ee es a eR ene ey OY e Serie. 4 ‘aint ean PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL [RISH ACADEMY. Third Series. NEON Odili IOI DVB in N;: PUBLISHED AT THE ACADEMY HOUSE, 19, DAWSON-STREET, SOLD ALSO BY HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO. (Lrp.), GRAFTON-ST. ; Anp spy WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14, Henrrerra-st., Covent GARDEN, Lonpon; 20, Souru FREDERICK ST., EpinsurcGu; and 7, Broap-st., OxForp. 1893-96. DUBLIN: Printed at the Anibersity Press, BY PONSONBY AND WELDRICK. Tue Acapremy desire it to be understood that they are not answerable for any opinion, representation of facts, or train of reasoning that may appear in any of the following Papers. The Authors of the several Papers are alone responsible for their contents. LIST OF THE CONTRIBUTORS. WITH REFERENCE TO THE SEVERAL ARTICLES CONTRIBUTED BY EACH. Atxinson, Rogpert, LL.D. On South Coptic Texts: No. I. Professor Rossi’s Publication of South Coptic Texts, On South Coptic Texts, No. II. A Criticism on M. Bouriant’s oe Eloges du Martyr Victor, Fils de Romanus,” On the Function of the Subjunctive Mood in Irish, On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh, Barn, V., LL.D., C.B. On the Volcanoes and Hot Springs of Ci and the Folk Lore connected therewith, : : Description of two large Spinel Rubies, with Persian Characters engraved upon them. (Plate X.), . BieGER, FRANcIs J. Prehistoric Settlements at Portnafeadog, in the Parish of Moyrus, Connamara. (Plates XXV., XXVI., XXVII.),. Browne, CHarwes R., M.D. The Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark, Co. ren (Plates VIII. and IX.), The Ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea Islands and Port- acloy, Co. Mayo. (Plates, XV., XVI., and XVII.), See CunnineHaM, D. J. CoFFEy, Gror@E, A.B. Notes on the Classification of Spear Heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland, On a Double Cist Grave and Renee rodently gueneed A Oldbridge, Co. Meath, PAGE 24 151 380 486 747 v1 List of the Contributors. CunnincHam, D. J., M.D., and Browne, C. R., M.D. PAGE On some Osseous Remains found at Old Connaught, Bray, | County of Dublin, . : . 5 : : 4 . 421 DEANE, Str THomas N, Report on Ancient Monuments in Co. Kerry. (PlatesI.andII.), 100 - Dixon, Henry H., A.B. On theVegetative Organs of Vandateres. (Plates XI.toXIV.), 441 On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. (Plate XXIII.),. 707 Note on the Nuclei of the Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis. (Blate XX.) : 5 : : =) ee Semen On the role of Osmosis in Transpiration, : : : Sp Ther Duernvin, J. E. On some New and Rare Irish Polyzoa. (Plate V.), : aed Report on the Hydroida, collected by the Academy’s Survey of the South-West Coast of Ireland, . : : ‘ J 13377 Fournier, D’ALBE.—See O’REILLy, J. P. Frazer, WILLIAM, and JoHnson, EDMOND. On Five Gold Fibule lately discovered in Ireland, and on the Art Processes used in their manufacture. (Plate XXX.), 776 Graves, Richt Rev. Coartezs, D.D. On the Lignum Contensionis, . oss : j : a AY On an Ogam Monument recently found in Co. Kerry, . as Uk Happon, A. C., A.M. Studies in Irish Craniology : I]. Inishbofin, Co. Galway, si aold Haveuton, Rev. §., D.D. Notes on Newtonian Chemistry, No. V. Recapitulation of Newtonian Principles (contained in the first four Notes), and Memorandum on the Law of Avogadro, fim) DBD Or Hoop, JoHN. On the Rotifera of the County of Mayo. (PlatesXXI.and XXII.), 664 List of the Contributors. JENNINGS, A. VAUGHAN. On two New Species of Phycopeltis from New Zealand. (Plates XXVIII. and XXIX.), JoHNSON, EpMonD.—See FRazER, WILLIAM. JOHNSTON, JAMES P., A.M. On Initial Motion, . KinaHAN, GrorcE H. Quartz, Quartz Rock, and Quartzite, Know tes, W. J. Third Report on the Prehistoric Remains from the Sandhills of the Coast of Ireland. (Plates XVIII., XIX., and XX.), M‘ARDLE, Davis. On the Hepatice of the Hillof Howth. (Plates III. and IV.), Mac Nertt, Joan, A.B. Three Poemis in Middle Irish, relating to the Battle of Mucrana. With English Translation and Notes, and a short Voca- bulary, : : : Moureny, Rev. Denis, 8.J., LL.D. On two Monastic Seals lately come into the possession of the Academy, OLDEN, Rev. T., A.M. On the Consortia of the First Order of Irish Saints, The Oratory of Gallerus, The Paten of Gourdon, O’Loonry, Brian. On an old Irish Manuscript found in the County of Clare, O’Reitty, J. P., C.E. Remarks on certain passages in Captain Cuellar’s Narrative of his Adventures in Ireland, after the wreck of the Spanish Armada in 1588-89, followed by a literal translation of that Narrative, Notes on Lithothamnion ret cain in deen euttines ae the mouth of the River Liffey, : On the Orientation of certain Dolmens rooently discovered in Catalonia, Vil PAGH 703 650 108 529 371 415 564 784 218 Viil List of the Contributors. O’Retmty, J. P., C.E., and M. Fournier p’ ALBE. PAGE On a Pandean Pipe from Tanna, New Hebrides, , sy monl RamBavur, ArtHur A., D.Sc. On the Position of Encke’s Comet as deduced from Photographs taken by Mr. W. E. Wilson, . : A fs : 5 or RotHeramM, E. C. On some Caves in the Slieve na Cailliagh District, Co. Meath. (Plates VI. and VII.), . 5 : : ; 5 . 305 RussE.t, R., A.M. The Geometry of the Cubic, . : : 5 5 : ;- 170 ScHakFF, R. F., Px.D. Origin of the Land and Fresh Water Fauna of Ireland, . og PAGO SuiryH, Ernest A. Notes on the composition of some Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments, .. : : 5 : P . 733 Sotzas, W. J., LL.D. On the Crystalline Form of Riebeckite, . : : . 516 Swanzy, H. R., A.M., M.B. Note on Defective Vision and other Ocular Derangements in Cornelius Magrath, the Irish Giant, ; . : . 624 UssHEr, R. J. Report on the Breeding Range of Birds in Ireland, . . 401 DATES OF THE PUBLICATION OF THE SEVERAL PARTS OF THIS VOLUME. Part 1. Pages 1 to 804. December, 1893. et? », 9305 ,, 400. May, 1894. ay ON ,, 401 ,, 510. December, 1894. ae », Ol ,, 726. December, 1895. sd) 5 UA 55 TEN Mules SH 1o PratTEs I. TO XXX. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY. 1h INITIAL MOTION. By JAMES PATRICK JOHNSTON, M.A. [Read January 23, 1893.] Intrrat Morton. TuHE initial motion of a rigid body starting from rest under the action of a system of finite forces; and when the motion is constrained, the initial values of the forces of reaction due to the constraints; are usually deduced from the differential equations of motion of the second order. In the case of constrained motion this method is tedious, for it is necessary to differentiate the geometrical equations twice. The initial motion and the initial reactions can, however, be obtained in a comparatively simple manner by considering the momentum gene- rated in a very small interval of time 6¢. When we have proved in this manner any theorem concerning initial motion, when the applied forces are finite, we are able at once to write down the proof of the corresponding theorem for impulsive forces. It is only necessary to change the notation. Free Morton. We will first investigate the initial motion of a rigid body starting from rest under the action of any system of finite forces, when it is not constrained in any way. R.I.A. PROC., SER, III., VOL. II. B 2 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Take any rectangular axes fixed in space as axes of reference, and let u, v, w be the components of the velocity of the point in the body coinciding with the origin, and w,, »,, w,, the components of the angular velocity of the body. Alse let 8 prefixed to any quantity denote its increment produced in the small interval of time 6¢. Then if x, y, s are the co-ordinates of any point in the body, we have Z= U— Ywz + 2Wy, Y = 0 — &wx + Loz, 2 = W— Loy Yoru. Therefore at the time 6¢ from rest 6% = bu — yYbu, + 26wy by = bv — 2bwr+ Ldwz', (1) 52 = bw — Lbay+ YSor for if 5¢ be considered as a small quantity of the first order, dz, dy, 6s are small quantities of the second order, since the body starts from rest, and consequently terms of the type dy.w, are of the third order of small quantities and may be neglected. If X, Y, Z, LZ, Wf, N are the constituents of the system of applied forces referred to the axes, we have, by Newton’s Second Law, com- bined with D’Alembert’s principle, X6t = Sdn . 8% = m (8u — Ybwz + Zwy) L3t = Sdn [y (8 — xdwy + ydwr) — (30 —2d02 + 2dex)]|? = m (Yow — 26v) + adwx — hdwy — gaz (2) with similar values for Y6¢, 78¢, W/8t, Ndt, where #, 7, 2 are the co- ordinates of the centre of inertia, a, b, c, f, g, h them oments and products of inertia, m the mass of the body, and dm an element of mass. These equations hold even if the forces are not constant, but are continuous functions of any variables, if we write for the constituents of the force system their values at the instant of starting: provided the variables are such that during the time 6¢ they only change at most by quantities of the same order of small quantities as 8¢. For then during the time 6¢ the forces would only vary from their initial values by quantities of the order 6¢ which would only introduce into our equations quantities of the order (d¢)? which may be neglected. The co-ordinates and components of velocity of any point of the body are variables of this description. Jounston—ZJnitial Motion. 3 From equations (2) we can find du, dv, dw, du,, dw,, dw,, and then by means of equation (1) 8%, 67, 53, and consequently get the initial direction of motion of any point. When the origin is taken coinciding with the centre of inertia equations (2) become Lbt = adwr — hbwy — g5wz M8t = — hdwz + bdwy — fdwz N8t = — gdwr — fSwy + cdwz | Xdt = mdu, YSt=mbv, Z8t=mbdw | > (3) and when the axes are the principal axes through the centre of inertia, Xbt = mou, Yét = mdbv, Zbt = mdw | (4) where 4, B, C are the principal moments of inertia. Constrained Morton. When the motion of the body is constrained, at the moment of starting from rest under the action of the system of applied forces, there will be a system of forces of reaction called into play. Taking as axes of reference axes fixed in space which coincide with the principal axes of the body through the centre of inertia at the moment of starting, we have from equations (4), if X, Y, Z% LZ, UV, WN, X, Ni, 4, L1, , MN, are the constituents of the system of applied forces and the forces of reaction respectively, mou =(X+Xi) bt, miv=(VY+ Vi) dt, miw=(Z+ Z) dt. (5) ABwr=(L+L1)8t, Bowy=(M+ Ih) st, C5wz=(N+ Ni) 8t. (6) From equations (1) we see that any geometrical constraint of the ‘point xyz gives a linear relation connecting the six quantities du, dv, dw, 8w,, dw,, d0,. Hence if there are six independent geometrical con- straints we get six linear equations connecting these six components of velocity, and consequently each must be zero, and therefore MEGS, WeIRSO, FLAS L +I,=0, M+M,=0, N+ N= 0, for 6¢ though small does not vanish, which show that in this case the initial reactions must balance the system of applied forces, a fact we know from a prior? considerations. B2 4 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. But suppose the geometrical character of the constraints only give five relations connecting the velocity constituents, dw, &c., from them we can only get five equations connecting the six constituents of reaction. Therefore the additional relation necessary to determine them can only be obtained from the dynamical nature of the con- straints. In general, if the geometrical character of the constraints give us m relations connecting the velocity constituents, where m is not greater than six, we must have 6 — m relations between the constituents of reaction due to the dynamical nature of the con- straints. For instance, if a point fixed in the body is constrained to move on a smooth surface, we get one geometrical relation, from the fact that the point cannot move in the direction of the normal to the surface at the point of contact, and the five dynamical relations neces- sary by expressing that there is no force of reaction tangential to the surface, and no moment of reaction round any line through the point. SmootH ConstTRAINTSs. We will now consider the case when the constraints are of such a nature that at each point of constraint the motion of the point is pre- vented in a certain direction and the reaction at the point is a force in the same direction. This is so when the points are compelled to move on smooth surfaces or are connected to points fixed in space by per- fectly flexible strings. We may call constraints of this description smooth constraints. Such a constraint is specified by the co-ordinates x, y, = of the constrained point, and the direction cosines, /, m, n, of the line of no motion. Suppose there are five smooth constraints, wiyizilimym, Leyezelemene, .. 2... U5Y52515M5N5, and that the initial reactions are R,, R,, ... H;, then if we write A=9"m-am, KNe=ah—-wam, nN=xmmMm— Yih, &e. &e. &e., we have Xi = Shih, M=shim, A ==Rim, h=3hin, M=3Rin, Mm==zRir. The geometrical equations are Su + m16v + 2180 + pidoxr + Gidwy + 7180; = 0 158 + M580 + 2500 + P5dwxr + Qsdwy + 15502, = 0 Jounston—ZTnitial Motion. 5 for these equations express that there is no motion of the point “1% in the direction J, m,, &c. &c. Taking as axes of reference, axes fixed in space which coincide with the principal axes through the centre of inertia, we have from these equations and equations (5) and (6), P, + Ri (1 + An) + Re (cos a2 + Arz) + Bs (cos a3 + A1s) } + Rx (cos a14+ Ars) + Bs (cos a15+ Ais) = 0 Pz + Ri (cos aiz + Aiz) + Bz (1 + Azz) + Rs (cos a23 + Aza) + R4z (cos aes + Avs) + Bs (OS ae5 + Aas) = 0 P3 + Ri (cos a13 + Az) + Rez (cos az3 + Avs) + Hs (1 + Azz) - \ + Rz (cos agg + Aza) + Bs (cos ags5+ Ass) = 0 | Pg + Bi (cos arg + Ars) + Bo (cos az + Aas) + Ba (cos a3 + Ass) + Rs (1 +A) + Bs (cos a5 + Aas) = 0 Ps + By (cos ais + Ais) + B2(cos a25 + Avs) + Rs (cos ass + Ass) + Rg (cos a45 + Ags) + Bs (1+As5) = 0 J where L M N P=hX+mVimZ+ m (m3 +m gt"g): yO Ope opt Pip2 ge. "172 anam (245+), mye m (ER, Oe): ai2 = the angle between the lines 717 71, lz2meme. &e. &e. &e. Therefore we can at once find the values of the initial reactions R,, R,...; by solving these equations. It is obvious that when there are only four constraints the equations for the reactions are the first four equations with the last term of each omitted. When there are only three constraints the first three, with the last two terms of each omitted, and so on. When there is only one constraint the initial reaction is given by the equation Pi + Ri (1+ An) = 0. This case and several of the subsequent ones, when the system of applied forces reduces to a single force through the centre of inertia, have been investigated by the late Professor Townsend’, and he has given interesting geometrical constructions for the initial reactions. 1 Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. xiii., p. 284. 6 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. If there are two smooth constraints at the point zyz whose specifi- cations are (ayzl, m,n), (vyzl,m2nz) the reactions are given by the equations Pi + Ri (1 + An) + Re (cos aig + Ariz) = 0, P2 + Ri (cos ai2 + Aig) + Re (1 + Agz) = 0, if we write in them T=% $= %2,, YHYN=Y7 £= 41 = &Q. In this case the point (wyz) is constrained to move in a direction at right angles to the lines whose direction cosines are Jmn;, lmznz. If the point xyz is fixed in space, we may suppose it to be fixed by means of three smooth planes drawn through the point normal to the axes. The components of the initial reaction parallel to the axes are obtained from the first three of the equations (8), with the two last terms omitted, if we write = %2=%3=%, W=%92=¥3=Y) 1 = %2= 23> 4, 4 =1m=0 m=0, 2=0 m=1 m=0, 2=0 m=0 ng=1. Making these substitutions, the equations become M N ge. 2 mxy MU X+m (sF-9G) +m Lm (5+5){- —R2, —- #3 ere Ni L may ne mys Fem (#5 -23)- fe satin Oy Bs = =105 Z+m (v2) - Ra Rs fr +m (G4 o) tao. When we have obtained the initial reactions, the initial directions of the motion of any point in the body can be obtained directly by finding the values of 8u, dv, dw, dw,, dw,, dw,, and from them by means of equations (1) dv, dy, 83. The following cries. method, depending upon the fact that, when the reaction due to a constraint zyzlmn is zero, the motion of the point xyz is independent of the constraint, and is in a direction at right angles to /, m, n, is more symmetrical. Consider the case when there are four smooth constraints (wiyizilimyni) ... « (wayazalgmgns). Introduce a constraint («yz lmn), then we have five equations connect- ing the reaction # at xyz with F,, R., 3, Ry If now we make R=0 we can eliminate 2, R,, Rs, A, from these equations. ~ JoHNsTON—ZJnitial Motion. The resultant is an equation of the form la + mB + ny = 0, where a=ax+ by+ecz4+d, B=a@ut+by+c¢z2+d, yaaa t bly tel2+ a"; a, 6, &c. being functions of the specifications of the four constraints and the system of applied forces. This equation is the relation connecting the co-ordinates of a point in the body with the direction cosines of a line perpendicular to its direction of initial motion. If’, m’, n’ are the direction cosines of another line perpendicular to the direction of initial motion, we have also Va+m'B+ n'y =0. Therefore, if 2, m’’, n’’ are the direction cosines of the initial direction of motion, we have eye ies a9 a m n” which give at once the initial direction of motion of any point in the body. We may note that the locus of points in the body which initially have no motion in the direction /, m, n, is the plane la+mB + ny =0, that the locus of points which move initially in the direction /, m, n, is the right line whose equations are Lina ns and that the point which initially has no motion—in other words, the initial position of the acceleration centre—is the intersection of the planes a=0, B=0, y=0. This method can also be employed to get the initial direction of motion of any point in the body when there are no constraints. In this case the initial direction of motion 7’, m’’, n’ of the point xyz is given by the equations X +m ped 4 sf Ys ee Z 4 : ; = B-s) +m He ooel| +m YA~ "Fs PP m' nl! 8 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. The initial position of the acceleration centre is the intersection of the planes X+m(2>-v 3) = 0, ¥+m(27-23) =10; Z+m(y5-2 5) = These planes have a common line of intersection, if L M NV Rt ate gah which is consequently the condition that the initial motion should be a pure rotation. The principal axes through the centre of inertia are not always the most convenient. Consider the case where the constraint is formed by a fixed smooth circular cylinder of very small radius passing through a tube in the body which it fits. We will take our axes of reference, such that the axis of # coincides with the axis of the cylinder, and the axis of y passes through the centre of inertia. Since the body is free to move along the cylinder and rotate round it, X,=0, Z,=0. And as these are the only motions it can have, dv=0, dw=0, dw, = 0, 3,=0. Therefore, from equation (2), remembering z= 0, z= 0, mou = X6t, 0=(Y+ Ni) %, mySwx = (Z+ Z1) bt, ado, = Lot, — hdw, = (M+ Mh) st, — g8mx — mysu = (N+ M) 8. Therefore the constituents of reaction are SGSU, sai A=-24+"21; h i= 0; My=-M-~L, M=-N-2L-5x. The initial direction of motion of any point xyz is found from the equations ex ot = — 81,7 m SSS IRy, a Mest Tian a Jounston—Jnitial Motion. 9 The condition that the motion may be initially a pure translation is £ =0, and that it may be a pure rotation is X = 0. We will now investigate the initial reaction when there is a single smooth constraint, taking as axes of reference, axes through the centre of inertia such that the axis of 2 is parallel to the line in which the constrained point is prevented from moving.1 We have already con- sidered this question when the principal axes through the centre of inertia have been taken as the axes of reference. If, as usual, X, denotes the initial reaction, we have, from equa- tions (3), aor — hdwy — g5wz = Ls, — hbwr + b8wy — fSwz = (M+ 2X) 5t, — Jor — fSwy + cdwz = (N — yX1) 8t, modu = (X + X1) be. Since there is no motion of the point xyz in the direction of the axis of 2, du — ydw, + 2dwy = 0. Therefore mM (y8ws — 28wy) = (X + Xi) de. Therefore, eliminating 8w,, dw,, do, from this equation and the first three, we get the following equation to determine X, :— a —h -J9 L —h b —f M+ 2X1 -J9 -f c N—yXi E 0 — mz my X+X) It is an interesting problem to find, when the system of applied forces is given, what point in the body may be fixed in space in order that initially the centre of inertia may remain at rest, or, in other words, that the initial motion may be a rotation round the line join- ing the point to the centre of inertia. Take, as axes of reference, the principal axes through the centre of inertia, and let x, y, s be the co- ordinates of the fixed point. Then, since du=0, dv=0, dw=0, our dynamical equations are X+Xi=0, Adwx = (L+ Mh) 5; VY+N=0, Bbw, = (M+ MH) st; Z4+4=0, Cw, =(N+M) St. 1 This question is solved in Williamson and Tarleton’s ‘‘ Dynamics,”’ p. 356, when gravity is the applied force. 10 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. The geometrical equations (1) reduce to Therefore L+Ii Me Mae NAN Ax By Cz Since we suppose the constraint at the fixed point smooth, Ty = yZ\ = 2Vy —i— (yZ—2Y), MN, = 2X4 — “ly =— (2X — £Z), M=2Y, —- yXi=— («4Y— yX). Therefore the point zyz may be any point on the common curve of intersection of the system of hyperboloids L-yZ+2Y M-2X+4Z N—-«“V¥Y+yX ee Ta ee re: Each pair of these three hyperboloids has a common generator which is not a gencrator of the remaining one; consequently the locus is a twisted cubic. The corresponding theorem for impulsive force is:—If a ‘body at rest is acted upon by a system of impulsive forces whose constituents referred to the principal axes through the centre of inertia are X, Y, Z, I, Wl, N, the instantaneous axis of rotation will pass through the centre of inertia, if any poiut on the twisted cubic L—yZ+2Y M-2X+4Z N-2V¥+yX AL By Cz is fixed. There is a more general question: to find the locus of the point P which must be fixed in order that the initial motion may be a rotation round a line passing through a given point Q in the body. If we take the same axes as before, and let x, y, s be the co-ordinates of P; w', y', 3’ of Q, we find, on proceeding in the same manner, that the locus is the common curve of intersection of the cubic surfaces A(z —2')+m{ ayy’ + 22') —2' (y? + 2*)} _ By- y') +m y (er + 22')—y'(22 +.27)} —yZ+2V M —2X+a4Z _ O—2')+ m{2(ra' + yy’) — 2 (# ty) 7 N—aV¥+yX which is a curve of the seventh degree. Jounston—nitial Motion. 