungermannia (L.) intermedia, Lindenb. Stems ascending, slightly
branching. Leaves in two rows, erect, roundish in outline, bifid
segments acute. Involucral bracts 8-5 lobed, inciso-dentate, con-?
nate at base, appressed. Amphigastria wanting. Colesule ter-
minal, obovate.

Jungermannia excisa, var. crispa, Hook. But. Jung., p. 11, tab.
suppl. 2. Jungermannia bicrenata, var. minor, Mart. Fl. Crypt.

652 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeny.

Erlang., p. 168. Jungermannia intermedia, Lindenb. Synop.
Hepat., p. 83; Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 55; Ekart, Synop. p. 15,
tt. 6, 12, fig. 46; Nees, Europ. Leberm., 2, p. 125; Gottsche
et Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic., n. 60, 144, 812; Dumort.
Hepat. Europ. p. 76. Lophozia intermedia, Dumort. Rev. Jung.
(Oe hte

Hab. Bogs and banks in subalpine parts. On Galtymore Mountain,
Co. Tipperary.

17. Jungermannia (L.)capitata, Hook. Stems prostrate, rather crowded.
Leaves erect, roundish-quadrate in outline, the lower bifid, the
upper crowded, resembling involucral bracts, 8-5 incised, and
cleft. Amphigastria wanting. Colesule terminal, oval.

Jungermannia capitata, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 80. Jungermannia in-
termedia, var. capitata, Nees, Europ. Leberm., 2, p. 125.

Hab. Dry mountain rocks. Near Bantry, Miss Hutchins, who sent it
to Hooker. (Brit. Jung., n. 80). Some of the best authorities
on British Hepatice consider this and the previous-named_ species
to be the same. Jam not well acquainted with either.

18. Jungermannia (L.) ventricosa, Dicks. Stem ascending, slightly
branched. Leaves accumbent, subquadrate, obtuse or bluntly
emarginate, concave. Involucral bracts 3-4 cleft. Amphigastria
wanting. Colesule oyate-oblong, contracted at the mouth and
slightly toothed.

Jungermannia ventricosa, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. 2, p. 14; Hook. Brit.
Jung. t. 28; Engl. Bot. t. 2568; Tayl. in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 60; G.
L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 108; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic.
n. 184, 185.

Hab. Banks and rocks in mountain situations, Dublin and Wicklow.
Conemore, Dr. Taylor. Antrim; Benbulben, Sligo; Galtymore,
Tipperary. Rare at Killarney, Dr. Carrington.

19. Jungermannia (L.) excisa, Dicks. Stem prostrate. Leaves patent,
subquadrate, deeply emarginate. Fruit terminal. Colesule
oblong-ovate, the mouth wide, plicate, and toothed.

Jungermannia excisa, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. 8, p. 11, t. 8, fig.7; Hook. Brit.
Jung., p. 11 (excl. syn. Mohr, Wahlen., Schwegr., and Smith ;
also var. which is in Suppl. t. 2); Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p. 84;
Nees, Europ. Leberm. 2, p. 98; G. L. et N., Synop. Hep. p. 112;
Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 78. Lophozia excisa, Dumort. Rey.
Jung., p. 17.

Hab. Woods and heathy banks. Rare in Ireland. On the mountains
near Dublin, Dr. Taylor. This plant has not turned up among
the widely extended gatherings made by me in many parts of Ire-
land, nor have I seen Irish specimens of it.

20. Jungermannia (L.) bierenata, Lindenb. Stems procumbent, subsim- |
ple. Leaves roundish-ovate, acutely emarginate. Involucral bracts

Moorte—On Irish Hepatice. 653

appressed, trifid, sub-serrulate. Amphigastria wanting. Cole-
sule ovate.

Jungermannia bicrenata, Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 82; Nees,
Europ. Leberm. 2, p. 119; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 115;
Dumort., Hepat. Europ., p. 78. Jungermannia excisa, Sm.
Engl. Bot. t. 2497 (excl. syn.); Ekart, Synop. Jung. t. 11,
fig. 93.

Hab. On the ground among heath, and on shady banks. Temple
Michael, Cork, Isaac Carroll, Esq. ; near Letterfrack, and
Kylemore, Co. Galway (1874).

21. Jungermannia (L.) incisa, Schrader. Stems prostrate, subsimple.
Leaves accumbent, roundish-quadrate, undulate, trifidly cut, the
segments unequal. Involucral bracts 3-4 incised. Amphigastria
wanting. Colesule terminal, obovate, mouth toothed.

Jungermannia incisa, Schrader, Samml., 2, p. 5; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 10; Engl. Bot. t. 2528; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 118;
Dumort. Syll. p. 56; Hepat. Europ. p. 80; Taylor, in Fl. Hib.
2, p. 61. Lophozia incisa, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 17; Cogn.
Hepat. Belg. p. 30.

Hab. On the wet sides of turfy banks. Rare on the eastern and
northern sides of Ireland; more abundant on the western, par-
ticularly in Connemara ; Corslieve Mountain, and Bengore, Mayo;
near Kylemore, Galway; abundant on the top of Mulrea Moun-
tain, Mayo. Near Cooneashana lake, Kerry, Dr. Carrington.

Section D. Gymnocotra, Dumortier.

Involucre oligophyllous, bracts bifid. Colesule pedunculate, mouth
denticulate.

22. Jungermannia (G@.) laxifolia (Hook.), Dumort. Stem lax, filiform,
prostrate. Leaves remote, ovate, acutely bifid, segments acute,
erect. Colesule subterminal, often from the axil of a young
branch, subplicate, mouth contracted, denticulate.

Jungermannia laxifolia, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 59; Engl. Bot. t. 2677;
Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 34; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 65; G.
L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 147; Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic.
n. 343. Gymnocolea laxifolia, Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 17, et Hepat.
Europ. p. 64.

Hab. On rocks by the sides of rivulets. Near Bantry, Miss Hutchins.
Castlekelly Mountain, Dublin, and Aooreagh river, near Sneem,
Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Maghanabo glen, Connor Hill, and Brandon,
Kerry. Cromaglaun and Mangerton, Dr. Carrington. This
minute plant adheres closely to the rocks on which it grows, and
looks more like a minute Alga than a Hepatic.

654 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

23. Jungermannia (G.) inflata (Huds.), Dumort. Stem ascending,
branched. Leaves 2-ranked, acutely bifid, the segments obtuse.
Colesule terminal, oblong-ovate, mouth contracted and toothed.

Jungermannia inflata, Huds. Flor. Angl. p. 511; Hook. Brit. Jung.
t. 38; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p. 79; De Notaris, Prim. Hepat.
Ital. p. 29; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 59; G. L. et N. Synop.
Hepat. p. 105; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 174-311, &c.
Gymnocolea inflata, Dumort. Rey. Jung. p. 17, et Hepat. Europ.
p. 68.

Hab. On stones by rivulets; but oftener on moors about the roots of
heath. Bantry, Miss Hutchins. Abundant on the moors at _
Featherbed Mountain, Co. Dublin. Near Finglas, Dublin, Mr. D.
Macardle.

Var. a. compacta, Carrington. On the top of Howth Hill, Dublin,
where it grows among dry rocks and is green, not haying the
usually black colour of the species.

Var. y. laxa. Near Lough Guitane, and near Dean Bedee Ross Bay,.
eae Dr. Carrington.

24, Jungermannia ( G.) affinis (Wilson), Dumort. Stem small, procum-
bent. Leaves rounded, concave, bifid, segments obtuse, reticula-
tion large and hyaline. Involucral bracts larger than the cauline-
leaves, spreading, and slightly reflexed. Colesule terminal,
pyritorm, contracted, plicate, and toothed at the mouth.

Jungermannia affinis, Wilson, in Hook. Brit. Fl. 2, p. 128. Junger-
mannia turbinata, Wils. in Engl. Bot. suppl. t. 2744, nee Raddi;.
Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 59. Jungermannia Wilsoniana, Nees,
Europ. Leberm. 3, p. 548; Cooke, Brit. Jung. p. 10, f. 74.
Gymnocolea affinis, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 65.

Hab. Woodlands, near Dublin, W. Wilson, Esq., 1830. Not unfre-
quent on the grey limestone in the Co. Dublin, where it fruits
freely. Finglas quarry, Mr. D. Macardle. On white limestone
near Glenarm, Co. Antrim. Killarney, on limestone, Dr. Carring-
ton. Tore Cascade, Killarney, and a larger state of the plant on
Carrantual, Kerry.

Narpra, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Ehrh. in Hann. Mag. p. 141 (1784); Schrad. Syst.
Samml. Krypt. Gew. 2, p. 4 (1797); Sm. Engl. Bot. tab. 1463
(1805); Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816). Nardia, B. Gray, in Gray’s
Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 701 (1821); Lindb. in Act. Soe. Se.
Fenn. x., p. 115 (1871); sect. 1, Eucalyx, Lindb. in Bot. Not.
(1872). Mesophylla, Dum. Comm. Bot. p. 112 (1828). Mar-
supella, Dum. Comm. Bot. p. 114 (1823), et Recueil, 1, p. 23,
n. 37 (1835). Sarcoscyphus, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. it p-. 652 -
(1829); Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. 2, fase. 19, 20 (1830). Alicu-

Moore—On Trish Hepatice. 655

laria, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. 1, p. 652 (1829). Gymnomitrium,
Nees, Nat. Eur. Leber. 1, p. 120 (1833); Solenostoma, Mitt. in
Journ. Lin. Soc. 8, p. 51 (1864).

Section A. Marsuprrra (Dum.), Lindberg.

Colesule connately united with the involucral leaves and torus, toge-
ther forming an urceolate perianth. Capsule globose. laters
with two spires. Antheridia in the saccate bases of the perigonial
leaves.

1. Nardia emarginata (Ehrh.), B. Gr. Stem erect. Leaves distichous,
imbricated, patent, obcordate, emarginate.

Jungermannia emarginata, Ehrh. Beitr. 3, p. 80; Sm. Engl. Bot.
t. 1022; Hook. Brit. Junger. t. 27; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 59;
Fl. Danica, t. 1945, f. 1. Nardius emarginatus, B. Gr. in Gray’s
Nat. Arr. Br. Pl. 1, p. 694. Marsupella emarginata, Dumort.
Comm. Bot., p. 114; Rev. Jung. p. 24, et Hepat. Europ. p. 126.
Sarcoseyphus Ehrharti, Corda, in Opiz, Natural., p. 652; G. L.
et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 6; Nees, Eur. Leberm. 1, p. 125.

Hab. Wet rocks and sides of mountain rivulets. Very frequent in
Treland. Several distinct forms or varieties which retain their
habits as to size, colour, &c., occur occasionally.

Var. y. minor was found sparingly on rocks near the police barrack at
Cromaglaun, in 1873.

2. Nardia sphacelata, Giesecke. Stem erect, branched. Leaves di-
stichous, not so closely imbricated as in the previous species, patent,
obovate-emarginate, rounded at the acute apex.

Jungermannia sphacelata, Giesecke, in Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p. 76,
t. 1, fig. 9; Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 15, tab. 11, fig. 91. Mar-
supia sphacelata, Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 78. Sarcoseyphus spha-
celatus, Nees, Europ. Leber. p. 129; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.
p- 7; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 519-255. Marsupella
sphacelata, Dumort. Hepat. Kurop. p. 127.

Hab. Wet rocks by the borders of mountain rivulets. Very rare.
Loughbray, Wicklow, according to Dr. Carrington (British He-
patice, p. 12), who states that Dr. Lindberg collected it there in
1873, growing with Nardia compressa. I have never seen an
Trish specimen of this plant, though Lindberg states, that it was
collected by me at Loughbray, Wicklow.

3. Nardia Funckii (Web. et Mohr), Carring. Stem erect, densely
tufted, slightly branched. Leaves distichous, obovate, rounded,
concaye, acutely emarginate.

Jungermannia Funckii, Web. et Mohr, Deuts. Krypt. p. 422; Lindenb.
Synop. Hepat. p. 77; Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 14, t. 138, fig. 112.
Sarcoscyphus Funckii, Nees, Europ. Leberm. 1. p. 135; G. L.
et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 8; Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n.

R. I, As PROC., SER. II., VOL. 11., SCIENCE, 3Q

656 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

86-254. Marsupella Funckii, Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 24, et
Hepat. Europ. p. 128.

Hab. On moist shady banks, and argillaceous rocky places. Black
Mountain, near Belfast (1837); mountains above Kylemore lake,
Co. Galway (1874).

4. Nardia revoluta (Nees), Lindb. Stem matted, flagilliferous at the
base, densely tufted. Leaves obovate-elliptic, imbricated, semi-am-
plexicaul at the base, reflexed at the margin, acutely emarginate.

Sarcoscyphus revolutus, Nees, Leberm. Eur. 2, p. 419; G.L. et N.
Synop. Hep. p. 8. Marsupella revoluta, Dumort. Hepat. Europ.
p. 126. Nardia revoluta, Carring. Grevillea, n. 18, p. 88, fig.
19-25 (1873); Brit. Hepat. p. 22; Lindb. Revis. Crit. Fl. Dan.
p. 113 (1871).

Hab. On rocks at Luggielaw, Wicklow, Mr. David Orr (1851). Not
found by any other person in Ireland. This rare plant I collected
in some quantity on rocks above Jerkin station, on the Dovre-
field, Norway, in 1864.

Section B. Mesopuyria, Dumortier.

5. Nardia scalaris (Schrader), B. Gr. Dicecious. Stem ascending,
radiculose. Leaves two-ranked, accumbent, roundish, entire, or
rarely subemarginate. Amphigastria broadly subulate. Invo-
lucre urceolate.

Juugermannia scalaris, Schrad. Samml. 2, p. 4; Hook. Brit. Jung. t.
61; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat. p.28; Nees, Europ. Leberm. p. 281.
Mesophylla scalaris, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112; Rev. Jung.
p. 24. Alicularia scalaris, Corda, in Opiz, Natural. p. 653; G.
L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 10; Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep. Europ.
exsic. n. 69, 70, 232-381; Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 131; Nar-
dius scalaris, B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Br. Pl. 1, p. 694, n. 1
(1821); Carrington, Brit. Hepat. p. 23.

Hab. On moist clay banks, among heath and other herbage. Very
abundant throughout Ireland. It varies considerably in form
according to the nature of some localities where it grows. A very
remarkable form, the var. 8. rivularis, Lindb., grows in very wet
places under the constant spray of little cascades, or running
water, where its clear glistening leaves are very conspicuous. It
has frequently been named Jung. hyalina by some of our most
acute and well practised hepaticists.

6. Nardia compressa (B. Gr.), Carrington. Stem erect, branched,
laterally compressed. Leaves succubous, two-ranked, orbiculate,
compressed, subulate. Amphigastria sometimes present at the
points of young shoots. Calyx immersed among the involucral
leaves, mouth toothed.

Jungermannia compressa, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 58; Sm. Engl. Bot.
t. 2587; Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p. 383. Mesophylla compressa,

Moorr—On Trish Hepatice. 607

Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 112; Syll. Jung. p. 80, t. 2, et Hepat.
Europ. p. 129. Alicularia compressa, G. L. et N. Synop. Hep.
p. 12; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 443, 472, 5387.
Nardia compressa, Carrington, Brit. Hepat. pl. 3, fig. 9.

Hab. Sides of rivulets, and moist rocky places near waterfalls. Local
in Ireland, and chiefly confined to the Co. Wicklow, on the east
side, and Kerry on the south-west. First discovered by Miss
Hutchins, near Bantry, Cork. At Aooreagh river, near Sneem,
Dr. Taylor. Abundant at Upper Loughbray, more sparingly at
Luggielaw and Seven Churches, Wicklow; Kelly’s glen, Dublin;
Connemara—near Kylemore, Galway.

Var. B.rigida, Lindb. Near to N. sphacelata, but stems shorter, narrower,
and more rigid, more branched, more densely foliaceous, and here
and there flexuose. Leaves more spreading and rigid. Cells twice
the size, and thickened, generally highly coloured.

Hab. Loughbray, Co. Wicklow, Dr. Lindberg. On boggy land near
Seven Churches, Co. Wicklow.

Dr. Lindberg states that this form is intermediate between the typical
form of the species and its var. y. Carringtonii; (Adelanthus Car-
ringtonii, Balfour, MSS.; Nardia Carringtonu, Lindb. The first
plants of this which I collected were sent to Dr. Lindberg, who
named them N. Carringtonii without any reservation.

Section C. Sournsya, Spruce.

7. Nardia obovata (Nees), Carrington. Stems ascending, clothed
with purple rootlets. Leaves roundish, obovate, patent, base
contracted and somewhat saccate, alternate on lower portion of
stem, opposite at apex. Involucral leaves connate more than
half way with the colesule, the upper portion of which is free,
mouth toothed.

Jungermannia obovata, Nees, Europ. Leberm. 1, p. 332; 2, p. 474; G.
L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 95, n. 44; Fl. Danica, suppl. t. 118,
n. 2; Carring. Tr. B. Soc. Ed. 7, p. 447; Cooke, Brit. Jung. p. 8,
fig. 62. Jungermannia tersa, Nees, Europ. Leberm. p. 471
(ex parte), et Synop. Hepat. p. 94 (ex parte). Southbya obovata,
Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 188. Nardia obovata, Carring. Brit.
Hepat. p. 82, pl. 11, fig. 35.

Hab. Moist rocks, and by the sides of rivulets. Tore Mountain, Kil-
larney, W. Wilson (1829). Lough Bray, Co. Wicklow.

Var. 8. minor, Cromaglaun, Killarney, Dr. Carrington, Irish Crypt. in
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 7, part 3, p. 447, pl. 2, fig. 1. Connor
Hill, Kerry ; streams above Kylemore lake, Co. Galway.

8. Nardia hyalina (Lyell), Carrington. Polycecious. Stem flexuose,

creeping, ascending at the apex. Leaves roundish, subcrenulate
3Q2

658 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

at the margin, erecto-patent, entire. Colesule subterminal, oblong,
angulate, mouth contracted, toothed.

Jungermannia hyalina, Lyell, in Hook. Brit. Jung. tab. 65; Lindenb.
Synop. Hepat. p. 67; Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 50; G. L. et N.
Synop. Hepat. p. 92; Cooke, Brit. Jung. p. 8, fig. 61; Engl.
Bot. suppl. t. 2678. Aplozia hyalina, Dumort. Hepat. Europ.
p- 58. Nardia hyalina, Carring. in Brit. Hepat. p. 35, pl. 11,
fig. 36.

Hab. Moist banks, and by the sides of streamlets in rocky places.
Seefing Mountain, Dublin. Aooreagh river, near Sneem, Kerry,
Dr. Taylor, in Fl. Hib. Brandon, W. Wilson, Luggielaw, and
Seven Churches, Wicklow. Not very common in Ireland.

ADELANTHUs, Mitten.

Jungermannia, Dicks. Pl. Crypt. (1783). Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816);
Radula, sect. 3, Plagiochila, Dum. Syll. Jung. Europ. p. 43
(1831). Plagiochila, Dumort. Recueil, 1, p. 15 (1835). Gym-
nanthe, Mitten, in Journal Linn. Soc. p. 166 (1863). Adelanthus,
Mitten, in Journal Linn. Soc. 7, p. 243 (1864). Odontoschisma,
Lindb. Soc. Faun. et Fl. Fenn. 18, pp. 857-363 (1874).

Perianth on short ventral shoots at the base of the branches, tubulose,
mouth connivent, subtrigonous, dentate. Involucral bracts tri-
farious. Antheridia in the axils of perigonial leaves which are
spicate. Stems procumbent below, stoloniferous, leafless, branches
erect, curved, simple. Leaves distichous, almost vertical, dorsal
margin decurrent.

Adelanthus decipiens (Hook.), Mitten. Dicecious. Stem erect, the
upper leaves subcompressed, larger, rotundate, the lower ovate,
ali of them marginate, reticulated with irregular spiniform
teeth. Amphigastria thick, short, subulate. Colesule on short
ventral shoots, tubulose, ventricose, mouth conniyent, ciliate-
dentate. Antheridia in the axils of perigonial leaves of the male
plant.

Jungermannia decipiens, Hook. Brit. Jung. tab. 50; Engl. Bot. 2566 ;
Nees, Hep. Eur. 1, p. 159. Plagiochila decipiens Dumort. Rey.
Jung.; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 24; Gottsche et Rabenhor.
Hepat. Eur. p. 213. Lindenb. Spec. Hep. p. 51, n. 29, tab. 12,
figs. 1-3. Radula decipiens, Dumort. Syll. Jung. p. 48, p. 15.
Gymnanthe decipiens, Mitt., Journ. of Linn. Soc. 7, p. 166.
Adelanthus decipiens, Mitt. in Journ. of Linn. Soc. 7, p. 244;
Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hepat. Eur. exsic. n. 474 (cum icone)
excellent.

Hab. Rocky and heathy places near Bantry (Miss Hutchins), Kil-
larney, near Glengariff (Dr. Carrington). Glenad, Leitrim. -

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 659

Crsta, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Lightfoot, Fl. Scot. 2, p. 786 (1770); Hook. Brit.
Junger. (1816). Cesia, B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl., 1, p.
705 (1821); Carruth. in Seem. Journ. Bot. 3, p. 300 (1865).
Schisma, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 114 (1823). Gymnomitrium,
Corda, in Opiz, Beitr. 1, p. 651 (1829); Nees, Nat. Eur. Leberm.
1, p. 113 (1833). Sect. 1, Julacea, G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 2
(1844). Acolea, Dumort. Syll. Jung. Eur. p. 76 (18381), et Re-
cueil, 1, p. 23 (1835).

Invyolucral leaves several. Colesule wanting. Bases of the pistillidia
immersed in the hollow apex of the stem. Antheridia axillary.
Amphigastria none.

Cesia crenulata (Gottsche), Carruth. Stems erect or depressed,
of a dirty white or brownish colour. Leaves closely imbricated,
broadly ovate, bidentate at the apex, crenulate at the margins.

Carrington, Irish Crypt. in Transactions Bot. Soc. Edinb., vol. 7,
p. 38, tab. 1, fig. 5 (1863); Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep. Europ.
exsic. n. 478. Jungermannia concinnata, Taylor, in Fl. Hib. 2,
p. 09.

Hab. Frequent on the higher mountains in Ireland, and in some few
instances descending to sea level. Dr. Carrington refers all the
Trish localities for Jung. concinnata to this plant; he considers
the true Gymnom. concinnatum, Corda, has not yet been observed
in Ireland. After due examination of my own specimens, and
some others collected in Ireland, I feel bound to corroborate Dr.
Carrington; they are all referrible to G. crenulatum, Gottsche.

Sub-tribe 7. AcroBoLBE®.
ACROBOLBUS.

Acrobolbus, Nees, in G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 5 (1844); Carring.
in Brit. Hepat. p. 41 (1874). Gymnanthe, Taylor, in Lehm. FI.
Nov. Pugill. 8, p. 1 (1844); Cooke, Brit. Hepat. p. 15, n. 76, f.
AS

““ TInvolucre terminal, obovate, seated at right angles with the stem,
bulbous and rooting on the ventral aspect. Colesule wanting.
Calyptra attached to the bulbous base of the receptacle, sur-
rounded by and concrete with the entire portion of the involucre,
and bearing around the apex the abortive pistillidia.’’—Carring-
ton, in British Hepatice.

Acrobolbus Wrilsont, Nees. Stems creeping, and mostly parasi-
tical on the stems of larger Hepatics, such as Radula and Frul-
lania. Leaves succubous, roundish or obovate, acutely bifid
half-way or more, rarely trilobate, closely placed on the stem, and
rather obliquely inserted. Amphigastria wanting. Fructification
terminal.

660 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Gymnanthe Wilsoni, Taylor, in Lehm. FI. Noy. Pugill. 8, p. 1; G. L-.
et N. Synop. Hep. p. 192; Cooke, Brit. Hep. p. 15, fig. 114;
Carring. Irish Hep., Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 7, p. 452; Dumort-
Hep. Europ. p. 119. Acrobolbus Wilsoni, Nees, in G. L. et
N. Synop. Hep. p. 5 (1844).

Hab. Moist banks; mostly parasitical on the larger species of Hepa-
tice, and so far as is yet ascertained, confined to the south-west of
Ireland. First discovered by Miss Hutchins, near Bantry, in
1812, according to Carrington, in Brit. Hepat. Cromaglaun, near
the Hunting Tower, W. Wilson, 1829. Tore Mountain, Kal-
larney, Dr. Taylor, 1841. Glengarriff, Dr. Carrington, 1869.

Sub-tribe 8. FossompBronIE®.
Section 1. Hapiomirriez.

“‘ Fructification terminal. Colesule wanting. Calyptra completely en-
closing the sporangium, much larger than the inyolucral bracts.
Fronds ascending, rhizomatous. Leaves trifarious.’””-—Carrington
British Hepaticee.

Scat1a, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Lyell, in Sm. Engl. Bot. 36, tab. 2555 (1818) ; Hook.
Brit. Junger. (1816). Scalia, B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl.
1, p. 704, n- 24 (1821); Lindb. in Not. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 13, p.
378, n. 1 (1874). Mniopsis, Dum. Comm. Bot. p. 114 (1828) ;
Syll. Jung. Eur. p. 75 (1831). Haplomitrium, Nees, Nat. Eur.
Leber. 1, p. 109, n. 2(1833) ; Gottsche, in Nov. Act. Acad. Leop.-
Cxs. 20, pp. 267-398 (1843).

Scalia Hookert (Lyell), B. Gray. Dicecious. Stems in scattered
plants or patches, small, rarely more than half-an-inch in length,
erect and simple. Leaves imbricated round the stem, loosely
placed, irregularly shaped. Colesule wanting. Capsule oblong,
or somewhat club-shaped, 2—4 valved. Elaters persistent, double-
spired.

Jungermannia Hookeri, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 54; Lindenb. Synop. Hep.
p. 37; Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 5, tab. 8, fig. 65. Mmiopsis.
Hookeri, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 121. Haplomitrion Hookeri,
Nees, Eur. Leberm. 3, p.111; G. L. et N. Syn. Hep. p. 2; Cooke,
British Hepat. p. 3, fig. 14; Carring. Brit. Hepat. p. 1, pl. 1, fig.
1; Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 324.

Hab. On heathy sandy places, and damp moory ground. Very rare in
Treland. Dr. Lindberg states that he saw one solitary female
plant, sterile, at Connor Hill, near Dingle, in 1873. This is the
only instance, I believe, of authority for inserting this as an
Irish plant.

Moorze—On Trish Hepatice. 661

Fossompronia, Raddi.

Jungermannia, Mich. Nov. pl. gen. p. 7, n. 1, tab. 5, fig. 10 (1721);
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1186, n. 27 (1758) ; Schmid, Ic. Pl. 9
ed., pp. 82-87, tab. 22 (1762); Hook. Brit. Junger. 1816. Fos-
sombronia, Raddi in Att. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 40 (1818); Lindb.
in Not. Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. 13, pp. 380-389, tab. 1, fig. 1-6 (1874).
Maurocenia, B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. pl. 1, p. 687, n. 14
(1821).

Leaves succubous, distichous, quadrately lobed, thin and flaccid.
Amphigastria wanting. Colesule mostly lateral, companulate,
mouth large and open, lobed at the margin. Elaters with two to
three spires. Capsule irregularly 4-valved. Antheridia naked,
on the under side of the stem.

1. Fossombronia pusilla (Linn.), Nees. Hetercecious. ‘‘ Stems scat-
tered or in tufts, short, and compact. Leaves close together and
frond-like, irregularly quadrate, twice or thrice cleft on the
margin. Colesule large, wide-mouthed, waved and cut at the
margin. Spores slightly reticulated.’””—Lindberg.

Jungermannia pusilla, Linn. Sp. Pl., p. 1603; Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 69;
Engl. Bot. t. 1775; De Notar., Prim. Hep. Ital. p. 24; Taylor,
in Fl. Hib. 2, p. 61. Fossombronia pusilla, Dumort. Rev. Jung,
p- 11; Hep. Europ. p. 14; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 467;
Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 8, 122, 488; Cooke, Brit. Hepat.
p- 22, fig. 164; Lindberg, Manipulus Muse. secund., p. 384, tab. 1,
fig. 5.

Hab. On moist clayey soil where water frequently stands. On the
shores of lakes, Island of Rathlin, Antrim; near Dingle, Kerry.

2. Fossombroma angulosa (Mich. Dicks.), Raddi. Dicecious. Stems
forming large, close, frond-like patches, or scattered, clothed with
roots on the under surface. Leaves horizontal, quadrate, bluntly
cut or lobed on their margins into angular teeth. Colesule
lateral, mouth plaited and undulate, subdenticulate. Spores
large, reticulate.

Jungermannia angulosa, Dicks. Fase. Pl. Crypt. Brit. 1, p. 7; Raddi
in Att. Soc. Sc. Modena, 18, p. 40, excl. synon. Roth. and var.
B.; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 468; Carring. in Trans. Bot. Soe.
Edinb. 3, p. 443 ; Lindberg, Manipulus Muse. secund., p. 383,
tab. 1, fig. 3.

Hab. On damp earth and fissures of rocks; generally near the sea.
Abundant and very fine at Dingle Bay, and on cliffs near the sea
between Dingle and Ventry, Kerry. Ross Bay, Dr. Carrington.

Patravicrnta, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, Hook. Brit. Junger. tab. 77 (1816); Lindenb. Synop.
Hep. Pallavicinia, B. Gray, in Gray’s Arr. Br. Pl. 1, p. 775 (1821).

662 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Dilena, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 114 (1822). Diplomitrion, Corda,
in Opiz, Naturalient. p. 653 (1829). Diplolena, Dumort. Syll.
Jung. p. 82 (1831). Blyttia, Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 1339 (1840).
Steetzia, Lehm. Pl. Preiss. 2, p. 129 (1846). Moerckia, Gottsche,
in Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 295 (1865). Pallavicinia, Carr.

Gray’s Arr. of Hepat., Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 10, p. 3809
(1869).

Involucre monophyllous, laciniated, cup-shaped. Colesule tubular,
exserted, frequently cleft at side. Capsule 4-valved, coriaceous,
naked. Elaters seminude, deciduous.

Pallaviceinia Hibernica (Hook.), B. Gray. Frond dichotomous,
ribbed, 1 to 3 inches long, prostrate, forked, margin crisped,
entire. Colesule arising from upper surface of the frond, double,
exterior very short, laciniated, interior much exserted, ovate-
oblong, subplicate.

Jungermannia Hibernica, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 78, et suppl. t. 4; suppl.
to Smith’s Engl. Bot. 2, tab. 2750, excl. lower half of plate.
Dilena Hibernica, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 114; Hepat. Europ.
p. 187. Diplolena Lyelli, var. y. Hibernica, Nees, Europ. Le-
berm. 38, p. 845. Blyttia Lyellii, var. y. Hibernica, G. L. et N.
Synop. Hep. p. 475. Moerckia Hibernica, Gottsche, in Rabenh.
Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 295, 334 et 335.

Hab. On damp sandy ground, among the sand-hills near the sea,
where water has stood during the winter. Between Malahide
and Portrane, Co. Dublin, and at the North Bull. Very sparingly
in both places, and seldom fruiting.

Pallavicinia Lyellii (Hook.), B. Gr. Frond oblong-linear, sub-
dichotomous, nerved, crenated or subserrated at margin. Peri-
chetium fimbriated. Colesule cylindrical, double, rising from
the nerve on upper side of frond, the outer shortest, notched at

the margin, inner slightly toothed at mouth, and torn on one
side.

Jungermannia Lyellii, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 77; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat.
p- 96; Ekart, Synop. Jung. p. 68, t. 10, fig. 87. Dilena Lyellu,
Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 114 (1822); Rev. Jung. p. 25; Hepat.
Europ. p. 187. Diplomitrion Lyellii, Corda, in Opiz, Natural.
p- 654. Blyttia Lyellii, G. L. et N. Synop. Hep. p. 475; Ra-
benhor. Hep. Europ. n. 121. Hollia Lyellii, Sullivant, Musci
Alleghanienses, p. 66, n. 281. Steetzia Lyellii, Lehman, Plant.
Preiss. 2, p. 129; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 785.

Hab. Boggy spots among Sphagnum. Rare. Near Bantry, Cork, Miss
Hutchins. Lough Bray, Wicklow, Dr. Taylor. Maghanabo glen,
near Fermoyle; Castlegregory, and by the lakes between
Maghanabo Glen and Connor Hill, Co. Kerry.

Moorr—On Irish Hepatice. 663

PrTALoPHYLLUM, Gottsche.

Codonia (pro parte), Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 111 (1822). Diploleena,
sp., Nees, Eur. Leberm. 3, p. 352 (1838). Petalophylli sp.
Gottsche, Syn. Hep. p. 471 (1846).

Involucre connate with the colesule. Colesule quadrato-campanulate,
mouth infundibuliform, undulate, subdentate. Capsule coriaceous,
univalved, ultimately cleft into 4 irregular segments.—Du-
mortier.

Petalophyllum Ralfsci (Gottsche), Wilson. Frond spreading horizon-
tally, broadly obovate, bluntly forked at apex, lamellated and
rayed. Colesule funnel-shaped, broad, and toothed. ‘‘ Capsule
spherical, bursting irregularly.”

Jungermannia Ralfsii, Wilson, in suppl. to Engl. Bot. 4, tab. 2874.
Diplolena Lyellu, var. 6. lamellata, Nees, Europ. Leber. 3,
p. 345. Petalophyllum Ralfisii, N. G. in Lehm. Pugill. 8, p. 80;
G. L. et N. Syn. Hep. p. 472; Cooke, Brit. Jung. p. 22, fig. 167.
Codonia Ralfsii, Dumort. Hepat. Europ. p. 16, tab. 1, fig. 2.
Petalophyllum lamellatum, Lindberg, Manipulus Musc. secund.
p. 390.

Hab. On damp sandy ground near the sea. Malahide sands, and at
North Bull sands, both near Dublin. Not hitherto observed else-
where in Ireland.

Brasta, Micheli.

Blasia, Mich. Nov. Pl. Gen. p. 14 (1729); Linn. Fl. Suec. ed. 1,
p- 93838; ed. 2, p. 405 (1745); et Sp. Pl. p. 1605 (1753).
Jungermannia, Hook. Brit. Jung. tt. 82-84 (1816).

Frond nerved. Perichetium pitcher-shaped, attached to the apex of
the frond. Colesule within the perichetium. Capsule quadri-
valved. Elaters geminate. Inflorescence dicecious.

Blasia pusilla (Linn.) Frond oblong, divided at the apex palmately
or dichotomously, nerve broad, with scattered dentate scales be-
neath. Colesule risig from the upper side of the frond near the
point.

Blasia pusilla, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1605; Web. et Mohr, Crypt. Germ.
p- 487; Hoffm. Germ. 2, p. 22, tab. 3; Dumort. Hepat. Europ.
p- 135. Jungermannia Blasia, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 82-84;
Ekart, Synop. tab. 11, fig. 94, et tab. 13, fig. 114; Taylor, in
Fl. Hib. p. 56.

Hab. On sandy moist banks by the sides of streams, &c. Fruiting in
March at Castle Kelly glen, Dublin, Dr. Taylor. Moist banks
near the Wooden Bridge, Wicklow; at the base of Brandon
Mountain, Kerry; but not very common anywhere in Ireland.

664 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Perr, Raddi.

Jungermannia, Linn. Fl. Suec. 1 ed., p. 399, n. 930 (1745), et Sp. Pl. I
ed. 2, p. 1135, n. 23 (1753); Hook. Brit. Jung. tab. 47 (1816).
Pellia, Raddi in Att. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 49 (1818). Papa,
B. Gray, in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 686, n. 12 (1821).
Scopulina, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p. 115 (1828).

Perichetium cup-shaped, mouth lacerated. Colesule wanting. Cap-
sule quadrivalved, exserted on a succulent smooth footstalk.
Elaters persistent, with two spires.

1. Pellia epiphylla (Dill. L.), Raddi. Parcecious. Frond oblong, lobed
and sinuate, thick and somewhat fleshy nerved or much thickened
in the centre. Fruit from the upper surface of the frond towards
the extremity. Perichetium anteriorly formed of the frond,
mouth lacerated or dentate. Capsule exserted.

Jungermannia epiphylla, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1185; Hook. Brit-
Jung. t. 47, figs. 1, 4,8, 1,17; Engl. Bot. tab. 771; Fl. Dan. 2,
fasc. 6, tab. 359; Lindenb. Synop. Hep. p. 97; Ekart, Synop-
Jung. p. 63, t. 7, fig. 52; Taylor, in Fl. Hib. p. 56. Pellia Fab-
broniana, Raddi in Att. Soc. Sec. Modena, 18, p. 49; Corda, in
Opiz, Natural. p. 654; Dumort. Rev. Jung. p. 27, et Hep. Europ.
p- 145; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 488; Rabenhor. Hep.
Europ. exsic. n. 31, 119, 274, 357.

Hab. On moist clay banks and wet ground. Very abundant in all
parts of Ireland.

2. Pellia calycina (Nees), Taylor. Dicecious. Frond linear-oblong,
dichotomously divided, concave, raised, and sinuate at the edges,
midrib well-defined. Fruit rising from the upper surface of the
frond over the midrib. Perichetium cup-shaped, subplicate,
fringed at the mouth. Calyptra inclosed. Antheridia imbedded
in the midrib on the upper surface of the frond.

Jungermannia epiphylla, var. y. furcigera, Hook. Brit. Jung. t. 47,
f. 18, et 2, 3, 9, 10-12. Jungermannia calycina, Taylor, in Fl.
Hib. 2, p. 55; Engl. Bot. suppl. t. 2875. Pellia endivifolia,
Pluk., Dicks., Lindb. Pella calycina, Nees, Europ. Leber. 3,
p. 886; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 490; Rabenhor. Hepat.
Europ. exsic. n. 181, 242, 339; Cooke, Brit. Jung. p. 23,
fig. 172; Cogn. Hepat. Belg. p. 47.

Hab. Shady moist places, sometimes altogether immersed in water.
Dunkerron, Kerry, Dr. Taylor. Tore Cascade and Cromaglown,
Dr. Carrington. Altadore glen, and Lough Bray, Wicklow; very .
large and fine at Glencar, Co. Sligo; Glenballyemon, Antrim.

MoorE—On Irish Hepatice. 665

Sub-tribe 9.. Mrrzgrriez.
Merzerria, Raddi.*

Jungermannia, L. Fl. Suec., 1 ed., p. 3388, n. 928 (1745), et Sp.
Pl. 1 ed., 2, p. 1186, n. 26 (1753) ; Hook. Brit. Jung., tt. 45,
46 (1816). Metzgeria, Raddi, in Att. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 45
(1818); Lindb. apud Soc. F. Fl. Fenn. (1874); sect. 1, G. L. et
N. Synop. Hep., p. 502 (1846). Hervera, B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat.
Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 685, n. 11 (1821). Fasciola, Dumort. Comm.
Bot., p. 114 (1823). Echinogyna, Dumort. Syll. Jung. Eur.,
p- 83, n. 22 (1831). Echinomitrium, Hiben. Hep. Germ.
p. 46, n. 16 (1834).

Fronds ribbed, flat, dichotomous or subpaimately branched. Fruit
rising from the lower surface on the midrib. Involucral bract
two-lipped, ventricose. Capsules elevated on long stalks, quadri-
valved. Elaters persistent to the points of the valves, one-spired.
Antheridia from the midrib of under side of frond.

1. Metzgeria furcata (Linn.), Dumort. Dicecious. Fronds linear,
flat, dichotomously forked, smooth on upper surface, the margin
and costa beneath subpilose. Fruit rising from the midrib on
the under side. Calyptra setulose.

Jungermannia furcata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1602; Hook. Brit. Jung., tt. 55
et 56; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 94; Engl. Bot., t. 1632.
Metzgeria glabra, Raddi, Jung. Etr. in Mem. Modena, 18, p. 48,
t. 7, fig. 1. Metzgeria furcata, Dumort. Rev. Jung., p. 26;
Hepat. Europ., p. 139; G. L. et N. Synop. Hep., p. 302;
Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. 31, 179, 357.

Hab. On trunks of trees chiefly, but also on moist banks and rocks.
Var. 6. eruginosa. Frequent on trunks of trees.

2. Metzgeria pubescens, Raddi. Frond linear, subdichotomous, glau-
cous green, nerved, pubescent on both surfaces. Antheridia on
the lower surface of the frond, attached to the midrib.

Jungermannia pubescens, Schrank. Prim. FI. Salisb., p. 281; Hook.
Brit. Jung., t. 73; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat., p. 95; LEkart,
Synop. Jung., p. 67, t. 3, fig. 19. Metzgeria pubescens, Raddi,
Jung. Etrus. Mem. Mod. 18, p. 46; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat.,
p- 504; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic., n. 84; Dumort. Hepat.
Kurop., p. 140.

Hab. On moist rocky banks, and in woods. Mountains near Belfast,
Mr. Templeton, in Fl. Hib. On limestone rocks between Larne
and Glenarm, and at Sillaghbraes, near Larne, Antrim, 1837.
Again at same place, M. 8. A. Stewart, March, 1876. This rare
species has not been found in any of the Ivish counties, save Co.

* As a sub-tribe of the Anomogamez, by Lindberg.

666 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Antrim, up to the present time: good specimens from thence are
in the herbarium from the Ordnance Survey, at the College of
Science, Dublin.

3. Ietzgeria linearis (Sw.), Lindb., Monogr. n. 6. Diccious. Stems
robust, much elongated, dichotomous, of equal breadth through-
out, their margins much reflexed, nearly meeting so as to make
the stems appear half round when dry, im transverse section
sub-elliptic, hairs very long, in twos or threes together, spreading
widely, and arcuately bent. Fruit (?)

Jungermannia furcata, var. 8. elongata, Hook. Brit. Jung. tab. 56,
fig. 2; Ekart, Syn. Jung. tab. 1, figs. 1, 2, p. 67. J. furcata,
f. maxima, Weber, Spicil. Fl. Goett. p. 160.

Hab. In moist situations on the ground. I collected this remark-
able plant in some quantity in a small stream which empties
itself into the deep lake at the top of the glen leading up to the
highest point of Brandon Mountain, in 1865. The plant was
altogether in the water, and the stems were from 4 to 5 inches long.
Believing it to be quite distinct from M. furcata, I sent it to
some of our best authorities, who thought otherwise. It there-
fore remained for Dr. Lindberg to establish the species, who also
collected it in 1878, at Cromaglaun, &c. He states in his obser-
vations on the Hepatice collected in Ireland, 1878, that he
possesses specimens of the same plant from North America, the
islands of Jamaica and Guadeloupe; Sikkim, Himalaya; New
Zealand; and from Sutherland shire in Scotland. The Irish
specimens have neither male nor female fruit.

4. Metzgeria conjugata (Dill.), Lindb., Monogr. n. 7. Autcecious.—
‘‘Stems robust, not much elongated, more or less dichotomous,
irregularly pinnated or decomposite linear, but narrower in some
parts than in others, in transverse section semilunar, margins
remote, hairs longish, singly or often in pairs on margin, and
divergent.”

Bisch. Handb. Bot. Term. tab. 56, fig. 2756 ; Dill. Hist. Muse. tab. 74,
fig. 45; D. et E. Hedw. Theor. Gen. 1 ed., tab. 19, figs. 9, 99 et
100, tab. 20, figs. 101-109; 2 ed., tab. 21, figs. 4, 5, tab. 22, figs.
1-9; Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. 2, fasc. 26, 27, tab. 838 ; Aust. Hep. Bor.-
Am. n. 117 (inflor.); Funck. Crypt. Gew. Ficht. fase. 21, n. 438;
Gottsche et Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 274-6.

Hab. Glena and Tore Cascade, on the bark of old trees. O’Sullivan’s
Cascade, Killarney, among Hookeria letevirens, Dr. Lindberg,
1878. Not being acquainted with this plant, the description and
quotations of authorities are after Lindberg, in ‘‘ Acta Societ.

‘Scientiarum Fennice, x.”? Judging from the figures in Dil-
lenius, it would be readily passed over for a state of Riccardia ;
so also from the the smaller fig. in Hedwig’s Theoria, No. 99, but
the magnified fig., No. 100, shows the plant to be a true Metz- ~

Moorre—On Trish Hepatice. 667

geria. In Gottsche and Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic., n. 274,
Metzgeria furcata, var. 8. nuda, affords a good example of this
plant. The paucity of hairs, and more horny substance of the
stems, distinguish it from any of the normal states of M. furcata;
but the chief distinguishing character seems to be the autcecious
inflorescence, which, as Lindberg observes, is remarkable in a
genus where all the other species of it are dicecious.*

Riccarpia, Bennett, Gray.

Jungermannia, L. Fl. Suec. 1 ed., p. 399, n. 929 (1745), et Sp. PL,
1 ed., 2, p. 1186, n. 24 et 25 (1741); Hook. Brit. Jung. (1816).
Reemeria, Raddi, in Att. Soc. Modena, 18, p. 46(1818). Riccardia,
B. Gr. in Gray’s Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1, p. 683, nu: 9, excl. sp. n.3
(1821); Carruth. im Seem. Journ. Bot. 3, p. 802 (1865).
Aneura, Dum. Comm. Bot. p. 115 (1828); Syll. Jung. Eur.,
p- 85 (1831). Metzgeria, Corda, in Opiz, Beitr., 1, p. 654, n. 12
(1829).

Frond fleshy, pinnatifid or sinuate, partially nerved or without
nerve. Fruit rising from the margin of the frond, under-
neath. Involucre short, cupuliform. Colesule wanting. Calyptra
exserted, smooth, fleshy. Capsule quadrivalyed. Elaters with a
broad single spire, attached to the tips of the valves of the cap-
sule. Antheridia in marginal receptacles.

1. Riecardia multifida (Dill., Linn.), Gr. Autcecious. Frond linear,
multifid, nerveless, fleshy. Fruit marginal. Calyptra exserted,
tuberculated.

Jungermannia multifida, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1602; Engl. Bot. t. 186;
Hook. Brit. Junger. t. 45, excl. var. 8.; Lindenb. Synop. Hepat.,
p. 98; Aueura multifida, Dumort. Comm. Bot., p. 115; Syll.
Jung., p. 85; Hepat. Europ., p. 141; Nees, Europ. Leberm., 3,
p. 449; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat., p. 496; De Notaris, Prim.
Hepat. Ital., p. 46; Rabenhor. Hepat. Europ. exsic. n. 4638.

Hab. On wet spots, where water has stood during winter, and among
wet grass and heaths. Very common in Ireland. Varieties of
this variable plant are of frequent occurrence. Variety pinnati-
fida, Dumort. Syll. Jung. = Aneura pinnatifida, Dumort. Rev.
Jung. p. 26; Hepat. Europ., p. 142 (J. sinuata, Dicks. [?]), are
found at Killarney ; Galtymore, Tipperary; and at Luggielaw:
var. submersa, on wet bogs near Mullingar, Westmeath. This

* Although this genus and the following are placed by Lindberg in divisions,
according to the principles and characters which mark the respective sections
of his arrangement, they are thereby placed among plants they have otherwise little
relationship with. I have, therefore, inserted them among those of a more con-
genial nature, where they have been long and naturally placed. In doing so, I
have at the same time indicated the position given them by Dr. Lindberg.

t By Lindberg, as a sub-tribe in the sub-section ¢, Opisthogame.

668 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

latter variety grows in the water, in close balls of fronds, three
or four inches in diameter. Variety ambrosioides, Nees, Killar-
ney, Dr. Carrington.

2. Riccardia palmata (Hedw.), Carruth., Lindb. Dicecious. Stems
short, rather crowded, and free at apex, palmately cut, segments
linear, and frequently tapering to a point or slightly emarginate.
Involucral bracts small. Calyptra small, and densely verrucose.

Jungermannia palmata, Hedw. Theor. Gen. 1 ed., p. 87, tab. 18, figs.
93,95; et tab. 19, figs. 96-98; Schmid. Icon. Pl. 3, p. 218-216
(excl. synon. ); Ekart, “Synop. Germ., tab. 13, fig. 115; Dan’. 5:
fase. 15, tab. 898, fig. 3; Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. 2; fase. 26 et 97,
tab. 35. Aneura palmata, Dumort. Comm. Bot. p- 115; ; Syll. Jung.
p. 86, et Hepat. Europ., p. 143; Lindberg, Manipulus Musei:
secundus, Helsingfors (1874).

Hab. On the putrid trunks of old trees, at Cromaglaun, Kerry ;
Altadore Glen, Wicklow. Tore Mountain, and Eagle’s Nest, Kil-
larney, Dr. Carrington. Abundant on a small island off Bally-
nakill Harbour, Gs. Galway.

3. Riccardia pinguis (Linn.), B. Gr. Dicecious. Fronds procumbent,
one or two inches long, fleshy, linear-oblong, simple or slightly
lobed, margins sinuate. Fruit rising Renn, under the margin.
Calyptra hemispherical, smooth. Capsule brownish and furrowed.

Jungermannia pinguis, Linn. Sp. Plant., p. 1602; Schmidel, Icon.
p. 136, tab. 385; Engl. Bot., t. 185; Hook. Brit. Jung., t. 46;
Ekart, Synop. Jung., p. 62, tab. 7, fig. 51; Taylor, in FI. Hib.,
p. 57. Roemeria pinguis, Raddi, in Mem. Modena, 18, p. 48.
Aneura pinguis, Dumort. Comm. Bot. , Dc LLoSyilk Jung ep. GOs
tab. 2; et Hepat. Europ., p. 143; ; Nees, Europ. Leberm. oy 105 497:
G. L. et N. Synop. Hep., Pp. 493; Cooke, Brit. Jung., p. 23, fig.
174; Rabenhor. Hep. Europ. exsic. n. 41, 103, 436.

Hab. Damp ravines, sides of rivulets, and among wet heath. Not
unfrequent in the Killarney district, Kerry. On wet sand at Ma-
lahide, Dublin; and at Lough Bray, Wicklow.

4. A. latifrons, Lindberg. ‘‘ Autoica, rarissime paroica, major, pel-
lucida; caulis longus et latus, dissolutus in ramos latos, cervicorni-
formes, plus minusve oblongo-cuneatos, obtusissimos et emargina-
tos, plano-convexos, vix umquam gonidia antice gerentes; cel-
lule magne, oblongo-rhombez, haud incrassate ; bractez peri-
cheetiates pauceebus ; calyptra magna et minus verrucosa; andree-
cium anguste oblongum, fere semper ad latus perichetii affixum.”
—Lindberg.

Jungermannia multifida, Schmid. Icon. Pl. 38, pp. 213-216, excl.
synon. et pp. (1797); Hook. Brit. Jung. p. 19, n. 75, pp. (1816).
Aneura palmata, a major, Nees, Europ. Leber. 3, p. 459; G. L.
et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 498 ; Gottsche, in Fl. Dan. 16, fase. 4, p. 21,

Moorre—On Irish Hepatice. 669

n. 2815. A. latifrons, Lindb. apud Soc. pro. F. et Fl. Fenn.
(1873), etin Bot. Not. p. 62 (1873). Delin. :—Hook. Brit. Jung.,
tab. 45, figs. 4, 7 et 12; Ekart, Synop. Germ. tab. 7, fig. 50, 1, 2,
et 4; Fl. Dan. 16. fasc. 47, t. 2815, fig. 2.

Hab. On moist turfy banks, and decaying stems of trees. Killarney,
Dr. Lindberg.

I have copied closely Dr. Lindberg’s description and synonymy
(Hepat. in Hiber. Lectze, p. 513) of this species, which I am not
well acquainted with, though Dr. Lindberg pointed it out to me,
growing near O’Sullivan’s Cascade, Killarney, in 1878. It is
the plant figured by Hooker for Jung. multifida, in Brit. Jung.
(pro parte), and what Dr. Taylor and others, including myself,
have long considered that species. Hooker’s var. 8., which
forms part of tab. 45, in Brit. Jung., is described as a species by
Dumortier, in Hepat. Europ., viz., Aneura sinuata, p. 142.
Although these are conspicuous plants, it is exceedingly difficult
to define their limits as species or varieties.

B. CretsrocarP2.
Tribe 1. SpH#ROCARPER.
Spu#rocarpus, Micheli.

Spheerocarpus, Mich. Noy. Pl. Gen. 4, t. 3 (1729); Dumort. Comm.
Bot., p. 78 (1822). Targiona spherocarpus, Dicks. Fasc. 1, p.
8, n. 2 (1785).

Inyolucre sessile, seated on the frond near its base, pear-shaped and
perforated at the apex, without bracts, and one-fruited. Capsule
closely invested by the calyptra. Antheridia on separate fronds,
in folliculose bodies.

Spherocarpus terrestris, Sm. Frond roundish, in clusters, horizon-
tally attached to the ground by short radicles, oblong, waved,
their disk covered with tufts of the fructification.

Spheerocarpus terrestris, Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 299; Lindenb. Synop. Hep.
p. 111; Nees, Eur. Leber. 4, p. 365. Spheerocarpus Micheli, Bel-
lardi, Act. Tur., 5, p. 246; Sullivant’s Musciand Hepatice of the
U. S. p. 84. t. 6. Spherocarpus lagenarius, Dumort. Comm.
Bot. 78.

Hab. On the earth, in fields consisting of strong clay land which are
moist in winter. Ona wet clay bank at Collin Glen, near Bel-
fast, Mr. David Orr. I have never seen any Irish specimens of
this plant, nor have I heard of it having been observed by any
other person than Mr. Orr in Ireland.

670 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

Section II]. ANTHOCEROTACER.
Tribe 2. ANTHOCEROTER.
AwntHoceros, Micheli.

Anthoceros, Mich. Nov. Gen. p. 10, tab. 7 (1729). Corypta, Neck.
Elem. Bot. 3, p. 344, n. 1758 (1790). Carpoceros, Dum. Comm.
Bot. p. 76 (1823).

Colesule tubular. Capsule filiform, bivalved, with a free central pla-
centa, exserted. Elaters articulated, flexuose, without spores or
spores imperfect. Antheridia dorsal, sessile in a cup-shaped
involucre.

1. Anthoceros punctatus, Linn. Parcecious. Frond orbicular, radiate,
lacerate, with immersed gemme in its substance, margins pli-
cate, crenate, papillose on the surface, nerveless. Colesule erect,
cylindrical, mouth truncate.

Anthoceros punctatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1606; Lindenb. Hepat. Eur.,
p- 113; Sm. Engl. Bot., t. 1537; Nees, Eur. Leberm. 4, p. 338 ;
G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. 583; Rabenhor. Hepat. Eur. exsic.
n. 64, 462, 484.

Hab. Wet places, by the sides of streams, and on ditch banks.
Glendoon, Co. Antrim; Kelly’s Glen, Co. Dublin. Sugar Loaf
Mountain, Co. of Wicklow, Dr. E. Perceval Wright ; but not com-
mon in the northern or eastern counties of Ireland. Frequent
in the counties of Kerry and Cork.

This remarkable genus among the Hepatice is easily recognised when
found in fruit, but when not in a fruiting state, the species may
readily be passed over for states of Pellia. From most of the
Marchantiacez the fronds may be distinguished with the aid of a
lens, by the absence of true pores on their surface.

2. Anthoceros levis (Dill), L. Dicecious, (Lindb.) Frond deep green,
smooth on surface, nerveless, subradiate. Colesule broad, sca-
rious.

Anthoceros levis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1606; Lindenb. Hepat. Eur. p. 112 ;
Nees, Europ. Leber, 4, p. 829; G. L. et N. Synop. Hepat. p. 586 ;
Rabenhor. Hep. Eur. exsic. n. 64, 462, 484.

Hab. On clay banks, &e. Ona wet clay bank, by the roadside lead-
ing from Dingle to Ventry, left-hand side of road, about a mile
and a-half from Ventry. This species was collected im consi-
derable abundance by Dr. Lindberg and myself, in July, 1873,
when it was in fine fruit. I am not aware of it having been
observed elsewhere in Ireland up to the present time.

Moore—On Irish Hepatice. 671

List or Works, Papers, ETC., RELATING TO THE HEPATICH
oF JRELAND.

Tuomas Taytor, M. D. :—

‘In Flora Hibernica. Part 2. Hepatice (1836).” Eighty-two
species are described and enumerated.

“Descriptions of Jungermannia ulicina (Taylor) and Junger-
mannia Lyoni (Taylor).’’ Transactions of the Edinburgh Bo-
tanical Society. Vol. 1, p. 115 (1841). Adds J. Lyoni
(Taylor) to the Irish list.

‘‘ On two new species of Jungermannia, and another new to
Britain.” Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society.
Vol. 1, p. 179 (1848-4). Adds J. punctata, Taylor.

‘¢ On four new species of British Jungermannia.”’ Transactions of
the Edinburgh Botanical Society. Vol. 2, p. 43 (1843). Adds
Jungermannia riparia, Taylor; J. reclusa, Taylor; J. fragi-
folia, Taylor; J. germana, Taylor.

‘¢ Contributions to British Jungermannia.”’ Transactions of the
Edinburgh Botanical Society. Vol. 2, p. 115 (1844). Adds
Jungermannia nimbosa, Taylor; J. curta, Martius; J. Thuja,
Dickson ; J. rivularis, Nees; J. aquilegia, Taylor.

D. Moors, Ph. D. :—

‘Ordnance Survey Collections of Counties of Derry and An-
trim.” Vol. 1. Mosses and Hepatice, exsicc. (1834-8).
Fifty-five species.

“< Contributions to the British and Irish Musci and Hepatica.”
Proceedings of Dublin University Zoological and Botanical As-
sociation. Vol. 2, p.80 (1863). [Read February 20th, 1861 ].
Adds Sarcoscyphus Funckiu (18387); Scapania subalpina, var.
8. undulifolia; Aneura palmata; Petalophyllum Ralfsii, Wil-
son; and a new habitat for J. cuneifolia.

“‘ Dublin Natural History Society’s Proceedings.” Vol. 5, p. 89
(1866). Adds Scapania undulata, var. 4. major, Nees; and
some new habitats.

Tuomas Power, M. D. :—

‘“¢ Contributions towards the Fauna and Flora of Cork. Part 2.
Botany (1844). Fifty species of Hepatice are enumerated.

B. Carrreron, M. D. :—

“¢ Gleanings among the Irish Cryptogams.”’ Transactions of the
Edinburgh Botanical Society. Vol. 7, p. 379 (1863). Adds
Jungermannia obovata, Nees; and, gleaned from other sources,
Preissia commutata, Nees; Fossombronia angulosa, Raddi;
Scapania compacta, Lindenb.; S. wrigua, Nees; J. nana,
Nees; J. bicrenata, Lindb.; Gymnanthe Wilsoni, Taylor;
Madotheca levigata, Dumort.; and Madotheca rivularis, Nees.

B. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. Tl., SCIENCE. sk

672 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

S. O. LixpBERG :—

‘‘ Hepaticee in Hibernia mense Juli, 1873, lecte.” Acta Socie-
tatis Scientiarum Fennice, x. (1874). Adds Riccia sorocarpa,
Bischoff ; Lejeunea patens, Lindb.; Lejeunea Moorei, Lindb. ;
Porella pinnata, Dill.; Metzgeria linearis, Sw.; Metzgeria
conjugata, Lindb.; Cephalozia multiflora (Dill.), Huds. ; Ce-
phalozia elachista, Jack. ; Kantia arguta, Dill.; Riccardia lati-
frons (Schmid.), Lindb.; Nardia sphacelata, Gies.; Scalia
Hookeri (Lyell), Gray ; Anthoceros levis (Dill.), L.

The species added in the present Report are Ricciella fluitans,
Al. Braun, Hook.; Ricciocarpus natans, Corda; Cephalozia Francisii,
Hook. ; Pedinophyllum pyrenaicum, Spruce; Scapania uliginosa,
Dumort.; Scapania equiloba, Dumort. (vera); Jungermannia Horn-
schuchiana, Nees; Jungermannia capitata, Hook.; Nardia revoluta,
Nees; Spherocarpus terrestris, Sm. ; Lejeunea flava, Swartz.

G. M. Cotter, in M. F. Cusack’s ‘‘ History of the City and County
of Cork” (1875), enumerates twenty-nine Hepatice not noticed in
Dr. Power’s list of 1844.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

Lejeunea flava, Swartz. Stem branched, creeping. Leaves sub-
imbricated, oblong-ovate, entire, rounded at apex, lobule somewhat
convolute. Amphigastria ovate-cordate, much smaller than the leaves,
acutely bifid, divisions ovate-lanceolate. Fruit lateral at base of
branchlets. Colesule exserted, pentagonal.—Gottsche, Ic. Lej. vii.

Junger. flava, Swartz, Prodr. Fl. Ind.-Occ. p. 144; Fl. Ind.-Oce.
ili. p. 1859; Schweeger, Prodr. p. 16; Web. Prodr. p. 29; Spreng.
S. V. 4, 1, p. 228, n. 74; Spruce, in Trimen’s Journal of Botany,
new series, vol. v. 1876, p. 198.

Hab. Killarney, J. T. Mackay.

Dr. Spruce assures us that a fine patch of this plant, gathered at
Killarney by the late Mr. Mackay, is in Sir William Hooker’s her-
barium. Dr. Lindberg considers that this species is closely allied to
his new species, L. Moorei. Referring to the latter, he states:
“Very probably this new and very distinct species is to be very care-
fully compared with L. flava, Swartz; and I have really felt doubt
whether the two are different from each other; but as I have
not seen the former (L. flava), I am unable to decide” (Lindb. in
“* Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice,” x. p. 487). I am myself in
a similar position to that of Dr. Lindberg, not having seen plants of
L. flava, and therefore cannot offer an opinion at present.

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 673

LIV.—A Reviston or tHE Species or Asres. By Wititam Ramsay
M‘Nas, M. D., Edinburgh, Professor of Botany, Royal College of
Science for Ireland. (With Plates 46, 47, 48 and 49.)

[Read June 26, 1876].

Lasr year I presented to the Royal Irish Academy a paper (antea,
p- 209), in which the anatomy of the leaves of the section Tsuga
-of the genus Pinus was described, and in the present paper I propose
to continue the investigation of the anatomical structure of the leaves of
the same great genus. The sections to which I shall now direct atten-
‘tion are Abies of Endlicher and Parlatore, and Pseudotsuga of Carriére
and Bertrand, the former including a considerable number of species of
which the common European silver fir may be taken as the type.
Much confusion has been caused by Linnzus in 17538 falling into an
error as to the application of the names Picea and Abies—an error
which was corrected by Duroi in 1771; but in this paper I shall not
follow Parlatore in calling the common silver fir (generally known by
the name of Abies pectinata of De Candolle) Pinus (Abies) Abies of
Duroi; but shall adopt the more commonly used A. pectinata.

Dr. C. E. Bertrand* enumerates and briefly describes the anatomical
characters of twenty-two species of Abies. All Bertrand’s forms, with
a single exception, I believe I have been able to examine; and while
we agree in many most important points, still in others I find con-
‘siderable discrepancies in our results. Perhaps this may result from
an examination of but few examples of each species, and this I have
tried to avoid by examining as many specimens as I could obtain, both
living and dried. A very large number of specimens have been exa-
mined, and many thousands of sections cut—the greater part of my
‘spare time for twelve months past having been devoted to the work.

Great confusion exists in the nomenclature of this section; the
‘synonymy is very complex, and the cultivated forms frequently do not
agree with the species described by Botanical authors. It has, there-
fore, been difficult in many cases to discover what the true plant of
the original describer was, but I have been very fortunate in obtaining
a great deal of information regarding the cultivated species introduced
into Britain within the last twenty-five years from my father, who has
cultivated most of the species with the greatest success, and whose
accurate and extensive knowledge of this genus is well known. All
the forms introduced by Jeffrey have been raised from seed in the
Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, and I have thus been able to
obtain, from the Museum, and from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden,
authentic specimens of the different forms for examination. To Dr.
Hooker and Professor Oliver I am very deeply indebted for permission

— a

* Anatomie Comparée des Tiges et des Feuilles chez les Gnétacées et les Coni-
feres. Paris, 1874.
3 R 2

674 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

to examine authentic specimens from the Kew Herbarium, many diffi-
culties having been removed by their kind assistance; while Pro-
fessor Perceval Wright also helped me greatly by his kindness in
enabling me to examine the authentic specimens in the Herbarium of
Trinity College, Dublin. To many other friends—Dr. Moore, of Glas--
nevin; Mr. Fowler, of Castle Kennedy ; Mr. Syme, Elvaston Nurseries ;
Messrs. Waterer, Low, and Veitch—my best thanks are also due.

Parlatore* enumerates and describes eighteen species and two varie-
ties in his section Abies, but he seems in some instances to have mixed
up two or more anatomically distinct forms under one name. Each form
has been carefully described, and a figure of the section of the leaf
given, so that this paper may, to a certain extent, be useful in iden-
tifying the cultivated species in our gardens and nurseries.

The species of Abies are generally separated into two groups by the
bracts of the cones, which are either long or short. Bertrand separates.
two groups by the position of the resin-canals. In the present paper I
have adopted a geographical arrangement, as I find that the forms.
most related anatomically are most connected geographically, the
outlying forms being generally the most distinct. A great zone of
species stretches from North America, by Japan and the Himalayas, to.
Asia Minor and Southern Europe.

The section Abies of Pinus is distinguished by having the leaves.
inserted singly into the stem, by their not being placed on cushions,
and by the double fibro-vascular bundle. The second section mentioned
in this paper is Pseudotsuga, which differs in having a single fibro-
vascular bundle.

I. Asirs, Endl., Parlatore. Genus Abies, Link. Abies, Bertrand.

1. Pinus (Abies) bracteata, Don, Trans. Linn. Soc. xvii. 443; Par-
latore, D.C. Prod., vol. xvi., pars 2, p..419) No. 88: euas
venusta, Dougl. Abies venusta, Koch, Dendrologie, vol. 11. part 2,
p. 210.

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the
stem, but bent so as to form two lateral rows; occasionally a few
directed upwards. Leaf rigid, linear, twisted above the base, which
is slightly narrowed towards the orbicular insertion, widest above the
twisted part, then gradually tapering, contracting suddenly near the
sharp-pointed apex; upper surface bright green with no stomata,
beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there
being from 10 to 12 rows of stomata in each band. Leaves from 1} to
2 inches in length, and about 34; of an inch wide. Buds covered with
pale yellow scales, which are not resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leat flattened, 3} times broader than
thick, sides rounded, upper surface gently curved inwards, below with

* De Candolle, Prodromus, vol. xvi., sect. 2, pp. 419, et seq.

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 675

a prominent midrib. Hypoderma well developed, a continuous band
of thickened cells running underneath the epidermis of the upper
surface, from the external margin of the one resin-canal to the ex-
ternal margin of the other. At the rounded margins of the leaf the
hypoderma consists of two rows of cells. The ‘hypoderma is also
developed under the epidermis covering the prominent midrib below,
the layer of cells being double in the “middle. The resin-canals arc
placed one at each side of the leaf, close to the under side, and sepa-
rated from the epidermis by a single layer of cells. The pallisade
parenchyma is well developed on the upper side, and below there is
parenchyma with well-marked intercellular spaces communicating with
the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the parts placed close together, and
having a few thick liber-like cells above and in the middle. The
whole is surrounded by a sheath.

The figure (Plate 46, fig. 1) is drawn from a specimen supplied to
me by Mr. Syme, Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

Bertrand* gives the following characters for A. bracteata :—
Glands touching the inferior epidermis; no stomata on upper surface
of leaf, more than 10 rows of stomata in each band; no pseudo-liber
cells in parenchyma of leaf; zone of hypoderm continuous ; leaf mucro-
nate.—In the different specimens examined by me the same characters
were found.

Gordon} describes this species, and directs attention to the buds,
while Kochf gives a description of it under the name of Pinus (Abies)
venusta. According to this author the name venusta, Douglas (1836),
has the priority by one year of that of bracteata, D. Don (1837). It
has also been described and figured by Mr. Andrew Murray, in the
Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, vol. vi., p. 211,
with plates. Koch states that the young shoots are hairy, while Par-
latore says: ‘‘ Ramuli glabri:” both states occur among the specimens
examined by me.

P. (Abies) bracteata is one of the most distinct species of the
whole section. Five different specimens have been examined by me—
three from their natural habitats, the others cultivated.

I am indebted to my valued correspondent, Mr. Syme, of Elvaston
Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby, for a fine cultivated specimen for exami-
nation, a section of the leaf of this plant being the one figured. The
other cultivated specimen examined was from a very small plant in
‘Glasnevin Garden, kindly given to me by Dr. Moore, and in it the
hypoderm was not so well developed, there being 2 or 3 cells omitted
in 3 or 4 places, but it agreed in all other characters.

I am indebted to Dr. Hooker, C.B., P.R.S., and to Prof. Oliver,
F.R.S., for permission to examine two specimens in Kew Herbarium.
One is a specimen collected by D. Douglas in ‘‘ America boreali-occi-

“1Op- icit., p. o9- + The Pinetum (1858), p. 146.
} Dendrologie, vol. ii., part 2, p. 210.

676 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

dentalis ;’ the other was marked ‘‘119, Picea bracteata, W. Lobb,
California.” These specimens of Douglas and Lobb have in every
respect the same anatomical characters as the specimen from Elvyaston
Nurseries, figured in the paper.

There is a specimen with cones in the Museum, Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, presented by Mr. Andrew Murray in 1859.
The leaves of this specimen do not differ anatomically from those
already described.

2. Pinus (Abies) religiosa, Humb., Bonpl. and Kunth, Noy. Gen. et
Sp. 2, p. 5; Parlatore, D.C. Prod. vol. xvi., pars 2, p. 420, No..
oe

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly, and not very
closely, all round the stem, but bent so as to form two lateral rows..
Upper side of shoot with leaves directed outwards at a small angle.
Leaf linear, straight or curved, slightly twisted above the base, con-
tracting at apex into a point, upper surface deep green with no sto-
mata, below with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there
being from 8 to 10 rows in each band. Leaves from 1 to 13 inch
in length, and about 7s inch wide. Buds pale-coloured, and very
resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, nearly three times:
broader than thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a central
longitudinal furrow, below with a shghtly prominent midrib. Hypo-
derma conspicuous, forming a continuous, or only very slightly inter-
rupted, band, extending from the resin-canal of one side underneath the
epidermis of the upper surface to the resin-canal of the other side:
below the epidermis of the midrib a series of hypoderm cells also exists.
The resin-canals are two in number, placed close to the epidermis of
the under side of the leaf, and rather near the margin. The pallisade
parenchyma is well developed on whole upper part of leaf; below, the
parenchyma, with intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata,
is well seen.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, surrounded by a well-developed
sheath; the parts of the bundle are not widely separated, and a few
thick liber-like cells are placed superiorly.

The figure (Plate 46, fig. 2) is drawn from a specimen kindly sup-
plied to me by Mr. Fowler, gardener, Castle Kennedy, N. B.

Pinus (Abies) religiosa is very closely related to P. bracteata, and
Bertrand says that the two do not differ anatomically. The shape of
the leaf in section is, however, different, and the thick hypoderm cells.
are larger and more interrupted than in P. bracteata. Ihave seen two:
specimens from Castle Kennedy, one figured above, the other in the
Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. It has a cone, ripened
in 1867, about 4 inches long by 2 wide, with projecting bracts. The
specimen from Glasnevin was in an unhealthy condition when ex-
amined, and has the hypoderm less developed than in the Castle .
Kennedy specimens. In Kew Herbarium is a specimen, marked “‘ Abies.

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 677

religiosa, Guatemala, Skinner;”’ and on the label also, ‘‘ Abies hirtella.
Differt ab Ab. religiosa foliis obtusissimis emarginatis, nec acutis-
simis.’”” This seems to me only to differ from religiosa in having the
hypoderm cells more scattered, and it resembles in every way the
young leaves on the plant of religiosa from Glasnevin Garden. Some
of the leaves on the Castle Kennedy specimens are rather obtuse, so
that there may be a little variation in this interesting form.

I place religiosa next bracteata, which it resembles much in its
leaves, but it differs in its cone.

3. Pinus (Abies) amabilis, Douglas, Bot. Mag. Comp. 2, p. 93 (not
Parlatore). Abies grandis, A. Murray, Syn. Var. Conif., p. 18
(not Douglas). A. grandis, Lambert (?). Picea lasvocarpa, Balf. in
Jeff. seeds, p.1, t. 4, f.1 (not Hook.). Adbses spectabilis, Herpin
de Fremont, Bertrand, Anat. Gnét. et Conif. p. 91 (not Don).

Shoots densely covered with small dark hairs. Leaves inserted
singly all round the stem, and placed very close together, the leaves
on the under side of the stem and the lateral ones forming two
lateral rows spreading outwards, those on the upper side of the branch
twisted round so as to bring the upper surfaces of the leaves superiorly :
these upper leaves all point to the apex of the shoot, nearly parallel to
its long axis, and give the branches a very peculiar appearance.
Leaf linear, more or less twisted at the base, which narrows to-
wards the orbicular insertion, width nearly uniform, apex rounded
and emarginate, upper surface very bright green with no stomata, be-
neath with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there being
from 8 to 10 rows of small stomata in each band. Leaves 1 to 1} inch
long by about > inch wide. Buds covered with brown scales, and
resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, three times broader
than thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a faint longitudinal
furrow, the midrib not prominent. Hypoderma well developed, form-
ing a continuous, or nearly continuous, layer running from the resin-
canal of one side, under the upper epidermis, to the resin-canal of the
other ; the hypoderm is also developed in the middle line below.
The resin-canals are placed, one at each side of the leaf, close to the in-
ferior epidermis, but sometimes having a layer of hypoderm separating
the canal from the epidermis. The pallisade parenchyma is well deve-
loped on the upper side, and below is parenchyma, with intercellular
spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the whole surrounded by a well-
marked sheath.

. The figure (Plate 46, fig. 3) is drawn from a specimen supplied to
me by my father, from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

The peculiar appearance of the foliage of this plant is well shown
in Mr. Murray’s figure (Syn. Var. Conif. p. 19, fig. 20), an appear-
ance which is considered characteristic of amabilis of Douglas. It
seems probable that this is not the plant meant by Douglas to be called

678 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

amabilis, but that the form he really wished to bear this name is now
known as Pseudotsuga magnifica.