11 If we regard in these equations xyz as constant, and w’y’s’ as vari- ables, they are the equations of the axis round which the body begins to rotate when zyz is fixed. So far we have only considered cases where the material system consisted of a single rigid body. If there are several bodies in the system connected together we can divide the forces acting on any body into three sets: the applied forces, the forces due to the con- nections with the other bodies, and the reactions due to any other constraints it may be subject to. Then as before we can find the velocity constituents of the initial motion of each body in terms of the applied forces and the forces due to the connections with the other bodies. This having been done we can obtain, with the aid of the geometrical and dynamical equations derived from. the connections, the forces due to the connections, and thence the initial motion of each body and the initial values of the reactions due to any) other constraints it may be subject to. Take as an example two bodies 4 and B, a point Q on A being connected by a flexible inextensible string to a point P fixed in space, and a point # on 4 connected to a point S on B by another string. Take the axes of reference such that at the instant of starting the origin coincides with the point Q, and the axis of x with the line QP. Let X, Y, 7, L, If, N be the constituents of the system of applied forces, and du, dv, dw, dw,, dw,, dw, the velocity constituents at the time o¢ from rest of the body JA, and #, ¥, 2 the co-ordinates of its centre of inertia. We will denote the corresponding quantities for B by the same letters dashed. Let 2, y, s be the co-ordinates of &, x’, y', # of S, and A, pw, v the direction cosines of RS. Denote by 7 the initial tension of the string PQ, by Z” of the string RS. Also let 8V be the velocity of the point £& in the direction RS at the time 8¢ from rest; then considering the body 4 we have from equations (1) and (2), since du = 0, m( —YSw,+ Zwy) = (X+ 7 + Tr) dt, m (50 — 2x + x8wz) = (Y + T’p) 8, m (Sw — T8wy+ Ydwr) = (Z + Tv) dt, Pee (GA) m (ydw — Z5v) + adwz — hdwy — gdw, ={L + T’ (yv — 2u)} 82, m ( — Zw) — hdwr + bdwy — fiw, = {M+ T' (zd — av)} 8, in (“bv ) —gdwe — fiwy + cdw, =(N + TZ” (xu — yA)} dt, mbv+ vbw + (yy — zu) Box + (ZA — av) Bay + (au — YA) Swz = SV. 12 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Eliminating $v, 5, S,, dw,, Sw, from the last six of these equa- tions we have m : — mz : mE (Y + Tp) &¢ m my — mez : (Z + T'v)&t —mz my a —-h -g {L + T’(yv — 2u)} 8¢ — mz -h b —f {M+ T'(zr — xv)} Bt 3 mi é -g9 —f e {N+ T(x — ya)} 5t KB vy Yyv—&u, 2A—Av, Hu-—YA 5V From the similar equations for the body B we get the equation m : 7 . mz’ —my (XX — Ta) bt m ‘ — m'2' z m' x (Y’ — Zp) 8t, m' my — m'x' : (Z’ — Ty) &t, .—ms' my’ a -h -g {L’ —T'(y'v—2'p)} bt | =0. mz .- Me -h’ Bt if {M'— T' (zr —x'v)} 3¢ -my mz. -g —-f' Ck {N’— T"(a'w—y'r)} dé A Me vy yv—sm vA—a'v w—y'r 5V From these two equations we can obtain Z’and 6V. Substituting the values so found in equations (a4) we can get at once 7 and dv, dw, dw,, dw,, dw,, and in a similar manner from the corresponding equations for the body B, we can get du’, dv’, dw’, dw,’, dw,’, dw,’. RovenH Constrarnts.! To find the initial motion when definite points in the body are constrained to move on rough surfaces is, in general, rather difficult, owing amongst other things to the fact that the force of friction at each of the constrained points is in a direction opposite to that in which it begins to move. We will investigate the comparatively simple case of a single point in the body being constrained initially to move on a rough surface. Take as axes of reference, axes fixed in space which coincide with the principal axes through the centre of inertia of the body. Let x, y, be the co-ordinates of the point in contact with the rough sur- 1 Of. Jellett, ‘‘ Theory of Friction,’’ chaps. iv., v. Jounston—Jnitial Motion. 13 face. Also let /,, m,, 2, be the direction cosines of the normal to the rough surface at this point, and J, 1m, m2, 3, m3, m3 the direction cosines of any pair of right lines at right angles to /m,n and to each other. Denote by &,, &., &; the initial reactions at this point in the directions of these lines. Then, adopting the same notation as on page 5, except that everywhere we replace 24,21, %2%/2%2, 3Y3%3 by xyz, we have, if dw, du; denote the components of velocity of xyz in the directions /,m nN, l3m3nsz, Pi + Ri (1+ An) + BeAr + R3A13 =0. { P2 + Ri aig + Ro (1+ Ag) + Rs 23} dt = Mdu2. {P3+ Ri Aisz + R2A13 + R3 (1 + Agz)} S¢ = modus. Since the point zyz begins to move in the same right line as the force of friction acts, we must have due ~ bug Re, Rs Let each of these quantities equal x, then moue = kR26t, modu3 = kR3dt. Since o¢ is essentially positive, / must be negative, for the force of friction is in a direction opposite to that in which the point begins to move. We have now P, + Ri(l + An) + Re rie + R3A13 = 0, P2+ Ri adie + Re(1— kh +A22) + R3 Ao3 =0, P3 + Ri Ais + Re d23 + R3(1— &+A33) = 0, and if motion takes place, yw? Ry? = Ro? + Rs’, where p is the coefficient of friction. Therefore Ene) Aiz Mis [P| Py VA Ais ener Ue Ag Are 94 we? | P2 1—k+A22 A23 =|P2 Are Aas +|P2 Aig 1-k+Az2}. (9) esmeAzs) | L—i-PAgs Pz; Ai3 1-k+A33 Pay Ais) Aas Physical considerations tend to show that this equation can only have one negative root if the point zyz has an initial motion ; for, if it had more than one, more than one initial motion would be possible ; 14 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. and if motion is not possible, that it has no negative root. Suppose pe’ is the coefficient of friction necessary to prevent the point zyz moving initially. Then, since in this case du, = 0, dus = 0, we have Py Ai Ais. |? | Pr l+aAn Ais P? | Bi 1+aAn -Age 42 wm? | Po l+Az22 Aez |=| Po Ar Aes [+] Po Aig 1+Azze |. P3 Azz ss +A33) | Ps Aig 1+A33 Pz Ais Therefore equation (9) can be written P; Az Ais 2 pe PPh + Ph + Qh? + RE+(u?—p'?)| Po Lag Aes = 0, P3 A23 1+ Azz when, for convenience, we have written P, Q, and #& for the coeffi- cients of /°, k?, k, respectively. Consequently, if 4 > p’, the equation has an even number of nega- tive roots or none, and if w < p’, an odd number. Asa particular example we will consider the case where the normal to the rough surface at the point of constraint passes through the centre of inertia of the body. Take rectangular axes through the centre of inertia, such that the axis of x coincides with the normal, and for the present as the axes of y and s any two lines consistent with this. Let x be the distance of the constrained point from the origin, and denote by A,, 2, &; the component of the initial reaction parallel to the axes. Our dynamical equations are mou = (X+ Ri) 8t, miv=(¥ + Re) dt, mbw = (Z+ Rs) 5, (10) adwz — hiwy — gia2.= Lbt, —hdwz + bdwy — fiw: = (IM — xs) bt, (11) — gdwr — fdwy + cdw; = (N+ xh2) be. The geometrical equations are du = 0, m (Sv + wdwz) = kR26t, (12) m (dw — #8wy) = kR35t, where & has the same meaning as before. Jounston—ZIJnitial Motion. 15 Ti a’, 0’; ¢', f’, g', W’ are the first minors of the determinant, a—-h -g F KS Sp De — sf as = ai @ we have, from equations (11), Adwz = (P — xh' Rs + xg'Re) Bt, Adw, = (Q — ab'Rs + af’ Ra) dt, Ado, = (R — af’ R3 + we’ Ro) 5¢ ; where P=¢L+hM+9'N, &. &e. We are at liberty to take as our axes of y, g any two lines at right angles to each other in the plane, through the centre of inertia, per- pendicular to the normal to the rough surface. We will take our new axes subject to this condition, and so that the new value of f/=0. This can always be done; for if the new axes make an angie @ with the old, the new value of /” is Ff’ cos 20 + (c’ — 8’) sin @ cos 6. Therefore the new axes of y and g are the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid of gyration made by the plane perpendicular to the axis of x. Now, supposing all our equations referred to these axes, we have Adwy = (Q — xb’ Rs) dt, Ado, = (R + xe’ Re) St, Substituting these values for dw,, dw, in equations (12), we have 2 , mov = (*-"*) 2, -" | ot, A A 225! mdw = (x— ed ) x + ae dt. A A X+h, =0, mak marc Y+— 1-k Rk2=0 oF A ae ( + TA ) 2 ’ And therefore mxzQ mab’ Z -— — 1-k R3 = 0. m + ( oF 7x ) 3 16 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Therefore we have, finally, (v+™)' (z eal A WX? = : marc\?* ~ _ ma2b\? (1-24 A ¢ ee =) which we may write, for convenience, in the form aha can TRG DD genes “P= Gap t eae (13) where a and £ are positive, since 0’, c’, and A are positive. It can be shown as follows, that this equation cannot have more than one negative root. Assume a > B, and let =k-B; then we have Mop? h’? (ki — vy)? = gPh'? + 7? (hk! — y)*, where y = a — B, and is therefore positive. Expanding, we have p2prh's — Qu2pryh's + (u2p%y? — g? 7?) Kh’? + Wyk! — 7242 = 0, which equation cannot have more than one negative root, by Descartes’ Rule of Signs, since ‘y is positive, and, a fortior?, equa- tion (13) cannot have more than one negative root. If p’ is the coefficient of friction, which is just necessary to prevent motion at the point, the last term of equation (13) is (wu? — pw”) p?a? B?, and therefore if «> yp’, the equation has no negative root. GENERALIZED Co-ORDINATES. When there are several bodies in the system, it will often be more convenient to use Lagrange’s generalized co-ordinates. Suppose the system has ” degrees of freedom, and that there are m smooth constraints. It would then have m+n degrees of freedom if the constraints were removed. Let 6, 6. ...9,, $1, $2--- dm be the co-or- dinates of the system when the constraints are absent. 4), ¢2.- - dm being the distances of the constrained points from points fixed in space, so chosen that, in the position of rest, the lines joining the fixed points to the constrained points coincide with the direction of no motion. The $’s may be called the co-ordinates of constraint. We will subject the co-ordinates to the condition that the rectangular - Jounston—ZJnitial Motion. 17 co-ordinates of every particle m of the system can be expressed as a function of them and the time. We have, then, if X, Y, Z be the components of the applied forces acting at any point, and X,, Y,, 7%, of the initial reactions due to the constraints. Smbe = 3 (X + X1) Se, smsy = &(¥ + Ni) dt, mdi = 3(Z + Ly) 8t. Therefore, or by the principal of virtual velocities for any small displacement dx, dy, dz, we have Sm (be5x + Sy by + 6252) = S{(X+ Xi) 64+ (V+ Ni) dy+ (7+ Z) bz} 8t. Again, since due at a a’ &e., . at dy _ dz dz dy di cee _ ay cae of EE ne ce CR , =m ( tat OY rear 62 a) =m (3 a Yas 2 =) di cy di = 63m (ee = ‘5 ) Hb aol ane ay dé — 3m (S49 S4 =) ae ae di dy da ae ae For @, y, are each zero initially, and, consequently, a6 = &e., are, at most, small quantities of the second order, and may be neglected. We have, then, . dk ; =m (3% — + by de he aT Y ) 5 10 where 7'is, as usual, the kinetic energy of the system. Therefore, aT aT aT Em (db3x + dy dy + 282) = 8 — 501 + 5 — 802+ &e. +8 — doi + &e. de, d02 agi Let ©,86;, ©,862, ©,4:5¢,, &c., be the virtual moments of the applied forces found by varying 6;, 62... di, 2... &e., separately (vide Routh, ‘‘ Elementary Rigid Dynamics,” § 426). Also let ®,, ®,.. ®,, be the initial reactions due to the smooth constraints. They give B.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. II. c IN J 18 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acacemy. no virtual moments when the 6’s are varied, but the virtual moment, when 4, is varied, is ®,5¢,, and when ¢ is varied ®.6¢,, &c. Therefore aT aT aT § — 561+ 5 — 862. + &e.+ 8 — 8914 &e. =(01561+ 4+ (On+1 +461) 51+ Kc.) dt. de; 62 ao Therefore, dT ) GEE = ©1651, 5 —— = ©28t, &e., ae; O2 dT dT ra) coral (@nsi + £1) 5t, 6 ER (@nx2 + 2) St, &e. T is of the form 27 = ay; 6327 + + @nsiy ny G2 + + 2a12 6162+ +2a1, ns 61 $1 +26.+ +2inudit +6, where the a, a2... 0;, b,. ..¢ are functions of the co-ordinates and the time. Therefore aa = a316} + 41262 —f- +@. n+l G1 =e + d,. 1 Therefore 5 <= 41,361 + 412562 + a. ns 861+ 618411 + + 81. FL Since the body is at rest just before motion, 6,, &c., are of the first order of small quantities. 6¢:, d¢, .. . are zero, since ¢;, ¢2, &e., are the co-ordinates of constraint. 66, is of the same order of small quantities as (6¢)?, and, consequently, we may neglect all terms having multipliers of the type 6. Again, ab, aby db by = — 30, + 50 eye Wart) Sea eerie el Therefore db, b) = — 8; 50, He at; consequently, 8 — = 411861 + a12d6, + 41,004 0b de, at aT ; eae 3 do = 2581 + Gin 56n a Fee aT . . db, 2 do, = 41+ ni 001 + Gn, ni1 88n + — ot, &e., &e. Jounston—Initial Motion. 19 In these equations we are to regard a, dy, &e., as the values of these quantities when the initial values of the co-ordinates are intro- duced, and ¢ taken = 0. We now have ; ; db @1 801 + @12 862 + + an 5%, = (2: = a) bt, A ° dbz 412 582 + a2 562 + G2,n50,= | @2 — FT ot, 9 4 2 dbyn. 1, nv 01 + 2, n+1 082 + Gny n+1 80, = (en. + $) — ae ‘) é¢. ° The first m of these equations give, at once, the initial motion, and, by combining the first » with each of the last m equations, we get the initial reactions. For instance, ©, is given by db, M1 G2 «+ » Gn ©) Trai M1 M12 . + Gin dbz 12 422+ « » M2n ©2 ae 12 G22 + + on , | AL = 0. | dby ain Gan «+ + » Ann On — ae Gin Gan - + ann 5 dbn,d @i n+l Gans + + © Any ntl, On — at [ 20 ] ie ON THE ZIGNUM CONTENSIONIS. By THE RIGHT REY. CHARLES GRAVES, D.D., Lord Bishop of Limerick. [Read Apriz 24, 1893.] THosE amongst us who study the early history of Christianity in Ireland have reason to set a high value on the records of the Life and Acts of St. Patrick, contained in the Book of Armagh. Their antiquity is un- questionable. The Memoir by Muirchu and the Annotations by Tirechan were almost certainly written before the end of the seventh century ; and Ferdomnach, the Scribe of the Book, appears to have executed his task in the beginning of the ninth, copying from a MS. which was then becoming obscure, as is plainly indicated by marginal notes in his handwriting. It is also apparent that there are in the existing texts omissions for which either he was answerable or those who went before him. In dealing with such ancient documents, we must expect to meet occasionally with difficulties—words which have become illegible, and others, or even whole passages, the meaning of which cannot be determined with certainty. Fortunately these documents have been made available for our use by two editors of great learning and critical capacity, the Rev. E. Hogan, 8.J., and Dr. Whitley Stokes. After their labours upon the text and its elucidation, not much remains to be done by future editors or commentators. Still, however, the value of these materials is questioned by critics. A learned German writer has lately taken pains to analyse the contents of the Patrician documents, throwing doubt upon their genuineness and antiquity, though he seems forced to admit that the MS. was written in the beginning of the ninth century. (Die neue Heidelberger Jahrbiicher, 1893. Die Schriften S. Patricks. yon J. v. Pflugk-Harttung.) I now propose to lay before the Academy a few remarks upon a passage, the reading and interpretation of which deserves some atten- tion, as it suggests inquiries relating to the language and usages prevailing in the time of St. Patrick. Graves— On the “ Lignum Contensionis.” 21 The passage as I read it (Book of Armagh, fol. 13, a.a.) stands as follows, the italics representing the Irish characters :-— “Kt exit ad Drummut Cerrigi,! et inuenit .ii. uiros conflin- guentes, filios unius uiri, ad inuicem, post mortem patris eorum, qui faber aereus erat de genere Cerrigi . . . umen® uoluerunt diuidere hereditatem, et possitum erat lignum contensionis quod uocatur caam? apud gentiles,* et arripuerunt gladios ancipites extensis® manibus (pe)reutere frater fratrem, pedibus erectis,> quod defunctum® est in terra more campi.”’ The Rey. E. Hogan, reading it almost exactly as I do, accepts the text as correct, and appears to have rightly understood the purport of the paragraph. But he leaves the Lignum Contensionis unexplained. His note upon the passage is as follows :-— ‘« Caam. cfr. Cam = contentio, duellum; caman = lignum seu baculus quo Hiberni utuntur in pilari ludo.”’ Mr. Hogan has ample authority for saying that caam = contentio, duellum. But I think camdn is derived not from cam, duellum, but from cam, curvus. It was the curved stick used in hurling. See “Dictionary of the Highland Society,’’ under the words camag and caman ; also O’Reilly’s and other Irish dictionaries ; and Le Gonidec’s Breton Dictionary, Hammel, Baton courbé par le bout, for playing La Crosse. Dr. Stokes (Zrip. Life, vol. i., p. clxxvil., and vol. ii., p. 320), distrusting the knowledge of the scribe, treats the text as corrupt, and offers an emendation of it. For dégnum he reads lieium, by which, no doubt, he understands a place marked out by /zc’ae—lists. 1 This was Ciarraighe Artigh, now Tibehine and Kilnamanagh; and Drummod is the name of a townland in the parish of Tibohine, barony of Frenchpark, Co. Roscommon. See Book of Armagh, fol. 9, a.a., and O’Donovan’s Annals of the Four Masters, ad ann. 1297, p. 469. 2 Bishop Reeves and I agreed in reading . . . wmen, but failed to make out the beginning of the word. Our conclusion was different from that at which Mr. Hogan has arrived. He reads Airnen or Sannen. 3 Cam, i.e. comland, a conflict. (Cormac’s Glossary.) 4 Gentiles. Pagan Irish, as frequently in Tirechan; e.g. Book of Armagh, fol. 14, a.0. 5 The epithets ewtensis and erectis have been transposed. See Tirechan, Book of Armagh, fol. 15, b.a. 6 The latinity is questionable. I would translate thus :—All which was done in due form on the ground after the usage of the duel. Campus was used to denote the duel as well as the place of combat. See Ducange, in voc. Hence German Kampf. 22 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. _. Many years ago, reading the Hyils Saga for another purpose, I lighted upon a passage which appears to me to explain the real nature of the Lignum Contensionis. I quote it here :—Egillus et sodales ibi rapuere omnem rem, quae ipsis sub manus cadebat. Deinde ad navem suam evecti, vento apogeo in brevi tempore orto, ad velificandum se compararunt ; postquam autem ad id erant parati, Egillus in insulam egressus, sumta in manum pertica corylina, in petrae alicujus, quae continentem introrsum spectabat, prominentiam processit ; tum caput equinum cepit, imposuitque perticae, atque adhibita verborum formula sic effatus est: ‘‘ Hic ego perticam execrationis [nidstaung] erigo ; atque hance execrationem in Eiricum regem et Gunhilldam reginam intendo.” Tum caput equinum continenti introrsum obvertens pergit : ‘¢ Dirigo hance execrationem in genios hujus terrae indigetes, ut cuncti errantes vagentur, et nemo suum domicilium adsequatur aut reperiat, priusquam terra expulerunt Eiricum regem et Gunhilldam. JDeinde perticam in rupturam petrae immissam defixit, et capite equi ad terram converso, literas incidit perticae, quae loquebantur istam im- precationis formulam integram. His confectis nayem inscendit.”— (Hgils Saga, ch. 60, pp. 388-390). The same practice is also described in Vatnsdaela Saga, ch. 34; Landndama, iv., ch. 4; Reykdaela Saga, ch. 25. In Cleasby and Vigfusson’s excellent Icelandic dictionary we find abundant references and quotations illustrating the meaning of nid and the various uses of the nidstong. That word corresponds almost exactly with the Lignum Contensionis. Stong, like the German stange and English stang, meaning a pole or stake, answers to the Zignum; and nid, meaning execration, contumely, derision, reproach, abuse, insult, has a signification nearly related to contention, dispute, quarrel. It must also be noticed that nth was the legal term used in the Brehon Law to denote duel. See Senchas Mor, vol. i., p. 122, line 9, arm fri nith, a weapon for battle; and p. 126, line 15; and an article by M. d’Arbois de Jubainville, ‘‘Des attributions judiciaires de Vautorité publique chez les Celtes” (Revue Celtique, January, 1886) in which he discusses the whole of the procedure in the case of duels. With the LignumContensionis Father Hogan compares the phrase lignum mittere occurring in another passage of Tirechan :—‘‘ Sed familiam ejus non dilegunt quod i. non licet jurare contra eum, il. et super eum, iii. et de eo, iii. et non lignum licet contra eum mitti, quia ipsius sunt omnia primitiuae ecclesiae Hiberniae, sed juratur a se omne quod juratur.”—(Book of Armagh, fol. 11. a.b.) There, however, ignum has, I think, a different signification, Graves—On the “ Lignum Contensionis.”’ 23 standing for the baculus, virga, fustis, staff, rod, wand, verge, mace, baton, truncheon, which was the symbol of supreme power and jurisdiction possessed by rulers and judges, and was borne in their own hand, or by the officers who represented and acted for them. Persons preferring petitions, making vows, or taking oaths, touched the baculus. Accused persons purged themselves with an oath taken upon the staff carried by the officer who was sent by their superior. On this subject see Du Cange on the words baculus, virga, juramentum, and Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthiimer, under the headings Stab and Aid. It is deserving of notice that in a passage adduced by Grimm the staff used in investiture is called lignum. I believe that the members of the Academy will agree with me in thinking that light is thrown upon this obscure passage in one of the Patrician documents by comparing it, on the one hand, with the Icelandic sagas and laws, and, on the other, with the text of the Senchas Mér which, though it may not have been compiled in the time of St. Patrick, undoubtedly contains elements of a remote pagan antiquity. [2805] JOULE, ON PROFESSOR ROSSI’S PUBLICATION OF SOUTH-COPTIC TEXTS. By ROBERT ATKINSON, LL.D. [Read May 8, 1893.] It is admitted on all hands that the ancient versions of the LXX are likely to be of great service in the reconstitution of the Greek Biblical text, and therefore the publication of Coptic texts, properly edited, is a most laudable employment, every scrap of new matter being a possible aid. But, obviously, if they are to be of real service, the texts must be properly edited, and an accompanying version must have the merit of being correct and faithful. Professor Rossi has been, for some time past, engaged in pub- lishing South-Coptic texts from the Egyptian Museum in Turin. The first fasciculus was published in 1883, comprising the Gospel of Nicodemus, and a sermon of Theophilos; and, since that period, Prof. Rossi has exhibited very considerable activity in publishing the succeeding fasciculi. His transcriptions are industriously made, up to the extent of his knowledge of South-Coptic; but that knowledge is inadequate, and has involved him in such a mass of errors, that I have thought it desirable to direct the attention of Biblical students who may make use of these texts of Prof. Rossi, to the sort of mistake which they must be prepared to allow for, in any inferences they may be inclined to make therefrom. I will here give one example to illustrate the lengths to which this sort of error can be carried—an example which will be more instructive than any mere statement to the effect that strange mistakes do occur. The passage is found in the fourth Fasciculus of the first volume of these Texts, at p. [41 8 11]: ebolje kata petséh Ma, secondo la sentenza di Cristo mi com fiwpolis ehép che non si puod nascondere una citta eské ehrai ejn wtow posta sopra un monte, wde meuje whébs né una lampada sekaaf ha wsi’ (sic) nel cuor della notte. Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 20 Now, here the biblical student would naturally be struck with this novel statement: ‘‘one cannot hide a city placed on a mountain, nor a lamp in the heart of the night.’ This must be some unheard-of ‘‘reading”’, of a wholly different text from that usually given, and curiosity would naturally be aroused as to the new ‘‘text” thus disclosed. Let us then examine this text. The last two lines are not really translated: Prof. Rossi did not understand them a¢ all, so he guessed at an explanation, just as he might have done with the fragment of a sentence in demotic or hieratic characters of a barely legible writing, and containing two or three unknown words.- But what are the facts? He had plainly before him w si, which mean simply and always ‘‘a bushel”, and he ran these two words into one to make wsé, ‘‘night”, after altering the word as shown by his ‘‘(sic)’’. But even so, nothing was effected in the way of translation. He has apparently rendered ha by ‘‘heart”; but ha means ‘‘under’’, and thus we have, as the only conceivable rendering of ha w Si, ‘‘ under a bushel”. The previous word nsekaaf can mean nothing but “‘ut ponant eum”’, and there remains only one word to correct, viz., meuje, which should have been meujere, ‘‘they do not light” ; and thus there emerges our old friend :—‘‘ men do not light a lamp that they may put it under a bushel”’, the 70 tov pddiov of Matt. v.15. It was while reading Prof. Rossi’s versions, with a view to a study in Homilies, that I was frequently so astounded by ‘‘impossibilities”’, that the conviction forced itself on me that these ‘‘ versions”’ are not of the slightest service for comparative purposes, because just where one wants the precise meaning in order to make temporary inferences or hypotheses, the vagueness or incorrectness of the rendering given by Prof. Rossi deprives the investigator of all chance of success, and reduces his Translation to the level of the myriad things that ‘‘ had better be done otherwise or not done at all.” I have, therefore, read seven Fasciculi of his Texts, and I do not seek to hide the opinion which the perusal has produced on my mind, that these Texts have been exceedingly unfortunate in finding an editor whose views on Coptic grammar are so undecided, and whose training in translation seems to have been too exclusively from the little understood texts of Old Egyptian. Il I will begin with an examination of his edition—text and trans- lation,—of the fragments of the Book of Proverbs. His translation. 26 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. occupies about ten and a-half pages quarto of Vol. II, Fasciculus 2 (1889), and contains about 180 verses or parts of verses, so that it is by no means a large portion of the text of Proverbs. I shall here set down about thirty errors, of a character which shows that Prof. Rossi has no proper familiarity with some of the essential rules of Coptic grammar, in reference to nearly every part of speech. The text, unfortunately, is not well preserved, so that he has had to have recourse to conjecture, and conjecture is admittedly a dangerous weapon. What makes the matter more unintelligible is, that he had a published text to correct from, if he did not know the proper emendation. And some of his conjectures are about the worst conjectures that could have been made. 1. To begin at the beginning, the very first verse he has trans- lated incorrectly : Vv —_ — ov . . . . pestortr de mi pmise Ma il disordine e la contenzione v A — A . . . moose hétf mpecroh camminano coll’ indigenza. This is to ignore the meaning of hétf, which certainly does not mean ‘‘ with,” but ‘before,’ ‘‘in front of’; cf. Prov. xxiv. 66, weie efsok hétf mpohe mbaampe, ‘‘a he-goat stalking before the herd of goats,’’ tpdyos yovpmevos airohiov, LXX. The LXX text in our passage, (xvii. 14), shows of course that this was the meaning intended, mponyetrat d@ THs évdetas. The word is of common occurrence, and is met with in his own “texts,” cf. IY 27 B 23; 41 y 25, in neither of which is the passage translated literally, so as to exhibit the precise meaning of the phrase. 2. The very next verse, the second of his text, contains another mistake, for he edits conjecturally, his conjecture being in brackets : [w]m bote ne Mpesnau fa due cose abbominevoli Rhnahrm pnwte al cospetto di Dio. Here, as ne is the copula, the suggestion of wn (which means there is) is wrong. But the conjecture is further quite out of the range of possibility by the laws of Coptic construction: for bote is the predicate here, the meaning being ‘‘ both are abominations’’, a construction which demands henbote ne mpesnau, exactly as in his own text xxx.14, we have henséfe ne nobhe mpSsére ethow, ‘“‘the teeth of the wicked son are swords”, éxyovoy Kkakov paxalpas Tovs dddvras EXEL. In our passage, the LXX has axadapros kai BdeAvKtés, which the Copt has lumped together into his henbote. But Prof. Rossi’s con- jecture is quite out of the question, and is not Coptic at all. Arkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptie Texts. av 8. The third verse has a mistake of translation: for he renders it ‘‘chi eleva alta la sua casa, va in cerca di dolore”; the Coptic word is wOSf, which does not mean dolore, but ‘‘ruin’’, and is used to express the LXX ovvtpiByv. The word is of constant occurrence, as the exact representative of cuvvtpiBw, civrpiupa, &c., cf. Job, ix. 17; Boca xox, 22s xxxvill 11) 15; Prov. ix. 24; xx) 30)-) Keel. xe 65 Usat. xi. 6; xxviii: 12; Ezek, xxv. 34; xxix. 17; im every one of which it is used to translate this Greek verb or its derivatives. 4. In the next chapter, xviii. 8, we come upon a conjecture which exhibits in the most vivid manner the want of grammatical knowledge which shines through his edition of these ‘texts.’ It ought not to be such a hidden mystery that the varied forms of the Coptic verb are not to be applied at random. But the laxity of rendering which has been the bane and the reproach of translations from Old Egyptian, where definite knowledge is often not to be had, must not be allowed to penetrate into versions from its descendant, the Coptic language, which in its minute and subtle distinctions, leaves small room for doubt as to its meaning, and no justification whatever for looseness in rendering. If there be one certainly ascertained law in Coptic grammar, it is the law that the forms of the verb have a definite use and application. Among these verbs occurs hko with its brother-form hkaeit; the latter expresses a very different idea from the former, for hko means “to be getting hungry’’, but hkaeit is a sort of participial form, and means ‘‘ being hungry’. It'is plain therefore that hkaeit, which means ‘‘being now in a hungry state”, ought not to be used in the future; and as a matter of fact, there is no more categorical imperative in any language than the law which peremptorily forbids its use as afuture. Prof. Rossi has broken the rule, and has edited: tepsykhé de nincabhét Vanima dei pusilli nahk(aeit] sara affamata. That is utterly impossible to Coptic structure: he should have con- jectured the other form, hko. Here then are four serious errors in his first page of a text which is extant in another edition, and which has the original LX X to keep an editor from rushing off the rails. 5. Here is another conjecture, xx. 10: wnoce fsi mh whwi peso grande e piccolo a Fe — re D a[uo sjei pe site ¢ misure doppie henakatharton ne sono immoral. 28 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. This text naturally causes one to open great eyes of wonder at the ingenuity of wrongness which could stray so far from the lines laid down by the text of the LXX, oraOpov péya kai pixpov Kat pétpa 6.cod. For pe could here have no meaning at all; si (Sei) which he suggests, is masc., whereas site, ‘‘two”’ is fem., and it was very unlikely that the Copt would again use it for wérpa after he had just used it for oraOpov. In fact, it is a bad guess, for the words should be auo oipe snte, olpe being the regular Coptic word for pérpov, and further haying the advantage of being a noun feminine, — oipe snte, ‘‘two measures.” 6. Here again he has edited an impossibility, though it is not possible for me to say whether he has obeyed or disobeyed his papyrus: in either case his text and his translation are both wholly incorrect and impossible (xxiii. 5): Va v —_ . esope ekKsansmi sé volgi erathk erof tuo piede verso di lui, linefwonh ebol non apparisca. I do not know why he should have thought it right to give such a weakening to the very strong negative future, nnefwonh ebol, used to represent the LX X otdap0d davetrar, but the protasis contains a triple monstrosity in the word eratk given by him and translated ‘‘ thy foot’”’, tuo piede. The badness is quite out of proportion to the difference of meaning :— (a) the verb sm7 is in its short form, the form used when it immediately precedes the noun it governs and with which it forms almost a compound word— a form somewhat analogous to the construct state in Hebrew, and which therefore has been styled the construct form of the verb, though I prefer to call it the proclitie form,—and could not possibly be followed by the preposition e in eratk. (6) even so, smn with rat could have no meaning such as he attributed to it. (c) rat, meaning ‘‘foot’’, is not Coptic at all: the word is only used in cpd. prepp., and in certain verbal phrases, of which this is not one; see No. 24. The LXX should have kept him straight here, for it has éav eTLOTHTNS TO TOV Ou4y.a Tpos aiTov, i.e. the word was eiat-k, ‘‘ thy glance’’, and has nothing to do with eratk! 7. And as he has a very imperfect notion of the functions of the various forms of the verbal root, so he has an equally unsatisfactory grasp on the ascertained facts as to the cases governed by special Arxkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 29 verbs. Of this, the following conjecture of his will give clear proof, xxiy. 14 :— v - . eksanhe de se poi la troverai, er[e pekhae] anai sara la tua fine buona. As the LXX has éay yap etpys, éorar kad 7 TeAevTH cov, he could not very well err, but he most assuredly cannot get his translation legitimately out of his text, for, as it stands, it would mean, “if thou fall”, ekSan-he, an intransitive verb. It could not possibly be the verb he, ‘‘to find”, in the text as he has edited it. Then in the apodosis, his ere is wrong, simply because of the previous mistake : he should have given ekSanhe eros, ‘‘if thou find it, wisdom”’, and then he would have seen the necessity of having the future na in his apodosis. 8. His mistake is of course heightened by the fact that he does not know what case he, ‘‘to find,’ governs, for he has edited, at Xxvil. 26, ekehe [n]|hieib, for the LXX iva dai cor dpves; but the verb he is followed by the directive e, and could not have 0 in immediate succession to it. 9. And now we have another conjecture, of the wildest kind, with absolutely nothing to recommend or justify it, xxx. 12: tlefmiitjbljin de mpftbbos ma non lava la sua sozzura. The preceding half of the verse is absent from the papyrus, and in the beginning of the latter half is a lacuna, which Prof. Rossi has filled up in the most mechanical and farfetched way, reading tef-mutjbin, because his papyrus gaye him, as he thought, the final letters ....7n, and he did not know any other Coptic word ending in these letters than the word mutjbin, rendered sozzwra. Well, mnutjbin is a Coptic word, certainly ; but what word in the LXX original was it intended to represent? There we have tiv & e€o0dov atrod otk aréviev. I do dwell upon his zon Java, in the present tense, for the confusion in his tenses is extreme, and mpf as a prefix of past tense has its rights frequently ignored; but where is the word for mntjbin ? The fact is, he has misread his papyrus, which obviously has not ....%m [IM], but ....7é [IH], for the word he should have edited was of course tef-hié, ‘‘his way’’, as the representative of THhv €fodov avTor, 10. Here follow in the same word two conjectural emendations, both of which are wrong, exhibiting a very serious want of gram- matical knowledge of the most elementary kind; for he has edited 30 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. at xxv. 14, e[t]w[o]nh ebol, instead of euwonh ebol, and has thereby broken two laws: (a) the definite prefix et- is quite im- possible here, and (8) the present stem wonh should have been used. 11. In the next verse he has committed another blunder, which his translation forbids us to explain as a typographical slip : ere wias nenon de la lingua molle Vv wesf enkees rompe le ossa. He renders ‘‘/e ossa,” ‘‘ the bones,” but the LX X has ovv7piBe 6074, without the definite article. This, however, did not deter him, and so he has edited a text which has three bad errors ! (a) west is the proclitic form of the verb, and could not be used before a preposition. (6) the preposition could not have been e, as wo8f is followed by the connexive n, and not the directive e. (c) there was no definite article at all. Read wesf hen-kees, with the indefinite article, and all is proper and a literal version of the LX X. 12. And he is equally in the dark as to the distinction observed in Coptic with reference to the form of the verb to be used when a suffix pronoun follows it. Thus he conjectures, xxy. 21: ersSan pekjaje hko [matmef] aué efSaneibe mat/sef ] where both his conjectures are wrong, the only forms permissible here being tmmo, and tso: matmmof, ‘‘feed him,” matsof, ‘ give him drink.” 13. The following verse exhibits the same want of skill, for he suggests knas[dk] henjbbes nkoht hijn tefape, ‘thou shalt bring coals of fire on his head’’; whether s6k be or be not the right word to suggest here for LXX owpevces, it is certain that it is not the right form of the verb, because it immediately precedes the governed noun, and must therefore appear as (sk) sek. 14. (xxv. 24): nanw woh é meglio abitare hii w(knhe fiwéei|] sul canto di un tetto. I do not of course deny that kihe is a Coptic word, but the LXX has émt ywvias démaros, and the word for ywvfa is klje, (cf. Prov. vii. 8, 12; xxi. 9; though it is also rendered by kooh, Jobi. 19; tow, Zeph. 1.16; and kénia (ywvia), Zech. xiv. 10); but I do not think it is ever translated by knhe. Atxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. él This word knhe occurs in a curious passage, Amos vill. 8: aud senads ebol nei nmestibs mprpe [hn] mmelate nknhe, where the last three words seem a mere gloss, for the LX X has only kat dAoAvEEL TA hatvipata Tov vaov; but I do not think that it is found in any other passage of the South-Coptic version. At any rate, kooh nwéi would certainly have been a better conjecture if the textual usage be adhered to. 15. A wrong case-government is suggested in his conjecture on xxv. 23, who de natSipe S[afnw]cs nhenlas, ‘una faccia im- pudente irrita le lingue”; for nwes is followed by the directive e, ef. Gen. xl. 2, afnwes epefsiwr snau; Job xxxli.2, afnwes e-e10b; Isai. xii. 1; xxvili.28. He should have given Saftinwes, of course. 16. He suggests a wrong preposition on xxvi. 7, wparanomia {[hitn] row nnathét, where hitn should be ebolhn, to cor- respond with the LXX ék orduaros adpovev. 17. Nor does he understand the principle which guides the use of the definite prefix et, for he has suggested, xxv. 28, [nthe nwpolis etjere nessobt (srsor), ‘like a city whose walls are broken,” where etere cannot be used, but only ere, as it is in connexion with an indefinite noun. 18. We now have a proof of his ignorance of the meaning of common Coptic words, for he suggests, xxvil. 7 :— Sare tepsykhé ettsiéu Vanima satolla [Thal] epebio ebol . disprezza il miele. To this suggestion of rhal, there are the following objections: it could not be followed by ebol; it does not govern the directive e; and it does not mean LXX éyuraiée, “loathe”, disprezza, for it means ‘‘to deceive,’ cf. Gen. ii. 14, phof pentafrhal mmoi, 6 édis ATATHCE pe. [ Here, too, Ciasca’s text is somewhat doubtful, for he edits: Sare wpsykhé etsiéu jér nstste pebio ebol, Wuxy ev tAnopovy otca Kyplous eumraiger, with the following note: ‘‘etsiéu = etséw; nstste (sic) abundat.” But one does not see why either (sic) or abundat should appear here, for tste is quite correct in form, and tste ebol is the translation of éuraige. The difficulty lies in etsiéu, where the prefix is wrong: either tepsykhé et-t., or with the indefinite wpsykhé es-t., should have been found; [and in the use of the paraphrase Sare...jér ustste ebol, which the Copt evidently used to express the element in euraiéer, ‘‘the satiated 32 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. soul plays with so as to reject the honeycomb” ;] where too it may be noted that Ciasca’s = etséw is also a mistake, for the verb is tsio, ‘‘to satiate,” and not tso, ‘‘to give to drink,’”’ a mistake to which something is added by the (ste) which he appends in his note to the word epettsiéu, ‘better than the satiated man,” xxvi. 16. | 19. As he edits the full form of the verb sometimes in place of the short form, so he performs the counter operation, and gives impossibilities like his text at xxvii.17: préme pe Saftbs [mpho m|pefsbér, dvip de tapokiver tpdcwrov ératpov. Here tbs is the proclitic form, and could not be followed by the connexive m, which must be deleted as an unwarrantable intruder. [It is remarkable that Ciasca’s text on this verse contains two errors of a related kind, for we find there Saftom ppenipe, where t6m cannot be right, and also Saftobs pho, where tébs is also wrong, being the form of the verb used with the suffix pronoun, as Job vi. 9, maref-tobs.t, tpwodrw pe. | 20. Nor is it easy to see why he has left the text as it stands, xxv. 21: [t]doki[mion] mphat la prova dell’ argento mh phwb e dell’ oro ..a Ww é [il fuoco]. The LXX has Soximov apyupiw Kai xpvee ripwors, but the Coptic for the last word he has not attempted to suggest. Now, the phrase is not unknown elsewhere in the Bible, ef. Zech. xill. 9: kal rupéocw avTovs MS TUpO’TaL TO apyvpLov, Which the Coptic renders ntapastw nthe mphat eSaupastf; so that it is obvious that the unmeaning .... ww, which he gives as the reading of his papyrus, was a totally different set of letters, not ....OwO%, but ....cT oO, for Ciasca’s text fits the letters like a glove: pe pastw, a good instance of the infinitival noun with following suffix. 21. And what is to be said of the following text and translation ? XXV. 27: : ps[ére wn]tk hennoc isa je mpekoénh So runs his conjectural reading, with the following version, ‘‘figliuolo, tu hai [da me] parole utili alla tua vita.” Now, I want to call attention to this translation: the LX X has tue, wap’ éuod exyers pynoers ioxupas eis THV Conv cov, and his Italian version keeps close to that, but at what cost? He had to insert da me, and utili had also to be extracted, for there is nothing whatever to represent it in the text Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 30 as he has given it, unless he read nSau, ‘‘useful”! Then he thought wntk, ‘thou hast,” would stand well for the dyes, ignoring entirely the fact that the zap’ éuod is really the predication. The word icxvpds gives the solution, for “firm, strong’’, is ték, so that it is a matter of absolute certainty that the Copt meant to set forth zap’ éuov icxupds by using [ai]tk ‘I have strengthened, confirmed,” &c., tk being the proclitic form, used immediately before the object hennoc nsaje, ‘‘ many sayings.” And that is Ciasca’s text, aitek, &c., of course. 22. Before treating of this passage, I may quote a few lines from his Preface, in which he speaks of ‘‘ the absence in [ Peyron’s ] lexicon of certain roots that do occur in these texts, as for example that of tsiow with the signification of congregare, which is quoted with this meaning in Parthey’s vocabulary.”” Now, Parthey certainly has this item, as Prof. Rossi says, but all the same the whole statement is a nullity, for there is no such verb as tsiow, ‘‘congregare,” in these texts! Let us examine the passage, xxviii. 8: netna’ nnhéke le adunera per quelli netnatsiow mmow che hanno misericordia dei poveri. The reader will note that he has Je adunerd as the translation of the pretended root tsiow, ‘‘to gather”, but it is all wrong: it is the root tsio, ‘‘to satiate’, to which reference has been made above, with suffix pronoun, tsio-w, and the translation is, ‘‘they who have mercy on the poor are they shall satzate themselves with them”’, [with riches, plural, or reading mmos, if it be singular]. There is not the shadow of a foundation for this assumed root tsiow, ‘‘congregare’’, in this verse, save the very poor argument that the LXX has cvvdye aitov, which the Coptic version paraphrases. 23. The misgovernment of verbs is again illustrated in his con- jecture, xxviii. 25: pethé nhtéf Mpjoeis chi pone il cuor suo nel Signore. for k6 nhtéf is invariably followed by the directive e; cf. Job vi.20; xxi. 24; Proy. i. 18; Ezek. xxix. 7, 12. 24. Nor has he any clearer insight into the mysteries of Coptic nominal structure, for he has made the following conjecture, xxix. 5: efnasorf ebol ene[frat mmin] mmof. This ludicrous reading is intended as Coptic for LXX zepiBadXee avTo Tots €avtTov woctv. To dream of editing enefrat! Why, we R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. II. D 34 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. know nothing of rat save with pronominal affixes; as independent substantive, we must use weréte, not rat. 25. The following emendation is yet more noteworthy. His text is given thus, xxix. 7: aué mpf[hje nkehét tsown. His translation reads, ‘‘ne anco ha mente a conoscere’’; to which he appends the note, ‘‘letteralmente ha cuore”; i.e., he is translating so literally, and, as he judges, so accurately, that he will not even diverge from the text so much as to render ha mente instead of ha cuore, without calling the reader’s attention to the fact. And it is all wrong: text, translation, and note! I cannot even understand how he got it, for no conceivable pressure can extract his version out of the text he has given: for mpf is a past prefix, and he would have to mean “ find”’ or ‘ get’’, and then would have had to be followed by the directive e; and lastly, he has ignored the original altogether, for the LXX has xat rrwx@ odx brapxer vods éerryvopwv. From this it becomes clear that, as vots emiyvwopwv is rendered by hét nsown, the word wrwx@ is omitted altogether in his text; hence we see that he has misread his papyrus, for mrwyds is héke, hééke, ie., ; not [e]NKe but [HJKKe. And then his mpf is further seen to be a mistake for mnte, and the text should read: mnte phéke hét nsown, ‘‘the poor has not an understanding heart.” 