I have examined in all eleven specimens of this plant. It has been
sent to me from the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh as the true
amabilis of Douglas, grafts and layers from Douglas’ plants being
there cultivated. Ihave also received it from Mr. Syme, of Elvaston
Nurseries, as the true amabilis of Douglas, as well as from Mr. Wat-
erer, of Knap Hill Nursery. A plant of it was noticed last September
by Dr. Moore, of Glasnevin, growing near Ambleside, in the Lake
District. I have also examined five native specimens—three in Kew
Herbarium, from the Oregon Boundary Commission: one collected in St.
Juan Island, by Dr. Lyell, in 1858; another, near Lake Chiluk-
weyak, B. C., Cascade Mountains, 49° N. L., Dr. Lyell, 1859; and the
third, Cascade Mountains to Fort Colville, about 49° N. L., Dr. Lyell,
July, 1860. A section of the leaf of one of these is figured (Plate 46,
fig. 3, a.)

In the Museum at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, there is
a cone, about 4 inches long, with a few leaves, marked ‘‘ Pinus lasio-
carpa, 409. California, Mr. Jeffrey, 1853.’’ In the Herbarium is a
specimen of the same, marked ‘‘ Picea sp., No. 409. Mountains east of
the Falls of Fraser’s River, Sept. 27, 1851, Jeffrey.”” This No. 409,
Jeff,, is A. lasiocarpa of Balfour and Oregon Committee, as shown by
the figure given by Mr. A. Murray, Syn. Var. Conif. p. 25, fig. 34.
From an examination of both the cone and leaves, I have no difficulty
in identifying this plant as being lasiocarpa of Balfour, grandis of
Murray, and probably of Lambert, and amabilis of Douglas, as repre-
sented in our gardens. No plants of this, Balfour’s lasiocarpa, seem to
have grown from Jeffrey’s seeds.

From the great development of hypoderm, I place this species next
to bracteata and religiosa. The cone is unlike that of the two species,
and has large bracts, which do not project beyond the scales.

4. Pinus (Abies) grandis, Douglas, Bot. Mag. Comp. 2, p. 147; Par-
latore, D.C. Prod. xvi. p. 427, No. 104 (excl. of syn.). Adbzes
amabilis, Murray, Syn. Var. Conif. p. 20; Koch, Dendrologie,
vol. u. pt. 2, p. 211. Abzes Gordoniana, Carr. Conif. ed. 2,
p. 298; Bertrand, Anat. Comp. Gnét. et Conif. p. 91.

Shoots smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but
bent so as to form two lateral rows; occasionally a few are directed
upwards. Leaf linear, twisted at the base, which is shghtly narrowed
towards the orbicular insertion; width of leaf nearly uniform, with a
rounded emarginate apex, upper surface bright green, with no stomata,
or very rarely with a small cluster of 3 or 4 near the apex, beneath
with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there being from
7 to 8 rows of stomata in each band. Leaves from 1 to 14 inch
long, and about 34; inch wide. Buds covered with resinous brown-
coloured scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about three times

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 679

broader than thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a faint longitu-
dinal furrow, the midrib not prominent. Hypoderma consisting of a
few scattered cells under the upper epidermis, one or two at the sides
of the resin-canals, and a few inferiorly in the middle line. The resin-
canals are placed, one at each side of the leaf, close to the epidermis of
the under surface. The pallisade parenchyma is well developed on the
upper side, and below is parenchyma with well-marked intercellular
spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the parts placed close together, the
whole surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 46, fig. 4) is drawn from a specimen supplied to
me by my father, while Pl. 46, fig. 4, a, is from a specimen sent under
the name of A. lasiocarpa.

Much confusion exists in regard to this species, a confusion which
seems to have begun at the very beginning, and to have been made
still worse by the Oregon Association distributing several plants under
one name. JI have been able to examine many specimens, and shall
briefly give the result of my investigations.

Specimens of grandis have reached me from three different sources,
all purporting to be grandis of Douglas. The first comes from the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where it has been long cultivated,
and my father sends it to me with the note that it is a layer from one
of Douglas’s original plants. The same plant is cultivated in the
Botanic Garden, Glasnevin, and is marked as the true grandis of
Douglas. The third specimen comes from Mr. Barron, of Elvaston Nur-
series, and was sent to me by Dr. Masters. All these have the same
foliage, and the same peculiar anatomical structure of the leaf, and the
pecuhar scattered hypoderm cells. Assuming, then, that this plant is
probably the true grandis of Douglas, an examination of recently in-
troduced specimens will show a great deal of confusion.

In the Museum and Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh, Jeffrey’s original specimens are preserved, and I have
been enabled to examine them carefully, through the kindness of
Professor Balfour, F.R.S. In the Museum there is a cone in a net,
and lying beside the cone is a shoot with leaves, bearing a label in
Jetfrey’s handwriting. The cone is 5 inches long, by 23 inches wide,
and shows the short pointed bract. There seems little doubt that the
cone belongs to the shoot, as shown by the examination of other spe-
«imens. On the label is the following—

Picea. No. 393.
Along the banks of Fraser’s River, from the Falls to the Ocean.

Sept. 30, 1851.

There is another cone in the collection, marked “ P. lasiocarpa ?
Jeffrey, 393.” The cone is in pieces, and seems to have measured
about 4 inches by 2. No leaves are attached to this specimen. The
scale and bract is the same as that figured by Mr. Murray, Syn. Var.
Conif. p. 25, figure 32.

680 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

In the Herbarium there are two specimens, one with part of am
immature cone, the other with the whole of a small one, also immature.
Both are marked ‘‘ No. 393, Jeffrey, Picea, sp.” One bears a lone
printed label; the other, with the entire cone, is marked by my father,.
Gel bewlioywaie

In Kew Herbarium there is a specimen from the Oregon Associa-.
tion, No. 398, with the printed label, and erroneous date, 1852.
Jeffrey’s No. 393 is, undoubtedly, the same as grandis, Douglas; but
it is extensively cultivated as Picea lasiocarpa. My father has sent
me two specimens of it for examination, one marked ‘‘ Picea lasio-
carpa. Introduced by Jeffrey, and described by Mr. Murray,’”’ meaning
that it is the lasiocarpa of the Oregon Committee. (See Trans. Ed. Bot.
Soc., vol. xi. p. 326). Mr. Murray (Syn. Var. Conif. p. 24) is quite
correct in stating that Jeffrey’s No. 393 is Douglas’s grandis, and not
lasiocarpa. A specimen of lasiocarpa, received from Mr. Barron of
Elvaston, through Dr. Masters, is also grandis; hence Mr. Barron’s.
conclusion that lasiocarpa only equals grandis.

Lasiocarpa of the Oregon Committee, Jeffrey, No. 409, is a different
plant, already noticed as amabilis.

I have examined sixteen specimens—ten cultivated, and six na-
tive—of Picea grandis, Douglas, and have received it under three diffe-
rent names:

A. grandis, Hort. Edin., Hort. Glasnevin., Hort. Barron.
P. lasiocarpa, Hort. Edin.
P. amabilis, Hort. Glasnevin.

There is a specimen in Kew Herbarium from Dr. Lyell, marked
‘¢ Abies grandis, Del. ?,” from the Columbia River, lat. 46°-49° N.

A specimen in the Edinburgh Museum, marked ‘“‘ grandis,” from.
Mr. Andrew Murray, is Lowiana.

5. Pinus (Abies) Lowiana, Gordon, Supp. to Pinetum, p. 53; A.
Murray, Syn. of Var. Conif..p. 27. 4A. Parsonsiana, Hort. A.
lasiocarpa, Hort.

Shoots hairy. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but bent
so as to form two lateral rows; occasionally a few are directed
upwards. Leaf linear, twisted at the base, some only slightly, others.
twisted through half a turn, width nearly uniform, apex rounded and
emarginate, upper surface bright green, with 6 or 7 (or fewer, ) rows.
of stomata in a central band, beneath with a band of stomata on each
side of the midrib, there being from 9 to 10 rows in each band. Leaves.
1 to 2 inches in length, and about #, inch wide. Buds covered with
resinous brownish scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about three times as.
broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a faint longitudinal
furrow, below without a prominent midrib. Hypoderma well deve-
loped at the margins of the leaf; scattered cells under the upper epi-
dermis, and a few cells below, under the fibro-vascular bundle. The

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 681

resin-canals are placed, one at each side of the leaf, close to the under
side. The pallisade tissue is interrupted above by the presence of
stomata.

The fibro-vascular bundle is double, the parts not placed very close
together, the whole surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 46, fig. 5) is drawn from a specimen grown in
the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, from seed sent by Jeffrey.

I have examined nine specimens of this plant, six of them being
cultivated, and three native specimens. In the Museum, Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, is a cone with a shoot having leaves tied to
it, which is marked ‘“‘ Picea Lowii (P. grandis). Oregon, Mr. Jeffrey,
1854.” The cone is 4 inches long by 23 inches wide. The scale and
seed are both large, the bract being very short. The part that is free
from the scale is broader than long; the margin is toothed, with a sharp-
pointed apex, indeed, agreeing very well with Mr. Gordon’s descrip-
tion. The number in Jeffrey’s list is not given, and I failed to find
more than the one specimen of Jeffrey’s. I have little doubt that the
seeds were mixed with those of Jeffrey’s 893 and 409, and the three
things all sent out as P. lasiocarpa, Oregon Committee; hence the
name it receives in certain gardens. Lowiana was sent home by Mr.
William Murray, as there is a shoot of it, without a cone, in the
Museum, in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, marked ‘“ Picea
grandis. California, W. Murray, Esq. Presented by A. Murray, Esq.,
1860.” In Kew Herbarium is a specimen marked, ‘‘ No. 3. California,
— Low, Ksq., Clapton.”’ It is also cultivated as Parsonsiana, and I
have received it as such from Edinburgh, and from Mr. Barron, Elvas-
ton Nurseries, per Dr. Masters.

6. Pinus (Abies) concolor, Engelm. Herb.; Parlatore, D.C. Prod., xvi.,
pars 2, p. 426, No. 103. Pucea concolor, Gordon, Pinetum, p. 155.

Leaves about 13 inch long, and =; inch broad, linear, curved,
twisted at base, rather obtuse at apex, stomata on both sides—about 15
rows on the upper side, and two bands below, each with about 8 or
10 rows of stomata.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf about 24 times as broad as thick,
rather tetragonous in form although much flattened, sides rounded,
upper surface convex with no furrow, below with a rather prominent
midrib. Hypoderma developed at the sides of the leaf, and below the
epidermis of. the midrib, occasionally a few scattered cells in other
parts of the leaf between the rows of stomata. The resin-canals are
placed, one at each side of the leaf, close to the lower epidermis. The
pallisade tissue is not developed, owing to the presence of stomata on
both sides of the leaf.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the two parts rather widely separated,
and with a well-marked sheath surrounding the whole.

The figure (Plate 46, fig. 6) is drawn from the specimen in Kew
Herbarium from Fendler, ‘‘ Pl. Novo-Mexicano,”’ No. 828, 1847.

682 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

This species is very distinct anatomically, and as far as I know is
not yet in cultivation, not having received it from any of our gardens
and nurseries.

M. Bertrand (loc. cit. p. 89) gives Abies concolor as a synonym
of Abies grandis, Lindl., but gives the characters of concolor for the
species.

7. Pinus lasiocarpa, Hooker, Fl. Bor. Amer. i1., p. 168, (not Balfour.)
Abies bifolia, A. Murray, Proc. of Royal Hort. Soc. London, i11.,
p. 320. P.amabilis, Parlatore, D.C. Prod., vol. xvi., p. 426, No.
102 (in part). ? Picea amabilis, Newberry.

Leaves of two forms, those on ordinary branches from# to 13
inch long, and grooved on the upper side, those on the cone-bearing
shoots shorter, and without the groove. Stomata on both sides of the
leaf, above with many rows especially near the apex, below with two
bands on each side of the rather prominent midrib, there being
from 6 to 8 rows in each band. Leaves either pointed, or blunt, or
slightly emarginate, from 34; to +4; inch wide.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf (ordinary branch) flattened, about
three times as broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a
central longitudinal furrow, below with a prominent midrib. Leaf
(cone-bearing branch) tetragonal, more than half as thick as wide, with
no furrow. Hypoderma developed at edges of leaf below epidermis of
midrib, and generally superiorly. Resin-canals in the parenchyma of
the leaf, and remote from the inferior epidermis.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, and surrounded by a well-marked
sheath.

I have examined nine dried specimens, all of which I refer to this
species. The first is a specimen in Kew Herbarium: the leaves were
sent to me by Prof. Oliver, and labelled ‘‘ P. lasiocarpa, Hook. (sp.
typica). Coll. Douglas.” This specimen first showed me that P. lasio-
carpa, Hooker, was not P. lasiocarpa of Balfour, or of our gardens. A
transverse section of the leaf is figured in Plate 46, fig. 7. My valued
correspondent, Mr. Syme, of Elvaston Nurseries, sent me leaves of
P. bifolia, A. Murray, got from M. Roezl. These on examination
proved to be the same as P. lasiocarpa, Hooker. The two forms of leaves
were sent by Mr. Syme—both the grooved and quadrangular forms.
One of the leaves is figured in section (Plate 47, fig. 8). Mr. Syme
adds on the label of the specimen sent to me the note: ‘M. Roezl
informs me that it is not very handsome.”’ Young plants sent by Mr.
Syme were also examined, but they did not present the distinctive
features of the species. Five specimens from Kew Herbarium were
then examined, collected by Dr. Lyell in 1860 and 1861, and in the
collection of the Oregon Boundary Commission. These specimens were
collected in the Cascade Mountains, Galton range of Rocky Mountains,
and along the Columbia River, through 10° of latitude, viz., from 39°N.
to 49°N.; and on the Galton range, at an elevation of 7000 feet. These

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 683

are, in fact, the types of Mr. Murray’s “‘bifolia,”’ and one of the
specimens is marked ‘‘ Ab. amabilis, Douglas, fid. Parlatore.” An
unnamed specimen from Douglas also exists in Kew Herbarium (Plate
46, fig. 7, a.)

When examining the specimens in the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh, I found a specimen marked ‘‘ Picea magnifica robusta.
Oregon, Mr. Jeffrey, 1853.’ Two cones and a few leaves were pre-
served in the Museum, and I was able at once to refer the specimen
to P. bifolia of Murray, or P. lasiocarpa, Hooker.

The section of the leaf from the cone-bearing branch in Kew Her-
barium with the label, ‘‘ Colville, Indian name ‘Marcilp.’ Hab.
East side of Cascade Mountains, latitude 49°N. Not uncommon up
to 6000 feet above the sea. Aug., 1860,” is figured (Plate 47 fig. 9).

After the most careful examination of these specimens I am com-
pelled to come to the conclusion that P. lasiocarpa of Hooker is a good
species which has been confounded with other forms by subsequent
botanists. I further conclude that bifolia of Murray is a synonym of
P. lasiocarpa, Hooker. From an examination of the cones of grandis,
magnifica, and bifolia, I find that it is very difficult to separate them by
external characters, all being hairy or ‘‘ lasiocarpous;”’ and as magni-
fica and bifolia are mixedin the Museum in Edinburgh, it shows that
thoroughly competent botanists may confound them. Byanexamination
of the bract, the two can be readily separated: the bract of magnifica
is large, while that of bifolia is very small. If we bear in mind that
amabilis, Douglas, and lasiocarpa, Hooker, were described within a
comparatively short time of each other, I feel constrained to consider
that the two things are and were distinct. Further, when we consi-
der M. Roezl’s note, mentioned above, that it is not a handsome plant,
I think we could hardly agree with Parlatore in calling it amabilis,
Douglas. The scale, but not the bract, of amabilis, Douglas, is figured
in Loudon’s ‘‘ Arboretum,” and he mentions that the bract is very short
and pointed ; in fact, the cone he figured was bifolia, Murray. I feel
quite confident that the plant Douglas meant to call amabilis is magni-
fica of Murray, and not bifolia of Murray, but in the absence of
authentic specimens, I think we should retain the name amabilis for
the plant long cultivated under that name, and retain the name of
lasiocarpa, Hook., for this species, while we use A. Murray’s name,
magnifica, for the species which Douglas undoubtedly meant should
be called amabilis.

The scale and bract of Jeffrey’s specimen in the Museum of the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, were examined. The cones, two
in number, are 6 inches long, by about 24 inches wide. Another
one in the same collection, 74+ inches long, and 2 inches wide, marked
«<P. Pinsapo, from Ronda in Spain,” belongs to the same species, yiz.,
lasiocarpa, Hook.

This species is probably A. amabilis (Forbes), Bertrand, which
Bertrand says does not differ anatomically from A. Fraseri.

684 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

8. Pinus (Abies) Frasert, Pursh, Fl. Bor. Amer. 2, p. 639; Parla-
tore, D. C. Prod., xvi.; pars 2, p. 419, No. 90.

Shoots hairy, the surface broken and uneven from the presence of
resin-canals. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, bent at base
so as to be irregularly two-rowed, afew of the leaves directed up-
wards. Leaf linear, bent at the base or straight, short, leathery, apex
obtuse or emarginate, upper surface deep green with several rows of
stomata in the central furrow, beneath with a band of stomata on
each side of the midrib, there being from 8 to 9 rows of stomata in
each band. Leaves about $ inch in length, and about + inch wide.
Buds large, covered with yellowish-brown resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, three times broader than
thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a well-marked central groove,
below with a distinct but not very prominent midrib. Hypoderma
moderately developed, irregularly scattered below superior epidermis
and forming a very much interrupted layer, the layer continuous at
the rounded margins, one, rarely two, cells thick; a layer of hypoderm
below at the midrib forming a single layer of cells with a few scattered
here and there forming a double row. ‘The resin-canals are placed in
the parenchyma of the leaf, and separated from the inferior epidermis
by many layers of chlorophyll-bearing cells. The pallisade parenchyma
is developed at each side of the groove above, but is defective where
the stomata are present.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 10) is drawn from a specimen supplied
to me by Mr. Fowler, gardener, Castle Kennedy, N. B.

I have examined four specimens of this species, only one of which
is from a cultivated specimen. There is a cone 2} inches long by
1 broad, in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, ripened
at Castle Kennedy, but it has no leaves. The other three specimens I
have examined are from Kew Herbarium. The first is from the summit
of the Hoosack Mountains, Massachusetts—Pinus Fraseri, Pursh. The -
second is marked ‘‘P. balsamea. Canada, P. Fraseri;”’ the third,
‘Pinus americanus, Newfoundland. Herb. Forsyth.” About the two
last I am rather doubtful, as I find it very difficult to separate Fraseri
and balsamea by anatomical characters only.

‘9. Pinus (Abies) balsamea, Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 1421; Parlatore, D. C.
Prod. vol. xvi. pars 2, p. 423, No. 95.

Shoots hairy, the surface broken and uneven from the presence of
resin-canals. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but bent so
as to form two lateral rows, a few being directed upwards. Leaf
linear, twisted at the base, which is narrowed towards the orbicular
insertion, apex emarginate, upper surface dark green, with two or more
rows of stomata in the middle line near the apex, beneath with a band
of stomata on each side of the midrib, there being about ten rows of.
stomata in each band. Leaves from } to ¢ inch long, and about

M‘Nas—aA Revision of the Species of Abies. 685

1; inch wide. Buds covered with brownish scales, which are very
resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about three times
broader than thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a faint longi-
tudinal furrow, below with a slightly prominent midrib. Hypoderma
wanting; very rarely there are one or two cells at the rounded
margin, and one or two below the fibro-vascular bundles. The resin-
canals are placed in the parenchyma of the leaf, and although sometimes
running very near the lower surface, are always separated from the
epidermis by chlorophyll-bearing cells. The pallisade parenchyma is
well developed on the upper side, as the stomata rarely extend down
the leaf for any distance, although occasionally a single row may
run for about two-thirds of the length; below, the parenchyma
has intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata.

The fibro-vascular bundle is double, the whole surrounded by a
well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 11) is drawn from a specimen grown in
the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

I have examined five specimens of this species: one specimen
rown in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh ; one from Mr. Syme,
Elvaston Nurseries; two specimens are from Kew Herbarium—one
marked ‘‘P. balsamea. Canada, Mr. Perceval;’’ the other, ‘‘ P. balsamea,
L. Gonan ;” the fifth specimen is from the Museum, Royal Botanic
‘Garden, Edinburgh. The leaves exumined are from the base of a
cluster of cones, and are very interesting, as having a considerable
quantity of hypoderm developed. Like P. lasiocarpa, this species is
bifolious, and the leaves resemble those of P. Fraseri. Indeed, I find
it very difficult to separate the two forms, viz., Fraseri and balsamea,
by characters derived from the structure of the leaf.

10. Pinus (Abies) sibirica, Turcz., Cat. Baekal, No. 1067; Parlatore,
D.C. Prod. vol. xvi. pars 2, p. 425, No. 101. Abies sibirica,
Ledeb. Fl. Alt. 4, p. 202. Picea Pichta, Loud. Arbor. Brit. 4,
23388. Abies Pichta, Forbes, Pin. Wob. 109, t. 37.

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly and close together
-all round the shoot, those on the under side bent to form two lateral
rows, those on the upper side directed with their points upwards and
forwards towards apex of the shoot. Leaf linear, twisted above the
base, which is slightly narrowed towards the orbicular insertion, width
nearly uniform throughout the entire length, apex rounded or slightly
4runcate, upper surface dark green, with no stomata, beneath with a
band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there being from 4 to 5
rows ineach band. Leaves from } to 14 inch long, and about ~y inch
wide. Buds brownish, and very resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about three times as
broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a slight longi-
tudinal furrow, below with a very faintly prominent midrib. Hypo-
derma entirely absent. The resin-canals are placed in the parenchyma

686 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

of the leaf, sometimes, however, rather low, but always separated by
chlorophyll-bearing cells from the lower epidermis. Pallisade tissue
well developed under superior epidermis, the parenchyma with inter-
cellular spaces communicating with the stomata, well developed below.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, with one or two thickened cells.
above and below, the whole surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 12) is drawn from a plant cultivated in
Glasnevin Garden, and kindly supplied to me by Dr. Moore.

This species is cultivated in the Botanic Garden, Glasnevin, and in
the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, under the name of Pichta. I
have also received it from Mr. Syme, of Elvaston Nurseries, correctly
named sibirica. In Mr. Syme’s specimen a single thick hypoderm
cell was noticed in one leaf under the epidermis covering the midrib.
below.

11. (Pinus Abies) Veitchiv. Picea Veitchii, Lindley, Gard. Chron., Jan.
1861. <Adbses Veitehti, A. Murray, Sketch of Conif. of Japan,
p. 39. Pinus selenolepis, Parlatore, D.C. Prod. xvi., p. 427,
No. 105.

Shoots and arrangement of leaves not observed. Leaf fiat, linear,
grooved on upper side, apex obtuse and emarginate, above glaucous.
green, with no stomata, below with two bands of stomata on each side
of the midrib, there being from 6 to 7 rows of stomata in each band.
Leaf from + to 1 inch long, and about +4; inch broad.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about three times as.
broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a longitudinal furrow,
below with a slightly prominent midrib. Hypoderma only shghtly
developed, a few cells being placed above and below, touching the epi-
dermis in the middle line. No hypoderm, or rarely a single thickened
cell, at the rounded margin of the leaf. The resin-canals are placed
in the middle of the parenchyma. The pallisade parenchyma is well
developed above, and the parenchyma with intercellular spaces below.

The fibro-vascular bundle is double, the tissue between the bundles.

and the well-developed sheath being thickened.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 13) is drawn from a dried specimen in
Kew Herbarium.

This species does not seem to be in cultivation, and the only speci-
men known to me is that in Kew Herbarium. The single specimen
has two labels, viz. :—‘‘ No. 946. Abies microsperma. From Fusi
Yami. 2/63. Yokohama;” and ‘‘813, Picea Veitchu, Ldl. Oldham
legit.”

It is undoubtedly the Abies Veitchii of description, and is perfectly
distinct from Abies Veitchii of gardens.

12. Pinus (Abies) firma, Antoine, Conif. 70, tab. 27, brs. Abzes firma,
Siebold and Zuccarini, Flora Japon. ui., 15, tab. 107 (not Parla-
tore). Abies homolepis(?), Sieb. and Zuce., Flora Jap., u., 17,

t. 108. Abies brachyphylla, Maxim. Pl. exsice. Pinus brachy-

phylla, Parl., D.C. Prod. xvi., 2., p. 424.

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 687

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the
stem, but bent so as to form two lateral rows. Leaf linear, twisted
above the base, which is slightly narrowed towards the orbicular inser-
tion, width tolerably uniform, or slightly greater towards the apex,
which is rounded and emarginate, upper surface green, occasionally
with a few stomata in a patch near the apex, but generally without
stomata, beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the promi-
nent midrib, there being from 10 to 11 rows of stomata in each
band. Leaf from 4 to 14 inch in length, and about 34 inch wide.
Buds ?

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, three times as broad as
thick, sides rounded, upper surface convex, with a well-marked
central furrow, below with a prominent midrib. Hypoderma well
developed, forming a continuous layer extending all round the leaf,
except where the two bands of stomata occur on the lower surface on
each side of the midrib. The resin-canals are placed, one at each side
of the leaf, in the parenchyma of the leaf, and separated from the
lower epidermis by many chlorophyll-bearing cells. The pallisade
parenchyma is well developed on the upper side, and below is the
parenchyma with well-marked intercellular spaces communicating
with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the two parts placed rather close
together, and having a number of very thick lber-like cells below.
The whole is surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 14) is drawn from a specimen from Kew
Herbarium, and is not yet in cultivation as far as I can learn.

I have only seen three specimens of this species, all of which are
in the Kew Herbarium, and I am indebted to Dr. Hooker and Prof.
Oliver for leave toexamine them. The first is marked ‘‘ 812. Abies
firma, S.& Z. Nagasaki, Japan, 1862. Oldham.”’ The second, from
which the figure is drawn, has the label, ‘‘ Ex herb. Hort. Bot. Petropol.
Maximiowicz, iter secundum. Abies firma, 8. & Z. Japonia, Nippon,
1864.” The third specimen is that with the label, ‘‘ Ex herb. Hort. Bot.
Petropol. Maximiowicz, iter secundum. Abies brachyphylla, Maxim.
Japonia, Yokohama, 1862.”

Very much confusion exists regarding this and the next species
(P. bifida). All the examples cultivated under the name of firma
that I have yet seen are bifida. As the specimen marked “‘ brachy-
phylla” in Kew Herbarium is authentic, it will be seen that the
species described by Maximiowicz, and adopted by Parlatore, must
sink as a synonym of firma, Sieb. and Zucc., if the plant here noticed be
Siebold and Zuccarini’s species. Bertrand correctly gives the charac-
ters of Abies firma as here defined. Mr. Andrew Murray (Conifers of
Japan, p. 53) mixes up firma and bifida; but his figures 98 and 99
would certainly apply very well to firma, and fig. 108 to bifida.

Koch (Dendrologie, vol. 2, pt. 2, page 227) adopts Mr. Murray’s
view of the identity of firma and bifida, but adopts the name of
Abies Momi, Sieb., for the united forms. As the species are markedly
distinct, anatomically, I have no hesitation in separating them; and

R. I, A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE, 35

688 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

at the same time, as I cannot find the slightest difference to exist
between firma and brachyphylla, I have as little hesitation in uniting
them.

13. Pinus (Abies) bifida, Ant. Conif. p. 79, t. 31, f£.2. <Adbzes bifida,
Sieb. and Zuce., Flor. Japon., 2, p. 18, t. 109. Abies firma, A.
Murray, Conif. of Japan, p. 53.

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem,
but bent so as to form two lateral rows, rarely a few pointing down-
wards or upwards. Leaf linear, twisted above the base which is slightly
narrowed towards the orbicular insertion, then gradually tapering,
with a bifid apex, the two portions being very acute; upper surface
bright green, with no stomata, beneath with a band of stomata on
each side of the midrib, there being from 10 to 12 rows in each band.
Leaves varying in length from 3 to 14} inch, about 7, mch wide at
widest part. Buds covered with brownish scales, which are resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, 34 times as broad as
thick, sides with a rather acute lateral margin ; upper surface convex,
with a central longitudinal furrow, midrib not prominent below.
Hypoderma well developed, forming a slightly interrupted row of
cells running from the margin of the resin-canal of one side to the
margin of the resin-canal of the other side; the hypoderm is also
developed under the epidermis covering the midrib. The resin-canals
are placed, one at each side of the leaf, generally quite close to the
epidermis of the under side of the leaf, but in the same leaf the resin-
canal may become small, and be separated from the epidermis by one
or two chlorophyll-bearing cells. The ground parenchyma of the leaf
is distinguished by the occurrence of numerous large thickened pros-
enchymatous cells or idioblasts, which are unbranched, and have their
long axes parallel to the long axis of the leaf. These idioblasts are a
special peculiarity of this species, and are called pseudo-liber fibres
by Bertrand. The pallisade tissue is well developed on the upper side,
and below is the parenchyma with well-marked intercellular spaces
communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the parts placed close together, with
several thickened liber-like cells, sometimes above and always below
the bundles, the whole surrounded by a sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 15) is drawn from a specimen supplied
to me by Messrs. Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, under the name of Abies
firma.

I have examined five specimens of this, all presenting the marked
characteristics of the species. There is a specimen in Kew Herba-
rium, marked A. bifida, Sieb. and Zuce., which is the same as this,
but I have not examined it microscopically. It is cultivated in the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, under the correct name of P.
bifida, and there is another plant, differing only in the smaller size of
the leaves, which my father sent as P. sp., Japan. It is the species
cultivated in gardens and nurseries as Abies firma, and under that

M‘Nas—aA Revision of the Species of Abies. 689

name I have received it from Messrs. Veitch, and Mr. Fowler of
Castle Kennedy. Mr. Fowler sends two forms—one marked by him as
4 late variety ; anatomically they are the same, except that the late
variety shows great irregularity in the size and position of the resin-
canals, being normal, in the lower half of the leaf, but in the paren-
chyma, near the apex.

This species can at once be separated from firma by the presence
of the remarkable idioblasts as well as by the margin and apex of the
leaf.

Abies homolepis, Sieb. and Zucc., I have not seen, but from Ber-
trand’s description of the leaf I would consider it a synonym of A.
firma.

Pinus holophylla, Parlatore ; Abies holophylla, Maxim., is also un-
known to me except by Parlatore’s description in D. C. Prod., vol. xvi.,
pt. 2, p. 424. It is from Mandschuria.

14. Pinus (Abies) Harryana, n. sp. Abies Veitchii, Hort, not descr.

Shoots smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but
bent so as to form two lateral rows, a few projecting upwards and
downwards. Leaf linear, twisted above the base, widest above the
twist, getting graduaily narrower, then suddenly contracting near the
apex into a sharp, simple, or bifid point; upper surface bright green,
without stomata except in a few rare cases where a small cluster of three
or four occur near the apex, beneath with a band of stomata on
each side of the midrib, there being from 7 to 8 rows of stomata
in each band. Leaves from 3 to 14 inch long, and about 54; inch
wide. Buds covered with pale brown very resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about 33 times as broad
as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a longitudinal furrow,
below with a slightly prominent midrib. Hypoderma well developed,
forming a slightly interrupted band, extending from the anterior side of
the resin-canal of the one side, under the epidermis of the upper side
cf the leaf, to the side of the resin-canal of the other side; the hypo-
derma is also developed under the epidermis of the midrib. The resin-
canals are placed, one at each side of the leaf, close to the lower
epidermis. The pallisade tissue is well developed on the upper side,
and below is parenchyma with well-marked intercellular spaces com-
municating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the parts placed very close together,
and haying a large number of bast fibres below; the fibro-vascular
bundles and the bast fibres surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 16) is drawn from a specimen kindly
supplied to me by Messrs. Veitch and Sons, Royal Exotic Nursery,
Chelsea, London.

This sharp-leaved form can be at once distinguished from the
obtuse emarginate-leaved A. Veitchii. Then their anatomical cha-

racters are remarkably distinct. Veitchii in the Kew Herbarium has
35 2

690 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the resin-canals in the parenchyma of the leaf, and possesses very little
hypoderm. ‘The same characters are given by Bertrand for Veitchii,
so that there can be no doubt that we have both had the same plant
under examination. The Veitchii from Veitch’s Nursery; Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh; Mr. Syme, Elvaston Nurseries; and the
Lawson Nursery Co. (Limited), Edinburgh, is quite distinct, having
the resin-canals, close to the lower epidermis, and the hypoderm well
developed. In the absence of sufficient materials for description, as
the cone remains unknown, I would provisionally name it Pinus
Harryana, after Mr. Harry Veitch, the head of the firm of Veitch &
Sons.

The leaves of this species rather closely resemble in general form
and appearance those of Pinus (Pseudotsuga) Fortunei, Murray, and
it seems not improbable that it may have been confounded with that
plant under the name of Jezoensis. It is a Japanese species, but is
not A. Jezoensis, Sieb. et Zucc., to judge from the figure.

15. Pinus (Abies) Pindrow, Royle, Himal. p. 354, t. 86; Parlatore,
D. C. Prod. vol. xvi. pars 2, p. 424, No. 99. Abies Pindrow,
Spach, Hist. Nat.d. Veg. Phan. xi. p. 428. Picea Pindrow, Loud.,
Arb. Brit. iv., 23846.

Shoots hairy orsmooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem,
but bent so as to form two lateral rows, a few directed upwards and
downwards. Leaf long and linear, twisted above the base, narrowed
towards the orbicular insertion, width uniform, the apex bifid, with
two narrow sharp points, upper surface deep green with no stomata,
beneath with a more or less conspicuous band of stomata on each side
of the midrib, there being from 7 to 8 rows in each band. Leaves from
1 to 23 inches long, and about -4; inch wide. Buds resinous, covered
with brownish scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, four times as broad as
thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a slightly marked longi-
tudinal furrow, midrib not prominent below. Hypoderma well
developed, forming a continuous, or very nearly continuous, band from
the resin-canal of one side, under the epidermis of the upper surface, to
the resin-canal of the other side; the hypoderma is also developed
below the fibro-vascular bundles. The resin-canals are placed, one at
each side of the leaf, close to the epidermis of the under side. The
pallisade parenchyma is well developed on the upper side, and below
is the parenchyma with well-marked intercellular spaces communi-
cating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the parts rather widely separated, a
few thick cells developed both above and below ; the whole surrounded
by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 47, fig. 17) is drawn from a specimen kindly sup-
plied to me by Dr. Moore, and cultivated in Glasnevin Garden.

Mr. Syme, of Elvaston Nurseries, has directed my attention to the

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 691

fact that this species has the shoots either hairy or smooth, both in
young and old plants.

Bertrand (Joc. cit. p. 89) says that Pindrow has ‘‘ Trés-peu d’hypo-
derma; this I have only found in exceedingly young leaves, all
others examined by me having abundance of hypoderm. He seems
to have confused the species from the Himalayas, because he says,
p- 91, ‘‘A. Webbiana, Lind., ne différe pas anatomiquement de I’ A.
Pindrow, Spach,” in which statement I cannot concur.

16. Pinus (Abies) Webbiana, Wall, MSS.; Parlatore, D. C. Prod. xvi.
pars 2, p. 425, No. 100. Prnus spectabilis, Lamb., Pin. ed. 2,
vol. 2, p. 3, t. 2. Abies Webbiana, Spach. Picea Webbiana,
Loudon, Arb. Brit. iv. p. 2346. -

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the
stem, but directed chiefly towards the two sides, those on the upper
side with their points directed towards the apex of the shoot, and
nearly parallel to its axis. Leaf long, linear, twisted more or less
according to its position on the shoot, base narrowed towards the
orbicular insertion. Breadth of leaf uniform through most of its
length, slightly contracted near the bifid apex, the two portions being
small and very sharp, or slightly rounded; upper surface dark green,
with no stomata, beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the
midrib, there being from 8 to 10 rows in each band. Leaves from
1 to 24 inches long, and about 335 inch wide. Buds brownish and
resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf about four times as broad as thick,
sides with a well-marked lateral line, upper surface convex, with a
well-marked longitudinal furrow, below with a slightly prominent
midrib. Hypoderma rather well developed, forming an interrupted
band running from the resin-canal of one side, under epidermis of
upper surface, to the resin-canal of the other side; the hypoderm is
also developed under the epidermis of the slightly prominent midrib.
The resin-canals are placed, one at each side of the leaf, close to the
epidermis of the under surface. The pallisade tissue is well developed
on the upper side, and below is the parenchyma with well-marked
intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, with thick cells above and below,
the whole surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 18) is drawn from a specimen cultivated
at Glasnevin Garden, and kindly supplied to me by Dr. Moore.

This species, like A. Pindrow, has the shoots either glabrous or
hairy when young or old, and I am again indebted to Mr. Syme, of
Elvaston, for specimens showing this. In young plants the hypoderm
is only very feebly developed, but the form of the section of the leaf
at once separates it from Pindrow.

Mr. Syme sent a specimen under the name of Picea Webbiana
ovata, which I cannot separate anatomically from the type.

There is a specimen in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edin-

692 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

burgh, of cone and leaves from Castle Martyr, Co. Cork. The cone is.
about 6 inches long by 2} inches broad. On examining the leaves
attached to the shoot, they are found to have the same anatomical
characters as those already described. In the same Museum are two
other cones without leaves—one from Castle Martyr measuring 7 inches.
by 24 inches, and the other from Holkam Hall, which only measures.
5+ inches in length by 2+ inches in breadth.

17. Pinus (Abies), sp. nov. (?)

I have met with two specimens of a pine closely related to Pin-
drow and Webbiana, which on further investigation may turn out to
be new. The first specimen was noticed while examining the specimens.
in the Herbarium of Trinity College, Dublin. It was marked, ‘“ Abies.
Webbiana, Himalaya occid., 9,000 to 12,000, Hook. fil. et Thomson.”
The leaves are 14 to 2 inches in length, and only very slightly notched
at the apex. The second specimen was met with in the Museum,
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. It was a fine cone-bearing shoot,
with leaves, and had been grown at Castle Kennedy, in Scotland.
The cone measures 24 inches by 2, and the leaves are long and nar-
row, 2 inches long in most cases, from 3'5 to 315 Inch wide, and only
slightly notched at the apex.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about four times as.
broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a slightly-marked
longitudinal furrow, below with a scarcely prominent midrib. Hypo-
derma well developed, forming a continuous (Castle Kennedy speci-
men) or sightly interrupted (Himalayan specimen) band running all
round the leaf, except where the stomata are developed in a band on
each side of the midrib. ‘The resin-canals are in the parenchyma of
the leaf, and separated from the lower epidermis by several chlorophyll-
bearing cells. The pallisade parenchyma is well developed on the
upper side, there being no stomata on the upper epidermis, and below
is the parenchyma with intercellular spaces communicating with the
stomata, of which there are about 10 rows in each of the bands.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, with thickened cells above and
below, the whole surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Pl. 48, fig. 19) is drawn from the Himalayan specimen,
which is smaller, and possesses less hypoderm than the specimen from.
Castle Kennedy.

The cone is small, in this resembling Pindrow, but as it was un-
broken the bracts could not be described.

Although I have examined eleven different cultivated specimens of
Webbiana and Pindrow, I have only met with this one new form from
Castle Kennedy, so that it must be very rare in our gardens and
nurseries.

I abstain from giving this a name, as the synonymy of the group is
obscure, and already several different names have been given to sup-
posed species.

ee

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 693

18. Pinus (Abies) pectinata, Lam. Fl. Frang., u1., 202 (1778). Pinus
Abies, Duroi, Obs. Bot., p. 39; Parlatore, D.C. Prod. vol. xvi.
p. 420, No. 92 (in part). Pinus Picea, Linn. Sp. Plant. i., 1001
(1753). Abies Picea, Koch, Dendrologie, vol. i1., pt.11., p. 217.

Shoots hairy. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, the lower
ones bent to form two lateral rows, those on the upper side more or
less spreading, and bent at the base so as to bring the superior sur-
face upwards, the inferior surface being next the axis. Leaf linear,
more or less twisted above the base according to the position on the
stem, apex rounded or emarginate, upper surface shining dark green
with no stomata, below with a band of stomata on each side of the
sightly prominent midrib, there being 7 or 8 rows of stomata in
each band. Leaves about 32 to 1 inch in length, and +; inch wide.
Buds covered with slightly resinous brown scales.

Transverse section of leaf—Leaf flattened, about 2+ times
broader than thick, sides rounded, the leaf becoming markedly
thinner towards the margins, upper surface with a longitudinal
furrow, below with a slightly prominent midrib. Hypoderma well
developed, a slightly interrupted row of cells running from near the
resin-canal of one side to near the resin-canal of the other side. The
hypoderm is also developed below the epidermis of the midrib. Resin-
canals placed, one on each side of the leaf in the parenchyma, and se-
parated from the lower epidermis by layers of chlorophyll-bearing
cells. Pallisade tissue well developed on upper side, the parenchyma
below with intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the parts placed rather close together,
the whole surrounded by a sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 20) is drawn from a specimen from Glas-
nevin Garden, kindly given to me by Dr. Moore.

Bertrand (op. cit. p. 90) places A. pectinata in the group with the
resin-canals touching the lower epidermis, and adds that Nordman-
niana appears to be little different from A. pectinata. All the spe-
cimens of A. pectinata that I have examined have the resin-canals in
the parenchyma of the leaf, so that I conclude that the A. pectinata
examined by Bertrand was a variety of A. Nordmanniana.

All the specimens examined by me have the resin-canals in the
parenchyma of the leaf, and have the hypoderm well developed ; the
quantity of hypoderm varies, and is least developed in the plant grow-
ing in the Botanic Garden, Glasnevin. This very interesting tree was
raised from seed by Dr. Moore, the seed having been received from
the Himalayas, and transmitted to Dr. Moore by the East India Com-
pany. The leaves of this plant are wider, and have a sharper or less
rounded margin than the typical form ; and this, taken along with the
feebler development of the hypoderm, might warrant the separation of
the plant under the name of variety Mooreana. (Pl. 48, fig. 21).

_ The leaves from a cone-bearing shoot in the Museum, Royal Bo-
tanic Garden, Edinburgh, were examined, and found to have a more
tetragonal form, there being no longitudinal furrow visible. The

694 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

leaves, therefore, seem to me inclined to be of two shapes, thus resem-
bling bifolia, Murray (lasiocarpa, Hooker).

Specimens from Edinburgh, Glasnevin, and Cirencester, have been
examined, but no dried specimens from native habitats.

19. Pinus (Abies) Nordmanniana, Stev., Bull. de la Soe. d. Nat. de
Mosce., xi. 45 (1888). Pinus Abies, Duroi; Parlatore, D.C. Prod.
vol. xvi., p. 421, No. 92 (in part).

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem,
those below bent so as to form two lateral rows, those above directed
more or less upwards, and twisted at the base so as to bring the upper
surface of the leaf superiorly. Leaf linear, more or less twisted at base,
apex emarginate, upper surface yellowish green, with no stomata,
beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the slightly prominent
midrib, there being from 8 to 9 rows of stomata in each band. Leaves
from 1 inch to 1} inch i in length, and about +; inch wide. Buds covered
with reddish-brown resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, three times broader than
thick, sides rounded, upper surface only faintly grooved, below with
a scarcely prominent midrib. Hypoderma well developed, forming a
slightly interrupted band, running from the resin-canal of one side,
under the upper epidermis, to the resin-canal of the other side. The
hypoderm is also developed under the epidermis covering the mid-
rib. The resin-canals are placed at each side of the leaf, close to the
under surface, and separated from the epidermis by a single layer of
cells. The pallisade tissue is well developed above, and below is the
parenchyma with intercellular spaces.

Fibro-vascular bundle double; parts placed close together, and
having a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 22) is drawn from a specimen from
Glasnevin, given to me by Dr. Moore.

The difference in the position of the resin-canals at once separates
Nordmanniana from pectinata; the shape of the leaf and the arrange-
ment of the hypoderma being similar. Plants from Edinburgh, Glas-
nevin, and Cirencester have been examined, but none from native
habitats. The leaves on the cone-bearing shoot differ from those on
the ordinary branches only in having the midrib slightly more pro-
minent.

20. Pinus (Abies) cilicica, Kotschy, in Osterr. Bot. Wochenblatt, iii.,
409 (1853); Parlatore, D. C. Prod. xvi., p. 422, No. 938.

Shoots hairy or smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the
stem, but bent so as to form two lateral rows; several point up-
wards, and very few are directed downwards. Leaves linear, twisted
above the base, especially in those leaves on the upper part of the

shoot which are turned so as to have the superior surface upwards, -

apex obtuse and emarginate, upper surface green, with no stomata,

a

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 695

beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there
being from 7 to 8 rows of stomata in each band. Leaves from 1 to
14 inch im length, and about ~s inch wide. Buds covered with
yellowish-brown resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about 34 times as
broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a very slightly
marked longitudinal furrow, below without a prominent midrib.
Hypoderma conspicuous, forming a single, more or less interrupted
layer, running from the resin-canal of one side, under the epidermis of
the upper side of the leaf, to the resin-canal of the other side; there
is also a small row beneath the epidermis in the middle line below.
The resin-canals are placed, one on each side of the leaf, near the
margin and close to the epidermis of the under side of the leaf. The
pallisade tissue is well developed on the upper side of the leaf, while
below is the parenchyma, with intercellular spaces communicating
with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the whole surrounded by a well-
marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 23) is drawn from an original speci-
men of Kotschy’s, No. 370, in the Herbarium of Trinity College,
Dublin, kindly given to me for examination by Professor Perceval
Wright, M.D.

I have only examined three specimens of this pime—one from Mr.
Syme, of Elvaston Nurseries; one from Glasnevin; and the third from
Trinity College, Dublin, Herbarium, collected by Kotschy in Syria:
““in regionibus Danie, supra Eden, alt. 5000. Die 28 Jul. 1855.”” Ana-
tomically it is the same as P. Nordmanniana; but I have not seen the
cones, and so cannot give any definite opinion as to its distinctness.
Bertrand * says of this species: ‘‘ Pas @hypoderm sous lVépiderme
supérieur.” Inall my specimens the hypoderm is well developed, so
that probably Bertrand has made some mistake.

There is a cone in the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
measuring 6 inches by 2 inches, and marked ‘‘ Abies cilicica. Crimea,
P. Lawson & Sons, 1856.” It has no leaves, but after most careful
examination I have no hesitation inreferring the cone to Abies bifolia,
Murray,—the P. lasiocarpa, Hooker.

21. Pinus (Abies) cephalonica. Endl., Cat. Hort. Acad. Vindob. i., 218.
Pinus (Abies) B. cephalonica, Parl., D. C. Prod. xvi., 2, p. 422,
No. 92. Abies cephalonica, Link., Linnea, 15, p. 529. Picea ce-
phalonica, Loudon, Encyc. Trees, 1039.

Shoots smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but
bent so as to form two lateral rows, many pointing upwards, very
few projecting downwards; the leaves at the sides of the shoot are
twisted at the base; those above and below are not, or only very

* Anat. Comp. des Gnét. et Conif. p. 89.

696 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

slightly, twisted. Leaf linear, narrow at base, widest above base,
contracting gradually towards the apex, and then suddenly narrowing
with a sharp point ; upper surface dark shining green, generally with
no stomata, but occasionally with a partial row near the apex of the
leaf.in the middle line, below with a band of stomata on each side
of the midrib, there being from 6 to 7 rows in each band. Leaves
about 1 inch in length, and about 4, inch wide. Buds covered with
yellowish-brown resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about three times
broader than thick, sides rounded, upper surface nearly flat or gently

curved inwards, below with a slightly prominent midrib. Hypoderma

well developed, forming a continuous layer from the resin-canal of
one side, under the upper epidermis, to the resin-canal of the other
side; at the margins the hypoderm is greatly developed, being gene-
rally three cells thick, a double layer of hypoderm below the double
fibro-vascular bundle. The resin-canals are placed at each side of
the leaf, close to the epidermis of the under side. The pallisade
parenchyma is well developed on the upper side, while below is the
parenchyma with intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the whole surrounded by a well-
marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 24) is drawn from a specimen grown in
Glasnevin Garden, and kindly given to me by Dr. Moore.

A plant growing in the Botanic Garden, at the Agricultural
College, Cirencester, had an incomplete row of stomata on the upper
side of the leaf.

Specimens from Glasnevin, Edinburgh, and Cirencester have been
examined. One from the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
has cones; and the leaves from the cone-bearing shoots do not differ
from those on the ordinary branches, except that the leaf is, at the apex,
slightly bevelled off from behind, and there are a few stomata near
the apex.

The forms described as Abies Regine Amelie, Heldr., and Abies
Apollinis, Link., have been examimed. According to Mr. Andrew
Murray (Lawson’s ‘“‘ Pinetum,” part y.), Regine Amelie isa variety of
Abies Apollinis, which he makes a species distinct from A. cephalonica.
Mr. Murray says of Regine Amelie, ‘‘foliis crassis, sub-acuminatis ;”
but I cannot observe any difference between the leaves of this form
and P. cephalonica except that the hypoderma is less developed. The
leaves of a cone-bearing shoot of cephalonica are like those figured by
Mr. Murray (Lawson, ‘‘Pinetum,”’ part y., fig. 1) for Apollinis, while
the leaves of the plant cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edin-
burgh, differ only in having the margin less rounded, and haying a
slightly developed longitudinal furrow above.

Mr. Murray (Pinet. Brit., part iii.) gives figures of P. Panachaica,
Heldr., and reduces that species to P. cephalonica. From an examina-
tion of Mr. Murray’s figures, and of recent specimens, I have no
hesitation in reducing A. Regine Amelie, Heldr., and A. Panachaica,
Heldr., to cephalonica, while Apollinis may rank as a variety, bridging

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 697

over the space between P. cephalonica and P. Nordmanniana. A sec-
tion of the leaf of A. Apollinis is figured (Plate 48, fig. 25).

22. Pinus (Abies) Pinsapo, Boiss. ; Parlatore, D.C. Prod. xvi., p. 422,
No. 94 (in part). Adbves Pinsapo, Boissier, Elench. Pl. Nov.
Hisp. p. 84. Picea Pinsapo, Loud. Encyel. of Trees, 1041.

Shoots smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, and
projecting nearly straight out in all directions from the shoot, but
fewer below than on the upper surface. Leaf linear, short, rigid,
scarcely twisted above the large orbicular base. Leaf narrowed above
insertion, then widening to its full extent and gradually narrowing to-
wards the elongated sharp-pointed apex; upper surface green, with
rows of stomata generally about 6 or 8 in number, and placed rather
distantly over the whole upper surface, below with a band of stomata
on each side of the midrib, there being abou 6 or 7 rows in each band.
Leaf from + to 2 inch long, and inet, 2 7 inch wide. Buds covered
with brownish scales, and very resinous.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, but rather tetragonal,
only about twice as broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface con-
vex, below with a prominent midrib. Hypoderma chiefly developed
at the mar gins of the leaf, and above and below the midrib; very
much interrupted by the arrangement of the stomata. The resin- canals
are placed, one at each side of the leaf, near the margin close to the
lower epidermis, but separated from it by a single layer of hypoderm
cells. The pallisade tissue is much interrupted on the upper side, and
below is the parenchyma with intercellular spaces communicating with
the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the whole surrounded by a well-
marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 26) is drawn from a specimen supplied
to me by Dr. Moore, and grown at Glasnevin.

I haye only examined three plants of this species—two from Glas-
nevin and one from Cirencester. Bertrand places this species in his
second section, but I have never found the resin-canals in the paren-
chyma of the leaf. In the Museum, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
there is a cone measuring 7+ inches by 2 inches, and to which one or
two leaves were attached. It is marked ‘‘ Picea Pinsapo. From Ronda,
in Spain. Mr. Robertson, Trinity, 1859.” After the most careful
examination, I refer it to Abies bifolia, Murray—the P. lasiocarpa of
Hooker.

23. Pinus (Abies) Baborensis, Cosson. Abies Pinsapo Baborensis, Cos-
son, Bull. de la Soc. Bot. de France, viii. 607. Abies numidica,
De Lannoy, Rev. Hort. (1866), 106 and 168. Pinus Pinsapo,
Parlatore, in part.

Shoots hairy. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but bent
so as to form two lateral rows, a few projecting upwards, the base
of the leaves on the upper side of the shoot twisted. Leaf linear,

698 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

base much smaller than in Pinsapo, rapidly widening to its full
extent, then contracting rapidly near the blunt or emarginate apex ;
upper surface dark green, with a few stomata in one or two short rows
near the apex of the Jeaf in the middle line, below with two bands of
stomata on each side of the midrib, there being from 7 to 8 rows in
each band. Leaves 3 to 2? inch in length, and about 7, inch wide.
Buds covered with yellowish-brown resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about 3} times as broad
as thick, sides rather sharp, upper surface slightly convex, with a
faint longitudinal furrow, below with a slightly marked midrib.
Hypoderma chiefly developed at the margins of the leaf, there being
only about a dozen thickened cells placed externally to the resin-
canal, and a few scattered hypoderm cells under the upper epidermis,
and a few in the middle line below resin-canals, near the margins of the
leaf and placed close to the epidermis of the lower surface. The
pallisade tissue is well developed on the upper side where not inter-
rupted by the presence of stomata, and below is the parenchyma with
intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle double, the whole surrounded by a well-
marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 48, fig. 27) is drawn from a specimen supplied
by Mr. Syme, Elvaston Nurseries.

I have only examined four specimens of this plant, which differs
so strikingly from A. Pinsapo in anatomical characters. Not hay-
ing seen the cone, I cannot describe it. This species is cultivated in
the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and at Glasnevin Botanic
Garden, under the name of Abies numidica, and is sent to me by Mr.
Syme, with both the names ‘‘ numidica,”’ and ‘‘ Baborensis.”’

24. Pinus (Abies), sp.: Rocky Mountains, Drummond.

Shoots hairy. Leaves inserted singly, and very close together, all
round the stem, but bent to form two lateral rows, those on the upper.
side of the shoot chiefly directed upwards. Leaf linear, twisted at the
base, especially on upper side where the leaf is twisted half a
turn, base orbicular, width of leaf rather uniform, apex blunt, the
margin of the leaf sharp, upper surface dull green, with no stomata,
below with a band of stomata on each side of the hardly prominent
midrib, there being from 5 to 7 rows in each band. Leaves from }
to inch long, andabout #2 inch wide. Buds covered with yellowish-
brown resinous scales.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about 33 times as
wide as thick, sides not rounded, but -with a sharp transparent
margin, upper surface with a longitudinal furrow, below with the
midrib not prominent. Hypoderma well developed, forming an inter-
rupted band from the outer margin of the resin-canal of one side, under
the epidermis of the upper surface, to the resin-canal of the other side;
the hypoderma is also developed under the fibro-vascular bundle. The
resin-canals are placed at each side of the leaf, close to the lower epi-

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. . 699

dermis. The pallisade tissue is well developed on the upper side, and
below is the parenchyma with well-marked intercellular spaces com-
municating with the stomata.

Fibro-yascular bundle double, the parts placed close together,
with a few thick liber-like cells above and in the middle. The whole
is surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The resin-canal has a double wall—the inner cells smaller and with
thin walls, the outer larger and with thick walls; this thick-walled
layer being in contact with the lower epidermis.

Only one plant of this species has come under my notice. It has
been long cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and
was sent tome by my father, marked “‘ Picea sp., California, old tree.”
The unique plant in the Edinburgh Garden was raised from seed sent
from the Rocky Mountains by Drummond. The cone being unknown,
I have not attempted to name it.

The figure (Plate 49, fig. 28) is drawn from the plant in the Edin-
burgh Garden.

The leaf is somewhat like that of P. pectinata, but the plant is not
a handsome one.

Il. Psrevporsvea, Bertrand ; Carricre (in part). Abies, Auct. Tsuga,
Carriére. Keteleeria, Carriére.

1. Pinus (Pseudotsuga) nobilis, Douglas, MSS.; Parlatore, in D. C.
Prod. xvi., pt. u., p. 419, No. 89.

Shoots covered with fine hairs. Leaves inserted singly all round the
stem, very close together, the leaves on the lower side of the shoot
directed laterally by being curved outwards, but not twisted at the
base ; those on the upper side of the shoot all directed upwards. Leaf
rigid, linear, more or less falcate, with an obtuse apex, upper sur-
face variable, sometimes with numerous stomata, the whole surface
being pale in colour, at other times stomata less numerous, or even
wanting, and the colour darker; beneath with a band of stomata on
each side of the midrib, between the midrib and the resin-canal, some-
times with stomata between the external margin of the resin-canal and
the edge of the leaf, there being 5 to 7 rows of stomata in each of the
bands between the midrib and resin-canal. Leaves about 1 to 14 inch
in length, and about ++ inch wide. Buds small, dark-coloured, and
covered with resin.

Transyerse section of leaf.—Leaf broadly triangular, three times
broader than thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a central longi-
tudinal furrow, below with a prominent midrib. Hypoderma conspi-
cuous, a single layer, rarely a double layer, at the rounded margin of
the leaf; anumber of hypoderm cells above, under the longitudinal
furrow, and a considerable mass two or more cells thick at the prominent
midrib below ; the hypoderma is interrupted above between the
central furrow and the margin by the presence of stomata. The

700 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

resin-canals are two in number, placed close to the under side of the
leaf, and generally about half-way between the midrib and the margin
of the leaf, a small cluster of hypoderm cells often placed below the
resin-canal. Between the midrib and the resin-canal, on each side,
inferiorly, the stomata are developed and the hypoderma is wanting.
Between the resin-canal and the margin of the leaf the hypoderma is
either continuous or interrupted by the presence of a few stomata. The
pallisade parenchyma is scarcely developed at all, owing to the pre-
sence of stomata on the upper surface of the leaf.

Fibro-vascular bundle single, and surrounded by a well-marked
sheath.

The figure (Plate 49, fig. 29) is drawn from a specimen supplied to
me by my father, and cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh. Another specimen is figured (Plate 49, fig. 29 a) which
was sent to me by my father as Picea amabilis, Douglas.

Pseudotsuga nobilis is a bifolious species, the leaves on the cone-
bearing shoots being very like those of magnifica. Indeed it is very
difficult, even in cone-bearing specimens, to separate the one from
the other anatomically.

I have examined many specimens of nobilis from Glasnevin, Edin-
burgh, and from Mr. Syme of Elvaston, both of old and young plants.
Many native specimens have also been examined, one from Douglas,
in Kew Herbarium, ‘‘ P. nobilis, Sabine. On the high mountains at the
Grand Rapids, on the Columbia River, and near the base of Mount
Hood, 1825;’’ several specimens from Jeffrey; one in Kew Herbarium,
and two in the Edinburgh collection. One of these is No. 3898,
“‘Chastey Bull, U. Catone: Lat. 41°, elevation 9,000 feet, Oct. 12,
1852.” "The leaves on the cone- -bearing shoots of this specimen are
remarkably like those of P. magnifica, but the long projecting scales
of the cone show that it is not magnifica. There is also a specimen
of nobilis from the Cascades of Columbia, Dr. Gardener.

The leaves of the type specimen of P. amabilis, Sab., Douglas,

sent to me by Professor Oliver are those of P. nobilis (Plate 49,

fig. 29b), but may be those of magnifica.

2. Pinus (Pseudotsuga) magnifica. Abies magnifica, A. Murray, Proc.
Royal Hort. Soc. London, ii. p. 318.

Shoots covered with fine hairs. Leaves inserted singly all round
the stem, very close together, leaves on the lower side of the shoot
directed laterally by being curved outwards, but not twisted at the
base, those on the upper side of the shoot rather closely appressed,
not twisted; upper side of leaf towards the branch, and directed towards
the apex of the branch, almost covering the shoot. Leaf rigid, linear,
more or less faleate, with an obtuse or rather bluntly-pointed apex,
upper surface of leaf with numerous rows of stomata, often with 8 or
more rows, and giving the leaf a whitish appearance; beneath with a

band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there being from 4 to 6-

rows of stomata in each band. Leaves about 1 to 1} inch in length,

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 701

and about 2, inch wide. Buds small, dark-coloured, and covered with
resin.

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf slightly quadrangular, rather
more than one-half as thick as broad, sides rounded, upper surface
with a central ridge, below with a prominent midrib. Hypoderma well
developed, a single or sometimes a double layer, at sides, below epi-
dermis of midrib, and a few below the ridge on upper side. The hypo-
derma is interrupted above between the ridge and the margin, by the
presence ofthe stomata. The resin-canals are two in number, placed
close to the under side of the leaf, and generally about half-way be-
tween the midrib and the margin. Between the midrib and the resin-
canal on each side inferiorly, the stomata are developed, and occa-
sionally a row of stomata is seen between the resin-canal and the
margin of the leaf. The pallisade parenchyma is scarcely developed,
owing to the presence of the stomata.

The fibro-vascular bundle is single, and surrounded by a well-
marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 49, fig. 30) is drawn from a specimen kindly
supplied to me by Mr. Anthony Waterer, Knap Hill Nursery, near
Woking, Surrey.

I have examined twelve specimens of this species—six living, and
six dried. The living plants were from Edinburgh; from Mr. Syme,
Elvaston Nurseries; from Mr. Anthony Waterer, Knap Hill Nursery ;
and from Glasnevin; while the dried specimens were from Kew Her-
barium, and Edinburgh Museum. It is cultivated in Edinburgh
under the names robusta and magnifica. The specimen marked “ ro-
busta”’ has the following note by my father: ‘‘ The piece of P. ro-
busta is from a layer taken from the original plant sent home by
Douglas;’ and he adds, ‘‘i think it likely that, in certain soils,
P. nobilis, robusta, and magnifica, may all turn out to be the same,
although distinct in the garden here.’’ Two of the specimens were
raised from seeds sent home by Jeffrey. The specimen in Glasnevin
was a small very unhealthy plant from Perth Nurseries, and was cul-
tivated under the name of Picea amabilis. The specimens from Mr. Syme
and Mr. Waterer were correctly named magnifica. There are three
specimens of this species in the Kew Herbarium, one marked ‘‘ Sierra
Nevada, L. California, W. Lobb ;” figured (Plate 49, fig. 30 a), and
two marked ‘‘ California, H. Low, Esq., Clapton.’ These are, I believe,
the types of Mr. Murray’smagnifica. There are three specimens in the
Edinburgh collection ; one is marked ‘‘ Picea robusta magnifica, 1480,
Jeffrey.”” The cones are 6 inches long and 2 inches wide. The bract is
long, but not projecting, and has an evident relationship to P.
nobilis. The second specimen in the Edinburgh Museum is marked
“Pinus, sp. nova, from California, P. Lawson & Son.” The cone
is 9 inches long by 23 inches wide, and is bent slightly. The
third is marked ‘‘ P. magnifica robusta, 1480, Oregon, Mr. Jeffrey,
1853.” The cone is 8} inches long by 23 inches wide, and is slightly
bent. ‘This is the species mentioned in the Trans. Bot. Soc., vol. vi.,
p. 370, by Mr. A. Murray under the name of campylocarpa.

702 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

It is certain that this species was sent home by Douglas, as it has
long been cultivated in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, under the
name of robusta, the plant being a layer of Douglas’s unique specimen.
It was also sent by Jeffrey, who called it amabilis, Douglas, and I have
no doubt whatever that Jeffrey was perfectly right in so naming it.*
The cone is exactly like that of P. lasiocarpa, Hook. (bifolia, Murray) ;
and one of the specimensnamedinthe Edinburgh Museum “‘ P. magnifica
robusta, 1480, Oregon, Mr. Jeffrey, 1853,” is bifolia of Murray. It
has also been sent to Low by Mr. Lobb, and described by Mr. Murray
under my father’s MSS. name of magnifica.

3. Pinus (Pseudotsuga) Davidiana, Bertrand, Anat. Compar. des Gnét.
et des Conif. p. 82.

This species is from Thibet, and is described by Bertrand, but I
have not seen it. According to Bertrand it is allied to Pinus Fortunei,
but has stomata on both sides of the leaf.

4. Pinus (Pseudotsuga) Fortunet, Parlatore, D.C. Prod. p. 430, No. 112.
Abies Fortunet, A. Murray, Proc. Hort. Soc. Lond. ii. 421
(1862). Pseudotsuga Jezoensis, Bertrand, op. cit. p. 83. Picea
Jezoensis, Carr. (?)

Shoots hairy. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, scattered,
forming two lateral rows. Leaf linear, twisted above the base, widest
above the twist, remaining tolerably uniform until about 4 of length
from apex, then narrowing into a sharp projecting point ; upper sur-
face dark-green, with no stomata (rarely a few near the apex of
certain leaves), beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the
midrib, there being about 16 rows of stomata in each band. Leaves
from 3 to 1 inch in length, and about 4 inch wide. Buds (?)

Transverse section of leaf.—Leaf flattened, about five times
broader than thick, sides rounded, slightly angular near resin-canal,
upper side nearly flat, or slightly concave, below with a slightly pro-
minent midrib. Hypoderma well developed, forming an interrupted
band running from the resin-canal of one side, under the epidermis
of the upper surface, to the resin-canal of the other side: a cluster of
hypoderm cells below the midrib. The resin-canals are placed, one
at each side of the leaf, close to the epidermis of the under surface, but
separated from it by a layer of thick hypoderm cells. The pallisade
parenchyma is well developed on the upper side, and below is paren-
chyma with intercellular spaces communicating with the stomata.

Fibro-vascular bundle single, but sometimes divided into as many
as six small portions. Bast cells developed below, and the whole sur-
rounded by a tolerably evident sheath.

The figure (Plate 49, fig. 31) is drawn from a specimen kindly

* See Transactions Edinburgh Botanical Society, xi., p. 326.

M‘Nas—A Revision of the Species of Abies. 703

supplied to me by Messrs. Veitch and Son, Royal Exotic Nursery,
Chelsea.

I have only examined one specimen of this plant, received from
Messrs. Veitch under the name of Abies Jezoensis. There is no diffi-
culty in identifying the specimen with Mr. Murray’s A. Fortunei, a
Chinese species. It is, however, very like the plant sent out by
Messrs. Veitch as Abies Veitchii, and I strongly suspect there is some
confusion yet to be cleared up about these Japanese plants. Veitchu,
of Hort. Veitch, is not Veitch of Kew Herbarium, but resembles
P. Fortunei, excepting that the leaves are smaller. Veitchii (Hort.)
may, therefore, be Jezoensis, and thus P. Fortunei must stand as the
name otf this most interesting plant.

5. Pinus (Pseudotsuga) Douglas, Sabine, Lamb., Gen. Pinus, 2 ed.,
vol. ii. tab. 21. Picea Douglas, Link. in Linnea, xv. 524.
Pseudotsuga Douglas, Carr., Trait. Général des Conif. 2 ed.,
p. 256.

Shoots smooth. Leaves inserted singly all round the stem, but
bent so as to form two lateral rows, occasionally a few are directed
upwards and downwards. Leaf linear, twisted near the base, which
is narrowed to the small insertion, breadth uniform for greater part of
length, apex rounded, upper surface bright green, with no stomata,
beneath with a band of stomata on each side of the midrib, there being,
from 5 to 6 rows of stomata in each band. Leaves from 1 to 1+ inch
long, and about 315 inch wide. Buds covered with yellow resinous
scales.

Transverse section of leaf—Leaf flattened about 24 times as
broad as thick, sides rounded, upper surface with a longitudinal
groove, below with a slightly prominent midrib. Hypoderma very
variable, m some leaves very well-developed, in others almost absent
on upper side. The resin-canals are placed one at each side of the
leaf, close to the epidermis of the under side. The pallisade paren-
chyma is well developed on the upper side, and below is parénchyma
with well-marked intercellular spaces. In the parenchyma of the leaf
are developed, in North American specimens only, peculiar stellate
idioblasts, which ramify betweer the ordinary parenchymatous cells.

Fibro-vascular bundle single, surrounded by a well-marked sheath.

The figure (Plate 49, fig. 32) is drawn from a specimen supplied
by Mr. Syme, which shows the absence of hypoderma in cultivated
plants and agrees well with others from Edinburgh and Glasnevin.
Plate 49, fig. 32a, represents a specimen of Douglasii from Kew Her-
barium. Itis marked ‘‘ Abies sp. nova, Douglasii? Rocky Mountains.
Independence Bluff, Nuttall.” It has the cone of Douglasii, but the
development of hypoderm and idioblasts separates it from all the culti-
vated specimens [have yet seen. Itis the same as Wright’s No. 1885,
from New llexico, which Parlatore refers to P. Douglasii. The third
specimen figured (Plate 49, fig. 32b.) is Fendler’s, No. 829, which Par-
latore refers to amabilis. Either the species is variable, or else we

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. Il., SCIENCE. 37

704 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

have one species in cultivation and another known only by Herbarium
specimens, viz., Fendler, No. 829; Wright, No. 1885; and Abies, sp.
Douglasii? Rocky Mountains, Nuttall. I am indebted to Prof. Perce-
val Wright for the opportunity of examining the specimens of Fendler
and Wright in the Herbarium of Trinity College. The leaves of the
fine old plant of Douglasii, in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,
have neither hypoderm nor stellate idioblasts.

Harpman —On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Treland. 705

LY.—A Conrrrevrion to tHE History oF Donromire.—Tur Dotomires
or THE CarsonrreRous Liwestone oF IRELAND. By Epwarp T,
Harpman, F. C.8., F. R.G.S.1., of the Geological Survey of Ire-
land.’ (With Plates 41 and 42.)

[Read May 8, 1876. ]

As Bischof well remarks, ‘‘no rock has attracted greater attention
than dolomite ;”’ and very many theories as to its origin have been put
forward; the principal of which are based on the idea of the meta-
morphism, im some way, of limestone rocks, varying the means of such
changes according to the views of different authors.

(1). Von Buch’s supposition involves the introduction of magnesia
into limestone, as the result of the eruption of volcanic rocks in the
neighbourhood, producing vapours of magnesic chloride.*

(2). Haidinger suggested that the effect was produced by the
action of sulphate of magnesia on limestone, sulphate of lime and
carbonate of magnesia being formed.t But as this cannot be effected
in the ordinary way, it is assumed that under the influence of great
heat and pressure it might take place. It will be remembered, how-
ever, that most dolomitic deposits of themselves utterly refute such an
hypothesis.

(3). Von Morlot put forward a similar theory, having, as he sup-
posed, found that when sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of lime
were heated in a sealed tube to a temperature of 392° F., a double
carbonate of lime and magnesia was formed, together with gypsum.t
But Dr. Sterry Hunt has shown that in this case the so-called dolo-
mite was really but a mixture of carbonate of lime with carbonate of
magnesia,§ nor did he find that Marignac’s|| substitution of chloride of
magnesium for the sulphate yielded any better results.

All these well-known theories not only presuppose in every case
the action of igneous rocks, and a high temperature, but also the
evolution of gaseous sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, in order to
obtain the necessary supplies of magnesia from the eruptive rocks them-
selves. In our present state of chemical and geological knowledge,
it will therefore be doing no violence to the scientific reputation of
their originators, to say that they may now be looked upon rather ag
curiosities of geological literature.

(4). Forchammer appears to refer the formation of dolomite to

* See Bischof, Chem. Geol., vol. ii1., 155 et seg. Also Chem. and Geol. Essays,
T. Sterry Hunt, 44 D., &c., p. 81,—Ann. de Chem. and Phys., xxiii., 296.
+ Bischof, op. cit., p. 158.—Pogg. Ann., lxxiy., p. 591.
¢ Bischof, loc. cit., also N. Jahrb. fiir Min., 1847, 862.
§ Chem. and Geol. Essays T. Sterry Hunt.
|| For the experiment, see Bischof, vol. i., p. 159.
3 T 2

706 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadenvy.

the reaction of spring-water, containing a large percentage of carbonate
of lime, with sea-water, at avery high temperature.* But this theory,
which bears a slight degree of resemblance to that of Hunt (see post),
will not answer, since many dolomites, e.g. those the carboniferous
formation in Ireland, not only are interstratified with limestone, but
actually the same bed may be highly fossiliferous limestone in one
place, and pass into dolomite in another. Such instances are common,
and it is clear that such a rock could not have been deposited from
boiling sea-water.

(6). Dr. T. Sterry Hunt apparently endeavours to strike the happy
medium between the Wernerists and the Plutonists, but still his
theory will be found not to account for the interstratification, and
passage into each other of fossiliferous limestones and dolomites. It
supposes the reaction of river waters holding in solution carbonate of
soda, with sea-water contained in shallow basins, and further decom-
positions of chloride of calcium and subsequently of sulphate of mag-
nesium into bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium respectively ; the
former being precipitated first, but that, under certain conditions,
a mixture of the two may be precipitated together. ‘‘ The subsequent
action of heat upon such magnesian sediments, either alone or mingled
with carbonate of lime, has changed them into magnesite or dolomite.” +
IT am at a loss to see why Dr. Hunt’s own objection to Von Morlot’s.
theory does not also apply to this. In both cases only a mixture of
the two carbonates is obtained in the first instance, and the element of
sufficient heat may be supposed as well in the one case as in the other.
But besides this, the whole theory fails altogether to account for the
carboniferous dolomites of Ireland: for the facts that it is possible
to produce specimens from the same bed, of fossiliferous unaltered
limestone, and of true dolomite, and that beds of dolomite lie above and
below highly fossiliferous limestone, as I shall show hereafter. More-
over, the number and development of the fossils with which the lime-
stones abound, as well as the general stratigraphical character of the
deposits, and the extremely capricious manner in which the dolomites.
occur, show that they could not have been formed ina series of shallow
seas, unless we admit an extraordinary series of changes of level, and
of physical features, during the period of the formation of the carboni-
ferous limestone—a position which is quite untenable.

I take the dolomites of the carboniferous limestone as a test of these
theories, not only because I am best acquainted with them, but be-

* Bischof, viii., p. 161.—Also, Ann. de Chem. and Phys., xxii. Also, Report
Brit. Assoc., 1849 (Birmingham), Transactions of Sections, p. 86, where an abstract
of his views is given.

t+ Chem. and Geol. Essays, pp. 80-90. On the Chemistry of Dolomites and
Gypsums, also pp. 91-92, 809, et madtis aliis. I should not refer so particularly
to this in the present instance, but that Dr. Hunt applies his theory to the formation
of ‘‘ all magnesian limestones.”

Harpman—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 707

eause while they are of extremely frequent and extensive occurrence in
Ireland, they are also found under perhaps the most favourable con-
ditions for the determining any points with regard to either Plutonism
or physical phenomena.

On the subject of Irish dolomites, two valuable papers are extant.
Many years ago Dr. Scouler communicated his views on that subject
to the Geological Society of Dublin ;* his opinion being that dolomite
was produced by a metamorphism of the original limestone, and, follow-
ing Virlet, he considered the change to be readily accounted for by the
infiltration of water charged with carbonate of magnesia; which
water would at the same time remove some of the carbonate of lime.
But an important point in his paper is that he considers dolomite to
occur usually near some source of magnesia—either near an igneous
or ancient paleeozoic rock, or close to a break in the strata, where a
thermal spring might have existed. This is a point which I shall
presently dwell upon, as many dolomites occur under circumstances
which do not agree with any of these conditions, and where the supply
of magnesia is far below that of lime.

The reading of the above paper led Dr. Apjohn to make several
analyses of Irish dolomites, which he has published in the same
journal. The conclusions he came to as to the origin of dolomites
appear to be that they are original formations ; first, because they are
often fossiliferous, and, secondly, because their composition is definite.
At the same time he suggests that some dolomites may have been
produced by the solvent action of carbonated water on limestones con-
taining some magnesia, in removing carbonate of lime, until at last
the rock would consist of the two carbonates in the correct propor-
tion.

Probably the most comprehensive account yet published of the
dolomite question is that given by Bischof, who, in his classical work on
chemical geology, has discussed nearly all the foregoing views, together
with many of those held by other writers. He dismisses as impro-
bable all those which call in the aid of volcanic or Plutonic agencies,
and shows that the action of water by infiltration through limestone
can. alone explain the processes of dolomitization ; that is, either by

* Observations on Beds of Dolomite which occur in connexion with the Carboni-
ferous Limestones in different parts of Ireland. By Joln Scouler, M.D., &e., Jour.
Geol. Soc. Dub., vol. i., pp. 382-5.

+ Analyses of some Irish Dolomites. By James Apjohn, M.D., &c. Jour. Geol.
Soc. Dub., vol.i., pp. 369 et seq.

{I am inclined to adopt a modification of the above hypothesis, viz.,
that the greater part of the carbonate of magnesia was originally secreted along
with the carbonate of lime, but that dolomite is a true metamorphic rock—the
alterations being due to the extraction of the surplus of carbonate of lime. Some
so-called dolomites having the crystalline structure and the obliteration of fossils
en regle, are by no means of definite composition; they usually contain a consider-
able percentage of uncombined carbonate of lime, which dissolves out in weak
acid.

708 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the action of water holding carbonate of magnesia in solution, pene-
trating the rock, and depositing carbonate of magnesia, while at the
same time removing a portion of the carbonate of lime; or, as he
admits, it may occur in some cases by the simple removal of carbonate-
of lime from a magnesian limestone by water containing carbonic
acid; the result being, of course, a gradual inerease in the proportion
of carbonate of magnesia. While admitting this process, which was
first suggested by Grandjean, to be possible—as he shows by two
experiments, which prove carbonate of lime to be actually more
soluble than carbonate of magnesia in water containing a small per-
centage of carbonic acid—he, however, appears to give the preference
to the first process, viz., the infiltration of carbonate of magnesia,
and removal of lime.* But there appear to be one or two weak
points about this. 1st. That with so little difference in solubility of
the two salts, a substitution of one for the other would hardly take
place to the extent required:; 2nd. That the lime removed must
always be equal—proportionally to their respective atomic weights—
to the magnesia deposited, or the rock would increase in bulk. 3rd.
That the result would only be a carbonate of lime with carbonate of
magnesia deposited in crevices or interspaces left by the removal of
the excess of carbonate of lime; and 4th, that there is a difficulty
sometimes in imagining a sufficient supply of magnesianized water in
localities where, as in the central plain of Ireland, there are none but
limestone rocks, the water from which, containing a much larger quan-
tity of lime than magnesia, could hardly, therefore, produce the sup-
posed effect ; yet all these limestones are highly dolomitic.

Any alteration that has taken place in these must have been entirely
produced by surface-water, or rain-water, which could contain little or
no constituents capable of affecting the limestone rocks, except car-
bonic acid. To the action of this agent I attribute the alteration
which most of the Irish limestones have undergone in their passage into
dolomite. At the same time, I think it quite possible that water
highly charged with carbonate of magnesia, which may be the case if it
has percolated a magnesian rock, may deposit the magnesia while it
removes the lime, and thus aid in the metamorphism; but, as I shall
show hereafter, waters containing any appreciable amount of car-
bonate of magnesia are rare; and after all, as Bischof shows, insucha
case the chief work is done by the action of the carbonic acid.f

If we suppose a limestone rock, containing, as very many lime-
stones do, carbonate of magnesia to the extent of 12 per cent., to-

* Chem. Geol., vol. iii., p. 164.

t Bischof failed, after ‘taking much pains,’’ to effect the mutual decomposition
of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia. In one case he digested fragments
of chalk with pure carbonate of magnesia, for several years, without any effect
Op. cit., vol. ii1., 167.

t Chem. Geol., vol. iii., p. 174. (In effect, although not in these precise terms)

HarpmMan—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 709

be subjected to the action of carbonated water, assuming this to be
capable of removing a greater quantity of carbonate of lime than of
carbonate of magnesia—in proportion to that in the rock—it is clear
that in the ‘process of time we should have the percentage of mag-
nesia becoming greater and greater, until at last the rock approached
in chemical composition to a true dolomite. Moreover, the removal
of carbonate of lime would give rise to a cavernous or porous con-
dition of the rock, and the calcareous water trickling over the sides or
into these cavities would result in a deposit of crystals of more or less
pure carbonate of lime therein. Every one who has paid any attention
to this subject is, no doubt, aware that the above are characteristics
of dolomite limestone.

Upon the above assumption, which I have now good reason to
believe a certainty, I based a number of experiments with the view to
ascertain whether, when placed under conditions as near as possible
to those obtaining in nature, limestone does not yield more lime than
magnesia, when submitted to the action of cardonic acid in water.

At the time I had not Bischof’s book at hand, and all the statements
I had seen gave just the opposite opinion. I was subsequently much
pleased to find that Bischof’s two experiments™ are confirmatory of my
results, and they being unknown to me then could have had no bias-
ing effect.

It is without exception received, I believe, that carbonate of mag-
nesia is much more soluble than carbonate of lime; but the few expe-
riments I have made on this point do not appear to show any great
difference ; and I have been led to imagine, therefore, that its be-
haviour in the presence of ammonia salts may have been taken bysome
to represent its character under other circumstances. In the process
of chemical analysis, when it is desired to separate magnesia from
lime, a little chloride of ammonia is added to the solution, and an
alkaline carbonate then precipitates the lime with just a trace of mag-
nesia. If, however, ammonia is not previously added, both salts are
almost instantly precipitated by carbonate of soda.

But, even admitting that carbonate of magnesia is per se a trifle
more soluble than carbonate of lime, it is certain that, when both are
mingled together in a limestone rock, just the reverse takes place when
they are subj ected to the action of carbonated water. My experi-
ments will show this. Before proceeding to refer to them, however, I
should like to mention the results obtained by previous experimenters.

Professors W. B. and R. E. Rogers, at the Meeting of the British
Association at Birmingham, in the year 1849, read a paper on some
experiments as to the solyent power of carbonated water on various
minerals.t In the course of their experiments they were led to inves-

* See post.

T ‘‘On the Decomposition and Partial Solution of Minerals, Rocks, &c., by pure
water, and water charged with Carbonic Acid.’”? By Prof. W. B. Rogers, and
Prof. R. E. Rogers. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1849; Trans. of Sections, p. 40.

710 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

tigate the comparative solubility of carbonate of line and carbonate of
magnesia in carbonated water.

The means which they employed were—I1st, what they designate
as the method with the ¢ache, consisting in digesting for a few minutes
a small quantity of the mineral, finely powdered, on a filter with car-
bonated water, and then collecting the filtrate and examining it for
lime andmagnesia. 2nd. By agitating briskly for some time, in a large
glass bottle containing carbonated water, a quantity of the mineral, in
this case also finely powdered. The water was then evaporated, and the
residue examined. In both these cases, magnesian limestone so treated
yielded a larger quantity of carbonate of magnesia than of carbonate
of lime, proportional to their relative amounts in the rock; and the
Professors Rogers infer that in nature this process would result in the
limestone becoming less magnesian, instead of approaching to a dolomite,
as ts generally maintained.

Now I wish to point out that the process sketched above cannot
by any means be held to represent that which takes place in nature.
The very act of powdering the dolomitic limestone has destroyed any
value the experiment might otherwise have had. We do not find rocks
in situ thus prepared for the invading action of carbonic acid; and we
know that dolomites entirely, and magnesian limestones to a great
extent, resist the action of much stronger acids than a merely ear-
bonated solution, so long as they remain solid; but once they are
powdered up, they are readily dissolved with evolution of carbonic
acid. In effect, this fact is made use of in testing rocks in the field ;
dolomitic limestone being scarcely affected at all by moderately dilute
hydrochloric acid, and can therefore be readily distinguished from
ordinary limestone.

I do not know if the amount of magnesium carbonate obtained by
the above method was quantitatively determined by Professors Rogers,
as I have not been able to consult their detailed paper in the Ameri-
can Journal of Science; but it is curious that Bischof obtained just
the contrary result to theirs, in the two experiments I have already
referred to, although his method of proceeding is essentially the same.
His results agree very well with my own.

Bischof’s Experiments. The composition of the limestone being as-
certained, a portion was powdered finely, and placed in water for 24
hours. The water was then examined, and proved in the cases tried
to contain either no trace, or a very small one, of magnesia. I shall
copy one of these for example, as it will be useful to compare with my
results.

Hsrpman—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 711

Black Magnesian Limestone. From Stadtbergen.*

I. ANALYSIS.

@anbonate of limes. 7) 49 Pee 84757)
ay macnesia, “ye a eer Sl leod

Be EOI 207) AA ae RR Oa ales
Dilicarandicarponnews) aso eet ee eel eoo
98°62

II. Amount oF ConsrItvuENTs DISSOLVED in 24 hours, from 6660 grains.

Grains.
Carbonate orp lime), 22.05 Vein eanet eo
Carbonate of magnesia, . . . . . no trace.

There appears to be, for the quantity taken, and the time occupied,
more carbonate of lime dissolved than occurred in any of my experi-
ments ; however the powdering of the rock might give rise to this.
But this important fact still remains, that, when treated with a weak
solution of carbonic acid, limestone yields more carbonate of lime pro-
portionally than carbonate of magnesia.

Perhaps it is well to notice here the curious difference that pres-
sure makes, not only in the solvent power of carbonic acid, which
is increased, but in its relative effects on the two carbonates. It
appears certain that, under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, and in
such proportions as it occurs in most surface or even underground
waters, it will chiefly attack the lime, while under a high pressure,
and in large quantity it seems to confine its attentions, I may say,
strictly to the magnesia. Advantage has actually been taken of this
property to procure salts of magnesia, such as the sulphate, from
dolomite; the process consisting in submitting the rock, finely
ground, with water, to the action of carbonic acid, under a pressure of
about four atmospheres. It is then found that nearly all the carbonate
of magnesia is removed, without admixture of carbonate of lime.t+

This is worth noting, as it may serve to account for the large
quantities of carbonate of magnesia which are occasionally, but not
often, found in spring waters; and may also explain the production of
deep-seated dolomites by infiltration of magnesian water.

As it is, however, with dolomites formed under circumstances not
taking in the element of pressure we shall have to deal at present,
I shall not enter more fully into the above matter just now; but pro-
ceed to describe the experiments I have referred to.

It appeared to me that if it could be proved by some process as

* Bischof, op. cit., vol. iii., p. 195.
ft Dingl. Polyt. J., ccix., 467.—Ads. Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. xii., p. 96.

712 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

nearly as possible akin to that which goes on in nature, that more
carbonate of lime is dissolved than carbonate of magnesia by a weakly
carbonated solution, if would go far towards solving the question, as.
to the formation of some dolomites.

The process I adopted was very simple. <A limestone was selected
which contained a fair percentage of magnesia, it was analysed, and
the proportions noted. A portion of the rock was then broken up into
small fragments, somewhat less than half-an-inch across. These were
placed in a jar open to the atmosphere, with distilled water, and car-
bonic acid was passed in. A piece of litmus paper was placed in the
jar, and the flow of gas was stopped as soon as this became reddened.
Whenever the paper showed any indication of returning to its original
tint, the solution was again saturated with the acid, and so on. In this
way an over saturation with acid (which might have had too energetic
an effect on the rock) was prevented, and the whole experiment brought
as near to nature as is possible in a laboratory, in having a mildly car-.
bonated solution acting on surfaces of the rock, and not on minute
particles.

With the process carried on in this manner, I found the action of
the carbonic acid to be extremely slow, compared with the results ob-
tained from powdered rock by other experimenters, several days being
required to dissolve sufficient of the carbonates for estimation; but in
every case the carbonate of lime was much in excess. Some of my
experiments were merely tentative, and are not worth recording; but
1 shall now mention the details of some of the more important ones.

No. I.—Limestone from the interior of the Cave of Dunmore, Co.
Kilkenny. A light grey compact magnesian limestone.

ANALYSIS.

Mean of two specimens.

Carbonate of lames ir 0. ok eno
Carbonate of magnesia, . . . . . 24:00
Peroxide of iron, : Ve MAS i io

55 alumina, |
PoPULKCrE ay Ares at Maken mle ur iy eth) JLo)
Carbonatetof irons lie) ene le yuo Ono 0)
99°35

It will be observed that this is a remarkably pure limestone, the
amount of silicates, &c., being very small. The rock is evidently be-
coming dolomitic, for the limestone above and around the cave is not
by any means highly magnesian.

Exp. 1.—A quantity of the limestone was broken up small. 116
grains were taken and placed in a jar with distilled water, and car-
bonic acid gas was passed in almost continuously for 72 hours. At

Harpman.—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 713

the expiration of that time the solution was carefully filtered off and
examined. It contained both carbonate of lime and of magnesia, but
im extremely small quantity, viz. :—
Carbonate of lime, Tee O;Ooneraims:
Carbonate of magnesia, . . . 0-007 ,,

Calculated now according to the percentage of carbonate of lime
in the rock, 7. ¢.,68°21, the above gives the respective proportions dis-
solved to be—_

Carbonabe OkmMew jake sae) OOo
a MACMESIA, soe) aE ORO2 Oniiye

or less than half the proportion of carbonate of magnesia actually in

the rock. It is clear, therefore, that this operation, continued suffi-

ciently long, must rant 1 ina dolomite.

Exp. 2.—About the same quantity of the Dunmore limestone was
taken—110 grains, and placed in a jar with water as before. Carboniv
acid gas was then passed in, nearly continuously for 44 days. For
about a week or so of that time no gas was passed in, but for the most
part of this experiment the water was supersatur ated with the acid,
the result of which will be presently seen.

The liquid, having been carefully filtered off, evaporated to dryness,
and the residue examined yielded the following result :

Carbonate of lime,. ... . . 1:04 grains.
5 MACMeSIay wala OLSO0GK nas
Ae won,. - ..- . @ trace.
Total dissolved,. . 1°346

Calculating again according to the proportion of carbonate of lime
in the rock, we have—

Carbonate oF limies yes) la sues A eo ocoll
Me MASTESTA. OM ee OLOG

I attribute the high percentage of magnesia carbonate dissolved in
this instance to the supersaturated condition of the carbonic acid solu-
tion, which was allowed to become quite in excess of anything that
could occur in nature. Nevertheless, it is evident that the carbonate
of lime was the most rapidly dissolved in this case also.

It seems remarkable also that so small a portion of the limestone
was dissolved after such long continued action. However, this was
confirmed in other experiments, and I apprehend it is due to the mag-
nesian character of this rock. It is certain that the action of small
quantities of carbonic acid on limestones is in an inverse ratio to the

714 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

amount of magnesia in them—dolomites being almost unassailable.
Experiments 4 and 5 will show how well this is borne out.

FEap. 3.—As the limestone used in the last was hardly diminished
at all, it was again covered with distilied water, and carbonic acid
passed in. Care was taken to keep the solution just slightly acid, and
to avoid the error of Experiment 2. The action was continued for 20
days. The solution was then filtered off, evaporated, and examined as
before, with the following result :—

Carbonate of lime, . . . . 0:55 grains:
Se maonesiay |) -) (ee OkOvameeen
ee WHO, 5 6 dg 0 BY RCS.

Total dissolved, . . 0°62

This experiment bears out the second very well, as to the total
quantity of substance dissolved, the time occupied being half of that,
and the total dissolved about half also. The proportion of magnesia is
less, however, no doubt owing to the precaution of using a weak solu-
tion of acid. The proportion calculated as before would give—

Carbonate ol limer ss eae osu
: MORAN ge ig BOF

This agrees almost exactly with the proportions determined in
Experiment 1.

No. I1.—Limestonefrom the breccia of the roof of the Shandon Cave,
Dungarvan, Co. Waterford. A bluish-grey fossiliferous limestone,
apparently not very magnesian. It turns out, however, to contain
a rather large proportion of carbonate of magnesia.

ANALYSIS.

Carbonate ok lime, 2 5s) 2) 79589

Bi TMACMCSIAy) lee ee lloaral

a ITO, 3) 22. fee eee braces
Peroxide of iron, ( 4-08
Alumina, Ae Nene ae )
Silica and insoluble residue, 3°40

100-00

Exp.4.—187 grains of the limestone, broken in small pieces as
before, were placed in a large jar with distilled water,* and carbonic

* It should be noted that in all the experiments except No. 1, the same quan-
tity of water was used, viz., about 20 oz.; care being taken to supply loss by _
evaporation.

Harpman—On the Carboniferous Doloniites of Ireland. 715

acid passed in: supersaturation with the acid was guarded against,
and the limestone was allowed to remain in the water for 40 days.
The liquid was then examined, and it yielded :-—

Carbonate of lime,. . . . 5 5 Brag) feacemials,
“35 magnesia, . - Pe pOsAdir Fs;
as LROTIN EA, Moh idets ee urace:
4-06

This, calculated according to the percentage of carbonate of lime in
the rock, would give for the proportions dissolved :—

Carbonate of lime. 1/4) Seva 79:89
. IMACMCSIAey Ee eae 9°34
89-23;

there being in the rock as much as 12°71 of carbonate of magnesia :
so that in this case also it will be seen that the result must be a
gradual increase in the amount of that constituent.

It will be noticed also, that although the experiment was not con-
tinued for quite so long a period as No. 2, the total amount of car-
bonates dissolved is more than double.

Exp. 5.—The fragments of limestone from Shandon, used in the
last experiment, were subjected to the further action of carbonic
acid, in the same way, the action being allowed to go on for 20
days. The solution being then examined yielded the following :—

Carbonateotlmes "eas pls) 2a loveramis:
aA magnesia, . . . . . Oss,
a ATOM ee see Meee ee ee URL ACE:

Total dissolved, . . 1:26

Calculated as before, the percentage dissolved will be in the pro-
portion—

Carhonateror dimen ss. slurs) Ue sO9
magnesia, . 7:64
87°53,

a result sufficiently near that of the former experiment. The total
amount dissolved in this case is not quite half that dissolved in double
the time in the former experiment.

These investigations prove the following points :—

1°. That in a weak solution of carbonic acid, limestones in the
mass, not powdered, yield more carbonate of lime than of magnesia.

716 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

2°. That in equal times the more magnesian limestones are least
susceptible to the action of such a carbonic acid solution.

3°. That other things being equal, the relative proportion of the
two bodies dissolved appears to remain fairly unaffected by the time
occupied in the experiment.

I should mention that the experiments detailed above are not the
only ones made which verified the above points: but it would be
tedious and uninteresting, I conceive, to enter into particulars of all
of them.

[ Note added in Press.—In order to test the effect of more energetic
acids, the following experiment was made since the foregoing - was
written.

A piece of dolomite from Ballyfoyle, near Kilkenny, having the
following composition, was taken :—

ANALYSIS.

@arbonatelok lime, 7-92 92s 5 oe among
magnesia, ) 2.) 1. t. 2 eae

Were oxide ARH alumina, Niet aly a 0°68
Ute as *GeC.5 isd ist) eke bay lent eh en Ogee

100°02

Specrric Gravity, 2°73.

Being broken up small, pieces were carefully selected, so as to be
as free as possible from other minerals, such as carbonate of iron,
calcite, &c. 141 grains were placed in a beaker with distilled water,
to which a little hydrochloric acid was added. The solution, although
weak, caused copious effervescence from the interstices. The experi-
ment was continued for about a month—a few drops of acid being
added, when test-paper denoted that the acid previously added had
been neutralised. Having left home for a fortnight, I found on my -
return that a flocculent precipitate—probably carbonates of iron and
lime—had been thrown down, no doubt induced by absorption of car-
bonic acid from the air. The ‘addition of a few drops of acid dissolved
this. The whole was then allowed to stand for more than another
month; at the expiration of which time a little acid was added to
dissolve the precipitate that had again formed—but not enough to
affect the undissolved dolomite— and the solution was filtered off.
Both solution and undissolved residue were then carefully analysed.

The following Table gives the result :—-

Harpman—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 717

70°86 | 70-08 140-94

The above reduced to Percentage Composition.

| i | it III.

ia undissolved | In Solution. Total.
| Grains. | Grains. Grains.

Carbonate of lime, . .| 38°50 40°10 78°60
An », Magnesia, . | 31°25 29°65 60°90
Ferric oxide and alumina, | 0°63 0°33 0:96
Insoluble residue (silica,

MN foi alk) co-4s = 0-48

Carbonate of lime, a 54°33 57°22 55°76
>> > magnesia, - | 44°10 42°31 43°20
Ferric oxide and alumina, | 0°88 0°47 0-68
Insoluble residue, . . . 0°67 = 0:34
| 99-98 | 100-00 99-98

So far from the carbonate of magnesia being the most soluble here,
it will be seen that the result of the experiment has been actually to
bring the composition of the magnesian limestone nearer to that of
true dolomite than it was before. The proper proportions being
about 52°08, Ca CO; to 46°50, Mg CO;. It will also be observed
from column IJ. that the carbonate of lime dissolyed was much in
excess of carbonate of magnesia. |

It had, some time betore, struck me that if magnesian carbonate
were really more soluble under the circumstances which occur in
nature than carbonate of lime, we ought to find some account of it in
the stalactites and stalagmites so invariably found where water has
percolated through limestones. It has been long known that these
accumulations are usually free from magnesia, and the Messrs.
Rogers, in the paper already cited, refer to this as a proof of the
greater solubility of the carbonate of magnesia, since they say the
latter is carried off in solution, while the carbonate of lime is depo-
sited.* Now it is difficult to imagine that all the carbonate of mag-
nesia would so completely disappear, and one would rather suppose

* Bischof, in describing the mode of formation of the sprudelstone from the
Carlsbad hot springs, appears to coincide with this opinion, since he considers the
magnesia to be carried away wholly in solution. In this ease, however, the water
has a ready means of escape, and the deposition of carbonate of lime is due to
loss of carbonic acid, and not to evaporation.

718 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

the possibility of a few layers of it in stalactites, had it ever been held
largely in solution. At any rate, the drippings, which would under
such a supposition be charged with carbonate of magnesia, falling on
the floor, say of a cave, if they produced any stalagmite, should pro-
duce a magnesian one, or one containing a very considerable propor-
tion of that body. It appears, however, that neither the one nor the
other contains any appreciable amount of it at all, and even those
from magnesian limestones follow the general rule. I can hardly
think that, in the case of stalagmites, some of the magnesian carbonate,.
if it had been present in the solution which formed them, would not
remain, It ought, certainly, to be found in the upper layers, as sta-
lagmite is by no means porous, but this seems not to be so. Jam
speaking now of stalagmite formed in places where the water could
have had no ready means of escape except evaporation.

On the other hand, the argument as to the most soluble being
carried away entirely ought to hold good as respects the carbonates of
lime andiron. As the latter is least soluble of all, whenever it occurs
in stalactites they should consist nearly entirely of it, if the above
idea were correct. A great amount of the more soluble lime-salt
would be carried off while the carbonate of iron was crystallising,
and we would have stalactites containing usually a very large per-
centage of iron; but this is rarely the case.

As analyses of stalactitic bodies are not numerous, I give those of
two or three which I have examined.

No. I.—Stalagmite—from the floor of Dunmore Cave, Co. Kil-
kenny.

A part of the upper layers where the thickness was at least
6 inches.

ANALYSIS.

Carbonatetoh lime: 235.4.) ie
aii magnesia, Pureniiea, (0) 7'G)
is LROM AS Sinks Ba IA. Be Nas 1°86

Peroxide of iron, alumina, 0:23

100-00

This stalagmite was of a dirty grey colour, and apparently full of
impurities.

No. IJ.—Stalagmite from roof breccia of the Shandon Caye, Dun-
garvan :—

This stalagmite forms an extremely pretty mass, of a clear cream-
colour, and is well crystallized. It occurs in large quantity, and often
in considerable masses amongst and underneath the breccia. The spe-
cimens examined adhered to the under side of the limestone, a portion
of which was analysed and experimented on. (See Experiments
4 and 5.) It is therefore reasonable to suppose that its materials
were derived from that very magnesian rock.

Harpman—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 719

ANALYSIS.
Carbonate OL limes ae eee een 99225
o WaSHeSi2 Mee eee een ORO,
a iron, on ee ee eet CREE ACE

99°95

The iron present was hardly sufficient to give the pale yellow
colour to the mass. The parent rock of these stalagmites being so
very magnesian, we should expect to find a very appreciable amount
of magnesia in them if, as is thought by so many, the carbonate of
magnesia in limestone rocks is so very soluble. But what can have
become of it ? for I shall show presently that the waters of limestone
districts contain a very trifling amount of magnesia.

It is hardly conceivable that, were the carbonate of magnesia in
such rocks the most soluble in weak carbonic acid, there should be
barely traces of it in these deposits ; and from this circumstance, as well
as from its scarcity in spring waters, we should rather be led to infer
its greater insolubility, even without the experiments I have brought
forward.

No. III.—Stalactites from a highly magnesian limestone, Railway
bridge, Thomastown, Co. Kilkenny.

ANALYSIS.
Carbonate of dames Py Re Wo Ts he O59 5
as MmAeMesIaty yO) M5 Hee Or oO
99.75

One link in the chain is still wanting, viz., the analysis of waters
which have undoubtedly passed through such limestones as the above-
mentioned, and which have deposited stalactitic matter. Some infor-
mation on this point I hope to have a future opportunity of conveying
to the Academy, as I have commenced some analyses of the waters
which have dripped from the roof of the Cave of Dunmore. But I
am compelled for the present to fall back on the accounts of various
waters already published by different authors.

In Dr. Sterry Hunt’s paper on the Chemistry of Natural Waters;*
aseries of nineteen analyses of various American waters is given, in five
of which carbonate of lime is much in excess of carbonate of magnesia,
and in some others chloride of calcium is in very large proportion to
that of magnesia. In the remainder, however, the amount of carbon-

* Op. cit., p. 92, et seq.
R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. 3U

720 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

ate of lime and of carbonate of magnesia is about equal. These are
the only analyses of water I have seen in which the amount of mag-
nesian salts at all approaches that of the lime salts.

In the valuable abstracts of chemico-mineralogical papers pub-
lished in the Journal of the Chemical Society, from vol. ix. to vol.
xiv.. inclusive, I find very many analyses of mineral waters, with one
or two exceptions European, ordinary river water, chalybeate and
thermal springs, &c. In all of these the carbonate of lime is in great
excess of that of magnesia; the chlorides also occupy the same relative
position. In all these analyses there is no instance to the contrary.
The proportions are very variable of course, in some cases carbonate
of magnesia being altogether absent. The lowest proportion in which
it is stated in any of these is *

@arbonatevom lime. au ne-ai snes ae eles
a MACU ESI eyes eee 7

The highest is,t for total lime and magnesia salts: they are cal-
culated only as oxides—

ames(Ca Qo ae. a a ae oe ee
Magnesia:;(MsiQ.)> =. 2 Sauce One

and the average proportion appears to be about 14 to 1.

About thirty or forty analyses are included in the above resumé. In
no single instance was carbonate of magnesia in excess of carbonate
of lime. All these scattered analyses are the more valuable in their
agreement on the point I am urging, from their authors having, appa-
rently, no particular theory to bring forward, and, though taken at
random, the persistence in the larger amount of lime salts is very
marked. I may now refer to the capital table of analyses of river
waters given by Bischof,t which includes forty-eight examples, in
every one of which carbonate of lime is very largely in excess of that
of magnesia. These range as follows :—

Carbonate of lime, . . 1°28 to 18:23 In 100,000
.. magnesia, . 0°09 to 1:47 parts.

In many cases no carbonate of magnesia is recorded at all, even
where the corresponding lime salt is so high as 26:2, nor is there in
any case a large proportion of the more soluble salts of magnesia, sul-
phate, or chloride. This shows, therefore, that carbonate of magnesia

* Chalybeate spring at Sellafield, near Whitehaven. W.H. Watson, Chem.
News, xxxii., p. 11. -4ds. Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. xiii., p. 1169.

+ Rhine water, near Koln, Dr. Vohl. 40s. Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. ix.,
pp. 213-14.

t Op. cit. i., pp. 76, 77.

Harpman—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 721

is nowhere so abundant in surface-waters as some writers on this
subject apparently consider, and that we are justified in rejecting
the statement that most dolomites are formed by infiltration of mag-
nesian water, at least until more evidence on that head is produced.

It would appear, in fact, to be more reasonable to assume that the
lime in limestone rocks was conveyed into them by percolation
of mineral waters, than that the magnesia of dolomitic rocks so
originated.

A very important paper bearing on this subject, and perhaps the
only one in which it has yet been definitely treated, is that of E.
VY. Gorup-Besanez, on the Dolomite Springs of the Jura.* The author
gives a series of analyses of waters of springs rising in the Jura, many
of them in the neighbourhood of, or as it would appear, actually rising
from, dolomitic limestones; and he finds that in some cases the car-
bonate of lime, and of magnesia, are actually present in dolomitic pro-
portions. For instance, two springs give the following—

Tl Il.
Ca COs, SLRS 57-21 +
MeCO; =... 42:68 42°79

This is very remarkable indeed.
Some of the analyses gave, however, the following :—

Cl, COs: eat 89 70 68
Nic COA ae 11 30 32

and the mean of the analyses was—

Ca COs Me NR keen oral
Mice COS 95) ee een429

The author is led to agree, therefore, with Bischof in the opinion
that, from perfectly formed dolomites, water containing carbonic acid
dissolves out Ga Co; and Mg Co, together in fixed proportions, t but
does not coincide with him in the idea that the presence of magnesite
in cavities of the magnesian limestone prove the dolomite to be a per-
fectly formed one,§ since crystalline magnesite would not be deposited
from such solutions. He considers the. geological formation of dolo-
mite a subject yet quite unsettled, and is opposed to Bischof’s admission

——__—____»

* Ann. Chem. Pharm. Suppl. Band. viii., 230-242. _4bs. Jour. Chem. Soc., vol.
» 1s Be
t In all the analyses, other constituents proved too trifling for notice.
+ See Bischof, Chem. Geol. iii., p. 196.
K See Bischof, op. cit., lil., p. 196.
3U 2

022 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

that carbonated water may dissolve out only carbonate of lime until,
at last, the proper dolomitic proportions are reached.*

It will be noticed, however, that in the analyses given in the paper
just referred to, there is after all, in most of them, a considerable
range of proportion outside the dolomitic limit, and the mean given of
all the analyses shows that, in most cases, the magnesian carbonate
cannot have been present to an extent of more than 14 or 15 per cent.,
and that in all, it is much less than the lime carbonate—thus com-
pletely verifying my experiments, and showing that those of Professor
Rogers are not based on natural processes. ;

I think, on the whole, it might be safely asserted that in every
case where atmospheric water acts on a limestone rock, it will remove

“proportionately more carbonate of lime than carbonate of magnesia.
The reason for this it would be difficult to give, seeing that there can
be no doubt as to the somewhat greater solubility of magnesian salts
under laboratory conditions.

If we suppose, however, that the carbonate of magnesia, in what-
ever proportion it 1s present in the rock, is originally combined as
dolomite, it might account for what otherwise appears to be an ano-
maly. Is there any difficulty in supposing that the small amount of
magnesian carbonate which it is known many corals and molluscan
shells contain, sometimes reaching as much as 7°6 per cent. may
have been secreted as dolomite ?

Forchammer has shown that some corals, annelids, and molluscan
shells, contain an appreciable quantity of carbonate of magnesia; in the
annelide especially it being very high (7°6 percent.) Bischof, com-
menting on this fact, remarks, the limestones formed by serpule,
corallium, isis, and probably other genera, ought to be termed dolo-
mitic limestone.

It is possible that many other organisms, such as build up rocks,
secrete carbonate of magnesia to a perceptible amount. Many plants
also secrete carbonate of magnesia, and it is just possible that in such
cases the carbonate of lime and of magnesia may be combined as dolo-
mite. In such an event the removal of the excess of carbonate of lime,
which might in these instances be regarded as a matrix, would soon
result in a dolomite.

It cannot be said that the foregoing analyses of waters prove much
with regard to the relative solubility of the carbonates, since we have

* See Bischof, op. cit. i1., pp. 162, 196, 200, 203, &e. Bischof does not, how-
ever, entirely favour this theory, which is Grandjean’s, not his own, but allows
merely that such a process is possible in some cases.

+ Bischof asserts that even springs rising in dolomite must always contain
more carbonate of lime than of magnesia, as, from his experiments, carbonated
water extracts little orno carbonate of magnesia from dolomitic rocks—op. cit., vol.

bp (Nyt tc i
t Bischof, op. cit., vol. i., p. 183; vol. u., pp. 48, 49.

Harpman—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 7238

in few instances any information as to the composition of the rocks
over or through which they passed; and these rocks may have con-
tained but a trace of magnesia. But we can assert this much; that
on the generally received notion as to the relative solvency of those
bodies, and with which, save in the event of their being combined in
rocks—when it certainly seems to reverse its behaviour—I must coin-
cide, the result of such waters percolating through rocks would be, if
anything, to form limestone, and not dolomite, since the carbonate of
lime being more abundant, as well as less soluble than the carbonate
of magnesia, would be more likely to be deposited. In all these sup-
posed infiltration theories too, the bulk of the rock would necessarily
be increased, unless it is taken for granted that some of the carbonate
of lime is removed in the process, and replaced by carbonate of mag-
nesia.

The only way in which the production of at least the Irish dolo-
mites can be accounted for is, by the gradual removal of the excess of
carbonate of lime. It is quite possible, and indeed likely, that in
such a process, as the solution contains some carbonate of magnesia,
apart of it in the form of dolomite may be deposited in a different
part of the rock from which it was derived; the waste of one portion
going to help to build up another.*

One point in favour of the abstraction theory is, that the Irish dolo-
mites are exceedingly porous, cellular, or cavernous. Another curious
point is that the cavities are almost invariably filled with calcspar ;
and not bitter spar or dolomite, as is generally stated. I have carefully
examined the dolomitic limestones which occur so plentifully in the
Counties Carlow and Kilkenny, and are spread over a large area, as
well as some in the Counties Waterford, and Tyrone; and I can safely
say that in no case have I found specimens of dolomite or magnesite
in the cayities, but, on the contrary, calespar most abundantly.

At Drumreagh, near Coal Island, Co. Tyrone, several beds of dolo-
mite are interbedded with the ordinary blue fossiliferous limestone,
and one of the beds merges gradually into the limestone, showing con-
clusively that it is metamorphosed limestone, and not the result of
original chemical deposition on the sea bottom, according to Dr. Sterry
Hunt’s theory of such rocks. It is alight brown, extremely hard,
crystalline, but compact dolomite; but so very cavernous that it is most
difficult to obtain a fracture of it showing the true structure. The
cavities are often large, as much as a foot in diameter, and coated, or
often entirely filled, with nearly pure calcite, which may be obtained
in large, nearly transparent rhombohedrons. The dolomite is per-
fectly unaffected by acid, in the cold. I should say that fully half
the original rock is wanting, being now only represented by the spar-
coated cavities.

* J think Bischof makes a similar suggestion.

724 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

It is perfectly clear that these cavities were produced by the action
of water, no doubt acting on the more calcareous parts of the rock,
which of course would not be homogeneousin composition. Such aremo-
val of the lime in one part might be accompanied nearly simultaneously
by the deposition in a previously formed cavity of some of the material
brought away. The calcareous water trickling down the sides of such
a vacancy would have a good opportunity of evaporating, and deposit-
ing its freight. It is possible in such cases both the percolation and
the evaporation of the water would be slower, and more uniform than
in large caverns; and thus largely crystalline masses of calcite would
result, instead of finely crystalline stalactites.

This cellular character of dolomitic limestone is exceedingly well
shown in a quarry’ at Loughry, near Cookstown, County Tyrone, in
which is the following section :—

Section at Rockhead, near Loughry.

Feet. Inches.

scebouldertclayie! “ny 5) ee aoa eee 0)
2. Purplish crystalline encrinital lime-
stone passing downwards into purple

dolomitic limestone, with large cavities, 3 10

izeSandstonestand crits) a. a ee aye 1
15? pete

The upper beds, which are dolomitic, are eaten away in curious
cavities, as shown in the sketch (fig. 1, Plate 41). These were possibly
formed during the alteration of the limestone. They could hardly
have occurredj since, because dolomite once formed is so insoluble.
The cavities also are coated with calespar.

In the south-east of Ireland the carboniferous limestone is much
dolomitised, and affords good opportunities for the study of that
mineral. In some places, as in the county Carlow, a persistent band
of black dolomite extends for miles, as may be seen on glancing at the
Carlow Sheet of the Geological Survey Map.* Here it occupies such a
definite position in the carboniferous series, that it might be taken to.
be an important division of it. The rock, where perfect, is hard,
compact, and sub-crystalline, but it is wonderfully cellular, fully a
third of it being wanting. The cavities are, so far as I can judge,
coated only with calespar. After many searches I was unable to find
a single specimen of bitter spar, or dolomite, which can only occur
here in a very few isolated localities, if at all.

Professor Jukes made a certain distinction between varieties of the

* Sheet 187.

HarpmMan—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 725

dolomites of the south of Ireland, 7. ¢., dolomites of original deposition,
and dolomites produced by alteration of the original rock, with the
former of which the Carlow rock appears to have been classed, while
that of Kilkenny is supposed to be metamorphic. I rather think, how-
ever, that they both are metamorphic, only in different degrees.

The Kilkenny magnesian limestones are true dolomites both in
appearance and composition. They contain from 30 to 44 per cent. of
carbonate of magnesia; they are usually very crystalline, of a light
yellow to a pearly grey colour, and do not effervesce when treated
with acid, except occasionally in the interstices between the crystals,
owing to infiltrated carbonate of lime. They are remarkable for the
same cellular or cavernous structure which I have noticed in all the
other dolomites of Ireland ; the vacancies being coated, or filled entirely
with calespar. In some places the material has been removed in an
exceedingly curious manner, the yacant spaces running parallel to
each other, and forming apparently lines of bedding, which, however,
they are not, as the true bedding is often also visible in such instances.
Sometimes they give the similitude of false or current bedding, as is
shown in the sketch (fig. 3, Plate 41).

As a rule, the bedding 7s obliterated, and in weathering the rock
assumes at the surface of the ground, or wheresoever else exposed, a
tuggedly pointed aspect, as if dipping vertically, along the lines of
joints ; and this often gives rise to picturesque hillocks or escarpments ;
the dolomite remaining, while the more easily dissolved limestone is
eaten away to a lower and more uniform level, contrary to the general
idea which assumes that dolomite is more soluble than limestone, be-
cause under certain influences it disintegrates more rapidly.*

Near the city of Kilkenny very extensive masses of dolomite occur,
which could only have been formed by the metamorphism of the
original limestone; and in one locality—Riverview, 14 miles west of
the town—there is a very fair opportunity of studying the mode of its
production. And it will be seen that this can be reasonably explained

* A well-known instance of this is shown by the decay of the stones used in the
present Houses of Parliament, being magnesian limestones from the Mansfield Wood-
house quarries, and from Anston, Yorkshire. (See Buildingand Ornamental Stones,
Prof. Hull, p. 200.) Under the influence of the vitiated atmosphere of London, some of
this stone soon commenced to crumble away. It must be remembered that the disinte-
gration of dolomite is not due always to the dissolution of the whole rock, but is most
often merely the result of the solution of the carbonate of lime, which cements the
crystals of true dolomite together. Any one who has observed the process of weather-
ing of dolomites will remember that the minute crystals of which the rock is
composed merely fall away from each other, resulting in a loose sand-like mass,
but they do not readily decompose.

According to Ansted, the most durable magnesian limestones, for building pur-
poses, are those containing nearly equal parts of carbonate of lime and of magnesia
in a state of perfect combination—that is, true dolomite.—See Ansted’s Geological
Science (Orr’s Circle of the Sciences), p. 208.

726 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

on the theory put forward already, that is, the extraction of carbonate
of lime from the limestone rock.

A small stream runs from the railway down to the Nore at this
place. On one side of it, to the south, dolomite crops out, with its
usual rugged aspect. On the other side, blue fossiliferous limestone.
At first sight it would seem that the limestone ended abruptly against
the dolomite, but in reality it dips underneath it. The dolomite pre-
sents the usual characteristics, being highly crystalline, and full of
drusy cavities, with calcite. The limestone is a compact bluish rock,
in thick beds; the upper beds are magnesian, although not yet dolo-
mitic, but they are beginning to show the drusy cavities, and are
undoubtedly some distance on their way in the direction of dolomite.
The most interesting fact, however, is, that between every individual
bed of the limestone is a thick layer, or rather bed of calcite, from three
to nine inches thick ; and this is even visible on the top of the uppermost
bed, which there is overlaid by a thin coating of drift clay or soil; but
eventually disappears under the dolomite. (See fig. 2, Plate 41.)

Nowit is perfectly evident that the calcite layers are derived from
the limestone beds above them. It would be difficult to prove that
each layer was derived solely from the immediate bed above it, but
this is not impossible. The calcites are of a fairly uniform thickness,
and the quantity abstracted from the overlying beds would be quite suf-
ficient to alter very materially the composition of the limestone. These
beds are about eighteen inches thick, and the corresponding calcites
three to nine inches. Taking the latter, and assuming, for argument
sake, that the limestone originally contained about 12 per cent. of car-
bonate of magnesia, the removal of sufficient calcite to form a layer nine
inches thick would increase the percentage of magnesia carbonate in the
limestone to over 20 per cent., which would nearly correspond to the
composition of some dolomites.

One other point with regard to the Irish dolomites I have already
partly referred to—viz., that they help to supply further evidence in
refutation of Dr. Hunt’s theory as to the origin of dolomitic rocks, that
is, their original deposition as sediments from an evaporating sea basin,
and subsequent modification by heat. I cannot do better than here
quote more fully Dr. Hunt’s words. (See ‘‘Conclusions”’ of his paper
on the Chemistry of Dolomites and Gypsums.*) ‘‘ Dolomites, mag-
nesites, and magnesian marls, have had their origin in sediments of
magnesian carbonate, formed by the evaporation of solutions of bicar-
bonate of magnesia. These solutions have been produced either
by the action of bicarbonate of lime upon solutions of sulphate of
magnesia, in which case gypsum is a subsidiary product, or by the
decomposition of solutions of sulphate or chloride of magnesium by the
waters of rivers or springs containing bicarbonate of soda. The sub-
sequent action of heat upon such magnesian sediments, either alone or

* Chem. & Geol. Essays, p. 90.

HarpmMan—On the Carboniferous Dolomites of Ireland. 727

mingled with carbonate of lime, has changed them into magnesite or dolo-
mite.’ I cannot see that this theory differs in any essential respect
from that of Von Morlot (see ante, p. 705), which Hunt himself con-
demns; but it altogether fails to account for what frequently occurs
near Kilkenny.

(1). The dolomites are often interstratified with ordinary blue
limestone highly fossiliferous. The section at Riverview is one out of
many that shows this. On the evaporation theory we should suppose
a most extraordinary series of oscillatory movements, alternating be-
tween a deep and clear sea, fitted to sustain the life of corals and such
organisms, and again a land-locked lagoon merging into a salt lake:
all this repeated many times, in the process of producing a few hundred
feet of the interstratified rocks. This is, I venture to say, inconceiv-
able. In order to get a deposit of carbonate of lime alone, at least three-
fourths of the sea water must be evaporated, as Bischof has shown ;* but
even then the carbonate of magnesia will remain in solution a considera-
ble time longer. By the time the water became sufficiently dissipated
for the latter to subside, the sea would have become a veritable pickle
in which few organic forms could live.t Yet we have highly fossili-
ferous dolomites, which would prove that the animals lived in the sea
water during the time of the deposition of those rocks, and that, during
a yery considerable time besides. In fact, on the evaporation theory
we should have only the following distinct groups:—(1), carbonate
of lime; (2), magnesite; (3), gypsum; (4), common salt; but no
dolomite. It is quite possible, however, that some dolomites, such as
those of the Permian formation, may have been indirectly the result
of evaporation; thus, that during the process of concentration a
greater amount of carbonate of magnesia might be assimilated by the
animals then living in the lagoon; and thus that the alteration to dolo-
mite might be sooner effected afterwards. It seems to me that it is
only by this assimilation, and the subsequent removal of the excess of
carbonate of lime, that large masses of dolomite could be formed ; for
if we consider the very small percentage of carbonate of magnesia or
lime present in sea water, and suppose even a portion of it enclosed in
a position favourable to evaporation, it is clear that the beds of sulphate
of lime, and of the chlorides, would bear an enormous proportion to those
of carbonate of magnesia or lime, or to dolomites.

(2). Again; were the dolomites originally deposited chemically,
they should form perfectly definite beds—dolomite, and nothing else.
It would be perfectly impossible, under any circumstances of evapo-
ration, to have the same bed at one place limestone highly fossilife-
rous, and at another (a few yards off) truly dolomitic, the fossils

* Chem. Geol., i., p. 177.

t Except perhaps those remarkable salmon which, as related by Smollett, in
“Humphrey Clinker,” the Scottish laird kept in a tank, to which he gradually added
more and more salt, &c. ; so that at last they could be taken alive ready pickled !

728 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

altogether obliterated. But this is a constant occurrence among Irish
dolomites.* I have already referred to one instance of it in the Co. Ty-
rone; it isalso frequent in the County Kilkenny, in many places within
a circle extending from Gowran to near Ballyragget ; and I have hand
specimens showing the gradual alteration, the fossils being completely
obliterated, and the blue limestone at one side becoming perfect crys-
talline dolomite at the other. Large masses of dolomite are seen,
which, when traced out, are found to abut against and merge into
limestone, and in some places, as at Ballyfoyle, there will be as many
as twenty or more alternations of limestone and dolomite in a distance
of less than half a mile; the limestone always full of marine fossils,
by no means dwarfed in appearance. (See figs. 4, 5, 6, Plate 42).

[ Note added in Press—I1 have mentioned that limestones are by no
means homogeneousin composition, and that the cellular structure would
be capriciously determined by the most calcareous, and therefore most
soluble parts. I have lately analysed some limestones from Ballyfoyle,
which are interlarded with and pass into dolomite. The following were
made from specimens of the same bed, taken a few yards apart :—

ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE FROM BALLYFOYLE.

I II
Carbonate of lime, | 87°72 91-06
BS », Magnesia, . | 3°80 1-00
Ferric oxide and alumina, | 2°52 2:05
Insoluble residue, . | 8°80 6°70
99°84 99-81
|

Sprcrric Gravity, 2°89.

Specific Gravity of Dolomite——On the principle I have advocated,
viz., the removal of carbonate of lime from limestones, and the conse-
quent porosity of the resulting dolomite, the specific gravity ought to
be less than that of limestones. I am aware that Dr. Apjohn has, in
the paper already cited, stated the contrary; but it must be remem-
bered that the determination is rendered very difficult in the case of
dolomite by the circumstance that, while in the mass, it is porous and
cellular, and must be of less specific gravity than limestones, which are
compact—the small pieces, which could only be weighed on our
balances, are usually compact. However, those I have tried certainly
possess a lower specific gravity than limestone. This is shown in the
examples given above of the Ballyfoyle dolomite and limestone. }

* Bischof refers also to this fact as common to dolomitic formations.

HarpmMan—On the Carboniferous Dolonutes of Ireland. 729

Crystallization.—The very distinct crystalline appearance of dolo-
mite is a matter requiring important consideration, but it is in truth
one of the chief difficulties of the whole question. From whatever
stand-point we approach the subject, and whatever the theory which
we adopt may be, this is not very easy to account for. The infiltra-
tion of carbonate of magnesia could hardly of itself afford this peculiar
structure, for it would only give a perimorph, or at least a; pseudo-
morph, of magnesite, by replacing part of the carbonate of lime in the
calcite. But even magnesite after calcite is not frequent. Blum and
others refer to it as occasionally occurring in lodes, and in geodic cavities;
but it is not likely often to be discovered, for Bischof found it impos-
sible to effect any decomposition between carbonate of lime, and a
solution of bicarbonate of magnesia.*

On the other hand, all limestones, with the exception of the earthy
varieties, are more or less crystalline, and the crystals of calcite differ
only to a very slight amount from those of dolomite—so little that the
principal angle of the rhombohedron of calcite being 105°5’, that of
dolomite is 106°15’, a difference quite inappreciable, without the aid
of delicate instruments. This being so, it a quantity of superabun-
dant carbonate of lime be removed from a highly magnesian limestone,
such as would, according to Bischof, be formed by the agency of certain
organisms, the crystalline structure would appear very distinctly,
even in magnesian limestones that were still far removed from dolo-
mites. In fact in few dolomites are the crystals really distinct until
the rock has begun to decompose, and I could point out many loca-
lities near Kilkenny where true dolomites are perfectly compact, to all
appearance, where unweathered, but once attacked by the atmosphere
show themselves to be highly crystalline; the process being just
what I have suggested above, viz., the removal of the superfluous
carbonate of lime. This is, however, an extremely difficult province
of the question to enter upon, and an opinion on it is not to be
advanced without great diffidence, during the existing state of our
information about it.

Conciusions—(1). It appears, therefore, that the Irish carbonife-
rous dolomites could not have been completely originated by organic
agency, nor could they have been formed by chemical deposition
due to evaporation of sea water; and there seems to be evidence of
few other dolomites being formed in the latter way.

(2). The experiments recorded in the preceding paper, showing the
much greater solubility of carbonate of lime than of carbonate of mag-
nesia, from rocks treated with a carbonic acid solution, appear to bear
out the theory that dolomite may be formed by the extraction—by
water holding in solution small quantities of carbonic acid—of the
excess of carbonate of lime from magnesian limestone rocks.

In this way, also, it is easy to account for the fissures and cavities

* See Note to p. 708.

730 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

so common to dolomites, and the filling up or coating of these cavities
with carbonate of lime. ;

The frequent occurrence of quantities of carbonate of zinc in dolo-
mites may also be explained thus: the concentration, simultaneously,
of the carbonates of zinc and of magnesia being accomplished by the
removal of the carbonate of lime.* The resulting dolomite being
then less soluble that the carbonate of zinc, the latter would be dis-
solved out and again deposited alone in the lower cavities of the
rock.

On the other hand, the percolation of water containing carbonate
of magnesia would add to the bulk of the mass, ynless something was
abstracted in place of the carbonate of magnesia deposited. This
could only be carbonate of lime, but Bischof’s experiment is against

that. Besides, as water usually contains about ten times as much
carbonate of lime as of magnesia, were any deposition to take place,
the lime would certainly be deposited before the magnesia, and would
not only increase the bulk, but neutralise the dolomitization.

* T have already pointed out that zinc is nearly always associated with, or an
accessory of, magnesian minerals. Vide On the supposed Substitution of Zinc for
Magnesium in Minerals, Proc. Roy. Ir. Acad., 1874.

Reyno_ps—Report on Glucinum. 731

LYI.—Reports From THE CoEMIcaL Laporatory or Trryiry Corres,
Dustin. By J. Emerson Reynorps, M. D., M.R.I.A., Professor
of Chemistry, University of Dublin.

No. 1.—On Guucinum: its Atomic WEIGHT AND Sprciric Hear.
[Read April 10, 1876.]

Amonest the few rare elements found in Ireland is the metal Gluci-
num or Beryllium, which occurs in the well-known alumino-glucinic
silicate, beryl or ‘‘emerald;’’ this mineral is found in comparative
abundance, though in a rough state, in the granites of Donegal,
and is somewhat less freely distributed through the granites of the
Mourne Mountains in the county of Down. As the ‘‘ atomic weight”
of glucinum has not yet been definitely fixed by the determination of
the specific heat of the metal, it seemed desirable that we in Ire-
land should make the necessary crucial experiments. Hence, about
seyen years ago, I commenced to collect the crude Irish beryls or
‘‘ emeralds,’ and ultimately succeeded in obtaining 3 kilogrammes
of the dressed mineral, from which I prepared nearly 350 grammes of
the pure glucinic oxide.

I have to thank my friend Mr. William Harte, C.E., the ex-
cellent County Surveyor of Donegal, for the valuable assistance he
kindly afforded me in collecting much of the mineral from which
the glucinic oxide was prepared.

The satisfactory nature of the results of a set of preliminary experi-
ments with the material at my disposal must be my apology for
laying a short communication upon the subject before the Academy,
at a very early stage of the investigation.

Some glucinic ade was converted into the anhydr ous chloride by
the action of chlorine upon it at a full red heat in presence of fincly
divided carbon; and the metal was subsequently procured by the action
of metallic sodium on the pure sublimed glucinic chloride. The reduc-
tion was effected by heating a suitable mixture in a platinum vessel,
but the temperature was not allowed to rise sufficiently to liquefy the
mass; and on removal of the material from the crucible those portions
which had been in contact with the platinum were rejected. The
resulting mixture of sodic chloride and reduced glucinum was then
fused under common salt in a lime crucible; this precaution was
taken in order to avoid contact with siliceous compounds. Con-
siderable loss occurred in this operation; but I succeeded in obtaining
a small coherent mass of metallic glucinum, which latter was found
to agree in characters with the metal described by Debray,* though

* Annales de Chimie et de Physique: troisicme série, tem. xliy., p. 5 (1855).

732 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

that distinguished chemist effected the reduction of his metal in a
different manner.

If we admit with Awdejew, and with Debray, the number 4-6 to
be the equivalent of glucinum (H = 1), the question remains whether
the ‘‘atomic weight,” so called, is a multiple of the equivalent by
2 or 3.

If, as some assert, the ‘‘ atomic weight” is 4°6 x 3=13°8, the only
known oxide of glucinum must resemble alumina. If, on the other
hand, the atomic weight is 4°6 x 2 = 9:2, glucina must be an oxide like
that of zine or of magnesium. Each view has received the support of a
group of chemists of the highest eminence, but owing to peculiar difficul-
ties surrounding the case, an appeal to chemical criteria has hitherto
been insufficient to decide between the two conflicting opimions—a deter-
mination of the specific heat of the metal, or of the vapour density of one
of its compounds of simple constitution, being necessary for the final
settlement of the question. Of these methods I chose the former, and,
having made several determinations of the capacity for heat of metallic
glucinum, I have the gratification to state that the data obtained
lead to the conclusion that the atomic weight of glucinum is double
the equivalent weight. Glucinum is, therefore, a diatomic metal with
an atomic weight of 9:2; though, I may add, this number may be
slightly affected by a new determination of the equivalent in which
I am engaged.

The method pursued in making the necessary determinations upon
which to found the conclusion just stated was devised for the pur-
pose of this inquiry; and as it is essentially different from any with
which I am acquainted, I may be permitted to indicate very briefly
the plan adopted after a good deal of preliminary investigation.*

The well-known law of Dulong and Petit, as modified by Can-
nizzaro, asserts that the atoms of elementary matter haye the same
capacity for heat, when we compare them in the solid state. The
outstanding exceptions to this important law are few, and even these
appear to have been cleared away in some degree by the recent re-
searches of Weber on the specific heats of silicon, boron, and carbon.
The principle, however, is admittedly sufficiently general in its appli-

* The preparation of pure metallic glucinum in quantities exceeding two or
three grammes is difficult and costly ; for this amongst other reasons, I determined
to employ Bunsen’s admirable and theoretically perfect ice calorimeter in the esti-
mation of the specific heat of the metal, as small quantities of material only are
required. It proved, however, to be impossible, owing to various engagements, to
prepare the glucinum in a state of sufficient purity until the season had passed
when Bunsen’s ice calorimeter can be conveniently used. I had, therefore, to
devise a calorimetric method which could be employed during warm weather, and
which could afford trustworthy results with small weights of material. I have
given in the text an outline of this method, but the details of its application to the
determination of atomic and molecular heat will form the subject of another com-

munication.

Reynotps—Report on Glucinum. 733

cation to enable us to found upon it a plan for the determination of
the atomic weight so called of a particular element: for it is evident
that if we employ as a standard a metal whose atomic weight and
specific heat are both accurately known—silver for example (= 108)—
the weight of another solid element which contains the same quantity
of heat at 100° C. as 108 parts of pure silver at 100° C. is the atomic
weight of theelement. Inseeking to compare glucinum with pure me-
tallic silver in this way, I succeeded in arranging an experimental
method which not only enabled me to attain the object I had in view,
butalso to demonstrate the truth of the law just referred to. The appa-
ratus required is easily constructed, and consists of a spirit thermometer
with a cylindrical ‘‘bulb”’ in which a test tube is sealed after the manner
of Bunsen’s ice calorimeter. This part of the apparatus is easily con-
structed from a small chloride of calcium drying tower as shown in the
diagram. Although the larger ‘‘ bulb” of the thermometer is filled with

spirit, the lower one and the stem are full of mercury, and connected
with a fine capillary tube carefully graduated in millimetres, and cali-
brated. The arrangement constitutes an exceedingly delicate spirit
thermometer, with a mercury index.

When it is desired to compare a solid element with silver, in order
to fix the atomic weight, it is necessary to make a preliminary experi-
ment with the standard metal. For this purpose one cubic centimetre
of distilled water is placed in the test tube which is immersed in the
bulb of the thermometer, and when the temperature has been equal-
ised, and the thread of mercury has reached a suitable position in the

(34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

stem, a piece of pure silver weighing 108 centigrammes, and heated
to 100° C. in steam, is rapidly dropped into the cubic centimetre of
water, and the expansion caused in a given time carefully noted.*
According to the law above stated, a centigramme atom, if I may use
the term, of any other metal than silver ought to cause exactly the
same expansion, when the experiment is made with it under precisely
the same conditions; and these conditions are very easily realised.
I have ascertained that such is the case, and the approximate equality
in ‘“‘atomic heat” of many of the metals has thus been easily demon-
strated.

The comparison of glucinum with silver was made on this plan,.

and it was found that the weight of glucinum which contains nearly the
same quantity of heat at 100° C. as 108 centigrammes of silver at the
same temperature, is not 4°6 or 4:6 x 3, but 4°6 x 2, or 9-2 centi-
grammes.

The ‘‘ atomic heat” of silver, or the product of the specific heat
(= 05701 according to Regnault), into the atomic weight (= 108)
is 6:157. Using this number as the standard for reference, the
experimental number found for the atomic heat of the specimen of
glucinum operated with is 5:91. Thus :—

Atomic heat of silver = 62llton
Atomic heat of glucnum = 5-910

The difference is less than the known difference between the
atomic heat of silver and that of aluminium; but I am inclined to
think that the lower number found for the glucinum used is due to
the presence of a trace of platinum in the specimen of metal. Owing
to the high atomic weight of platinum (= 197:1), as compared with
that of glucinum (9°2), the presence of even a small quantity of the
former metal must very sensibly affect the determination of the

atomic heat of glucinum. I hope soon to be in a position to continue

these experiments with the pure metal.
It will, however, appear from the following considerations that
we may fairly regard the above determination of the atomic heat of

glucinum as being of such value as to enable us, even at an early .

stage of the inquiry, to use it as a physical control, and to fix the
atomic weight of the metal, subject of course to the probably small
change in the numerical expression which may prove to be necessary
as the investigation proceeds.

Tf we assume the atomic weight of glucinum to be 9-2 and employ
the value I have obtained for the atomic heat, 7. e., 5°91, we can cal-
culate the specific heat of the metal by means of the formula.

* The apparatus is carefully protected from the influence of air currents during
the experiment. ‘

Reynotps—Report on Glucinum. 735

H
Sere nny Poe)

when § represents the specific heat, H the atomic heat, and A the
atomic weight of an element. The specific heat of glucinum thus
calculated is -642.

Tf now we substitute for H a constant, which in this case is the
product of the well-ascertained atomic weight of silver* into its equally
well determined specific heat, A S = 6:157, the expression becomes

See oe)

and with its aid we can calculate the specific heat of any solid element,
if its atomic weight is known or assumed. I have thus calculated the
specific heat of glucinum on the assumption (a) that its atomic weight
is 9-2; (b) that its atomic weight is 4-6, and (c) that it is 13-8.

The results are compared in the following Table with the specific
heat obtained by calculation from the actual determination of the
atomic heat of the metal :—

Specific heat of glucinum calculated (1) from the result of deter-
mination of atomic heat,

“WiVtivarie Jk Oro san ane ents 15)
Specific heat of glucinum calculated by (2),

AWikrenWAt—— 48920) a. ee ERG GO
WihtenwAG—er AsO ie Ok 83S
SWikrenWAt==wl cS. O01 real

I am, therefore, justified in concluding that the atomic weight of
glucinum is nearly if not exactly 9:2.

* We might obviously take any other product, but that of silver is here pre-
ferred because the atomic heat of that metal has been employed as the standard for
reference.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. Il., VOL. [1., SCIENCE. S)

736 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

LVI1.—On tue Cuemicat CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN THE PoTato
DURING THE PROGRESS OF THE Disrase. By the Rey. Joun H.
JevLett, B.D., 8. F.T.C.D.

[Read May 22, 1876.]

Tue object of the experiments described in this paper was two-fold,
namely :—

1. To ascertain whether there be any development of sugar in the
tuber, and if so, what is the kind of sugar developed.

2. To ascertain whether there be any perceptible change in the
quantity of nitrogen.

The experiments were conducted as follows. Four specimens were
taken from the same variety of potato, viz. :—

1. Perfectly sound potato.

2. Apparently sound part of potato in which the disease had just
begun to appear.

3. Apparently sound part of potato in which the disease was far
advanced.

4. Discoloured part of diseased potato.

These specimens, having been carefully weighed, were severally
grated, then subjected to a strong pressure in a screw press, and
finally exhausted with spirit.

The fluid so obtained was filtered, to remove the albumen and
starch, and (the spirit having been distilled off) was diluted with
water toa known bulk. It was then examined in the usual way for
sugar. The result is given in the following Table.

Taste I.
I, We Il. JONG
Water (percentage in tuber), . : 73°09 | 77°24 | 80°04 | 79:28
Nitrogen (do.) . Ren ae 27 30 | . 31 "25
Sucrose (do.) : : : 08 29 1:14 21
Glucose (do.) 9 2 “42 65 “76 40

For the second part of the experiment four specimens, selected as
before, were carefully weighed and dried. They were then burned in
the usual way, tor the purpose of estimating the quantity of nitrogen.
The results are given in the following Table. ;

JELLETI—On the Chemical Changes in Potato Disease. 737

Taste II.
I II III. IV
Nitrogen (percentage in dry residue), 1:00 | 1:58 | 1:55) 1:26
Sucrose (do.) : : HE) | RT Bega || WOO
Glucose (do.) < 3 1:59 | 2°85 | 3:81) 1:98

The history of these chemical changes seems to be as follows :—

The first stage of the disease in the tuber is marked by an increase
in the quantity of nitrogen.

This increase seems to have attained its greatest value before the
appearance of any discoloration in the tuber.

The same stage of the disease is also marked by the development
of sugar, both glucose and sucrose.

In the second stage, marked by a great increase in the discoloured
part of the tuber, the part which remains apparently sound shows no
increase of nitrogen but a very considerable increase in the quantity
of sugar.

Finally, in the discoloured part of the tuber, there is a diminution
both in the percentage of nitrogen and in the percentage of sugar.

Now it must be remembered, that in the vegetable kingdom the
fungi contain the largest percentage of nitrogen, approaching nearly
in this respect to the animal kingdom. A marked increase in the
quantity of nitrogen would therefore seem to indicate a fungoid growth
in the tuber. It would seem also that this growth attains a maximum
value before the tuber shows any visible sign of disease.

The development of sugar appears to come somewhat later; at
least it continues for a considerable time after the percentage of nitro-
gen has attaimed its maximum value. There can be, I suppose, no
doubt that this sugar is formed by the conversion of the starch, which
the potato contains in large quantity. If the sugar produced were
wholly glucose, there would be no difficulty, as the presence of a
small quantity of acid would be sufficient to account for the pheno-
menon. But I am not aware that there is any known method by
which starch can be made to pass into sucrose. It is possible that
this effect may be produced by the presence of the fungus, which is
indicated by the increased quantity of nitrogen. I have not, however,
succeeded in establishing experimentally the possibility of this con-
version.

The appearance of discoloration marks the commencement of decom-
position, and is attended, as we might naturally expect, by a diminution
in the quantity both of nitrogen and of sugar.

3X2

738 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

LVIII.—Remarxs on THE Recent Discovery oF REMAINS OF THE
Cervus Mecacrros at BattyBetacH. By Grorex Porte, M. RI. A.

[Read June 12, 1876.]

Many years ago I took great interest in the discovery of the remains
of the Cervus Megaceros in various parts of Ireland, but during the
recent explorations at Ballybetagh I had an opportunity of examining
them zm situ, under conditions differing so much from all that had
previously come under my notice, that I think it desirable to place on
record these unusual circumstances.

I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Moss for the opportunity of
making my observations without any of the labour and trouble of
superintending the excavations.

I have made the following notes as a supplement to his Report,*
which could not be more accurate than it is, but it treats only of the
mode of conducting the exploration, and the results obtained. I may
observe that he is not in any way responsible for the opinions herein
expressed; indeed, I have reason to think that he has not arrived at
the same conclusions as I have on all points.

Judging from the dip of the sides of the valley where these remains
were found, and comparing it with the excavations made, it appears
that the central parts were originally some 15 feet below the present
surface, and that a considerable stream or torrent ran through it. It
also appears that at a very remote period this torrent was obstructed
by some means or other, converting that part of the valley into a
shallow lake or tarn, from an acre to an acre and a-half in area, and
in no part more than about 15 feet deep; this tarn is now completely
filled up with the usual lacustrine deposits (marl excepted), of which
none appeared in the excavations made, although a considerable deposit
of marl is found in a similar but larger basin, a couple of hundred
yards lower down the valley.

Beneath the lacustrine deposits, lying on the bottom of the tarn,
that is to say, on the original surface of the valley, the remains were
found in immense quantities, firmly imbedded between the water-
worn boulders which were thickly scattered over it.

In almost every county in Ireland similar remains have from time
to time been found, and still a very common error prevails, even among
well-informed people, that they are always found 7m bogs: this error
originates in the custom of giving the general name of ‘“‘ bog”’ to every
place where turf may be cut for fuel, whether it be a true peat-moss,
or the basin of an extinct lake.

Now I have never been able to trace a single instance in which
remains of the Cervus Megaceros were found in a real bog. So far as

* Antea, p. 547.

Porte—On Remains of Cervus Megaceros. 739

I am aware, they have hitherto, with one exception,* been found only
in extinct lakes ; and even in these they never occur in the vegetable
mould forming the upper stratum or bog, but always in sedimentary
marl, or blue clay, which underlies the bog; and when both these
deposits exist in the same basin, the remains are generally found
imbedded in the marl, and resting on the blue clay: the present being
(so far as I am aware) the first instance of their being found resting
on the bottom of the basin.

In the marl or in the blue clay they have been found at different
depths in different basins, and. sometimes even in the same basin, in-
dicating that they were deposited at different periods during the
formation of the stratum: and hence naturalists have been led to attri-
bute the death of the animals to ‘‘ miring”’ during their struggles with
their predaceous enemies.

This hypothesis is probably in some instances correct, but it is
difficult to reconcile it with the often observed fact of the wide dis-
persion of the bones, and still more with another well-known fact,
namely—that heads and antlers are frequently found where no other
parts of the skeleton can be discovered.

There is at first sight an apparent coincidence between the situation
of these remains and that of most others previously discovered, but
the coincidence is only apparent, while it is a real exception to the
general rule. It is true that these have been found (as usual) in the
basin of an extinct lake, but they have not been found zm any lacustrine
deposit, but under them all, in actual contact with the sandy clay which
formed the original surface of the valley.

Furthermore, they presented to me the appearance of having
been for a long time knocked about among stones, whereby they were
much abraded and broken up before they got into still water; the de-
tached parts have not in any case been found, so as to be identified.
They also appeared to have been forced down between the boulders
by some great vertical pressure, but not by the gradually increasing
pressure resulting from the slow accumulation of lacustrine deposits.
Moreover, the stratum lying immediately over them did not appear to
me to be lacustrine at all, but more like the surrounding surface soil,
and probably the result of a land-slip, or flood.

If the above views be correct, it appears almost certain that the
remains were deposited where found, before the lake or tarn was formed ;
for had it existed even for a short time previously, some sediment would
have been formed beneath the bones, but there was none.

In the next place a excludes the possibility that the animals were
““mired ;”” had they been so, the remains would have been found 7” the
lacustrine strata, and not entirely under them all, as above described ;

* The exception above referred to is the discovery of a skeleton in drift sand
(in 1828) above the Enniskerry river, which is separated from Ballybetagh by the
Scalp range of hills.

740 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and even if we suppose the mud of the lake to have been sufficiently
fluid to permit the bones to sink through it, so as to rest on the
bottom, they would touch it only at three or four points; the
great mass of the antlers would stand up off the bottom; the sediment
would form under and around them, and they would be found imbedded.
mm lacustrine clay or marl; but they did not in any instance present
such appearance.

It might be supposed that they were carried into the lake by the
stream which flowed through it, and in fact their shattered and water-
worn appearance has been thus accounted for, but they were entirely
out of the course of the torrent, and in a part of the tarn near its.
margin that must have been still water from the first formation of
the lake.

The conclusion at which I have arrived on this part of the subject
is, that the remains were deposited where found all at once, and before
the lake was formed.

But even though the bones might be deposited all at once where
they were found, it does not necessarily follow that the herd perished
all at once by any sudden catastrophe. The remains might have been
accumulating for many years; but if such were the case, it is hardly
conceivable that there should not be found among them the remains.
of even one female. Of the six-and-thirty heads exhumed all] were
males. I think this one fact negatives the possibility of the accumu-
lation extending over many years; it is more probably the result of
the final extinction of the vast herd of these noble animals that once
roamed over those hills.

The absence of female remains has been accounted for by the sup-
position that the herd perished by some sudden disease or catastrophe
during the season of the year when the males and females herded
separately, which may be roughly stated as from April to October. I
think the suggestion very reasonable, and, if true, the remains of the
females are to be found in equal quantities at no great distance from
the former, probably on the other side of the tarn.

Had they perished while the two sexes intermingled, 7. e., from
October to March or April, we might reasonably expect to find their
remains mixed in due proportions; it seems to me therefore almost
certain that they did not perish during the winter months.

I think it possible, by a similar method of exclusion, to fix the
season at which they perished with reasonable probability : ¢. g., among
the six-and-thirty heads exhumed, not one was destitute of antlers;
that is to say, not one of the animals perished during the season
between the fall of the antlers and their reproduction, embracing May
and the first half of June; not one during the early stages of growth,
including the remainder of June and July. It would not be possible
without microscopical examination to assert that none of the antlers
found were in any stage of growth; but I hope during this summer
to make such investigation as will decide this question.

PorteE—On Remains of Cervus Megaceros. 741

When the antlers were fully grown, the males and females mingled
together again, and the rutting season commenced.

Some of the remains present the clearest possible evidence that
the animals perished during the fall of the antlers ; that is to say, during
the latter part of April, and part of May; the burr and constriction
around the base of the antler marking the preparation for its fall being
in various stages of progress, from the first enlargement of the burr ;
almost to a perfect constriction : no doubt therefore can exist as to the
season of the year at which they perished.

Of those not thus marked, no certain evidence of time exists, except
that the antlers were fully developed at the time of death: I think it,
however, extremely probable that all perished at the same time.

I may observe here, once for all, that in speaking of months and
seasons, I have assumed that these were somewhat like what they are
at present ; and also, that the habits of the great deer did not differ
very much from those of existing species.

Among the remains are three or four shed antlers, but the skulls
to which they belonged were not found, unless we assume them to be
castings of preceding years.

It is worthy of remark that the find consisted almost entirely of
heads and antlers. All the other bones found with the thirty-six heads
and antlers would not be sufficient to build up a single skeleton ; but it
is extremely probable that the smaller bones would be found in similar
quantities in the central parts of the valley answering to the deeper parts
of the ancient tarn, 7.¢., assuming the remains to have been brought
there by the agency of water.

There is apparently no limit to the quantity of these bones that
might be obtained if necessary, but I do not see that any useful end
could be answered by exhuming cartloads of similar remains, and in
the same condition; but I think that some additional knowledge of
this noble animal might be obtained by exploring the opposite margin
of the valley, and also the middle or deeper parts, in order if possible
to discover what has become of the herd of females, which we may
assume did not differ very much in number from the males.

On the whole, I do not think the evidence at present before us
would enable us to decide where or by what means this magnificent
herd became extinct, though we may be able to say with reasonable
certainty where and how they did not perish.

Were I disposed to theorise, I might answer these questions with
reasonable probability, but I prefer laying before the Academy what
I consider proved facts, in order to have them placed on record for the
aid of future explorers in this field of science.

742 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

LIX.—Tue Derecrion anp Precrprration oF PuospHoric Acip BY
Ammonic Motyspate. By Arcursatp Nicnonr M‘Anrprnz, B.Sc.
— ~ (Lond.), Royal Exhibitioner, Royal College of Science.

[Read June 26, 1876.]

THe detection and precipitation of phosphoric acid by ammonic
molybdate has occupied the attention of several chemists.

Richters* has found that the test is rendered more delicate, and
precipitation more rapid, if ammonic nitrate is added to the solution
to be examined for the phosphoric acid prior to adding the molybdic
test.

From a series of experiments I have made, I find that the test can
be rendered still more delicate, and the precipitation still more rapid,
if an excess of ammonic molybdate, some strong nitric acid, and
finally, strong ammonia, be added to the solution, until it is nearly
neutral. In this way I found phosphoric acid in waters which yielded
no trace with the usual molybdic solution after standing at a gentle
heat for a considerable time.

In making my experiments I noticed that molybdic acid is easily
separated from the larger portions of the ammonia with which it is
combined, under certain conditions; these conditions are that the
solution should be hot, and saturated with ammonic nitrate, and that
free nitric acid should not be present in excess. It may be that the
greater delicacy of the test, in a phosphate solution containing nitric
acid to which ammonia has been added to near the neutral point, is
due to the formation of this acid molybdate, which combines with the
phosphoric acid to form the ammonio-phospho-molybdate precipitate.