26. It is one of the most certain facts in the use of Coptic compound verbs, that ji and ti denote respectively the passive (or middle) and the active, e.gr.: tisbo, ‘‘to teach”; jisbo, ‘*to learner tismw, ‘‘to praise”; jismw, ‘‘to be praised”’ ; tidms, ‘‘to baptize”’; jioms, ‘‘to be baptized”; &c. But Prof. Rossi has no sure grasp of this not very difficult principle, for he has edited, xxix.15: [jisi]pe mpefeidt, ‘‘conturba il padre suo,” where obviously the ji is quite impossible, for ‘“‘to make ashamed’’ is tiSipe, whereas jiSipe is ‘‘to d¢ ashamed”’. 27. That he does not understand the principle is clear, for in another passage, Prov. xxiii. 13, he edits, mprlo ektisbo ..... j which he translates by ‘‘non cessar di istruirt?, perché, &c., where the LXX has vymiov mardeverv, tisbO nwkwi, of course. Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 35 28. Now we have the case of a plain unmistakable reading made to yield an unheard-of word, for he gives, xxix. 22: Sare wrdme de tihak thins epnobe The LXX has dvip de dpyidos eEdpvéev duaptiav, and this text Prof. Rossi has rendered l’uomo pronto [all’ ira] scava il peccato, giving the following note: ~ ‘¢The verb thms, which I have taken in the sense of the Greek éfopvcow ‘‘scavare’’, is not found in Peyron’s Lexicon, where we have only the form thmso, with the meaning sedere facere, constituere”’. It is not found in Peyron’s Lexicon: I should think not, for it does not exist at all in the Coptic language, of any dialect or period ! He has divided the words wrongly: it should be the proclitic form, thmse pnobe, ‘‘a hasty man establishes sin”’, corresponding with the previous clause, éyeipet vetkos, ‘‘ stirs up strife.” 29. The last specimen that I shall quote is perhaps also the worst. It is at xxxi. 26, which he gives thus: [nja[srjh[m]me de mn timiitna hi peslas, which he renders: ‘‘si governd con benignita nella lingua sua’’, a translation and text so perversely wrong, that it almost requires to be seen before one can believe it to have been possible that a Coptic editor should have made such a venture. : Let us dissect it: rhmme, does mean ‘‘to govern’’, but what is the prefix nas? His translation, si governd, ‘‘she governed herself’, shows that he conceived it possrsLE that there could be such a prefix as nas- in South-Coptic ! Then, we have three conundrums which solicit attention: what did he conceive was the function of m before mntna? what does he take to be the precise use of mn? and how does he imagine the preposition hi can be twisted into meaning “nella lingua”? ? The whole is a mass of absurdities: for, here mn couples two nouns, of which the latter mmntna is in the plural, ‘‘ mercies”, and so the former was probably also a noun in the plural. Hence the problem was simply to determine, what was the noun hidden under the following fragments ? Now, there is only one noun in the Coptic language that would suitably fill up that gap, and thatis ansmme, Oecpoé; and the clause meant ‘‘ statutes and mercies are on her tongue.” The LXX text D2 36 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. varies considerably, and the Coptic version is certainly not a literal rendering of any text, but the text itself should have been clear. And it is given in Ciasca. II. It will be seen that the above collection of errors, in fragments of a few chapters of an already published work, is of ominous suggestiveness as to the probabilities of error, where text and trans- lation are to be edited independently. I propose now to take up the consideration of these texts in the order of their publication. The first Fasciculus (1883), contained: 1, the Gospel of Nicodemus, of which a Latin translation from the masterly hand of Peyron was published by Tischendorf in his Hvangelia Apocrypha (1876), to which I do not intend to refer; and, 2, an Exegesis of Theophilus, translated by Prof. Rossi himself, ‘‘ as literally as possible.” But, to secure this, another qualification besides the grammatical was desirable, for in writings of this kind, where the writer’s mind is filled with reminiscences of Scripture, and where his habitual speech is in fact a mosaic of Biblical texts, it is obvious that the second essential for a good edition is, that the editor should have great familiarity with the words of the Bible. Unfortunately, Prof. Rossi does not possess this qualification either. I cannot of course set down everything to be found fault with: I shall confine myself to the mistakes of a significant and character- istic sort. At the very outset, the editor has failed to see, or at least does not set forth, the obvious intention of the preacher to make a sixfold comparison : 1. the sun has arisen, and the darkness is dispersed ; 2. the king has assumed the crown, his foes are subdued ; 3. the odour is shed forth, the stench is destroyed ; 4. the lion has issued forth, the beasts have fled ; 5. the physician has come, the sick may be healed; 6. the delight of creation is manifested, mourners may rejoice. 30. But the very next paragraph contains an extraordinary mis- translation, which his note only intensifies: [65 8 5 |— wpolis, ere wrro’ ijaje nakote eros, iforbes ehwn, tote Sare nethhéts térw Sépe hii wnoc iithmko. Nothing can be plainer or more certain than the meaning of this clause: ‘(as when) a hostile king is surrounding a city and besieging Atkinson —On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 37 it, all those who are in tt are wont to become greatly afflicted, &c.” But he renders the phrase netnhéts, by ‘‘2 cuord di tutti i suoi abitanti”’, adding as a note that the literal translation of this passage would be ¢ vostri cuort di essa. There is no such construction known to Coptic grammar as netn-hét.s! That reading is a perfect apocalypse, and the note lifts the veil. What the preacher said was: n-et-nhéts, ‘those who are in it”’. 31. [66a 8]: fiterefnau epjaje name fitmiitréme térs, ete pai pe pdiabolos je afébr ehwn fitoikwmené térs. In this passage the editor did not understand afobr, and so he . printed a note thereon: ‘‘in the group afobr ehwn, I take the root obr, (not known to me from other examples, nor by me found in any lexicon,) according to the drift of the preposition that accompanies it, in the meaning of fo enter, penetrare, invadere, &. The Coptic word which is nearest in form to our root is Sbr, amicus, socius, &c., whence we have the verb rsbr, amicus, esse, fieri, &c., but I have not found &c.’”’; and, accordingly, he concocted a root obr, which he translated to znvade. Now, he had just edited on the previous page, nf-orb-es ehwn, with the pronominal form of the verb, orb-s ehwn; and as we have here the connexive particle n, it might have been expected that a moment’s reflection would have given him the solution: the word is not any imaginary Obr, still less the poor suggestion of sbr, but is simply an inversion of the letters r and b, viz. af-orb ehwn, in the absolute form of the verb, ‘‘he besieged’”’; cf. nai ntauerb-téutn ehwn, Jerem. xxi. 4. 32. The want of familiarity with the Bible is everywhere pain- fully manifest, but it does not always avenge itself so plainly as in the following: [67 6 8} licij etSwow le mani vanagloriose aftreusowtn ebol Sece essere rette. “He made straight the vain-glorious hands!’’ That is, he not only did not know that it was withered hands that were healed, but he did not know the Coptic word for ‘‘ withered,” for he has con- founded swow with Swsw: WOCwWOC with wWowuor 33. It is natural to infer that he has at times misread the papyrus, for where the letters are faded, it is the grammar often which adds 38 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. the certainty, and says that such and such a letter must be; now cf. [68 B 26]: nai ce térw neueire queste cose tutte fecero mpow naf pe in questo giorno a li. But how could the imperfect tense neueire be rendered by his preterite fecero, how could mpow, ‘‘ to-day’’ be used with a preterite, and how could the absolute verb eire appear without its object and the connexiye particle? These are three stumbling-blocks, which should have forced him to see that he should have had mmow, ‘“‘them”’, and not mMpow, 7% questo giorno. If his papyrus has the latter, it is simply wrong and impossible, and should have been emended. 34. And just in the same way, it is obvious that his text is not a faithful representation of the papyrus, where he gives [73a 18], euneukléros erow, which he has rendered ‘“ (si dividono) alla sorte”, although it is utterly impossible to Coptic structure! The text should have had eunejkléros and not euneukléros, for the passage runs as follows: eupoS nnefhoite ejdw eunejkléros erow, ‘‘they part his garments among them, casting lots for them’’, the root being plainly nej, ‘‘to cast’’. His version of [7708] ‘‘si dividono colla sorte le sue vesti’”’, shows that this text, where there is a lacuna, eune...kléros erow, was misunderstood in exactly the same way. 385. The Greek words with which the Coptic text is interlarded, are often a difficulty to the editor; cf. [74a 8]: afbol ebol tinepsykhowe sciolse le anime etopt entamio n’nikake chiuse nelle tenebre. Here attention is drawn by his 1, which shows that he felt some awkwardness, a sort of indefinable malaise he could not remedy; but his rendering, ‘‘ nelle tenebre’’, proves that he had no inkling of the true state of affairs, viz., ‘‘the souls shut up into the chambers of darkness, Ntamieion nkake’’! 36. The confusion of his mind with reference to verbal forms can scarcely be set forth more clearly than in his edition of the following passage [74a 14]. His translation runs thus: Imperocché questo é quello che promise a noi colla sua bocca di verita, questa, da cur nessuna menzogna esce in eterno. Se esaltano me sulla terra, io li trarro tutti a me, Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 39 This of course is to ignore the fact that this last sentence 7s the promise referred to in the previous clause; but passing that by, his esce exhibits a fatal misunderstanding, which his note as usual sets into high relief. His text has: * teftapro Mmme tai ete Mmlaau ficol ei ebol nhéts eneh. His note says: ‘‘the text has here mlaau, a form unused, or perhaps wrong, for mn laau’”’. The text is certainly wrong, but so is his note; utterly wrong, because the verb ei, ‘‘to go’’, is not used in the present tense at all; so that this mnlaau ei, ‘‘ (non) esce”’, is an ungrammatical suggestion: it should have been mpe, and not mn, and then the translation would have been ‘‘ his veracious mouth, out of which no lie ever came’’; or the future negative nne, “ will never come’’. 37. The following seems hardly intentional, but it is significant : [75 B 22] woss ebol nnetnaisthétérion, which he has trans- lated, ‘‘ dilatate la vostra selvaggia intelligenza’”’. Now, what does he suppose is gained by putting in selvaggia, ‘‘savage”’, and whence is it got? The Greek word here used, aio@yrypiov, has surely no great mystery about it. 38. At [79a 2], we have the following : pkah térf tilwlai la terra tutta giubila, je a pesnof mpeffrro perché il sangue del suo re poht ehrai ejof é sparso su essa. afkatharize ansén Purifico le piante térw te[ntiwd] tutte germoglianti (?), ebolje pjoeis ase poiché il Signore é€ appeso ejm pse mpestauros al legno della croce. On this passage he gives a note: ‘‘here also the text is incorrect, and I fear I have not thoroughly grasped the author’s idea; here, also, we have a instead of e (ansén for ensén,) and the group tentiwo in place of nettiw6”. He most assuredly has not caught the idea, and both his suggestions are wrong and impossible. The word could not be ensén, with the directive e, because katharize does not govern the directive, but the connexive ni (cf. Levit. vill. 15; xii. 7; Kili. 6, 28, &c.), and nettiw6 is quite out of the question when ensén is impossible. He has gone completely astray: the sense is ‘‘ the earth shouts for joy because the blood of its king has been shed on it, and has 40 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. purified [it]; the trees have all blossomed because God has been suspended on the wood of the cross’’; and the text should have been : a fisén térw tiwd. 39. The following perversion of the sense seems to be due to the misconception of a word used in a Coptic-Latin lexicon, for otherwise it seems unintelligible [808 5]: pestauros pe la croce é pesmine la ferma costituzione finejéu etrhot delle navi vantate hiiwmitsaie per bellezza. What does that mean? ‘The cross is the firm constitution of the ships vaunted for beauty”! Now, rhot means ‘‘to sail’, and the words meant, ‘‘of the ships that are sailing in beauty”. But whence came his ‘‘vantate’’?? Parthey’s lexicon has two entries : rhot, navigare. rhoot, jactare (navigantem). Did Prof. Rossi take the latter entry, and render it ‘‘to boast”’, vantare ? 40. When his text is wrong, he sometimes even does not see any defect, [8la 4]: pestauros pe la croce é pehlol la caligine —o— oV . ee nnentausise dei maledici. His note says: ‘literally, of those who were bitter [in speech ]”’. Now, what on earth could be the meaning of such a sentence—‘‘ the cross is the darkness of those who were bitter in speech”? The cross was their sweetening, not their darkness, and the Coptic word was hloc, not hlol. 41. In the last page of his translation there are a dozen mis- takes, all of which I cannot set down here. The cross is a terrible stumbling-block to him, for he edits [81a 21]: pestauros pe la croce é psobt ettajréu la preparazione salda. The meaning is quite wrong: sobt has nothing to do with sobte, ‘‘to prepare”; it means “ (city-)wall’’, being the regular word to express retxos, cf. Num. xiii. 20; 1 Reg. xxv. 16; 2 Reg. Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptice Texts. 41 xi. 24; Tobi. xiii.16; Ps.1.20; Jer.1.15; Ezek. xxvii.11; whereas roixos is t-jo, cf. 1 Reg. xviii. 11; Job xxxili. 24; Ps. lxi. 4; Isai. ix. 10; Ezek: xxiii. 14; xl. 18; xli. 5 [= dpaypos, Ps. lxxx. 14; Eccl. x. 8]. What the writer said was that ‘the cross was the fortified, strengthened city-wall’’. 42. Here it is the Greek language that mystifies him: a paggelos v angelo wonh naf ebol apparve a lui afkata tortw naf e lo esaudi Mpefaitéma nella sua domanda. And he gives a long note as follows: ‘‘I translated the group afkatatorthw naf according to the sense, by he heard him, not knowing any Greek verbal root to which this can be referred, &c.” Then he suggests that it should be afkharize kata torthw naf, ‘““he gratified him according to justice”, though the Greek verbal root katorthw (xatopfow) was appealing to him for acceptance, [a common LX X word, usually rendered by the Coptic sowtn |]: ‘‘the angel accomplished for him his airnua’’. 43. The last of his mistakes that I shall refer to in this Exegesis, is not the least curious [83 6 2]: psotér jé6 Mmos dice il Salvatore je pigenos questa nazione Vv e x . meuesnojf ebol non puo salvarsi eiméte hmpeslél : che nella preghiera mi tnéstia é nel digiuno. On this we have an electric light flashed by his note: ‘‘the literal translation of this passage would be, this nation cannot cast itself save into prayer and fasting’’|!| Here are his own words, questa nazione non puo gettarsi che neila preghiera e nel digiuno. And this in spite of ebol, (cast) ‘“‘out”. The Coptic words can mean nothing but, “‘this yevos, they are not wont to be able to cast it out, save by prayer and fasting”, rodro ro yevos év ovdevi divarar eEédOetv, ef pi €v mpocevxy Kal vyoteia, Mk. ix. 29, (Matt. xvii. 21, ov« éxzopeverar). ITI. The second Fasciculus (1884) contains matter referring to the Council of Nicea, a portion of the life of St. Athanasius, and some fragments. A portion of the matter printed here by Prof. Rossi had 42 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. been published by M. Revillout (1878), but the edition of the latter scholar was not good enough, according to Prof. Rossi, to make his reprint undesirable: ‘‘he would have abstained from reprinting them if he [M. Reyvillout] had shown more faithfulness to the original”’, pref. p. 6. I shall not discuss the relative merits of the two editions, but confine myself to the study of Prof. Rossi’s text. Gah, [bla Wile pentafjoos je Quegli che disse : nej phap eroi, aud anok “* giudica me, ed io tinatddbe renderd il contraccambio”’, ntof pentannej € Quegli in cui ponemmo penrows térf erof tutta la nostra sollecitudine. He who said, “judge me and I will repay”: that is plainly meant us a quotation; but whence? It is not in the Bible, and it is not in the Coptic words, which mean, ‘‘throw the judgment on me”’, ‘‘leave judgment to me’’, exactly as in the latter half of his own text we have, ‘‘as we have cast our care on him”’. Where was the logic of his translation ? The passage is of course the verse quoted at Rom. xu1.19 and Hebr. x. 30, éuol éxdcknous (though Deut. xxxii. 35, has év nuepa éxduxyoews,) our familiar words ‘“ vengeance is mine”’. 45. [13a9]: His text is given as follows: — v = e hn wss (?) wein neaunoc G06 6 GC hm pkake The editor is doubtful of his own text, of which he gives this version : una gran luce si fece in-mezzo alle tenebre. Now, this version demon- strates that he had no idea of the real construction of the passage. He should have cdited : hii wssne on a sudden aunoec iwoein a great light [Sa] hm pkake shone in the darkness. One would have thought that hn w sSne was common enough not to be a mystery, and that the missing verb Sa must have suggested itself to even a beginner. To make the matter plain, 1 will quote two passages in exemplication : Jobi. 19, hi wsSne aunoe nhatéu ei LXX, éfaidvys TvEdpa Leya erndOev. Zech. xiv. 7, hm pnau nrwhe fnasa Dei woein LXX, pods éorépav éorar as. Arxkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 43 46. The translation of the following passage will be of interest to anok de tihomologei ntetrias etwaab..... emii pérj Soop ntmntnwte wte messibe wte mespédne wte mestako the student of ecclesiastical history [15, 20]: Io poi confesso la Triade Santa,..... senza aleuna separazione della divinita, che non genera mutazione, non genera divisione, non produce perdita, §e. Now, probably the theologian would feel inclined to think he had come upon a new version of the Athanasian creed in the expression: “the Holy Trinity, which does not generate change, and does not generate division, and does not produce distinction”! But it is simply a blunder of the editor, who has taken mes to be a verb in con- struction with sibe, podne and tako, and meaning ‘‘ to bring forth’’, in other words a form of mise; whereas this mes is nothing but the negative aorist prefix! The words messibe, &c. mean, ‘‘the Holy Trinity does not change—is not wont to change, &¢e.’’, with the full force of this negative present consuetudinal. 47. The next quotation is from a passage which the editor has despaired of, largely on account of the word euajiphoros, which is to him altogether unknown, “‘affatto ignota”. [16a 24]: netnaratsotm de quelli che non ubbidiranno nsetmhomologei e non la confesseranno, euajiphoros (‘) mptako si perderanno (?) Rarios con Ario. Obviously, it was a meaning of this kind that was intended to be conveyed, but the editor does not attempt to solve the enigma in the word referred to. Probably the change of a single letter will give the solution : eue-ji phoros mptako n-Arios ‘they will get the dpos of the destruction of Arius’’. 48. The prepositions are a great stumbling-block to the editor, who has not realised how definite is their usage. Thus he edits [18, 13] ‘‘(his countenance was full of anger against us, but it did not cause us any anxiety), a causa della grande gloria che in noi ne veniva ; etbe pnoc teow Ritanei nheétf on account of the great glory which came into us from thence”. The 44 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. text certainly says no such thing; it says, ‘‘for the great glory in which we came”. The writer did not mean that glory accrued to them from the King’s anger, but that they did not heed his anger, because of God’s favour. 49. On the same page, another preposition has caused him to pervert his original much more seriously [ 18, 24]: eutén ce nesbowe dove sono le dottrine — e Veo V . mn cinsmse ed i culto ita pekeidt honw etootk che il padre tuo ti ordino efnabok eratf Mpnwte di prestare a Dio. ‘Where are the doctrines and the service thy father ordered thee to pay to God”? The editor’s translation of the last line is utterly wrong; the word eratf is a cpd. preposition, meaning ‘‘at the feet of”, and the phrase efnabok eratf mpnwte means, “‘ when he [thy father] was about to appear before God”. 50. [20, 11]: = . a etrasphise io soffriro — Moen ; 655 6 0 mii nasbr melos co’ miei compagni pazientemente (?) v x ; a . . , 6 Q sante pnwte na’ nan Jinché Dio avra misericordia di not. As to the meaning of his pazientemente, and that too followed by a (?), I am quite ata loss; As melos must be a Greek word, the problem here is to determine how the idea of ‘‘ patiently”? can be got out of peAos! It is, of course, only nonsense ; the words were mn na-sbr-melos, ‘‘ with my fellow-members”’. This is quite a common use of sbr, ‘‘fellow-”, followed by a defining noun, sbrepiskopos, ‘‘a fellow-bishop”, &c. 51. In the following passage there is no insight shown, but mere guess-work and helplessness. The bishops are telling how the King had treated them: ‘‘he ordered his executioners to bind us hand and foot, and to scuttle the boat under us” [22, 5]: eaurhot dopoché ebbero navigato epekro molto alto (pel mare) aukaan ebol ci abbandonarono. anon de Noi poi tenevamo nere niecij Mpenhét le nostre mani pors ebol stese sul petto. ... natsarx de ©) to, (e) 10) te) xo) se) Melare. nsebel’ebol am 099 i aa Ce Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 45 As will be seen, no attempt is here made to translate the last lines; and how could they hold their hands stretched out on their breast, when they were bound hand and foot? In any case, the Coptic text says nothing to that effect, but is of quite different purport: ‘‘ but as for us, the hands of our heart were stretched out, but bodiless, so as not to faint”. Their bodily hands were tied, but the hands of their heart were stretched out to God in unwearying supplication. The construction of bol ebol with cij is perfectly correct Coptic, and occurs in Isai. xill. 7, etbe pai cij nim nabdél ebol, LXX 61a TotrTo raca yelp éxAvOyjoeTor; Jer. 1. 15. And what was the use of translating in the beginning of the clause aurhot epekro by ebbero navigato molto alto (pel mare)? whereas it means ‘‘they sailed to the shore’’. 