I then made some experiments to determine the effect of nitric
acid on the precipitation. I found that beyond a certain point nitric acid
hindered the precipitation in very dilute phosphate solution, and
generally it retarded the formation of the precipitate. ‘This is contrary
to the statement made in some of the works on chemical analysis.

To determine good proportions for the ammonia and nitric acid,
I made various experiments with 10 cubic centimetre portions of a
phosphate solution containing -010 grammes of phosphoric acid per
litre, varying the quantities of nitric acid in the different experiments.
I added ammonia to the solution until the precipitate formed most
favourably, and finally I determined the amount of free acid remaining
in the solution. I found the following proportions made the test the
most sensitive :—

* See Dingl. Polyt., J. excix. 183; also vol. 24 Chem. Soc. Journal.

M‘Atpinse—Precipitation of Phosphoric Acid. 743

60 grammes Ammonic Molybdate.
500 ec. Nitric Acid (sp. gr. 1-4).
400 ec. Ammonia (sp. gr. °96).
400 ce. Water.

A solution containing these proportions gives an immediate pre-
cipitate if added to 10 cubic centimetres of a phosphate solution con-
taining ‘01 grammes of phosphoric acid per litre. .

I next tried the effect of hydrochloric acid on the precipitation.
For this purpose I employed 10 cubic centimetres of a solution con-
taining ‘01 grammes of phosphoric acid per litre, 3 cubic centimetres of
the ordinary laboratory solution of ammonic molybdate, and 2 cubic
centimetres of strong hydrochloric acid. There was no precipitate
after shaking and allowing to stand for some time, but on adding am-
monia a precipitate was produced which was not so rapid in its forma-
tion, nor so copious as when nitric acid was present.

I now tried to obtain a volumetric test for phosphoric acid. To
avoid the necessity of adding excess of ammonic molybdate, I added
to the solution sodic molybdate, which does not precipitate the phos-
phoric acid, and then ammonic molybdate. For example, I took 50
cubic centimetres of a solution of phosphate of soda containing excess
of sodic molybdate. 5cc. of ammonic molybdate appeared to precipitate
the phosphoric acid completely, as the further addition of ammonic
molybdate to a portion of the filtered solution gave no-precipitate on
heating, nor the reaction for ammonic molybdate on adding phosphate
solution. Thus it appears that by using an excess of sodic molybdate,
the necessity for an excess of ammonic molybdate is avoided. I made
various other experiments in this way, and it seems as if there was a
point at which the precipitation of the phosphoric acid is complete,
and no ammonic molybdate in solution.

Lastly I substituted for the ammonic molybdate ammonic nitrate,
which I added to the phosphate solution containing excess of sodic
molybdate, and here also there appeared to be a point where the pre-
cipitation of the phosphoric acid was complete, and no ammonia in
solution.

I now attempted to determine the point of complete precipitation in
various ways, but I could find no convenient way of determining the
exact point, when all the ammonia as well as the phosphoric acid had
been precipitated.

744 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

LX.—On a Certary Reration BETWEEN THE QuaDRATIC EXPRESSION
Q@ — 3PP’, anpD THE PRropuct oF THE SQUARES OF THE DIFFERENCES
oF THE Roots or A Cusic Equation. By J. R. Youne, formerly
Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College.

[Read June 26, 1876. ]

Ler B+px+q=0 (1)
be the equation which results from depriving the cubic equation,
+ Anu*+ Ax+ Ay = 0 (2)

of its second term ; that is, let (1) be the equation which arises from
diminishing each of the roots of (2) by -5 A,; then, conformably to

the notation of my former Papers,

P=H+pr+ya
Q = 327 +p . Q = 9at + 6px + p?

ee NOL, 3PP’ = 9at + 9px? + Iga

. Q@- 8PP' = — 3p2* — 9qn + p.

Now, the square of the middle co-efficient of this quadratic ex-
pression, diminished by four times the product of the extreme
co-efficients, furnishes the

Remainder, 819? + 12p° = 3 (27q? + 4p’) ;

which (with changed sign) is three times the product of the squares of
the differences of the roots of the equation (1). (Zheory and Solution
of Equations, p. 410). [This is proved independently at the end ].
But the differences of the roots of the equation (2) are the same
as the differences of the roots of the equation (1); because the roots
of (2) are no other than the roots ef (1), each increased by the same

quantity ; namely, by the quantity — : Ay.
Calling this quantity a, the equation (2) is
(v+aPt+p(a2+a)+q=0;
and the expression Q@—3PL’, for this equation, is
Q? -3PP' =- 8p («+ a) - 9g (x +a) +p?
=— dpa - (6pa+ 9q)x — dpa* — 9ga+p.

-_ 7

Youne—Product of the Squares of the Differences, etc. 745

The square of the middle co-efficient here is
36p7a* + 108pqa+ 8194?
and 4 x the prod. of the extremes, 36p?a? + 108pga — 12p°

.. the remainder is 819? + 12p’,

which, as might have been anticipated, is the same as the remainder
above; and the remainder would still be the same whatever be a.
If we represent the expression Q’-—3PP’ by Az’? + Br+C, and the
roots of the equation
Ag+ Be+C=0

by 7, and 72, then will

1B? C 9 9

VE = Saye = (r as 12) = 47, 1. = (1 = 12)" ;
and therefore,

B-4AC = Ar - 12). (3)

Hence, the square of the difference of the two roots of the quad-
ratic equation Q’— 3PP’ = 0, multiplied by A’, is equal, when its sign
is changed, to three times the product of the squares of the differen-
ces of the roots of the cubic equation (2). We deduce, moreover, the
conclusions following, namely :—

1. li B =4AC, that is, if the two roots 7, 72, are equal roots,
then also two roots of the cubic equation (2) must be equal roots,
seeing that one, at least, of the differences furnished by the three
roots must then be zero. These latter equal roots must be the same
as the former (7, 72): for, representing one of the equal roots of (2)
by r, the éxpressions Q?, and 3PP’, must each be divisible by (# —1)*;
and consequently,

Q-—3PP’, that is, da?+ Br+ C

must also be divisible by (x-7r)?. But this expression (under the
stipulated condition, namely, the condition 7,=12), is divisible by no
quadratic factor other than (7-717,)?; therefore, x-r and 2-7, must
be identical: hence the equations P=0 and @-3PP’=0 must
haye the same pair of equal roots. [When all the roots are equal,
(= 3PP’; and there is no remainder |.

2. If B’>4AC, that is, if the roots 7, 7, of the equation
Q—3PP’=0 are real and unequal, the sign of B’-44C will be
plus; and therefore the sign of the product of the squares of the
differences of the roots of the equation P = 0, or (2), must be minus ;
which can be the case only when P = 0 has a pair of imaginary roots.
Whenever C is minus (the co-efficient A being plus), the sign of
B* —4AC will necessarily be plus; as also when Cis zero. The sign
must also be plus whenever A and C are both minus ; since if, under
these conditions, B*- 44C could be minus, the roots of Q?-3PP’ = 0

746 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

would be imaginary; and therefore (having regard to the prefixed
minus sign) the expression Q’—3PP’ would be negative, whatever
real value be given to z. But for that value of « which makes
P = 0, as also for that which makes P’ = 0, this expression is pos7-
tive; hence it is impossible, in the case supposed—the case, namely,
in which 4 and C are both minus, that the sign of B? -4AC can ever
be minus, Whenever, therefore, C is minus, whichever be the sign
of 4, the equation P = 0 must have a pair of imaginary roots.

3. If B’<4AC, that is, if the roots 7, 72, of Q@?-3PP’ =0, are
imaginary, the sign of B’-44C will be mznus; and therefore, the
sign of the product of the squares of the ditierences of the roots of
(2), or P= 0, must be plus, which can be the case only when all the
roots of P = 0 are real.

And in this way are established the theorems arrived at in a very
different manner in my Paper ‘‘On the Imaginary Roots of Numeri-
cal Equations.”* The theorems themselves, as here arrived at,
are but so many inferences from the property which it was the main
purpose of this communication to prove, namely, as shown above,
that

BP 4AC
cAR
or, which is the same thing, that (7, — 72)? is equal to
— 3( 2, — R,)?( A, — £3) R. — F)?,

where &,, 22, #3, are the three roots of the cubic equation P= 0,
and 7), 7, are the two roots of the quadratic equation

Q@?— 3PP! — 0, or Az? + Bz WC — 10)
deduced from this cubic. And although particular examples are
never necessary to verify a demonstrated general truth, yet as such

examples are often acceptable illustrations of theory, I shall here
subjoin one or two.

1. The roots of 27+ 102? + 31z%4 30 =
OW on mae
and the expression Q’-—3PP’ is
A+ Be+ C= iv? +40x+61;
. B? = 40? = 1600, and 440 =4x7x61 = 1708,
and the difference, B? — 4.4 C, is — 108, and a = — 36.

0 are

The differences of the roots of the equation are
—243,-2+5, and—-3+5;

* Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., vol. x., Series I., p. 343 (1866-69).

Youne—Product of the Squares of the Differences, etc. 747

the squares of which differences are
1?, 3°, 2°; and the product of these is 36;
and the former result, when its sign is changed, is the same number.
2. The roots of #— 427+ 384+ 2 = 0 are
Oley. il 0)
and the expression Q’— 3PP”’ is
Az? + Ba+ C= Tx - 302+ 38 ;
, B® =900, and 440 = 924;
— 94

far eb Ofes Oh overage —_ = —8,

oO
The differences of the roots are
1-2, 14/2, 22.

and the product of these differences is — 2/2, of which product the
square is 8; the same as the former result when its sign is changed.

3. It may be well to work out this final example in more detail :
P=2+112?-1027+181 =0
Q = 347 + 22% - 102
JE osha se il
Multiplying Q by itself, and omitting terms in 2° and 2+,
bu” + 224 — 102
ou" + 22% —102
‘4840? — 6122? — 44882 + 10404
J. Q = — 1282? — 44882 + 10404.
In like manner, multiplying P by P’,
+112? —-102%+ 181
oz7+11
1212? — 3060? —1122x + 543a + 1991
= — 18627? —5792 + 1991 = PP’
o. Q@-38PP' = 4272 —-2751v4+ 44381 = Av’? + Be+ C;
.. B? = 7568001
4 AC = 7568148

— 447 = B?-4AC.

748 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
Therefore three times the product of the squares of the differences of
the roots of the equation P= 9 is+147. Also
— 147 z
427?

r,, 7, being the two roots of 427z? —- 27517 +4431 = 0.

(GS Ars

These two roots would, of course, remain unaltered, although
the co-efficients of the equation Az’ + Bxe+ C=0 were each multiplied
or divided by any number; but the numerical result, B?-44C, would
be changed by such multiplication or division, and would no longer
express three times the product of the squares of the differences of
the roots of P=0. The sign of the numerical result would, however,
be the same; and therefore, for the purpose of ascertaining the
character of the roots of the cubic equation P = 0, the co-efficients of
the quadratic equation Q*-3PP’=0 may always be reduced to
smaller numbers whenever they have a common factor. Thus, in the
present example, we see that the co-efficients in the expression
(’-—38PP’ are each divisible by the number 7; so that we may
write
612? — 393+ 633 = 4’ + Bei Cl,

612? — 39382 + 683 = 4'2? + Bie = C,
and thus get

9
——— ie),
ais =(1—h)5

BY — 4A'C’ = 15449 - 154452 =- 3; and 61

this last result being the same as 7

It is obvious that if H denote the number by which each of the
co-efficients 4, B, C, is divided, in any case, A? times B? — 44’C'
will be equal to B? - 44C; that is (changing the sign), to three times
the product of the squares of the differences of the roots of the equa-
tion P = 0; in which equation, it is to be observed that the co-effi-
cient of zis unity. If the co-efficient of z*, in the proposed cubic
equation, be 43, a number different from unity, then it is

BA teks B-4AC
A} (r1 — 72)?, oF = sane

=(71-12)”.

which, with changed sign, is equal to three times the product of the
squares of the differences of the roots of the cubic equation; that is,
of the equation

P= Az? + Age” + Aye + A,=0;

because the co-efficients 4, B, C, as deduced from this equation, are
each A? times what they would be if the co-efficient of z were -

Youne—Product of the Squares of the Differences, etc. 749

reduced to unity by the terms of the equation being each of them
divided by -4;.
Take, for instance, the equation following :—

P=27 - 32 -—-7*#+5=0,

one of the roots of which is found to be 2°5 (Analysis and Solution of
Cubic and Biquadratie Equations, p. 179). To obtain the remaining
roots we proceed thus :—

@, = Bo SG (OE
5 5-95
2—2 On. 22% +27 —2)—0, ore - 2-1 — 0,

which equation gives, for the other two roots of the equation P = 0,
V5;
so that the product of the squares of the differences is

Tee N? Ii aN 22 Te 5\2 4805
ies V5) (34515) (v5) -(9-3) SD Sa 660 08 (1)
Again: @-3PP'=Az’?+ Br+ C=512z?-692+94; therefore,

Be-4A0 4761-19176 ~14415° 3
me eo a ee (2)

and, changing the sign of this, (1) x 8 = (2).
The square of the difference of the two roots 7, 1, of the
equation
Ax’? + Ba+C=0
is of course
B-4AC 69*-204x94 -14415

Y Sr \ 2) ee eS ee ee ee ee ee
(r1— 72) WG 512 eae

9

which, multiplied by _ that is, by = , gives a the
3

same result as that marked (2) above; and which, by the expres-
sion (1), is three times the product of the squares of the differences
of the roots of the equation P=0, when the sign of this product is
changed.

It may not be superfiuous to remark here, that the relation
established in this Paper between the product of the squares of the
three roots #,, 22, R;, of a cubic equation,

P= A303 + Aor* + Ayw+ A,=0, wi ie) ee ey ef Selke cel, © i (1)

|

750 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and the square of the difference of the two roots 7, 72, of the quadratic
equation

@>3PP'= 0 thatis, of Ae? + Ba C— 0... eee (2)
the relation—namely,
A , B-4AC : x
AS (11-12) = eae, =-—9d (Rh, —h,) (Ry — R;)? (R, — 3)’, selene (3)
3

can subsist only when the equation Q - 3PP’=0 has two roots;
that is to say, only when 4 is a significant number. If A be zero, the
equation (2), being then of only the first degree, has but one root,
and the first member of (3) 1s nugatory ; but the second member re-
mains significant ; itis 6’+4,*. Butif C be zero, and A a signi-
ficant number, one root (72) of the quadratic equation will be zero ;
and the first and second members of (3) will then be
WAH A 1B?
Tee and rE.
3 3
implying that when the quadratic equation Q@’-—83PP’=0 is
Ax’ + Be=0,

three times the product (with changed sign) of the squares of the differ-

ences of the roots of (1) is equal to qu simply to B?, or A’r,?, if

the co-efficient 4 , in (1), is unity.
For example: suppose we have the equation
P=2) +32? -627+4=0,
where the second triad of co-efficients furnishes the condition
A, -84,A,=0.
The equation Q°-3PP'= 0,fhere, is found to be
Ag? + Bu+ C=272 —-54x=0;

in which the values of 2 are x=0, and r=7,=2.
Now, if each of the roots of the equation P=0 be diminished by
— 1, the second term will disappear in the transformation, which will
be the equation
Gi Ope I (0)

and the product of the squares of the differences of the roots of
this equation, when the sign of that product is changed, is (by p. 410,
Theory of Equations) 4p*+27q°, where, in the present case, p=—9,

Younc—Product of the Squares of the Differences, etc. 751

aud g=12. Hence, three times the product of the squares of the dif-
ferences of the roots of P= 0 is

(— 2916 + 8888) x 83=2916=54 = B= A’r,’.

Tf 4 and C be each of them zero, then B itself will be zero; and
P will be a complete cube, or a complete cube multiplied by a
numerical factor. It was shown in my Paper (read November 9,
1868) that P being 4,0? + A,2?+ 4,4+ Ay, Q’- 3PP’ is

(A,? — 34,43) x? + (4,4, - 9A) A3) 0+ (A)? - 34,42) 5
and that the two conditions
A, —3A,A,=0, and 4,?- 34,4,=0,
necessitate the third condition
A, A,-94A,A;=0,

will be seen by transposing the minus term of each, and then multi-
plying the results together; for we shall thus have

PARAL A AWAD
and, consequently,
A,A,=9A4A,A;:
so that, when the two foregoing conditions have place, the expres-
sions Q and 38PP’ must be identical; and, therefore, P must be
of the form 4; (#+ a)’.

I shall now give a simple and direct proof of the property referred
to (already otherwise established) at the commencement of the pre-
sent Paper—namely, that if D* represent the product of the squares of
the differences of the roots of the equation

PaO GW poe 6 Gy,
we shall always have
D? =— (274? + 4p).

Demonstration.—\t is shown in the Theory of Equations, p. 322,
that if x, be either of the roots of the equation (1), all three of
the roots will be

1 ane 1 ape

ty Gt v\- 8 Pp) gn-v(-3 2)
Now, the differences of these are

3 Dit 3 ih gente ie

5 ae (34 -»)) 5 1 her <p 2y(- 3 a -p shen (2))

R. I. A. PROC., SER: II, VOL, II., SCIENCE. 3 Y

752 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

and, therefore, the product of the squares of the differences is

2 2
end eon ea j
i at A +p ve 4 +p ;
that is,
(3a? + py (8x? + 4p) = — D’,
or,
274° + 54pa' + 2px? + 4p? =-— D,
— 1D? — 44°
. we ® + Qa apa :
Ly + ape + PX a7?
that is,
ee NSO 3 dig
(xP + pa)? = a7 : 3

But by the equation (1), (7° + pz)? = 9°; therefore,
DHONI)

From the foregoing results we may deduce the equation of which
the roots are the squares of the differences of the roots of the equa-
tion (1), with remarkable facility, thus :—Let

2 + az°+bz+¢e¢=0

represent the equation of which the three roots are the squares of
the three expressions (2), in which expressions, x, is either one,
indifferently, of the three roots of the equation (1). Then the
co-efficient @ will denote the sum of the squares of the three ex-
pressions (2), when the sign of each square is changed; the co-
efficient 4 will denote the sum of the products, taken two and two, of
these same squares, whether the signs of them be changed or not,
since the resulting products are the same; and e¢ will denote the
product, with changed sign, of all three of the squares.

Now, each of these co-efficients has but a single definite value; so
that no quantity involving 2, (which has a threefold value) can enter
any of them, except, indeed, the quantity be of the form

m (a> + pa)” = m(— @)",

where is a whole number, and m a numerical factor; because only
then, and when #, is entirely absent (in consequence of the terms
involving z, neutralising one another), can the co-efficients a, 4, ¢,
have, each of them, single unambiguous values.

Youne—Product of the Squares of the Differences, ete. 753

It is plain, from inspection, that the swum of the squares of the
expressions (2) cannot involve 7°; therefore, this sum must be the
same as it would be if z, were zero; that isto say, the sum is

(/ — py + (V =p +4 —pyP =- © .. a= 6p.

Again: the sum of the products, two and two, of the squares of the
expressions (2), cannot involve 2°, seeing that the middle term
(the term inyolying /), in the square of the first expressions (2),
is the same, with opposite sign, as the middle term (the term in-
volving 7), in the square of the second of the expressions (2).
Hence, if each of these squares be multiplied by the square of
the third of the expressions (2), and the two products be added toge-
ther, the terms involving / will disappear; and the result will involve
only even powers of x, And it has been already shown that the pro-
duct of the squares of the first and second of the expressions (2)
is (3zf + p)?; which, in like manner, contains only even powers of 2.
Therefore, the sum of the three products must be the same as it would
be if 2, were zero ; that is to say, the sum of the products is

p + 4p? + 4p? = 9p’, ... b = Op’;

and it has been already proved that the product of all the squares is
—(27¢? + 4p), ... = 27q? + 4p*.

Consequently, the equation of the squares of the differences is
2° + 6pz" + 9n’s + 4p* + 279? = 0,

the equation which Lagrange has arrived at in a very different manner.

[ Note added in Press—The following somewhat remarkable truth is
an immediate inference from Article (12) in my last Paper, namely :—

In a cubic equation of which the roots are real, although each
root of the derived quadratic always lies between two roots of the
cubic, yet it is impossible that either of the two roots of the qua-
dratic a ever lie midway between the two neighbouring roots of the
eubic.

754 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Acadeni.

LXI.—Own « New Gents anv Spectres or Sponer. By Ep. PercEvan
Wericut, M.A., M.D., F. L.8., Professor of Botany and Keeper
of the Herbarium, University of Dublin. (With Plate 40.)

[Read May 8, 1876. ]

Waitt working over the very large and valuable collection of Alez
which is under my care in the Herbarium of Trinity College, my atten-
tion has often been attracted by the large number of animal remains,
to be seen either adherent to or nestling among the fronds of certain
species. Not to allude to a vast number of species of Polyzoa, which
are often endophytic to such an extent as to render the species of
Algze impossible to be determined ; species belonging to the Pycno-
gonide, Zoanthide, &c. are often very numerous, and sometimes large
numbers of sponges and foraminifera will be met with.

Of the sponges, the species as a rule belong to forms with either a
calcareous or a horny-fibrose framework: very rarely, and then only at
the root-like extremities of some of the larger forms, have I met with
siliceous sponges.

The little form that I venture to describe here as new was first
known to me from observing portions of its stem, as in figure 3, Plate
40, often without a trace of any body portion, and at a glance, and
using only a hand lens, I thought it must belong to some novel penta-
erinoid form. A closer examination showed the fibrous nature of the
stem portion, and after a while more or less perfect specimens were
discovered, which left no doubt but that they belonged to a sponge.
A careful microscopical investigation showed that there were no
spicules, but it will be recollected that I had nothing but the well
dried and often flatly pressed specimens to examine; still these were
found, for the most part, on species of Delesseria which had been
freshly gathered by Professor Harvey on the Australian shores, and it
is not very probable that any large portion of the substance of the
sponge had disappeared. A few siliceous spicules were now and then
to be seen, but evidently got to be entangled, as foreign bodies, in the
sponge mass. :

The following may serve as a diagnosis of the genus :—

KAtrLisPoNGIA, gen. nov.

Sponge substance keratose, consisting of three distinct and well-
marked portions; firstly, a small basal disk; secondly, an elongated
stem, on the summit of which expands the third portion or capitulum.
The disk is button-shaped, flat, and is formed of an irregular horny
framework, twice to three times as broad asthestem. The stem varies
in height, and presents the appearances in some cases of a series of
margined rings, some twenty in number, fastened together one on the
top of the other; in others the margins of the rings will be more pro-

Wricut—On a New Genus and Species of Sponge. 755

minent, and the bodies of the rings will be, as it were, more deeply
sunk. In both these cases the horny framework is ofa more or less
evenly latticed character, the longitudinal lines of the lattice being
very prominent.

The head portion, in its natural state must, I think, present a more
or less spherical form, perhaps slightly flattened on the summit, with an
indication of being divided into four nearly equal parts—the open
space between these leading into the body cavity of the sponge. In some
of the specimens the head portion nearest to the stem seems to have
been formed of a somewhat denser framework than the upper portion,
so that while being pressed this upper portion has been fractured
across (vide fig. 1). The framework here is of a densely reticulated
kind, in appearance reminding one of the reticulated network of the
intracapsular sarcode in Thalassolampe, or of the tissues met with in
some Echinoderms.

Kallispongia Archert, sp. nov.

The description of the genus will, for the present, serve for the
species; specimens vary from two to three millimetres in height.

Localities—growing on the fronds of various species of Florides ;
gathered on the coasts of Australia by Professor W. H. Harvey, about
1854.

The beauty and novelty of this little sponge—the largest specimens
measure but three millimetres in height—must plead my excuse for
publishing a description of a form that may possibly turn out to be but
a very young stage of some other species.

It is true that it is by far the smallest of all known keratose
sponges, but I do not think that its size necessarily militates against
the possibility of its being a good species. Why should there not be
very minute keratose as well as very minute calcareous sponges? and
although I did once before,* perhaps somewhat prematurely, describe a
young stage of a siliceous sponge, now that its mature form is well
known, I perceive that the difference between the young and adult
form has not been so great as to suggest the idea of there being a
change or metamorphosis, such as one might @ prior? have expected, in
the group of the sponges.

Kallispongia Archeri appears to me too to have a rather fixed and
definite physiognomy, and I can easily fancy its going through all the
phases of its life history—this being the persona-stage, amid the
thallus of its fostermg alga—after the manner of some of the mi-
nute calcareous sponges described by Haeckel.

One very marked variety of stem outline (fig. 3) I have met
with; it forms a very exquisite microscopical object. The stem puts
one in mind of the string of frustules of a Melosira or of Didymoprium

* Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, January 1870, p. 1, Pl. 2.

706 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

Brebissonii among the Desmids. The basal disk and capitulum seem
to differ in no respect from the typical form, and until some time or
other the species can be examined in a living state, this may be re-
garded as a variety of the above described form.

The species I have named after my friend William Archer, F.R.S.,
so well known for his researches among the lower forms of vegetable and
animal life. His researches among the Rhizopods are of such value,
that one could wish that he would extend them to animals one step
higher in the scale, and so favour science with a series of observations
on the sponges.

The wonderful mimetic resemblance which this new species bears to
some of the stages of development of a Crinoid can scarcely be overlooked.
Leaving the texture and composition of the skeleton mass for the mo-
ment out of view, and simply looking at its outline—the circular disk-
like base—the stem—the profile of which is absolutely the same, except
as to size, as that of the pentacrinoid stage of Antedon rosaceus, and
the slightly cleft head, the resemblance, to my mind, is very great.
Ofcen, indeed, have I been obliged to look, and look again, and to
crush down the specimen, before I could convince myself, by a full view
of its texture, that I was not deceived. So far as I know, this is a
unique case among the sponges, and one is let to wonder what may
be the tiny enemies from which Kallispongia Archeri, by this complete
disguise, conceals itself.

INDEX

TO VOLUME II. OF THE PROCEEDINGS.

ABIEs, revision of the species of, 673.

amabilis, Douglas, 677.

baborensis, Coss., 697.

balsamea, Linn., 697.

—— bifida, Ant., 688.

bracteata, Don, 674.

—— cephalonica, Endl., 695.

cilicica, Kot., 694.

— concolor, Engelm., 681.

firma, Ant.,

—— fraseri, Pursh, 684.

grandis, Douglas, 678.

—— harryana, nov. sp., 689.

lasiocarpa, Hooker, 682.

—— lowiana, Gordon, 680.

—— nordmanniana, Stev., 694.

pectinata, Lam., 693.

pindrow, Royle, 690.

— pinsapo, Boiss., 697.

religiosa, Humb., 676.

sibirica, Turez, 685.

—— veitchii, Lind., 686.

—— webbiana, Wall, 691.

—— nov. sp. ? 692.

? 698.

Acrobolbus, Irish species of, 659.

Adelanthus, Irish species of, 658.

Adulteration detected by fluorescence, 82.

Alcohol, new chemical test for, 579.

Algze, apothecia in, 85.

Algebraical equations of the third degree,
26.

8. [. A. PROC.~—VYOL. II., SER. II., SCIENCE.

Ammonia, free and albuminoid, in water
of the Dublin streets, 459.

in the Liffey, 461.

Ammonic molybdate used
precipitating phosphoric acid, 742.

Analysis of coals and iron stones from
the Dungannon Coal Field, 529.

Anatomy, comparative, of the lachrymo-
jugal suture, 58.

of ligamentum mucosum, 199.

Anemometer cup, on the theory of, and
the determination of its constants,
427.

Anomalies in the course of nerves in
man, 426.

Anthelia, Irish species of, 636.

Anthoceros, Irish species of, 670.

Apothecia, occurring in algz, 89.

Arctic Regions, new fossil Saurian
from, 177.

Arctosaurus Osberni, noy. gen. et sp.,
177.

Arsenical compounds, detection of, 225.

Asterella, Irish species of, 603.

Astronomical transit, observations en
personal errors in, 484.

for

Ballybetagh Bog, on the exploration of,
547.

——, remains of Cervus megaceros
found at, 738.
Barringtonia acutangula, Gertn., 160.

3Z

198

Barringtonia racemosa, Roxb., 160.

speciosa, L., 160.

Bazzania, Irish species of, 622.

Beryllium, its atomic weight and specific
heat, 731.

Binocular form of spectroscope, 42.

Biquadratic, on the, 40.

Bird myology, on some points in, 56.

Blasia, Irish species of, 663.

Blepharostoma, Irish species of, 636.

Blepharozia, Irish species of, 634.

Bradypus gularis, cranial osteology of,
139.

Buoyancy of bodies of a greater density
than water, on a cause of, 22.

Calamogrostis epigejos, 576.

Calcarina hispida, nov. sp., 589.

Campanula rotundifolia,
speciosa, 571.

Carboniferous limestones of Ireland, the
dolomites of, 705.
Cave of Dunmore,

found in, 480.
bone deposits in, 168.
Knockninny, exploration of, 465.
Cavities, retro-peritoneal, 79.
Cephalozia, Irish species of, 624.
Cervus megaceros, remains at Bally-

betagh, 7388, 552.

Cesia, Irish species of, 659.
Chemical changes in the Potato during

the progress of the disease, 736.
Chemical Laboratory of Trinity College,

Dublin, reports from, 731.

Chemical test, new, for alcohol, 579.
Chiloscyphus, Ivish species of, 630.
Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides, nov.

gen. et sp., 140, 159.

Choleepus didactylus, myology of, 66.
Coals and iron-stones from Dungannon,

529.

Conifere, structure of the leaves of,

209.

Conocephalus, Irish species of, 601.
Corona, malformed, of EKchinus

esculentus, 206.

Cubic equation, product of the squares
_ of the differences of the roots of, 744.
Cup anemometer, on the theory of, and

the determination of its constants, 427.

Cyclostigma kiltorkense, 47.

variety

animal remains

Detection of arsenical compounds, on
a ready means of, 225.

Diatomacez, Ivish, list of (for index of
genera and species, vide p. 420), 235.

Diatoms, classification of, 242.

Index.

Diatoms, distribution of, 244.

, index of Irish species, 420.

-——, motion of, 237.

——-, reproduction of, 239.

, structure of, 237.

Diplophyllum, Irish species of, 642.

Dissociation of molecules in solution,
230.

District eight, of Ireland, plants new
to, 556.

Dolomite, contribution to the history
of, 705.

Drifting power of tidal currents versas
that of wind-waves, 443.

Dublin streets, ammonia in the water of,
459.

Dumortiera, Irish species of, 602.

Dunmore cave, deposits in, 168.

Earthquakes in Ireland, 9.

Echinus esculentus, malformed, 206,

Elatine hexandra, 567.

Equations, algebraical, of the third
degree, 26.

Equation of the squares of the differences
of a biquadratic, 40.

Eriocaulon septangulare, 575.

Errors, personal, in transit observations,
484,

Eugenia sechellarum, Baker, 170.

wrightii, Baker, 160.

Flora of Aran compared with that of
Bofin, 557.

of Inish-Bofin, Galway, 553.

Fluorescence, aS a means of detecting
adulteration, 82.

Foraminifera, “from Loo Ghee Islands,
589.

from the Seychelles, 586.

Formule for the solution of algebraical
equations of the third degree, 26.

Fossils from the upper old red sandstone
of Kiltorcan Hill, 45.

Fossombronia, Irish species of, 661.

Frullania hutchinsiz, described
figured, 608.

Frullania, Irish species of, 608.

Fulminic acid, newly observed properties
of certain salts of, 183.

and

Geography, physical, of Ireland, changes
in, 6.

Glucinum, its atomic weight and specific
heat, 731.

Gonidea question, on the, 92.

Granite rocks of Yar-Connaught, 102.

origin of, 133.

Index. 799

Harpanthus, Irish species of, 631.

Heat as a factor im vital action (so
called), 1.

Helianthemum guttatum, 566.

Hepatice,-Ivish, report on, 591.

, list of papers relating thereto,
671.

Herberta, Irish species of, 635.

Human bones in Dunmore Cave, 168,
178.

Hygrometer,comparable self-registering,
further improvements of, 166.

Inish-Bofin, Galway, Flora of, 558.

Inks, on the printing, of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, 838.

Treland, changes in the physical
geography of, 6.

, earthquakes in, 9.

——,, eruption of lakes in, 11.

, eruption of streams in, 13.

Trish Diatomacee, list of, 235.

Dolomites, 705.

Hepatice, report on, 591.

Tronstones and coal from Dungannon,
529.

Isoetes echinospora, 577.

Jungermannia, Ivish species of, 646.

Kallispongia archeri, nov. gen. et sp.,
755.

Kantia, Irish species of, 632.

Kaltorean Hill fossils, 45.

Knockninny caye, on the exploration of,
465.

account of animal remains found

in, 480.

Laboratory notes, 81.

Labyrinthula macrocystis, Cienk, 153.

vitellina, Cienk, 151.

Lachrymo-jugal suture in a human
skull, 58.

comparative anatomy of, 60.

Lagrange’s equations of motion in

generalized co-ordinates, on an
elementary proof of, 463.
Laurencia paniculata, Foraminifera

parasitic on, 589.
Leaves of Conifers, structure of, 209.
Lejeunea, Irish species of, 610.
flava, Swartz, found in Killarney,

672.

——moorei, Lind., described and figured,

615.

Lind., described and

patens,
figured, 615.

Lepidozia, Irish species of, 621.
Liffey river, free’ and albuminoid
ammonia in, 459.
Ligamentum mucosum, 193.
comparative anatomy of, 199.
Ligamentum pterygo-spinosum, 202.
Lime, phosphate of, in stalagmite, 176,
Lisdoonvarna, mineral waters of, 189.
Loo Choo Islands, foraminifera from, 589.
Lophocolea, Irish species of, 628.
Lunularia, Irish species of, 604.

Man, nerves in, anomalies in the course
of, 426.

Marchantia, Irish species of, 600.

Martes foina, myology of, 48.

Mastigophora, Irish species of, 634.

Mercury, fulminate of, 183.

Metzgeriea, Irish species of, 665.

Microscopical structure of rocks, 94,
161, 164.

Mineral waters of Lisdoonvarna, 189.

Molecules in solution, on the dissociation
of, 230.

Muscles of Cholceepus didactylus, table

_ of weights of, 78.

Mylia, Trish species of, 645.

Myology of Cholcepus didactylus, 66.

Birds, 66.

oo Martes foina, 48.

—— Nasua fusca, 48.

narica, 48.

Myrtacez, from Seychelles, 160.

Nardia, Irish species of, 654.

Nasua fusca, myology of, 48.

narica, —, 48.

Nerves in man, anomalies in the course
of, 426.

Odontoschisma, Irish species of, 623.
Osteology, cranial, of Bradypus gularis,.
139.

Palzopteris Hibernica, 46.

Pallavicinia, Irish species of, 661.

Pandarina, on a new genus of, 583.

Pedinophyllum, Irish species of, 629.

Pellia, Irish species of, 664.

Pentastoma aonycis, noy. sp., 66.

imperatoris, nov. sp., 62.

Peretyphlic pouches, 214.

Personal errors in transit observations,
484,

Petalophyllum, Irish species of, 663.

Phosphoric _ acid precipitated by
ammonic molybdate, 742.

Plagiochila, Irish species of, 643.

760 Index.

Pleurozia, Irish species of, 619. :

Polarization of the zodiacal light, 218.

Polydactylism, on a case of, 539.

Porella, Irish species of, 617.

Potato disease, chemical changes during
the progress of, 736.

Preissa, Irish species of, 602.

Printing inks of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, on the, 83.

Product of the squares of the differences
of the roots of a cubic equation, 744.

Pseudotsuga douglasii, Sab., 703.

fortunei, Parl., 702.

—— magnifica, A. Mur., 700.

—— nobilis, Doug., 699.

Quadratic expression, Q? — 3PP’, 744.
Quinqueloculina ornatissima, 590.

Radula, Irish species of, 616.

Retro-peritoneal cavities, new form of,
q9:

Rhinodon typicus, 583.

Riccardia, Irish species of, 667.

Riccia, Irish species of, 605.

Ricciella, Irish species of, 606.

Ricciocarpus, Irish species of, 607.

Rocks, ingenite, structure of, 94, 180.

of Yar-Connaught, &c., 102, 174.

Saccogyna, Irish species of, 632.

Sagenaria bailyana, 46.

Salts of fulminic acid, newly observed
properties of, 183.

Sarcodic organism, on a new freshwater,
140.

Saurian, new fossil, from Arctic Regions,
177.

Scalia, Irish species of, 660.

Scapania, Irish species of, 637.

Seychelles Myrtacez, 160.

, anew genus of Pandarina from,

583.

, Foraminifera from, 586.

Sirosiphon, apothecia in, 89.

Skull, human, lachrymo-jugal suture
in, 58.

Solution of alloys and metals by acids,
on the, 81.

Spectra, faint, on a spectroscope for the
observation of, 42.

Spectroscope of the binocular form, on
a, 42.

Spectrum, &c., of the zodiacal light,218.

Spherocarpus, Irish species of, 669.

Spirotenia gracillima, nov. sp., 148.

Sponge, on a new genus and species of,
75d.

Stasiotes rhinodontis, nov. gen. et
spec., 584.

Stigonema, apothecia in, 90.

Syctonema, apothecia in, 88.

Targionia, Irish species of, 605.

Tetrapteryx stanleyannus, lumbar and
sacral plexus of, 57.

Tidal currents, the drifting power of,
versus that of wind-waves, 443.

Transit observations, on personal errors
in, 484.

Trichocolea, Irish species of, 633.

Tsuga, species of, 211.

Vital action, on heat as a factor in, 1.

Waters, mineral, of Lisdoonvarna, 189.
Wind-waves and tidal currents, 443.

Zodiacal light, its spectrum, &c., 218.

N.B.—Date of publication of the several Parts of Volume II., Series 2,

Science :—

Part 1, pp. Ilto 84, January, 1875.
» 2, » 88 ,, 176, April, ”

- s
Oo 6
vs

.
~
~

NID OO 09

.
.
wy

177 ,, 234, July, x
235 ,, 424, October, ,,
425 ,, 458, January, 1876.
459 ,, 590, July, ee
591 ,, 756, January, 1877.

END OF VOLUME II.

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.

MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.

Monpay, Novemperr 9, 1874.
Wittram Stoxes, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Samuel Ferguson, LL. D., V.P., read a paper ‘‘On the Ogham-
inscribed Stone at Monataggart, Co. Cork.”

The author, in applying to this text, which had been considered
undecypherable, the same method of translation adopted by the present
Bishop of Limerick in the case of the Camp inscription, read it

FEQREQ MOQOI GLUNLEGGET,

identifying Feqreq with the name Fiachra as written by Adamnan,
and assigning the meaning of ‘‘the Kneeler”’ to Glenlugget, which he
took to be a name in religion; and expressed his belief that the monu-
ment is Christian.

[This paper will appear in the Proceedings, Series II. Vol. L.,
Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

A letter was read by the Secretary from R. R. Brash, Esq., com-
menting on Dr. Ferguson’s paper.

Mr. H. W. Mackintosh read a paper ‘‘ On the Muscular Anatomy
of Cholepus didactylus.”

[This paper will appear in the Proceedings, Series I1., Vol. II.,
Science, Part 1. |

Alexander Macalister, M. D., read a paper ‘‘ On two new species of
Pentastoma.”

The first of these P. cmperatoris was found in the lung and perito-
neal cavity of Boa imperator, from South America; the second P.
aonycis in the peritoneal cavity of Aonyx leptonyx, var. B. major, from
the River Indus. ‘

{ This paper will appear, with illustrations, in the Proceedings, Series
II. Vol. II. Science, Part 1.]}

R. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-1875. a

——

(rai?

Alexander Macalister, M. D., also read a paper ‘“‘On the presence
of a Lachrymo-Jugal Suture in a Human Skull.”

Although the relation of the maxillary process of the jugal bone to
the supra-orbital edge of the maxilla is subject to a considerable
amount of variation, yet in the majority of cases this process ends at a
point vertically over the infra-orbital foramen. But in one skull in
the collection of Trinity College, Dublin, of which the history is un-
known, the author found the maxillary process to stretch over the
whole infra-orbital edge of the maxilla, in front of the large external
hamulus of the lachrymal bone, with which it forms a suture of about
a line and a-half in length. The author further gives a sketch of the
comparative anatomy of this suture.

[This paper will appear in the Proceedings, Series II., Vol. II.
Science, Part 1, with illustrations. }

The following Donations to the Museum from June 28 to Nov. 9,
1874, were acknowledged, and the thanks of the Academy voted to the
donors :— -

Flint Arrow Head, flint Javelin Head, found together with glass
beads, in Co. Carlow—presented by W. 8S. Keogh, Esq:, R. D.S.; Stone
Inkstand, bearing date 1684, from Golden Balls, Co. Tipperary—pre-
sented by H. Connor White, Esq., R. D.S.; Four Bronze axe-shaped
Celts, three Bronze socketed Celts, Bronze Chisel, Bronze Gouge,
Bronze Dagger Blade, two Bronze Disk Brooches, Bronze Cruciform
Object, two Bronze Rings, Brass Smoking Pipe, Bronze boot-shaped
Object, fonnd at Belturbet, Co. Cavan, Bronze Harp Pin, found at
Clontarf, June, 1812, Brass Breastplate, Scrap of Iron, Wooden ecart-
ridge-shaped Object, Copper Crook, portion of Antler of Deer, Clay
Pipe-head, Brass Medal, SS. Patrick and Bridget—presented by Miss
Saunderson, Dublin; Brooch of Gold Bronze, found in the parish of
Togher, near Drogheda, Co. Louth—presented by the Rev. J. Reid, St.
Mary’s College, Dundalk.

The following is a List of Purchases during the same period :—

Wooden Crucifix, from Kildare; three Copper axe-shaped Celts,
Copper Dagger Blade, three Copper Awls, found together with the four
preceding objects in a bog in towland of Knocknague, parish of Kil-
bannon, Co. Galway; Gold Fibula, found at Ballinderry, Co. Antrim ;

Stone Celt, found in the parish of Kilkenny West, Co. Westmeath; _

(oiatie a)
Silver Brooch, Wooden Vessel, found on the bog of Drumkillag, Co.
Cavan ; Wooden Mallet, found below the bed of the River Blackwater,

together with several old canoes; Bronze Pan, found in Lough Lean,

Co. Westmeath ; Bronze Crotal, found at Moybullen, between Kells
aud Bailieborough ; Bronze Dagger Blade, found ina moat at Granard;
a Bronze socketed Celt, found in same locality ; two Bronze axe-shaped
Celts, Iron Smoking Pipe, Brass Capsule, fragment of Bronze Shoe
Buckle, Bronze Spoon, Bronze Ring, Pin of Golden Bronze, found,
together with the five preceding objects, near Tnllamore; Gold Fibula,
weighing 2oz. 4dwt., found near Mullingar, Co. Westmeath—purchased
from Messrs. Waterhouse & Co.; Gold Fibula, weighing 30z. 15dwt.
12grs., found in a bog garden at Ballindrinley, near Castlerea—
purchased from Mr. E. O’ Hanlon, Dame-street.

The following Donations to the Library were acknowledged, and
thanks voted to the donors:—

Titles. Donors.
Brown, John Allan, F.R.S., Observations of Magnetic Declination
made at Trevandrum and Agustia Malley,
His Highness the Maharajah of Travancore.

Carpenter, W. B., M.D., Observations on Kozoon Canadense. 8vo, 1874,

The Author.

Chappell, W. (¥.S.A.), The History of Music, (Art and Science.)
Vol. I., 4to, London, The Author.
Darbishire, R. D., Notes on discoveries in Ehenside Tarn, Cumberland.
4to London, 1874, The Author.
Ferro, Giovanni. Teatro d’Imprese di Giovanni Ferro all’ Ill™°

e Rev™° Cardinal Barberino. Folio, John Jones, Esq., F.G.8.

Fructuoso, Doutor Gaspar. As Sandades da Terra do Dr. Gaspar

Fructuoso. Tom 1-11. Composto em 1590. Two Portuguese
MSS. of the 16th century

Lord Dunally and Hon. H. O’Callaghan Pretty.

Fructuoso, Doutor Gaspar. As Sandades da Terra. Historia das

Ilhas do Porto Sancto, Madeira, Desertas e Selvagens.—Manuscripto

do Seculo XVI. annotado por Alvaro Rodrigues de Azevedo. 4to,

Funchal, 1873, The Annotator.
Grosart, Rey. A. B. George W. Childs, M. A. A memorial sketch
and anexample. 8yo, London, 1874, The Author.

Titles. Donors.

Grattan, Richard (M.D.)—1. Vox Hibernie, or Wrongs of Ireland
with remedies, 1870. 2. The right to think, 1865. 3. Grattan on
the Human Mind, 1861. 4. Register of the Fellows and Licen-
tiates of College of Physicians, Ireland, 1874. 5. The Grattan
Constitution for Ireland, 1873. 6. Suggestions for a Repeal of
the Act of Union, 8rd edition, 1871, The Author.

Hermathena, a series of papers on Literature, Science, and Philosophy,
by Members of Trinity College, Dublin. Nos. 1-11. 8vo, Dublin,
1873-74. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.

Historical Manuscripts—Fourth Report of the Royal Commission on
Historical MSS . Part I., Report and Appendix, Part II., Index.
Folio, London, 1874, Earl of Enniskillen.

Hull, Edward (M.A.) 1. The Volcanic History of Ireland. 2.
Notes on the Hematites of Couuties of Cavan and Longford. 8vo,

The Author.

Hume, A.(D.C.L.) Origin and Characteristics of the People in the
Counties of Down and Autrim. 8vo, Belfast, 1874,

The Author. —

Joly, M. N. 1. Notice sur les Travaux Scientifiques. 2. Etudes sur les
Meceurs, le developpement et les Metamorphoses d’un petit
poisson Chinois. 3. Documents Nouveaux sur le Pygopage de
Mazéres et sur Millie-Christin, The Author.

Le Jolis, Auguste. De la Redaction des Flores Locales au point de vue
de la Géographie Botanique. Svo, Cherbourg, 1874,

The Author.

Lloyd, Humphrey, D.D. Treatise on Magnetism, general and terrestrial.
8vo, London, 1874, The Author.

Madden, Thomas More, M.D. On Puerperal Convulsions. 8vo, Dublin,
1874, The Author.

Stokes, Whitley, LL.D. Some remarks on the Celtic additions to
Curtius’ Greek Etymology. 8vo, Calcutta, 1874, The Author.

The following alterations, approved of and proposed to the Corpora-
tion by the President and Council, were submitted to the Academy and
passed :— In Chap. IV., 6, e.—To substitute for the words “any one
Committee,” the words ‘‘ the Committees.”

Cee)

In Chap. 1X., 2.—To read, ‘“‘ General Meetings of the Academy
shall also be held at 8 o’clock, p.m., on the second Monday of Novem.
ber and December, and on the second and fourth Mondays of January,
February, April, May, and June; excepting Monday in Whitsun-week,
and the second Monday in January, when it shall oceur before the tenth
day of that month.”

In Chap. [X., 8.—To insert after ‘‘ inclusive,” the words ‘‘ ex-
cepting the first Monday in January, and Monday in Whitsun-week.”’

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay, NovemsBer 380, 1874.
Wittiram Sroxes, M.D., F. R.S., President, in the Chair.

The President proceeded to read his Inaugural Address :—

GENTLEMEN,

It may have appeared to some members of the Academy,
that at the meeting following that on which the distinction of
being elected your President was conferred upon me, I should have
addressed you upon the prospects of our body—on its position with
regard to what it has done and what it is to be hoped it may yet
achieve.

Yet, I trust that the delay which has occurred in thus inaugu-
rating my term of office by such a retrospective and prospective
sketch will be forgiven by you when you reflect that to make the
address in any way werthy of the occasion and the place must neces-
sarily be an onerous and important task.

Dating from the middle period of our Academy’s existence, when
the chair was filled by Brinkley, what a crowd of memories of
ereat and good men, whose labours have done so much for the science,
literature, and the archeology of the country, and therefore for
the honour of the Academy, rush upon the mind. Some of them, it
is true, have fought the good fight, leaving the light of their memories
streaming behind them to ornament the past and illuminate the future,
but we have many fellow-academicians still spared to us—to continue to
enlighten our loved and, in more senses than one, our singular country,
for it is a country singular for the mental power and the moral excel-
lence of its inhabitants, for its ancient written and monumental
history, its language, which in the sixth, seventh, and eighth cen-

(vt)

turies, was full of the most refined, subtle metrical artifices, bearing
evidence of the existence of a degree of literary culture in Ireland
far beyond that of the contemporary Teutons and Scandinavians who
seem to have been the only other Europeans then in the possession of
a vernacular literature; the literature of France and Italy, during
these centuries, having been in Latin, not in the native tongue. It
is also remarkable for its early Christian architecture and its noble
apostolic work, which bore the light of religion to Europe for many
centuries.

The history of this Academy shows, that originating in 1772 as a
private scientific and literary society, and thus continuing for four-
teen years, it then received a charter of incorporation as a Royal
Academy for promoting the studies of science, polite literature, and
antiquities in Ireland, with a president and council of twenty-
one members to represent in equal proportions these three depart-
ments. The first volume of Transactions was published in 1787, and
was prefaced by the Rey. Robert Burrowes, who, after showing the
correlation of mathematical, physical, and mechanical science, of
chemistry and natural history, and their relations to national pros-
perity, speaks of the opportuneness of the time, and especially
notices what has since so much redounded to the honour of Ireland, its
medical school, its astronomical observatory, and the fact that it had
for its first president the Earl of Charlemont, clarum et venerabile
nomen, whose zeal for the practical interests of Ireland was only
equalled by that for her advancement in learning.

The year 1822 is marked in the annals of the Academy by the
election for its president of the Rey. Dr. Brinkley, then Andrews
Professor of Astronomy, and subsequently Bishop of Cloyne. It was
a ‘remarkable time, for the collapse which followed the events of
1800 was succeeded by signs of a revival in the intellectual status of
the country, and, in 1827, Hamilton succeeded to the chair of
Astronomy, and, in 1836, his successor, the Rev. Dr. Lloyd, became
Provost of Trinity College, where he had initiated those educational
reforms which have so greatly assisted the progress of science and
literature in the country.

Following the period from 1825, the country seemed to awake
from an intellectual torpor of nearly a quarter of a century’s duration.
Our periodic literature and our schools of medicine seemed first to

( vitD )

have felt the impulse of the time, and the educational reforms
inthe University were carried into effect by Provost Lloyd. The ener-
gies of the Academy in its scientific, literary, and archzological
departments began to re-develope. The Ordnance Survey of Ireland
was undertaken, various schools of medicine and surgery, with their
accessory sciences, sprang up, and, I am proud to say, that the
name of Robert Graves stands out prominently in that illustrious
band which reckons in its roll of honour the names of Cheyne, Colles,
Cusack, of Macartney, and Smith.

But as regards the Academy, in what may be termed its period
of renaissance, there are five names which stand out in relief as
leaders of their respective departments of pure mathematics, physics,
and archeology, Hamilton, M‘Cullagh, Hincks, Todd and Petrie,
all of whom were not only endowed with the most refined men-
tal development, but animated with that love of country, that
pure and true patriotism which, while it is not blind to its faults,
never ceases to labour for its honour, and therefore its mental and
material progress. To this object, in truth, their admirable lives, from
eariy youth to their lamented deaths, were unchangeably devoted.
Hamilton brought his splendid intellect, after a series of triumphs, to
furnish the most advanced instrument of investigation, the Calculus of
(Quaternions, leading to paths hitherto unexplored. ‘‘ Something like
this,” says the present Bishop of Limerick, ‘‘ was the unshaken
assurance which led Columbus to turn his back upon Europe, to
launch upon the broad Atlantic and seek a new world in the far-off
west.”

Thus says Schiller, in apostrophising Columbus :—

‘Steer on, brave sailor, steer right on, though scoffers may deride,
And the tired pilot at the helm his rudder cast aside.
Yet ever, ever, Westward ho! the coast must yet appear ;
Already to thy mental sight it rises bright and clear.
Trust to the God who guides; pursue the silent ocean flood.
Even were it not, still there ’twould rise, to make thy surety good.
With genius nature joins, in everlasting covenant still
The promises of one the other fails not to fulfil.’

The second name in this roll of honour is that of M‘Cullagh, so long
and truly devoted to the best interests of the Academy. His papers
in our Transactions on geometry and on physical optics are distin-

(avant)
guished by his power of giving to his researches that peculiar symme-
try in their results, which is such an element of the beautiful in
science, while he possessed that catholicity of knowledge which led
him to help other branches of research, as well by his purse as by his
example.

The next names of those now departed from us are Todd and
Hincks—the one, who has done so much to illustrate our Irish
ecclesiastical history; the other, our great Assyrian scholar and
successful investigator of the Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions.

To turn now to Petrie. In a diary of his to which I have
had access, written when he was but nineteen years of age,
there are many entries which show he was even then a careful
observer in archeology. Hamilton, as he advanced, achieved successive
triumphs in pure and applied mathematics, till he raised the torch
which revealed paths in the future hitherto undreamed of; while that
in the hand of Petrie, lighting up the past, will still shine through the
‘‘dark backward and abysm of time,” till many of its secrets shall
be revealed. ‘‘ He became,” to quote again the words of the Bishop of
Limerick, ‘‘the informing spirit, the great instructor of a school of.ar-
cheology. He not only laid down the principles, but exemplified on
a great scale the application to antiquarian science of the principles, of
a philosophic induction.”’ Need I recal his foundation of our national
museum, and our great library of Irish manuscripts; his admirable
contributions to our Proceedings and Transactions, in which so much
has been done to illustrate our pre-historic monuments and our early
military and ecclesiastical architecture. His great essay on the latter
subject was truly an aureum opus, as was also that on the antiquities
and history of Tara Hill, erescit occulto velut arbor evo Fama.*

The science of Archeology, that to which Petrie mainly devoted
the greater part of his life, is the true basis of history, for the study of
antiquity is the study of man. It must be remembered that the history

*In an interesting letter from Dr. Reeves, which is given in the memoir of
Petrie’s life, and wiitten shortly after his death, that wise and learned antiquary
says:—‘“It was only a fortnight since that Mr. Jellett and I had a conversation
in the college courts about a successor to Dr. Graves in the Academy chair, and it
would have pleased you to hear, as it did me, the earnestness with which the merits
and claims of George Petrie were urged by the speaker, who said that he and Dr.

Ceres)
of Ireland has yet to be written as well as the dictionary of its ancient
language, and it is only by the avoidance of all unfounded speculation,
and by following up ascientific method in a careful spirit, that materials
for these works can ever be accumulated.

Few things are more desirable for the Irish people than that
truth in its history be firmly established, as a means of removing tradi-
tional errors and enmities on their part, and those prejudices in the
mind of England, which have, unhappily, so long delayed the true
union of the countries. |

The first step in the study of our ancient monuments should
be the faithful representation of them, now rendered possible by
photography and casts; the collecting, comparison, and classi-
fication of each and all such facts, each faithfully represented ob-
ject being a fact, and the circulation of such representations among
all our fellow-labourers in the same field at home and abroad. By this
means we can alone reap the advantages sure to follow, from the con-
centration of many minds upon the same point, and obtain broad and
useful discussion of problems suggested by such monuments. Then let
all records, traditions, and collateral facts be patiently searched out and
brought side by side with these as it were in silence, no theory drawn,
no premature conclusion; let such stand, and in time, the results will,
by one of the great properties of truth, crystallize spontaneously into a
system and a law.

There are in [reland upwards of a hundred known Ogham legends.
To place these in an authentic form at the disposal of philological scholars
at home and abroad should be our first step. ‘This is now rendered
feasible by the facilities afforded us by Dr. Ferguson’s labours. In
his donation to the Academy of a large collection of paper moulds of
inscribed stones, we have the nucleus of a paper cast inscriptional
museum. Our first step should be to have these casts photographed,
and then to circulate photographs from them among those scholars who
by their knowledge of our ancient language have already proved them-
selves to be fully capable of aiding in our researches.

Haughton, and some other leading college men were determined to press the ap-
pointment of dear Petrie, He added, it must be either next month or never. Sad
it is that the alternative can never arise, and that the father of the Academy can
neyer assume the government of his household.”

R, I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-1875. b

/ \
(ape,

Many valuable papers have already appeared in our Proceedings on
Ogham inscriptions, but they are only illustrated by wood engravings
from drawings. In such eases the human eye can not be trusted as an
infallible and reliable medium for representation, and without absolutely
accurate representations we cannot have the aid we ought to seek in such
studies from our fellow-students abroad. Therefore, I should advise
that no more wood-cuts of these monuments should appear in our Pro-
ceedings, but that all our efforts should conduce to the publication of

autotypes from Dr. Ferguson’s photographs, for which purpose the
sum of fifty pounds has already been allotted.

The Celtic philologist, Mr. Rhys, of North Wales, observes in a letter
to me on this subject :—‘‘ As to the best means of furthering the study
of Irish epigraphy, the Academy cannot do better than encourage Dr.
8. Ferguson to take casts of all known Oghamic inscriptions in the
country, and assist him to reproduce them by means of photography
or otherwise, in such a way as to make them easily accessible to
philologists. I have already seen a few specimens of Dr. Ferguson’s
work, and they seem to me most satisfactory. As matters now stand
an outsider can hardly venture to give an opinion on Irish Oghams
collectively, although I copied all the inscriptions of that kind which
I could find mentioned in your Proceedings, my knowledge of them is
still exceedingly incomplete and fragmentary.” And he adds a hope
that in time Irish scholars may be led to the discovery of some canons
of criticism which may enable them to classify their Oghams chrono-
logically, for until that is done their philological value must remain
much less than it should be.

*¢T do not recollect,” he adds, ‘‘ seeing a single instanee mentioned
of the earlier class of Oghams which struck me as being anything but
early Irish, and were there a complete vocabulary of the proper names
which oceur in Irish MSS. and literature generally, I fancy that a
philologist would without difficulty identify 99 out of every 100
names to be met with on Ogham inscribed stones in Ireland.”

‘‘ Looking at the question in a generalway, I am inclined to think it not
improbable that this alphabet may have been introduced into the south
of Ireland first by a colony of settlers, from Britain, forced in the fifth
century to look for a new home in consequence of a westward pressure
due to the Saxon invasion, somewhat in the same way that some of our
Kymric Celts settled in Brittany. The origin of Oghamic writing is still _

(xi >)

hidden in darkness. Did the West Britons borrow the germs of this sys-
tem from Rune writing nations or vzce versd, or else are we to regard Runes
and Oghams as of independent growth? These are questions which
still remain to be solved, and the cryptic Runes of Scandinavian nations
seem to be too late to assist us in answering them, though they betray
a great similarity of principle. It is noteworthy that British Ogham
writing is to be traced back to a time when we may reasonably sup-
pose Cymric nationality to have revived, and a reaction against Roman
habits and customs to have to a certain extent taken place when the
last Roman soldier had taken his departure from our island,”

To revert again to the errors into which we have been tempted to
fall by too hasty conclusions, formed before any system of comparative
archeeology could be arrived at, it is manifest that in dealing with our
megalithic monuments, and even with the architectural remains of a
later period, serious mistakes have been made. Certain similarities of
structure and design have been observed to exist between our earliest
architectural works and those of the primitive builders in Greece and
Latium, and these similarities have been held to prove similarity of
race, although it does not appear that there is any idiosyncracy or pecu-
har character in such structures or designs, sufficient to base any
argument upon, or whether while such forms are common to two or
three races at certain stages in their development, they may not also be
common to many more. To bear out the theory of the early Greek
colonization of Ireland another argument was used, founded on certain
similarities in bronze weapons of Ireland and Greece, but now we
know that the use of such was common to many places and in many
periods, and that the Irish weapons do not resemble those of the Greeks
more than do the weapons found in Scandinavia and elsewhere in Europe.
No argument can be drawn as yet from the discovery of such bronze
weapons as are found in Ireland, for it still seems to be uncertain when
they were used in any particular region or by whom. The Greeks in
the time of Homer used them, and the Egyptian monuments show
us that on the Nile they were used at a very early period, while
they have also been found in the Assyrian palaces, but it remains
as yet unknown by what people they were used all over Europe.

It does seem as if certain similarities in forms of architecture
and design might occur accidentally, might all belong to what”
may be termed the architecture of necessity, and such forms are

C7)

universally found to exist in the works of various peoples in a cer-
tain state of civilization, when possessed of mental power and
energy. It will be said that our early histories all support
the theory of Greek colonization and the so called Pelasgic or
Cyclopean origin of our architecture, but when such writings are
sifted and examined, few students will be ready to accept them
as history. The traditions of these early builders are preserved in
the Book of Leinster, the compiler of which died in the year 1160,
in the Annals of MacFirbis, who died in 1279, and in a Tract, by
O’Clery, written in 1460. Even supposing the transcriptions thus made
in the thirteenth to the fifteenth century were of legends which had
been committed to writing so early as the sixth or seventh century,
they cannot be taken as authentic records of events occurring in the
first centuries of the Christian era, or before. These writers were
acquainted with classical history, and just in the same way as the
biographers of the early Irish saints, who were familiar with Holy
Scripture, attributed to them similar acts and miracles to those re-
corded of the Hebrew prophets, so did these authors of pre-Christian
legends in Iveland swerve from the truth to colour their narrative with
a glory borrowed from the heroic times of Greece.

In all cases, before yielding to the guidance of such records, tradi-
tions, and legends, we cannot be too careful, while reverently preserv-
ing and regarding all such, yet not to confuse them with history.
Long and patient must be our watch before the dawn comes in which
such monuments may be seen in the full light of history. As yet they
stand without the province of scientific history, and by too rash and
ardent striving to drag them into it, you do but drive them further
into darkness. In dealing with tradition remember that it may or
it may not be founded on fact, but fact cannot be founded on tradition.
Tradition may guide us to a locality, but the discovery of that locality
does not make that whole tradition true; and if the locality is ever to
be a landmark in the history of our country, the investigation to which
we subject it must be carried on by minds unwarped by any desire
merely to verify the tradition. Follow with child-like singleness of
purpose the light that tradition sheds over the past, and remember that
in archeology we must ascend from the known to the unknown, and
not theorise in antiquarian matters until we can step upwards from

er

(gamut) ))

fact to fact. The last words of Petrie, when speaking on this subject,
were: ‘“‘The true archeologist will every day lean more and more
away from extremes in antiquity.”

When considering the best practical method of furthering such
aims as the archeologist should place before him, the subject of
the preservation of national monuments must not be passed over.
You are aware that the provisions of the Irish Church Act have
placed in the hands of the Church Commissioners the guardianship of
all ecclesiastical structures which have fallen into disuse as places of
worship and may be considered worthy of preservation as national
monuments, and they have, in accordance with the provisions of the
Act referred to, vested in the Board of Work ssuch buildings as
those at Cashel, Ardmore, Monasterboice, and elsewhere. Practically,
the buildings on the Rock of Cashel are the only ones where the work
of preservation has actually commenced. There is serious cause of
alarm that a misdirected zeal in carrying on the works of pre-
servation and repair may be more productive of evil than of good.
When such works are “restored,” they are generally greatly de-
stroyed. Dealing with any ancient work of art, the restorer can
never equal the original artist in the spirit or the feeling of his
work; and the softening touch of time, which brings the ruin into
harmony with the scene around till it too seems, in its unobtru-
sive beauty, a part of nature itself, can never be replaced, though it
may too easily be dispelled, by the hand of man. In striving to
impress this subject upon you, it is with the hope that you will feel
with me that, as a body, we should unite in expressing our opinion
that such monuments cannot be satisfactorily dealt with unless all
works carried on in connexion with them be under the superintendence
of some one or more persons endowed with special archeological
knowledge, sufficient to render them competent for the duty of not
only furthering and directing the works but also of restraining the
workmen who should be employed to put such buildings in repair,
or else that the architect should religiously confine himself to the
most unobtrusive method of mere preservation—keeping them in
their present condition.

It is desirable that we should, for a few moments, look beyond the
limits of this Academy and this country, and consider the labours of
others engaged in the same studies abroad, so that our energies may

@ exiv= 3)

be quickened by a noble emulation, and, as iron sharpeneth iron, 50
we and our brethren elsewere may derive help from one another
in their onward path. The present is a time of extraordinary
energy in exploration and discovery abroad. The ore thus industri-
ously gathered must, when passed through the crucible of wise and
philosophic minds, yield pure metal, and will with certainty place the
study of comparative archeology upon a surer basis. In Rome, the
excavations carried on in past years, and still in progress, are
of indescribable interest to the antiquary. The Forum Romanum,
and many monuments of Imperial Rome, have been excavated, and
most important results have accrued from the same works carried
on within the area of the Coliseum, while, in the process of the
erection of the new city, innumerable objects of art have been dis-
covered, portions of statues, mosaic pavements, fresco paintings,
which are being all carefully preserved and put together, and it is
proposed to have local museums in each district, in which the principal
objects may be exhibited.

Again, at Ephesus, the works of excavation carried on by Mr.
Wood, at the site of the Temple of the Ephesian Diana, reveal to us
the characteristics of a school of Hellenic art which arose in Asiatic
Greece when Athenian artists sought refuge and employment there
after the period when Athens still suffered from the effects of the
Peloponnesian war, for it is now well known that the rebuilding of
the Temple of the Ephesian Diana was contemporaneous with Scopas
and Praxiteles, one of whom, if not both, indeed, contributed to its
sculptural decorations. The noble fragments which have reached this
country, and now stand in the British Museum, show that the spirit
- of Hellenic art still lived to give witness of its noble origin.

To go still further back in the history of art, the results of
French and English enterprise, the labours of such men as Lenormant
and Fouqué, Charles N ewton, and General Cesnola, and Lang, in the
Levant and along the west coast of Asia Minor, have added immea-
surably to our knowledge of Greek art, which before was but
limited. Of the works of the Samian school, described by Pliny and
dating four centuries before Christ, nothing was known until the dis-
coveries on the Levant, while the Greek sculptures from the west
coast of Asia Minor, now in the British Museum, or the objects in the
Castellani collection, show by such examples as the statue of Demeter,

Gave)

from Cnidos, or the bronze head from Thessaly, held by some to re-
present Aphrodite, by others, Artemis, teach us in their noble spiri-
tuality of expression to feel more vividly than we have ever felt
before to what a high ideal of pure womanhood had Greek art
attained long centuries before a Raphael or a Leonardo lived.

And, passing further back still, from the period of Hellenic to pre-
Hellenic art, the discoveries of M. Schliemann, at Hissarlik, are of a
value to archeologists, the amount of which it is impossible now to
estimate—and this is true, in whatever way the vexed question
may hereafter be decided as to whether the Ilium Novum, on the
site of which these discoveries have been made, was indeed on the
same site as the Homeric Troy. This involves questions as to how
far history can be educed from mythology ; how far Homer, as a poet,
may be accepted as a historian ; how near the time of the siege of Troy
Homer lived. But the objects themselves, thousands in number,
photographs of which are now in our Library, bear evidence in them-
selves that they belong to a period in art which is not only non-
Hellenic, but pre-Hellenic, and to use the words of Mr. Newton,
they appear to be “of that remote antiquity which we, vaguely
groping in the twilight of an uncertain past, call pre-historic.”

These objects, found in a stratum of red ashes and calcined ruins
at the depth of from twenty-three to thirty-three feet, consist of
pottery, spearheads, said to be of copper, terra-cotta figures and orna-
mented discs or beads, and ornaments in gold and silver. The pottery
is wrought and polished by the hand, to a lustrous surface, and orna-
mented with incised patterns, while Greek pottery is painted or
varnished. There are no weapons of wrought bronze, such as those of
the Greeks; there is no intelligible writing, with one doubtful excep-
tion, and, to quote from Mr. Newton, ‘‘while there is an attempt to
model a face, whether human or owlish, the conception of the human
form as an organic whole, a conception which we meet with at the very
dawn of Greek art, nowhere appears ;”’ nor, the same writer adds,
‘“ean I detect, as in archaic Greek art, any trace of Oriental or
Egyptian influence in any of the ornaments or devices.”

On the other hand, the pottery does resemble that found in Rhodes,
Cyprus, Santorin, and Etruria, such as may be fairly held to be pre-his-
toric, examples of which in Latium and Santorin were found under
layers of lava, from volcanoes long since extinct; and there is a re-

(Bs saviten)

semblance between the ornaments and certain bronze objects found at
Halstadt, in- Upper Austria, while they are unlike any of the orna-
ments of Greek art, which is embossed and chased, and sometimes
decorated with what is called granulated work, 7.e., grains of gold,
separately soldered on to the ornament.

They are ruder than any of the ornaments of Greek, or Phoenician,
or Assyrian, or Egyptian time. But we should not be justified in form-
ing conclusions as to their great antiquity merely from their rudeness.
There is the rudeness of archaic art and there is the rudeness of bar-
baric art, which latter may belong to any time; and so with the self-re-
straint and patient spirit of investigation which belong to the true
archeeologist, Mr. Newton remarks, ‘‘ We must not rely at present on
any such arguments as those derived from their character, or even
from their affinity to those remains whose antiquity seems so much
more fully established;’’ and he points out as our further duty to
push forward investigations elsewhere, till we have the means of
comparing these Schliemann antiquities with some of those collections
of pre-historic and barbarous remains which have, in recent years,
been so diligently formed and intelligently classified in continental
museums.

And here I would remind you that, in the pre-historic, or at all
events in the un-historic, antiquities of Ireland, preserved im the
museum of this Academy, in the great collection of pottery, in the or-
namental discs, or so-called spindle whorls, and in the gold and silver
ornaments, of which we have so large a number, resemblance may or
may not occur with these in this Schliemann collection, the absence
or presence of which would, either way, be an important fact to
establish.

Again, the fact that in Ireland, as we learn from many communi-
cations of Sir William Wilde on the subject in our Proceedings,
copper implements have been found to such an extent as to lead some
learned archeologists to suggest that the use of bronze weapons was
preceded by that of copper, is a subject which may give additional in-
terest to the fact asserted by Schliemann, that many of these pre-Hel-
lenic weapons discovered by him were of copper, and I should rejoice
to see a paper on the subject of the copper finds of Europe from the
author of our Catalogue, which is the most complete and learned
account that has yet appeared of the antiquities of this country ;

( xvi)

that this great work, begun in 1857, still remains unfinished, and
that our ecclesiastical antiquities still remain undescribed and un-
catalogued, is to me a subject of the deepest regret.

The catalogue of the gold ornaments and bronze weapons, as well
as that of all articles in stone, clay, and bone, is all but complete ; but
the silver articles, as well as those of iron, have yet to be catalogued.
Although the museum was of necessity moved, still the arrangement
and classification by material and use, adopted by Sir William Wilde,
has been preserved, and it is proposed by our excellent curator to fur-
nish a key to the work. It is to be hoped that Dr. Aquilla Smith will
grant us his services in cataloguing and arranging the coins. We were
informed last year by Sir William Wilde that he had already prepared
the catalogue of the silver ornaments, for which 84 woodcuts are
already engraved.

And here I may bring forward the name of one who has done great
service in the study of archeology in general, and in that of Ireland
in particular. I allude to Augustus Wollaston Franks, now head of the
department of British and Medizval Antiquities and Ethnography in the
great museum of the nation. His most considerable printed work is his
portion of the letter-press to the Hore Ferales of Kemble, a work which
must always be the text-book of the student of Teutonic and Celtic an-
tiquities, and one in which much light is thrown on the bronze antiqui-
ties of Ireland. His communications to the Society of Antiquaries,
constantly occurring since the year 18538, give evidence of his untiring
zeal and cautious investigations in archeology, while the wide range of
his knowledge is shown in his more complete works, published in the
Archeologia. Before his time, the department of Native Antiquities
in the British Museum did not exist; for though many curious relics,
found in different parts of the country, were preserved in the collec-
tion of Sir Hans Sloane, yet it was not till 1851 that consistency and
a determinate character were given to the whole assemblage.

The small but valuable collection bequeathed to the nation by
Mr. Christy has already become, under Mr. Franks’s scientific care
and energy, an important anthropological museum. The objects here
collected, classified, and arranged, all bearing on the history of man
from his first appearance on this earth, are as important to the geologist
as to the antiquary. Such are the implements of flint and bone de-
rived from the caves in the south of France.

R. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-1875. ¢

(oe xy <1)

The discoveries made in these places, Mr. Franks concludes, seem
to point to the occupation of the districts in which they have been
found by tribes nearly allied by their habits to the modern Esqui-
maux; and the remains of animals found with them likewise point to
the climate of the south of France having been then far more arctic
than at present. Among these early remains were found the first
examples known to exist of the graphic art; for on the bones of rein-
deer, as well as of extinct mammals, are scratched representations af
human forms, fish, and reindeer, which, though rude in the extreme,
still show a power of seizing the characteristic action and expression
of the subject which far exceeds the lifeless efforts in the same direc-
tion made by our early illuminators.

Such general services as Mr. Franks has rendered to the cause
of archeology have won for him a well-deserved reputation. But in
addition, let me remind you that he has a special claim on our grati-
tude, since it was through his instrumentality that the Petrie Museum
was purchased for this country, and now forms part of that of the
Royal Irish Academy.

I may here speak of our Library, which of late years has so in-
creased in value. The purchase of new books and the addition of
Transactions by exchange have greatly enlarged our collection, and the
bequest of our late fellow-academician, Charles Haliday, of the vast
collection of pamphlets relating to the history and social state of our
country was a priceless addition to our treasures. The wealth of our
Transactions will be every day augmented, not alone by the system of
money grants in aid of research, but by that of the immediate publica-
tion of Papers approved of by the Council, with their necessary illus-
trations. Itis confidently hoped that the extra-mural scientific bodies
will see the wisdom of bringing about a closer accordance between their
efforts and ours. It is to be regretted that there should not be a more
combined exertion between them and this Academy. No wish is en-
tertained here that the working of such societies should not be encou-
raged, but we trust that to each and all of them this body will ever be
a pride as well as a helper.

Before leaving the subject of our Library, the work now being
carried on, of the transcription of our ancient Irish MSS., must be
mentioned. This was commenced during the time of our late Pre-
sident; and I am proud to say that the Academy has lately been _

(adi 4)

joined in the work by the University of Dublin. Great pains have
been taken to insure a faithful reproduction of the original text. The
Book of Leinster, from the Library of Trinity College, is now in the
hands of the transcribers, under the superintendence of our Librarian.
This is a manuscript which, though not older than the twelfth
century, has been obviously compiled from much more ancient docu-
ments. There can be no doubt that, irrespective of other advantages,
the publication of the historical. matter contained in this manuscript
will enable, as has been remarked by a fellow-academician, the future
Trish historian to revivify the dry bones furnished by the meagre and
often inaccurate chroniclers on whom he has hitherto had to
depend.