52. The whole of this portion is badly done, and the difficulties of the text are often slurred over in the translation, and that too without mention. I may quote a few of these omissions [ 23, 26]: nai de ere tpolis térs queste cose la citta tutta jo mmow hdste disse etres noein hitn commossa v —— AAW tase hmmeese aud teSpére ntassépe dal prodigio fatto aunts nahrm prro si porto presso il re. That sort of translation is only too common in versions from Old Egyptian, but it is quite imtolerable in versions from a language so generally pellucid as is the Coptic. The editor gives no . . . to show that anything has been omitted, and his version is neither literal nor faithful. The words mean: ‘these things the whole city shouts so as to make it shake by the multitude of the crowds; and [as to] the miracle that had taken place, they carried ¢¢ before the King”’. 58. Or take the passage [25, 14]: temw ce ari pahre eron ora, dunque, sana noi hn fnzétéma etorj mn nlogos ethm paho mpekhét v etbe psddéce — v _ — ~ Hitausoochn nhetf fici narianos daglt errori degli Ariant. Here are several lines with not a hint as to their translation, and 46 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. no indication whatever of anything being omitted! The omitted lines mean: ‘‘in the firm ¢yrjpara and the Adyo. which are in the treasure of thy heart, on account of the wound the Arians have wounded us with’’. 54. And surely an omission like the following should not have occurred! In the confession of Faith made by Athanasius to the King we have a series of propositions, winding up with this general statement : pnoc nkephalaion enai térw thhomologei mmof ete peftow neuaggelion ne etere nekhreistianos térow so nhétw come il pit grande di tuttr questi capr nor confessiamo i quattro evangelit, a cur attingono (lett. bevono) tutti 74 Cristiani. aud psah paulos plas mpestinwfe mh nhepistolowe nhkatholikon And no notice whatever is taken that the Canon here mentioned in the Coptic includes the words, ‘‘ and the writer Paul, the tongue of sweet savour, and the Catholic Epistles’’. 55. And the paragraph, as given in his version, winds up with the following ridiculous misconception as to the possibilities of Coptic structure [29,12]: esdpe ce 6 prro nikephalaion fitaijow seswt6én fnahrak se dunque, 0 re, questi capi che io dissi, sono retti al tuo cospetto, eiejow to dird: anine epima vient imsieme — Pas ae Shans . 2 linensbr nepiskopos co’ miet compagni vescovi fitakexorize Mmow che hai esigliato. Now, I call attention to this passage, in which he has edited three words in juxtaposition, every one of which he has completely misunderstood! To begin with, where is the force of such an argu- ment as this: ‘‘if these propositions are right in thy sight, Z shall say, ‘come along with my fellow-bishops whom thou hast exiled’’’? No such thing; eiejow does mo¢ mean ‘‘I shall say”’, and does not refer to the word ‘‘say” at all! It means, ‘‘ well then, do thou send’”’; elie is a particle introducing the apodosis, and jow is an Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 47 imperative, ‘‘send thou”’. Secondly, anine does not mean ‘‘ come thou’’, but “bring”. And thirdly, epima does not mean ‘along with’, but it means ‘‘to this place’. So that the three words meant the following: ‘‘if these propositions seem right to thee, o King, why then, send and bring hither our fellow-bishops whom thou hast exiled”’. 56. [ 30, 5 | : tote afkeleue nteunw allora chiamo tosto ici prro nwheretarios il capo de? suot corrieri Nexuseudynatos pe ed craked (est hn tefcom etref bok e lo mando takhy isa nepiskopos a vescovi santi. His note bears on the unknown exuseudynatos, which he took to be e€ovc.oduvaros, and then, as he ‘‘could not find it in the dic- tionaries’’, he rendered it ‘‘chief”. Just so, and he omits altogether the very words which should have shown him what it 7s! For the word pe is copula to a clause e-u dvvaros pe hn tefcom, ‘who is powerful in his migR and the previous word should be noévs, ‘a swift messenger”’ The next article published in these Texts is the Sentences (yvGpar) of the Sacred Synod. I do not propose to go through this publication in detail, as M. Revillout can very well defend his own work, with which also I am not here concerned. Towards the end, Prof. Rossi’s version gets somewhat worse, and exhibits some remark- able handling of Greek words, which calls for notice here. 57. On page 91 of Prof. Rossi’s translation we read the following sentence: ‘‘ Lo stolto crede che nessuno lo conoscera. Egli ignora che trovasi nella vita come ad un convito”. On looking to see what the text of this curious passage was, the mystery was at once cleared up [60, 12]: nfsown an je fo nonh nthe nw trapetés; ie. the words ad un convito, ‘‘at a banquet’’, are to be got out of nwtrapetés. Why then, the word trapetés must be supposed to be a deriv. of tpdrefa! It is the word dpamérys, ‘a runaway slave’: the fool is like a runaway slave, and God’s eye is steadily watching him all through life, is the idea in the writer’s mind. 48 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 58. An equally curious passage is found in his version and note on the word theodokos, at p. 80 of his translation: ‘‘this word, formed from @eos, God, and from the verb dexouar (Ionic dexoman), signifies literally, one who receives God, title perfectly adapted to Mary the Mother (‘‘la generatrice”) of God. However, owing to the frequent change of r into 6 in Coptic, somebody might believe that theodokos stands for theotokos (@eoroxos, Deipara); but this cannot be so here, because the latter epithet is given to Mary immediately after, in its Coptic form trefjpenwte; and therefore it would be a useless repetition of the same title’’. The argument on the score of ‘‘useless repetition” is utterly worthless, for nothing is commoner than just this habit of adding the Coptic meaning to a Greek word used; but when it is recollected that this passage occurs in a declaration of faith against the Arians, it seems needless to do more than quote his note. 59. I shall conclude this ‘‘ Text” with one more example [ 61, 1]: Ve ° So esje w na arike Sit propenso ephéke je al povero, perché — i) —_ A N . Mmpfsope inaét non é€ felice. eie w petnasdépe Che cosa sara Inprmmao efka del ricco, che pone nwhb ejn nwb oro sopra oro Vv mV A . opre: santw rsébe sino a che arrugginisca? ‘Be kindly disposed to the poor, because he is not happy’’: so runs Prof. Rossi’s version of the above text. There is not a particle of sense in it, in reference to the context, and no justification for it from the Coptic words. The words mean: ‘Cif there is a charge (a cause of blame) against the poor man, that he has not been merciful”, eSje wn arike ephéke, ‘‘in that case, eie, what shall befall the rich &c.’’ If the poor is blameworthy for not having shown mercy, what will befall the rich? The word arike, airia, péuyis, &c., is a common Coptic word; but instead of this the editor has had recourse, in his helplessness, to the imperative particle a, prefixed in a quite unwarrantable way to the root rike, “to bend’, which had to be twisted to mean ‘‘be kind to”; and then the word naét, ‘‘ merciful’, had to be rendered ‘‘ happy”, in order to make a suitable maxim: ‘“be thou kind to the poor, because he is not happy” (!!). Atrkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Tests. 49 60. With the third Text in this Fasciculus I do not propose to deal in detail, but shall give one specimen of his text. It occurs in his 5th Fragment [70, 13]: seo? gar fiblle fici neplanos etmmau fithe etfmwwt Mmow fici psatanas. Saujihbr (?) gar hés aggelos Tite pwoein Santfexapta Mphét fnibalhét nete witau mMmau mpeuhét efo’ Téne. Of the whole of this passage he does not translate a single word, and the reason plainly is found in his confessed ignorance of Saujihbr. There are other mistakes of reading in his text, but that word was the bugbear. It is just the inversion of letters, of which we have already had an example above; just as obr should have been orb, so here hbr should have been hrb, ‘‘forma’’, ‘‘shape’”’. Then we have to read not Sau, but saf, which his papyrus assuredly has, and and thus we get Safjihrb, ‘‘he assumes a form”, for it is nothing but the peracyynparileror of 2 Cor. xi. 14. The version is quite plain: ‘‘ for blind are those erring ones, like those whom Satan slays [nthe nnet...]; for he is wont to assume a form as an angel of light, till he deceives [reading exapata, of course, efarara-| the heart of the simple, whose hearts are of stone’’. IAW: The third Fasciculus (1885) contains three texts: part of the life of the anchorite Aphow; incidents bearing on the story of Eudoxia, especially the vision enjoining on her to seek Christ’s tomb; and a portion of a panegyric on John the Baptist. As to the first, M. Revillout is again the occasion of heart-searchings to Prof. Rossi, for what he deems the unsatisfactory edition of the French Savant: ‘‘so numerous are the alterations of the text, that I have felt bound, in the interest of science, to republish it in its integrity, &c.”, Pref. p. 3. I should never complete my task were I to set down all the errors that deform Prof. Rossi’s version; the tenses are translated in the vague way that Egyptologists have familiarized us with: noi non osiamo, for ‘‘ we have not been able to dare” [8 y 19]; onde to ne fui molto affitto, for ‘so that they were greatly grieved” [9 y 21]; the omission altogether of the words auo mpe kelaau Ssaje [10a 25], R.I.A. PROC, SER. III., VOL. III. E 50 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. though he reproves M. Revillout for reading something else, &c. These minor offences must be left unscheduled, though it is not without interest to see how the desire to ‘‘ better’? M. Revillout’s text seems at times to have distracted Prof. Rossi’s attention from the consideration of his own; e. gr. 61. [118 7]: woeik ea pkah tauof ebol aud eutéc Mmof un pane che la terra ha prodotto é cotto hn whase a stento. Here he is careful to say that the words au6é eutéec ‘are wanting in Revillout’s transcription”’, but he is not careful of his own version : ‘Ca loaf, which the earth has produced and cooked with effort”. The earth had not cooked it, anyhow; the words are not so vague: they mean, ‘‘the earth has brought it forth, and (men) do cook it,’’ eutoc mmof, as plainly as any language could state it. 62. [14y 16]: ‘* As the Saviour said to the apostles”’, etetntn (sic) kettéuth convertitevi fitetirthe iiniséresém e fate come % fanciulli. It never apparently occurred to him to look for the words which our Saviour did make use of, and so he rendered ‘‘ be ye converted, and do as the children”, contenting himself with a (szc) after the word tn. But even so, how he extracted an zmperative out of the prefix etetn, I cannot imagine. The tn was wrong: it should have been tm, the negative, giving the perfectly regular Coptic word,. ‘af ye be not converted, and become as little children’”’, Matth. XVill. 3. 63. And now we get an example of another order of error, which divides the words of the text wrongly [17 8 15]: ektmbolt ebol Ipanas fitakmort nhétf tieire mmok ae V oe Y . lismso (sic) eptoh mtérf nnekhristianos se tu non sciogli me dal giuramento, con cui mi hai legato, io ti faccio stranvero affatto al movimento det Cristiani §e. ‘¢Tf thou free me not from the oath with which thou hast bound me, - Arkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Terts. 51 I make thee altogether stranger to the movement of the Christians here and hereafter”. But mtérf does not mean affatto, ‘‘entirely”’, nor anything else: affatto would be eptérf, and even so, it would be out of place. And the word rendered movimento has no right of existence here either, for it is not toh, but tohm; what the text said was ptohm térf, ‘‘ the whole convocation of Christians”? ! Shortly after he omits from his version half a column of con- siderable interest. He translates [19 8 4]: ‘‘no woman dared to present herself to him for matrimony, who had ornaments of gold”’. Why a woman should be hindered from adorning herself with her finery when she was going to be married does not appear. Had the good bishop no disturbances in his diocese that he should promulgate such an edict? And besides, what says the Scripture? Cf. Jerem. ii. 82, mé wn wseleet nar pobs mpekosmos etaaf eros. The word used is ji, ‘‘ to take”, and does not refer to marriage, but to taking the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, as in line 15; and the edict prescribed that the deacons should not allow [829] the women in to the sacrament unless they were modestly attired, ‘‘ viz. covering their face and hands, their garments not to be of purple of the wool-dyer, or their xpwua resplendent, and themselves Aapzpov”’, all of which Prof. Rossi has left out, though he is careful to blame M. Revillout for reading Aapzpos instead of Aapzpov ! 64. In the second Text we come upon the following: The King Diocletian said to him, Brother Constantine, king of justice, pardon me, for thou hast spoken with me many times in secret, saying [23 y 21]: sahék ebol titeiddlon guardati dagli idoli Mmon pnwte e non dal Dio nnekhristianos dei Cristiani [majanekhe timok an fiteihe Sabol Of what service could it have been to say: ‘‘ keep thyself from idols, and not from the God of the Christians’? ? And what has become of all the rest of the clause? He has utterly emptied the passage of all meaning; mmon does not mean, ‘‘and not”; it means, ‘‘zfnot’’, ei d¢ wy; and the passage should have stood thus: ‘“‘ keep thyself from idols; if not, the God of the Christians will not tolerate thee in this way for ever’’. 52 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 65. Here again we have the old ignorance of the right word where his text was obviously faulty. At [34y10] is a passage which he has rendered: ‘‘we ordain that every man should carry the rubbish of his house towards the place of this Nazarene’’. That is mere guessing, for his text, as he has edited and emended it, shows that no light had dawned upon him as to its real construction. This is his text [34y 10]: réme nim etnanejntn(?) mpeféi eb[olh]ii netnji elaau fitopos fisa ptopos Mpinaxéraios. Here there are three egregious errors; for netnji has no meaning of any kind, ebolhn is quite impossible, and etnanejntn could not even be tortured into a semblance of meaning. It was not ntn, but eitn, ‘‘dung’’, ‘‘ who shall fling the dung of his house ouwt”’, ebol; and then the n should have been prefixed to the next word : nnetnji, ‘‘ye shall not take (it anywhere else than, &c.)”’, Le. not but, etnanejnth Mpeféi ebolhn netnji etnanej eith Mpeféi ebol, finetn ji, &c. 66. What can be the reason for his rendering euhék, ‘‘shaved”’, instead of ‘‘ girt” [86a 16], ‘‘eunuchs according to their custom shaved and ready to execute orders’? ? Or the sense of conjecturing dlm [386 y 13], and translating, ‘‘he embraced her” ? There is no ‘such verb as 61m ehwn; it was 61 ehwn, ‘‘he brought her in”’. And why does he put sze at the word nesiwr [35y 18] and trans- late ‘‘ her eunuchs’’, when the text had, quite rightly, “‘ the eunuchs and the virgins’? And where is the justification for publishing the following translation of the text given at [39a 20]: tenw ce town and now arise nteanakhorei ne and retire ehwn epwtamion into thy chamber je aff nau [? and perform] Tinwsynaxis thy cuvaters (communions) fito mii nwsbrparthenos thou and thy fellow-virgins. Now, here there was very good ground for putting a(?) after the words aff nau, which certainly are not of obvious meaning. But he has slurred over the whole passage thus: ‘‘ now then arise and go to thy business with thy damsels”’, va alle tue faccende colle tue donzelle (!) Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 53 67. In continuation of this passage, he makes another impossible emendation [39a z]: “‘T shall assemble all the magnates and bid them etreus(o |te favorire (?) quelli fnetnéu nimme che andranno con te.”’ What sote may be presumed to mean, I cannot guess, and indeed favorire was not clear to himself, as he puts his (?) after it. The word that should have been conjectured was sobte, ‘‘to prepare”: *¢T shall bid the magnates prepare those who are going with thee’’. 68. His version of the lines beginning at [42a 33] runs thus: “oh ye chief among the Jews, ye whose blindness is not measurable, and ye counsel the world to remain blind. And so it was necessary for me to take them away from your guidance, because ye are fools”. I do not quite understand what he intended to mean by this ‘“‘version ”’, but it is plain that he thinks it is the true meaning, for he says in his note: ‘in the rendering of this passage I have adhered rather to the sense [than to the words ]”’. Very well; we shall see. The passage runs thus: ® noe iiiwdai 0 grand fra i Giudet nai ete Mpsrastw voi, la cur cecita ici teumiitblle non € misurabile, alla tetijisojne é consiglate etoikwmené il mondo eaas iibile a rimaner cieco. ne [pletesse gar eroi pe Eppero era necessario a me els... e finetiis[aalr entw ebolhn tetnhape di toglerli dalla vostra guida, je fitetn henatsipe poiché siete degli scempi. Here note first the translation of lines 2 and 3: he took rastw to be a neuter verb, meaning, ‘‘to be measurable”. Now rast can be found in the Copt.-Lat. lexicon, with an assigned meaning, com- mensurari, whatever that delightful Latin word may mean; but, how about plural suffix -w? It has nothing to do with ‘‘ measurable ”’; it means “suffice them’’, being the irregular pronominal form of the verb rése, ‘to suffice”; so that the statement was, ‘‘[ye are | persons whose (own) blindness did not suffice them, but ye are taking counsel against the whole world, to make zt blind also”’. So much for the persons addressed. Now for the substance of the address. Eudoxia had summoned the high priests, in order to extract 54 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. information from them as to the position of Christ’s tomb; but Prof. Rossi could not guess even the drift of her speech, because of the lacuna in h .. . e: it was hodke, “to shave, scrape”. Then ape meant simply “‘ head”’, not ‘‘ guidance”. And now the omitted line assumes an intelligible appearance: ‘‘it would have been fitting for me to scrape your skins, to bring them [the hairs] out of your head, because ye are shameless”; cf. No. 114. Prof. Rossi says that the papyrus is here ‘‘so damaged that he cannot guarantee the faithfulness of the transcription’’; but it is still clear enough even in his text to exhibit with tolerable certainty the drift of Eudoxia’s address, which obviously is not expressed in the words: ‘‘¢ was necessary for me to take them away from your guidance” (11) In the third Text the vagueness or absence of translation is just as frequently felt. Here e. gr. in a single page of translation are five objections which cannot be set aside lightly :— 69. He speaks of John the Baptist as appearing at the Second Coming of Christ, ‘‘asa forerunner [wn foriere| sanctifying thy way”’; now as the text has [63a 27]: fithe fiwmitatér eftbbo ftehié, one would have expected a note showing whence he obtained forvere as arendering for mitator? It seems much more likely to be the Latin metator, Tertullian’s ‘‘ metator initii et finis’’. But passing this, which is of minor consequence, what are we to say of a translation like the following: ‘‘He will be clad in vestments and stoles which the angels will adorn with great joy’’? There is not a word about the angels adorning the stoles in the Coptic text [63823]: feoole tenw nndyma mn nestolé mn naggelos efstolize hn wnoc nraSe, ‘he is clad now with the évdvpara and the oroXai of the angels, while he is adorning himself with great joy”. His text has no meaning as it stands, for the mn before naggelos is impossible: delete the m and prefix the n, nnaggelos, ‘‘of the angels”; and then efstolize has its due force, ‘‘he 7s dressing’’, not ‘‘ they will adorn”’. Or, what is gained by rendering, ‘‘the souls of sinners made reluctant by the pains inflicted to reassume their bodies”, [63 y 9] where the text says: euanaspa mmow hn nkolasis etaau ehwn eneusoma, ‘‘ which are dragged [ dvac7aw] with tortures leona to put chem! into their bodies”’. Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 55 His version on p. 105 is very unsatisfactory, but I cannot go through the whole. He seems to have no ‘‘feeling” for the exigencies of the sense, and often divides the sentences quite at random. Thus he gives: ‘We did not yesterday pass in silence the honour of the greatest prophet and martyr John the Baptist. But the birthday of a perse- cutor or rather of an executioner, know ye my dear brethren, that a little bitter damages a perfect honey. But this bitter &c.’? What could have induced him to construct that second sentence? ‘‘ We were not silent about the honouring of John, but about the birthday of Herod. Ye know that a little bitter &c., but this bitter &c.’’. Then, in the next clause, he runs two sentences into one (after KatopOwpa, per gli atti suot di virtu nel modo col quale &c.), which are not thus closely connected in the text. The whole of the text in 66 y 13-26 is passed over without any attempt at version or explanation; and even where the translation is resumed, the reader could not guess from it the drift of the text. Thus he gives: Quest partecipa del nuovo, e partecipa dell’ antico, where the Coptic has [67a 16] aftahe tkainé, aftahe tpalaia, where the point is the conjunction of the Old and New Testaments, kawvy and waAdaa, in the prophecy concerning John the Baptist, Malachi iii. 1 and Matth. xi. 10 idod éym dmooré\dw Tov ayyeAdv pov &e. 70. Then compare text and translation here [640 z]: ere wnoc nklauthmos sara un grande efoS Soop abondante pianto, Impe won Sdpe fitefhe me cessera jintau sér ebol Jinché non sia divelto fiisnte ntoikwmené dalle fondamenta il mondo. One wonders at the ingenuity of the perversion: sinners indulging in a vast weeping, ‘‘ which well not cease till the world has been toin from the foundations”! Was it to cease then ? The Coptic writer was not so instructed, and his text says nothing of the sort: mpe is not future, but past; jintau does not mean “till”, but ‘‘ since”; and won ntefhe has a very definite meaning, ‘anything of the kind”, so that what the writer said was: ‘‘a vast ““weeping, the like of which was never from the time that the foundations of the earth were laid.’”? The verb sor ebol means to “stretch out”; cf. Num. 11.34 neusdr ebol pe nteihe, “they encamped in this way’, otrw mapeveBarov; Job xxxyill. 5 nim 56 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. pentafsr whoseb ejof, ‘who stretched a line upon it”’, 6 érayayov omaptiov; Proy.xxix.5 efnasorf enefweréte mmin mmof, ‘‘he spreads it (the net) for his own feet”, repuBaddre aito; 2 Reg. vi. 19 Siepepioe; Ps. xxvil. 