You may remember that our Committee of Belles-Lettres is now
united to that of Antiquities, and so the investigation of ancient litera-
ture forms a fitting part in the Academy work. The researches of
Hincks and of Todd I have spoken of, but we have also a communica-
tion illustrating the studies of archeology, and the old literature of
England in the 13th century by the learned Secretary of the Council.
In this paper Dr. Ingram deals with the Opus Majus of Roger Bacon,
in which Bacon points out in the first part, the four universal causes of
human ignorance; in the second, the relation of philosophy to theo-
logy ; and this is followed by four more parts, devoted to the know-
ledge of Languages, Mathematics, Optics, and Experimental Science.

In the Library of Trinity College there exists beautiful MS. of
the work in which Dr. Ingram has found a seventh part, the subject of
which is Moral Philosophy. He concludes his paper on the Dublin MS.
by expressing a hope, in which every literary Archaeologist will ear-
nestly join, that he will lay before the Academy an account of its con-
tents, extracting everything of interest as to the state of learning and
philosophical opinion in the thirteenth century. The Rev. Dr. Reeves
has also enriched our Transactions by his valuable and learned con-
tributions, illustrating a curious and important phase in the early
Christianity of Ireland; I allude to his exhaustive papers on the
Culdees. In these are exhibited a most remarkable command of the
materials of ancient Irish History, combined with, I need not say, the
highest critical power of dealing with them.

In reviewing the labours of the Academy at. large for the present
half century, independently of those of Hamilton in Science, and Petrie

( xx)

in Archeology, if we remember the researches of Lloyd, Graves,
Salmon, Jellett, Casey, Apjohn, Ball, and Kane, in Pure and Mixed
Mathematics and in the Physical Sciences, together with those of
Haughton, Mac Donnell, Macalister .and Purser in Biology and
Comparative Anatomy, and Archer, Wright and Moore in Natural
History, and Reeves, Wilde, and Ferguson in Archeology, we have
good reason to be proud of the efforts of our academicians in Science
during the period I have specified.

If we turn to Biology, the labourers are comparatively few, as com-
pared with those whose Papers appear in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society. But the value of the results is truly great, not alone as re-
gards the discovery of fact, but in the philosophic mode of dealing
with the great mystery of life. The researches of Professor Haughton,
which culminated in his great work on Animal Mechanics, and which
he so richly illustrated by his labours in Human and Comparative Ana-
tomy, so illuminated by geometric science and algebraic calculation,
first saw the light in the Proceedings of this Academy. In this re-
-markable work Dr. Haughton has ably shown the principle of Least
Action in nature, by which he means that physical work is effected by
means of the existing arrangement of muscles, bones, and joints, with
a less expenditure of force than could be possible under any other
arrangement, so that any alteration would be a positive disadvantage
to the animal. The application of this principle, he considers, is pro-
bably of wider occurrence in nature than these instances show, and
may give us some slight glimpse of the mechanism by which the con-
servation of species in nature is secured.

Speaking of the conservation of the solar system as dependent on
certain well-known conditions regulating the motions of the several
bodies of which that system consists, he observes—I quote his words—
‘that it is a matter of indifference whether these conditions were di-
rectly imposed by the will of the Divine Contriver, or were the indirect
result of some former state of the system. In either case, these condi-
tions are equally the foreseen result of the contrivance. If the present
state of the solar system be the result, according to fixed laws, or some
pre-existing state of that system, it may be said, in the language of
Naturalists, to have been evolved out of its former state; but in such an
evolution there was nothing left to chance; it was all foreseen, and the
evolution itself presided over by the Divine mind that planned the

(axe 0)

whole. I cannot see,’”’ he continues, ‘‘ why there may not be, in or-
ganic life, a similar process of evolution from lower to higher forms of
existence; but it is a teleological evolution, in which every step and
every result was foreseen and planned beforehand. The laws of such
an evolution appear to me, in the present state of our knowledge, to be
utterly unknown.”

This argument from the evidence of design runs through and is felt
in every anatomical observation and every mathematical conclusion of
Professor Haughton’s work; and it seems as if the teleological evi-
dence of a Divine Contriver is as immeasurable as the limitless series of
beings endowed with life.

That the value of the contributions to Biology in our ‘‘ Proceedings’”’
seems to be inversely as their number appears when the list of their
authors, after Dr. Haughton, is considered. Of these, the papers of Dr.
Macalister are the most numerous and important, especially those re-
lating to Muscular Anomalies in Human Anatomy, and their bearing on
Homotypical Myology. These important memoirs, dealing with Human
and Comparative Anatomy, are eminently calculated to reflect honour
on their author, and to advance the study of Biology.

I would also specify the observations by Dr. Hayden on the Devi-
ation of the Protruded Tongue in Unilateral Paralysis, and those by Dr.
Purser on Suppuration and Inflammation, which are embodied in his
Report on the Researches of Cohnheim.

I may here allude to the researches of Mr. Mackintosh on the
Anatomy of the Sloths and the Coati-mundi. These papers must
always be looked on as an important addition to our Proceedings ;
while the description by Dr. Collins of an additional lobe of the
human lung has appeared in our Transactions.

When the physiological and histological laboratory has been com-
pleted in Trinity College, under the care of Professor Purser, we may
look for important results. We may hope to compete with the labora-
tories of Cambridge, under Professor Foster, and of Edinburgh, where
such singular results as to the influence of the compounds of the vege-
table alkaloids with the organic bases Ethyl and Methyl have been
arrived at by Drs. Crum Brown and Frazer, with respect to the substitu-
tion compounds of the alkaloids with the organic bases. Thus the Methyl
strychnia acts as a pure spinal sedative, while the Ethyl-conia and
Ethyl-atropia are more active, physiologically, than the pure alkaloids,

(A gexoci,)

Dr. Macalister, in a letter to me, observes, that since these experi-
ments began many French and German physiological chemists have
taken them up. ‘‘ What a pity,” he observes, ‘‘ that some of our Irish
chemists should not work in this perfectly new department.”

Yet, when the existence of a great Anatomical School in Dublin is
considered, the paucity of the biological researches which have appeared
in the ‘‘ Transactions” of this Academy fills the mind with regret, how-
ever great their value may be—more especially, when contrasted with
the number of such Papers in the Proceedings of the Royal Society.
Why should not those who have the power have also the desire to follow
the few leaders whose example has shed a lustre on our country? Will
members of this Academy not assist others more largely than they have
hitherto done in reaping the harvest which in golden waves is stretched
before and around them ?

The study of Embryology has led to many singular discoveries, and
has shown how closely analogous are the laws of formation with those of
disease. It had been held that in the early periods of existence organs
were in their relations and form the same as in the perfect animal,
differing only in their size.. But it is now shown that, before arriv-
ing at its ultimate form, an organ must undergo certain transforma-
tions, numerous in proportion to its complication ; so that there isa
passage from a simpler to a more complex form, the latter being
always preceded by the former. Embryology of the higher beings is
thus reproduced by the comparative anatomy of the lower. ‘Thus,
the doctrine of organic pre-existences is overturned, so that the
forms of the embryo will not give us a knowledge of those of the
more advanced being.

In this progressive formation, as observed by Serres, a particular
affinity seems to preside over the arrangement of structure, each
organic tissue and each part of an organ being directed towards the
part or tissue with which it is homogeneous and only uniting with it.

Thus nerves form themselves with nerves, arteries with arteries,
osseous nuclei with bone ; but we never see the kidney unite itself
to the liver, or the combination of a nerve with an artery.

We might believe in following these formations that we were as-
sisting at a regular crystallization of different cells in which the homo-
geneous molecules are attracted, while the heterogeneous are repelled ;
and this under the influence of Life.

( xxiii)

Development, as distinguished from mere growth, ceases when
the pre-ordained form of the organ is completed; but its arrest may
at any period be attended with the growth of the ¢mperfect organ.
In this way monsters may be, and are, produced, but no lesion of
organogeny in the inferior embryo can elevate the being in the bio-
logical scale. A reptile cannot proceed from a fish, a bird from a
reptile, a mammal from a bird, and, | may add, a man from an ape.
Much has been said as to the powers and effects of natural selection
in organisation, but there is a determined line beyond which, higher
at least in advancement, it wholly refuses to go.

It will be thought that, in reference to Biology, the controversy as
to the teleological argument and the views of some modern Biologists
should be here spoken of. But it seems to me that the observation,
investigation, and accumulation of facts is a work more fitting for this
Academy than dealing with matters of speculation. ‘‘ Scientific
labour,” as I once heard Professor M‘Cullagh say, ‘‘ should have two
ends, one subsidiary to the other ; first, the discovery of fact, and the
natural sequence of observation ; and next, the correlation of what is
thus discovered, with evidences of a.power, immeasurable, inconceiv-
able, and all-embracing.”’

In relation to the pathological aspects of Biology, the powers of
polariscopic analysis have been, in the hands of our late distinguished
President, shown to have opened up a new and wide field of investi-
gation. In his researches we can see how physical phenomena can
touch the mysterious conditions of life. This is not a question of
structure, whether it be or be not histological. It is truly one of
property, one of the varied results of life on organic form during its
appointed period of existence. In diabetes mellitus the renal fune-
tion, acting under the influence of the nervous power, or, in other
words, of animal life, produces results all but identical with those of
the living vine or sugar cane. We have here one out of many illus-
trations of the views of Serres, that defect or disease in the higher
organisms reproduces the normal conditions in those that are inferior ;
and this principle we perceive to be true, not alone as to form and
structure, but as to the chemical composition of the resulting secretion.

Of the first of these propositions many examples might be
given. ‘The internal ectopia or the existence of the abdominal viscera
in the thorax represents the want of the diaphragm in birds:

( bexiv)

the enlargement of the hepatic veins in the cardiac and pulmonary
obstruction is reproduced in the warm-blooded diving animals by
the temporary enlargement of the portal and hepatic veins, which
disappears on the first expansion of the lungs by respiration. The
anatomy of the perfect form is widely different from that of the im-
perfect with its arrested development ; and, in the same way, the func-
tion of the higher organ or group of organs may be degraded to many
inferior results. It would seem as if the secretion of one of the sugars
belonging to vegetable life implies a descent in the function of animal
life, and so we gain in diagnosis less, it is true, in the change of struc-
ture than in that of functional alteration. And analogous results are
seen in the chemical condition of secretions. Here the function of
secretion, if not the structure, is retrogressive, and the animal organ
comes to represent a lower or vegetable function.

Biology, looked on as a study of the mystery of life, is to be
considered in its normal and abnormal phenomena, as well as the
relation of physical investigation to vital conditions. And this
brings before us largely the present state of Curative, and, more
directly, of Preventive Medicine—for it is by physical investigation
that the medical science of the present day has so largely advanced.
Acoustic, Optical, Chemical, and Electric conditions must now all be
studied in relation to this great question. The discovery and dif-
ferential diagnosis by auscultation of the normal and abnormal states
of the heart, arteries, air-tubes, pulmonary cells, and, in many in-
stances, too, of the abdominal viscera, including the uterus, has been
carried, when considered in connexion with the general state of the
system, to a great point of advance. The ophthalmoscope has revealed —
not alone changes of the eye, but of organs distant from the eye;
cerebral, cardiac, and embolic disease. In the hands of Dr. Cruise, the
endoscope enables us to discover, to study and measure a vesical cal-
culus—an almost capillary stricture, and to direct a local treatment to
an ulcerated state of the intestinal surface. In Surgery, too, we can
make use of anesthetics to prevent all pain in operation, whether
they be used by inhalation or direct contact with the part. The loss
of blood, too, under the knife is prevented, in most cases, by the method
of Esmarch. On a late occasion of the operation for supra-condyloid
amputation of the thigh, Mr. Adams, Regius Professor of Surgery in
Dublin University, said, ‘‘This is the first time I have witnessed a

(Oo IERXOXGY 208)

great operation, performed not only without pain, but without the loss
of a single drop of blood.”

But it is certain that, until a broader and more searching light is
shed on human biology, Curative medicine must continue related to an
enlightened empiricism, though it may be hoped that that relation will
be more and more remote. But Preventive medicine—that great out-
come of the study of the combination of physical influences with vital
results—will largely advance with every true observation of these
influences on all the phenomena of life, whether in health or disease.

It is now many years ago since the late Dr. Robert Graves proposed
that the different governments of Europe, America, and India, should
establish and endow corresponding Medical observatories, supplied
with every requisite for recording the advance of epidemic and
sporadic disease, In connexion with the meteorological, atmospheric,
and telluric conditions of the time, together with those of the physical
state of the popuiation, its longevity and its mortality.

In this way, a great advance in the study of Preventive medicine
might be anticipated, though we cannot hold that every aberration from
health is due to preventible causes; for who shall indicate the results
or the origin of conditions that may be long hereditary ?

Yet, notwithstanding all our researches and discoveries of additional
laws, physical and vital, all that we have learned of the conservation and
transmutation of energy brought about by a living being, in the words
of Professor Stuart, ‘‘ we should find that the physical antecedent of
the phenomena was, probably, a much less transmutation ; while, again,
the antecedent of this would, probably, be found still less; and so on,
as far as we could trace it. But, with all this, we do not pretend to
have discovered the true nature of life itself, or even that of its rela-
tion to the material universe. In fine,” he says, ‘‘ we have not suc-
ceeded in solving the problem as to the true nature of Life, but have
only driven the difficulty into a border land of thick darkness, into
which the light of knowledge has not yet been able to penetrate.”
Speaking of the difference of animals and inanimate machines, he
observes that while the latter requires for its sustenance only some
variety of chemical separation ; the other—the living being—must
be supplied with organised tissue. After speaking of the sun as
the source of energy, and of the future of our race depending on its
future, he concludes :

‘But here, at length, we come to matters beyond our grasp, for

R. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-75. d

( xXexcvi i)
physical science cannot inform us what must have been before the
beginning, nor vet can it teli us what will take place after the end.”

The most singular result of the Polariscope in the examination of a
compound produced under the influence of Life, is the rotation of the
ray of light, telling of the relation of the substance to the process of
organisation. ‘This is seen in the optical examination of the animal or
vegetable sugars. Itis seen in quinine and various alkaloids. It is
right to state, however, that a German chemist affirms that he has
produced from inorganic material a compound which possesses the power
of rotation of light. If this be so, it is only another instance that
the hard and fast lines in nature are, though rarely, exceptional.

It may be hoped that, with the advance of the polariscopic qualita-
tive, if not quantitative analysis, other functional changes will be re-
cognised, and, by the reflected light of such discoveries, dealing with
chemical composition rather than structure, will reveal what the micro-
scope 1s powerless to discover, telling of a chemical composition de-
veloped and illuminated by a ray of polarised light—not so much in
form, not in any speciality of structure, but in the marvels of Life
under Law.

The conservation of energy, directive though not creative, in the
living organised structure, and the chemical affinities in that which is
unorganised, show, it might be held, that a lower mode of life pervades
every existing being; but we believe that in God’s own time that higher
life which shows itself in progressive organisation, and is terminable,
will have a different existence, as least as regards the human being,
one freed from material associations, freed from physical influences and
from moral shortcomings.

It is believed by thoughtful men that matter is indestructible.
May we not find that as it has, in Time, subserved the physical, so in
Eternity it will, when spiritualised, subserve the moral law, and thus
an undying result will be evolved.

It has been written that we “see as through a glass darkly ;” but
are there not grounds for the belef that such will not ever be the case ?
May we not believe that every discovery in development, in micro-
scopical structure, in chemical composition, and in electrical and optical
character, will be, when related to the property of Life, a fuller ray
of the burning lustre by which we approach the footstool of that
throne where we shall be permitted nearer and nearer to contemplate
the power and the ineffable light of Him from whom comes all Life? -

( yxeavat =)

A vote of thanks to the President for his address was moved by
the Rey. J. H. Jellett, B. D., S. F. T. C. D.; and seconded by the Rev.
Dr. Russell, President of the Royal College of St. Patrick, Maynooth,
and passed by acclamation.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay, December 14, 1874.
Wurm Sroxss, M. D., F. R.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and signed.

James Stewart, M. D.; Reuben J. Harvey, M. D.; and Matthew
J. Purcell, Esq., were elected Members of the Academy.

The Secretary laid on the Table the ‘‘ Minutes of the Proceedings
of the Academy ” for November, 1874.

Dr. 8. Ferguson, Q.C., V. P., read a paper ‘‘ On Further Ogham
Texts from Monataggart, county Cork.”

Two additional Ogham inscriptions on Stones recently dug up
from the underground chamber at Monataggart were described . These
were

Dataent Maar Dati,
and

BuRornranas K OL NETATTRENALUGOS. .

the proper names in both being already known, but the groups from
the X onward in the longer text are not yet fully understood.

Dr. Ferguson also read a description of the chamber at Monatag-
gart, and of the circumstances attending the discovery of the stones
by the Rey. John Quarry, D.D. The ashes found in the chamber
had been placed in the hands of the Secretary of the Academy for
analysis.

[This "paper will appear in the Proceedings, Series II., Vol. L.,
Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Mr. W. Archer read a paper “ Descriptive of the apothecia and
spores found by him in two species of Scytonema and two of Svrosiphon,
and one of Stigonema, all of them specifically different from any of the
few similar cases hitherto recorded.”

According to the older view that these are the fruits of the species of
Scytonematous and Sirosiphonaceous Algee in question, the cases

R. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-1875. e

@ xxvii)

brought forward, coupled with a similar fructification haying been re-
corded in a very few other related species, would go to indicate that
these so-called Alge were not alge truly but lichens. According to
the newer view propounded by de Bary and Schwendener, all such
cases would only represent so many instances of the invasion of the
algse concerned by so many distinct fungal parasites, of which the
apothecia were the proper fructification.

There could be httle doubt but that, upon either view, the five
plants (either as regards the‘ alge’’ or the ‘‘ parasites’’) herein referred
to, as well as Bornet’s Lichenospheria and Spilonema and Nylander’s ©
Gonionema (not to speak of Ephebe), are so many quite distinct
species. Ifthe apothecia are to be regarded as the “ fruit’’ of the
several forms of the alg@ in question, even though some may externally
so very closely resemble, these (alge) must be quite distinct species
inter se; if, on the other hand, the apothecia must be looked upon as
the fruit of the ‘‘ parasite’ invading the various algze in question, in
accordance with the new view, then the parasites attacking each
must be mutually quite distinct species, and, taken on the whole, mar-
vellously choice in their selection of ‘ host.”’

Proceeding on the latter assumption, two of the forms now
brought forward would have to be regarded as two ‘‘ new species,”
falling either under the genus Lphebella Itzigsohn, or Gonionema,
Nylander. The three other forms would probably have to be referred
as ‘‘new species” to Spilonema, or, one of them, wanting paraphyses,
to Lichenospheria, Bornet.

For the new view much that has been advanced by its supporters
is very cogent and striking, if not yet conclusive.

But in “lichens” like Ephebella, Gonionema, Ephebe, Spilonema,
Lichenospheria, in which it is the ‘alga’ which builds up the out-
ward configuration of the thallus, and which simply harbours latent
within it the parasite, the latter making itself externally evident only
by its exserted apothecia, does it not seem inconsistent to describe the
characters of the thallus of the alga as part and parcel of those of the
‘lichen ?’”? Thus Bornet, in giving the characters of Lichenospheria
Lenormandi, describesit generically thus :—‘‘ Thallus tenellus, ramosus,
fruticulosus, fere omnino stigonematoideus basi corticatus ;”’ and speci-
fically he speaks of it as ‘‘ Thallus fusco-niger, tomentoso-intricatus.”
This, for so far going on the Schwendenerian view, is nothing more

(Giexexaixe?)

nor less than describing the characters of “ Sirosiphon divaricatus,
Kiitz.” (the plant invaded by the ‘ parasite’); but when he goes
on to describe the apothecia, the paraphyses, the spermogonia, the
spores, he is giving the characters of the parasite and the real ‘‘new
species.”

There can be little doubt but that ‘amongst these Scytonematous
and Sirosiphonaceous Algze quite truly distinct forms occur, but,
on the other hand, there can be almost as little doubt but that
Kiitzing has very greatly overrated their number. Now it is hard to
conceive that one and the same parasite would care very much which
of closely-resembling forms it invaded in order to pursue its course of
life. Stirosiphon divaricatus seems not to differ much from 8. alpinus
(one of those now brought forward with apothecia); now what very
perceptible barrier is there to the supposition that the parasite which
invades the former to form Lichenospheria Lenormandi, Bornet, might
not at another time invade the latter? Would it then fructify in the
same way, show spores alike, &c.? But the ‘‘ parasite” which does
really inyade the latter (as shown by this paper) is not the same.
Are these Scytonemicolous and Sirosiphonicolous parasites, then, so
extremely choice ?

Again, two very closely allied forms of Scytonema now brought
forward likewise showed very distinct parasites, as evinced by their
spores, whilst those of one of them much resembled that of Strosiphon
pulvinatus, an alga in itself sufficiently unlike the other.

In objection to the new theory, though it has much to say for
itself, in the meantime and whilst it is, as it were, on its trial, it might
be asked at what period of the life of the Scytonema or Stirosiphon does
it become invaded by the parasite ?—at what part of the thallus does
it make an entry? It must be near the base, or at all events not
very high up, for the hypha is found growing pretty nearly pare
passu with the growth of a branch of the alga, and in the same general
direction. But why might not the hypha grow in the opposite direc-
tion? Might it not sometimes enter near the apex and grow backward ?
Might we not sometimes expect to find hyphe sticking out from
broken-up or distorted examples of these alge, and thus revealing
themselves (without the whole mass being boiled in potash) whilst on
their way to other examples of quite the same alga? Or must the
hypha appertaining to a particular plant have had its commencement

(5 exex7§)

‘from a spore which found its way to, and alighted somewhere exter-
nally upon, the particular Seytonema or Sirosiphon ? :

An experimental decision of the ‘‘ gonidia-question,”’

so far as it
relates to these Scytonematous and Sirosiphonaceous forms, is sur-
rounded by not a few practical difficulties. A ‘‘ sowing” of spores
upon the alge (as Reiss did for Mostoc) in a natural condition could
only be carried out by an observer residing in or close to the subalpine
situations where these plants dwell, as they could not be cultivated
elsewhere. In order to obtain the spores he would further have, most
probably, a troublesome preliminary search; and, on the other hand,
there would hardly be a certainty of the plants selected for cnoculation
being themselves previously destitute of hyphe or apothecia. Of
course, small portions from various places in a tuft of any given alga
could be previously well examined, which though if, indeed, found to
represent the alga ‘‘ pure and simple,” would not render it absolutely
conclusive that some other portion of the tuft might not already have
been invaded by the ‘‘ parasite.’”” However, having selected some
plants for experiment, they should be well inoculated with spores, and
portions removed from time to time for examination and experiment.
If found satisfactory, it would be interesting to try spores from the
same and from different species, in order to see the result, and whether
the seeming fixity of the forms and the apparently extreme choiceness
of the parasites be true or not, or ultimately whether the theory
itself be true or not. Whether, for the time being, the truth of the
new theory be previously assumed, or its untenability be presupposed
would matter very little, if only the suitable opportunity and ready
field of operation were at command of the observer. It would seem
as if in this way only can either presupposition be justified or nega-
tived.

[This paper will appear in the Proceedings, Series II., Vol. II.
Science, Part 2, Plate 6. |

Mr. R. C. Tichborne read a Paper entitled ‘‘ Laboratory Notes.”

On the Solution of Alloys and Metals by Actds.

The object of this note was to point out the advantage of using
small shot or spheres of platinum in the place of platinum foil to form a
voitaic circuit. The solution is effected in half the time owing to the
fact that when the foil touches the particles of metal it becomes

(| (xa )
charged with the hydrogenium and rises to the surface, there to dis-
charge the gas, it then sinks until it again touches the metal and
again rises. Ifthe platinum shots are used, they remain in contact
with the dissolving metal, and this intermittent action does not take

place.
On Fluorescence as a means of Detecting Adulteration.

Ifan adulterant is fluorescent, and the adulterated substance is
non-fluorescent, we have a ready and most delicate method of proving
the adulteration. As a familiar example, the adulteration of mustard
with turmeric is given. Turmeric yellow is fluorescent, but mustard
yellow is non-fluorescent. The fluorescent phenomenon is more deli-
cate than the chemical tests would be. In all cases, however, it is
necessary that the non-fluorescence of the substance subject to
adulteration should be proved as detailed in the note.

On the Printing Inks of the 16th and 17th Centuries.

The object of this note is to point out that although from the time
of Johann Faust, printing inks consisted of carbon with some vehicle by
which the carbon is bound to the surface of the paper, yet this vehicle
previous to 1700, is very soluble in dilute alkalies. Specimens of
printing when placed in dilute ammonia instantly float off the
surface, but inks after this date are rarely altered. This peculiarity
is not confined to one country, but from the specimens of printing
tried would appear to be very general.

[This paper appears in the Proceedings, Series II., Vol. IL,
Science, Part 1.]

Mr. G. R. Leeper read a paper ‘‘ On Retro-Peritoneal Cavities in
Man.”

[This paper appears in the Proceedings, Series II., Vol. IL,
Science, Part 1, Plate 5.]

The Treasurer exhibited an impression of a bronze mould found at
Lough Fea, Carrickmacross, and read the following :—

“* Extract from Letter to J. R. Garstin, LL. B.
“Loven Fra, CarrickMAcross;
“7th December, 1874.
There has been lately found in the cave here under some moss
among the rocks a bronze mould, which I think is quite unique. It

( xxxii_)

is 5 inches long by 3 quarters of an inch broad, is well and deeply cut
with figures—three lions, and two gryphons or griffins. I send you
a rough impression of part of it. It is almost classical in its type;
the other side is plain, except a hollow at one end. Could it have
been used in book-binding to make an impression in boiled leather, as
was used in the covers of our MSS. ?—Believe me ever, very sincerely
yours,
K. Pio SHammaeyer

Several donations to the Library were announced, and thanks
were voted to the donors. These will be found enumerated below in
the list of works presented to the Library from March to December,
1874.

The Academy then adjourned.

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
From March, 1874, to December, 1874.

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SOCIETIES.
Albany.

Eclectic Medical Society of the State of New York.
Transactions for 1871. 8vo, Albany, 1871.

Homeeopathic Medical Society of the State of New York.
Transactions, Vols. VIII.-IX., 1870-1. 8vo, Albany, 1870-
Gh
Medical Society of the State of New York.
Transactions for 1871-2. 8vo, Albany, 1872-3.
State University of New York.
Twenty-first Annual Report on the Condition of the State
Cabinet of Natural History. 8vo, Albany, 1871.
‘Trustees of the New York State Library.
Fifty-fourth and Fifty-fifth Annual Reports. 8vo, Albany,
1872-3. Subject-Index of the General Library, 1872. 8vo
Albany, 1872.

)

(1 SeS.anhly )
_ Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SocreTrEs—continued.
Albany—continued.
New York Meteorology, 1826-63. 4to, Albany, 1872.

The Regents of the University of New York.
Altona.

Astronomische Nachrichten. Bande lxxy.-lxxx. 4to, Altona.
The Observatory.

Barcelona.
Almanaque Nautico para 1875, de la Ciudad de San Fernando.
8vo, Barcelona, 1874. The Director of the Observatory.
Belfast.

Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Proceedings for Sessions 1872-4. 8vo, Belfast, 1872-4.
The Society.
Berlin.
Kon. Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Abhandlungen aus dem Jahre 1873. 4to, Berlin, 1874.
Inhaltsyerzeichniss der Abhandlungen aus den Jahren 1822-
72. 8vo, Berlin, 1873.
Monatsberichte fiir Januar bis August, 1874. 8vo, Berlin, 1874.

Verzeichniss der Bibliothek. 8vo, Berlin, 1874. The Academy.
Bologna.

Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto.
Memorie. Serie 11., Tomo 2°, Fasc. 2-4; Tomo 8°, Fasc. 1-2.
4to, Bologna, 1878.
Rendiconti delle Sessioni dell’ Ac. 1873-4. 8vo, Bologna, 1874.

The Academy.
Bordeaux.

La Société des Sciences.
Extrait des Procés Verbaux. 8yo, 1874. The Society.
Boston (Mass. ).
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Proceedings, Vol. VIII. S8vo, Boston, 1873.
Complete Works of Count Rumford, Vols. II. and III. 8yo,
Boston, 1873-4. The Academy.

(C7 semxivs -)

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SocreTiEs.—continued.
Bostan— continued.
Board of Education.
36th & 37th Annual Reports. 8yvo, Boston, 1873-4. The Board.
Board of State Charities of Massachusetts.
9th & 10th Annual Reports. 8yvo, Boston, 1873-4. The Board.
Massachusetts Board of Agriculture.
19th, 20th, and 21st Annual Reports of the Secretary. 8vo,
1872-4. The Board.
Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Annual Reports of Trustees for 1873. 8vo, Boston, 1874.
Trustees of Museum.
Society of Natural History.
Memoirs, Vol. II., Nos. 2-4 of Part II., and Nos. 1-2 of Part
III. 4to, Boston, 1874.

Proceedings, Vol. XV., Parts 1-4; Vol. XVI., Parts 1-2; Vol.
XIYV., pp. 225-426. 8vo, Boston, 1872-4. The Society.
Brussels. ;

Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de

Belgique.

Mémoires, Tome XL. 4to, 1873, Brussels.

Mémoires Couronnés et Mémoires des Savants Etrangers, Tome
XXXVII. 4to, 1873, Brussels.

Bulletin, 43™° Année, 2™° Série, Tome XXXVILI., Nos. 1-6;
Tome XXXVIII., Nos. 1-8. 8vo, Brussels, 1874.

Annuaire pour 1874, 40™° Année. 8yvo, Brussels, 1874.

Mémoires Couronnés et autres Mémoires. Collection in—8vo.
Tome XXIII., Brussels, 1873.

Observations des Phénoménes Périodiques pendant l’ Année 1872.
4to, Brussels, 1874.

Congrés International et Statistique. Sessions 1853-72. 4to,
Brussels, 1873.

Annales Météorologiques de l’Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles
pour 1872. 4to, Brussels, 1874.

Notices extraites de Annuaire de l’Observatoire de Bruxelles
pour 1874. 12mo, Brussels, 1874.

@ xxxy .)

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
Brussels—continued. ; a2
Funerailles de Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques Quetelet, Secrétaire
Perpétuel de l’Ac. R. de Belgique. 8vo, 1874.
Biographie Nationale, Tome IY., 2™° Partie. 8vo, Brussels,
1874. The Academy.
Calcutta.
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Proceedings, Nos. 9-10, 1873; Nos. 1-7, 1874. 8vo, Calcutta,
1873-4. :
Journal, Part I., Nos. 2-4. 8vo, Calcutta, 1873. The Society.
Cambridge (Mass. ).
American Academy.
Memoirs, New Series, Vol. IX., Part 2. 4to, Camb., Mass.,

1873.
Proceedings, Vol. VIII., pp. 409-504. 8vo, Cambridge, Mass.,
1873. The Academy.

American Association.
Proceedings, 21st Meeting, held at Dubuque, Iowa, August,
1872. 8vo,Camb., Mass., 1873. The Association.
Harvard University.
Catalogue of Officers and Students, 1872-3 and 1873-4. 8vo,
Cambridge, Mass., 1873-4.
Report of Committee of Board of Overseers for 1873.. 8vo,
Cambridge, Mass., 1874. The University.
Harvard College.
47th and 48th Annual Reports of the President, 1871-2, and
1872-3. 8yvo, Cambridge, Mass., 1872-3.
Inyitatio ad Solemnia Academica, A. D. VII. K. Quinctiles. A.
CIjInCCCLXXIII. 4to, Cambridge, Mass., 1873.
The College.
Peabody Museum.
Ist-7th Annual Reports of the Trustees. 8vo, Cambridge,
Mass., 1866-73, Trustees of Museum.
Copenhagen.
Det Kong. Nordiske Oldskrift-Selskab.
Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndhed og Historie, Heft. 2-4, 1873.
8vo, Copenhagen, 1873. The Society.

R. I. A.. MINUTES, SESSION 1874-1875. f

Go xxvii = 4)

Titles. Donors.
AcADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
_ Copenhagen— continued.
L’ Académie Royale.
Mémoires, Vol. LV., No. 10, Classe des Lettres. 4to, 1873.
Bulletin pour 1873, No. 2. 8vo, Copenhagen, 1873.
The Academy.
Dijon.
L’ Académie des Sciences, Lettres, et Beaux-Arts.
Mémoires, 3™¢ Série, Tome I. 8yo, Dijon, 1873. The Academy.
Dublin.
Royal Irish Academy.
Notices of Acad. Meeting and Council in November, 1806.
Dr. R. R. Madden.
Royal Historical and Archeological Association of Ireland.
Annual Volume for 1878:
Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language, Part IV. 4to,
Dublin, 1874.
Journal, 4th Series, Vol. II., Nos. 16-18. 8yvo, Dublin,
1873-4. The Association.
Geological Survey of Ireland.
Explanatory Memoir to accompany Sheet 47 of the Maps. 8vo,
Dublin, 1874.
Maps 47, 76, 77, 80, 83, and 85.
Sections 21, 22, 23, 24.
Expl. Mem. to Sheets 76 and 77. 8vo, Dublin, 1874.

Director-General of Geological Survey, Dublin.
Edinburgh.

Royal Society.
Transactions, Vol. XXVII., Part 1. 4to, Edinburgh, 1874.
Proceedings, Vol. VIII., No. 85, 1872-3. 8vo, Edinburgh,
1874. The Society.
Botanical Society.
Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. XI., Part 3. 8vyo, Edin-
burgh, 1873. 3 The Society.
Exeter.
Exeter Institution.
Catalogue of the Fauna of Devon, by Edward Parfitt. Zoo-
phites, 8vo, Exeter, 1866.

C yexxyir
Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SocleTIEs —continued.

Exeter —continucd.
11 Pamphlets on Subjects in Natural History, by Edward Par-
fitt. 8vo, Exeter and London, 1874.
Catalogue of the Devon and Exeter Institution Library, with the
Rules. 8vo, Exeter, 1873. The Exeter Institution.

Falmouth.
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.

Report XLI. 1870. The Society.

Gottingen.
Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Abhandlungen. Bd. XVIII., 1873. 4to, Gottingen, 1873.

Nachrichten aus dem Jahre 1873. 12mo, Gottingen, 1873.
The Society.

Haarlem.
Société Hollandaise des Sciences.
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles.
Tome VIII., Livr. 3, 4. 8vo. 1872.

Natuurkundige Verhandelingen, 3™° Série, Tome II., Part 1.
The Society.

Musée Teyler.

Archives, Vol. III., Fasc. 3, 4. 8vo, Haarlem, 1871.
The Museum.

Hague.
De Koninklijke Bibliotheek.
Verslag van de aanwinsten derzelve.
1873.
Heidelberg.
Natur-historischen Medecin-Verein.

Verhandlungen. Neue Folge, 1 Band., 1% Heft.
The Association.

8yo, ten’s Gravenhaage,
The Royal Library.

Hermannstadt.
Das Siebenbiirgische Verein fiir Naturwissenschaften.

Verhandlungen, Jahrg. XXIII.-XXIV. 8yo, 1874.
The Association.

(CG seegyauil < )
Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND Socterres—continued.
Eull.
Literary and Philosophical Society.

Annual Report of the Council and Transactions. 8vo, 1873-4.
The Society.

Innsbruck.

Das Naturwissenschaftlich-medezin-verein.
Berichte, [V® Jahrgang, 1% und 2* Hefte. The Association.

Kazan.
University.
Izvestia i Utchenia Zapiski. Tome XL., 1873, Nos. 4, 5, 6.
Tome XLI., Nos. 1-2. 8vo. The University.
Kiel.

The Observatory.
Astronomische Nachrichten. Bande LXXXI. und LXXXIL
4to, Kiel, 1873.
Bestimmung des Langenunterschiedes zwischen den Sternwar-
ten von Altona und Kiel, von Professor Dr. C. A. F. Peters,
4to, Kiel, 1873. The Observatory.

Lausanne.
~ La Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Bulletin, 2° Série, Vol. XITI., No. 70. 8vo, Lausanne, 1874.
The Society.
Liverpool.
Historie Society of Lancashire and Cheshire.
Transactions, New Series, Vol. XIII., Session 1872-3. 8vo,
Liverpool, 1873.
Index to Ist and 2nd Series of Transactions. 8vo, Liverpool,
1874. The Society.
London.
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Report of the Bradford Meeting. 8vo, London, 1873.
The Association.
Cambrian Archeological Association.
Archeeologia Cambrensis, 4th Series, Nos. 17-19, 1874.
The Association,

CO xcexixa)

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SoctetIEs—continued.
London—continued.
Chemical Society.
Proceedings. Sessions 1873-4, and Obituary. 8vo, London,
1874. ° The Society.
Geologists’ Association.
Proceedings, Vol. III., Nos. 6-9, 1874. 8&vo, London.
The Association.
Linnean Society.
Transactions, Vols. XX VIII., Part 4; XXIX., Parts 1 and 2;
XXX., Part 1. 4to, London, 1873-4.
Journal, Vol. XII., Zoology.
2 » XIV., Botany, No. 76. 8vo, London, 1874.
Proceedings for 1873-4 and obituary notices. 8vo, London,
1874. The Society.
Institution of Civil Engineers.
Minutes of the Proceedings, Vol. XXVII., Part 1; Vol.
XXVIII., Part 2. 8vo, London, 1873-4.

The Institution, London.
Mathematical Society.

Proceedings, Nos. 66-72. 8vo, London, 1873-4. The Society.
Metereological Society.
Quarterly Journal, Vol. II., Nos. 10,11. 4to, 1874. Charter
and Bye-laws. 8yvo, 1874. London. The Society.
Numismatic Society.
Chronicle. Vol. XIII., New Series. Part 4, No. 52, 1873;
Nos. 53, 54, 55. 8vo, London, 1873-4. The Society.
Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Proceedings, Vol. VII., Parts 38, 4, Nos. 60-61. 8vo, 1873-4.
j The Institution.
Royal Geographical Society.
Proceedings, Vol. XVIII., Nos. 2, 8, 4, 5. 8vo, London,
1874. The Society.
Royal Society.
Transactions, Vol. CLXIII. 4to, for 18738. London, 1874.
Report of Meteorological Committee for year ending 31st De-
cember, 1873.
Report on Weathér Telegraphy, and Storm Warnings.

Gil)

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SocrETrES—continued.
- London— continued.
Report of Proceedings of the Vienna Meteorological Congress.
8vo, London, 1874. The Society.
Society of Antiquaries.
Archeologia, Vol. XLIII., No. 2; Vol. XLIV., No.1. 4to,
London, 1873-4.
Proceedings, Vol. V., No. 8; Vol. VI., Nos. 1-3. 8vo, London,

1874. The Society.
Surtees Society’s Publications.
28 Vols. The Society.

Zoological Society.
Transactions, Vol. VIII., Parts 7, 8, 9. 4to, 1873-4. London.
Proceedings, 1873, Parts 2,3; 1874, Parts1, 2. 8vo, Lon-
don, 1873-4. The Society.
Madison (Wis. ).
Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Transactions, 1870-2. 8vo, Madison, 1872. The Academy.
State Agricultural Society.
Transactions, Vols. X., XI., 1871-8. 8vo, Madison, 1873-4.
The Society.
Manchester.
Literary and Philosophical Society,
Memoirs, Vol. IY., 8rd Series. 8vo, Manchester, 1874.
Proceedings, Vols. VIIL, X., XII., XIII; Nos ile-sexaiye
Nos. 1-4. 8vo, Manchester, 1869-74. - The Society. .
Melbourne.
Royal Society of Victoria.
Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. X. 8vo, 1873-4.
Forest Maps of Victoria. Melbourne, 1873.
Montreal.
Geological Survey of Canada.
Report on Progress for 1872-3. 8vo.
Report on the Fossil Plants of the Lower Carboniferous and
Millstone-grit formations of Canada. 8vo, 18738.
Paleozoic Fossils, Vol. II., Part 1. Montreal, 1873.
List of Publications. S8vyo, 1874. The Canadian Government.

(xi: )

- Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
IVfoscow.

Société Impériale des Naturalistes.
Bulletin pour lannée, 1873, Nos. 38, 4; pour, 1874, No. 1.

The Society.
Munich.

Konigliche Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Sitzungsberichte, Mathematisch-Physischen Classe, 1873, Hft.
2; 1874, Hft.1. 8vo, 1873-4.
Philosophisch-Philologischen Classe, 1878, Hfte. 4, 5, 6; 1874,
Hft. 1. 8vo, 1873-4. Munich.
Catalogus Codicum Latinorum Bibliothece Regiz Monacensis.
Tome 1, Part 3, Codices Nos. 5251-8100 complectentes.
Tome 2, Prs. 1, Codices Nos. 8101-10,930 complectentes.
8vo, Monachii, 1873-4. The Library.
Verzeichniss von 5563 Telescopischen Sternen, &c.
XII. Supplementband. 8vo, Munich, 1874. The Observatory.
Nancy.
Société des Sciences (Ancienne Société des Sciences Naturelles de
Strasbourg).
Statuts. 8vo, Nancy, 1874. The Society.
Newhaven (Conn. ).
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Transactions, Vol. II., Part 2. 8vo, 1874. The Academy.
Oxford.
Radcliffe Observatory.
Observations, Vol. XX XI. 8vo, Oxford, 1874.
The Observatory.

Paris.
Académie des Sciences.
Comptes Rendues, Tome LX XVIII., les Nos. depuis le 5 Jany.
jusqu’au 26 Oct., 1874. 4to, Paris, 1874. The Academy.
Bibliothéque Nationale.
Catalogue des Manuscrits Syriaques et Sabéens (Mandaites) de
la Bibliothéque Nationale. 4to, Paris, 1874. The Library.
Ministére des Travaux Publies.
Annales des mines. Tom. VI., 4™° Livraison.
Minister of Public Works.

(= sclint )
Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
Paris —continued.
Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle.
Nouvelles Archives, Tome VIII., Fasc. 1-4. Tome IX., Fasc.
1-4. The Museum.
Philadelphia.
Academy of Natural Sciences.
Proceedings, Parts 1-3 (1873). 8vo.
Journal, New Series, Vol. VIII., Part 1. 8vo. The Academy.
American Philosophical Society.
Transactions, Vol. XV., Part 1. 4to, Phil., 1873.
Proceedings, Vol, XIII., Nos. 90, 91. 8vo, Phil., 1873.
The Society.
Franklin Institute.
Journal, Vol. LXVII., 3rd Series, March to August, 1874. 8vo,
Philadelphia, 1874. The Institute.
Prague.
Die kénigliche bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Abhandlungen der k. b. ges. in Prag vom Jahre, 18738, 6°
Folge, 6° Band. 4to, Prague, 1874.
Sitzungsberichte, Jahrgange, 1872, Juli- December, und 1873.
8vo, Prague, 1873.
Rome.

L’ Accademia Reale dei Lincei.
Atti, Tomo XXVI., Sessione 2* delli 5 Gennniet The Academy.

Rotterdam.
La Société Batave de Philosophie Expérimentale.
Programme, 1874. 8vo, Rotterdam, 1874. The Society.

San Fernandc.
L’Observatorio de Marina.
Anales, Seccion 2*. Observaciones Meteorologicas, Amo, 1872,
4to, San Fernando, 1873. The Observatory.
San Francisco.
Californian Academy of Sciences.
Proceedings, Vol. V., Parts 1, 2, 1878. 8yo, San Francisco,
1873. The Academy.

Caine)
Titles. Donors.

ACADEMIES AND SocreTIEsS—continued.
St. Petersburgh.

L’ Académie Imperiale des Sciences.
Mémoires, Tome XIX., Nos. 8, 9,10; Tome XX., Nos. 1-35.

4to. 1873-4.
Bulletin, Tome XVIII., Nos. 4,5; Tome XIX., Nos. 1, 2, 3.
4to. 1873-4. The Academy.

Commission Impériale Archéologique.
1. Compte Rendu pour les années, 1870 et 1871. 4to. 1872.
2. Atlas pour le méme. Large 4to.
Metereological Department.
Metereologitchesku Sbornik, Vol. III. 4to.
Das Physikalische Central Observatorium.
Annalen, Jahrgang, 1872. 4to, St. Petersbourg, 1873.
The Russian Government.
Turin. ®
Reale Academia delle Scienze. .
Memorie, Tomo XXVII., Serie seconda. 4to, Torino, 1873.
Atti, Vol. IX. Diss. 1-5. 8vo, Torino, 1878. — The Academy.
Regio Osservatorio dell’ Universita.
Bolletino Meteorologico ed Astronomico, Anno VIL, 1873.
Obl. 4to, Turin, 1873. The Turin Observatory.
Vienna.
Die kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenchaften.
Denkschriften der kais. Ak. Philosophisch-historische Classe,
XXII. und XXIV. Bande. 4to, Vienna, 1873.
Sitzungsberichte, Mathematisch-Natur. Classe, Vol. LXVIL,
Parts 4 and 5; Vol. LX VIII., Parts 1, 2, and 3.
Archiy fiir Oesterreichische Geschichte 51° Band, 1° Halfte
und 50% Band, 2% Halfte. 8vo, 1873. The Academy.
Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Zoologico-Botanischen Gesellschaft.
Verhandlungen, Band XXIII. 8vo, Wein, 1873. The Society.
Washington.
Chief Signal Office of the United States.
Annual Report of Chief Signal Officer to the Secretary at War
for 1872. 8yo, Washington, 1873.
R. I, A, MINUTES, SESSION 1874~1875. g

( xliv )

Titles. ; Donors.
AcspEMIES AND Societres—continued.
Washington—continued.
Department of the Interior.

1, Bulletin of the U. 8. Geological and Geographical Survey of
the Territories, No. 1.

2. Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado, by T. C. Porter and J. M.

Coulter. Syo, Washington, 1873. U.S. Government.
United States Geological Survey.

First, Second and Third Annual Reports of the U. States Geol.
Survey of the Territories for years 1867-9. 8vo. Wash-
ington, 1873.

Sixth Annual Report of U. S. Survey of Montana, Idaho,
Wyoming and Utah, 1872. 8yvo, Washington, 1878.

Meteorological Observations for 1872 in Utah, Idaho, and Mon-
tana. 8yvo, Washington, 1873.

State of elevation in that part of the United States west of the
Mississippi River. 8yo, Washington, 1878.

The U. 8. Geological Survey.
United States Naval Observatory.

Astronomical and Meteorological Observations for 1871. 4to,
1873.

Tables of Venus. - 4to, 1873. The Observatory.

Smithsonian Institution.
Reports 187-2. 8vo, 1873.
Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. X. 8yo, Washington, 1873.
The Institution.
Zurich.
The University.

22 Pamphlets consisting of inaugural dissertations at the Uni-
versity. 8yvo, Zurich, 1874.

Rector Universitatis Litterarum Turicensis Commilitonibus cer-
tamina eruditionis propositis premiis in Anno 1873-4 indicit,
&e. 4to, 1874. The University,

C xiv

AUTHORS.
Titles. Donors.
Alanus(Henricus). 1. Observationes aliquot in C. Julii Casaris utrius-
que belli commentarios.
_—— 2. Emendationes Liviane quarte. 8vo, Dublin, 1874.
The Author.
Bosgoed (D. Mulder). Bibliotheca Ichthyologica et Piscatoria. Ca -
_talogus van boeken en geschriften oyer de natuurlijke geschie-
denis. 8vyo, Haarlem, 1873. The Author.
Brown (John Allan), F. R.S. Observations of Magnetic Declination,
made at Trevandrum and Agustia Malley. 4to, London, 1874.
His Highness the Maharajah of Trevancore.
Bugnion (E.) Recherches sur les organes sensitifs qui se trouvent
dans l’épiderme du protée et de l’axolotl. 8vo, Lausanne, 1873.
Zurich University.
Burkhard (G.) Ueber die Transpiration reiner und mit verschiedener
Salzen versetzter zucherlosungen. 8vo, Berlin, 1873.
Zurich University.
Carlsen (F. F.) Minnesteckning ofver Erick Gustaf Geyer af ¥. F.
Carlsen. Stockholm University.
Carpenter (W. B.), M.D., LL. D., F.R.S. New Observations on
Eozoon Canadense, reprinted from the Annals and Magazine of
Natural History for June, 1874. 8vo. The Author.
Chantre (Ernest). 1. Projet d’une légende internationale pour les
cartes archéologiques préhistoriques.
—— 2. Les faunes mammalogiques tertiaire et quaternaire du bassin

du Rhone. 8vo, Lyons, 1874. The Author.
Chappell (W.), F.S.A. The History of Music (Art and Science).
Vol. I. 4to, London, 1874. The Author.

Christy (Henry), Esq. Reliquiz Aquitanice, Part XY.
Executors of H. Christy, Esq.
Crosby (Allan James), M.A. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign
Series. Elizabeth, 1569-71. 8vo, London, 1874.
Master of the Rolls, England.
Darbichire (R. D.), Esq., B.A. Notes on Discoveries in Ehenside
Tarn, Cumberland. 8yvo. . The Author.

Ellis (Alexander), F. R. 8. Algebra identified with Geometry. 8vo,
London, 1874. The Author.

© xlya)

Titles. Donors.
Ferro (Giovanni). Teatro d’Imprese di G. Ferro dedicato all’ Ilus-
tr’. e Reverend™. Cardinal Barberino. Folio.
John Jones, Esq.
Flora Batava. Afleveringen 223-6 en Register. 4to, Leyden,
1873-4. Dutch Government.
Frohlich (Fr.) Das Bellum Africanum sprachlich und _historisch
behandelt. 8vo, Brugg, 1878. University of Zurich.
Fronheiser (J. J.) thyliden Chloriir und ethyliden-bromtir. 8vo,
Giessen, 1873. University of Zurich.
Fructuoso (Dr. Gaspar). As Saudades da Terra. Tom. J., I1., MSS. 4to.
Idem, printed. Edited by Dr. Alvaro Rodriguez de Azevedo.
4to, Lisbon, 1873.
Lord Dunally and the Hon. O’Callaghan Pretty.
Geyer (Erick Gustaf). Minnesteckning dfver E. G. Geyer af F. F. Carl-
sen. S8yvo, Stockholm, 18738. The Author.
Grattan (Richard), M.D. 1. Vox Hibernie. 2. The Right to Think,
3. On the Human Mind. 4. The Grattan Constitution. 5. On
Repeal of the Union. 8vo, Dublin, 1865-73. The Author.
Grosart (Rev. A. B.) George W. Childs, M.A. A memorial sketch
and an example. 8vo, London, 1874. _ The Author.
Hardy (Sir Thomas Duffus). Registrum Palatinum Dunelmense. 8vo,
London, 1874. Master of the Rolls, England.
Hoffmann (W.). Ueber die Urheberrecht an Briefen. 8vo, St. Gall,
1873. Zurich University.
Hull (Edward), M.A. Notes on the Hematites of the Counties of
Cavan and Longford. 8vo. ere
The Volcanic History of Ireland. 8vo, 1874. The Author.
Hume (A.), D.C. L. Origin and characteristics of the people of Down
and Antrim. 8vo, Liverpool, 1874. The Author.
Joly (Auguste le). De la Réduction des Flores locales. 8vo, Cher-
bourg, 1875. The Author.
Joly (M. N.). 1. Notices sur les Travaux Scientifiques. ;
2. Etudes sur un poisson chinois.
3. Documents nouveaux sur le Pygophage de Mazires et sur Millie

Christine. 8vo, 1874. The Author.
Klein (E.), M.D. Anatomy of the Lymphatic System. 4to, London.
1873.

Royal Society.

( xlvii )

Titles. Donors.
Kuhn (A.). Ueber Entwickelungostufen der Mythen-bildung. 8vo,
Berlin, 1874. The Author.

Reidy (Joseph). Contributions to the extinct vertebrate Fauna of the
Western Territories. 4to, Washington, 1873.

The Geological Survey Office, U.S. A.

Lloyd (Humphrey), D. D. Treatise on Magnetism. 8vo, London, 1874.

The Author.
Madden (Dr. Thomas More), M.R.C.8.E. On Puerperal Convul-
sions. 8vyo, Dublin, 1874. The Author.

Mailly (Ed.). Del Astronomie dans l’Académie Royale de Belgique.
Rapport séculaire (1772-1872). 8vo, Brussels, 1872. The Author.
Merrill (N. Fred.). Monograph upon Granadine and its derivatives.

8yo. The Author.
Moran (Rt. Rey. Dr.). Monasticon Hibernicum, Part VIII. 4to, Dub-
lin, 1874. i The Publisher.
Mueller (Baron Ferd. Von). New Vegetable fossils of Victoria.
Folio, Melbourne, 1873. The Author.

Nares (Capt. G.8.), R.N. Report on board H. M.S. ee
1873. 4to, London, 1873.
—— Hydrographic proceedings on board of, dated Mencene 24th

March, 1874. 4to, London, 1874. -— .- The Admiralty.
Nicati (William). La Paralysie du Nerf sympathique cervical. 8vo,
Lausanne, 1878. Zurich University.
Nigra (C.). Fonetica del dialetto di Val-Soana. 8yvo, Rome, Turin,
and Florence, 1874. The Author.

Oliver (Lieut. 8. P.), R.A. 1. On Prehistoric Remains in Brittany.
2. Report on the present state and condition of prehistoric re-

mains in the Channel Islands.

—— 8. Dolmen mounds and amorpholitic monuments of Brittany.

8vo, London, 1870-2. The Author.
Parfitt (Edward). Catalogue of the Fauna of Devon. Zoophites.
8yo, 1866.
11 Pamphlets on Subjects in Natural History. 8vo, 1866-73.
The Author.

Prendergast (John P.), and Dr. Russell. Calendar of State Papers
relating to Ireland. James I., 1606-1608. 8vo, London, 1874.
The Master of the Rolls.

( xlviii )
Titles. . Donors.

Royal Commission on Historical MSS. 4th Report, Parts i-2, being

Report and Index. Folio,’London, 1874.
The Earl of Enniskillen.

Russell (Rey. C. W.), D. D. See Prendergast.

Salmon (Rey. Dr. G.). Analytic Geometry of three dimensions, 3rd
Ed. 8vo, Dublin, 1874. The Author.

Scott. (R. H.). Meteorological Office. Quarterly Weather Report,

Parts 4, 1871, and 3, 1873.

Meteorological Office. (Quarterly Weather Report, Parts 1 and
Da NSiia. The Office.
Settimanni (Capt. C.). Supplement 4 la Nouvelle Théorie des prin-

cipaux élements de la lune et du soleil. 4to, Florence, 1871.
The Author.
Shirley (Evelyn Philip). Stemmata Shirleiana: or, Annals of the
Shirley Family. 4to, London, 1873. The Author.
Smiddy. (Rey. Richard). Essay on the Druids, ancient churches and
-round towers of Ireland. 8vo, Dublin, 1871. The Author.
Stanley (Hon. W. Owen), M.P., F.S.A. Memoir on remains of
ancient dwellings in Holyhead Island. 8vo, London, 1871.

Earl of Enniskillen.

Statistical Tables of the Dublin Metropolitan Police for 1873. Folio,
London, 1874. Colonel Lake.
Stokes (Whitley). Some remarks on the Celtic additions to Curtius’s
Greek Etymology. 8vo, Calcutta, 1874. The Author.
Stubbs (William), M.A. Memorials of St. Dunstan. 8vo, London,
1874. The Master of the Rolls, England.

Thompson (Edward Maunde). Chronicon Anglie, ab A.D, 1328, ad
A. D. 1388. 8vo, London, 1874.
The Master of the Rolls, England.
Tommasi (Dr. D.), F.C.S. On a new method of preparing Toluene,
8vo, 1874.
— Action of Benzyl Chloride on Laurel Camphor. 8vo,"1874.
The Author.
Tyrrell (Lieut.-Col. F.). The Future of India. 8yo, London, 1874.
The Author.

(Oy, xa)

Monpay, January 11, 1875.
Wr114m Sroxss, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read and signed.

Robert Atkinson, LL. D., Professor of the Romance Languages, in
the University of Dublin; W. J. Fitzpatrick, LL. D.; Edward Hamil-
ton, M.D., Vice-President, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland; Arthur
Hill, C.E.; J. J. MacCarthy, M.P.; John J. O’Callaghan, Esq. ;
G. H. Porter, M.D., Surgeon in Ordinary to the Queen in Ireland;
and J. Emerson Reynolds, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, Royal
College of Surgeons, Ireland, were balloted for and declared duly
elected Members of the Academy.

The Secretary laid on the table the ‘‘ Minutes of the Proceedings
of the Academy” for December, 1874; and the ‘‘ Proceedings of the
Academy” Second Series, Vol. II., Part 1 (Science), January, 1875.

The Secretary read a Paper, by J. Rhys, Esq., of Rhyl, ‘On
Ogham Inscriptions.”

[This Paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Edmund W. Davy, A.M., M.D., read a paper ‘‘On some newly
observed Properties possessed by certain Salts of Fulminic Acid.”

Whilst making some experiments on the Fulminate of Mercury, the
Author observed, that when that salt and the Ferrocyanide of Potas-
sium, both in aqueous solution, are gently heated together, the mixture
at first acquires a faint reddish yellow tint, which quickly passes into a
deep port wine colour, without the separation apparently, at least at first,
of any gas or solid matter. The development of this coloration, under
the circumstances stated, being considered very singular, and hitherto
unnoticed, led him to study the matter more closely to determine the
nature of this coloured compound, and of the changes taking place in
its formation.

He soon ascertained that this substance was of a very unstable
character, and that it presented great difficulties in the way of its
separation from the matters with which it was associated, as procured
in the reaction referred to; and, not being able to obtain it in a pure
or suitable state to submit it to actual analysis, he was for a consider-
able time unable to get any clue as to its real nature, further than that
it was some organic compound of iron in which cyanogen or its

R. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-795. h

Cay

elements were constituents. At last it occurred to him that the
coloration observed might be in some measure connected with the
formation of the Fulminate of Iron, and on making some of that salt
and comparing its reactions with those of the compound referred to,
many points of agreement between them were at once perceptible.
That Fulminate, which is easily obtained by the action of iron filings on
the Fulminate of Mercury suspended in water, as shown by its dis-
coverer the late Professor Davy, developes, when treated with diluted
acids, a fine red colour; and the author has further observed that the
salt which remains after the action of caustic alkalies on that Fulmi-
nate, and the separation of the resulting oxide, gives rise to the same
coloration on the addition of diluted acids; and that the red-coloured
matter so produced resembles in all its properties that developed in
the more complex reaction of the Fulminate of mercury on the
Ferrocyanide of Potassium already noticed. The author further stated
that (as far as he was aware) no explanation had yet been. given for
the development of the red colour on treating the Fulminate of Iron
with diluted acids; and the one he would suggest was capable of
accounting for its production, not only in that case, but also in the
new reactions he had himself observed.

Fulminic Acid, the empirical formula of which was 42, C2202, is
generally regarded as a bibasic acid which is capable of forming two
classes of salts, viz., the neutral and the acid salts, according as the
hydrogen of the acid is either in whole or in part replaced by metals ;
and he conceived that the red-coloured compound which was de-
veloped from the neutral Fulminate of Iron by the action of acids,
was an acid Fulminate of that metal—a hitherto undescribed salt, the
formation of which was explained by the following reaction :

2 Fe, C,N,0,, + H;S 0, = FeH, (C,N,0;) + Fe SO,

Again, when the neutral Fulminate of Iron was acted on by a dilute
solution of an alkali, such as Potash, a double neutral Fulminate of
Tron and Potasstum—another undescribed salt—was formed, as shown
in the following equation :

2Fe C,N,0,+ 2 KHO = Fe K, (C,N,0,)? + Fe 0+ H, O;
and this double fulminate developes the red acid fulminate on being
heated with acids, as the following formule indicate :

Fe K, (C,N,0.): + H,S0,= Fe H, (0,N,0,) + ESO,

Col)
The author then stated the grounds for his coming to the conclusion
that when the Fulminate of Mercury and the Ferrocyanide of Potas-
sium react on each other, that there is at first formed, amongst other

products, the double neutral Fulminates of Iron and Potassium by the
following reaction :

2Hg C,N,0, + K, Fe (Cy); = FeK, (C,N,0,) +2 HCy, +2 K Cy,

and that this double neutral salt subsequently, either by the action of
acids, heat, or other agencies, passes into the acid Fulminate of Iron,
thus developing the red coloration observed.

After referring to the instability and other characteristic properties
of this salt of Iron, the author stated that it was likewise developed
by the action of the Ferricyanide of Potassium (Red Prussiate of
Potash) on the Fulminate of Mercury, and that it and the Ferricyanide
of Potassium, even at the ordinary temperature, gave rise to, but more
slowly, the formation of the red acid salt; and lastly he stated that
the same compound was formed where the Fulminate of Silver had
been used instead of the mercurial salt, and that it was probable that
some of the other Fulminates would act in a similar manner.

[This paper will be published in extenso. |

Dr. Doberck, Astronomer at Col. Cooper’s Observatory, Markree,
County Sligo, read a Paper ‘‘ On the First Comet, in 1845.”

[This memoir will appear as Part 12 of the Transactions of the
Academy. |

Bessel has remarked that the astronomers of a certain age will only
have completed their work when all the observations of the heavenly
bodies which have been previously recorded have been as nearly as
possible represented by calculation. It is quite in conformity with
this remark that Professor Bruhns of Leipzig, has (in the Journal of
the Astronomical Association of Germany) called the attention of
astronomers to a number of comets whose orbits could be more
accurately ascertained when all available observations were taken into
account. The present Paper contains the definitive elements of
Comet I 1845, being the fifth of the comets determined by the author.

As far as possible, the whole number of about 250 observations
has been compared with a system of elements derived from the com-
parison of all the hitherto published orbits. By this comparison all
the smaller corrections were applied, including the perturbations
caused by Jupiter and the Earth, the action of the other planets.

(ies)

being insensible. Hansen-Olufsen’s solar tables were employed,
Struve’s constant of aberration, the solar parallax was assumed to be
8”,9, and new comparison stars were introduced whenever it appeared
necessary. By comparison with the observations the following normal
deviations O - C were obtained :—

M. Berl. T. Aa Ad
I. 1845," Jan. 11:5 — 28''81+41'°80 — 6104175
Tos » «245 — 43: 3243: 07 — 15° 4442 46
Ty) ehebrim asco — 78° 78 42° 22 — 50° 4641: 94
Ves ey ei + 29° 3744: 30 — 75: 0844: 12
Vv. ,,. March 7-0 + 20° 1643 13 — 44° 5543 47

By the solution of the corresponding ten differential equations,
according to the method of least squares, the elements were determined
as follows :—

Parabola. Hyperbola.
T 1845, Jan. 8, 193983 m. Berl. T. 1845, Jan. 8, 198558 + 0.001 693
Q 366044'27'"62 — \ 336044'25°"92 + 0''-88
1 46 5040-22 M. Eq. 1845-0 4651 0-764 8°81
7 91 19 40°56 | 9119655°95 + 5°88
log g 9:956 7346 9-956 7491 + 0-000 0055
A 1:000 2467 + 0-000 1047

Motion Direct.

And the residual errors O — C were :—

| | Parabola. Hyperbola.
Weight.| A a cos A3 Aacosé Aé

| if 6 + 164 | + 128 + 0”-00 +105
| Tp dk We $042 | 0°45 $220 | 40°57
euee 5 S18) ah eee 16 0: 18) | eee
| IV. 1 ~ 4° 69 | + 0° 06 -406 | -0 79
Loy 2 aigegon |balwouay +008 | 41-96

( li )

The following Donation to the Museum was acknowledged, and
thanks ordered to be sent to the Donor :-—

Penannular object of twisted gold, African: weight, 5 dwts. 10 grs
Presented by Mr. Myers, Birmingham.

Also on Deposit, a two-handled Chalice of Silver, with Gold,
Bronze, and Enamel Ornamentations, 7 inches in height and 93 inches
in diameter. Cup of White Metal, and four massive Brooches of
Silver, gilt—all found in September, 1868, in the Fort of Reerasta,
near the village of Ardagh, county Limerick, and deposited on the
part of H. M. Government by Mr. W. L. Joynt, Crown Solicitor to
the Treasury. ;

[ For an account of these remarkable Treasures see a Paper by the
late Earl of Dunraven in the Transactions of the Academy, Vol. XXIV.,
Polite Literature and Antiquities: ‘‘On an Ancient Chalice and
Brooches lately found at Ardagh, in the County of Limerick.’’ |

The Purchases made for the Museum since last meeting of Academy,
14th December, 1874, are as follows:—

Eleven Silver Pennies of Edward, viz., six Irish; two Episcopal ;
one (Forgery of the period); one Sterling; one do. (John of Luxem-
burg); and one of Alexander of Scotland—all found in the ruins of
Knockane Castle, county Mayo.

Celt of Basalt, 10 inches in length—found in a garden at Harold’s-
cross, county Dublin, in August, 1874. ’

Silver Bank of Ireland Token—Tenpence—date 1813. Shilling of
James I.

The Academy then adjourned.

(ives

Monpay, January 25, 1875.
Wir Sroxrzs, M. D., F. R.8., President, in the Chair.

The Rey. Edward M‘Clure read a paper ‘On Irish Popular
Names.”

[This Paper will appear in the “ Proceedings,’ Second Series,
Vol. I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Samuel Ferguson, LL. D., V. P., read a paper ‘On a Ogham In-
scription at Mullagh, Co. Cavan,” also ‘‘ Notices of the Monataggart
Ogham Texts” from the Bishop of Limerick, Whitley Stokes, LL. D.,
and Rey. R. D. Haigh.

[This Paper will appear in the “ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Rev. Dr. Reeves, V. P., read a Paper ‘‘On the MS. in Marsh’s
Library called the Codex Kilkennensis.”

[This Paper will appear in the ‘ Proceedings,’ Second Series,
Vol. I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Mr. H. W. Mackintosh read a paper ‘“‘On the structure of the
Spines in the Diadematide.”’

The examination extended over the five genera contained in the
family, and eight out of the twelve species. About 150 sections
were examined, taken from twenty specimens. Results seemed to be
that there was a perfectly distinct type for each genus, and that the
species were more or less discriminable from each other by minor va-
riations in structure. There was, as arule, very little difference in
structure in sections taken from different parts of the same spine.
Some remarkable alterations caused by fractures and subsequent re-
pairs of the spines had also occurred and were carefully described.

[This Paper will appear as Part 15, Vol. XXV., of the ‘“ Transac-
tions” of the Academy, with three Plates. |

Dr. A. Macalister read a Paper ‘‘On afew points in the Cranial
Osteology of Bradypus gularis.”

[This Paper will appear, with an Illustration, in the ‘‘ Proceed-
ings,” Second Series, Vol. II., Part 2, Science. ]

Dr. A. Macalister read a Paper ‘‘On the anatomy of Insectivorous
Edentates, Part 1.”

The author, in this part of his memoir, gave an account of the
myology of the group, represented by the genera Manis and Myrmeco-

()

phaga. He had made complete dissections of Manis’ multiscutata,
Myrmecophaga jubata, and of Cyclothurus didactylus, and partial ones
of Zamandua bivittata, Pholidotus Indicus, and Cy. fulvus, and had
incorporated the researches of Cuvier, Rapp, Meckel, Owen, Humphry,
and Galton. Thus his materials included five out of the seven sub-
genera and seven species of the family. With the assistance of the
grant voted to him by the Academy out of the Parliamentary grant in
aid of Scientific Researches, he had been enabled to purchase several
fine specimens of these Edentates.

[This Paper will appear as Part 14, Vol. XXYV. of the ‘“ Trans-
actions’ of the Academy, with two Plates. ]

Fersruary 8, 1875.
Wit1am Sroxss, M. D., F. R.S., President, in the Chair.

The Karl of Rosse, F. R.S., signed the Roll, and wasadmitted a Member.

The Secretary, for Dr. Doberck, read a paper ‘On p? Bootis con-
sidered as a Revolving Double-star.”’

[This paper will appear as Part 13, Vol. XXV., Science, of ate
Transactions. |

The Secretary, for J. G. Baker, F.L.S., read a ‘List of the
Myrtles of the Seychelles, with a description of two new species,
Eugenia (Syzygium) Wright and EF. Sechellarum,’

[This Paper will appear with illustrations in the SgOee acts gs,
Second Series, Vol. II., Science, Part 2. |

The Secretary, for G. H. Kinahan, M.R.I. A., read Report No. 3,
‘“Qn the Microscopical Structure of Ingenite Rocks.”

{ This Paper will appear in the Proceedings, Second Series, Vol. II.,
Science, Part 2. |

The Secretary, read a paper by M. Donovan, Esq., ‘‘On some
further improvements of the comparable self-acting registering
Hygrometer.”’

[This Paper will appear in the Proceedings, Second Series, Vol. IT.,
Science, Part 2. |

The Treasurer exhibited a volume containing a collection of Drawings.

The Drawings in this volume were all by Miss Carruthers, daughter
of the late Mr. James Carruthers, of Glenravel, Belfast, a well-known
collector of Irish Antiquities.

(Salva)

The Drawings relate to almost every class of Irish Antiquities, and
an index is given at the end of the volume.

The majority of them are copies of copper and wood engravings in
printed books, but a large portion consists of originals, chiefly coloured
representations of objects from Mr. Carruthers’ collection, executed
with great beauty and precision.

This collection being now scattered, these Drawings are the more
interesting.

The volume was shown at the Exhibition of Irish Antiquities,
brought together in the Music Hall, Belfast, during the British Asso-
ciation Meeting, by the Naturalists’ Field Club; and Dr. James Moore,
M.R.I.A., was kindly instrumental in procuring Miss Carruthers’
obliging permission to send the volume for Exhibition to the
Academy.

On the recommendation of the Council, the Academy voted the
following sums out of their Parliamentary grant in aid of Scientific
Researches :—

E. T. Hardman, £25, for ‘‘ Chemico-Geological Researches.”

George Porte, M.R.I.A., £25, for ‘‘ Micro-Photographic Ex-
periments.”

H. W. Mackintosh, B.A., £30, for ‘‘ Researches as to the Struc-
ture of the Echinoidea.”

The Secretary laid on the table the following Parts of Vol. XXY.
of the ‘‘ Transactions’? :—

‘“‘ Researches in Chemical Optics.” By the Rev. J. H. Jellett,
B. D., Senior Fellow, Trinity College, Dublin.

‘‘Report on the Strength of Single-riveted Lap Joints.” By Bin-
don B. Stoney, M. A., M.R.I.A., Memb. Inst. C.E. (With Tables
and Plate X XV.)

The Academy then adjourned.

FEBRUARY 22, 1875.
The Very Rey. Dean Reeves, D. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
C. O’Callaghan, C.E., signed the Roll, and was admitted a
Member.
W. Archer, M.R.I.A., read a Paper ‘‘ On Chlamydomyza labyrinthu-
loides (n. gen. et sp.), a new Sarcodic Freshwater Organism.”
This novel sarcodic organism from the fresh water, presented a ~

(- lynt)

very considerable resemblance to those two congeneric marine forms
regarded as the type of a new family imstituted by Cienkowski, and
named by him Labyrinthulea. In Schultze’s ‘“‘ Archiv fiir Mikr.
Anatomie,” in a memoir entitled ‘‘ Ueber den Bau und die Entwicke-
lung der Labyrinthuleen’”’ (see also Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Vol. vii.,
p- 277), that author gives an account of the new organisms so named,
found by him amongst algze on piles in the harbour of Odessa. These,
as stated by him, are characterised by being composed of three ele-
ments or constituents, the central mass, the spindles, and the filamentary
tracks (‘‘ Fadenbahn,” Cienk.) In the organism now brought forward.
we have all these elements, that is to say, the central sarcodic ‘‘ body-
mass,” the ‘‘ spindles,” and the ‘filamentary tracks.’’ In all, the
filamentary tracks are minute, extremely slender hyaline threads,
emanating from the central mass, stretching far and wide into the
surrounding water, and forming an irregularly connected, much rami-
fied, arborescent framework, along which the spimdle-shaped bodies
travel slowly in great numbers, away from the central ‘‘ headquarters.”
But the main distinction (apart of course from minor differences of
colour and the lke) between the ‘‘ spindles” in Cienkowski’s forms
and the present is, that in the latter they are not nucleated, whilst in
the former they are. Another distinction is, that in the present
organism the aggregate body-mass presents a remarkable tendency to
become repeatedly encysted or coated with a thick hyaline multi-
laminated covering, the densely arborescent body-mass being only now
and again protruded through a torn-like opening in the covering; this
covering gives the cellulose reaction on the application of iodine and
sulphuric acid. Another important distinction lies in the fact that the
body-mass possesses, immersed in its substance, numerous irregularly
figured deep crimson-coloured pigment-granules, giving to the
organism, viewed under moderate powers, a decidedly red colour. A
further difference of importance in the present form is its “‘ parasitic”
habit, or, at least, the fact that im a younger state of existence it in-
habits the cells of aquatic plants, such as Sphagnum, the immersed
leaves of Eriophorum, Sedges, &c., or (in Connemara) the tissues of
Eriocaulon ; from these hosts it protrudes by and by, becomes re-
encysted, and at last removed. A minor distinction occurs in the fact
that the spindles here are of a bluish hue, not as in Cienkowski’s
forms, either orange-coloured or colourless.

The curious organism is manifestly one of which at present no

R.1I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-75. i

ia

(Salvia)

record exists; its true nature is somewhat problematic, its ‘facies’ is
that of a ‘‘Labyrinthulean,” but the non-nucleated spindles are
seemingly a bar to its admission as yet to a place in that group; it
does not resemble any of Hiickel’s Monera, it has no seeming
immediate affinity to Rhizopoda, and, so far as we can see, must con-
tinue for the present an isolated problematic production which the
Author would meantime suggest should remain in abeyance, standing
under the designation Chlamydomyza labyrinthuloides.

{ This Paper will appear in the Proceedings, Second Series, Vol. IT.,
Part 2, Science, with coloured illustrations. ]

E. T. Hardman, F.C.S., &c., read a paper ‘‘ On two new deposits of
Human and other Bones discovered in the Cave of Dunmore, County
Kilkenny.”

The author haying referred to the descriptions by previous writers,
of this cave, who all agreed that there was but one locality in which
bones were to be got, noticed more particularly that of Dr. A. Wynne
Foot, who had described and named a quantity of human bones which
he had obtained from one part of the cave. Lately the author had
visited the cave, and found at quite the opposite extremity—mnear the —
‘“ Market Cross’’—some 600 feet distant, two places in which bones
occurred abundantly, not only human, but also those of sheep or
goat, pig, and ox. All these, as well as those described by
Dr. Foot, are found lying in or at the base of stratified beds
of sand and clay (covered with stalagmite), which have been
introduced by old openings or fissures leading either into old
chambers, or to the surface; the bones having been swept into their
present position by a stream of water. This would be quite in accor-—
dance with Lyell’s doctrine, as to the presence of bones in the caves of
Liege and elsewhere. The author controverted the idea that the bones
could be those of natives massacred by the Danes, and considered that
they might be pre-historic. No flint implements had yet been found,
but they had not been especially searched for, and might escape casual
observation. The author hoped to be able to continue his explora-
tions during the summer.

A collection of bones from the old and new localities was exhi-
bited.

[This Paper will appear in the Proceedings, Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 2., with an illustration. |

The Academy then adjourned.

( . shiseS)

Tuxrspay, Marcu 16, 1875.
(Stated Meeting.)
Wurm Sroxes, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The names recommended by the Council to fill the vacancies in the
List of Honorary Members was read, and the Ballot for Honorary
Members and for President and Council was declared open.

The Secretary of the Council read the following

Report oF THE CounciIt FoR THE YEAR 1874-75.

Snyce the date of the last Report of the Council, the following Papers
have been published in the Transactions :—

In the Department of Science, forming portions of Volume xxv. :—

Part 6. Screw Co-ordinates and their Application to Problems in
the Dynamics of a Rigid Body ; by R. Stawell Ball, LL. D., F. B.S.

Part 7. On Accessory Lobes of the Human Lung; by Edward W.
Collins, M. D.

Part 8. On certain Symmetric Functions of the Roots of an
Algebraic Equation ; by John C. Malet, A. M.

Part 9. Experiments on the Movements of Water in Plants,
Part 1; by W. Ramsay M‘Nab, M. D.

Part 10. Researches in Chemical Optics; by the Rev. J. H.
Jellett, B.D.

Part 11. Report on the Strength of single-riveted Lap Joints; by
Bindon B. Stoney, A. M.

And the following are in the press:—

Parts 12 and 13. On the First Comet in 1845; and On the Binary
Star »? Bootis; by Dr. Doberck.

Part 14. On the Anatomy of Insectivorous Edentates; by A.
Macalister, M. B.

Part 15. On the Fern Flora of the Seychelles; by J. G. Baker,
F.L.S.; with Notes on some of the Species, by E. P. Wright, M. D.

Part 16. On the Structure of the Spines of the Diadematide ; by
H. W. Mackintosh, A. B.

(ie)

In the department of Polite Literature and Antiquities, there is in
the press :-—

On the Felire of Gingus ; by Whitley Stokes, LL. D.

Parts 9 and 10 of Volume I. and Part 1 of Volume II., Science, of
the Second Series of the Proceedings have appeared within the year.
Part 11 of Volume I., Second Series of the Proceedings, Polite Literature
and Antiquities, is in the press; and Part 2 of Volume II., Second
Series, Science, will be published early in April, and will contain all
the Science Papers read before the Academy to the present date, with
the exception of such as may have appeared in the Transactions.

Papers have been read before the Academy :—

In the department of Science :—by Alexander Macalister, M. B. ;
Mr. M. Donovan; John Casey, LL. D.; E. W. Collins, M. D.; J. C:
Malet, A. M.; E. Perceval Wright, M. D.; Mr. Charles E. Burton ;
Bindon B. Stoney, A.M; Charles R. C. Tichborne, Ph. D.; Edmund
W. Davy, M.D.; Mr. W. Archer; Dr. Doberck; H. W. Mackintosh,
A.B.; Mr. J. R. Young; Mr. G. R. Leeper; Mr. G. H. Kinahan;
Mr. E. T. Hardman; and Mr. J. G. Baker.

In the department of Polite Literature and Antiquities :—by the
President (Dr. Stokes); Rev. J. O’ Hanlon ; Samuel Ferguson, LL. D.;
Very Rev. W. Reeves, D. D.; J. R. Garstin, A. M; Mr. R: R. Brash;
Mr. John Rhys; and Rev. Edmund MacClure, A. M.

Considerable improvements have been carried out in the Museum
within the year. Upright glazed mahogany cases have been placed in
the windows of the Strong Room, and in the front windows of the
Long Room, and the window recesses of the former apartment have
been provided with coiling iron shutters.

The transfer and arrangement of the Petrie Collection of Antiqui-
ties have been completed, and a descriptive Catalogue, indicating the
place of deposit of each object, has been prepared by the Curator.

All objects acquired from the Curator’s appoimtment im April,
1872, to the present month have been entered in a general Register,
in accordance with the instructions of the Museum Committee. A
record in the same volume of the objects not included in the printed
Catalogue, or acquired since its publication, is in process of execution
under the superintendence of the Curator, and is now approaching
completion.

\
}
/

( Shs

We mentioned in our last Report that we had, within the year
then closing, once more addressed a communication to the Irish
Government, urging in the strongest manner the importance of acquiring
the Ardagh-Cup and Brooches for our collection, and we stated that
we had reason to hope that our continued efforts in this matter would
in the end be crowned with success. The members of the Academy
are doubtless aware that those valuable objects have, within the past
Session, been deposited *“—we trust permanently—in the Academy’s
Museum. The ancient shrine known as the Fiacal Phadruig has also
been deposited on loan in the Museum by our President. Gold and
silver fibule, and various antique objects in bronze, stone, and other
materials, have been obtained by presentation or by purchase, chiefly
under the Treasure-Trove Regulations. The particulars of the several
objects have been recorded in the published Minutes of the Proceedings.

The Council have been diligent in their endeavours to extend
the facilities for purposes of exhibition afforded by the Academy
House. They have succeeded in obtaining an additional window
and a fireplace in the greater crypt which serves as a Lapidary
Museum; and in the crypt under the Reading-room they have
eaused the printed stock of the Academy’s Transactions, &e., to
be arranged at one side, so as to leave further space for Museum pur-
poses. But these apartments, and others in the basement which they
would desire to connect with them, remain practically inaccessible,
from the want of a proper approach. Respecting the necessity of this
- they have made representations in the proper quarter; but as yet, they
regret to say, without success.

The Commissioners of Public Works have conferred a very accep-
table boon on the Academy, by constructing open fireplaces in the
Library and Reading-room. All who remember the defects in heating
and ventilation, so much complained of in former years, will appreciate
this marked addition to the comfort and cheerfulness of our apartments.
The exterior of the Academy House has been painted, also the
front and back halls; and a new entrance porch has been constructed.

A considerable number of donations have been made to the Library
during the year, in addition to the Transactions and Proceedings of
British and Foreign Societies, obtained by exchanges. In particular

* Vide Minutes, ante, p. litt.

(abst 3)

we have to acknowledge a collection of transcripts from [nish MSS.,
presented by the Ven. Archdeacon Kyle.

The work of transcribing and lithographing Ancient Irish Texts
continues to be carried on under the supervision of our Librarian, Mr.
Gilbert. The second and concluding Part of the Academy’s edition of
“ Leabhar Breac”’ will be published as soon as the Introduction and
Table of Contents have been completed. A facsimile transcript of the
‘‘Book of Leinster’ has been executed, as far as page 100, by Mr.
O’Longan, assisted in the collation by Professor O’ Looney ; and seventy-
six pages have been finally printed off. The original, from which this
copy has been taken, is the property of Trinity College, Dublin, and it is
right to add that that body has not only offered the utmost facilities
for the use of the Manuscript, but has contributed liberally to the
expense incurred in the publication.

Two prizes of £50 each having been offered early in the year
1873, from the interest of the Cunningham bequest, open to general
competition, for Reports on the Irish Language and Irish Literature,
written and unwritten, in the Provinces of Munster and Connanght
respectively, seven Reports were sent in. The Council did not con-
sider that any of them was, on the whole, such a work as ought to
receive the prize offered. Such knowledge and industry, however,
were displayed in three of these Reports as seemed to entitle the authors
to some substantial mark of consideration, and the Council, accordingly,
bestowed on them Honorary Donations, as follows :—

To the Very Rey. Canon Ulick J. Bourke, President of St. Jarlath’s
College, Tuam, £25.

To Mr. John Fleming, Rathgormuck, Carrick-on-Suir, £15,
together with copies of the Academy’s Editions of Leabhar Na-hUidhri
and Leabhar Breac, and of the Irish MSS. Series, Part 1.

To Mr. Francis Keane, Frederick-street, North, Dublin, £10.

These Reports are deposited in the Library of the Academy.

The Council have since determined to offer two prizes of £50 each
from the Cunningham Fund for similar Reports in relation to the
Provinces of Ulster and Leinster respectively ; such Reports to be sent
in on or before the 1st of March, 1876. A statement on the subject
of the proposed Prizes forms Appendix A. to the present Report.

The Rey. Canon Hume, Liverpool, having submitted to the Council

( Ixiii_ )

a specimen of a Glossary of the English language as spoken in Ireland,
with a view to the publication by the Academy of this work, the plan
of which had been previously explained by him in a paper read before
you, the Council, though unable to embark in so large and costly an
undertaking, yet approving of the enterprise, and desiring to mark their
estimation of the zeal, industry, and ability of the Author, awarded
to him a premium of £25 from the Cunningham Fund, payable on the
publication of the first Fasciculus, which, they are glad to learn, may
shortly be expected.

The Academy has already given its sanction to the following
grants, from the fund placed at its disposal for aiding Scientific
Researches by providing suitable instruments and materials :—

£25 to Mr. Edward T. Hardman, for Chemico-Geological Re-
searches.

£30 to Mr. H. W. Mackintosh, for Researches as to the Structure
of the Echinoidea; and

£25 to Mr. G. Porte, for Micro-Photographic Experiments.
And the Academy will be asked at this Mecting, to give its assent
to the following further grants from the same fund :—

£40 to Dr. Leith Adams, for Report on Explorations of the
Cave of Shandon.

£25 to Dr. Handsel Griffiths, for Report on Experiments on the
Effects of Certain Drugs on the Circulation.

£25 to Dr. Reuben Harvey, for Report of his Researches on
Staiming Reagents used in Histology; and

£30 to Professor A. H. Church, for Report on the analysis of
some rare mineral arseniates and phosphates.

A list of all the grants made from this Fund since it was placed at
the disposal of the Academy to March, 1874, and of the results obtained
from them, is given in Appendix B to the present Report.

A communication has been addressed to the Council by the Lord
Lieutenant, stating that His Grace is desirous of proceeding with the
publication of the Irish Annals, which was commenced in the Series
brought out in England under the care of the Master of the Rolls, and
proposes to begin with an Edition of the Annals of Ulster. His Grace
has further expressed the wish that the Royal Irish Academy should
undertake the work. The Council have gratefully accepted the offer
thus made to them, and by the desire of His Grace have furnished a

(a ixava )

statement respecting some points relating to the Annals in question,
and in particular as to the probable cost of their publication.

In the Inaugural Address delivered by the President (Dr. Stokes), on
the 380th of November, 1874,* he took occasion to make some important
observations respecting the preservation of National Architectural Monu-
ments, a subject on which the Academy had previously taken action
by correspondence with Sir John Lubbock and My. P. J. Smyth con-
cerning projected legislation. The President, whilst pointing out the
danger attendant on attempts at restoration, strongly insisted that
those who are charged with the preservation of ancient structures in
Ireland, should be assisted in the performance of that duty by persons
possessing special archeeological knowledge. The Council have since
thought it right to prepare a statement on this subject, which they
have submitted to the Irish Church Temporalities’ Commission and to
the Board of Public Works. A copy of this statement is given as
Appendix C. to the present Report.

We have lost by death within the year, six Honorary Members,

V1Z. :—

1. J. B. A. L. Leonce Elie de Beaumont.

2. Sir Frederick Madden.

3. Albert Way.

4. Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot.

5. Constantine Tischendorf.

6. Lord Romilly.

We have also lost six Ordinary Members, viz. :—

1. Edward Wilmot Chetwode, M.A., elected in 1824.

2. Philip Dixon Hardy, elected in 1829.

3. Robert Adams, M. D., elected in 18388.

4. Augustus Frederick, Duke of Leinster, elected in 1843.

5. Francis L’Estrange, M. A., M. D., elected in 1845.

6. George Travers Macartney, elected in 1870.

Twenty-one Members have been elected since the 16th of March,

1874, viz. :—

1. Robert Atkinson, LL. D.

2. W. F. Barrett, Esq.

3. Edward W. Collins, M. D.

* Vide Minutes, ante, p. v.

(Ebay ))

4. Robert Cryan, Esq., F.K. & Q.C. P., &c.
5. W. J. Fitzpatrick, LL. D.
6. A. W. Foot, M. D:
7. Ernest H. Goold, C. E.
8. Edward Hamilton, M. D.
9. Reuben J. Harvey, M. D.
10. Arthur Hill, Esq.
11. Abraham Kidd, M. D.
12. John G. MacCarthy, M. P.
13. Stephen M‘Swiney, M. D.
14. John J. O’Callaghan, Esq.
15. George H. Porter, M. D.
16. Matthew J. Purcell, Esq.
17. Emerson Reynolds, M. D.
18. James Stewart, M. A.
19. William Stokes, junior, M. D.
20. H. T. Sweetman, Esq.
21. John R. Wigham, Esq.

APPENDIX A.
Trish Lanevace AND LITERATURE.

Tuer Council of the Royal Irish Academy are prepared to offer, out of
the Cunningham Fund, two Premiums of Fifty Pounds each, for the
best Reports or Essays on the present state of the Irish Language and
Literature, written and unwritten, in the Provinces of Leinster and
Ulster, respectively.

Persons desiring to compete for either of these premiums are
required to lodge their Essays or Reports with the Secretary of the
Royal Irish Academy, at the Academy House, No. 19, Dawson-street,
Dublin, on or before the Ist March, 1876.

The Council of the Royal Irish Academy does not undertake to
award either of the above-mentioned premiums, if no Report or Essay
of sufficient merit be received.

Annexed is a list of subjects suggested to intending competitors :
to be treated of in relation to the Province selected.

J. K. INGRAM, EL.D.,

Secretary of the Couneil.
R. I, A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-70. k

( Isvi_ )

HEADS TO BE CHIEFLY KEPT IN VIEW IN THE PROPOSED Essays AND
Reports oN THE IRtsH LANGUAGE.

Books (printed) in the Irish Language ; what, and to what extent
in use.
Irish Grammars and Dictionaries in use, and by whom Edited.
Manuscripts in Irish.
Letter-writing in Irish, if practised, and Specimens.
Recent Poems in Irish; Names and Specimens.
Songs in Irish; Names and Specimens.
Tales, Stories, and Local and Family Traditions, Enumeration of.
Teaching in Irish; Names of Teachers and Schools.
Recent Poets and Improvisers; Names.
Professional Story-tellers ; Specimens of their Productions.
Caoimears; Productions and Specimens of.
Preaching.
New Irish Technical Terms.
Trish Words Anglicized.
English Words Hibernicized.
Approximation of per centage of Population, under the following
heads :-—
Persons who speak Ivish.

ie Trish and English.

7 read Irish.

s write Irish.

f ee \
(CG ulisevain 93)

APPENDIX B.

PaRLIAMENTARY GRANT FOR THE PREPARATION OF ScreNTIFIC ReEPoRTs-
From April, 1868, to April, 1874, upwards of sixty applications
were made to the Council for assistance out of the above grant of £200
All these applications have been carefully examined into by

a-year.

the Committee of Science.

The Council have, from time to time,

recommended to the Academy the following grants, and these have
been approved of and the amounts forwarded to the respective appli-
The following is a complete list of the grants up to March 16,

cants.
1874 :—
No Date
1868.
1 | July 27.
1869.
2 Jan. 2:
Bulb en 13.
4 | Feb. 19
5 ” ”
1870.
6 | Jan. 10.
7 ay eile
8 ” ”
9 ” ”»
10 | Feb. 22
Mar 223
12 ” ”
13 ” ”
14 39 ”
15 | Dec. 3.
1871.
16 | Mar. 27
17 ” ”
Tours. 29.
19 ” ”
20 OL.
21 ” »”
22

Amount
Name and Subject. of
Award
eS Got GE
| E. P. Wright, on Hyalonema mirabilis, 20 0 O
J. Purser, on Cohnheim’s researches, : 50 0 O
C. R.C. Tichborne, on the molecular disassociation
of compounds by heat, rae | 50 0 O
Rey. E. O’ Meara, on Irish Diatomacex, wae 30 0 0
| W. O'Leary, on animal heat, ae a0 0) 0
| Rey. E. O'Meara, on Irish Diatomacee. No. 2, 30 0 0
| J. Bailey, C. E., on flitch beams, : =| 20 OO
B. B. Stoney, C_E. , on riveted lap joints. , || A) a ©
H. Hennessy, on influence of the molecular con-
dition of Fluids on their motion in contact with
SOAS ie, ee wick ie : 30 0 0
R. S. Ball, on vortex rings in air, . aa 25 0 0
John Barker, on microscopic illumination, ay ah 20 0 0
Professor W. King, on the jointing, &c. of rocks, 25 0 O
Emerson Reynolds, on spectrum analysis of
chlorides, 1
R. Furlong, on the innervation of the heart, 15 0 0
G. J. Stoney, on the refractive index of air for
each wave length, 3, Nae 50 0 0
H. Hennessy, on the friction of fluids in contact
with solids. No. 2, : = |-20) 00
| R. S. Ball, on vortex rings in air. “No. 2, : FG, ©
| E. Reynolds, on “spectrum analyses of chlorides.
leeeNo: 2 Sune Be i) W) @
Thiselton Dyer, ¢ on vegetable physiology, ithe 29) “0 10
G. J. Stoney, on the interrupted spectra of gases, | 50 0 0
R. H. Traquair, on the cranial structure of osseous
fishes, : Pe pal) 2 Wo
| B.B. Stoney, on ‘riveted lap joints. No. 2 2a LO Oe

( txviii- )

: Amount |
No. Date. Name and Subject. of
Award.
1872. sles) BS GA
23 | Feb. 17. | C. R. C. Tichborne, on dissociation of salts in hot
solutions: “No.2; “ss 2.2 sha sae OOOO
DARE SAGs E. T. Hardman, on chemico-geological re-
searches, . . eee | oO ©
25 ak ae R. 8. Ball, on vortex rings in air. No. 3° : | 25. 0-0
26 ssi ee hes S. Downing, on motion of water through eurved
tubes, . 25-20) 0
27 | Mar. 25. | C. P. Cotton, on n the strength, &e., of bent iron
DALES ees pho ese Seen)
28 MES = INGA ES More, on the Flora ‘of ‘the West of Ireland, / 15 0 0
29 ehlee ss C. E. Burton, Spectroscope for aurora and zodi-
acal light, . . 7 1) &
SO |teessnaiess G. J. Stoney, Spectroscope for or interrupted spectra
of gases, . . ; : ; | 17 10 0
SE “al
31 | Mar. 17. | W. H. Baily, Fossil plants of Kiltorcan, . /50 0 0
SOR |G eee te G. H. Kinahan, Microscopical examination. of
rocks, . 40 0 0
33 oss Win ee M‘Nab, for researches: in vegetable
: physiology, . 30.0 0
34 | June 23. | G. J. Stoney, towards eneeraction Bi Academy's s |
Spectroscope, + 35 0 0
35 | Noy. 24. | Messrs. Draper and Moss, for Researches on
selentum, eo. op nes woe eo le So Se SO ORES.
1874
36 | Jan. 26. | Alexander Macalister, for report on myology of
mammals, 3 30 0 0
37 | Jan. 30. | Messrs. Studdert and Caldwell, ‘for analysis of
mineral waters at Lisdoonvarna, > 30 0 0
38 | Mar. 11. | W. Bailey, for investigations on fossils of Trish
coal districts, . . |} 40 0 0
SOM se hs Rey. S. Haughton, on chemical and mineral com-
position of | lava Hows of Vesuvius, . 150 0 0
40| ,, 16. | Dr. David Moore, for investigation of Irish
Hepatice, A sess 1 oon ti

In judging of the results obtained from the grants, it must be borne
in mind that scientific investigations cannot always be hurried, and
that they will in some cases lead to merely negative conclusions.

Three of the grants, Nos. 38, 39, and 40, were given only twelve
months since, and it is yet too soon to expect Reports. The results
of No 89, however, it is hoped, will be laid before the Academy
during the present Session.

* A grant of £40 was also made to P. 8. Abraham, B.A., for Report On Deep Sea
Dredging off Madeira; but this grant was, owing to Mr. Abraham’s illness, re-
turned at once and revoted.

(Mii })

Nos. 15, 20, 30, and 34, at the suggestion of Mr. Stoney and by
permission of the Council, have been applied to the construction for the
Academy of a new form of Spectroscope, described in the Proceed-
ings, Volume I., Ser. II., Science, p. 208.

Nos. 25 and 27, were returned, the applicants not being able to
follow out the line of Research intended.

Nos: 1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 22, 23, 24, 29, 31, 32, and 33, 36
have forwarded either preliminary or final Reports.

Letters have been sent by the Secretary of the Academy and
the Secretary of the Council to each of the other recipients of grants,
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 16, 18, 19, 21, 26, 28, 35, and 37; and satisfac-
tory answers respecting the progress of their Kesearches have been
received from all, with the exception of No. 5, who has up to this time
taken no notice of our communications.

The Reports—On Irish Diatomacez, On the motion of water through
curved tubes, and On the mineral waters of Lisdoonyarna, have been
promised during the present Session.

APPENDIX C.

SraTEMENT BY THE Councrt oF THE Royat IrtsH ACADEMY RESPECTING
Natronat Monuments 1n IRELAND AFFECTED BY THE IRISH CHURCH
Act, 1869.

[Adopted February, 1875.]
There are two classes of Monuments to be considered :—

A.—Those transferred to the charge of the Board of Works.

B.—Those remaining in the charge of the Church Temporalities’
Commissioners.

A 1. As regards the former class, the regular course’of proceeding
is, as we understand, that the Architect first prepares his plan and
working directions in full detail; and that these, after receiving the
sanction of the Commissioners, are put into the hands of the workmen
and servants of the Board, for execution.

A 2. In our opinion, the interference of any extern authority, or
of any other than a professional builder, in these executive operations
would be undesirable.

A 3. We also think that, subject to the wishes of the Architect,

(© Asece)

any archeological assistance that might be offered, should be in the
form of preliminary Reports to be submitted to him, and on whick
he should exercise his discretion, in the first instance; but we under-
stand that the Architect, regarding the successful achievement of the
work confided to the Commissioners as his primary object (in which
we cannot sufficiently express our respect for his high sense of official
duty), would not object to furnish his plans and specifications, in the
first place, in order that competent archeeological advice should be
taken on his proposals, before finally settling the working instructions.

A 4. We are of opinion that such advice might be taken with
advantage, not only in the first instance, but as often as occasion
might arise. An archeologist familiar with the characteristic features
and history of a building, might be able to point out facts of value in
determining many poits of uncertainty: as, for example, where
sculptured fragments of uncertain origin may be found in the course
of operations, of sufficient importance to call for replacement; or,
where ancient plans or drawings may exist, showing what were the
forms of particular parts now too much effaced by time to explain
themselves. We are also of opinion that any suggestions calculated
to diminish the loss of picturesque beauty, incident to repairs of ruined
masonry, would be worthy of consideration, and might be invited with
adyantage.

B 1. As to the buildings remaining in the charge of the Church
Temporalities Commissioners: it appears to the Council, as at present
advised, that The Irish Church Act, 1869, does not contemplate the
preservation out of the surplus property of the late Established Church
of any such edifices, save those treated_as National Monuments and
placed in the charge of the Commissioners of Public Works.

B 2. We are not informed, nor have we means of learning without
official communications on which we have no authority to enter, what
structures have been, or are proposed to be treated as National Monu-
ments ; but we entertain a decided opinion that, whatever determina-
tion may be come to regarding other structures, all the ecclesiastical
Round Towers affected by Zhe Lrish Church Act, 1869, wherever not
vested in the Representative Body of the Church of Ireland, ought
(with their associated structures, where they exist), to be regarded as
National Monuments, and vested in the Commissioners of Works for

repair and preservation.

( Ixxi )

B 3. Besides the edifices vested in the Representative Body, and
those which, by reason of their connexion with cemeteries, are to be
handed over to the Poor Law Unions, there are some others, not
coming under any of the previous categories, which the Church Tem-
poralities Commissioners may dispose of as they think expedient
(32 & 33 Vic., c. 42, s. 25, sub-s. 4); and some of these may be deemed
worthy of preservation, although not of sufficient importance to be
constituted National Monuments. It appears to this Council that if
the Church Temporalities Commissioners should think well of offering
to vest these edifices in the owners of the adjoining fee, or other
donees, on condition that they should not be allowed to fall further -
into ruin, some competent persons might be found willing to accept
the property in them, on terms which would secure the donors against
any disappointment of their intentions.

The above is a correct extract from the minutes.

(Signed),
Joun Ketts Iveram, LL. D.

Secretary of Council, R.I. A.
The Report, with Appendices, was adopted.

The President, on the Report of the Scrutineers, declared the fol-
lowing duly elected :-—

PRESIDENT :
Writ Stoxes, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
CouncIL :
Committee of Science.

Rev. Samuel Haughton, M.D., F.T.C.D., F.R.S.
Edward Perceval Wright, M.D., F.L.S.
David Moore, Ph. D., F.L.S.

John Casey, LL. D.

Thomas Hayden, M.D., F.K. and Q.C.P.I.
Rev. J. H. Jellett, B.D., S.F.T.C.D.
Alexander Macalister, M.B., L.R.C.S. I.
William Archer, Esq.

Alexander Carte, M.D., F.L.S.

Sir Robert Kane, LL. D., F.R.S.

George J. Stoney, M.A., F.R.S.

( isu)

Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities.

John T. Gilbert, F.S. A.

John Kells Ingram, LL. D., F.T.C.D.
Samuel Ferguson, LL.D., Q.C.
William J. O’Donnavan, LL. D.
Alexander G. Richey, Q.C., LL. D.
John R. Garstin, LL. B., F.S.A.
Very Rev. Wm. Reeves, D.D.

Rey. Thaddeus O’Mahony, D.D. —
Robert Atkinson, LL. D.

Rev. Maxwell Close, M.A.

The following Honorary Members were elected :—

In the Department of Science.

Joseph Bertrand, Paris.
Bernard yon Cotta, Freiburg.
Asa Gray, Cambridge, U.S.

In the Department of Polite Literature and Antiquities.

Augustus W. Franks, M.A., London.

Sir Thomas Duffus Hardy, London.

Adolphe Pictet, Geneva.

John Stuart, LL. D., Edinburgh.

Willam Dwight Whitney, Yale College, U.S.

The Ballot was then opened for officers for the ensuing Session,
and the President, on the Report of the Scrutineers, declared the
following duly elected :—

TREASURER.—John R. Garstin, LL.B. F.S. <A.
Secrerary.—Edward Perceval Wright, M.D., F.L.S.
SECRETARY To THE Councrt.—John Kells Ingram, LL.D.
SECRETARY OF ForEIGN CorREsponDENCE.— William Archer, Esq.
Lisrartan.—John T. Gilbert, F.S. A.

CLERK oF THE AcaDeEMy.—Edward Clibborn.

( dsxaiit” )
The President, under his hand and seal, nominated the ec collgwing
_ as Vice-Presidents for 1875-6 :—
Very Rev. W. Reeves, D.D., Dean of Armagh.
Rey. Samuel Haughton, M.D., F.R.S., F.T.C.D.

Samuel Ferguson, LL.D., Q. C.
Sur Robert Kane, LL.D., F.R.S.

The recommendation of the Council of the 18th of March, 1875,
to allocate the following sums out of the Parliamentary grant, for the
preparation of Scientific Reports was adopted :—

£40, to Dr. Leith Adams, F.R.8., for Report On Explorations of
the Cave of Shandon.

£25, to Dr. Hansdel Griffiths, for Report On Experiments of the
Effect of Certain Drugs on the Circulation.

£25, to Dr. Reuben Harvey, for Report of his Researches on Stain-_
ing Reagents used in Histology.

£30, to Professor A. H. Church, for Report On the Analysis of
some rare Mineral Arseniates and Phosphates.

The following resolution was passed :—

‘That it be recommended to Council to consider the rules regulat- -
ing the vote by ballot, and to draw up a set of clear and ample direc-
tions, which shall be transmitted to each member of the Academy
previous to elections.”

The following additions to the Museum were announced :—

March 16th, 1875. List of Objects purchased for Museum since last
Meeting of Academy. :

Two Silver Coins—viz., Shilling of James I., and Sixpence
of Elizabeth; found in a bog adjoining Belvidere Lake, Co.
Westmeath, in February, 1875.

Nine Stone Celts.

Stone Hammer Head.

Three Perforated Stone Disks.

Stone Boss.

Decorated Stone Ring.

Hollow Circular Stone Object.

Three Copper Axe-shaped Celts.

Six Bronze ditto.

K. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-75. l

7

( ixxivy )

Four Bronze Axe-shaped Celts, winged and stopped.
Two do., do., socketed and looped.

Bronze Tool, chisel shaped.

Fragment of Bronze Leaf-shaped Spear Head.

Two Bronze Javelin Heads.

Lower Portion of Bronze Leaf-shaped Sword Blade.
Bronze Rapier Blade.

Bronze Sword Blade.

Ladle of Golden Bronze.

Two Brass Graduated Hoops.

Hollow Brass Oval Object with cruciform perforations.
Brass Breast Plate. -

The following donations to the Library were announced, and
the thanks of the Academy were voted to the donors :—

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
From December, 1874, to March, 1875.
Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SocreETIEs.
Belfast.
Naturalists’ Field Club.
Guide to Belfast and adjacent Counties. 8vo, Belfast, 1874.
Club.
Bordeaux.
La Société des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles.
Mémoires, Tome I. (2™ Série), 17 Cahier. 8vo, Paris, 1875.
The Society.
Brussels.
Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique.
Bulletin, 43"° Année, 2™° Série, Tome XXXYVIII., Nos. 7-12.
- De ee >) ROXIE Nios 8
Annuaire pour 1875. 8vo, Brussels, 1874-5. The Academy.
Calcutta.
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Proceedings, No. 8, 1874. 8vo, Calcutta, 1874.
Journal, Part II., No. 2, 1874. 8vo, Calcutta, 1874.
The Society.

(Vike

Titles. Donors.

ACADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
Dublin.

Royal Geological Society of Ireland.
Journal, Vol. IV., Part 1, New Series, 1873-4. 8vo, London,
1874. The Society.
Royal Historical and Archeological Association of Ireland.
Journal, Vol. IIT., 4th Series, No. 19,1874. 8yo, Dublin, 1874.
The Association.
Edinburgh.
Botanical Society.
Transactions and Proceedings, Vol. XII., Part 1. Reports for
years 1873-4. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1874. The Society.
Royal Society.
Transactions, Vol. XXVII., Part 2. 4to, Edinburgh, 1874.
Proceedings, Vol. VIII., No. 87. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1874.
The Society.
Geneve.
Société de Physique et d’ Histoire Naturelle.
Mémoires, Tome XXIII., Part 2. 4to, Genéve, 1873-4.
The Society.

Haarlem.
Société Hollandaise des Sciences.
Natuurkundige Verhandelingen, 3° Série, Tome II., Livr. 3, 4.
4to, Harlem, 1874..
Archives Néerlandaises, Tome IX., Livr. 4, 5. 8yo, Harlem,
1874. The Society.
Helsingfors.
Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten.
Bidrag till Kannedom af Finlands Natur och Folk, Vols. XVIII.,
XIX., XXI.-XXIII. 8vo, Helsingfors.
Ofversigt af Finska Vetenskaps-Societetens Férhandlingar, Vols.
XIV.-XVI. 8vo, Helsingfors.
Meteorologique de Helsingfors, Vol. V. 4to, Helsingfors, 1873.
The Society.
Kejserliga Alexanders-Universitetet 1 Finland.
Eleven Prize Essays.
Two Lists of Professors. 4to, Helsingfors, 1874.
The University.

(7 sexvi 3)

Titles. Donors-
ACADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
Lausanne.
Société Vaudoise. : :
Bulletin, 2™° Série, Vol. XIII., No. 73. 8vo, Lausanne, 1874.
The Society.
Liege.
Société Royale des Sciences.
Memoires, Tome Y., 2° Série. 8vo, Brussels, 1873. -
- The Society-
Liverpool.
Historie Society of Lancashire and Cheshire.
Transactions, Third Series, Vol. I1., Session 1878-4. 8vo,
Liverpool, 1874. The Society-
Literary and Philosophical Society. 5
Proceedings, Sixty-third Session, 1873-4, No. XXVIII. 8vo,
Liverpool, 1874. The Society.

London.

Cambrian Archeological Association.
Archeologia Cambrensis, 4th Series, Nos. 20-21, 1874. 8vo,
London, 1874. ¥
Catalogue of Temporary Museum, Wrexham Meeting, 1874.
_ 8yo, London, 1874-5. The Association.
Chemical Society.
Journal, Ser. 2, Vol. XII., No. exliv; Vol. XITE., Nos. exly—vi.
8vo, London, 1874-5. The Society.
Geologists’ Association.
Proceedings, Vol. IV., No. 1, January, 1875. 8vo, London,
1875. The Association.
Geological Society.
Quarterly Journal, Vol. XXX., Parts 4-5, 1874.
List of Members, November, 1874. 8vo, London, 1874.
The Society-
Institution of Civil Engineers.
Annual Report of the Council, December 22, 1874.
List of Members, January 1, 1875. 8vo, London, 1874-5.
The Institution.

( Ixxvil 5

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND SocletrEs—continued.
London—continued.
Linnean Society.
Journal, Botany, Vol. XIV., No. 78. 8vo, London, 1875.

The Society.
Mathematical Society.

Proceedings, Nos. 73-74, Vol. V. 8vo, London, 1874.
The Society.
Meteorological Society.

Quarterly Journal, Vol. II., No. 13, N. Series, January, 1875.
8vo, London, 1875. The Society.
Numismatic Society.
‘Chronicle, Vol. XIV., New Series, No. lvi. 8vo, London, 1874.
The Society.
Physical Society.
Proceedings, Part 1, March 21—June 20, 1874. 8vo, London,
1874. The Society.
Royal Archeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
Journal, Vol. XXI., No. 123, 1874. 8yvo, London, 1874.
The Institute.
Royal Geographical Society.
Proceedings, Vol. XIX., No. 1. 8yvo, London, 1875.

The Society.
Royal Horticultural Society.

Journal, Vol. [Y., Part 15. 8vo, London, 1874.
: The Society.
Royal Society.
Proceedings, Vol. XXIII., Nos. 156-58. 8vo, London.
Meteorological Committee, Stonyhurst Observatory: Hourly
Values, 1874. London, 1874.
Report of the Proceedings of the Conference on Maritime
Meteorology, held in London, 1874. 8vo, London, 1875.
The Society.
Society of Arts.
Journal, Vol. XXIII., Nos., 1146-64. 8vo, London, 1875.
The Society.
Society of Biblical Archeology.
Transactions, Vol. III., Parts 1, 2. 8vo, London, 1874.
The Society,

Titles. Donors.
ACADEMIES AND Socretres—continued.
Lyons.
Académie des Sciences, Belles Lettres et iat
Memoires de la classe des Lettres, Tom. XY.
a », des Sciences, ,, XX. 8vo, Lyon, 1874.
The Academy.
Société d Agriculture, Histoire Naturelle et Arts utiles.
Annales, Tome V., 4° Série, 1872. 8vo, Lyon.
The Society.
Société Linnéenne.
Annales, Année 1873, Nouvelle Série, Tome XX. 8yo, Lyon,
1874. The Society.
Manchester.
Literary and Philosophical Society.
Proceedings, Vol. XII., No. 12.
i 5, XIV., Nos. 5-7. 8vo, Manchester, 1874.
The Society.
Moscow.
Société Impériale des Naturalistes.
Bulletin, No. 2, 1874. 8vo, Moscow, 1874.
Nouveaux Mémoires, Tome XIII. 4to, Moscou, 1874.
The Society.
Munich.
Konigliche Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Sitzungsberichte, Philosophisch-Philologische Classe, Band 11,
Heft 1, 1874. 8vo, Miinchen, 1874. The Academy.
Philosophie und Theologie von Averroes. Aus dem Arabischen
Uebersetzt von Marcus Joseph Miller. 4to, Miinchen, 1875.
Oxford.
Radcliffe Observatory.
Astronomical and Meteorological Observaaone Vol. XXXII.,
1872. 8vo, Oxford, 1875. The Obsacyatory.
Paris.
Académie des Sciences.
Comptes Rendues, Tome LX XIX., Nos. 21-25.
‘5 5 ,» LUXXX., Nos. 1-8. 4to, Paris, 1874-5.
The Academy.

( Txcxix™))
Titles. Donors,
ACADEMIES AND Socrerres—continued.
Philadelphia.
Franklin Institute:
Journal, Vol. LXVIII., 3rd Series, Nos. 584-587, 1874.
f ee lXEXe = Noss “lh 25 ision. 9Svoe eehiladelphia:
1874-5. The Institute.
Prague.
K. K. Sternwarte.
Magnetische und Meteorologische Beobachtungen an der K. K.
Sternwarte zu Prag im Jahre, 1873, 34 Jahrgang. 4to,
Prag, 1874. The Observatory.
Rome.
Reale Accademia dei Lincei.
Atti, Tomo XXVI., Anno XXVI., Sessione III.*, Delli 9

Febraio, 1873.
Sessione IV., Delli 2

Marzo, 1873. 4to, Roma, 1874. The Academy.
Upsal.
Société Royale des Sciences.
Nova Acta, Série IIT., Vol. [X., Fasc. 1.
Bulletin Météorologique, Vol. V., Nos. 7-13. 4to, Upsal, 1874.
The Society.
Vienna.
Die kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Denkschriften, Mathematisch-Naturl. Classe, Band XX XIII.
4to, Wien, 1874. .

Sitzungsberichte, Philosophisch-historische Classe, Band LXXV.,
Heft 1-3.

2 Classe, Band LXXVI., Heft 1-3.

SE npsberichte, Mathematisch-Naturl. Cl. (Erste Abth.), Band
LXVIII., Heft 3-5; LXIX., Heft 3.

Sitzungsberichte, Meyaem techs Nate Cl. (Zweite Abth.), Band
LXVIII., Heft 3-5; LXIX.,Heft 1-3.

Sitzungsberichte, Mathematisch-Natur. Cl. (Dritte Abth.), Band
LXVIII., Heft 1-5.

Almanach, 1874. 8vo, Wien, 1874.

Archiy fiir Oesterreichische Geschichte, Band LI., Heft 2.
Register Banden I.—L. 8vo.

Verzeichniss beobachteter Polarlichter yon Hermann Fritz. 4to,
Wien. The Academy.

(a xexsxt

Titles. Donors.
AUTHORS.
Brunnow (Francis). Astronomical Observations and Researches made
at Dunsink. Part 2. 4to, Dublin, 1873.
Provost and Senior Fellows of Trinity College, Dublin.

Builder. The Irish Builder. Vol. XVI., No. 360, 1874. Vol.
XVII., Nos. 361-65. folio, Dublin, 1875. The Editor.

Butler (Wm.), A.R.I. A.J. Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin. 4to,
Dublin, 1874. The Author.

Cotton (Henry), D.C.L. Fasti Ecclesiee Hibernice, Vol. V., 2nd’
Edition. 8vo, Dublin, 1860. J. R. Garstin, M. A.

Ffoulkes (W. Wynne). Tumuli Merionethshire Tomen Pentnef. 8vo.
The Author.

Flood (Warden Hatton), Esq. Notes and Historical Criticisms on Mr.
A. Froude’s English in Ireland in the 18th Century. 8vo,
Torquay, 1874.

—— Appendix to Flood’s Reply to Froude, from Hosack’s ‘‘ Mary
Queen of Scots,’ and her accusers, among whom Mr. Anthony
Froude, Historian of Queen Elizabeth, is the most conspicuous .
and most flagrant. 8vo, Torquay. The Author.

Grant (James). Thoughts on the Origin and Descent of the Gael.
8vo, Edinburgh, 1814. Rev. Maxwell H, Close.

Hirst (T. Archer), F.R.S. On Correlation of two Planes. 8yo, 1874.

The Author.

Hooker (J. D.), C.B. Flora of British India, Parts 1-3, 1872 and
1874. 8yvo, London, 1872 and 1874.

Secretary of State for India.

Hull (Edward), M.A. Treatise on the Building and Ornamental
Stones of Great Britain and Foreign Countries. 8vyo.
The Author.

Joy (Henry Holmes), LL.D. Miscellaneous. 8vo, Oxford, 1874.
The Author.

Joyce (P. W.), LL.D. Origin and History of Irish Names of Places
(Second Series). 8yo, Dublin, 1875. The Author

(ibs,

Titles. Donors.
AurHors—continued.
Kinahan (G. H.) Valleys, and their relation to Fissures, Fractures,
and Faults. 8vo, London, 1875. The Author.

Luard (Henry Richards), M.A. Matthew Paris’ Chronica Majora,

Vol. I1., 1067-1216. 8vo, London, 1874.
Master of the Rolls.

MacSwiney (S. M.), M.D. Simple Chronic Ulcer of the Stomach.
8vo, Dublin, 1875. The Author.

Madden (Thomas More), M.D. On the probable Employment of
Anesthetics in Ancient Times, especially in Scotland and Ireland.
8vo, 1875. The Author.

Nares (Capt. G. 8.), R. N., H. M.S. Challenger, No. 2. Reports on
Ocean Soundings and Temperature, Antarctic Sea, Australia, New
Zealand, 1874. Folio, London, 1874. The Admiralty.

Newhaven. American Journal. Vol. VIII., Nos. 47, 48; Vol.
TX., No. 49. 8vo, Newhaven, 1875. The Editors.

O’Rourke (Rev. J.) History of the Great Irish Famine of 1847.
8vo, Dublin, 1875. The Author.

Redington (Joseph). Calendar of Treasury Papers, 1702-1707. 8vo,
London, 1874. Master of the Rolls.

Sang (Edward), F.R.S.E. Specimen Pages of a Table of the
Logarithms of all Numbers up to One Million.

— Remarks on the great Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Tables, -
computed in the Bureau du Cadastre, under the direction of M.
Prony. 8yvo, Edinburgh, 1874. .

Sigerson (Dr.) Note sur la Paralysie Vaso-Motrice Generalisée des
Membres Supérieurs. 8vo, Paris, 1874. The Author.

Twiss (Sir Travers), Q.C. The Black Book of the Admiralty, Vol.
III. Appendix, Part 3. 8vo, London, 1874.
Master of the Rolls.
The Academy then adjourned.
R. I. A., MINUTES, SESSION 1874-75. m

v a

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Piteen le Heigl

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(| Ixxxin )

A. §. Hart, LL.D., 8.F.T.C.D., read a paper ‘‘On the Nine-
point Contact of Cubic-Curves.”

[This paper will appear as Part 17 of Vol. XXV. of the “ Trans-
actions |.”

A. Macalister, M.D., read a paper ‘‘On some Forms of the Liga-
mentum Pterygo-spinosum.”

[ This paper will appear in the “‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 3, with illustrations. ]

Mr. A. M. Baker read a paper ‘‘ On the Ligamentum Mucosum.”’

[This Paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
IT., Science, Part 3, with three wood-cuts. |

The Secretary laid on the table the following Part of Vol. XXV.
of the ‘‘ Transactions” :—

Part 15. ‘‘On the Seychelles “Fern Flora” (Pls. xxvii. to
xxxi.), by J. G. Baker, F.L.S.

List of Objects acquired since last Meeting of the Academy.

DONATIONS.

Two Disks of bitumen with limpit shells attached, from an oyster
bed lately discovered, two miles off Tara bay, coast of the Ards,
Co. Down. Presented by Arthur Nugent, M.R.1.A.

Bronze Tripod Vessel. Presented by S. Waterhouse, Esq., Dame-st.

Thanks were voted to the Donors.

PURCHASES.

Two Bronze Spring Brooches.

Pair of Gold EKar-rings, weighing 1 dwt., said to have been found
in a grave in Killeshandra churchyard, in 1874.

Silver Brooch-Pendant, weighing 6 dwts. 5 grs., found September

1870, in the crannoge in Aghaloughan bog, near Randalstown,
Co. Antrim.

The Academy then adjourned.

( bescky |)

Monpay, May 10ru, 1875.

Sim Rozert Kane, LL. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Minutes of last Meeting were read and signed.
The Certificate of Alexander Lane, M. D., was read.

The Secretary read the following letter, directed to the President,
from Mons. Adolphe Pictet of Geneva, acknowledging the honour con-
ferred on him by the Academy in electing him an Honorary Member :—

‘‘ Geneve, 16 Aprit, 1875.

z
‘6 Monsieur LE PResIDENT,

‘‘ Je viens de recevoir, par l’entremise de Mr. Perceval Wright,
Secrétaire de Académie Royale d@’Ivlande, avis de mon élection
comme membre honoraire de cet illustre corps, accompagné du di-
pléme qui la constate. Je m’empresse de vous en accuser réception,
en vous priant de vouloir bien transmettre a l’Académie |’expression
de ma gratitude pour un témoignage de distinction bien précieux pour
moi. [1 vient réjouir ma vieillesse, en me prouvant que mes modestes
travaux celtiques ont trouvé quelque faveur en Ivlande. Ce sera un
encouragement a les poursuivre encore tant que l’age me le permettra.

‘« Aoréez, Monsieur le Président, assurance de ma haute et respec-
tueuse considération.

‘* ApoLPHE Picret.”’

The Secretary read a Report, No. 2, by Professor M‘Nab, M. D.,
“On the Movement of Water in Plants.”

[This Report will be published as Part 18, Vol. XXV., of the
“'Transactions.”’ |

Mr. G. H. Kinahan read a paper ‘‘ On the Microscopical Examina-
tion of Ingenite Rocks.’ (Report No. 4.)

[This paper will appear in the “‘ Proceedings,’’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 3. ]

(P Ub.o:6a7 7)

Professor Leith Adams, F.R.§8., read a paper ‘‘ On a Cervical Ver-
tebra of an Undescribed Species of Saurian.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. I1., Science, Part 3, with illustrations. |

Mr. H. D. Mackintosh read a paper ‘“‘On a Malformed Corona of
Echinus esculentus.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,’”’ Second Series,
Vol. I1., Science, Part 3, with illustrations. |

On the report of the Scrutineers, the Vice-President, in the Chair,
declared that Dr. Lane was duly elected a Member.

The Certificate of Rev. Canon Hume, LL.D., was read.

Several Donations to the Library and Museum were announced, and
thanks ordered to be forwarded to the donors.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay, May 24, 1875.
Rey. Proressor Haventon, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Minutes of the last Meeting were read and signed.

The Secretary laid on the table a memoir ‘‘ On Nine-point Contact
of Cubic Curves,” by A. 8. Hart, LL. D., 8. F. T. C. D., forming Part
17, Vol. XXYV., of the “‘ Transactions.’

The Secretary read a letter from Prof. Asa Gray, of Cambridge,
Mass., acknowledging his election as Honorary Member of the
Academy, and thanking the Academy for the honor thus conferred
on hin.

Sir Robert Kane, V. P., took the Chair, while the Rev. Professor
Haughton, M.D., read a Report by himself and Professor E. Hull,
M.A., ‘On the Chemical and Mineral Composition of Lava Flows of
Vesuvius, as shown by Chemical Analysis and Microscopical Investi-
gation.”

(i exexava 7)

[This memoir will be published in Vol. XXYV. of the “ Trans-
actions.”’ |

Mr. Plunkett read a Report by himself and Dr. Studdert, ‘‘On the
Mineral Constituents of the Lisdoonvarna Spa.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Second Series, Vol.
IT., Science, Part 3. ]

The Treasurer, J. Ribton Garstin, F.S. A., exhibited, and read
notes ‘‘On two Silver Maces, one of which is supposed to have been
given by Charles IT. for the use of the Sovereigns of Carlow.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Donations to the Library were acknowledged, and thanks were
voted to the donors.

The Certificate of Nicholas Furlong, M. D., was read.

The Treasurer read out the List of Members in arrear of their
Subscriptions due on the 16th of March, 1875, which was hung up
according to By Law.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Evenine, June 14, 1875.
SamvreL Ferrevson, LL. D., Q.C., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Minutes of last Meeting were read and confirmed.

The Certificates of Rev. A. Hume, J. C. Robertson, Malachy J.
Kilgariff, and Nicholas Furlong, were read.

Dr. C. R. C. Tichborne read a paper ‘‘On the Dissociation of
Molecules.”

{This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 3. |

Dr. Crofton read.a paper ‘‘ On a Coincidence between a Cuneiform
Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar, and a passage in the Book of Daniel.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”” Second Series, Vol.
I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

Professor M‘Nab read a paper ‘‘ On the Structure of the Leaves of .
Certain Species of Conifere.”’

(y ixcexeyain)

[ This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Part 3, with illustrations. |

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. C. E. Burton, ‘‘On Observations
of the Zodiacal Light.’

[This paper will appear in the “ Proceedings,”’ Second Series, Vol.
IT., Science, Part 3, with illustrations. |

Professor Downing, LL. D., read a preliminary Report ‘‘On the
Motion of Water through Curved Tubes.”

Dr. E. Davy read a paper “‘On a ready means of detecting Com-
pounds of Arsenic and Antimony.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘“ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
IT., Science, Part 3. |

Dr. Macalister read a paper ‘‘On Two Remarkable Varieties of
Perityphlic Pouches.”

[ This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 3, with illustrations. ]

Professor King read a paper ‘‘ On the Superinduced Divisional Strue-
ture of Rocks, called Jointings, and its Relations to Slaty Cleavage.”

[| This paper has been ordered for publication in Vol. X XV. of the
‘‘ Transactions.’’ |

Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks voted to the
donors.

The Secretary of the Council moved the following recommendation
sent down from the Council :-—

‘“To recommend the Academy to grant £25 to Dr. Carte out of
the Parliamentary Grant for Scientific Reports, for the purpose of in-
vestigating the excavations in the Bog of Ballybetagh.”

The recommendation was adopted.

The Secretary of the Council laid before the Academy the following
Report from the Council ‘On Inaccuracies of Transcription alleged
to exist in the Academy’s Edition of ‘ Leabhar na-h-Uidhri.’ ”

The Council of the Royal Irish Academy, at a Mecting held on
the 3rd May, 1875, Resolved :—

“That it be referred to the Committee of Polite Literature
and Antiquities, to examine and report on the inaccuracies of

( txxxvin 7)

transcription alleged (in a letter purporting to come from Mr.
Whitley Stokes, and published in the ‘‘ Revue Celtique”’ for Feb-
ruary, 1875, pp. 430-1) to exist in the facsimile of the Leabhar
na h-Uidhri, published by the Academy.”

The following is the list of alleged inaccuracies of transcription, as
printed in the ‘“‘ Revue Celtique ” :—

No.(1) Ya 44 Faces.
OQ) bes ea
@) ib Oy
(Qe 20a lop)
() Bb y=
(3) Bb 2 =
(Oy Bile BB
(8) ib. ky _—
(OQ)! Bd
GO) Bap Be
(11) 58@ marg. —
(12) 67443 —
(CISD) (aes |B
G2) 2839) =
(15) 91613 °—
G6) 1090
(17) 1186 15. —
(18) 14¢79)
(19) 390
(20) 1210 6 —

ahaims?de
foroenici
thodgarach
do

necustos
-bod

-fuitis
molbthuch
brio

anl

acht

agaid
tubraiter
dobind
becda
larthus
forserg
norumied
tiasa Uibnanech
lughand

ahainmside
fhoenici
tondgarach
tic
necmuis
— -bad
faitis
molbthach
— bric

ms.

— anim

— for

— lugad
— tabraiter
— doberid
— becdu
arthus
forseng
noruined

uasauib nanech
— beith and

Together with ‘‘two more, which,” the writer adds, ‘I did not
verify, but the corrections are obvious enough ”’ :—

No. (21) 127a@ 17
(22) 180a 5

Facs. comallastas

ecit

vead comallastar
— edit.

Tn compliance with the above reference, the Committee have care-
fully examined each case of alleged error, from the paleographical

(Ge aixxecixe 9)

pomt of view exclusively, 7.¢., they have in each instance simply
considered the question whether or not the transcript is a fair facsimile
of the manuscript original. They now proceed to report servatim upon
the errors alleged in the foregoing list.

[ It is to be observed, that the italics used in the list are simply ex-
pansions of the s?g/a, with the exception of the o in “‘ fhoenici,’”’ the
d and h of “tondgarach,” and the d of ‘‘lughazd, which are inaccu-
rately italicized in the ‘ Revue Celtique.’ ”’ |

No. 1:—(1a 44) ahaimside for ahainmside.

Here the critic virtually alleges the presence of a horizontal line
over the ¢ (in ‘‘ahaim”’) to denote the addition of a nasal, and this
horizontal stroke, he implies, the copyist has omitted. But there is no
such stroke in the MS., and the copy perfectly represents the
original,

No. 2:—(16 37) foroenici for fhoenici.

A close examination exhibits the carefulness of the transcriber, for
the MS. gives a small horizontal stroke over the f: the ordinary siglum
for the syllable or. But this stroke is not so long as usualin the MS.,
and this peculiarity the transcriber has imitated. The siglum in the
MS. could not be taken for that of the aspirate; the transcript agrees
with the original.

No. 3:—(116 22) thodgarach for toxdgarach.

Here, the word quoted is a gloss between two pretty closely written
lines. Immediately above the 0, is the lower limb of ag, which forced
the manuscript writer to place his nasal siglum (which should have
stood immediately above the 0) a little to the left, thereby bring-
ing it over the ¢, where it has misled the transcriber into regarding
it as the aspirate siglum. Here, therefore, the copyist is so far in
error.

No. 4:—(80a 15) do for tic.
In the MS. the z stroke in its upper part has blended with the
extremity of the horizontal sweep of the initial ¢, and the tail of the

é, running into the base of the 7, has produced a form very like d; the
R. I. A. MINUTES, SESSION 1874-5. n

ee ea ln a te

(cm)

upper curve of the final ¢ has swept round, and, as the letters are much
dulled, the most careful copyist would be as likely to read ‘‘do”
is) OS ake.

No. 5:—(87b 42) necustos for necmuis.

What is here implied is, that the transcriber has confounded the
ordinary siglum for ws with the first stroke of an m undcrwritten
with a vocalic siglum which the critic reads u. The copy, however,
substantially represents the original, which is very obscure, and the
critic appears to us, from the simple palewographical point of view,
not to be right in his reading, for the MS. elsewhere is very uni-
form in its m’s, which have invariably three straight limbs; but
here, what would be the middle stroke of the m is distinctly curved
to the right, producing a letter closely approximating to at. Further,
the third stroke of the supposed m also curves to the right, making,
with the alleged 7 stroke following, an enclosure which bears consider-
able resemblance to an o.

No. 6 :—(508 1) -bod for -bad.

The transcriber has erred in not giving the peculiar form of the
vowel in question, which vowel, but for a slight curve at the base of
the right arm of the letter, is an ordinary 0. The Committee do not
pronounce, however, whether it is a@ or o that is intended in the
manuscript.

No. 7:—(51a 33) -fuitis for -faitis.

The character here may be either u or a; but it is more probably «,
as the transcriber gives it, for there is a distinct dash near to the
upper end of the first stroke of the letter.

No. 8:—(5106 19, not ‘17”) molbthuch for molbthach.

Here also, the character could be read either a or u.

No. 9:—(526 10, not ‘11”’) brio for brie.

The case is the same as in No. 4, viz., an asserted confusion of ¢
and o. The word occurs at the end of the line, and the letters are
dulled, but the final has more the appearance of an o than ae, for the
right bend is nearly continuous.

(@ixeiy))

No. 10:—(536 84) ani for anim.

The objection here implics an omitted horizontal stroke over the
z,as in No. 1, but the stroke, if it ever were there, is now totally
indiscernible, owing to an ink-blotch, which completely covers the
space immediately over the ¢.

No. 11:—(58a marg.) acht for for.

A seemingly gross blunder, but which simply is, that the tran-
seriber has given an s with a horizontal stroke over it (the ordinary
siglim for Lat. set, sed, Irish acht), instead of an f with the same
stroke: the fault bemg therefore the omission of one single stroke—

() for @).
No. 12 :—(67a 438) agaid for lugaid.

A piece of vellum has been here inserted, somewhat displacing the
letters of this and the preceding word ‘‘teit.”” The cut has carried off
the perpendicular body-stroke of the g. In the MS., immediately pre-
ceding the relics of the g, are two connected verticals of about equal
size, curved at the base, but not jomed above. These closely resemble
an open a. The transcriber has accordingly given an a, but has erred
im adding the transverse upper dash, which does not exist in the MS.
The critic is not, however, justified in reading Ju from the MS., for, if
the first stroke were regarded as a partly-obliterated 7, there would be
only one stroke for the u, and yet there was quite sufficient room for
the other stroke necessary for the w, if dw had been intended.

Nos. 18 :—(72 6b 4) tubraiter for tabraiter ;
and 15:—(91 b 18) becda for becdu.

The critic is probably correct, but it is the same case of an indis-
tinct letter, hardly determinable as @ or uw, which was referred to in

No. 8.
No. 14:—(72 6 33) dobind for doberid.

Here the mistake is very trifling, and lies in the transcriber’s hav-
ing shifted the siglum for er (which should come as a horizontal stroke
over, and to the right of, the d) too much to the right, thereby bring-
ing it immediately over the 7, and producing the nasal siglum.

( xcii_)

No. 16 :—(109 @ 11) iarthus for arthus.

A real mistake on the part of the transcriber, owing probably to
the final 7 of the preceding word :—“ loegairi arthus.”

No. 17 :—(1136 15) forserg for forseng.

The error alleged is the confusion of z andr. The MS. has here
an unusual form of letter, and one which is not unlike an ordinary 1,
though the first vertical is not of the normal length. On the other
hand, the transcriber, while imitating this shorter stroke, has taken
care to give the final v-dash existing in the MS., and which is never
found with the m, so that the transcript may be regarded as fairly
representing the original.

No. 18 :—(114a 9) norfimied for nordined.

The word, as it stands in the MS., is distinctly ‘‘ normed,” the
three strokes of the m being clearly joined, so that neither the copyist’s
‘“norinied ”’ (not ‘‘norumied,”’ as given in the ‘‘ Revue Celtique’’), nor
the critic’s own reading, ‘‘nordtined,”’ is graphically correct.

No. 19 :—(1144@ 39) tasa tibnanech for uasauib nanech.

The MS. has a distinct division between the final a of vasa, and
the following of uib.

No. 20 :—(121 4 5) lughand for beith and.

The “beith”’ of the critic’s reading is not in the original. The
transcriber’s gh is correct, though the g is smaller than usual. The
transcriber is wrong in giving a too decided /u, though: the resem-
blance of the copy to the original is very close. It is to be noted that
the transcriber has given a plain warning to his readers that there is a
difficulty, for he has imitated the irregular formation of the first stroke
of the wu, approximating it to the curve for 4; but he has given to the
first stroke of the w a final dash which is not so decidedly given in
the manuscript.

Of the two remaining corrections, which the critic had not verified,
the first (127@ 17) ‘‘comallastar,” is not so in the MS., but plainly
“¢ comallastas.”’

The second (180 a 5), viz., ecit for edit, fairly gives the reading of
the MS. The right bend of the letter is certainly not continuous.

( xem )

In conclusion, it is the opinion of the Committee that, in this im-
peachment of the work of those employed in the transcription, much
injustice has been done them. As far as can be gathered from the
cases examined, they have shown remarkable care and conscientious-
ness. Such errors as have been proved to exist must be expected to
occur in all human work.

The Secretary read a letter from the Science and Art Department,
in reference to a circular from the Royal Prussian Ministers of Public
Worship, Instruction, and Health, and of Trade, Industry, and Public
Works, offering prizes for the discovery of a method for preserving
plaster casts from deterioration by repeated washings.

The Secretary laid on the table Part 18, Vol. XXV., of the ‘‘ Trans-
actions,” being ‘‘ Experiments on the Movement of Water in Plants,”
Part 2, by Professor McNab, M.D.

The Vice President in the Chair, on the report of the Scrutineers,
declared Rev. Canon Hume, LL. D., J.C. Robertson, M. R.C.S. E.,
Malachy J. Kilgarriff, F. R.C.8.1., and Nicholas Furlong, M.D., duly
elected Members of the Academy.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay, JuneE 28, 1875.
Wutium Sroxzs, M. D., F. R.8., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Doberck read a paper ‘‘ On the Binary Stars o Coronae,
7 Ophinchi, y Leonis, and € Aquarii.

[ This paper will appear as Part 19, Vol. XXYV., of the ‘ Transac-
tions’ of the Academy. |

Dr. R. J. Harvey read a paper ‘“‘ On the Intertubular Tissue of the
Testicle.”

[This paper will appear as Part 22, Vol. XXV., of the “ Transac-
tions’ of the Academy, with two Plates. |

Rey. Eugene O’Meara read Report No. 1, ‘‘ On Irish Diatomacex.”

[This Report will appear in the ‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. II., Part 4, Science, with ten Plates. |

Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks ordered to
be forwarded to the donors.

The Academy then adjourned until November.

ROYAL RISA
GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNT OF JOHN RIBTON
FOR THE YEAR ENDING

For Special For Ge 1 Total of

RECEIPTS. Purposes. Puma si Clase:

26 &5. Gh 2) Ge Gh Eos. aA

mulunce from last Year, . . . - .. - 9517 9| 9517 9

From PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS :—

Unappropriated :-—“ Old Grant,” . . . . aye Sune 584 0 0
Appropriated :—
Preparation of Scientific Reports, . . .| 200 0 0
Vabrary,. . 200 0 0
Researches in connexion with Celtic MSS., 200 0 O
Rublicationtordittonws sneer t ice ero |e 200m 10h 0
Museum, .. Gaia Sie 2005 OrKO
Purchase ot Treasure . Trove, Bs Hat 100 0 0
Mustration and Printing of “ Transactions”
and “ Proceedings,” . Seen 2 00M O 0
Opening the Academy i in the evening 5 o) BUOY
2084 0 0
» TRINITY COLLEGE GRANT towards re-
production of the MS. known as the Book
of Leinster (on account of £700), . .| 120 0 0 120 0 0
» MEMBERS’ PAYMENTS :—
intrancevyHees ysis i aui ey, coca sevens ateie. apes 110 5 0
Annual Subscriptions, ere) FY Moet oe 008 14 0
Lite Membership Composition (ine ested as
OPDOSUEC) Nate teNh “oly sh, aetl se hen eee 48 6 0
467 5 O
» PUBLICATIONS SOLD :—

iransacti ONSige techie ater rien yeu esas n= ee Ses 21 0 4
Proceedings, . : 415 6
Trish “MSS. Series, : 0 6 10
Photographs of Museum Obj secs Tt 20
Leabhar na h-Uidhri, dene ops: Ms Pa (D
Leabhar Breac, . . , tee tae 1615 0
Museum Catalogue (invested as s opposite), : 3 3 6
» INTEREST ON INVESTMENTS :—
Life Composition—Consol. Stock, . . . Si ieee Oe} 7/8
Cunningham Bequest—New 3 per cents.
(investe das opposite), . Ge Oil
Museum Cataloeue—Bank of Treland Stock
(invested as opposite), ah ess) EO, ene 4 2 6
145
EL BAMEUIND: Subscriptions; ss se 915 0

£1758 16 1],1218 6 1 | 2972

I certify that the above account is correct, according to the best of my
for Auditors’ Report,

ACADEMY.

GARSTIN, TREASURER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,

8list OF MARCH, 1875.

From Funds From Funds

AX aa appropriated available
PAYMENTS. tor Special for General

For SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY PUR-

POSES :—

Polite Literature and Antiquity Objects, . meric isi| Be 3
Scientific oe 66! B'S oh 6! Sy toll PAO
Library,. . ti eo ees anit / 200K (OME OS|ialt29
Trish Scribe, &e. Soune 200 0 0

( including Lithogr aphing

of Leabhar Breac, and Printing Part I.

Felire of Aengus), son o's gol) AO O ©
Miser memes ba ie Se! sha i 2OOL0 0
Treasure Rroveryn. = Met sen pre neO OM OR tO
Transactions and Proceedin: os, co a ol ND O M)} Keys
Opening the Academy in the evening,. .| 200 0 0
Cunningham Premiums, . Bite 560 0 0
Book of Leinster, Cost of Paper of, . Bites 119 17 6

» ESTABLISHMENT CHARGES :—
alaelesar, oe, Bir LOp Or e ey cee IG < 374
Wages and Liveries, Te Sisk eg tar bee 216
Furniture and Repairs, . . . « Seige 28
Fuel, . RM rac el avicte) ist aye 50
Insurance, Taxes, and Lay, BUGS | Ae Rote Fe 9
Stationery, - GHEE ae 13
Printing (Miscellaneous), See iG. CaN ae ii aati 43
Postage,. . dtaede ih 21
Freights, Incidentals, and Contingencies, . Pag Shi ah 98
» INVESTMENTS (CAPITAL) :—
sae Description. ae
Life Membership | £ |s.\d. & |s.la.
Compositions, . | 51 |16|1 | Consol. Stock, |2350/11/ 0 48 6 0
Cunningham Be-
quest, Balance of
Interest on, . .| 23 84 New3 per Cents,|2530] 2) 2 By 0) 4]
Museum Catalogue,| 2 6|8 Bk. of Ir.Stock,| 35] 6|8 Gf 0)
PLEAS ROUND Expenditure, .<. . . . 915 0 12
£1758 138 7] 1074

Balawee to the Credit of the Academy, . . OD en tas

£1758 16 1] 1218

knowledge and belief, Jonn Rreron Garstin, Treasurer, R.I.A.
see next page.

Purposes. Purposes.

0 0
16 10
4 1
0 0
17 4
0 2
0 0
12 6
We
4 4
ey O)
3 8
0 5
13 11
12 2
il

Total
of each Class.

1946 18 6
785 12 7
GO al 3
2115 6

2833 7 6
138 14 8

2972 2 2

AUDITORS’ REPORT.

We have examined the above General Abstract, and compared the Vouchers
Zor the details of the several heads thereof, and find the same to be correct, leaving
a Balance of Qne Hundred and Thirty-eight Pounds Fourteen Shillings and Hight
Pence to the credit of the Academy ; the amount certified by the Accountant-General
as standing to the credit of the Academy’s account in the Bank of Ireland on the
ist of April, 1875, being £139 14s. 8d.; a cheque for £1 not having been presented
within the year. :

The Treasurer has also exhibited to us a like Certificate in respect of the in-
vested Capital, showing that the amounts of Stock standing in the name of the
Academy on the same day were £2530 2s. 2d., New Three per cents. ; £2850 11s. 0d.,
Consols ; and £38 6s. 8d., Bank of Ireland Stock.

(Signed),

May, 1878. MaxweEtt Ctose, Cih.,

Wititam ARcuER, \ Auditors.

( xevii )

Monpay Eventne, NovemBer 8, 1875.
Wuit1am Sroxes, M.D., F. R.S., President, in the Chair

Minutes of last Meeting were read and confirmed.

The Secretary laid on the table the following Parts of the ‘‘Trans-
actions.”

MolexOGVi Part 16,, ‘‘ On the Structure of the Spines in the
Diadematide.” By H. W. Mackintosh, B. A. (With Plates XX XI* to
XXXIV.) [This Part had been published in August during the
recess. |

Vol. XXY., Part 19, ‘‘On the Binary Stars o Coronae, + Ophiuchi,
y Leonis, and € Aquarii.” By Dr. Doberck.

Vol. XXY., Part 20, ‘‘On the Superinduced Divisional Structure
of Rocks, pail Jointing, and its Relation to Slaty Cleavage.” By Pro-
fessor W. King, Ph. D. With Plates XXXV. to XXXVIII. [This
Part concludes Volume XXY., and contains Title page and Table of
Contents to the Volume. |

“‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol. I1., Science, Part 3, for July,

1875, and Part 4 for October, 1875.

The President read the following Address :—

In the past Academic Session we haye lost by death four Ordinary
Members of the Academy, Mr. Andrew Armstrong, Mr. William
Mac Dougall, the Rey. George Sidney Smith, and Mr. Lawrence Waldron ;
and three Honorary Members, Professor Heinrich Ewald of Gottingen,
Professor Hermann Ebel of Berlin, and Sir Charles Lyell.

Professor Ewald was author of a critical grammar of the Hebrew
language, which is described by one of his biographers as an epoch-mak-
ing work that can never be superseded. Its composition occupied thirty
years from 1843. He wasa great historian and commentator as well as
linguist, not only a Hebraist and Biblical scholar, but master of many
Oriental languages.

The next name on this roll of honour is that of Dr. Hermann Ebel,
who filled the chair of Bopp, the founder of the Science of Compara-
tive Philology. He is principally known in this country as a Celtist,
and his remarkable series of studies in Celtic contributed to the Ger-

R. I. A. MINUTES, SESSION 1874-0: 0

(Geexcyaia! 3)

man periodical edited by Kuhn, were his first important contributions
to Philology. These papers, some of which have helped to fix the
position of the Celtic languages in the Indo-European family, have
been given to us in an English form by Dr. Sullivan, to which he has
appended a learned introduction on roots, stems, and derivatives, and
on case-endings of nouns in the Indo-European languages. These
studies led to Ebel’s great work, the re-casting and editing of Zeuss’s
Grammatica Celtica, and his last work was a paper contributed to this
year’s number of the ‘‘ Revue Celtique,’’. on O’ Davoren’s Irish Glos-
sary. At the time of his death he was engaged on a work on Celtic
accentuation to which scholars were anxiously looking forward, and
his loss is a lamentable blow to the science of Philology.

The third name is that of Sir Charles Lyell, whose great work
was the explanation of geological phenomena, by causes which from
the earliest time have existed, and are still in existence, such as ter-
restrial and meteorological influences, including temperature and che-
mical and even vital action. The exclusive theories of Werner and of
Hutton are avoided by Lyell, so that he gives a picture of the varied
conditions of geological phenomena still slowly and surely advancing
from the earliest influence of chemical, meteorological, and biological
influences from the beginning.

Among the many interesting papers of the past year, those of De
Sigerson are peculiarly valuable: the first ‘‘ On Heat as a Factor in
Vital Action,” and the second, ‘‘ On a cause of Buoyancy of Bodies of a
Greater Density than Water;”’ the third treats of a subject of much
general interest, ‘‘ The Various Causes of Changes in the Physical Geo-
graphy of Ireland,” some of these being the natural result of causes
commonly in operation, and others, of seismical energy. The raised
beaches of Down, Antrim, Lough Foyle, Portrush, and Howth, prove
the action of seismical force, while the basaltic regions witness to past
volcanic energy. In the latter investigation, a curious example is
given of the value of our Irish Annals, where certain phenomena are
recorded, which are the result of earthquakes, and the study of seis-
mic action in other portions of the globe proves to us that the Annalists,
in their simple statement of facts, are the unconscious recorders of such
natural phenomena in this country. They not only record four earth-
quakes in Ireland, but sudden eruptions of lakes and rivers are spoken
of, such as are known to be attendant upon earthquakes elsewhere at

(@excix))

the present day. Also dryings up of rivers and lakes, three of which
are recorded between the years 1191-1490, and inroads of the sea.
Dr. Sigerson remarks that the further we go back in ancient history,
the more important is the nature of these phenomena, which seems to
prove that the island was more and more subject to seismical action
the further back we go in time.

In a few instances the author draws attention to the fact that there
appears to be geological evidence of some great convulsion of nature in
some of those places spoken of in the Annals as the sites of such erup-
tions—in some examples subsidence of strata, in others elevation. For
instance, Lough Neagh, which to the eye of the geologist appears to
be the result of, or connected with, a great subsidence of strata, is
mentioned by the annalist Tighernach, as having been, in the 64th year
of our era, the scene of a great imundation, in which the tribes who
covered the plain were destroyed. Leugh Cong and Lough Mask
seem to have been produced by earthquake action running north and
south; and their geological character. supports this theory.

There is much plausibility in his suggestion that many of our le-
gends connected with lakes, rivers, and wells, are derived from such
phenomena connected with earthquakes.

The Annalists record a sudden eruption of a lake in the Co. Wa-
terford simultaneously with a number of others in various parts of
Jreland, anno mundi 3056. The sinking of the submarine strata has
been observed in the County of Waterford by Dr. Sullivan. I think
it was first noticed many years ago by the late Dr. Farren, and is an
additional evidence of seismical action. JI remember, when a boy,
hearing from the latter of an extraordinary spring tide, at the lowest
point of which a large district near Dungarvan was laid bare. This
presented a vast number of hummocks containing the lower portions
of the stems of the Pinus sylvestris, which here once formed an exten-
sive forest.

In my Address from this chair in November last, I observed upon
the paucity of the Biological papers read before the Academy as com-
pared with the number of such papers in the Royal Society ; but as re-
gards Biology a remarkable change has occurred. We have had not less
than twenty-three important biological papers during the last Academic
year, including the comparative and descriptive anatomy and phy-
siology of vegetable and animal life. I cannot ayoid expressing how

( Bese)

\

much is owing to Mr. Mackintosh, Mr. Archer, Dr. Mac Nab, Mr.
Baker, Mr. Leeper, Mr. Bailey, Dr. Collins, and'to the labours and
example of the learned Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Dublin, Mr. Macalister. Of these papers it would not be
possible to give in an address like the present any clear and concise
review ; the only means of acquiring a true conception of them is to
read the papers themselves; they are not direct and complete proofs
of any theorem or hypothesis which can be shortly stated, but are not
on that account of the less use or importance, as they are principally
careful records of phenomena not before accurately recorded, and as
such will form materials for observation and may thus lead to im-
portant results in future. But one remark I think it right to make
before I proceed to another subject, and that is, that it is most encou-
raging to find two of these papers of considerable importance contri-
buted by men who are as yet in statu pupillart. Lallude to the essays
by Messrs. Leeper and Baker, both students of medicine, the former on
Retro-peritoneal Cavities, and the latter upon the Ligamentum muco-
sum. ‘These papers reflect great credit on the Medical School of the
Dublin University, and give high hopes for the future scientific emi-
nence of the authors.