38 wapardgéyrar Ke. His mistake arose from his utter misconception of the function of the n after ebol,—the mystery of the connexive particle after the absolute form sor. 71. Probably the Professors of natural history will be interested in the following piece of information furnished by the translation of the text at [71 az], in speaking of the camel, viz.: fsatb fiteftrophée sceglie il suo nutrimento fithe fntbnowe térw come tuttr gli animali etwaab puri. ‘*The camel selects its nourishment like all pure animals”! Here the verb is satb, which I suppose the editor to have taken to be a form of sotp, ‘‘to choose”: what form, I cannot imagine. But as there is a verb satbe, ‘‘to chew the end,” it does not need to be argued that this was what the Copt intended, cf. Lev. xi. 3; Deut. Xiva 62 72. The whole of this page, 107, is very badly done. There are, indeed, a few lacunae in the papyrus, but the translation is much worse than the state of the original justifies or makes pardonable. He begins the next clause thus [71 8 8]: Le privaziont adunque, che il profeta Giovanni si impose, furono fatte per timore dell’ appoggio dev demonz, che distrugge la purita. In order to get this he has to read: nfoce wn nta I. ta...u hioof, rendered ‘‘the privations which he im- posed upon himself”. But the text says nothing whatever of foce, ‘‘privations”, for 1°, foce does not mean ‘‘ privations’’, and 2°, it is not foce! The writer was talking of John’s camel-hair garments, and the nf£6 was the dependent genitive on the hbs6 of the preceding lacuna, ‘‘a garment of hair”, the ce being a particle (= Oy, em, toivwy &e.), which immediately follows; so that the words meant, “the hair garments which John put on him, taau hioof. 73. The next words are quite wrong also, for the text has ausope euhote mpestereOma nndaimon, cannot mean ‘ they were made through fear of the support of the demons’’, but ‘‘ they became a terror of the orepéwua of the demons”. And the words following in the Arkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptice Texts. 57 next line do not mean ‘‘ he was purified in his holy flesh”, but “ they (the garments) were purified by his holy flesh”. And directly after, the words meusont ehtés do not mean “nor is respect paid to it”’ (such a garment), né st inchina ad essa. I am quite at a loss to read this back znto the text, for SOnt means ‘“‘to weave”, and hté-s means ‘‘its tp’’, and I shall leave the explanation of that riddle to the author! 74, And just after, we get the words [y 8] meur Sa’ nhéts hn wmnutlampros translated by né sz sente compassione di essa nello splendore. Utterly wide of the mark; and how obtained? It is hardly credible, but Prof. Rossi must absolutely have taken the word to be Sanhtéf, ‘‘compassionate”’, and so renders, ‘‘ one does not feel compassion for it”, for the camel’s-hair garment (!). And that by an inconceivable congeries of impossibilities. First, Sanhtéf, is the adjective, whereas the verb is Senhtéf, cf. Ps. lxxvi. 10, masava 2 lav 1; Prov. xxi., 26; Jerem. xii. 14; Mic. vit. 19; but this is a small matter. For how could it be = Sanhéts? how could it be hét? or-s? or Sa’ n with the comma? or rsa’ n, with the auxiliary r? And what sense is extracted from it, with all these infractions of Coptic structure ? The words should have been meursa nhéts, ‘‘they do not celebrate festivities in vt,”’ in such a dress. 75. The succeeding lines are, if possible, worse, and the conjectures void of insight into the meaning or knowledge of the language. It is impossible to correct everything; I should require a book. The last line of the column ends with this conjecture: peprophetés etwaab [aau Jeidéds ebol je, &c. But the editor, though he makes the conjecture aau, has no idea of its meaning, for he does not translate it. The words should have been Daueid 6S, and mean, ‘‘ the holy prophet David cried out’, the quotation (which the editor knows nothing of) being Ps. xxxiv. 13. 76. The page following [72 y] is omitted in the translation, with a note stating that the text is obscure, and ‘‘a literal translation of it does not appear to be possible” &c. But the very words of his note show that he had not grasped the conditions of the problem, for he speaks of ‘‘the words of St. Peter, who said: arm yourselves with the thought of death’, and then his note ends with this quotation: hook mmotn hm pimeeue, ending with a full stop! But his own text [73 a 7] had the real words, which are of course the correct and literal version of 1 Pet. iv. 1, all of which he has ignored in his. version. 58 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 77. The construction of adjectives is just as little understood, for he gives [73 B 1]: Naggelos mpnwte gli angeli di Dio, henatmw ne([tje mér che non sono mortali, st legano nhenmojh nattako con cingoli incorruttibilr. The emendation shows that his construction of the clause is quite faulty: henatmw is the predicative form before the copula ne, which is assuredly not to be emended into nete, but the final e is for semér, ‘‘they are bound’’. To edit nete mér is to make the sentence incapable of being analysed. 78. It is quite a misapprehension to speak of the locusts eaten by John the Baptist in these terms, ‘‘nor are they more tender than flesh”’, for the words are [74a 23] nwtrypheron an pe nte tsarx, l.e., ‘‘nor are they a tpudepov of the flesh”: eating locusts is not a gratification of bodily lust of eating. But indeed the whole passage, with its ‘‘application” of the meaning of the wild honey &c., is a failure, which will have to be re-edited and properly translated. The concluding paragraph, p. 108, 16, ¢ marz tutt? si commossero, le lingue tutte parlarono contro &c., is unsatisfactory, and the last section, ‘“‘they bowed down their heads, like the beasts, because they feared Herod”, is yet worse, for that is not the construction of rhote, ‘“‘to fear”, and ‘‘ King Herod’”’ belongs to the next clause ! 79. The following passage he has omitted with ...... as being too difficult [79 y 17]: taas epgazéphylakion finhéke je ere wna tahok mil wrpmeeue Rwoeis nim Mmpmto ebol Mpnwte; tipw (?) hnsomnt mparis[...]n mpekhwmise fnetreroh [....Jere wtaeio Sépe nak. The (?) after tipw is the usual confession of ignorance of Coptic structure, and has brought about the omission of any translation of the whole passage. Yet it ought not to have been such an unsur- mountable object to an Egyptologist, for it is simply the Coptic form of the fraction to express ‘‘ the one-third” ! p-wn nsomnt, ‘the third”. [The fact is that the abs. won is rarely used in the Bible, where itis generally found in the construct form wi, though wne is used too; ef. Lev. xiv. 21 wne mét = ‘‘one-tenth”; Lev. xxvii. 15 pwén(!) tiw, ‘one-fifth ”; Lev. xxvi. 19 p-wen ntiw; Ezek. Arkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 59 vy. 2 wn nitow, ‘‘one-fourth”; Zech. xiii. 8 p-wne Somnt, (2 Reg. xviii. 2), but pwn nsomnt, Zech. xiii.9.] Then the ae lation would be as follows : ‘“ sive the one-third of the dprorov of thy birthday to those who are in need, so that (je) there shall be an honour to thee.” Even the logic one fancies would have forced on his notice the translation that was to be sought for in the words! Yet he stops short just at the point where the passage becomes interesting :— ‘“‘The King said to her: ‘ask me what thou wilt, and I shall give it to thee, even to the half of my kingdom’. Oh foolish Herod, wilt thou covenant to give the half of thy kingdom to a dancing girl? Give it to the treasury of the poor, and mercy and remembrance shall attend thee ever from God; [ why, even] give the third of thy berthday banquet to the needy, and it shall be to thee an honour!” Everywhere the rhetorical contrasts suggesting the meaning, every- where the words of the writer as plain as a language of pellucid structure can make them ; but Prof. Rossi has neither understood the words, nor felt the contrasts, but has let fall over the passage the asterisk-dotted Veil of Isis. V. The fourth Fasciculus (1886) contains two Texts, the life of St. Hilarion, and the martyrdom of St. Ignatius; the former a Coptic version of St. Jerome’s ‘‘ Vita 8. Hilarionis”’, but, as Peyron says, ““a graeca versione Sophronii’”’. The Coptic text has an excellent clue to its reconstruction in the Latin Vita, so that there was not needed much ingenuity in ascertaining the meaning. But the editor’s knowledge of the vocabulary of Coptic is here too exhibited in an un- favourable light. Ihave not thought it worth while to go minutely through the text, but there cannot be any doubt that much is wrong, even with all helps, and that the Latin is really the source of portions of the translation which the Coptic text does not warrant. What makes the matter worse is that Prof. Rossi announces in his Preface his intention to exhibit to the reader of his translation the differences of the Coptic and the Latin original, by printing in tales the parts he has supplied from the Latin Life. But in reality that is not properly done, nor anything like it; for the version, p. 83 foot, has a long passage in ¢talics, which is largely found in the Coptic text 60 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. [26 y], and the first page of his version, p. 77, gives at least a dozen phrases or clauses which are zot in the Coptic text. 80. The very first lines of this Coptic text are given wrongly, and without note or (?), and the translation is neither from the Latin nor the Coptic: ‘ecco un demone in forma d’uomo saltargli sul dorso, e percuotendo &c.”’ I do not know whence he has this ‘ demon in human shape’, for the Latin has: insiliit dorso ejus festinus gladiator, and the Coptic text, which is quite unintelligible as he has given it, reads thus: afomkf ehrai he leapt [ecco saltargli } ejii tefjise on his back [sul dorso]. n.ei wemiskhos = # ......... What is to be made of the last line? It is clear that the Editor had no notion whatever, but there is no warning given of difficulty either in text or translation. The Coptic was probably nthe Nw-yv.oxos ‘‘like a driver, he leapt on his back, dug his heels into his flanks, and struck his head.” 81. On the same page [7 y foot], his text gave him a word Sof, concerning which he has composed a note as follows: ‘‘the words tcowne de ethiodf mpfsofs eneh (&c.) are the literal transla- tion of St. Jerome’s saccumque semel fuerat imdutus, nunquam lavans (&c.)”; a note leading to his observation: ‘‘as an instance of words with a new meaning I note specially the root sof, which in the dictionaries of Peyron and others is rendered destruere, desolare, and in our text evidently means Javare”’. But that is reducing the Coptic text to the position of a mere word-for-word rendering, which it is not. And if it comes to dictionaries, we find mutare also given as the meaning of Sof, and that meaning is quite close enough here: ‘‘he did not change his sackcloth”; so that the ‘‘new meaning”’ asserted is certainly not proved by this quotation. 82. At[9a18], the translation exhibits the same vagueness, for there is no attempt to interpret cOj nfsahpf, though it is evidently the Copt’s explanation of Jerome’s sorditiunculae; cf. Ezek. xxxiv. 3 els perote atetnsahpf, ido ro yddAa karéoOeTe. Arkinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Ooptice Texts. 61 83. Neither will the following text and translation bear analysis [9 a 25] :— tai ce te the questo fu Vordine di vita fitafjek [tt]axis e[bol che egli segut Bem Moser! So ee Pee ae The last line is not translated, and as he has emended it, is untrans- lateable, for most assuredly it does not mean, “‘ the order of life which he followed”: pefbios is not dependent on taxis, and $i has no meaning at all! 84. And what objection does he find in the phrase seos an, [12a 32], that he should append hereto his query? Did he doubt that oS was the present stem of aSai, ‘‘to become numerous’’, and that seoS an means ‘they are not numerous’? 85. And here also [17 y 4] he has misconceived the original and slurred over the difficulties of his own text : tote petmmau : mentre queglt afés ebol gridava afork é scongiurava, AM pPermaae mE NO ONS bo Migs. afhiwe epkah battendo la terra ntefape col capo. But mpefmakh means “his neck’? and may not be omitted, so that it is evident that his scongiuwrava cannot stand: the word was rike, ‘“‘to bend”, and not ork ‘‘to swear’. The Latin original plainly says: ‘‘cumque ille ejularet, et reflexa cervice terram vertice tangeret”’. And whence does he get his ‘‘clamore veniente da lungi”’, as a version of néu ebol, [18a2]? 86. Again, [22 6 12]: esmwte chiamando Mpran mpséresém il nome del giovanetto, esworp ebol = — ...... Mmpnmoc mwos : yo |) ks ele es mii pme Mpsére Sém ...... Iitafei ehwn che venisse a lei. The last line cannot be thus translated; it means ‘‘ which has entered’’. The omitted words explain it clearly: ‘‘uttering the great desire and the love of the youth which had entered her [heart]”. The Latin might have been suggestive: magnitudo quippe amoris se in furorem verterat. 62 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 87. On the next page we have a most comical perversion of the original, set down without any note of doubt or hesitancy. The version is given thus: ‘‘said the demon, why should I enter into him, who is already possessed by another demon of the love called Poligamo”’ ? So Prof. Rossi: ‘‘ the love called Polygamous”’. What is his text ? (kedaimon) ete pme pe eumwte erof je golégamos (sic). ‘Canother demon, viz. Love, whom they call golégamos”. The last word is not intelligible as it stands, of course, so Prof. Rossi has emended it, into roAvyapos. The writers on Folk-lore might add to their stock of vocables the name of a new demon, Polygamous, then ? But,—there is the Latin original to be reckoned with; and it has: ut quid entrarem in eum, qui habebat COLLEGAM MEUM amoris daemonem ? so that the mysterious golégamos, was no doubt a Copticised collega meus, and therewith the Polygamous demon is exorcised ! 88. And why has he left the text so, at [25 y foot], ntehieiabe Mme, seeing that it is plainly intended to mean, ‘‘the Lamb of Truth ’’, being said of our Lord, te-hiaeibe. 89. An entire column of his text, [267 20] to [27a 30], is simply paraphrased from the Latin, and the translation printed in italics, as if the Coptic text were wanting ! 90. At [28y4] is another half-column of Coptic text which is slurred over with serious omissions. The whole point of the passage was the omitted reference to pswntowe [28 y18] ‘‘the morning- star”, Lucifer, Venus, whom they worshipped, and the translation given fails to convey the slightest idea of either mpe saein sdpe uteihe [y12], or of aslampeue ebol epehwo! 91. Again, he has given quite a wrong turn to the text at [30 6 foot]: nefmoste nmmonakhos detestava % monaci, etroeis che avevano sollecitudine enetSoop nau per le cose che potevano loro accadere. But that is not the meaning: ‘‘ who were anxious concerning the evils which might befal them”, is certainly not the idea of the Coptic text, Arxinson—On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Terts. 63 which means, ‘‘ who were anxious about the property they had’’, to represent the Latin: in futurum reservarent sua. 92. Nor is it possible to extract his translation out of the text given at [32 y 3]: se non fosse questa cosa inutile, to verred con te, where the Copt writes: nerewéu gar hm phob pe aud esje neinael nmme pe. 93. Again, at [34 y 29] the text says, ‘‘ (he came to a little city called) Aphroditon, that is to say Petpéh”; but Prof. Rossi has left out this native name, which is the Coptic abridgment of the Egyptian name pa neb tep ahe, p-etpeh, which the Arabs read affih, cf. ‘‘ Piankhi- Meriamen”’ (p. 5, note", De Rougé). a 94. So again [35a 5], his text has: afmisthw nse neamwl nse hbes ete ndromas ne, but the version only says, ‘‘he hired 100 dromedaries’’. Now one would have liked to know what he got out of the Coptic words, ‘‘camwl nSe hbes, that 1s to say, dpouas” ? I do not think the words nse hbes bear a meaning: at least I do not know any; it is not impossible that the papyrus has nsetbes, “camels of head-binding”’, ‘‘haltered camels’. In any case, this word should not have been slurred over without notice. 95. Or, compare the text and translation at [36a 10], in describ- ing the caves in the rock into which Father Antony was wont to retire to avoid the crowds of visitors: Vv Vv . eausetsotw erano scavate nella roccia eaukotw an € non si entrava eimétei en ro mmate che per una sola porta. “caves cut out in the rock, and into which one entered only by one door”. How many doors does one usually enter a place by, might reasonably be asked; but I want to know, where is the one door in the Coptic? Did Prof. Rossi take the en before ro to be éy ?? But if language can say things clearly, it is the statement made, that “they did not build them except the doors only’?! There is no non st entrava, and the word en ro must be e-nro, ‘‘the doors’’. The Latin states distinctly: verum he in vivo excise saxo, ostda tantum addita habebant. The next text is that of the martyrdom of St. Ignatius. Now, as according to Prof. Rossi, p. 94, note(*), ‘‘ with the exception of this (our Coptic text), all the other texts ..... have been published in [ Lightfoot’s] Apostolic Fathers’’, it is natural to add, as he does, that his publication ‘‘ will serve to fill up the gap left by that illustrious scholar”. Certainly, if it had been well done; but itis not. For he 64 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. has gone wrong in many passages in this small text, in spite of having the Greek text to guide him! Not only so; but though Lightfoot’s text has the Biblical quotations in a different type of Greek, so as to show that they are quotations, Prof. Rossi has ignored that also, and made the wildest attempts at translation. 96. What could be plainer than the Coptic [53 y 7]: ko nsdk nteignomé, “forsake this yvwun’’, which he has rendered, ‘‘ obey my order”, in spite of the Coptic text and the Greek text pera- TiUépevos THS yvepns Tavrys ? 97. And just below, he translates thus: ‘‘it is not fitting em order to obtain favours, te hurt the soul”, though his text is [53 y 17]: Dwpetesse an pe eti henkharis eunablaptei nwpsykhé, 1e., ‘it is not fitting to give favours which will hurt the soul’’, corresponding fairly with the Greek, xdpitas det mapéyev Tas py Brarrovoas Wox7v. 98. Even in the omissions, where one might have felt inclined to overlook a few slips as the result of mere inadvertence, he contrives to deprive himself of all ‘‘ benefit of clergy”, by some unlucky note or comment in his text, e. gr. [54a 5]: Zeus pai, questo Giove, ~—Y? e 5 . . etksaje erof di cui tu parli, fitisown an je 40 non conosco ww (sic) Mmine pe Here, if it had not been for that dreadful (sic), one might have forgiven the omission; but the (szc) shows that he had no idea of the text, which is absolutely correct, for the first w is the indef. art., and the second w is the interrogative adj., so that w.m-mine means ‘‘of what kind”, z.e., w w.m-mine, ‘(I do not know) that he is @ person of what kind”, ‘‘this Jove, I know not what manner of being he is”: a quite normal and familiar construction. 99. The translation continues thus: ‘‘ed il regno del mondo non desidero ; imperocche qual utile avret? Se wo cercassi ? utile in questo mondo, perderer la mia anima’’, “Tf I sought the useful in this world, I should lose my soul’’. I need not point out that such is not the thought expressed in the Bible; but neither is it possible to extract it from the Coptic, which has simply, ‘if I should gain the whole world”, eisantihéu mpkosmos térf [54a 16]. Arxinson— On Prof. Rossi’s South-Coptic Texts. 65 100. And his last clause is wrong also [54a 19], for he has con- jectured nta[tak]e ntapsykhé, which is utterly impossible, as take is the proclitic form: the word was, of course, tiose, ‘‘to lose, be mulcted in”, and has nothing to say to tako, ‘‘to destroy”’. 101. As on a previous passage, we find the word hodoke wrongly rendered, at [57 8 27]: héé6ke iinefspirowe cingetegli i fianchi hn heneieib mpenipe di cingoli di ferro. But what could be the appropriateness of such an order as this: “gird his flanks with girdles of iron, and cast salt on his wounds’? ? The words mean: ‘‘ scrape his sides with hoofs [hooks] of iron &c.”’, answering to the Greek, rots ovvés tas wAevpas airov Kataéavare. 102. At [58a 5] we have a passage concerning which we are left in complete darkness. Here Prof. Rossi has simply ‘‘ borrowed”’ the Greek in his translation : ‘‘ (are we to sacrifice) to the infernal Pluto’ ? The Greek text, xoviw TAovrww, is here calmly inserted, without any indication in the version that the Coptic words were, to him, an unknown quantity: nna ton euspet (?) [ep]esét m[pk]lah. That is the state in which he has left his text, though he had the Greek to give him the clue: he has simply set forth the letters with an appended (?). The exact shape of his printed text is as follows, with the correction : nia é m At ton euspet (?) dwveus [epjesét m i p-et-hipeset m [pk jah pkah. i.e. the text was: b) 7 D-atdwvevs p-ethipesét mpkah, ‘for to Aidoneus [ Pluto] who ts under the earth = 060s. Of this identity, Prof. Rossi had not the remotest idea ! 103. Again, he translates at [58 6 28]: nsnaanekhe an eteh non confondera mai tme mii peol la verita colla menzogna. Just so; because the Greek has od ovyxpiver TH dAnOeia Td Weddos. But his mai, ‘never’ [cf. 66a 2], shows that he did not under- stand it: he read eneh, ‘for ever’’, whereas it is e-teh, ‘‘to mix’’, in the proclitic form: ‘it will not tolerate (dvéexev) to mix the truth with the lie”’. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. F 66 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 104. The Greek text in fact occasionally helps him to go astray, so that I am inclined to think that his use of Lightfoot’s name is no guarantee that he thought it worth while to keep by his side the learned prelate’s book. The following will illustrate this [60 8 4]: anon de autinomos nan a noi é fatta legge etmka neipharmagos di non prendere farmaci . ednh per la vita é refmwte o da incantatori, 0 &e. One can fancy the horror of Bp. Lightfoot at reading such a trans- lation: ‘‘it is made a law to us not to take medicines for (our) life either from incantators or from diviners”! The text says nothing of the sort; it says: ‘‘not to allow dappaxoi to live”, exactly as the Greek has: nutv O& vevomobérntar dPappmakovs py eav Cv. Did Prof. Rossi think dappakds was the same as dappaxov ? 105. The editor continues with his ignorance of Coptic verb- government, just as in the first Fasciculus. At [61 y 4] we have: fifnatihéu laau an a nulla riesce, eimétei etreuhe erof ma cade per avere as — . efmise mi pnwte combattuto contro Dio. It is the old blunder of rendering he, ‘‘ to fall’’, whereas it is he ‘‘ to find’, and the words mean: ‘‘he will gain nothing except to let them (folk) find him [= to be found] fighting with God”’, otdév rA€ov aitd brdpgée 7) TO Oeopaxov Hunter, W. W., Imp. Gaz., vol. xiii., p. 48. 6 Hunter, W. W., Imp. Gaz., sub voce Amherst 7 Hunter, W. W., Imp. Gaz., sub voce Jhajawara in Kathiawar. Batit—On the Volcanoes and Hot Springs of India. 