We have in the “‘ Proceedings” a most interesting Reportupon Fossils
in the upper old red sandstone in Kilkenny, by Mr. Bailey. These
specimens havea great interest, from the perfect preservation in which
they occur, the great size of the fronds, and from the assistance they
give by their associated fossil fauna in determining how far fresh or
sea water was concerned in these countries, or on the continent of
Europe, in the production of the old red sandstone. Though this report
relates principally to the fossil plants of the district, there are remains
discovered of mollusca, crustaceans and fish. Mr. Bailey speaks of
three species of fossil ferns from Kiltorcan, Paleopteris Hibernicus,
Sagenaria Bailyana, and Cyclostigma minuta, described by Professor
Haughton. There is one mollusc closely resembling the large fresh
water mussel.

In the April Number of the “ Proceedings,” Mr. Hardman, of the
Geological Survey of Ireland, gives an account of deposits of human
and other bones long known to have existed in the cave of Dunmore,
County Kilkenny.

(alkene })

The earliest describer of this cave was Bishop Berkeley, but the
most important account of it is given by our fellow Academician, Dr.
Foot, who described the principal features of the cave in conjunction
with the Rev. Mr. Graves and Mr. Burtchell. He shows that at least
for two centuries the place was known as a receptacle for human bones.
They were so abundant that the floor was strewed with them.

Mr. Hardman states, that these have disappeared, so that Dr.
Foot’s collection was obtained from a bed of clay or silt.

As regards the origin of these bones there is a considerable differ-
ence between Dr. Foot and Mr. Hardman; the former considering them
to be the remains of natives destroyed by the Danes, at about the
tenth century, the latter holding that the bones may be referred to
the Bronze or Stone period. Mr. Hardman remarks that Dr. Foot
looked at these remains as an antiquarian as he had done asa geologist.
Dr. Foot quotes from the Annals of the Four Masters an account of a
great slaughter at Dearc-Fearna, a.p. 928. The passage runs thus—
‘‘Godfrey, grandson of Imhar, with the foreigners of Ath-chath,
demolished and plundered Dearc-Fearna, where 1000 persons were
killed in this year, as is stated in the following quatrain.

‘*Nine hundred years without sorrow, twenty-eight it has been proved,

Since Christ came to our relief to the plundering of Dearc-Fearna.”’
—O Donovan.

The quantity of human bones, as compared with those of the
domestic animals, is in favour of the entry in the Annals of the massacre
in the tenth century, and the frequency of the bones of infants and
children is most interesting. To me it appears probable that in this
cave the bones of man as well as of the domestic animals are to be
attributed to two sources—the human remains of adults, and of chil-
dren, to the massacre by the Danes in the tenth century ; those of
other animals to the still more remote causes spoken of by Sir Charles
Lyell and Schmurling.

One point mentioned by Mr. Hardman, namely, that the charcoal
of coniferous wood was found remote from the entrance, and inter-
stratified with the osseous deposit, has also been mentioned by Dr.
Foot, as recorded by Mr. Mallet in 1848. This points to suffocation
as one mode of death.

The labours of the Academy, as shown in the ‘‘ Proceedings” and
‘“‘Transactions”’ for 1875, exhibit full evidence of earnest, varied,

(tai)

and valuable work on the part of the Members of our body, truly
gratifying to all who have its welfare at heart. In the ‘‘ Proceedings”
are two important papers on purely mathematical subjects, by Mr.
Young and by Professor Casey ; andin the ‘‘ Transactions’ Dr. Hart,
following Dr. Salmon, in reference to the theory of cubic curves,
communicates a paper of great value to the mathematician. Dr.
Doberck, of the Markree Observatory, describes the first comet of
1845, and at the request of Professor Bruhns of Leipzig, who is an
eminent authority in this department of astronomy, he undertakes
to determine the definite orbit of the comet. He also speaks of six
binary stars and a revolving double star. One of the most important
papers in the ‘‘ Transactions” of 1875, which contains the substance
of communications read in 1860, 1863, and 18738, entitled ‘‘ Researches
on Chemical Optics,” is by ourlate distinguished President, who observes
that no part of the scientific field appears to promise more important
results to the investigator than the application of optics to chemistry.
‘Optical science,’ observes Mr. Jellett, ‘‘ has given to the chemist
the solution of problems whose very investigation seemed beyond
his reach. Not only has the spectroscope conferred on him a power
of qualitative analysis far exceeding (where it is applicable) that
which he could derive from his own science, but it has also enabled
him to apply analysis to cases in which chemistry proper has been
hitherto, and probably would have remained, powerless. The
analysis of a nebula or of a planetary atmosphere, effected to a
considerable extent by the spectroscope, might seem to be beyond
the powers of ordinary chemical methods, while the phenomena of
rotatory polarization, if they are less striking, open a wide field for
chemical research, and most especially as regards the changes in the
rotation of the organic alkaloids by the addition of an acid.” I shall
not attempt to follow Mr. Jellett through the mass of apphed
mathematics and chemical research displayed by him in this great
and model paper.

A valuable communication is given by Mr. Burton upon the faint
spectra of the zodiacal and auroral light, observed with the Academy’s
spectroscope in the expedition to the island of Rodriguez. He
concludes that the zodiacal light is emitted by matter partly liquid,
partly solid, and mixed with gas.

(Cioran

I shall read to you the following observations made to me in
a letter by Professor Stokes of Cambridge: ‘‘ Mr. Burton’s paper
contains the result of a series of careful observations on the zodiacal
light, made under circumstances much more favourable than present
themselves in our latitudes. He applied himself more especially
to an examination of the spectrum of the light, for which he
employed a spectroscope specially constructed for the examination and
measurement of the spectra of extremely faint objects, which was
obtained by means of a grant entrusted to him by the Academy. The
bright line discovered by Angstrom in the spectrum of the zodiacal
light, and supposed by him to agree in position with the chief line
of the spectrum of the aurora, was observed and measured on several
occasions, and the resulting wave-length differs too much from that
determined by Angstrdm for the auroral line, to allow us to suppose
the two to be identical. As the difference, however, is not great, and
an observer so accurate as Angstrom (who, however, appears to have
only seen the zodiacal line when it was too faint for measurement)
supposed the two lines to be the same, it would seem desirable that
Mr. Burton should measure (if he has not done so already) the
chief auroral line with the same instrument that he employed for the
zodiacal light.

“Mr. Burton has also noticed and measured the position of a dark
band in the zodiacal light which does not seem to have been
previously observed.

“The zodiacal light showed also distinct traces of polarization,
proving that it is in part reflected light, while the character of the
spectrum proves that the object is also self-luminous, and the
establishment of the non-coincidence between the auroral and zodiacal
lines prevents the danger we might have incurred of looking to the
aurora for an explanation of the physical condition of the body which
is the origin of the zodiacal ight.”

I have now to add a few words in connexion with the Archzolo-
gical department of this body, and am anxious to bring forward one
or two points in reference to the future action of the Committee of
Polite Literature and Antiquities.

The first being Sir John Lubbock’s Ancient Monuments Bill, I
sincerely hope that we may see this important measure passed during
the coming Session of Parliament, and no effort should be spared by.

Ceone 9)
the Irish members to assist Sir John Lubbock in his praiseworthy
object.

I should strongly urge upon you the great desirability of recom-
mending a uniform administration and consolidation of funds for the
preservation of the ancient monuments of this country, and that the
administration and direction of this work should be left in the hands
of the Irish Government.

The second point to which I desire to draw your attention is, that
the list of ancient ecclesiastical monuments which is now before the
Church Temporalities Commissioners is extremely deficient. When
the great wealth of the country in important ecclesiastical remains is
considered; that only twenty monuments are specified is much to be
lamented. Out of the 125 Round Towers which are noticed as exist-
ing at the close of the last century, but seventy-five are still standing.

The great Crosses, so many in number, which exhibit the most
ancient and perfect examples of sculpture in the country, and a much
larger number of the most important and ancient churches, should be
included. It has been objected that there is a risk in sending in a
list which would be greater than there are funds to meet the necessi-
ties of : but this is surely a lesser evil than that the funds which may
be obtained should exceed the requirements of the list, in which case
such funds may be either too lavishly expended on certain monuments,
or may ultimately be altogether otherwise applied. |

When addressing you last year, I expressed much anxiety as to
the mode in which this work of preservation would possibly be car-
ried out. It is with much gratification that I have since seen the
admirable action of the Board of Works in entrusting the supervision
of these necessary repairs to Mr. Deane. The work already achieved at
Cashel and Ardmore, of preservation rather than restoration, gives the
best hopes for the cause of this department of Irish Archeology.

In illustration of the vandalism to which these great monuments
have been subject in many cases, I may mention that numbers of these
towers have been so plundered for their cut stone, that the safety of the
structure is gravely imperilled. It isnot many years since one of the
finest of the towers in Ireland fell, and such was the strength of the
masonry, that the prostrate tower lay like a vast cylinder on the ground
till it was finally blown up with gunpowder by the owner of the
soil, for the purpose of obtaining building material.

( fev )

You will remember that in the year 1869 a recommendation was
made that this ‘‘ Academy should be invited to surrender some por-
tion of its chartered independence, and to place its Museum under a
Director to be appointed by the Government.”? This recommendation
was based on the allegation, ‘‘ That the Museum was a very unsafe
building, not fire-proof, and that the premises, 19, Dawson-street,
were insecure, and unsuitable for the Academy’s purposes.”? Since
this statement was made, the whole condition of the Museum has been
materially changed. Objects of chief value have been placed in a
fire-proof room. The old fittings have been removed from the former
Museum, and reconstructed on improved principles. The Curator has
completed the new deposit of all the bronze objects, and had the
strong room arranged substantially as we now see it. At the same
time the great crypt under the Library was cleared out and converted
into a lapidary museum. By the space thus gained, ample room is
provided for the surplus collections in bronze and iron, and the larger
objects in stone and wood. A vestibule measuring upwards of 150
feet in length by forty feet in breadth has been thrown into one suite
of rooms, where the inscribed stones are mounted on proper supports,
and the lighting of this great suite of apartments has been provided
for by the introduction of gas. In all these arrangements, whether
they be regarded in the way of security or of adequate exposition, or
sufficiency for the purposes of a great and growing Institution, the
Report of 1869 should, if made at this present time, differ in a very
marked manner and in almost every material particular from the
former one. And here let me observe, that the arrangement of the
apartments and of the objects to be exhibited therein has been directed
by one of our distinguished Vice-Presidents, Dr. Ferguson, to whom,
in the name of the Academy, I have to offer our sincere thanks.

Our Museum differs from ordinary collections by its having a spe-
cial scientific object. It is to the material evidences of Irish history

“what our great manuscript library is to its literary evidences—it is
the antiquary’s Library of Reference. Let its shelves be examined,
and any one can see that it is no mere fancy collection of objects of
what is called ‘‘ vertu,’’ belonging to various times, countries, peoples,
and races. It may be said to belong to the Irish people, and illus-
trates their history, and therefore is indispensable for one of the chief
objects of an Irish Academy; truly as much so as our precious collece

R.I. A. MINUTES, SESSION 1874-5. P

ee)

tion of manuscripts which so subserves the history of the people, to
say nothing of the great and growing subject of Comparative Philo-
logy. It would in a great degree fail in its purpose if it were mixed
with objects of another kind, of whatever value, even though no por-
tion of itself were thrown into the shade thereby. Let it then be fos-
tered and preserved under the care and government of this body.

The work of transcription of our ancient Irish MSS. is steadily
progressing. The Leabhar na h-Uidhre, and the first part of the
Leabhar Breac have already appeared. The second part will shortly
be published; it is much to be regretted that, owing to the unayvoid-
able absence of Mr. Gilbert, from ill-health, great delay has oceurred
in the publication of this part. The Book of Leinster is now in the
hands of the transcribers, who have completed more than one-third of
their task. Assurances have reached us from scholars at home and
abroad of the great value of this work, and the fresh impulse it will
give to the study of the history, poetry, and language of our. country ;
and all praise is due to the spuit which prompted the reproduction
of these obscure and perishable manuscripts, as well as the industry
with which the work is conducted. As an example of the interesting
nature of the literary pieces to be found in these works, let me point
to ‘* The Vision of Adamnan,”’ one of the strangest of those medieval
visions of which a series seem to have existed in the early Christian
church, such as the visions of Hermas, in the first century of the
Christian era, and the visions of the Irish saint Fursa, recorded by
Bede, culminating in the ‘‘ Divina Commedia” of Dante. Those whe
feel and can appreciate the interest that les in tracing the relation
that all works of early Christian art bear to the finished productions
of a later period cannot fail to welcome any additional example such
as this. As instances of historic tales contained in the Leabhar na
h-Uidhre, I should mention that translated by Mr. Hennessy, in the
‘Revue Celtique,’—The Battle of Cnuca—which proves that
Ireland may claim one important fragment of the legendary history
so widely extended among the Celtic family in the British Isles,
in which Ossian occupies a part. These things show how great an
interest belongs.to these works, irrespective of their philological value.
But of their value in this respect also, evidence has been already
afforded by the use made of the Leabhar na h-Uidhrein Windisch’s
additions to the last edition of Curtius’ ‘‘Grundziige.” It is true

(Saul)

that regrets have been expressed by some who still feel deeply the

value of the work—regrets for errors such as have been caused
by difficulties of which those who criticise are not aware, but which

must more or less belong to all human undertakings. Supposing

such mistakes were very numerous, it will still be a great boon
to the philologist that at the cost of a few hours, with some
touches of his critical pen, he can put himself without pain or
drudgery in possession of a bond fide treasure. The difficulties

in transcribing an old manuscript require not only a keen and
practised eye, but a specially instructed mind to meet. Where the

worn, half-obliterated page offers but a blurred or faint image to the

eye, the scribe is more in the position of an explorer than a copyist.

At the close of each volume, tables of reference to fractured, illegible,

and obscure places are appended. Recent investigation has shown

that the latter should be enlarged; and the more the Scribes them-
selves seek discussion on the degree of perfection in their own work,
and the more fearlessly they bring such passages to light, the more
will they add to their character as scholars, showing that Truth is
more their ultimate aim than self-interest or fame. The philologists
must reap and thresh before they winnow, and we should rejoice
in that noble contention which means Progress. And while our
work with Celtic texts is but éxddcers (giving forth), we must welcome
any sign that the day of d:opfdces is approaching.

In addition to these fac-stmiles, we have also in the press for our
“Transactions” the text of the Félire of Aengus, with translation and ©
notes by an eminent Celtist; and the Academy has also in hands
a corpus of the Ogham inscriptions reproduced by photography, from
casts taken from paper moulds of the stones by Dr. Ferguson. In all
these undertakings we may, I trust, feel indeed that our body is doing
a great work, and one worthy of its position as the foremost Archeolo-
gical as well as scientific society of Ireland.

Samuel Ferguson, LL.D., V.P., read a paper ‘‘On the alleged
literary forgery respecting Sun-worship on Mount Callan.”

Dr. Ferguson argued that the impeached stanzas from the poem
called ‘‘ the Battle of Gabhra”’ were not fabricated, as alleged, by the
late Theophilus O’ Flanagan, because, in translating them, O’ Flanagan
diminished their corroborative force by imperfect translation, and
because they contain matter difficult to reconcile with the case in aid

(evil)

of which they are supposed to have been invented. Dr. Ferguson
further adduced evidence that the stanzas existed in a MS. compiled
in 1720, before O’ Flanagan was born.

The Secretary read a paper by Dr. Doberck, ‘‘ On the Binary Stars
44 Bootis, € Cassiopeize, and » Draconis.”

[This paper will be published as Part 1, Vol. XXVI. of the
‘«Transactions.”’ |

Professor Macalister read a paper ‘‘ On some Anomalies in Nerves in
Man.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 5. |

The following Recommendation of the Council was adopted :—

‘That the sum of £20 be granted, out of the Parliamentary Grant
for the preparation of Scientific Reports, to Professor William King,
for further Researches into the Joimting of Rocks, showing its relations
to certain points in practical Engineering, and to some important phe-
nomena in Physical Geology.”

TurEspay Eventye, NovemBer 30, 1874.
(Srarep MEETING.)
Wuttium Stroxss, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Minutes of last Meeting were read and confirmed.

Dr. Robertson signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member.

R. R. Brash read a paper ‘‘ On an Ogham inscribed Pillar-stone at
Kilcullen, County Cork.”

G. H. Kinahan read a paper ‘‘On the drifting Power of Tidal
Currents versus that of Wind Waves.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 5, with illustrations. |

Monpay Evenine, Decemser 13, 1875.
Samus, Frerevsen, LL.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Minutes of last Meeting were read and confirmed.

The Secretary read a paper ‘‘ On the theory of the Cup-Anemometer,
and the determination of its Constants.” By the Rey. Dr. Romney
Robinson, F.R.S., of Armagh.

{This paper will appear in the “‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 5. ]

—-

( cix )

Monpay Eventne, January 10, 1876.
Wituam Sroxes, M.D., F. R.S., President, in the Chair.

John A. Blake, Esq.; Richard P. Carton, Esq.; Thomas N. Deane,
Esq. ; William Doberck, Ph. D.; Joseph H. Lloyd, M.A.; Thaddeus
M. O’Callaghan, Esq., C. E.; and the Rev. William Ross, were balloted
for and declared duly elected Members of the Academy.

The Secretary laid on the table the ‘‘ Transactions,” Vol. xxvi.
(Science) Part I., being Dr. Doberck on the Binary Stars, 44 Bootis,
€ Cassiopeize and » Draconis, with Addenda to previous Memoirs.

The Secretary read a Paper, by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, ‘‘ On the
Barrow at the Miracles, Co. Fermanagh.”

Dr. L. Studdert, by permission of the Academy, read a Paper,
‘‘Qn an examination of Dublin street surface waters for the free
and albumenoid Ammonia contained in them; taking the Liffey
Water near Carlisle-bridge, at intervals, as the standard of compari-
son.

[This Paper will appear in the ‘“‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. IL., Science, Part 6].

Donations to the Library were announced and thanks voted to the
Donors.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Evenine, January 24, 1876.
Wi11ux Sroxes, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The Secretary read a Paper, by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, ‘‘On some
Cinerary Urns and Human Remains found at Knockninny Cave, Co.
Fermanagh; with an Appendix by the Rey. Dr. Haughton and Pro-
fessor Macalister.”

[This Paper will appear in the “Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. IL., Science, Part 6, with illustrations. |

Robert S. Ball, LL. D., Astronomer Royal for Ireland, read a Paper
‘Qn an Elementary Proof of Lagrange’s Equations of Motion in
Generalized Co-ordinates.”

R. I. A. MINUTES, SESSION 1875-6. q

( cx )

[This Paper will appear in the ‘‘Proceedings,”’ Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6. |

E. Perceval Wright, M.D., Secretary to the Academy, read a Paper,
‘Notes on some Foraminifera of the Seychelles.”

[This Paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6. ]

Donations to the Library were announced and thanks voted to the
Donors.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Everntine, Fesrvuary 14, 1876.
Witrram Stoxes, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

William Dillon, Esq.; George Fottrell, Esq.; Rev. Thomas Olden,
B.A.; and the Marquis of Kildare, were balloted for and declared duly
elected members of the Academy.

The Astronomer Royal for Ireland read a Paper by Mr. Dreyer,
Assistant Astronomer at Parsonstown, ‘‘ On personal Errors in Astro-
nomical Transit Observations.”

[This Paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,’ Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6. |

J. E. Kelly, M. D., by permission of the Academy, read a Paper,
“On a case of Polydactylism, with an account of the dissection
thereof.”’

[This Paper will appear in the ‘Proceedings,’ Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6, with illustrations. ]

Dr. Macalister read a Paper, ‘‘ On some Forms of.Anomalous Ana-
tomy.” .

[This Paper will appear in the ‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6. |

J. R. Garstin, F.S.A., Treasurer of the Academy, read a Paper ‘‘On
a Bronze Armlet recently acquired for the Museum.”

The Secretary of the Academy read the following letter, addressed
to the President by Lord Sandon :—

( cxi )

‘«Scrence AnD Art DEPARTMENT,
‘‘Sourn Kensryetoy, S.W.,
“9th February, 1876.
<cSnR,

‘‘T have the honour to inform you that the Lords of the Committee
of Council on Education have framed a scheme, which has met with
the approval of Her Majesty’s Government, for the purpose of aug-
menting and extending the facilities for Science and Art instruction
in Ireland; and that their Lordships feel that they may look with
confidence for the cordial support and co-operation of the Royal
Dublin Society and of the Royal Irish Academy in those prelimi-
nary measures which are absolutely necessary to carry out a com-
prehensive plan, which they trust will be worthy of the metropolis
of Ireland, and will tend to foster and develop the natural genius
and taste of her people.

“2. From the representations which have been made to the Govern-
ment as to the general wishes of the country; from the recommenda-
tions of the Commission, of which the Duke of Leinster—then the
Marquis of Kildare—was Chairman in 1868; and from the evidence
given before that Commission, it appears that the time has now
arrived when the wants of the community at large have outgrown the
useful action of private societies, and when a thorough rearrangement
and consolidation of existing institutions have become essential as a
condition precedent to further progress.

‘3. With this view their Lordships propose to build, on a site
adjacent to Leinster House, a Science and Art Museum for Ireland
somewhat similar to that now existing in Edinburgh, for Scotland:
and to remove the Natural History Museum to the same building,
supplying it with funds and staff sufficient for its development into a
National Museum of Natural History.

‘‘4, The collections of the Geological Survey, and the Industrial
collections still retained in the Royal College of Science, would be re-
moved to the same building—the former collections remaining, during
the continuance of the Survey, under its officers, for whom offices may
probably be provided in Leinster House.

*¢5, The Library would be then transferred from Leinster House
into the building now occupied by the Natural History Museum, and

q 2

Ce cxat hy)

supplied with the funds and staff necessary to develop it into a Public
National Library, under the superintendence of a Council of twelve
Trustees, eight of whom would be nominated by the Royal Dublin
Society and four by the Government. The officers of the Library
would be appointed by the Council of Trustees; and as the members
of the Royal Dublin Society would enjoy no greater privileges than
the public generally, their present contribution to it would cease.

“6. The collections of the Royal Irish Academy would also be
transferred to the Science and Art Museum; the officers at present
in charge of them becoming officers of the Science and Art Depart-
ment.

‘7. The Science and Art Museum, which would thus be an entirely
new Institution, having the same scope and object as the Science and
Art Museum in Edinburgh, would be maintained and managed in a
similar manner. Its collections would consist of purchases, for which
an annual vote would be taken; of loans—especially from the South
Kensington Museum; and, it may reasonably be hoped, of donations
from public-spirited individuals in Ireland. =

“8. It is believed that it would be most advisable to accommodate
the Royal Irish Academy in Leinster House, where, after the removal
of the Library of the Royal Dublin Society, ample space may be found
for both the Royal Dublin Society and the Royal Irish Academy, with
well adapted and dignified rooms for their meetings, and for the
Library of the latter society. They would also be in proximity to the
very valuable and interesting artistic and scientific collections of the
proposed National Museum, as well as to the National Library, which
would then be centred upon this spot.

«<9, The Art School would be made a special Metropolitan School,
the Royal Dublin Society being relieved of their management of and
contributions te it.

‘10. In order to carry out the foregoing arrangements, and to afford
to the State the requisite control over property and buildings upon
which a large amount of public money is to be expended, it will be
necessary to obtain an Act of Parliament amending the 17 and 18
Vict., ce. xcix., and to vest all the buildings and land now held by the
Royal Dublin Society in the Government—except the premises front-
ing on Kildare-place now used for the Agricultural Museum and Shows
by the Royal Dublin Society—and to purchase, if possible, the fee-
simple of such part of the property as is held on lease.

(Gam >)

“11. These arrangements will necessarily entail the surrender by
the Royal Dublin Society and the Royal Irish Academy, of some pri-
vileges which they now enjoy, and will deprive them of some of those
functions which they have hitherto exercised; but the Lords of the
Committee of Council on Education wish it to be distinctly- under-
stood, that they in no way undervalue the eminent services which the
Royal Dublin Society and the Royal Irish Academy have rendered to ~
Ireland. They trust that those services may still be continued, for it
may be observed, that the autonomy and functions of the Societies
would be in no degree affected, except as provided in the foregoing ;
nor does this scheme in any way interfere with the aid in repairs, etc.,
now afforded to the Royal Dublin Society for the maintenance of its
Agricultural Department ; or with the grants to the Royal Irish Aca-
demy for Literary and Scientific research.

‘©12. Their Lordships further earnestly desire to retain the advan-
tage of the assistance and authority which the continued co-operation
of the Societies with the Government in this more extensive national
undertaking would afford, and in order to aid them in the administra-
tion of the Science and Art Museum, the Natural History Collections,
and the Botanic Gardens, they propose to constitute a Board of Visitors
consisting of twelve Members, four nominated by the Lord Lieutenant,
five by the Royal Dublin Society, three by the Royal Irish Academy—
the Members to be appointed for a limited time, but to be re-eligible—
and a President to be elected annually by the Board. The duties of
the Board of Visitors would be to make Annual Reports to the Science
and Art Department, which should be laid before Parliament, on the
condition, management, and requirements of the Museum, and to ad-
vise on points affecting the administration.

‘13. The Science and Art Museum would be under a Director—an
officer of the Science and Art Department directly responsible to it, as
at Edinburgh—with a sufficient staff.

‘14. The Natural History Museum would be under a Curator paid
by the State, as at present ; but he would be appointed by, and re-
sponsible to, the Science and Art Department, and not to a Committee
of the Royal Dublin Society. It is not necessary here to consider the
exact relations of this officer to the Director of the Science and Art Mu-
seum, but they would probably be somewhat similar to those of the
Curator of the Natural History Museum in Edinburgh to the Director
of the Science and Art Museum.

(cxavie =)

‘©15. The Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, would be under a Curator
paid by the State as at present; but he would be appointed by, and
responsible to, the Science and Art Department.

‘16. The Director of the Science and Art Museum would act as
Accounting Officer for all the votes of public money, and would be the
medium of communication with the Science and Art Department.

“17. Their Lordships trust that this communication will receive
the early attention of your Society.

‘‘T have the honour to be, Sir,
“Your obedient servant,
‘¢ SAnDON.’”
‘THE PRESIDENT OF THE

** Royat IrtsH AcapDEmyY,
‘¢ DAWSON-STREET, DUBLIN.”’

It was Resolyed—

That the Council be requested to report to the Academy on the
proposals of the Government contained in the letter of Lord Sandon
now read.

It was Resolyved—

That it be recommended to the Council to take the necessary steps
to invite the British Association for the Advancement of Science to
meet in Dublin during the autumn of 1878; and that the Council be
authorized—should they see fit—to send a deputation to the Glasgow
meeting of the British Association to be held in September, 1876.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Evenine, Fresruary 28, 1876.
Wittram Sroxes, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

By permission of the Academy, Mr. E. T. Hardman read a Paper
‘On Analysis of Coal and Ironstones from Dungannon Coal Field, Co.
Tyrone.”

[This Paper will appear in the ‘“‘ Proceedings,”’ Second Series,
Vol. II., Seience, Part 6. ]

By permission of the Academy, Professor Leith Adams, M.D.,

(Sexxg)

F.R.S., read a Report ‘‘ On his Explorations of the Caves at Shandon,
with an Account of the Animal Remains found therein.”

[This Report will be published as Part 5, Vol. XXVI. of the
‘‘ Transactions,’’ with illustrations. |

Dr. Ingram, Secretary of the Council, brought down the following
Resolutions of Council, as their Report to the Academy on the proposals
of the Government contained in the letter of Lord Sandon, read at the
last Meeting of the Academy :—

“1. That the Royal Irish Academy is desirous of co-operating with
Her Majesty’s Government in the measures necessary for the estab-
lishment of a National Science and Art Museum in Dublin, provided
that the independence and usefulness of the Academy be not in-
juriously affected by such measures.

‘¢2. That, while we consent to the transfer of our Museum to the
Government, we think that its arrangement, as well as the purchase
of additions, should be done through the Academy.

‘3. That, in thus assenting to the transfer of its Museum to the
Government, the Academy also think that adequate provision should
be made for the continued acquisition of Irish Antiquities, which may
hereafter be discovered, or offered for sale; and that the collection
of the Academy, together with such other Irish antiquities as shall be
added to it, should be for ever kept apart from Miscellaneous Art col-
lections in the possession of the Government, and be permanently
maintained as a Museum of our National Antiquities, no portion of its
contents being ever removed from the city of Dublin.

“‘4. That, considering the position which the Academy has long
held, and will continue to hold, as the first Scientific, Literary, and
Antiquarian Society of the country, the proportional representation
proposed to be given to it on the Board of Visitors (sect. 12 of
Lord Sandon’s letter), is altogether inadequate; and the Academy
further think that no paid official of the Science and Art Depart-
ment should be eligible to act as a representative on the Board.

‘5. That, as the Academy is making a substantial concession in
respect to its Museum, there should be provided in the yearly esti-
mates, as laid before Parliament, instead of the several sums now
annually voted, a sum of £2,000, to enable the Academy to discharge
more completely its functions as a Scientific and Literary body, by
making grants in aid of original research, by publishing the results cf

( .cxyvi j

such research, by maintaiing a Library specially adapted to assist
learned investigation, and by editing and printing ancient Irish
Texts.

“6. That the Academy should be accountable, as at present, to
Her Majesty’s Treasury, through the Irish Government, for the sum
to be thus yoted by Parliament, and should not be subject, in the con-
duct of its affairs, or the expenditure of its Grants, to any control on
the part of the Science and Art Department, or any of its officers.”

It was Resolyed—

That the Resolutions recommended by the Council for the adoption
of the Academy, as now laid before the Academy, together with Lord
Sandon’s letter, be printed and circulated among the Members, and
that the Academy do now adjourn to Monday next, the 6th of March,
when the aboye-mentioned Resolutions and letter will be considered.

The Secretary read the following names proposed by the Council
to the Society for election on the 16th of March, as Honorary Mem-
bers :— |

Thomas Carlyle; Margaret Stokes; William Stubbs; Eugéne E.
Viollet-le-duc ; Ernst Windisch; Emst Haeckel; Wilhelm Borchardt;
Alphonse Decandolle.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Eventye, Marcu 6, 1876.
(Adjourned Meeting.)
Wut Stoxts, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Ingram, Secretary of the Council, made a statement in refer-
ence to the letter of Lord Sandon, previous to moving the Resolutions
recommended by the Council for the adoption of the Academy.—{ Vide
Minutes of previous Meeting.)

Upon which Mr. J. J. Digges LaTouche moved, and J. R. Garstin
LL. B., F.S.A., seconded, the following as Amendments :—

‘“‘1, That the Royal Irish Academy, being desirous of co-operating
with Her Majesty’s Government on the measures necessary for the
establishment of a National Science and Art Museum in Dublin, pro-

€ Vexaaires)

vided that the independence and usefulness of the Academy be not
injuriously affected by such measures, is willing to consent to the
transfer of its antiquarian collections, commonly known as its Muscum,
to the Government, upon the conditions—

(a). That the arrangement of the Museum, as well as the pur-
chase of additions, shall continue to be conducted by the
Academy, and that adequate proyision shall be made for the
continued acquisition of Irish antiquities which may here-
after be discovered or offered for sale.

(6). That the Museum of the Academy, together with such other
Irish antiquities as may be added to it, shall be for ever
kept apart from other collections, and be permanently main-
tained as a Museum of our national antiquities, no portion
of its contents being ever removed from the city of Dublin,
unless by permission given under the seal of the Academy.

(¢c). That the Academy shall be accountable, as at present, to
Her Majesty’s Treasury, through the Irish Government, for
all sums voted by Parliament, and shall not be subject, in the
conduct of its affairs, or the expenditure of its grants, to any
control on the part of the Science and Art Department, or

any of its officers.

“2. That, considering the position which the Academy has long held,
and will continue to hold, as the first scientific, literary, and anti-
quarian society of the country, the proportional representation pro-
posed to be given to it on the Board of Visitors (sect. 12 of Lord Sandon’s
letter) is altogether inadequate; and the Academy further thinks
that no paid official of the Science and Art Department should be eli-
gible to act as a representative on the Board.

“3. That there should be provided in the yearly estimates, as laid
before Parliament, instead of the several sums now annually voted,
a sum at least equal to what is at present voted, to enable the Aca-
demy to discharge more completely its functions as a scientific,
literary, and antiquarian body, by making grants in aid of original
research, by publishing the results of such researches, by maintaining
a library specially adapted to assist learned investigation, and by
editing and printing ancient Irish texts, &c.”

Giexayaniye®)

On consultation, the Secretary of the Council withdrew the Reso-
tions of the Council and accepted the Amendments as read instead.

These having been put as a substantive Resolution,

The folowing Amendment was moved by Dr. MacSwiny, and
seconded by Dr. A. G. Richey :—

“That the Academy, having heard the various observations of the
several speakers, and recognising the great divergence of opinion on
this important subject’ which still prevails, do now refer the question
back to the Council for afresh Report.”

The Amendment was put, and, on a division, declared lost.

An adjournment was moved, but was, on a division, declared
negatived.

Whereupon the amended Resolutions were again put as substan-
tive Resolutions, and declared duly carried.

The Academy then adjoumed.

Tuurspay Evenine, Marcu 16, 1876.
(Stated Meeting.)
Wutam Storrs, M.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The Secretary of Council read the following Report for the past
Session :—

REPORT OF THE CoUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1875-6.

Sryce the date of the last Report of the Council, the following Parts
of the Transactions have been published :—

In the department of Science :—

Vol. XXV.—Parts 12 and 18. On the First Comet of 1845,
and on the Binary Star p? Bodtis; by Dr. Doberck.

Part 14. On the Anatomy of Insectivorous Edentates; by Dr.
Macalister.

Part 15. On the Fern Flora of the Seychelles; by J. G. Baker,
F.L.8.; with Notes, by E. P. Wright, M. D.

Part 16. On the Structure of the Spines of the Diadematide ; by
H. W. Mackintosh, A. B.

(© Gabe ))

Part 17. On the Nine-point Contact of Cubic Curves; by A. S.
Hart, LL. D., F. T.C. D.

Part 18. Experiments on the Movement of Water in Plants; by
W. R. M‘Nab, M. D.

Part 19. On the Binary Stars o Corone, 7+ Ophiuchi, y Leonis,
and € Aquarii; by Dr. Doberck.

Part 20. On the Superinduced Divisional Structure of Rocks,
called Jointing; by Dr. W. King.

To the above papers have been added a title-page and table of
contents to Vol. XXY.

Also, Vol. XX VI.—Part 1. On the Binary Stars 44 Bodtis, 7 Cas-
siopeiz, and y« Draconis; by Dr. Doberck.

And the Secretary of the Academy will, at the Stated Meeting,
lay on the table :—

Part 2. On the Intertubular Tissue of the Mammalian Testicle ;
by Reuben Harvey, M. D.

Part 3. On the Chemical and Mineralogical Characters of the
Layas of Vesuyius; by Rev. Professor Haughton and Professor
Hull.

In the department of Polite Literature and Antiquities, there are
in the press :—

On the Felire of Gingus; by Whitley Stokes, LL. D.

_On the Bell of St. Patrick; by the Very Rev. Wm. Reeves, D. D.

It has been found possible to publish the Science portion of the
New Series of Proceedings at quarterly intervals throughout the
year:—Part 2 of Vol. IJ. in April; Part 3 of the same volume
in July; Part 4 in October, 1875; and Part 5 in January of the
present year. These Parts contain twenty-five Memoirs, many of
them of great value, with illustrative woodcuts, and thirty Plates.
Part 11 of Vol. I. (Second Series), containing papers on Polite
Literature and Antiquities, was published in December, 1875.

Besides an Address delivered by the President at the opening
Meeting of the present Session, communications by the following
authors were laid before the Academy in the course of the year :—

In the department of Science :—by the Rev. Dr. Robinson; Dr.
Robert S. Ball; Dr. A. 8. Hart; Dr. Doberck; Dr. Dreyer; Rev.
Dr. Haughton ; Professor Downing; Professor Leith Adams; Dr. Davy ;
iProtessor Wi. Kine; Dr. BE. P. Wright; Mr. A. Wi.) Baker; Dr:

( cx. )

Macalister; Mr. H. W. Mackintosh; Mr. E. T. Hardman; Dr. J. E.
Kelly ; Rev. Eugene O’Meara ; Mr. G. H. Kinahan ; Dr. C. R. C. Tich-
borne; Dr. R. J. Harvey; Mr. C. E. Burton; Professor M‘Nab; Dr.
Studdert; Professor EK. Hull; and Mr. Thomas Plunkett.

In Polite Literature and Antiquities :—by Mr. R. R. Brash; Dr.
Ferguson; the Very Rev. Dr. Reeves; Mr. Garstin; Mr. D. Crofton;
and Mr. Thomas Plunkett.

The Literary and Scientific activity of the Academy, indicated by
the amount and value of the communications made to it during the
past year, would seem to be in some measure due to the promptitude
and regularity with which the papers read before it were published.
In this respect, the Academy, during the past year, has probakly not
been surpassed by any other scientific body. All the papers in the
department of Science, read at the Meetings, up to the end of the
year 1875, ‘are already in the hands of the Members; the publica-
tion of the papers in Polite Literature and Antiquities is also in a
very advanced state; and the total amount printed seems to exceed
that of any previous Academic year.

Within the past year several antique articles in gold, silver, bronze,
&c., have been acquired for the Museum by purchase or donation.
All the bone objects in the collection have been rearranged, and the
greater portion placed on trays specially constructed for them in Wall-
case No. 4, in the Long Room. In the Strong Room two horizontal
glazed cases have been adapted to the window recesses, and some pro-
eress has been made in the arrangement of objects in them. The
alterations in the basement storey, commenced some time since,
have been continued, and this portion of the Academy’s House
is now provided with upright glass cases, and thus rendered available
not only for the purposes of a lapidary museum, but also for the exhibi-
tion of numerous miscellaneous articles.

During the last eight years a continuous series of operations has
been in progress towards the arrangement of the Academy’s collec-
tions, their protection against risk from fire, and the construction of
new places of deposit and exhibition. ‘These efforts have now been
substantially completed, and the general result may be here briefly in-
dicated.

All our more precious objects have been brought together in a
fire-proof room, and our other antiquities of a less bulky kind have

(Hex)

been placed in well-arranged cases in the adjoining apartments of our
first floor, whilst space for the deposit and exhibition of objects of
a greater size, as well as of our surplus collections of bronze and iron,
has been obtained by the conversion of our basement storey into a suite
of four apartments, extending through a length of 140 feet, and
haying, through the greater part of this extent, a breadth of 40 fect.
Although these apartments are low-ceiled and not well lighted by day,
they suffice for our present wants, especially as effective artificial
lighting has been provided for evening exhibitions. Evening openings,
to which the public might be admitted, have been constantly. kept in
view during these preparatory operations, and the work has now
advanced to a state of completion which will probably allow of such
admissions within the present Session. A Handbook for visitors on
such occasions is in course of preparation, and will shortly be
issued. The Council extract from it, and append to this Report,
two plans of our principal and basement Museums, which give a
comprehensive view of the present state of the arrangements, and
which, it is believed, will show that the Academy, in this branch
of its functions, has utilized to the utmost the space and means at
its disposal, for the interests of antiquarian learning, and the in-
struction of the public.

It may here be mentioned that the amount available for the
continuation of the Museum Catalogue, invested in Bank of Ireland
stock, represents a sum exceeding one hundred pounds.

The second and concluding volume of the Academy’s edition of
the Leabhar Breac has been published within the year, and the work
of transcribing and lithographing the Book of Leinster is in progress.
- Mr. O’Longan, assisted in the collation by Professor O’Looney, has
executed his facsimile transcript of that manuscript as far as page
200, a portion which comprises nearly half the work, and the whole.
of this portion has already been printed.

The attention of the Council having been called to a letter pub-
lished in the ‘“‘ Réyue Celtique”’ for February, 1875, in which certain
errors of transcription were alleged to exist in the Academy’s edition
of the Leabhar na-h-Uidhri, the Committee of Polite Literature and
Antiquities was requested to examine into the alleged errors. That
Committee accordingly conducted such an inquiry, and embodied the
results at which it arrived in a Report, which was adopted by the

( Eexccu) )

Council, and having been afterwards laid before the Academy, and
printed in the Minutes (page lxxxvii), is in the hands of the Members.
The printing of the three-text edition of the Felire of (Engus,
with translation, by Mr. Whitley Stokes, is almost completed, and
the issue of the volume may, it is hoped, be expected before long.
Considerable progress has also been made in the printing of the edition
of the Tain-bo-Cuailnge, by Dr. William K. Sullivan. The Academy
has been able to undertake these publications in consequence of the
additional aid, to the extent of £200 per annum, voted by Parliament
during the last two years, for the publication of materials prepared
under the previous grant of the same amount enjoyed since 1868.

A sum of £481 has been included in the Parliamentary esti-
mates of 1876-7, as the first portion of the special grant for the publi-
cation of the Annals of Ulster, a work which, it will be remembered, was
undertaken by the Academy at the instance of the Irish Government.
It has been arranged that they shall be printed in the Irish character,
and in a size uniform with that of the series of historical works
published under the direction of the Master of the Rolls in England.
The Council are happy to add that the Very Rev. Dr. Reeves has
undertaken the task of editing the Annals for the Academy.

A portion of the first fasciculus of photographs from casts of
Ogham inscriptions, is in the hands of the autotype printers. It is
intended to include in this issue the several texts in the Academy’s
Lapidary Museum.

The Academy has already given its sanction to the following
grants, from the fund placed at its disposal by Parliament for aiding -
Scientific research by providing suitable instruments and materials :—

£3 15s. 4d. to Mr. Burton in aid of his Researches into the Aurora .
-and Zodiacal Lights ;

£20 to Professor W. King for further Researches into the Jointing
of Rocks; and

£25 to Dr. Carte and Mr. Moss for the purpose of investigating the
recent Excavations in the Bog of Ballybetagh, and reporting on
such Animal Remains as may be found therein.

And the Academy will be asked at the Stated Meeting to give its
assent to the following further grants from the same fund :—

£35 to the Rey. Eugene O’Meara for further investigations as to
the Distribution of Irish Diatomacee. ;

( exxii. )

£12 to Professor Leith Adams for a Report on Irish Pleistocene
Mammals.

£50 tothe Rey. Professor Haughton for a Report on the Tidal Con-
stants of the Irish Coasts (towards the sum of £100 required for the ex-
penses to be incurred).

£25 to Dr. Studdert and Mr. Plunkett for a Report on the Nature
of the Mineral Waters of Mallow.

£20 to Dr. Chichester Bell towards investigating the Chemical
Constitution of Pyrrol.

£40 12s. 8d. to Dr. Emerson Reynolds towards investigating the
Atomic Weight of Glucinum ; and

£10 to Dr. E. P. Wright for Report on Chytridia parasitic on
Florideeze.

An application was made to the Council in May, 1875, on behalf
of the Arctic Expedition, for the use of the spectroscope made under the
superintendence of Mr. Burton for the Academy, as being the best in
existence for feeble light, and therefore specially adapted for observa-
tions of the Northern Aurora, The Council thought it right to
give the use of the instrument for this important public purpose, an
undertaking being, of course, obtained that the spectroscope should be
returned at the close of the expedition.

An important communication was lately received from Lord San-
don, Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education,
announcing the intended establishment in this city of a Science and
Art Museum for Ireland, and suggesting the transfer of the Academy’s
antiquarian collections to Her Majesty’s Government, and the removal
of the Academy itself from its present premises to Leinster House.
This communication having been fully considered by the Academy at
‘a very recent meeting, it appears unnecessary to enter into particulars
respecting it in this Report, especially as no further communi-
cation on the subject has since been received from the Government.
The letter of Lord Sandon and the Resolutions adopted by the Academy
in relation to it, have been printed in the Minutes (pp. exi. and CXv1.)

The Treasurer informs the Council that he has every reason to
anticipate that the accounts for the year ending with the present
month, which will shortly be published, will exhibit a highly satis-
factory state of the finances of the Academy.

We have lost by death within the year, three Honorary Members,
V1Z.:—

@ exexiy7)

. Sir Charles Wheatstone.
Hermann Ebel.
Adolphe Pictet.

We have also lost ten Ordinary Members, viz. :—-

co Nom

Andrew Armstrong, Esq., elected in 1862.
Richard Rolt Brash, Esq., elected in 1865.

The Viscount De Vesci, elected in 1849.

Rey. R. Ferguson, LL. D., elected in 1854.

Rev. Jas. Gaffney, elected in 1866.

George A. Grierson, Esq., elected in 1824.
Thomas Hone, Esq., elected in 1851.

W. Toderick Kent, Esq., elected in 1838.

W. MacDougall, Esq., elected in 1843.

Rev. George Sidney Smith, elected in 1834.
Charles B. Vignoles, C. E., F. R.8., &c., elected in 1886.
Lawrence Waldron, Esq., D: L., elected in 1860.

One of these names—that of Mr. Brash—has been of frequent

—
Re ee Sone a OO eC) Noe

— pl

occurrence in our Proceedings. He was a zealous and industrious
student of our National Antiquities. He published, not long before
his death, a work on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland to the
close of the twelfth century, and he had collected materials for a com- ©
panion volume to be devoted to the history of the Pointed Styles, as
practised in this country. He also contributed memoirs on kindred
subjects to the ‘‘ Ulster Journal of Archeology” and the ‘‘ Proceedings
of the Royal Historical and Archeological Society of Ireland.”” Hehad -
of late occupied himself much with the study of Ogham inscriptions, —
and embodied many of the results of his researches in papers read before
the Academy. He discovered several new inscriptions of this kind, and
called attention to others which were known, but had not received
due attention from investigators; and has thus done real service in
the elucidation of this obscure and difficult subject.
Nineteen Members have been elected since the 16th of March,

1875, viz. :—

1. The Viscount Powerscourt.

2. James F. Lombard.

3. J. E. Gore.

4. Alexander Lane. -

5. Nicholas Furlong.

() iexeay) ))

. Rey. Abraham Hume.

. Malachy J. Kilgariffe.

. John Charles Robertson.
. John A. Blake.

10. Richard P. Carton.

11. Thomas N. Deane.

12. Williarn Doberck.

13. Joseph Henry Lloyd.
14. Thaddeus M. O’Callaghan.
15. Rev. William Ross.

16. William Dillon.

17. George Fottrell, jun.
18. Rey. Thomas Olden.

19. The Marquis of Kildare.

oO OD

The following President, Council, and Officers were elected for the
years 1876-77 :—
PRESIDENT.

William Stokes, M. D., F. R.8., &c.

Covncit.
Committee of Science.

Rey. Samuel Haughton, M. D., F. R. 8.
E. Perceval Wright, M. D.

David Moore, Ph. D.

John Casey, LL. D., F. BR. 8.

Thomas Hayden, M. D.

Rev. J. H. Jellett, B. D., 8. F. T. C. D.
William Archer, F. R. 8.

Alexander Carte, M. D.

Sir Robert Kane, LL. D., F. R. S.
Robert 8. Ball, LL. D., F.R.S.

J. Emerson Reynolds, M. D.

Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities.
J. Kells Ingram, LL. D.

Samuel Ferguson, LL. D.
W. J. O’Donnavan, LL. D.

R. I. A. MINUTES, SESSION 1875-6. r

( eam )

Alexander G. Richey, LL. D.
John Ribton Garstin, F. 8S. A.
Very Rey. Dean Reeves, D. D.
Rey. Thadeus O’Mahony, D. D.
Robert Atkinson, LL. D.

Rey. Maxwell Close, M. A.
Thomas Drew, R. H. A.

TREASURER.—J. Ribton Garstin, F. 8. A.

Srecrerary.—K. Perceval Wright, M. D.

Srecrerary oF Councri.—J. Kells Ingram, LL. D.

Secretary oF Forrrcn CorrEsponpENcE.—W. Archer, F. R. 8.
Liprarian.—Robert Atkinson, LL. D.

Crerk or tHE Acapemy.—Edward Clibborn, Esq.

The President, under his hand and seal, appointed the following
Members of the Council Vice—Presidents for the ensuing year :—

Very Rev. Dean Reeves, D. D.
Rey. Samuel Haughton, M. D.
Samuel Ferguson, LL. D.
Sir Robert Kane, LL. D.

The following were elected Honorary Members of the Academy :—

In the Department of Sctence.
Carl Wilh. Borchardt, Berlin.
Alphonse Decandolle, Geneva.
Ernst Haeckel, Jena.

In the Department of Polite Literature and Antiquities.

Thomas Carlyle, London.
Margaret Stokes, Dublin.
William Stubbs, M. A., Oxford.
Eugéne E. Viollet-le-duc, Paris.
Ernst Windisch.

Donations to the Library were presented, and thanks voted to the
Donors.

The Academy then adjourned.

( Cx )

Monpay Eventne, Aprit 10, 1876.

Sm Roserr Kanz, LL. D., F. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Michael F. Coxe, M.D., Francis E. Clarke, M. D., Rey. John
Grainger, D. D., Rey. William MW Ilwaine, D. D., Walter Myers, Esq.,
and G. Gerald Tyrrell, Esq., were balloted for and declared duly elected
Members of the Academy.

Letters were read by the Secretary from Miss M. Stokes, Thomas
Carlyle, Ernst Haeckel, C. Wilh. Borchardt, and Alphonse Decandolle,
thanking the Academy for the honor conferred on them in electing
them as Honorary Members.

‘5, Merrion-square, N., Dus,
‘© 25th March, 1876.
« Str,

““T beg to acknowledge the receipt of your kind letter, conveying
to me the intelligence that the Academy has done me the favour of
electing me an Honorary Member of their body.

“Tt is needless forme to add how deeply sensible I feel of the
_ high honour thus extended to me, and how gratified I am for the
spirit of kindness which prompted this act. Pray convey to the
Members of the Royal Irish Academy the expression of my deep
obligation and assurance that I shall continue to make any effort in
my power to help forward the cause in which they have been so good

as to enlist me.
‘““T beg to remain,

‘Yours faithfully,

‘¢ MARGARET STOKES.

‘Dr. BK. P. Waieut.”’

‘¢ JENA,
‘* Den 4 April, 1876.
“¢ HocHGEEHRTER Herr!

‘Die Royal Irish Academy hat in ihrer Sitzung yom 16 Marz mir
die hohe Ehre erwiesen, mich zu ihrem Ehrenmitgliede zu ernennen.
Wenn auch meine bisherigen Bemiihungen um die Forderung der
Wissenschaft nicht ausreichend waren, um diese hdchst ehrenyolle
Auszeichnung zu verdienen, so soll mir dieselbe ein neuer Sporn und
Antrieb sein, mich ihrer wiirdig zu machen und alle meine Krafte im

« ecxxvil )

Dienste unserer Wissenschaft zu verwenden. Das Bewusstsein, einem
so ausgezeichneten Kreise hochverdienter Manner anzugehdren und
durch gleiches Streben, wie durch gleiche geistige Interessen verbun-
den zu sein, verleiht neuen Muth und neue Kraft im Wetteifer nach
gleichem Ziele. Ich werde die Ehre haben, von jetzt an meine wis-
senschaftlichen Arbeiten regelmissig der Royal Irish Academy zu
uibersenden.

‘‘TIndem ich Ihnen meinen verbindlichsten Dank wiederhole und
Sie zugleich ersuche denselben den hochverehrten Mitgliedern der
Academie auszusprechen, bleibe ich

‘Tn vorziiglichster Hochachtung
‘‘ Thr ergebenster

‘Dr. Ernst Harcket,
“* Professor der Zoologie an der
** Universitat Jena.
«¢ AN DEN PRAESIDENTEN DER
‘RoyaL Irtso Acapemy, gu Dublin.

‘¢ BERLIN,
“1st April, 1876.
“ Srr,

‘‘T have been surprised in the most honourable way by receiving from
your illustrious Academy the nomination to an Honorary Membership.

‘The high distinction bestowed upon me by this election recalls
to my memory the extraordinary favour I had in a very distant epoch ;
at the Meeting of the British Association at Oxford, in the year 1847;
by becoming acquainted there with your eminent William Hamilton, —
George Boole, and other Irish scientific men of the first order, and
of being received by them in the most benevolent manner.

“‘It will be a great satisfaction to me if my further researches,
which I shall have the honour of submitting to your judgment, should
render me worthy of the place offered to me in your Academy.

‘‘ Asking you to express my profound gratitude to your honourable
colleagues,

“T am, Sir,
“Your most obedient Servant,
‘* Proressor C. W. Borcuarpr.
‘‘Dr. Witrram Stoxss,
“* President of the Royal Irish Academy,
M.D., D.C.L., F.RS., Knight of the Prussian Order of Herit, §¢.”

(Grex 4)

‘¢ GENEVE,

‘¢31 Mars, 1876.
‘‘ Monsteur LE SECRETAIRE,

‘Vous avez eu la bonté de m’annoncer par une lettre particuli€re,
et ensuite officiellement, le 25 Mars, que l’ Académie Royale d’Irlande,
a daigné me nommer un de ses Membres Honoraires.

‘Jai recu, en méme temps que la lettre officielle, le diplome con-
statant cette nomination a un titre rare et trés-éminent dans la science. -

‘‘ Permettez-moi de vous prier d’étre mon interpréte auprés de
VY Académie Royale pour la remercier de l’honneur qu'elle a bien voulu
me faire, et l’assurer du dévouement avec lequel je m’efforcerai de
coopérer a ses utiles travaux si l’occasion s’en présente.

‘¢ Aoréez, Monsieur le Secrétaire, l’assurance de ma considération
tres-distinguée.

‘¢ ATPH. DE CANDOLLE.
‘¢ A Mownstevur Percevat WRIGHT,

** Secrétaire de ? Académie Royale @ LIrlande.”

‘5, CHEYNE-Row, CHELsEa,

‘© 28th March, 1876,
“Srp,

‘* About a week ago I received the agreeable and most unexpected
announcement from you, that I had been elected an Honorary Member
of the Royal.Irish Academy, an Institution which I have always
much respected. To this your official announcement, there was added
on another sheet some extremely kind words in your private capacity,
from which also I derived great satisfaction, and beg to thank you
accordingly. By this morning’s post there arrived, accompanying
your second note, the Official Diploma, or Certificate, of my election;
and it now only remains that I request you to express to the gentle-
men Members who haye done me this conspicuous honour my grateful
sense of their kindness, and my loyal feeling towards the Institution
of which I am henceforth a Member.

“Some five-and-twenty years ago I passed a very pleasant and

C xem )

instructive day in your Museum, and do not remember that I ever
had so much satisfaction on any visit to a similar collection.

“‘ Regretting only that I am now too old to assist in your labours
at all, except by good wishes, if there could be the least help in
these,

‘‘T have the honour to remain,
‘Yours sincerely,

(a4
‘Dr. E. P. Wricur.”’ age

“ Kerret Hart, Oxrorp,
‘“¢ 23rd March, 1876.
‘Dear Sir,

© Will you kindly allow me to thank you for your communication
informing me that I have been elected an Honorary Member of the
Royal Irish Academy.

“‘T feel very highly honoured by this distinction, and shall be
very much obliged to you if you will inform the Council of the
Academy that, with a very strong sense of their kindness, and of
the honour done me, I most gratefully accept the election.

‘‘T am, dear Sir,

‘‘ Yours very sincerely,

‘¢ Wint1am SrTusss.
‘Dr. E. P. Warieut.”’

The Secretary read a paper by G. H. Kinahan, Esq., ‘‘ On Quartzyte
end Quartz Rocks.”

R. I. Moss, Esq., read a paper ‘‘ On the Exploration of Ballybetagh
Bog.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 6. ]

The Secretary read a paper by Dr. Doberck ‘‘On Leonis considered
as a revolving double star.’

[This paper will be published as part 4, Vol. XXVI., of the ‘‘ Trans- _

actions.” |

(essa)

J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., read a preliminary Note ‘‘On the
Specific heat of Glucinum.”’

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 6.]

Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks voted to the
Donors.

Monpay Eventne, Aprit 24, 1876.

Denis H. Katty, Esq., in the chair.

The Secretary read a letter from Professor Ernst Windisch, thanking
the Academy for the Honor conferred on him by their election of him
as an Honorary Member.

‘¢ STRASSBURG,

** Den 12 April, 1876.
‘¢ HocHGbEHRTER Herr!

‘‘ Gestatten Sie mir, dass ich ihnen meinen ergebensten Dank
fur die grosse Ehre ausspreche, welche mir die Royal Irish Academy
durch die Ernennung zu ihrem Ehrenmitgliede erwiesen hat, und
ich ersuche Sie, diesen Ausdruck meines Dankes den hochgeehrten
Mitgliedern der Royal Irish Academy und dem ehrwiirdigen Priisi-
denten derselben gefalligst tibermitteln zu wollen. Die freundliche
und nachsichtige Anerkennung, welche meine Arbciten bei ihnen
gefunden haben, bestarkt mich und ermuntert mich in dem Vorhaben
nach besten Kraften dazu beizutragen, dass endlich einmal Irlands
alte Sprache und Literatur die ihrem hohen Werthe entsprechende
Wirdigung finden.

‘‘ Bei dieser Gelegenheit erlaube ich mir auch, nicht nur in meinem
Namen, sondern tiberhaupt im Interesse derjenigen Gelehrten des
Continents, welche celtischen Studien obliegen oder obliegen werden,
der Royal Irish Academy dafiir zu danken, dass dieselbe den Beschluss
gefasst und ausgefiihrt hat, die werthyollsten der in ihrem Besitze
befindlichen irischen Handschriften veryielfaltigen zu lassen. Gern
bekenne ich, dass diese Publicationen den wesentlichsten Einfluss auf
die Richtung meiner Studien gehabt haben, und ich glaube zuver-
sichtlich, dass noch mancher Andere werthvollen Gewinn aus dem

(© exexa 2)

Studium dieser kostbaren Documente ziehen wird, welche eben durch
den Beschluss der Royal Irish Academy weiteren Kreisen leicht
zuganglich gemacht worden sind.

‘Dass ich dieses Schreiben in deutscher Sprache abgefasst habe,
bitte ich mit meiner Unbekanntschaft mit dem englischen officiellen
Briefstil freundlichst zu entschuldigen.

‘‘Tndem ich noch im Besonderen ihnen, hochgeehrter Dr. Wright,
fur die gefallige Benachrichtigung und die Uebersendung des Certifi-
cate’s bestens danke, habe ich die Ehre mich zu unterzeichnen

“¢ Als

“Dr. Po. Ernst Wrinviscu,

‘* Prof. Ord. in der Philos. Fac. su Strassburg, und
Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy.”

David Moore, Ph. D., read a “‘ Report on Irish Hepatice.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,’ Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 7, with Illustrations. |

A. G. More Esq., read a “‘ Report on the Flora of Innis Bofin, Co.
Galway.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series, Vol.
II., Science, Part 6. ]

Donations to the Library were announced and thanks voted to the —
Donors.

It was Resolved : —

That we desire to place on record our deep sense of the valuable
services in the furtherance of the work of this Academy, and especially
in the promotion of Irish Antiquarian research, rendered by our late
member, Sir W. R. W. Wilde; that as a mark of respect to his memory,
the Academy do now adjourn without proceeding to the transaction
of its private business ; and that our Secretary be requested to convey
to the family of Sir W. R. W. Wilde our sincere condolence under the
bereavement they have sustained.

The Academy then adjourned.

( texeaait eS )

Monpay Eventne, May 8, 1876.
Wauttam Sroxss, M. D., F.R.S., in the Chair.

William H. Byrne, William Gillespie, and James Edward Kelly,
M. D., were elected Members of the Academy.

It was Resolyed—

“That Robert Atkinson, LL. D., be requested to act as a Delegate
for the Royal Irish Academy at the International Congress of Orien-
talists to be held in St. Petersburgh during September, 1876. And
that the Secretary see that Dr. Atkinson’s nomination as such be noti-
fied to the Congress under the seal of the Academy.”

By permission of the Academy, Mr. KE. T. Hardman read a paper
“On Chemico-Geological Researches—Report No. 1: A Contribution
to the History of Dolomites.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 7, with illustrations. |

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. W. F. Wakeman, ‘‘ On some
of the Antiquities of Knockninny, Co. Fermanagh.”

[This paper will appear in the “‘ Proceedings,” Second Series.
Vol. I., Polite Literature and Antiquities. |

The Secretary read a paper, by Mr. H. B. Brady, F. R. S., ‘‘On
some Foraminifera living attached to Algee.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘ Proceedings,’ Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6. }

The Secretary read a paper ‘‘ On a minute sponge, which he de-
seribed as Kalispongia Archeri.”’

[This paper will appear in the ‘ Proceedings,’ Second Series,
Vol. I1., Science, Part 7, with Illustrations. |

Monpay Eventne, May 22, 1876.

~ Rev. SamMvet Haventon, M.D., F. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

It was moved by David R. Pigot, M. A., and seconded by Thomas
Hayden, M.D.

‘“‘That the Bye-law requiring the withdrawal of strangers be sus-
pended.”

This having been dissented from was declared not carried.

R. I. A, MINUTES, SESSION 1875-6. $

> cxxexty. )

Dr. Ingram, Secretary of the Council, read the following Report
of Council.

At a special meeting of the Council of the Royal Irish Academy,
held this day (22nd of May, 1876), it was resolved to report to the
Academy at its meeting this evening, as follows :—

1. No communication has as yet been received from Government in
reply to the Resolutions adepted by the Academy on the 6th of March
last, upon the letter of Lord Sandon; but the following letter has
been received from the Registrar of the Royal Dublin Society :—

“‘RoyaL Dupin Sociery, Avldare-street,
‘““ 6th April, 1876.
‘Sir,
‘‘T am directed to acquaint you, for the information of the
Council of the Royal Irish Academy, that a Deputation, appointed by
the Council of this Society to confer with the Lords of the Committee
of the Privy Council on Education, on the subject of Lord Sandon’s
letter of the 9th of February last, have submitted a Report of their
interview, and they state that since their return they have received
the letter of which the annexed is a copy.
‘¢ After the letter in question had been read, it was moved by Sir
Arthur Guinness, Bart., M.P., seconded by Lord Powerscourt, and
resolved :

«That the members of the Deputation which have returned
from London be requested to communicate Major Donnelly’s
letter to the Council of the Royal Irish Academy, and endeavour
to ascertain their views thereon.”

“‘T am, consequently, to add, that the Deputation will esteem it a
favour if the Council of the Royal Irish Academy will kindly grant
them an interview on some day in the latter part of the present month,
as may be mutually convenient.

Solaray Sur
‘‘Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ‘CW. E. Steere,
“‘ Registrar.
“« To the Secretary,
“‘ Royal Irish Academy, Dawson-street.”

(Grex)

[ EncrosvReE. |

‘¢ Scrence AnD Art DEPARTMENT,
*¢ April 1st, 1876.
“¢ My pear Dr. STEELE,

‘‘ After meeting the Deputation from the Royal Dublin So-
ciety last Wednesday, I submitted the following Memorandum to
Lord Sandon :—

““¢T have had a long interview to-day with the Deputation
from the Royal Dublin Society. It is evident that many difficul-
ties would be removed if an amalgamation could be effected
between the Royal Irish Academy and the Royal Dublin
Society.

““¢The arrangement of such an amalgamation would be a matter
entirely for the Societies, but it might tend to forward such a
scheme if the gentlemen interested were assured that it met with
your Lordship’s approval, and that if the Societies are prepared
to take the necessary steps, the Government would give them
any aid in its power.

‘‘¢ Further, there is some possibility of an amalgamation of the
Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland with the Royal Dublin
Society. If this were carried out, would the Government be
prepared to provide for the Agricultural Shows in the Phoenix
Park, and remove them from the present buildings beside
Leinster House °’

“Lord Sandon has authorized me to give this assurance generally.

«Will you, therefore, kindly inform the Members of the Deputa-
tion of this. I should add, that I told Lord Sandon that if an
amalgamation were effected, it would probably take the form of a new
Society, with a limited number of Fellows, ordinary Members, and an
Agricultural Section.

““T said nothing about this in the Memorandum, as it is of course
a matter purely for the Societies to arrange.

‘Under these circumstances I suppose the Deputation from the

toyal Dublin Society would wish no further steps to be taken with
reference to the questions they left for Lord Sandon, until we hear
from you.
‘‘ Yours very faithfully,

(Signed) Cd. EF. D: Doxey.”
8 2

(1 @:6:0.9)) ))

2. To this the following reply was sent at the instance of the
Council of the Academy :—

‘* Royan IrtsH Acapemy, 19, Dawson-street,

«18th of April, 1876.
6“ Sr,

‘Tam directed by the Council of the Royal Irish Academy
to forward to you a copy of the following Resolution passed by them at
their last Meeting :—

«That the Council of the Royal Irish Academy are not pre-
pared to recommend any amalgamation of the Royal Irish Aca-
demy with the Royal Dublin Society.’

‘¢ And I am instructed to add, that it is the opinion of the Council
that, under these circumstances, the interview with a Deputation
from the Royal Dublin Society, proposed in your letter of the 6th inst.,
could lead to no useful result.

‘¢T am, Sir,

‘‘ Your obedient Servant,

(Signed) ‘‘Joun K. Ineram,

** Secretary of Councit.
‘OW. E. Sreere, Ese., M.D.,

“ Registrar, Royal Dublin Society.”

3. The communication from the Royal Dublin Society being for the
purpose of obtaining the opinion of the Cownczl, and there bemg an
expectation of an official reply to the Academy’s Resolutions, the
Council did not think it advisable as yet to report to the Academy on
the correspondence with the Royal Dublin Society’s Deputation.

4. They now, however, hasten to communicate to the Academy the
following letter received from the Irish Government, with the en-
closures herein :—

[N.B.—The figures in heavy type prefixed to the letters, indicate
the chronological order in which they were written. | ;

( exxxyirs 9)

: [ 4.]
idee “ Dupin CastLe,
‘17th May, 1876.
‘c Sr,
‘“*T am directed by the Lord Lieutenant to transmit here-

with, for the information of the Council of the Royal Irish Academy,
copies of a letter and the enclosures referred to therein, which have
been received from the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury,
relative to the transfer of the charge of the Vote for the Royal Irish
Academy to the Science and Art Department, London, and to request
that in future all applications for issues of the grant may be made to
the Committee of Council on Education, Science and Art Department,
South Kensington, London, S. W.
Spams Site
‘¢ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “TT. H: Buexe.
‘‘THe TreasurRER, Roya Irish ACADEMY,
*©19, Dawson-street.”’

[3.]
‘¢ TREASURY CHAMBERS,
“11th May, 1876.

[ Corpy—7532].

“Sm
‘“T am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her

Majesty’s Treasury to transmit, for the information of His Grace the
Lord Lieutenant, the enclosed copy of correspondence* which has
passed between the Education Department and their Lordships, with
respect to the proposed transfer of the charge of the vote for the
Royal Irish Academy, from the Chief Secretary to the Education
Department.

‘“‘ T am to request that you will move His Grace to be so good as
to give the necessary directions in the matter.

GIL Gari ersyie.
‘Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “Wittmm Law.
“(Tue Unper Secreraty For IRELAND,

“ Trish Office.”

* Education Department to Treasury. Reply.

Ca cxecxevaliy)
[1.]
[ Copy. ] “Science anp Art DEPARTMENT,
‘‘Sourn Kernsrneton (8. W.)
‘ond May, 1876.
‘‘Srr,—With reference to the arrangements which the Vice-
President of the Committee of Council on Education has made with
the Chief Secretary for Ireland and Mr. W. H. Smith, I am directed
by the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education to request
that you will move the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury
to transfer the vote for the Royal Irish Academy to the Science and
Art Department, in accordance with the recommendation (Section 4,
page xxxv.) of the Report of the Commissioners on the Science and
Art Department in Ireland, 1869, and with a view of furthering the
proposed amalgamation of the Science and Art Institutions in Dublin.
“‘T have, &c.,

(Signed), ‘“¢ Norman MacLeop.
‘THE SECRETARY,

“H.M. Treasury, Whitehall.”

[2.]

[ Cory. | ‘¢ TREASURY CHAMBERS,
‘10th May, 1876.

‘My Lorp,—The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury
have had before them Mr. MacLeod’s letter of the 2nd inst., request-
ing their Lordships to transfer the vote of the Royal Irish Academy
to the Science and Art Department, in accordance with the recom-
mendation of the Report of the Commission on the Science and Art
Department in Ireland, 1869, and with a view of furthering the
proposed amalgamation of the Science and Art Institutions in Dublin.

‘““T am to state in reply, that their Lordships are pleased to assent
to this proposal, and they desire that the Education Department be
considered as accounting for the vote, instead of the Chief Secretary,
as heretofore, from and after the 1st April, 1876.

‘“‘A letter to this effect has been addressed to the Irish Govern-
ment, with whom the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education
should themselves communicate, with a view to the transfer of vouchers,
and the settlement of any details that may arise in connexion with the
change.

“Tam, &c.,
[ No address. ] (Signed) “ Wittram Law.”

(eEsesb< ))

5. These communications having been taken into the consideration of
the Council at their Meeting this day, it was unanimously Resolved :—
“That in the opinion of the Council an acquiescence in the
transfer of the vote for the Royal Irish Academy to the Science and
Art Department would be attended with consequences fatal to the in-
dependence, and highly detrimental to the usefulness, of the Academy.”
6. The Council propose to print this Report, and circulate it amongst
the Members of the Academy, with such further Report as the Council
may think expedient, and to take the opinion of the Academy at a
Special Meeting to be summoned for this day week—
(1). On the wisdom of the action the Council has taken in
repudiating the scheme of amalgamation; and
(2). On the propriety of declining to acquiesce in the transfer
of the accountability for the Parliamentary votes for the
Academy from the Irish Government to the Education De-
partment, South Kensington.
It was moved by Dr. Ingram, and seconded by Samuel Ferguson,
LU.D., and
Resolved—‘‘ That the Report be printed and circulated amongst the
Members of the Academy, with such further report as the Council may
think expedient. And that the opinion of the Academy be taken at a
special meeting to be summoned for this day week, 29th May, 1876, on—
1. ‘‘The wisdom of the action the Council has taken in repudiating
the scheme of amalgamation ; and on
2. ‘‘The propriety of declining to acquiesce in the transfer of the
accountability for the Parliamentary votes for the Academy
from the Irish Government to the Education Department,
South Kensington.”

Edmund Davy, M.D., read a paper ‘‘ On a new Chemical Test for
Alcohol.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 6. ]

Rev. J. H. Jellett, B.D., read a paper ‘‘On certain Chemical Changes
attendant on the Potato Disease.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,’”’ Second Series,
Wol. IT., Science, Part 7. |

Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks voted to the
donors.

(xl)

[Spxcrat Mzerrrne. |

Monpay Eventne, May 29, 1876.
Rey. Samvret Haveuton, M. D., F. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Vice-President in the Chair having declared that the Meeting,
being special, all the Bye-laws regulating the business at General
Meetings, unless No. 4 and No. 7, are not in force, left it to the Aca-
my to deal with them as they should deem fit.

Whereupon the Secretary of the Academy proposed, and David
Pigott, M. A., seconded—

“That the Bye-law, No. 7, be suspended for this night.”

Which having been carried unamimously,

Visitors were admitted.

The Secretary of Council then read the following further Report
of Council, in addition to that presented to the Academy at the Meet-
ing of Monday, the 2nd of May.

1. The Council have resolved by an all but unanimous vote that
they cannot recommend any amalgamation with the Royal Dublin
Society for the following reasons :—

The objects of the Royal Dublin Society, and of the Royal Irish
Academy, are, and have always been, essentially different. The
former Society was incorporated only to promote ‘‘ Husbandry and
other Useful Arts in Ireland,” and has done much good service in
those departments during its long and honorable career. The Academy,
on the other hand, is a body chartered for the purpose. of scientific,
literary, and antiquarian research, quite apart from industrial ends or
practical applications. The suggestion to amalgamate these bodies
is, in principle, the same as would be a suggestion to amalgamate the
Royal Society with the Society of Arts—a proposal which would
probably not be received with favour by those bodies ;—but the
incongruity is still further increased by the singular idea of annexing
to the projected new Society for Ireland an Agricultural Section.

But even if the objects of the Societies were less distinct, this
Academy cannot afford to obliterate, by a change of its name and
constitution, the honorable memories of a hundred years. Its title is
associated with illustrious names, and with great discoveries; it is
known through the civilized world by the circulation of its Transactions,
and through the Honorary Members associated with it both in the

C Mexia)

United Kingdom and abroad; and stronger reasons than any yet
assigned will be required to induce it to break with its past, and
undertake the task of winning a character anew.

It must further be remembered that the proposal is to fuse the
Academy, not with the Royal Dublin Society, as it once was, or even
now is,—a body of large resources and with an important sphere of
action,—but with that Society, deprived of nearly all the depart-
ments once connected with it, shorn of almost all its public functions,
and reduced to a shadow of its former self.

2. Further, the Council have unanimously adopted a Resolution ad-
verse to the transfer of the charge of the vote for the Royal Irish
Academy from the Irish Government to the Science and Art Depart-
ment, for the following reasons :—

The Department of Science and Art, like the Committee of Council,
of which it is a branch, is a purely educational body. It has no con-
cern with learned societies established for original research, scientific,
literary, or archeological. In the present instance, for the first time
it is sought to bring under its control, through the machinery of
finance, a body of this kind. The Royal Society (London), and the
Royal Society of Edinburgh—the two institutions most nearly analo-
gous to our own—receive their grants direct from the Treasury. This
Academy is entitled to the same freedom from the interference of
the Science and Art Department, and would, in our opinion, be lowered
in the estimation of the country by being subordinated to a Depart-
ment whose proper business connects it, not with independent re-
search, but with the humbler office of instruction in the practical
sciences and industrial arts.

Though this Institution alone is directly affected by the present
proposal, we think the attempt thus to enlarge the sphere of action of
the Science and Art Department well deserves the attentive observa-
tion of similar Societies in England and Scotland. Were the Depart-
ment a merely administrative body, without scientific pretentions or
ambition, the subordination sought to be imposed on the Academy
would be less open to objection. Learned societies cannot reasonably
object to such governmental supervision as is necessary to secure
grants of public money from being diverted from the purposes to
which they may have been appropriated by Parliament. But it is to be
feared that a department, which by its nature is connected with the

(ei ))

teaching of science, would seek to exercise a sort of control over the
work of such societies which would be fatal to their independence, and
highly detrimental to their usefulness.

The Irish Government, both by its constitutional and its local
position, is the natural, as well as the best-informed, guardian and
protector of the body which represents the higher pursuits of learning
in this country.

The Council deem it right to observe that the Commissioners on the-
Science and Art Department in Ireland, 1869, do not, in section 4,
p. xxxv. of their Report, or elsewhere, recommend that the charge
of the vote for the Royal Irish Academy should be transferred to the
Science and Art Department, as is stated in the letter from that
Department to the Secretary of Her Majesty’s Treasury, of the 2nd
of May, 1876.

3. It may be said by some persons that, in opposmg amal-
gamation with other Societies in Dublin, and in declining to be-
come a branch of the South Kensington Establishment, the Aca-
demy would show a selfish inclination to stand in the way of the
creation of a great Science and Art Museum for Ireland. This would
be an entire misrepresentation. There is no excuse for confusing
those questions with that of the transfer of our antiquarian col-
lections to the Government. The Academy has distinctly declared
its desire to co-operate in the establishment of such a National
Museum, and its willingness to transfer these collections to the Go-
vernment under reasonable conditions, similar to those conceded to.
the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. Had it, however, been under-
stood that either the scheme of amalgamation, or subordination of
the Academy to the Science and Art Department, was intended to
form part of the Government plan, as communicated in Lord Sandon’s.
letter, the Council could not have recommended the Academy to.
entertain the proposal at all.

4. The action which the Council recommend may, they are aware,
be attended with serious consequences. But the issues involved appear
to them to be of such high importance, that whilst fully impressed
with the gravity of the crisis as possibly affecting the resources—it
not the very existence of the Institution—they yet feel bound to advise
the Academy :—

( exliii )

(1) Not to accept the scheme of amalgamation with the Royal
Dublin Society ; and

(2) Not to acquiesce in the transfer of the charge of its vote from
the Irish Government to the Science and Art Department.

The Report was received.

It was moved by the Very Rev. Dr. Russell and seconded by Lord
Viscount Gough—

‘That the Academy approves of the action taken by the Council
in declining to entertain the proposition of Amalgamation.”

The following, as an amendment, was moved by G. J. Stoney, M.A.,
F. R.S., and seconded by Professor J. E. Reynolds, M.D.

““That the Academy is prepared to consider a scheme for amalgama-
tion with the Royal Dublin Society, provided :—

1. ‘“‘That Agriculture shall be wholly excluded from the new body.

2. ‘‘That the proposed body of Fellows of the new body shall con-
sist of the existing Members of the Academy.

3. ‘That the Museum of the Academy, together with such other
Irish antiquities as may be added to it, shall be for ever kept apart
from other collections, and be permanently maintained as a Museum
of our national antiquities, no portion of its contents being ever
removed from the City cf Dublin, unless by permission given under
the seal of the new Society.

4. ‘That a capital sum shall be paid to the new Society in conside-
ration of property surrendered to Government by the Royal Irish
Academy and by the Royal Dublin Society.

5. ‘That the new Society shall be accountable to Her Majesty’s
Treasury through the Irish Government for all sums voted by Parlia-
ment, and shall not be subject in the conduct of its affairs, or the ex-
penditure of its grants, to any control on the part of the Science and
Art Department, or any of its officers.”

This was ruled by the Vice-President not to be an Amendment.

The Resolution was then put to the Academy and the Vice-Presi-
dent declared it carried.

The Rey. Dr. Carson moved, and David R. Pigot, M. A., seconded—

“That the Academy protests against the transfer from the Inish
Government of the charge of the Academy’s Parliamentary Grant, and
declares its determination to forego all claims on the bounty of Par-
lament rather than apply to the Science and Art Department of the
Committee of Council on Education for any issue of its grant.”

( @diny ))

The following as an amendment was moved by J. J. Digges
La Touche, M.A., and seconded by John Hatchell, M.A.—

‘«That the words ‘ and declares,’ and all the words following in the
Resolution, be omitted.”

This, on being put by the Vice-President, was declared lost.

The original Resolution was then put and declared carried.

The Rey. Dr. Longfield moved and Dr. Hayden seconded—

“That it be referred to the Council to take such measures as in
their judgment will be best calculated to obtain for the Academy a
withdrawal of the assent given by the Treasury Board to the transfer
of the Academy’s vote to the Educational Department.”

This was declared by the Vice-President to be carried.

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Evenine, June 12, 1876.
Samvet Fercuson, LL. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
Minutes of the last two Meetings were read and confirmed.

Francis Clarke, M. D., signed the roll, and was admitted a Member.

Harry N. Draper, Esq., read a paper by himself and Richard
J. Moss, Esq., ‘‘ On the Allotropism of Selenium; and on the Influence
of Light on the Electrical Conductivity of this Element.”

[This paper will be published as Part 6, Vol. XXYVI., of the
“Transactions.” |

George Porte read a paper ‘‘ On some peculiarities in the conditions
under which the remains of Cervus Megaceros were lately found in
Ballybetagh.”’

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings”? Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 7. ]

Samuel Ferguson, LL. D., read a paper on the ceremonial term
called ‘‘ Desuil.”

The Academy then adjourned.

Monpay Eventne, June 26, 1876.
Wittiam Sroxzs, M. D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Rey. Richard T. Smith and Harry N. Draper were elected Mem-
bers of the Academy.

( @xky ))

Rev. Dr. M‘Ilwaine signed the roll, nd was admitted a Member.

The Secretary read a paper by Professor J. R. Young ‘‘ On a cer-
tain relation between the Quadratic Equation Q’-— 3PP’, and the pro-
duct of the squares of the differences of the roots of a cubic equation.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Wolksiiy Science, Part’ 7.]]

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. John Birmingham, being ‘“‘ A
Catalogue of and Observations on Red Stars.”

[This paper will be published as Part 7, Vol. XXVI. of the
‘* Transactions.” |

The Secretary read a note from Samuel Ferguson, LL. D., ‘‘ On
Blown Sand Rocks.” |

Professor Galloway read a paper by A. M‘Alpine, Esq., ‘‘ On the
detection and precipitation of Phosphoric Acid by Ammonic Molyb-
date.”

[This paper will appear in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” Second Series,
Vol. II., Science, Part 7. |

Professor McNab read a paper ‘‘ On a revision of the species of
the genus Abies.”

[This paper will appear with Illustrations in the ‘‘ Proceedings,”
Second Series, Vol. II., Science, Part 7. |

Ed. Perceval Wright, M.D., Secretary of the Academy, read a paper
“On a new species of Peripatus.”

[This new species of Peripatus, which it was proposed to call P.
Huttoni, had been forwarded from Wellington by Captain F.W. Hutton.
They had been found under stones at Nelson. Some of the largest
specimens were nearly two inches in length. They had been kept for
some time alive by Captain Hutton, who found that they were chiefly
nocturnal in their habits. They thrived well on flies, which they
captured by shooting out of their mouths a sticky fluid. Dr. Wright
intended to publish full anatomical details of this new species, with
illustrations. |

Dr. E. P. Wright also read a paper entitled

‘¢ A contribution to a knowledge of the Friendly Island Alge.’’

John K. Ingram, LL. D., Secretary of the Council, read the fol-
lowing Report from Council, which was adopted :

The Council beg to report to the Academy that no further com-
munication has as yet been received with reference to the Resolutions

(Gitexdva)

adopted by the Academy (on the recommendation of the Council) on
the 6th of March last, and forwarded as the Reply to Lord Sandon’s
Letter; nor in answer to the protest against the transfer of the Aca-
demy’s Grant to the charge of the Science and Art Department, which
was forwarded to the Chief Secretary after the meeting on the 29th of
May.

Since then, however, the following letter has been received :—

‘“¢ Scrence anp Art DEPARTMENT
?
‘«Sourn Kensrneton (8.W.),

“8th June, 1876.
SCOOTER:
‘“T am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Council

on Education to state, for the information of the Council of the Royal
Trish Academy, that they have received a communication from the
Trish Government respecting the transfer of the charge of the Vote
for the Royal Irish Academy from the Chief Secretary for Ireland to
this Department ; and I am to request that, in accordance with the
instructions given by the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, the
accounts of the Royal Irish Academy from the Ist of April last may
be transmitted to this Department, in the same manner as has hereto-
fore been done to the Irish Government.

So am Sia
“Your obedient servant,

‘“¢ Norman MacLeop.
“Trp SECRETARY,

“‘Royat Irish ACADEMY,
& Dublin.”

The receipt of this letter has been simply acknowledged.

The Council do not look on this letter as an intimation that the
protest of the Academy is to be disregarded, but rather as the official
action, following, without renewed instructions, upon the previous
correspondence.

The Council have been desirous of laying before the Irish Govern-
ment the reasons which lead them to urge the reversal of the course
taken towards the Academy, but in the absence of His Grace the Lord -
Lieutenant, they have not been enabled to present to him a Memorial,

( exlvii_)

‘as had been intended. They have, however, just received a notifica-
tion that their Excellencies the Lords Justices will be happy to re-
ceive a Deputation on the subject of the proposed transfer of the
_ Academy’s vote.

The course adopted by the Education Board and the Treasury
having the effect of suspending the further issue of the Academy’s
Grant, it is desirable to take action without delay, and though the
Council are not without hope that the Government will yield to the
wishes of the Academy, yet, having regard to the advanced period of
the session, and the possibility of an appeal to Parliament being found
necessary, they have thought it advisable to prepare the Draft of a
Petition to the House of Commons, which is accordingly submitted
herewith for the approval of the Academy.

The Council recommend the Academy to authorize them to affix
the Seal of the Academy thereto, and to have the Petition presented
if they should find it advisable to do so.

The Treasurer of the Academy reports that the amount in Bank
(including what remains of the £500 received on account of this year’s
Parliamentary Grant), will probably be insufficient to defray the neces-
sary outgoings to the end of the year.

The Council hope that they will be enabled to meet the difficulty
without having recourse to the funded capital of the Academy ; but
they deem it expedient—having regard to the Academy’s resolution,
that they will ‘forego all claim on the bounty of Parliament rather
than apply to the Science and Art Department ’”’—to ask the authority
of the Academy, under Bye Law 3, chap. vii., to enable the Council, if
they should find it necessary, to sell a portion of the Academy’s three
per cent. stock, and to affix the Corporate Seal of the Academy to such
‘documents as may be required to effect transfers thereof, so as to avoid
having to call a special meeting of the Academy during the vacation.

Drart Petition oF THE Royat IntsH AcaDEMY To THE Commons’

Hovss oF PARLIAMENT,
Homety SHEWETH:

1. The Royal Irish Academy was incorporated by Charter
of King George III., in 1786, for the promotion of Science, Litera-
ture, and Antiquities, and has much advanced those objects by
associating learned men in Ireland, by its Publications, by the esta-

Gexdiyai

blishment of a Museum of Irish Antiquities, and otherwise. It has,
both before and since the Union, been aided by grants of Public
money, especially since a Select Committee of your Honourable House
reported favourably upon it in 1864.

2. Your Honourable House was pleased, during the present session,
to vote a sum of £2000, in aid of the said Royal Irish Academy, to be
accounted for by the Chief Secretary, Ireland, who has, accordingly,
already accounted with your Petitioners for £500, portion of said vote.

3. In the month of February last a communication, bearing date
the 9th of that month, was received from the Right Honourable Lord
Sandon, Vice-President of the Committee on Education of Her
Majesty’s Most Honourable Privy Council, announcing to the Academy
that Her Majesty’s Government had approved of a scheme framed by
that Committee, including a proposal for the transfer of the Anti-
quarian Collections known as the Academy’s Museum to a Science
and Art Museum in Dublin to be provided by the State, under a
Director who should be an Officer of the branch of that Committee.
known as the Science and Art Department, and who would act as
Accounting Officer for all the Votes of Public Money, and be the
medium of communication with the said Department.

4. Your Petitioners, considering that their collections do not con-
stitute an Industrial or Art Museum within the objects of the Com-
mission of 1869, hereinafter referred to, and that the Science and Art
Department is a branch of the Committee of Her Majesty’s Privy
Council on Education, whereas the Royal Inish Academy is not an
Educational Institution, but a learned body entitled, as it conceives,
to the same status with the other learned Societies of the United
Kingdom, which have not been, in this or any other manner, subor-
dinated to the Science and Art Department, in consenting so to
transfer its collections, stipulated, amongst other conditions, that the
Academy should be accountable, as at present, to Her Majesty’s.
Treasury, through the Irish Government, for all sums voted by Par-
liament, and should not be subject, inthe conduct of its affairs, or the
expenditure of its grants, to any control on the part of the Science and
Art Department, or any of its Officers.

5. Your Petitioners’ answer, bearing date the 7th of March, 1876,
embodying such stipulation has received no further reply than an
official acknowledgment of its receipt. But on the 18th of May last, -

(cali)

your Petitioners received the following communication from Her

Majesty’s Irish Government :—
“¢ Dustin CastLe,

“17th May, 1876.
“Sir,
‘“‘T am directed by the Lord Lieutenant to transmit here-

with, for the information of the Council of the Royal Irish Academy,
copies of a letter and the enclosures referred to therein, which have
been received from the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury,
relative to the transfer of the charge of the Vote for the Royal Irish
Academy to the Science and Art Department, London, and to reyuest
that in future all applications for issues of the grant may be made to
the Committee of Council on Education, Science and Art Department,
South Kensington, London, 8. W.

“Tam, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed), “T. H. BurKe.
‘THE Treasurer, Royat IrtsH Acapemy,
19, Dawson-street.”’

6. In said communication, were enclosed copies of certain Letters
of the 2nd, 10th, and 11th of May, in the Schedule hereto re-copied
and set forth, and to which your Petitioners humbly crave leave to
refer, from which it appears, that such change of the charge of the
Vote has been made in supposed accordance with the recommendation
(No. 4, p. xxxv) of the Report of the Commissioners on the Science
and Art Department in Ireland, in 1869; and with a view to further-
ing a proposed amalgamation of the Science and Art Institutions in
Dublin.

7. The said Commissioners did not, in their Report referred to, or
at all, recommend the transfer of the charge of the vote for the Royal
Irish Academy from Her Majesty’s Irish Government to the Education
Department of Science and Art, as is stated in said Letter of the 2nd
May, being the Letter moving the Lords Commissioners of the Trea-
sury to such change.

8. No such project of amalgamation, as in said Letter is referred to,
has ever been submitted by or on behalf of Her Majesty’s Government
to the Royal Irish Academy, or has ever, to your Petitioners’ know-
ledge, received the sanction or approval of Her Majesty’s Government ;

R. I. A. MINUTES, SESSION 1875-6. t

(Camcl=)

neither has it ever been shown how such a measure could in any
way be conducive to the establishment of such National Museum in
Dublin. But a suggestion, shadowing forth some vague project of
an amalgamation between the Royal Irish Academy and the Royal
Dublin Society and Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, and con-
tained in a Letter to Dr. Steele, Assistant Secretary and Registrar of
the Royal Dublin Society, from Major J. F. D. Donnelly, an Official
of the Science Branch of the Science and Art Department of the
Committee of Her Majesty’s Privy Council on Education, was com-
municated to the Council of the Academy on behalf of a Deputa-
tion of the Council! of the Royal Dublin Society, which suggestion the
Council of the Academy (as your Petitioners conceive, wisely and pro-
perly) declined to entertain.

9. Your Petitioners humbly submit that the action of the Lords
Commissioners of her Majesty’s Treasury, in so tranferrmg the charge
of said vote, having been moved by the said letter of 2nd May, con-
taining such erroneous representations as the grounds for inviting
their Lordships to such transfer, was improyident, and ought to be
reversed.

10. Your Petitioners submit, as a further reason for the reversal
of their Lordships’ action, that such transfer, following on the expres-
sion of your Petitioner’s desire that they should not be subjected to
the Science and Art Department, and on their refusal to entertain
such project of amalgamation thence emanating, wears the appear-
ance of having been moved by that Department for purposes of re-
taliation.

11. Your Petitioners further humbly submit that, after the said
vote had been passed, and in part accounted for, the administration
thereof could not regularly be placed in hands other than those
designated in that behalf when your Honourable House voted the
same, and your Petitioners refer to the Act 29 & 80 Vict. c. 89, s. 22.

12. And further, that even supposing same could be regularly done,
the effect of said order being to transfer one of the functions of Her
Majesty’s Irish Government to a Department of-the State in London,
without the direct sanction of Parliament, such order is of dangerous
example, and contrary to good public policy.

13. Your Petitioners, considering that not only are the grants of
public money voted to kindred scientific societies in England and Scot-

@ cium

land, not issued through the Science and Art Department, but that
the sums allocated by your Honourable House in support of the na-
tional Collections of Antiquities in England and Scotland are ac-
counted for by the Trustees of the British Museum and the Scottish
Board of Trustees, respectively, without any control or interference
from the said Department; considering, also, that they cannot
accept such change of the medium through which they should
transmit their estimates and receive their issues, without placing
in the hands of said Department a control over their action in
the higher pursuits of learning, altogether out of the sphere of said
Department, fatal to their independence, and detrimental to their
usefulness, have declined, and must continue to decline, to apply for
any issue of said Grant through said Department, whereby said Grant
will remain unused, and the intention of your Honourable House
in voting same be further disappointed.

14. Issues of said Grant are urgently required for the necessary
purposes of the Royal Irish Academy, which, if long deprived of
same, must greatly reduce its establishment, and contract its means
of promoting the objects of its Charter.

May it therefore please your Honourable House to take
such measures, as to your wisdom and justice shall seem
meet, to cause the charge of accountability for said vote, for
1876-7, which, for the reasons aforesaid, has been rendered
practically unavailable for the object intended by your
Honourable House, to be re-transferred to the Chief Secretary
for Ireland,

And your Petitioners, in duty bound, will ever pray.
[sxat. |
[ Zhe ScuEDveE above referred to. |

‘¢ ScrencE AND Art DEPARTMENT,
‘‘Sourn Kensineton, (8S. W.)

“2nd May, 1876.

‘Sim :
?
‘‘ With reference to the arrangements which the Vice-
5

President of the Committee of Council on Education has made with
the Chief Secretary of Ireland and Mr. W. H. Smith, I am directed
by the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education to request
that you will move the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury

( ci)

to transfer the vote for the Royal Irish Academy to the Science and

Art Department, in accordance with the recommendation (Section 4,
page xxxv) of the Report of the Commissioners on the Science and
Art Department in Ireland, 1869, and with a view of furthering the
proposed amalgamation of the Science and Art Institutions in Dublin.

‘‘T have, &c.,

‘ (Signed), * Norman MacLeon.
‘¢ THE SECRETARY,
«H. M. Treasury, Whitehall.”

‘‘ TpEAsuURY CHAMBERS,
“10th May, 1876.

‘© My Lorp,

““The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury
have had before them Mr. MacLeod’s letter of the 2nd inst., request-
ing their Lordships to transfer the vote for the Royal Irish Academy
to the Science and Art Department, im accordance with the recom-
mendation of the Report of the Commission on the Science and Art
Department in Ireland, 1869, and with a view of furthering the pro-
posed amalgamation of the Science and Art Institutions in Dublin.

“‘T am to state in reply, that their Lordships are pleased to assent
to this proposal, and they desire that the Education Department be
considered as accounting for the Vote, instead of the Chief Sa
as heretofore, from and after the 1st April, 1876.

‘‘A letter to this effect has been addressed to the Irish Govern-
ment, with whom the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education |
should themselves communicate, with a view to the transfer of vouchers,
and the settlement of any details that may arise in connexion with the

change. : i
‘am aces
(Signed), “ Wittiam Law.”
‘< TREASURY CHAMBERS,
11th May, 1876.
ee Sr,

“T am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her
Majesty’s Treasury, to transmit, for the information of His Grace the
Lord Lieutenant, the enclosed copy of correspondence* which has.

* Education Department to Treasury. Reply.

( cliti_ )

passed between the Education Department and their Lordships, with
respect to the proposed transfer of the charge of the vote for the Royal
Irish Academy, from the Chief Secretary to the Education Department.

“Tam to request that you will move His Grace to be so good as to
give the necessary directions in the matter.

“‘T am, Sir,
“Your obedient Servant,
(Signed), “ Wittram Law.

‘THE UnpDER SECRETARY FoR IRELAND,

“« Trish Office.”

The Secretary of Council moved :

“That the Academy do authorize the Council to affix the Seal of
the Academy thereto; and to have the Petition presented, if they
should find it advisable to do so.”

As an amendment, it was moved by Dr. Frazer, and seconded by
Dr. Casey :

‘“‘That clause ten be omitted.”

This amendment was, by the permission of the Academy, with-
drawn.

Whereupon, it was moved by Professor E. Perceval Wright, M. D.,
and seconded by Professor O’ Reilly :

“That clause ten be omitted.”

On a division, this was rejected, four voting for and twenty-three
against it.

The original resolution having been put, was declared carried.

On the motion of R. R. Madden, M.D., the names of the voters
were recorded.

The Secretary laid on the table, the ‘‘ Transactions,” Vol. XXVL.,
Part 5 (Science), being ‘‘A report on the Exploration of Shandon
Cave,” by Professor A. Leith Adams, F. R. 8.

The Academy then adjourned until November.

‘a!

”

”

ee)

Total of
RECEIPTS. Purposes, urposes, ane lass.
2 Gs Gh £ sed. 8 8s. Oh
Balance from last Year, 0.276) | CLS Sige eens
From PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS :—
Unappropriated :—“ Old Grant,” 500 0 0
Appropriated :—
Preparation of Scientific eee 200 0 0
Library, . : 200 0 0
Researches in connexion with Celtic MSS., 200 0 0
Publication of ditto, . : a 200 0 0
Museum, : 200 0 0
Purchase of Treasure Trove, : 100 0 0
Illustration and Printing of “Tr ansactions”®
and ‘ Proceedings,” 200 0 0
Opening the Academy in the evening 200 0 0
2000 0 0
», SCIENCE GRANTS refunded by Grantees, . 41 8 0 41 8 0
TRINITY COLLEGE GRANT towards re-
production of the MS. known as the Book of
Leinster (on account of £700) making £320, | 200 0 0 200 0 O
MEMBERS’ PAYMENTS :—
Entrance Fees, 99 15 0
Annual Subscriptions, 338 2 0
Life Membership Composition (invested as
opposite), . 120 15 0
658 12 0
PUBLICATIONS SOLD :—
Transactions, 15 4
Proceedings, : 0 6 2
Trish “MSS. "Series, 0 8 6
Photographs of Museum Objects, O70
Leabhar na h-Uidhri, Seats
Leabhar Breac, f aera y hs 40 4 0
Museum Catalogue (invested as $ opposite), ‘ 113 4
44 14 4
» INTEREST ON INVESTMENTS :—
Life Composition—Consol. Stock, 69 18 8
Cunningham Bequest—New 3 per cent.
Stock (see opposite), 74 17 10
Museum Catalogue—Bank of Ireland Stock
(see opposite), 4 4 10
' 1449 1 4
,, TEA FUND Subscriptions, 8 5 0 ; 8 5 0
£1951 6 6] 1189 8 10] 8140 15 4

GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNT OF JOHN RIBTON|
FOR THE YEAR ENDING |

I certify that the above account is correct, according to Ohi best of my
For Auditors’ Report

‘ -

|
i
|
i

_

|
yo]

ACADEMY.

ARSTIN, TREASURER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,
3lsr OF MARCH, 1876.

From Huds From Hands me
at t
PAYMENTS. cet Saeeel ferGaterl of ann Check,
Purposes. Purposes.
eb Uh a 85° ihe 25 th
For SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY PUR-
POSES :—
Polite Literature and ay Deice : Jas UE aoe
Scientific Be, .| 241 8 0
Library : XO O OO} 10 8 7
Trish Scribe, &e. tk 200 0 0 25 0 0
(including Lithogr aphing
of Leabhar Breac, and Renbne Felire
of Aengus, Part I.), j 200 0 0
Museum, : 200 0 0
Treasure Trove 100 0 0
Transactions and Proceedings, es 200 0 0 297 0 8
Opening the Academy in the evening, 200 0 0
Cunningham Prizes, 46 13 0
Book of Leinster, 198 1 0
2210 6 38
» ESTABLISHMENT CHARGES :—
Salaries, . 389 0 0
Wages and Liveries, 197 16 6
Furniture and Repairs, . 1613 6
Fuel, . St 29 6 0 o
Insurance, Taxes, and Law, 10 9 1
Printing (Miscellaneous), 28 0 10
Postage,. . . 25 2 3
Freights, Incidentals, and Contingencies, ! 12 0 5
708 8
» INVESTMENTS (CAPITAL) :—
Stool aan Total
Bought.| Description. | eck,
Life Membershi y ele)
fcommositions, - S 3 1| Consol. Stock, |2478|18) 1 120 lo 0
Cunningham Be-
quest Interest,
| Balance, . 30 | 7|3 | New3perCents,/2560] 9} 5 98 4 10
Museum Catalogue,} 1 |16| 8] Bk. of Ir.Stock,| 37] 3) 4 518 2
154 18 0
» LEA FUND Expenditure, 3 5 © 13 © &
21 5) 8
£1949 5 0} 1145 18 38 | 3094 18 3
Balance to Credit of the Academy, D1) 6) 2 ih -y
45 17 1
£1951 6 6.) 1189 8 10] 8140 15 4

a

|

:

knowledge and belief, Joun Risron Garstin, Treasurer, K.I..A,
see next page.

AUDITORS’ REPORT.

We have examined the above General Abstract, and compared the Vouchers for
the details of the several heads thereof, and find the same to be correct, leaving a
Balance of Forty-five Pounds Seventeen Shillings and One Penny to the credit of
the Academy; which amount is certified by the Accountant-General to have re-
mained to the credit of the Academy’s account in the Bank of Ireland on the lst of

April, 1876.

The Treasurer has also exhibited to us like Certificates in respect of the
invested Capital, showing that the amounts of Stock standing in the name of
the Academy on the same day were £2560 9s. 5d., New Three per cents. ;
£2478 18s. 1d., Consols; and £37 3s. 44., Bank of Ireland Stock.

(Signed) M. H. Cuiose \ i:
r Wo. ARCHER, Auditors.

15th of May, 1876.

PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.

VOL. IL, SERIES 2.

SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

ere

R1IA-Proc. Ser. Il. Vol.Il. Science. Plate 1.

: a

Paes.

Alex.Macaliste:: ad nat. delt Mintern Bros. imp

Lachrymo-jugal Suture.

PLATE 1.

TuLusrraTiIve oF Prorrsson Macatster’s Parer on ‘‘ Toe Presence
oF A Lacurymo-sJucaL Suture in A Human SKULL, AND ON ITS
CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 58.

Fig. 1. Human skull.
Mx. Maxillary bone.
Mx.x Superior maxillary.
L. — Lachrymal bone.
K. Ethmoid.
J. Jugal Bone.
Fig. 2. Rhesus.
Mc. Maxillary bone.
Lachrymal bone.
Frontal bone.
Jugal bone.
Parietal.
Squamous portion of Temporal.
Zygomatic process of Temporal.

RNY Ye YH

Supra-orbital foramen.

PLATE 2.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF PRoFEssoR MACALISTER’S Paper ‘‘ ON TWO NEW SPECIES
or PENTASTOMA.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 62.

Fig. 1. Pentastoma imperatoris, sp. nov. female, nat. size.

Dr ie 4 male, x 4—a. mouth; 8. intestine.

3. . 53 female head—a. papille; 0. dorsal
wart.

4. ys * » Claw, x 50, showing retractor
and depressor muscles.

5. 99 3 »» reproductive organs--a. coiled

oviduct; 6. receptacula seminis;
e. ovarian ducts; d. ovary; e. uterus.

6. - Py male reproductive organs x 18—
a. esophagus; b. accessory sacs con-
taining chitinous processes ; ¢. cir-
rhus ; d. sac of ditto; e. accessory
gland; f. point where the vas de-
ferens ends in the cirrhus; g. end
of cirrhus.

Ue mM 3 striped muscle from retractor of claw
x 350.
8. Me BS vertical section of part of body

wall; a. chitinous epidermis; 6. hy-

podermis; c. longitudinal muscle ;
d. circular ditto ; e. lining mem-
brane ; f. body cavity; g. wall of
oviduct; h. ova.

9. ” 3 section of intestine x 15, partly dia-
grammatic.
10. > i portion of oviduct above uterus.

11. Pentastoma aonycis, sp. nov. female x 6.
12. 5 s mouth.
13, i ni claw x 50.

Nantern Bros imp.

As)

Pentastoma.

SS

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er ts ae peed : Sets | un er Wes arene = anne
Legato te =

RIA Proce. Ser.ll. Vol.IL Science.
Alex. tees ad nat.del*

>

PLATE 3.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF PRoFEssoR MACALISTER’S PAPER ‘‘ ON TWO NEW SPECIES
oF PENTASTOMA.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2,-p. 62.

Figs. 1 to 18. Pentastoma imperatoris, sp. nov. representing different
stages of Ova and Embryos.
Fig. 14. Pentastoma aonycis, sp. nov., portion of skin of, x 100.

PLATE 4.

ILtusTRATIVE OF Mr. W. H. Macxktyrosn’s Paper ‘On tHE Muscunar
ANATOMY oF Cyota@pus Dipacty.us.’”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 66.

Cholepus didactylus, muscles of hind limb.
a. Panniculus.
b. External oblique.
c. Iliacus.
d. Sartorius femoralis. :
e. Adductor magnus (the rectus is seen just above’.
J. Bifid gracilis.

g. Biceps femoris.

h. Flexor hallucis and flexor longus.

2. Two tendons of gastrocnemius externus.

RLA Proce. Ser. II Vol Il. Science. Plate 4.

Alex.Macalhster ad nat del*

Mmtern Bros. imp .

Cholcepus didactylus.

|
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| Alex. Macalister ad nat. delt Minterr. Bros imp i

Retro-peritoneal Cavities. |

PLATE 5.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Mr. G. R. Lereper’s Paper on ‘‘ RETRO-PERITONEAL
Cavities In Man.’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 79.

Fig. 1. Recessus Ileo-ccecalis.
2. Fossa subccecalis.
3. Fossa retro-ceecalis.

C. Coecum. I. Ileum. I. c. Ileo-colic Artery. K. Knife passed
through the long mesoceecum. Mc. Mesocecum. Mm. Mesenteriolum.
My. Mesentery. P.i.c. Plica Ileo-cecalis. P.m. Cut edge of the
Peritoneum. Ps, Psoas magnus. Ps’. Psoas parvus tendon. F.s. ¢.
Fossa subccecalis. Fi, Fascia iliaca. R. Fossa retro-cecalis. R. 1. c.
Recessus ileo-ccecalis. Te. Taenia externa. V. a. Vermiform ap-
pendix.

it

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ax.
Date
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*

*

R.LA.Proc. Ser. II, Vol. II. Science.

Ww. Archer, del* WS Farlane & Erskine, Lith’* Kdin®

PLATE 6.

IntustRATIVE oF Mr. Arcuer’s Paper ‘‘ On APOTHECIA IN SOME ScyTo-
NEMACE AND SIROSIPHONACE.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 85.

Fig. 1. Ascus with 4 spores.
2. Single spore x 403.

From an unidentified Seytonema.

3, 4, 5. Apothecia.

6. Mature apothecium.

7. Same (in outline) burst, to show protruding asci and para-
physes.

8. Spore x 400.

9-11. Showing internal agglomeration of brownish-coloured gra-
nules causing swellings of the filaments (incipient apo-
thecia ?)

From Svrosiphon alpinus.

12. Fully formed apothecium.

13. Younger apothecium.

14. Spore x 400.

15. Ascus, immature, with paraphyses, showing contents con-
tracted into a fusiform figure and divided transversely.

16, 17. Immature asci with paraphyses.

18. Showing portion of an apothecium burst so as to cause the
8-spored asci, with paraphyses, to become extruded (the
rent portion of the apothecium not shaded).

From Strosiphon pulvinatus or S. Heuflert.
19. Immature apothecium.
20. Outline of mature apothecium.
21. Immature asci.
22. Mature ascus with 8 spores.
23. Spore x 400.

From Stigonema mamillosum.

24, Apothecium.
25. Immature asci with paraphyses.
26. Spore x 400.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. b

PLATE 7.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Mr. Krnanan’s Paper ‘‘On MicroscopicaL STRUCTURE

Fig. 1.

10.

te

12.

oF Rocxs.”’
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 94.

Orthoclase (F. Rutly), Yetterly, Sweden (42 diam.)

. Junctions of twin crystals of flesh-coloured felspar (Knocka-

navaddy), Co. Galway (42 diam.)

. Crystals of amphibole and mica in the flesh-coloured felspar

(42 diam.)

. Inlying crystalline mass in the flesh-coloured felspar (42 diam.)
. Crystals of magnetite (?) and pyrite in the flesh-coloured fel-

spar (296 diam.)

. A portion of one of the small crystals of the flesh-coloured

felspar (42 diam.)

. A portion of a mass of the dull white felspar (adularia ?) from

the Knockanayvaddy granite, showing contained portions of
a triclinic felspar (oligoclase ?) that have a ribanded struc-
ture 42 diam.) ,

. A crystalline mass of adularia (?) in which there is an incipient

or faint lining (42 diam.)

. A portion of a crystal of oligoclase (F. Rutly) Yetterly, Swe-

den, showing its structure (42 diam.)

Portions of crystals of triclinic felspar (oligoclase) from the
Knockanavaddy granite (42 diam.), (aa) irregular flakes of
mica, (6) small crystals of titanite, (c) roundish piece of
flesh-coloured orthoclase.

Part of a large crystal of titanite with which are two small
crystals of the same mineral, one an inlier (42 diam.)

Dull white felspar crystals (adularia)—Furbogh, Galway—
showing peculiar structure (238 diam.)

RIA-Proe. Ser. Il. Voll. Science.

oO

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NG

Y,

ety hte

RIA.Proe. Seri. Voll Science. Plate 8.

GHK &GHFord. ; Mintern Bros.1mp. |

PLATE 8.

Intusrrative oF Mr. Kinanan’s Paper ‘On Microscopical STRUCTURE

Fig. 13.
14.
15.
16.
Ne
18.
iD}
20.

21.
22.

23.

24.

oF Rocks.”’
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 94.

A portion of the lower right-hand crystal in Fig. 12, Pl. 7,
enlarged 386 diameters.

Inlying minerals in the triclinic felspar Furbogh granite
(238 diam.)

Peculiar structure of the triclinic felspar, 196 diameters.

Part of Fig. 15, marked (6), enlarged 386 diameters.

Peculiar structure of the triclinic felspar, 296 diameters.

Blebs of quartz in the Kilkullen granite (42 diam.), right--
hand a crystal, left hand, the quartz having a pellicle.

Blebs of quartz in Elvanyte, from near Galway (42 diam.),
right hand, a crystal, left-hand, irregular secretion with a
pellicle.

Part of Fig. 18, marked (a), magnified 196 diameters.

Part of Fig. 20, marked (a), magnified 386 diameters.

Part of Fig. 18, marked (4), magnified 296 diameters. In the
lower right-hand portion of the figure are five tubes from
the feather-shaped: arrangement a little to the left, which
are magnified 386 diameters.

A portion of the centre of the right-hand crystal in Fig. 19,
magnified about 350 diameters, to show the tubuli or short
gas tubes. The two pointed cones below the tubes are
oblique sections of tubes.

A portion of some of the quartz of the Furbogh granite, mag-
nified 240 diameters, showing capilloids, or hair-like lines
and regular systems of tubuli. In the upper left-hand
portion of the figure is an inlying crystal.

PLATE 9.

IvLusrRatTIve oF Mr. Kryanan’s Paper ‘‘On GRANITIC AND OTHER

UNS:

Incenite Rocks.”
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 102.

Diagrammatic sketch of a doleryte dyke, seeming one rock, but of
different textures in different parts—a and 0, clay or shale
partings; ¢ and d caught up pieces of schist. In the vicinity
of the parting 6, the rock is amygdaloidal, while the division
of the dyke on the left of that parting has a rude horizontal
columnar structure combined in places with a spheroidal
structure. The arm to the left has a rude columnar structure.—
Cleggan.

. Diagrammatic sketch of a doloryte dyke in felsite-schist, showing

a platy and spheroidal structure—Mannic Bay.

. Sketch-map of part of a dyke of felstone in granite. In the whole

of the felstone is a structure oblique to the walls of the dyke,
while in part are lines nearly perpendicular to the others,
giving the rock a tesselated aspect.—Lough Bola.

. Nodular or conglomeritic-gneiss, changing into granitoid-gneiss.—

Derrycemlagh.

. Angular pieces of schistoid-granite in intrusive oligoclasic-granite.—

Omey Island.

. Section of conglomiretic-schist.—Ardadeny. -
. Sketch-map of a small rock exposure, showing scaled old joint-

lines in a hornblende-aphanyte.—Letterdife,

. Sketch-map of a small rock exposure, showing some of the old

joint-lines scaled, while others are still open, but a small thick-
ness of rock alongside is indurated, and when the rock is
weathered stands up in a ridge.—Glan.

Sketch-map of a small exposure of micaceous-hornblende-rock,
showing the pitted surface caused by the weathering out of the
small bunches of mica plates.—Knockadai.

Sketch-map of a weathered surface of a micaceous-hornblende-rock
containing large flakes of silvery-white mica, the weathered
edges of the latter having a peculiar angular arrangement.—
Mannin Bay.

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IntustrativE oF Mr. Kryanan’s Paper ‘On GRANITIC AND OTHER
IncenitEe Rocks.”

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 102.

K. Sketch of a bomboid protrusion of hornblende-aphanyte in a mass
of steatyte.—Inish Bofin.

L. Diagrammatic sketch of a section showing hornblende-rock asso-
ciated with hornblende-schist, the latter alternating upwards
with mica-schist ; (a) mica-schist ; (6) Hornblende-schist ;
(¢) hornblende-rock.—Derrycunlagh.

M. Nodular hornblende—rock passing upwards into conglomeritic-
eneiss.—Derrycunlagh.

N. Nodular hornblende-rock passing at the edge of the flow or bed
into conglomeritic-gneiss.—Derrycunlagh.

O. Veins of segregation of three ages in orthoclasic-granite; (@) new
open joints; () newest veins; (¢) second veins; (d) oldest
veins.—Cashla Bay. :

P. Sketch-map of a rock-surface of hornblende-schist showing the old

- joint-lines forming hard lines, and the associated rock indu-
rated.—Ardadeny.

PLATE 11.

ILLusTRATIVE OF Mr. Krnawan’s Paper ‘‘On GRANITIC AND OTHER
Incenrte Rocxs.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 102.

Fig. Q. Map of Cashel Hill, showing the exotic rocks associated with
tuff, while both are distinct from the rocks of the surround-
ing country.

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PLATE 12.

InLusTRATIVE oF Mr. Kinanan’s Paprr ‘‘On GRANITIC AND OTHEB
IncEnITE Rocxs.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 102.

Fig. R. Vertical section across the summit of Cashel Hill.

Fig. 8. Section across Knocksufin, showing the graduation of the oli-
goclasic granite through gneiss into schists, and their rela-
tions to some of the exotic rocks.

PLATE 13.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Proressorn Macanister’s Paper ‘‘On THE CRANIAL
OsTEOLOoGY oF SLOTHSs.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 139.

Fig. 1. Bradypus gularis, Skull, nat. size.
a Parietal.
6 Supra-occipital.
e Squamosal.
ad Exoccipital.
e Condyle.
Fig. 2. Ditto, + nat. size.
Lachrymal bone.
Nasal bone.
Frontal bone.
Parietal.
Squamosal.
Supra-occipital.
Occipital crest.
Exoccipital bone.
Condyloid foramen.
Bulla tympani.
Pterygoid.
Foramen ovale.
Zygomatic process of squamosal.
Jugal bone.
Maxilla.
Premaxilla.
Fig. 8, £ Fontanelle bones, nat size.
a Wormian bones.
6b Left parietal bone.
e Right parietal bone.
d & e Wormian bones.
f Supra-occipital left.
g Meso-occipital suture.
Ah Supra-occipital right.

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Fig. 4. Fronto-lachrymal region x 4.
a Jugal.
6 Lachrymal.

ec Frontal.
d Mavxilla.

e Lachrymal foramen.
f Infra-orbital foramen.
2,

Fig. 5. x 12, Stapes.

RIA Proce. Ser Il. Vol. IL. selence Plate 13.

|AMad nat.G.H Ford hth. os Mintern Bros imp.

Bradypus gularis.

COPA aT OUMBL Z ONEILEY SW

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Plate 14.

RIA. Proc. Ser. Il. Vol. Il Science

M©Parlany & Urnkine Jath™® Kdint

Ww fircher ad nat dal!

PATE a:

ILLusTRATIVE oF Mr. ArcHer’s Paper ‘‘ On CHLAMYDOMYXA LABYRIN-
THULOIDES, N..G. ET SP.”

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 140.

Plate 14 represents an entire example, the body-mass haying be-
come extruded through the torn-lke opening in the many-layered
outer envelope, and showing the greenish, reddish, and blueish-colour-
ing granules, pulsating vacuoles, and some incepted foreign bodies.
Far extending in a tortuous reticulated ‘‘labyrinth” are seen the
filamentary tracks (Fadenbahn, Cienkowski) with numbers of the blueish
granules travelling thereon, now becoming fusiform in figure (Sp7n-
dles). Towards the left of the example, in an outlying portion of the
mass is seen a vacuole showing a temporary cleft or rift in the sub-
stance at each side of it. Towards the right is seen a nearly isolated
colony of the mass containing a digested example of Oocystis Naegelit.
At the further extremity occur two similar nearly isolated portions,
one showing imbedded an as yet undigested example of Spirotenia
gracillima (n. s.), all these outlying portions showing some vacuoles.
Towards the left of the figure a small portion of the body-mass has
become on some former occasion independently re-encysted, and is now
“dormant.” x 400 diam.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE.

PLATE 15.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Mr. Arncuer’s Paper ‘‘ On CHLAMYDOMYXA LABYRIN-
THULOIDES, N. G. ET SP.”

ide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 140.

Fig. 1 shows certain bodies found in the cells of a Sphagnum
occurring in the same pool [and often on the same plants, which har-
bour undoubted examples of this organism (as shown in next figure), |
and which are supposed to have some genetic relationship.

Fig. 2.—A portion of a leaf of Sphagnum showing young Chlamy-
domyxa examples ; to the left are seen green ones, near the bottom two
very small, still globular, towards the middle a few now red, owing to
the abundance of the red granules; the larger examples have put-on a
torulose figure, owing to the constriction caused by the recurring cinc-
ture of the annular fibre of the Sphagnum-cell. Towards the right is
seen a Chlamydomyxa extruded, and still attached by a neck-lke por-
tion of the wall; the contents have become re-encysted now outside
the Sphagnum-cell,

Fig. 3.—A condition rarely met with, showing the inner sarcodie
substance subdivided in a number of nearly equal-sized globular por-
tions, the sub-contents reddish inclining to orange, and each indivi-
dual ball encysted in its proper wall; the whole within the outer
many-layered original envelope.

Fig. 4.—The many-layered envelope of an example after severe
pressure, the most of the substance removed, a few colouring granules
only being left.

Fig. 5.—A small example after being boiled in caustic potash.

Fig. 6.—Portion of an example treated with iodine and sulphuric
acid.

All the figs. x 200 diams.

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RIA Proc. Ser ll Vol.il. Science .

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PLATES 16 & 17.

IvtusTRATIVE OF Mr. Baxker’s Paper “On THE MyYRTACES OF THE
SEYCHELLES.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 160.

Prarr 16.—Eugenia Wrighti.

Prare 17.—Eugenia Sechellarun..

PLATE 18.

IntusTrative oF Mr Harpman’s Paper ‘‘ On tHe Cave or Dunmorg,
Co, Kitkenny.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 168.

Plan of Cave.

. The market cross stalactitic pillar.

. Section at end of rabbit burrow. Vide p. 170.
. Recess near market cross.

Fairies’ floor.

om wo

Plate [8

R1I.A.Proc. Ser. If. Vol. Il. Science.

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eat]

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e "Market Cross’

Forster &C° Lith Dublin.

Cave of Dunmore, C° Kilkenny.

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RIA Proc Ser Il Vol Il. Science.
oF

PLATES 19 anp 20.

InLustRATIVE oF Mr. Macauister’s Parer ‘‘ On SOME FORMS OF THE

E.

it

A.

a.

1.

Mm.

Licgamentum PreryGo-sPrInosumM.”’
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 110.

[In all the Figures the letters have the same significance. |

External pterygoid plate.

Internal pterygoid plate.

Accessory external pterygoid plate (Fig. 12).

Spina accessoria (in Fig. 14 a = ligamentum pterygo-spinosum
accessorium).

Lower spine on the external pterygoid plate.

Muscular ridge on the external pterygoid plate.

mm. Middle meningeal artery.

So RSS SS SES

Notch between the two teech on the external pterygoid plate.
Foramen ovale. o’. Inner accessory opening thereinto.

. Spina angularis.

Ridge of thickened ossified ligament.

Foramen spinosum.

Inner accessory aperture into foramen spinosum.
Upper tooth on the external pterygoid plate.
Suture on the ossified ligament.

PLATE 19.

Outer view of outer pterygoid plate, adult male, showing a
muscular ridge, and well marked, but separate spine angu-
laris and accessoria.

Outer side of right outer pterygoid plate, showing two hinder
teeth, as well as spine angularis and accessoria.

Inner side of right outer pterygoid plate, showing a large per-
foration (f) co-existing with a notch.

Outer view of right outer pterygoid plate, showing a deep
notch.

Inner side of right pterygoid plates, showing lower and upper
teeth.

R. I, A. PROC., SER, II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. a

10.

15.

. Inner side of left pterygoid plates, showing a large projecting

lower muscular tooth on the external pterygoid.

. Outer side of right external pterygoid, showing spina acces-

soria co-existing with a bridge across the foramen spino-
sum (a’).

. Ossified ligaments forming a thick prominent ridge, on the

outer and inner side of which are inlets into the oval and
spinal foramina, which in vertical section are Y-shaped.

PLATE 20.

. Ossified ligamentum pterygo-spinosum, showing a suture in

the ossified bridge, co-existing with a spina accessoria.
Ossified ligamentum pterygo-spinosum accessorium, with a
suture in the bridge of bone.

. Ossified ligamentum pterygo-spinosum accessorium, bridging

over, and dividing the inlet into the foramen ovale into two
parts, spina angularis free, a back-directed spine from the
spina accessoria overlapping the foramen spinosum.

Pterygoid processes from Chatham Island skull, showing the
accessory outer pterygoid plate.

. Ossified ligamentum accessorium pterygo-spinosum, with no

suture.

. Ligamenta pterygo-spinosum ( p.s.) et accessorium (a), show-

ing their relation to the middle meningeal artery (m.m.),
and to the temporal nerves (7, ¢’’).

Ligaments in another specimen, showing their fusion at their
pterygoid end.

ee batt
r

RiA Proc. Ser.l Voll. Science. Plate 20.

AM. ad nat del: GH Ford lth Mmtern Bros.i

Plater

RIA-Proc. Ser. I]. Vol. IL Science.

Mintern Bros amp.

FLW. Maclantosh ad nat.del, GHFord ith.

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R1A Proc. Ser IL. Vol ll.Science.
HW.Maclantosh adnat.del, GHFordhth.

“

PEATES 215 anp 22:

IutustRative oF Mr. Macxtntosu’s Paper ‘‘On A MaAtrormMep Corona
oF ECHINUS ESCULENTUS.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 114.

PratE 21.—Fig. 1. Abactinal aspect of corona. I.,I1., III.,IV., V.,
genital plates. 1, 2, 3, 4,5, ocular plates. Plate I. is the madreporic ;
plate IT. is seen to have lost its genital pore. a, right prong of ambula-
crum 2, stopping short a little above the ambitus. (In this ambulacrum,
in this and the next figure, the lithographer has in many instances
represented as dots what are really small tubercles, and thus the pores
seem much more numerous than they actually are). a’, a group of
three or four pores belonging to ambulacrum a. a”, pores belonging
to the left prong of ambulacrum a, which are placed inside the inter-
ambulacral plates of Ila. yp, large central plate round which a number
of other plates are arranged in a radiate manner. s, a small perfora-
tion through the corona, apparently a hole produced by absorption.

_ Fig. 2. Corona seen from left-hand side. a, a’, as before ; b, actinal
boss. The point of bifurcation of ambulacrum 2 is seen near the
bottom of the figure; also the remarkable ‘“‘ petaloid” appearance of
interambulacrum II., and the scattered arrangement of the pores in the
left prong of ambulacrum 2.

Prats 22.—Fig.3. Posterior aspect of corona, showing the remark-
able alterations which the plates have undergone. References as
before.

Fig. 4. Actinal aspect of corona. a, 4, as before; the line 4 termi-
nates on the summit of the boss. Ambulacrum 1 is seen to have a
very short course, terminating a short distance beyond the top of the
boss. The bifurcation of ambulacrum 2a is seen to take place about
half way between the margin and the edge of the actinal orifice, the
whole of which is displaced downwards and to the right-hand side.
The sutures of the plates in the neighbourhood of the altered parts are
almost entirely obliterated. °

All the figures are reduced to about jthe natural size.

PLATE 23.

IntustRative oF Mr. M‘Nas’s Paver, ‘“‘ Remarks ON THE STRUCTURE OF

Fig.

THE LEAVES OF CERTAIN CoNIFERZ.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 209.

1s
2
3
4.
5
6

2 2 HS

Pinus Hookeriana.

. Pinus Pattoniana.
. Pinus canadensis.

Pinus Mertensiana.

. Pinus Brunoniana.
. Pinus Sieboldii.

All the Figures are magnified 20 diameters.

Epidermis.

. Hypoderma.

Resin canal.
Sheath of the Fibro-vascular bundles.

[ The letters refer to all the Figures. |

RIA Proc. Ser.ll. Vol. Il. Science. ; Plate 23

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RIA Proc. Ser. ll Vol Il. Science. - Plate 24:

Macahster del, G.H.Ford hth. Mintern Bros. imi

i erityphh c Pouches.

PLATE 24.

InLustRatIve oF Mr. Macatister’s Paper ‘“‘On Two Disstuinar Forms
oF Prrtrypuiic Poucuss.’’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 214.

Fig. 1. Fossa Retrocecalis.

a. Abdominal wall, cut and reflected.
External cutaneous nerve.
Tlio-inguinal nerye.

. Fossa.

Aon

Crest of ilium.

Ascending colon, torn out of its bed.
Ureter.

Iliac artery.

Genito-crural nerve.

Psoas.

DES ES po 8

Fig. 2. Subcecal Fossa.
. Abdominal wall, cut and reflected.
. Ligamentum ceeci (Huschke).
. Ascending colon.
. Fossa ileo-cecalis.

a

b

c

d.

e. Lleum.
f. Rudiment of mesenteriolum.
g. Vermiform appendix.

h. Fossa sub-cecalis.

7, Psoas magnus.

PLATE 25.

Intvustrative or Mr. C. E. Burron’s Paper “On tue Zopracat Lieut.”
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 218.

Fig. 1. Represents the collective result of the observations on the
spectrum of the Zodiacal Light detailed in the accompanying
paper, laid down on a scale of wave-lengths. The unit of
the scale employed for designating the lines is *"**™*"*; the
same with that used by Angstrom.

Fig. 2. The nucleus and envelopes of the Zodiacal Light. Mauritius,
1875, Jan. 2.

Fig. 8. The same as seen on 1875, Feb. 5, near the Equator.

Fig. 4. Do. do. Feb. 7.

Fig. 5. The same as seen in high N. latitude, 1875, March 31.
N.B.—In Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, dark shading represents light.

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PLATES 26 to 34.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE Rey. Eveene O’Meara’s Report ‘‘ On rue [rise
Driatomace®.”’ Part I.

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 236.

PLATE 26.
=< thie Melosira Borreri, p. 246.
; 2 FA subflexilis.
3. nA distans.

—.._—-—s« 4&«.:- Lysigonium nummuloides, p. 248.
5. Podosira montagnei, p. 250.

Dee 36 maculata.
6. Orthosira arenaria, p. 251.
ie a suleata.
8. < orichalcea.
9. os Roéseana.
10. Cyclotella Kitzingiana, p. 256.
Hale ae Meneghiniana.
1:2: ; operculata.
120. a By var.
13. ae antiqua.
14. Af rotula.
15. 7 papillosa.
16. ao Scotica.
ee me punctata.
18. Coscinodiscus, oculus iridis, p. 266.
19. s centralis.
20. is perforatus.
21. Be gigas.
22: - radiolatus.
23. i Gregori.
24. fs Ehrenberg.
25. 7m minor.

26. Craspedodiscus coscinodiscus, p. 266.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II., SCIENCE. €

PLATE 27.
Fig. 1. Actinocyclus Ralfsii, p. 268.
: "i moniliformis.
. Eupodiscus Argus, p. 269.
. Auliscus sculptus, p. 270.

1
2
3
4
5. Odontodiscus excentricus, p. 270.
6
7
8

rs Anglicus.
; “4 Hibernicus.
. Biddulphia Baileyii, p. 275.
8a. a aurita.

9. af pulchella.

10. Amphitetras antediluviana, p. 277.
11. Triceratium alternans, p. 278.
12. ys amblyoceros.

13. As exiguum.

14, Trinacria regina, p. 278.
15. Isthmia nervosa, p. 279.

16. Fragilaria maxima, p. 283.
17. Denticula mutabilis, p. 285.

18. Odontidium mesodon, p. 287.
19. Dimeregramma distans, p. 289.
20. Plagiogramma costatum, p. 290.

PLATE 28.

. Diatoma grande, p. 291.

. Ralfsia tabellaria, p. 293.

. Rhaphoneis amphiceros, p. 295.
scutelloides.
liburnica.

. Synedra crystallina, p. 297.
5 fulgens.

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10. », amphicephala.
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12. oF acula.
13. ve gracilis,
14. » undulata.
15. » Iunaris.
16. 3 biceps.
ite om pulchella.

18. i . var. gracilis.
19. 3 s », acicularis.
20. A ae ,, lanceolata.
QI. 5 Fe ,, linearis.
22. » capitata.

23. 5, _ var. longiceps.
24. * ulna.

25. _ », var. oxrhynchus.
26. ~ ») 9», amphirhynchus.
27. », longissima.

28. Re obtusa.
29. a splendens.

30. E ” var. radians.
31. 5 os », danica.
382. i salina.

33. 5, gallionii.

34 ,, spathulata.

35. », barbatula.

36. ,, tabulata.

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39. ms Nitzschiodes.
40. Frauenfeldit.
41. ee putealis.

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PLATE 29.

. Grammatophora marina, p. 315.

s serpentina.

. Tabellaria flocculosa, p. 317.

. Tetracyclus lacustris, p. 318.

. Rhabdonema arcuatum, p. 318.
. Striatella unipunctata, p. 320.
. Tessella interrupta, p. 320.

. Amphipleura pellucida, p. 321.
. Mastogloia convergens, p. 325.

i Closeli. —

re portierana.
5 Smithii.

ae costata.

. Dick xia ulvoides, p. 328.

. Colletonema neglectum, p. 331.
. Berkeleya fragilis, p. 331.

. Schizonema crucigerum, p. 3338.

a Smithii.
‘5 Greyillii.
a obtusum.

. Diadesmis Williamsonti, p. 337.
. Brebissonia Boeckii, p. 338.

PLATE 30.

. Navicula nobilis, p. 340.
2.

a3 cardinalis.

“es viridis.

a alpina.

5 pachyptera.

95 distans.

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11. Navicula longa.
12. ee tabellaria.

13. ss divergens var.

14. a borealis.

15. pp menapiensis.

16. a clepsydra.

leis i. rupestris.

18. of ceres.

19. 6 gibba.

20. at », var. Boeckii.
Pre a5 ‘s »» parva.

22. se hemiptera.
23. 5 apiculata.

24. af Brebissonii.

25. A ‘A var. angusta.
26. a nodosa.

26GH j wis: », var. staurophora.
Die ie icostauron.

28. fs stauroptera.

29. i bacillum.

30. 5% Americana.

31. Pp isocephala.
32. ae bicapitata.

33. yh 9 var. crucifera.
34, a AY », coustricta.
305. 5s termes.

36. Re microstauron.

37. i crucifera.

38. a pinnularia.

39. et scalaris.

40. a cuneata.

41. BA acuminata.

42. a retusa.

43. , integra.

44, - pachycephala.

45, a, subcapitata.

46. gracillima.

47. as macula.

48. i zellensis.

PLATE 31.

1. Navicula cuspidata, p. 357.

2. oe fulva.

3. Ss cuspls.

4 . rhombica.

5. AS coerulea.

6 fs decipiens.

7 Pe, tumens.

8. i rostrata.

9 5 tenuirostris.
10. 93 ambigua.
11. sphcerophora.
12. SF quarnerensis.
13. 55 Davidsoniana.
14. ‘3 ovulum.
DE 35 latiuscula.
16. a Barkeriana.
Nef 3 Grunovil.
18. a amphisbeena.
19, a elegans.

20. 5 palbebralis.
Dili s hebes.

22% lineata.

23. liber.

24. a lacuneata.

25. 3 Griindleriana.

26. as iridis.

Die a », var. amphigomphus.
28. se 5B) apa chub ables
29 ‘ dubia

30. + limosa.

31. 5 » var. truncata.
32. $5 undosa.

35. se C8OX.

34. F trochus.

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36. Navicula coccononeiformis.

37. ‘3 Kotzchyi.
38. a maxima.
39. 5 "p var. linearis.
40. A subula.
41. 3 translucida.
42. HF papillitera.
43. ne liburnica.
44. 5 plumbicolor.
45. s veneta.
46. AG Johnsonii.
47. He simulans.
48. 3 Delginensis. ;
49. ti rhomboides.
50. A serians.
51. a crassinervia.
52. i dirhynchus.
53. - rostellum.
54, Ay leevissima.
55. of oblongella.
56. a incurya.
PLATE 382.
1. Navicula punctulata, p. 377.
2 6 granulata.
3. ‘ humerosa.
4, s as var. fuscata.
oO: Me & », quadrata.
6. Ne latissima.
Ue a meniscus.
8. aa lucida.
9. . cluthensis.
GEST os is var. producta.
10. op punctata.
Doles oA lacustris.
12. maculosa.

13. Navicula scutilloides.
14. A pusilla.

15. i tumida, var. linearis.
16. 5 pulchra.

Nee A fusca.

18. af Smithii.

19. a‘ Collisiana.

20: a estiva.

Pally a elliptica.

22k 3 oe var. ovalis.
23. Pe clavata.

24. ae Hennedyi.

25. P nebulosa.

26. is a var. suborbicularis.

27. i pretecta.
28. ie Morei.
29. 5 Sandriana.

30. 2 Francisce.

31. $i Hibernica.

32. a nitescens.

33. ae Richardsoniana.

34, ef Stokesiana.
35. AF Wrightii.

36. e spectabilis, var.
PLATE 33.
Fig. 1. Navicula lyra, p. 391.

2. A », var. elliptica.
3 rf » 32) \Grunovil.
4, a ae AMON,
5 x 5 op /seductilis:
6. - Aa COnstriCta:
Oe 4 pygmea.
8. A as var. cuneata.
9. 5 expleta.

10. A cynthia.

RIA Proc, Ser ll Voll. Science.

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11. Navicula sansegana.

12.
13.
14.
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ide
18.
1g).
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
38.
34.
36.
36.

Fig. 1
2
3.
4.
5
6
7

R.I.A. PROC., SER.

. Navicula

Arraniensis.
Eugenia.
scutellum.
suborbicularis.

x var

Schmidtii.
coffeiformis.
eudoxia.
Donkiniana.
marginata.
subcivita.
Archeriana.
incurvata.
museca.
interrupta.
apis.
bombus.
didyma.
splendida.
Gregorii.
Williamsonii.
incisa.

. forficula.

crabro, var. denticulata.

Pfitzeriana.
Vickersii.

PLATE 34.

directa, p. 406.
exilis.

radiosa.
gracilis.

acuta.
peregrina.
zostereti.

II., VOL. II.. SCIENCE.

8. Navicula Cleviana.

9. a3 digito-radiata.
10. Be Ergadensis.
ake a cyprinus.

12. galvagensis.
13. - solaris.
14. aa viridula.

15. ue Heufleri.
16. 5 Northumbrica.

Age 5 arenaria.
18. si inflexa.

IG e Hungarica.
20. <, Carassius.
211; Re mutica.

22. <5 semen.

23. Ns inflata.
24. i Anglica.
25. a eryptocephala.

26. 7 angustata.
Pale “ Lagerstedtii.
28. i. gastrum.

29. A binodis.

30. i dicephala.

31. A rhyncocephala.
32. ‘ globifera.

33. Pi rostellifera.

34. ie cancellata.
35. a minor.

36. . perpusilla.
37. 3 seminulum.

N. B.—AlII the figures in the preceding Plates of Diatoms are mag-
nified 400 diameters, unless otherwise indicated.
Fig. 10, Plate 29.—The Striew should be radiate.

Plate 354

cvience.

RIA Proc.Ser J] Vol.I.S

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PLATE 36.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF PrRoressor Epw. PercevaL Wricur’s Paper ‘‘ On a
New GEnNvs AND SPECIES oF PANDARINA.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 583.

Fig. 1. Stasiotes Rhinodontis, gen. et sp. nov. Nat. size.
2 af dorsal aspect.
3 a side view.
4, “ ventral aspect.
5 me anterior antenna x 25.
6 - rostrum and palpi (a) x 25.
rostrum (6) x 50.
A shewing toothing (c) + 200.

he 75 posterior antenna x 25.
8. ee first foot-jaw x 25: chelee (a) x 50.
9. 6 second ,, ye

10. as first abdominal foot x 25.

ii. en second f AS

je Bie third ds a

13. i fourth ms ue

14. » last segment with appendages.

R. I, A. PROC., SER. II., VOI. I1., SCIENCE. g

PLATE 36.

ILLusTRATIVE OF Dr. Ketry’s Paper ‘‘On a Casr or Potypactytism.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 539.

Fig. 1. I., II., I11., IV., V., VI. The metacarpal bones.

On

P.L, P.IL, P. U1. First, second, and third Pollices.

a, Posterior angle of Os Triquetrum.

6, Interosseous ligament, corresponding with the line of junc-
tion of the ‘‘Complemental process,” with the Scaphoid
in the left hand (fig. 2, 0).

ec, Line of fusion between the Posterior Trapezoid and the
Complemental process.

d, The depression indicating the tendency to bifidity in the
second metacarpal bone.

.P.1., P. IL., P. III. First, second, and third Pollices.

a, Posterior angle of Os Triquetrum.

b, Line of union between the Scaphoid and the ‘‘ Complemen-
tal process.”

c, The cartilaginous ferule on apex of the metacarpal bone of
first Pollex.

d, Sesamoid bones.

e, The united second and third phalanges of third Pollex.

. a, Anterior Trapezoid.

6, Broken line indicating the position of the Os Triquetrum.
The Os Triquetrum of right hand.

. The two bones in the left hand corresponding with the Os

Triquetrum of the right hand.
a, The detached unciform process.

RIA Proc. Ser. IL Vol ll. Science. Platoon

d)

Plate 37.

R 1A Proc. Ser Il. Vol. Il Science.

Mintern Bros .imp.

JEK

ID AE) Biv
ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. Ketty’s Paper ‘‘ On a Case oF Potypactytism.”’
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 539.

Fig. 6. 1, Opponens Pollicis.
2, Abductor Pollicis.
3, The deeper and only head of the Flexor Brevis Pollicis,
dividing into two slips.
4,4, 4, The three divisions of the Interpollicaris.
5, Flexor Pollicis Secundi et Tertii.
6, Musculus Accessorius-ad Lumbricalem Primum.
7, Adductor Pollicis.
8, Musculus Accessorius ad Transyersum Manum.
9, Transversus Manus..
Fig. 7. 1, Opponens Pollicis.
2, 2, 2, The three slips of the Abductor Pollicis.
3, 3, 3, The three portions of the Flexor Brevis Pollicis.
4, The two portions of the Interpollicaris.
5, Musculus Accessorius ad Transversum Manum.
6, Adductor Pollicis.
7, Lumbricalis ad Pollicem Tertium.

PLATES 38 & 39.
ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. Ketry’s Paper ‘‘ On 4 Case oF Potypactynism.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 539.

Plate 38, Fig. 8. 1, 2, F stensor Ossis Metacarpi Pollicis; two slips
(the second Extensor Internodii Pollicis Primi).
38, Extensor Primi Internodii Pollicis.
4, Extensor Secundi Internodii Pollicis.
5, Slip between Extensor Communis Digitorum and
Extensor Indicis.
6, Aponeurotic web between the first and second
Pollex, into the free margin of which were in-
serted some of the muscles of the anterior group. ~
Fig. 9. 1, 2, 3, Three slips of Extensor Ossis Metacarpi
Pollicis.
4, Extensor Primi Internodii Pollicis.
5, 6, Two slips of Extensor Secundi Internodii Pol-
licis.
7, Aponeurotic web.
8, Extensor Indicis.

Plate 89, Fig. 10. The vessels and nerves of the anterior surface of
right hand.
Fig. 11. Ditto, of the left hand.
1, The great Arteria Mediana.

Piaterocr

tL A Proc. S ait IL VoL. Science.

Mmtern Bros. imp.

LA Proc. Ser Il Vol Il Science. Plate 39.

Mintern Bros.mnp.

Plate.40.

i

RIAProc ser ll Vol I]. Science.

|

x 250

WWest & Co.imp.

Tuffen West al nat.del.et so.

PLATE 40.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. PercevaL Wricutr’s Parrr ‘‘On a New Genus
AND SPECIES OF SPONGE.”

Vide Proceedings R. I, Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 754.

Fig. 1. Kalispongia Archeri, gen. et spec. nov., x 50 (side view).
De 3 5 front view of head portion, x 50, of
another specimen.

3. ap FS stem portion of an apparent variety,
x 50.

4. Ks - portion of tissue of stem, x 250.

5. be 9 Ap », of head, x 250.

R. I. A. PROC., SER. 11:, VOL. I1., SCIENCE:

PLATE 41.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Mr. HarpMman’s Paper ‘‘ On THE [Riso CARBONIFEROUS
DotomtitEs.”’

Vide Proceedings of R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 705.

Fig. 1. Rockhead Quarry, Loughry, Co. Tyrone.
2. Section at Riverview, Co. Kilkenny.
a, a, a. Dark grey limestone.
b, b, 6. Intervening layers of calcite.
3. Dolomite, near Jenkinstown, Co. Kilkenny, showing cellular
structure simulating ‘‘ current bedding,” the cavities filled

with calc-spar.

Plate. 4].

clere

: De A \ Bill

\
\

eet

Se ena ‘as

Edward. T, Hardman. delt. et lith. Forster & C° Lith Dublin

GA rer

i
Bui he

tr

Le Rroc er Il. Vol Il Science.

Plate 42.

Sell 7

fin

~

Plan of Limestones and Dolomites Beal ierie Kalkenny:
Seale Six inches to one mile.

Fig. 5

Section at Ballyfoyle

Carboniferous Limestone.

ms Dolomite.

Edward.T. Hardman.delt et lith. Forster & C° Lith Dublin,

PLATE 42.

TELUSTRATIVE OF Mr. Harpman’s Paper ‘“‘ On THE [risu CARBONIFEROUS
DotomitEs.”’

Fig. 4. Plan of limestones and dolomites, Ballyfoyle, Kilkenny.
5. Section at Ballyfoyle, showing limestone passing into dolomite.
6. Enlarged section at (a), fig. 6, showing passage of limestone
into dolomite.

Fig.

PLATE 43.

ILLusTRATIVE OF Dr. Moorn’s Paver ‘‘ On IntsH Hepaticm.’’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 591.

1. Lejeunea patens, Lindberg; natural size.

2. “3 He <qlion

3 ae os x 30.

thes a leaf and portion of stem, x 100.

8. se amphigastrium, x 100.

9) portion of leaf, mag. x 400.
Drawn from specimen supplied by Dr. Lindberg.

4, 5 dorsal aspect of plant, with colesule and male amen-
tule, x 25.

Ne branch, with colesule, x 50.

6 A ventral aspect of plant, with male amentulee.

Drawn from plant collected at Glenad, Co. Leitrim,
1875.

— ee ee

SS

Plate 43.

RIA Proc. Ser II. Vol I. Science

nat. stze.

Tuffen West ad.nat del: et se.

LEJEUNIA

Plate 4A

RIA Proe Ser Il VoLIL Science

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PLATE 44.
ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. Moorn’s Parser ‘‘ On [rise Hepaticm.”’
Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 591.

. Lejeunea Moorei, Lindberg; natural size.

a ee OE

ventral aspect of plant, showing colesules and male
amentule, x 25.

leaf and portion of stem, x 50.

amphigastrium, x 100.

portion of leaf, x 400.

on -_

Sta

mH Cw hb =

PLATE 45.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. Moore’s Paper ‘ On IntsH Hepaticm.”

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 591.

2?

3?

mo ON
&
~I

on

. Frullania Hutchinsie, 6 integrifolia, Nees; natural size.

» * 10, with male amentule and colesules.
leaves and portion of stem, x 25.
amphigastrium, x 75.
portion of leaf, x 400.
portion of stem, leaves and amphigastrium of typical
form of a. after Hooker.

intlenWeshadnast deL.et sc. WWest & O° imp.

FRULLANIA. Hutchinsize fp. integrifolia N.L.

me Marae oen Vol Il. Science.

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PLATE 46.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. M‘Nas’s Parer ‘‘On A REVISION OF THE SPECIES
oF ABrEs.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I."Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 678.

In the Description of Plates 46, 47, 48, and 49, all the figures are magnified 20
diameters. The letters refer to all the figures—e. Epidermis. h. Hypoderma.
c. Resin-canals. s. Sheath of the fibro-vascular bundles.

Fig. 1. Abies bracteata. From specimen cultivated at Elvaston Nur-
series, Borrowash, Derby.
,, Yeligiosa. From specimen cultivated at Castle Ken-
nedy, N. B.
3. ,, amabilis. From a graft, from Douglass’s plant, culti-
vated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

2.

3a. ,, amabilis. Near Lake Chilukweyak B. C.; Cascade
Mountains, 49° N. lat., Dr. Lyall, 1859: Kew Her-
barium.

4. ,, grandis. From a layer, from Douglass’s plant, culti-
vated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

da. ,, grandis. From a specimen raised from Jeffrey’s seeds,

and cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edin-
burgh, as A. lasiocarpa.

5. ,, Lowiana. From a specimen raised from Jeffrey’s seeds,
and cultivated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edin-
burgh.

6. ,, concolor. From Kew Herbarium: Fendler, ‘‘ Pl. Novo-

Mexicano,” No. 828, 1847.
», lasiocarpa. From Kew Herbarium, “sp. typica,” coll.
Douglas.
7a. ,, lasiocarpa. From Kew Herbarium, unnamed specimen,
marked ‘‘ America Boreali-occidentalis,”’ D. Douglas.

=U

PLATE 47.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. M‘Nas’s Paper ‘‘ On A REVISION OF THE SPECIES

oF ABIEs.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 673.

Fig. 8. Abies lasiocarpa. Sent by Mr. Syme as Abies bifolia, A. Mur-

16.

Leis

ee)

ray; collected by M. Roegl.

lasiocarpa. ast side of Cascade Mountains, 49° N. lat.,
Aug. 1860; Kew Herbarium ; Colville, Indian name
‘* Marcilp.”’

Fraseri. From specimen cultivated at Castle Kennedy,
Neb:

balsamea. From specimen cultivated in the Royal Bo-
tanic Garden, Edinburgh.

sibirica. From a plant cultivated in Glasnevin Gar-
den, Dublin.

Veitchu. Kew Herbarium.

firma. Kew Herbarium: ‘ Japonia, Nippon. 1864,
Maximiowicz.”

bifida. From a specimen cultivated by Messrs. Veitch
and Son, of Chelsea, and sent under the erroneous
name of A. firma.

n. sp. Harryana. From aspecimen cultivated by Messrs.
Veitch and Son, of Chelsea, and sent under the erro-
neous name of A. Veitchii.

Pindrow. From a specimen cultivated in Glasnevin

Garden, Dublin.

RIA Proc. Ser IL Vol. IL Science .

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PLATE 48.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. M‘Nas’s Paper “‘ On a REVISION OF THE SPECIES

oF ABIES.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 673.

Fig. 18. Abies Webbiana. From a specimen cultivated in Glasne-

to

20.

vin Garden, Dublin.
sp. Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin: ‘‘ Abies
Webbiana, Himalaya occid., 9000 to 12,000, Hook,
fil. et Thomson.”
pectinata. From a specimen cultivated in Glasnevin
Garden, Dublin.
pectinata, var. Mooreana. From aspecimen cultivated
in Glasnevin Garden, Dublin.
Nordmanniana. From a specimen cultivated in Glas-
nevin Garden, Dublin.
cilicica. Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin: Kot-
schy, No. 370, “in regionibus Danie, supra Eden,
alt. 5000. Die 28 Jul. 1855.”
cephalonica. From.a specimen cultivated in Glasnevyin
Garden, Dublin.
cephalonica, var- Apollinis. From a specimen culti-
vated in the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
Pinsapo. From a specimen cultivated in Glasneyin
Garden, Dublin.
Baborensis. From a specimen cultivated in Elvaston
Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

PLATE 49.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF Dr. M‘Nap’s Paper ‘‘On A ReEvIsIoN oF THE SPECIES
oF ABIES.”’

Vide Proceedings R. I. Acad., Vol. 2, Ser. 2, p. 678.

Fig. 28. Abies sp. Drummond. From a specimen cultivated in the

Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

29. Pseudotsuga nobilis. From a plant cultivated in the Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

29a. fo nobilis. From a plant cultivated in the Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and sent under
the erroneous name of A. amabilis of Douglas.

296. Re nobilis. Leaves from Kew Herbarium of the
type specimen of P. amabilis, Sabine, Dou-
glas, sent by Professor Oliver, F. R. S.

30. * magnifica. From a plant cultivated by Mr. An-
thony Waterer, Knap Hill Nursery, near ~
Woking, Surrey. .

30a. ae magnifica. Kew Herbarium: ‘‘ 441. 150-200 ft.
Sierra Nevada, L. California. W. Lobb.’’
31. - Fortunei. From a plant cultivated by Messrs.

Veitch and Son, Chelsea, and forwarded under
the name of Abies Jezoensis.

32 x Douglasii. From a plant cultivated in Elvaston
Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

32a. %) Douglasu. Kew Herbarium: ‘ Rocky Moun-
tain, Independence Bluff. Nuttall.”

326. Douglasii. Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin :

New Mexico, Fendler, No. 829.

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