165. At Lasundra, in Kaira, there are six hot springs of various temperatures up to 124° F. The water is believed to be beneficial for skin diseases. The place is held sacred by the Hindus, who assert that Rama performed the funeral ceremonies of his father there.! So far back as the time of Akbar a spring at Parwa, in Kashmir, was described as being one in which lepers were healed by bathing. At Belkapi (No. 173), in Hazaribagh, there is a copious deposit of sodium chloride and sulphate, with indications of iron sulphate, from. a hot spring; cattle are said to be very fond of it.* In the Bakh ravine of the Salt Range of the Punjab, sulphuretted hydrogen bubbles up, and the water, which is covered by a thin film of gypsum, deposits a black tenacious mud used as a dye by the natives for colouring cotton clothes.* In some cases the hot springs are accompanied by outbursts of inflammable gas. Occasionally there are cases too of gas being evolved without the accompaniment of water. At a place, nine and a-half miles from Ka-ma, in the Thayetmyo district of Burmah, there is a curious manifestation known as the ‘‘spirit fire.’’ It is caused by the (reputed) spontaneous ignition of gas stored in the subterranean fissures.° A spring at the N’chongbum stream, in the upper Dehing Basin in Assam, is described by Mr. T. D. La Touche as evolving a considerable amount of gas in conjunction with a small amount of water at a temperature of 89°F. The gas when ignited burnt freely with a flame three or four feet high.® In an interesting Paper by Dr. Waddell, in which he gives an account of the hot springs of Behar, he says that most of them are held in considerable repute by the natives of the neighbourhood as potent remedies, especially for itch, ulcers, and other skin affections. But a most essential part of the process consists in the preliminary worship which must be paid to the presiding deity of the spring. ‘Nearly all of these springs are worshipped by the Hindu and semi-aboriginal villagers in the vicinity; for these strange outbursts of heated water, boiling up cauldron-like and wreathed in clouds of vapour, are regarded by them as supernatural phenomena, and the 1 Hunter, W. W., Imp. Gaz., sub voce Kaira ; and Oldham, No. 145. 2 Ayin Akbari, vol. ii., Gladwin’s ed., 1800, p. 134. 3 Oldham, No. 122. 4 Wynne, A. B., Mem. Geol. Sury. India, vol. xiv., p. 48. > Hunter, W. W., Imp. Gaz., swb voce Thyet Myo. 6 Rec. Geol. Sury. India, vol. xix., p. 112. 166 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. especial expression of the manifestation of a deity. The deity usually worshipped at the springs by the semi-aborigines is Mata or Maz, the mother goddess, one of the forms of Kali, and large melas or fairs are held in her honour. She is especially worshipped by those suffering from itch and other skin diseases ; also by the barren, both male and female, who all bathe in the water and drink some of it. Goats, &c., are sacrificed to her, and the rocks are daubed with vermilion or red lead, and pieces of coloured rags are tied to the nearest bush or tree in her worship. At Tat-loi the mela is held in January, and is attended by over 100,000 persons. At Nun-bil the goddess is called Nun-bil devi, and she is believed to reside in a large sal tree (Shorrea robusta) over the spring ; her mela (or fair) is held in December, and is also attended by about 100,000 persons. The melas at the other springs are less numerously attended. At Jhariya, the Bhuniya ghatwals of Dravidian type, with short frizzly hair, worship with a fowl for sacrifice, and offerings of rice, the spirit of Son-mon Pande, a Brahmin priest who is said to have died there. The more Hinduized worshippers, however, believe that their favourite god, Mahadeva, is present at all these hot springs, and to him they offer worship, except at Sita-kund, where worship of Ram and Sita is performed.” ! The mention in the above extract of the custom among the abori- ginal inhabitants of tying pieces of coloured rags to the bushes will naturally excite the attention of those who are aware of the preva- lence of a similar custom in this country, as is also the case, I believe, in certain other parts of Western Europe. During the past year I was present on an occasion when this, as being a custom practised in Ireland and among Celtic nations generally, was being discussed, and my statement that it was prevalent in India, at least in those parts with which I am most familiar, and which are largely inhabited by the so-called aboriginal races, was received with some surprise. I could not help regretting that I had not given the subject closer investigation, when I had the opportunity, in India. I have, how- ever, frequently noticed rags thus tied to bushes in the regions referred to; and in the Himalayas I have noted near Darjiling the practice of attaching pieces of calico with block-printed prayers in the Tibetan language, on the bushes and planted poles near the temples. This last is perhaps a not wholly analogous practice. The Abbe Dubois? indicates in the following passage that the custom is 1J.A.S. B., vol. lix., 1890, pt. i1., p. 233. 2 «« Manners and Customs of the People of India,’”’ p. 486. Madras, 1879. Batt—On the Volcanoes and Hot Springs of India. 167 practised even by the Hindus of southern India. He says: —‘‘ Among the trees there are some which Hindu superstition has distinguished with particular honours, on account of the good or evil they are capable of producing. Of the mischievous kind there is a prickly shrub, the points of which are poisonous, to avert the effect of which they offer a sacrifice of a particular nature. It consists in sticking rags on its branches, with which it is sometimes wholly covered. Those who have travelled in the southern provinces must have observed many examples of this.” It is impossible from so meagre a description to identify the tree referred to, but I think I have seen rags on the babul (Acacia arabica), a thorny shrub which is common in the neighbourhood of the Grand Trunk-road in Bengal. Where hot springs occur in spots sheltered by rocks or trees it not unfrequently happens that the warm and moist atmosphere of the immediate neighbourhood supports a vegetation unlike that occurring in the surrounding areas. Sir Joseph Hooker thus qeeenbed the effect of some hot springs with a maximum temperature of 116° F., which are situated at an elevation of 16,000 feet above the sea, one mile from the foot of Kinchinjow glacier in Sikkim :—‘‘A few plants make the neighbour- hood of the hot springs a little oasis, and the large Marmot is common, uttering its sharp chirping squeak.’”’ =0, where 2, and g, are roots of the Hessian (ac — b*) 2? + (ad — bc) 2 + (bd - c*) = 0. (1) This quadratic breaks into two factors which, expressed in terms of the roots, give for z, and z, the equations 2 172 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. If the first equation in (2) be written 1 1 =o ( 1 1 2,-B peas 2,—-@Q@ =| we see that geometrically it signifies that 4)’B)’ is equal in length Baitueeas : 2 : C,' Ao’, and is inclined to it at an angle = , or in fact that 4,’B,'C,' is an equilateral triangle. 4,, Z, are therefore the origins round either of which 4 BC inverts into an equilateral triangle. Fig. 2. Again, if we take the segment intercepted on a side of the triangle ABC by the internal and external bisectors of the vertical angle, and on it, as diameter, describe a circle, we have one of the circles of Apollonius, and the three circles thus described have the points 4, Z, as their common points. These circles cut orthogonally the circum- scribing circle of the triangle, and the points 7,, 7, are therefore inverse points with respect to that circle. It is hardly necessary for me to indicate how the points 2, Z are determined from the known equation (1), and in what follows I shall therefore suppose them known in position, and from their positions determine those of the points 4 BC. Solution of the Cubie.—Solving the equations (2), we obtain for the complexes denoting 7, and Z, the values By + you + aBo* By + yao? + aBo | a+ Bw+yo? ° at Burt yo ’ and if we mark on the plane the points 4, Z, defined by these quanti- 2>- RusseLt—The Geometry of the Cubic. 173 ties, and the point G which is the centre of gravity of equal weights placed at the points 4, B, C, then we easily see that = ee By+yawtaBu® (a+ Bo*®+ywo)? m? Ae = a+ Bwo+yu ~B3(atBotyo) 3 yk oe 2 and BG B, 3m’ and if the angle 7,@'Z, be trisected by the lines GJ/, GZ, and mean proportionals inserted, 7.e. G4.GL= GM, GU. GZ,= GL’, then the lengths and directions of ZG and MG will be defined by the quantities 2 eee ne a ene eg We shall see now that if two equilateral triangles be described on Fig. 3. JUL, their vertices will be denoted by two roots of the cubic 8, y. To prove this, it is only necessary to show that ee at+tp+ 26b-—a- (Bape 174 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Now = > EA igi Z—-m ,liwm 2B-a-y _ a 2 — eS GB=GMN+ULe3 = oes Oeics ae and ae a aE 1 l=m Tom oye CUR GM Mie 3) tO ee 3 = 3 The position of the vertex 4 is of course obtained by joining X to G, and producing the joining line so that G.4=2GX. We see, therefore, that the solution of the cubic involves the tri- section of the angle 7,@Z,, and the extraction of the cube root of either of the quantities GZ?. GZ, or GZ,. GZ, where GZ, and GZ, are lengths only. Let us finally apply these results to the cases where the coeffi- cients of the cubic are all real; and firstly let us suppose the roots all real, and therefore the points which are denoted by these situated on axis of In this case the circles of Apollonius have two common points, which are reflexions of each other with respect to that axis; and therefore as in the general case an angle has to be trisected, and the cube root of a number extracted. Secondly, when two roots are imaginaries of the form p +,/—14. it is easy to see that the points common to the circles of Apollonius lie on the axis of x, and therefore the angle to be trisected is either 0 or z. In other words, the solution of a cubic of this class differs from a quadratic only in the extraction of a cube root. X. REMARKS ON CERTAIN PASSAGES IN CAPT. CUELLAR’S NARRATIVE OF HIS ADVENTURES IN IRELAND AFTER THE WRECK OF THE SPANISH ARMADA IN 1588-89, FOLLOWED BY A LITERAL TRANSLATION OF THAT NARRATIVE. By PROF. J. P. O'REILLY. [Read Frsruary 27, 1893. ] In a recent series of articles on the ‘‘ Invincible Armada,” by Mr. Froude, which appeared in Longman’s Magazine, he cites, amongst other authorities, the remarkable work of the Spanish naval captain, Cesareo Fernandez Duro, ‘‘ La Armada Invincible,’’ which gives a lucid account of that extraordinary expedition, based upon original documents, copies of which form the essential and more promi- nent portions of Duro’s work. In the first volume this author gives an admirable summary of the main events of the expedition; the remainder of the first volume and the entire of the second are devoted to the reproduction of the original documents on which the summary is grounded, as also to a list of authors whose works bear on the question. Amongst these original documents is that numbered 184 (p. 337 of vol. i1.), and having for title, ‘‘ Carta de uno que fue en el Armada de Inglaterra y cuenta la Jornada’’ (Letter of one who took part in the English Armada and his account of the affair) by Don Francisco Cuellar. As it is a narrative of what happened to that officer from the time that he was wrecked on the coast of Treland to the date of his arrival in Flanders, and as it gives his experience of the people he met with, and of the country, during his more than six months’ stay in Ireland, I thought that a translation of it might prove interesting to the members of the Academy, and possibly be of some service for the history of Ireland during the period in question, the more particularly as he gives a very precise, if somewhat short, account of the manners and style of living of the inhabitants with whom he came in contact, and which may serve as a 176 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. term of comparison with other and better known accounts of the Irish of the period considered. In order to better understand both the narrative and the bearing of Cuellar’s remarks concerning the inhabitants, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the districts which he traversed or stayed in. Now, whether through design on his part, or through his ignorance of, and indifference as to, the names of the localities which formed the stages of his journeys, it is at first very difficult to make out either where his vessel (the ‘‘San Pedro’’) was wrecked, or from what port he finally escaped to Scotland. Fortunately, other documents cited by Duro throw some light on the first point, that is, the locality where Cuellar’s ship was wrecked. In following up the narrative of what happened to the different ships which were wrecked, Duro furnishes the following details (pp. 120, 121, vol. i.) :— ‘“The vessels which on passing through the Canal of the Orcades (Orkneys) did not succeed in getting as far to the westward as did these (7. e. the ships which reached Santander and the Cantabrian ports), and those vessels which by reason of their defective build did not work well under sail, were all driven on the coast of Ireland. Recalde and Aramburu risked putting into an unknown port, with two other vessels which were there lost, without it being possible to save more than the crew of one of them.’”! ‘‘The Admiral’s ship (Recalde’s), with several others, cast into the coast of Dingle Cush (Dingle-i-Cush) = Dingle (anciently Dangean-ni-Cushey = the castle of Hussey).’’? ‘Three great ships of 900 tons, being the Admiral’s, whose name is John Martines de Ricaldo, ride at anchor betwixt the Fereter’s main island and the shore (Ferreter’s Castle, near Sibyl Head, north of Dingle Bay).’’® ‘* And in the seven ships which lay at Raviskeith on Thomond side, whereof two were lost and one burnt, was the galleon ‘St. John,’ wherein went Martinus de Recaldus, admiral of the whole fleet, who put to sea the same day the Duke aide The ‘‘Jerona” galley was repaired as well as possible, but the 1 Compare State Papers, Ireland, 1588-92, p. 39, vol. exxxvi. 41, i. * Compare State Papers, Ireland, 1588-92, p. 42, vol. cxxxvi. 43, x. 3 Compare State Papers, Ireland, 1589-92, p. 49, vol. exxxvii. 4 Sir R. Bingham to the Lord Deputy, 1588. Sept. 21, Shrowle. O’Rettty—Remarks on Captain Cuellar’s Narrative. 177 heavy weather opened her anew in the canal (between Scotland and Treland), and nine sailors alone of the whole crew escaped. In Lough Foyle a galley with 1100 men was wrecked. Three ships perished in Sligo Haven.! ‘Three vessels cast away at Sligo.” A Guipuzcoan ship was totally lost in Blasket Sound, only one man having been saved. Nine other vessels were lost between Lough Foyle and Lough Swilly without there being anything ascertained as to the localities of the wrecks and the numbers saved. ‘Between the islands of Erith and Ia (island of Faril) of the Hebrides, two vessels went ashore, after having had to contend with the stormy weather up to the end of September. Twice had one of them reached as far as Cabo Clare (Cape Clear), and each time had to put back, with the ship’s sides open, which the crew repaired with cowhides, the pumps not stopping for a moment. Finally they reached a place of anchorage, at which they disembarked, and immediately after- wards the ship sank .. . ‘‘ Having saved their lives from the sea, they lost them by hunger on land.” In the general map of Robert Adams, or Adamo, drawn up in the same year, 1588, 17 wrecks are marked as having taken place on the coast of Ireland. Strype gives the same number, with 4791 men lost. In this list of wrecks only one group of three ships is mentioned, that is the three great galleons mentioned as having been lost in Sligo Bay or Haven (about the 14th or 15th September); this corresponds with the number mentioned by Cuellar. As to the particular locality in Sligo Bay at which the wreck occurred, it would seem to have been on Streedagh Strand, as would appear from the following extracts from Wood-Martin’s “‘ History of Sligo, 1882,” pp. 824-5 :— «Sunset on a September eve saw three huge galleons blundering through the race between Tory Island and the Donegal Coast, units of the Great Armada, which had been scattered to all points of the compass.—Midnight brought the storm; furious squalls in quick succession came up from the Atlantic, a wild, fierce wind sweeps over the dark sea. All through the night they are driven about at 1Compare State Papers, Ireland, 1588-92, p. 41, vol. cxxxvi. 43, iii.: Sir R. Bingham and others to the Lord Deputy, September 15th. 178 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. the mercy of winds and waves; dawn breaks slowly and reluctantly, and discloses to view the castellated hulls of those floating fortresses strewing the beach at Streedagh. Of their crews comparatively few succeeded in struggling safely to shore. Even within the last few years have been exposed to view war materials, stores, cannon balls encased in lead,! and likewise bones of those mariners buried nearly three centuries before upon the strand. The largest of the galleons struck on a reef (from that circumstance called Carrig-na- Spania, or the Spanish rock) situated off the little island of Derninish, parish of Ahamlish; and on the map of the Sligo coast (4.p. 1609) is placed opposite to this island the following observation :—‘‘ Three Spanish shipps here cast away in An° Dni 1588.” On the Admiralty Chart of Sligo Bay, scale ¢3s05, 1880, Aham- lish Church is shown at less than 23 miles from Streedagh point. This fixes sufficiently accurately the point where Cuellar’s ship went ashore. His description of the strand and headlands: ‘‘ A strand of fine sand, surrounded by immense cliffs, something never before seen,”’ would rather indicate the northern extremity of the strand, where the hills in the immediate vicinity of the strand are higher than those in the vicinity of Streedagh point. On the other hand, the vicinity of Ahamlish must probably be accepted as fixing the adjacent stretch of strand as that where Cuellar’s ship came ashore. From other sources of information furnished by the State Papers, Ireland, 1588, the date of the wreck must have been about the 14th or 15th Sep- tember. That the other two ships, Cuellar’s consorts, were wrecked close by, is implied by his description. Notes on NARRATIVE. 1.‘ When the day broke I commenced moving little by little in search of a monastery of friars situated near by.’””—( Narrative, pe l98s) As regards this monastery, the only indication remaining relative to the existence of such a building is that given by the Ordnance Survey Map of the Co. Sligo, sheet 2, which marks the existence of an old ‘‘ Church” quite near the strand, and not far from a house called ‘‘ Rindally Cottage.” 1 What is probably meant by ‘‘lead’’ here is what is usually known as “ black lead,’’ that is, graphite, which being present in the cast-iron balls, would resist the action of the sea-water, and thus coat the iron not yet acted on by the sea-water. O’Re1tty—Remarks on Captain Cuellar’s Narrative. 179 2. ‘Until finally he put us on a road leading from the shore to a village.””—(p. 200.) This village was seemingly not far from the shore. e 3. “And I commenced to get along little by little and reached the top of a hill from whence I discovered some thatched huts, which I made for, the road leading through a valley.”’— (p. 200.) This village was probably Grange, as no other village is marked on Pettys’ map—possibly it may be ‘“‘ Cliffoney ” ; both are situated on the coast road as shown in Pettys’ map. 4. ‘*The boy turning to me told me to keep on straight for the mountains, which seemed to be about six leagues distant from there, that behind these lay a good country belonging to a great and lordly native.”’—(p. 202.) These mountains would seem to have been (taking the Spanish league as equal to 3°66 English miles) (Encyclop., Lond., 1829) as those of southern Donegal (Tyrconnel), which from their heights, ranging up to 2219 feet in the case of the Bluestack Mountain, might well be visible from the neighbourhood of Streedagh Strand. The direction given is northerly (‘‘ taking the northerly direction pointed by the boy to me’’), but the direction of the road could only be north-easterly along the coast. Compare State Papers (Ireland) Calendar, 1588-92, p. 53, vol. exxxyli., 10, iv.—Geff. Fenton to the Lord Deputy. ‘‘ The Spaniards are marching towards Sligo, and are very near Lough Earne,” 1588, October 7, Sligo. 9d. ‘' That night I reached some huts where no harm was done ‘These people were making the round of the coast, robbing and killing all the Spaniards they could meet with.’”’—(p. 202.) This would tend to prove that Cuellar was on the coast road, as shown in Pettys’ map. 180 Proceedings of the Royal Ivish Academy. 6. ‘And reaching the mountain ridge pointed out to me asa sign, I came on a lake around which were some thirty huts. ‘God guided us in the evening to these huts.’”’—(p. 203.) The lake here mentioned could not, therefore, be much more than a day’s journey of march, such as weak, starved and naked men could make, from the scene of the wreck. It must have been small, to be described as being surrounded by thirty huts, and must have lain in a north-easterly direction from the scene of the wreck. On Pettys’ map there is a small lake marked, as then existing, near the point where now is the village of Cliffony, and therefore quite near to the then existing road. On the Ordnance Survey map, the only lake marked in the vicinity of Cliffony is Lough Cloonty to the K.8.K. thereof. There is also a small lake (Lough Aderry) lying about four miles north-east of Cliffony, and near the border of O’Rourke’s country, which might possibly be the lake mentioned. 7. ‘That near to this place we would come on a country of friends and Christians, that I had information of a village some three or four leagues off, belonging to the Lord de Ruerque.”—(p. 204.) Compare State Papers, Ireland, 1588-92, p. 49, vol. exxxvii., October 1.—Sir R. Bingham to the Lord Deputy. ‘‘ So as now this province stands clear and rid of all these foreign enemies save a ‘silly’ poor prisoners, except O’Rourke do keep any contrary to our general order and proclamation, whereof I have not heard from my brother how he hath answered him in that point.” Id. p. 54, same vol., 10, x.—Gen. Fenton to Lord Deputy. ‘“O’Rourke, M‘Glannogh, Maguire and the Burkes in Mayo” are combined with the Spaniards. ‘‘The Spaniards with the M‘Sweeny lay last night at Donegal, not 10 miles beyond the Earne.’”’ October 9, Ballymote. In the map of Ireland, given in Walpole’s ‘‘ Short History of Ireland” (1882), of the country before the Anglo-Norman Invasion, the territory of O’Rourke is limited on the west by a line running from a point on the coast somewhat south of the mouth of the River Drowes to the eastern extremity of Lough Gill. Assuming that the village spoken of by Cuellar was on O’Rourke’s territory, and near the coast, it could only le in the narrow tongue of the territory lying between the point mentioned and the mouth of the Drowes River, or O’Rettty—Remarks on Captain Cuetlar’s Narrative. 181 else must have lain inland in the vicinity of Lough Melville, which formed the northern boundary of O’Rourke’s territory, according to the map cited. As, however, the village which he reached evidently lay not far from the coast, it may have been in the vicinity of Bun- drowse or Bundoran, which parts were still safe at the period for the Spaniards, as would appear from the entry in the State Papers already mentioned, p. 53, vol. cxxxvii., 10, iv., where appears the statement, ‘‘ The M‘Glanoughes will not suffer our spies to pass.” 8. ‘* While begging there (at O’Rourke’s house) news was con- veyed to us that there was a Spanish ship off the coast. Hearing this news some twenty of us without more ado set off in the direction in which we were told the ship lay.””— (p. 206.) Evidently, therefore, O’Rourke’s house or hut was in a village or town not far from the sea coast, and at about five to six leagues distance from the scene of the wreck, say about 15 to 18 miles from Dernish Islands counted along the sea coast. In the State Papers (Ireland) Calendar, referred to p. 464, is given the names of the five baronies in O’Rourke’s country. The barony of Roslougher is given as M‘Glannough’s country. O’Rourke’s house was called ‘‘ Newton,” and was situated in none of the five baronies mentioned, but stood upon the borders of his country, near to Sligo, and had belonging to it eight quarters of land in demesne called ‘‘ Moyghhells.” As Sligo was, however, at the time in question in the hands of the English forces which Cuellar was carefully avoiding, it cannot have been at that house that he was begging when the news of the arrival of the Spanish ship on the coast was brought him. 9. ‘And pointed out the road that I should follow, in order to reach, a castle distant about six leagues from there, the castle of Manglana, such being the title of the native with whom I then was. Since the castle was very strong and very difficult to carry, unless it were stormed by artillery, having its foundations in a lake, there very deep, and more than a league broad in certain places, and some three or four leagues long, haying further a communication with the sea, but so that even during spring tides, there could be no approach made by that way. For these reasons, the castle could not be carried, either by water or from the land side, which is nearest to it, nor, 182 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. indeed, could any harm be done it, since for a breadth of a league in extent all round the town (which is built on firm ground) there extend marshes in which one would sink up to the breast, so that there is no approach to it but by narrow paths.””— (p. 206.) All these indications point to the castle having been situated on the shore of Lough Earne, at a distance of about six leagues from Bundoran or Ballyshannon along the road, and probably on the- northern shore, where the ground is low and used to be flooded by the winter waters of the lake, and even still is, to a certain extent. The season of the events spoken of by Cuellar was about November, and the native Lord Manglana was in all probability the M‘Clancy of the time, since he was one of the native chiefs mentioned as haying given asylum to the Spaniards who had escaped from the wreck of the Armada. Thus, in the State Papers cited, it is stated in the summary given in the preface, p. xv.:—‘‘ The son of O’ Rourke, who lately ran away from Oxford, lieth upon the borders of his country with 200 men, and M‘Glanathie has made proclamation to all the wood kerne- to resort unto him and they shall have entertainment.” And p. xl.: On the 12th October, Sir Richard Bingham wrote to the Lord Deputy that he doubts the Earl of Tyrone more than all the combinations of the Spaniards with Sir Brian O’Rourke, M‘Glannagh, Maguire, and M‘Mahon. The name given here, M‘Glannagh, might very easily sound in the ear of the Spaniard, and be written by him, ‘‘ Manglana.” In Lewis’ ‘‘ Topographical Dictionary of Ireland,” under the heading ‘‘ Leitrim,” is mentioned Breffey O’Rourke, as represented by the present baronies of Carrigallan and Mohill, the principal families of which were the Maghranalls, or M‘Grannals ; further, the O’Rourkes ruled over several subordinate septs, the principal families of which were the O’Murrays, M‘Loughlins, M‘Glanchies and M‘Grannils. In O’Donoyan’s letters on the Co. Fermanagh, p. 56, he says: “I landed on Inis Caoin, the ancient residence of the M‘Clancy (now Maglanshie).”’ In Henry’s account of Upper Lough Earne in 1739 (republished by M‘Gee, 1892), p. 50, it is stated: ‘‘ Lough M‘Nane or M‘Nean, fills up the whole of the bottom that lies between the mountains of Dubally on the south, the Doows and Slieve M‘Glanaghy on the west, and Belmore on the north.’? On Charles O’Conor’s edition of Ortelin’s Map of Ireland (dedicated to the Duke of Leinster, no date, about 1753), the territory corresponding to the position of Slieve M‘Glanaghy,. is marked as being that of MacClancy. O’Re1ttty—Remarks on Captain Cuellar’s Narrative. 183 It is therefore reasonable to assume that the native Lord ‘‘Manglana,”’ who received and succoured Cuellar, was the then M‘Clancy or M‘Glannagh, as he is named in Bingham’s letter. M‘Grannal is also a possible reading, but there is nothing to show that any chief of that name succoured the wrecked Spaniards. Assuming that the chief referred to was the M‘Clancy, there arises the question as to the locality of the castle which Cuellar describes. Now, the residence of the M‘Clancy was on an island in Lough Melville, as mentioned by O’Donovan, and it might be inferred that it was the castle on that island that was defended by Cuellar against the Queen’s forces; but taking into account that the castle defended was six leagues from a place near the coast, and situated on the edge of a lake (not on an island), that the lake was three or four leagues long, and more than a league broad, that marshy ground surrounded (at the time), the neighbouring town to a distance of a league (character- istics which do not agree with those of Lough Melville), it is more. reasonable to look for the position of this castle either on the north- east side of Lower Lough Earne (say in the neighbourhood of the present Kesh), or possibly on the south-west side, opposite Derrygonilly, near the territory of the M‘Clancy, and such that it would be relatively easy for him to withdraw to Sheve M‘Glanaghy. The indications of old castles on the Ordnance Survey map of Lough Earne are few, and give but little help in this respect; while from O’Donovan’s letters on Fermanagh (1839), p. 56, it appears that the country was (even at that date) ‘‘ nearly as wild now, in the nineteenth century, as it was in the sixteenth century, during the rage of chieftain fights and bad laws,” while at p. 39, he speaks of the country about as being ‘“‘altogether an unexplored region, exhibiting ruins of castles and churches of which nothing is known.”’ It may not be out of place to here insert the letter of Sir Richard Bingham to the Lord Deputy, from Athlone, April 24th, 1590. State Papers, Ireland, 1588-92, p- 338, vol. cli., 84 i.—Details of the charge made by Sir George Bingham on O’Rourke’s force—M‘Glannaghe’s head brought in. *“M‘Glannaghe ran for a lough which was near, and tried to save himself by swimming, but a shot broke his arm, and a gallowglass brought him ashore. He was the best killed man in Connaught a long time. He was the most barbarious creature in Ireland, and had always 100 knaves about him. He would never come before any officer. His country extended from the Grange beyond Sligo, till you eame to Ballyshannon. He was O’Rourke’s right hand. He had some 14 Spaniards, some of whom were taken alive.” 184 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 10. ‘‘ And then the lord having embraced us, withdrew to the mountains, where had already preceded him his people.”— (p. 211.) Compare State Papers, Ireland, Calendar, 1588-92, p. 93, vol. exxxix., December 31st. ‘‘At my coming to the castles of Ballyshannon and Beleek, which stand upon the river of Earne, and are in possession of one Sir Owen O’Tool, alias O’Gallagher, a principal man of that country, I found all the country and cattle fled into the strong mountains and fastnesses of the woods in their own countrie, and neighbours adjoining, as O’ Rourke, O’ Hara, the Glannaghies, Maguires and others.” As Cuellar makes no indication of the direction in which lay the mountains to which M‘Clancy retired, nor speaks of his having to traverse the lake, it might be inferred either that the castle defended was on the south-west shore of the lough, and not far from the mountains in question, or that if the castle lay on the north-east shore, that he withdrew into the mountains of Donegal, it being more likely that he withdrew into the mountains of his own territory, wherever the castle may have been. 11. ‘‘ And came down on the castle with all his force, some 1800 men, taking up a position about one and a half miles from it (half a league), being the nearest they could approach on account of the water which les around it.” !—(p. 211.) ‘T took my journey directly to Athlone, and from thence through Connaught to Sligo, as I passed from Shgo, having then gone 120 miles, I held on towards Bundrowes (in the Co. Leitrim), and so to Ballyshannon, the uttermost point of Connaught that way, and riding still along the sea coast I went to see the bay where some of those ships wrecked, and where as I heard, lay not long before, 1200 or 1300 of the dead bodies, I rode along upon that strand near two miles (but left behind me along mile and more), and then turned off from that shore.” Same p. 92. Dublin Castle, December 31st—Lord Deputy, but signed also by Loftus and Fenton, to the Privy Council. ‘* First, therefore, it may please your lordships, I undertook the journey the 4th November, and finished the same the 28rd of this instant, December, being seven weeks and one day, returning without loss of anyone of H. Majesty’s army.” 1 Compare State Papers, 1588—92, Calendar, p. 93, vol. cxxxix. O’Re1tty—Remarks on Captain Cuellar’s Narrative. 185 From Cuellar’s narrative it would appear that he arrived at the castle about the 4th or 5th October, and remained three months with the people there, that is to the 5th January, 1589, so that the siege of the castle would be covered in time by the journey of the Lord Deputy. Thereis, however, no mention of any operation against any castle such as that described by Cuellar, which would not, however, invalidate Cuellar’s statements. He left the castle about the 5th January, 1589, and— 12. ‘“ .. . ten days after the Nativity of the year 1588, . . continued journeying by hilly countries and uninhabited places, with what sore fatigue God only knows, so that after 20 days of travelling, we came toa halt in a place where were lost Alonso de Leyva, the Conde de Paredes, and D. Thomas de Granyela, with many other gentlemen.”’—(p. 212.) Duro says of D. Alonso de Leiva, vol. i., p. 120 :— ‘The squadron commanded by D. Alonso de Leiva was driven by the stormy weather towards the gulf which forms the commencement of the North Channel, lying between the coasts of Ireland and Scotland, the transport (urea) ‘ Rata’ having her seams so open that at times she almost sank. The squadron took the ground (embarrancaron), off the first of these islands (Ireland), and some musketeers having taken possession of an old tower situated on the shore, 2000 men were disembarked, as well from the ‘Rata’ as from the transport (urea), ‘Santa Anna,’ and the Galleass ‘Jirona.’ The Irish chief O’ Neill, furnished them with provisions, with which they (the Spaniards), re-embarked on the ‘Jirona,’ but the stormy weather opened her seams anew in the canal, and nine sailors alone escaped with their lives.” ‘Three of the Spanish ships coming into the harbour of Killybegs in M‘Sweeney’s country, one of them was cast away a little without the harbour, another running aground on the shore broke to pieces. The third being a Galley and sore bruised with the seas was repaired in the said harbour with some of the planks of a pinnance which they had of M‘Sweeny. The 16th of this instant, October, the said Galley departed from the said harbour with as many of the Spaniards as she could carry, and sailing along the coast towards the out Isles of Scotland, whither they were bound, struck against the rock of Bunboyes (near Dunluce), where both ship and men 1Compare also State Papers, Ireland, 1588-92, p. 64, vol. cxxxvil. 39, vi. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Il. 0 186 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. perished, save only five who hardly got to shore. This rock of Bunboys is hard by Sorley Boys House (of Dunluce).” Also same, p. 98, 25, 1 :—‘‘ The examination of James Macharg : He saith he was imprest at Lisbon. After the fight in the narrow sea, she fell upon the coast of Ireland in a haven called Erris St. Donnell, where, at their coming in, they found a great ship called the Rat (‘ Rata’) of 1000 tons or more in which was Don Alonso de Leiva. After she perished Don Alonso and all his company were received into the hulk of ‘St. Anna,’ with all the goods they had in the ships. of any value, as plate, apparel, money, jewels, weapons, and armour, leaving behind them victual, ordnance, and much other stuff which the hulk was not able to carry away, which done they set the ship on fire, and made sail for Spain, in which course, by a contrary wind they were driven back upon M‘Sweeny ne Dce’s country to a place called Lough Erris, where falling to anchor, there fell a great storm which brake in sunder all their cables, and struck them upon ground, whereby Don Alonso and all his company were enforced to go on shore, taking all their goods and armour with them, and there by the ship’s side encamped themselves for the space of 8 or 9 days. Don Alonso before he came to land was hurt in the leg by the capstan (capestele) of the ship in such sort as he was neither able to go, nor ride, neither during the 9 days of his encamping, nor upon his remove, but was carried from that place wherein the Galleas named ‘Jerona’ lay, between four men, being 19 miles distance, where likewise, he and all his company encamped 12 or 14 days, in which time the Galleas was finished and made ready for sea, as well as she could be. He being advertized certainly from time to time that the Lord Deputy Fitzwilliam was preparing himself to come against them, put himself aboard her, having for his pilots, 3 Irish- men and a Scot. There was in the Galleas of her own soldiers, besides 300 slaves, 500 to600 men. He saith that D. Alonso for his stature, was tall and slender, of a whitely complexion, of a flaxen and smooth hair, of behaviour mild and temperate, of speech good and deliberate, greatly reverenced, not only by his own men, but generally of all the whole company. And they being all shipped, in the said Galleas, he said they departed for Scotland, but what became of them this examinate cannot say.’”’ 1588. Decr. 29. Some relics still exist of the ‘‘ Gerona,’’ as would appear from the following extract from O’Donovan’s Letters on Fermanagh, p. 51, where, speaking of the Museum of Castle Caldwell :—“‘ A part of the top of one of the Guns of the Spanish Armada raised out of the sea at O’Rettty— Remarks on Captain Cuellar’s Narrative. 187 Port-na-Spania, near the Giant’s Causeway, where some ships of the famous fleet were dashed to pieces against the rocks: it is 23 inches in the bore, and 19 inches outer circumference, and is remarkably thick. Many of the guns were taken up at the same time and broken by the country people and sold as old metal.” Taking Cuellar’s words in their strict meaning, the place where D. Alonso de Leyva was ‘‘lost” would be Port-na-Spania, near the Giant’s Causeway, or the ‘‘ Bunboys’”’ rocks, near Dunluce, and the nearest post-town or village at the period was probably Portrush, of which it is remarked in Lewis’ ‘‘ Topographical Dictionary” :—‘‘ Ac- cording to the early annalists, this was the chiéf landing place in the territory of the Route or M‘Quillan’s country ; it was also chosen by Sir John Perrot as the landing place of his artillery at the siege of Dunluce Castle. On the plantation of Ulster by James I., it was made a Creek of Coleraine.’’ Portrush is not marked on O’Connor’s map, but Coleraine is. And under this heading Lewis’ “‘Dictionary”’ says:— “ ‘or [RUTpNITSUOT [v4OJ, = LIT A G6 60I AL FN zN S31 yall vA A ‘O18 [VUIPNALSUOT [vjTd100GQ Ss OZ1 mn OCI 6ZI1 AA A A rere a vA AA * IB [CUIPNILSUOT [ejoLeg 3 SzI TN 8 II Ost A nN M CZI O8T M A * OB [BUIPNIISUOT [eJUOI a AN A AA A 30g aN M AM A 0ze GSE {JIB OSIOASUV.IY [BO1}.10 A. ~~ NN aN A A IN AA ill M TIN ell MA * Gypvorq, OIMOTIOISV < A M AA A AA A 601 A A nN CII C * ‘qypreerq oTuvydayg = M jaw AN 66 06 GOL Oot 6 G8 96 06 TIpPvoiq [eJWOIF VWINUVUITUTIL S M MA M AN SII M M M M OZL IZI QyuStoy o1yewsa.1q-o[NOWy 7 MA a e A 8% I vN MM AM A OFT 9eT * GyStey ovmsarq-1svg ES CFI Set SET el 981 SFI CFI OFT TFI OPT SFI : * {ypeoaq wNUITXe TY 6 Sst SLI SLI 981 SLT Z61 FSI G6I SLI Sst £61 *qysudT [eytdr9090-o][9qQvI) faa) ‘ay “ay ay ‘ay “ay ‘ay “ay ‘ay ‘av ‘ay “ay ° : s Q ‘OV @nw| @a | a | mw) @ia | Ww al W | @ Ww @) a | “Ww et ‘Tr ‘OL 6, ‘8 h 9 g v $ 6 T , : Maa NY 5 2 R.I.A. PROC., SER. Iil., VOL. III. ZA 338 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. (3). Virat Sraristics (GENERAL AND Economic). (a.) Population.—The population of these islands, though still dense, is, like that of the rest of Ireland, steadily decreasing, though in this case the decline is of recent date compared with many other parts of the country. Between the years 1851 and 1871 the population had increased from 1047 persons, occupying 196 houses, to 1262, and 251, respectively. Some time after 1871, however, emigration began to take a sensible effect ; and between that year and the census of 1891 there has been a loss in people of 20°99 per cent., and in houses of 11°55 per cent. That the decrease is entirely due to emigration is proved by the returns of births and deaths for the decennial period 1880-1890, in which time the births exceeded the deaths by 89 or 38-7 per cent., the respec- tive numbers being births 230, deaths 141. The Table given below shows the population of the islands at each census since 1851, with the number of inhabited houses, average number of inhabitants per house, and of acres per head. It thus indicates the period at which the decrease began, and the amount of congestion of the district, both past and present. This congestion, however, must be greater than what the figures show, as under the heading of Inishbofin are grouped some fifty-four other islands or islets, all uninhabited, and varying in size from seventy-four acres downwards. Some of these are utilized for grazing by the people of the two larger islands, but a large number of them are quite useless, being mere barren rocks. Census. Population. Houses. Inbabitants. | Acres per per house. head. 1851 | 1047 196 5°34 3°00 1861 1236 239 5:17 2°55 1871 1262 251 5°03 2°50 1881 1166 250 4°67 2°70 1891 997 215 4°64 3°10 That the overcrowding is, even now, great, will be seen when it is considered that the density of population per square mile is 202, whilst that of the Aran Islands is 171, of the county of Galway 86, and of Ireland, as a whole, 146.! 1In the Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland (1846), the population of the islands in 1831 is given as 1462, number of houses not given; population in 1841 as 1612, houses, 285. The decrease afterwards is evidently due to the famine in 1847. BrownE — Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 339 The distribution of population, inhabited houses, and out-buildings in 1891, was as follows :— POPULATION. Outbuild- Islands. Area. — -—— —— Houses. | ings and Farm- Persons. | Males. | Females. steadings. 2 A. R. P. Inishbofin, Sale2ol2, Wo U6 Sa 8i4 450 424 194 123 Inishshark, 0 581 1 30 123 61 62 ~ is 14 54 other islands, 257 3 35 — — _— = = Stoll, 5 « |) eylaul ey al 997 511 486 #222, 137 It will be seen that the male population exceeds the female by 95, the cause evidently being the greater emigration of females than of males. The drain does not seem to have affected any one class of the males (as regards age) more than another, as the number of men between the ages of 20 and 60 is 208, or shghtly more than one-fifth of the whole population. Since the census was taken some slight change has occurred, for, according to a return obtained on the islands, there are now 186 families on Inishbofin, and 26 on Inishshark, being a loss of three families since 1891. A larger number of young people than usual is also said to have emigrated since then. Many of the older men state that emigration has taken away the finest men from the islands, especially Inishshark, and say that formerly the stature of the men was greater than it is now. I must say, however, that those of the elder generation still remaining are not as a rule better built or taller than their sons and grandsons. (B.) Acreage and Rental.—The total area is, as stated above, 3151 acres, the valuation of which, including houses, land, &c., is £572 6s. A very considerable proportion of the surface of the islands is com- monage, the exact amount and distribution of which I am enabled * Of these, 215 were inhabited. 340 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. to give by the kindness of the proprietor, Cyril Allies, Esq., J.P. i— Townland. | Area. Commonage. A. | Rs Pe Ro To Ie Westquarter, . : : ° 493 3 32 349 2 8 Fawnmore,_ . F ‘ : 194 1 14 116 1 15 Middlequarter, . 6 6 612 2 0 375 3 9 Knock, . ; . ; . 3866 1 9 161 3 39 Cloonamore, . ; : : 645) ae il 424 3 29 Inishshark, . : : : 581 1 12 435 3 12 Islets, . é ‘ 4 s 25% 3 380 — Total, . : © | 3151 3 1 1864 1 32 Taking the available area at 930 acres, and the number of families at 215, the average size of a holding per house is 4°3 acres, with a corresponding average valuation of £2 18s. The size of a holding, however, varies from 1a. 3r., at a rent of 14s. 6d., to 56 acres, at £7. Out of 127, the particulars of which were furnished me by Mr. Allies, there were :— 3 holdings of 1 acre and under 2 acres. 21 39 2 . 9 3 ” IUfh » 3 » AY 8 be) 4 9) 5) 99 23 99 ) 9? 6 oe) 15 a6 6 ite to ee 12 ”? 7 9 8 9 ed, ne 8 a LO ae, 5 » 10 ” 13, 4 rr) 15 9) 18 2) 1 holding of 25 acres 1 9) 56 bP) It will be observed that most of the holdings in this list are of very small size, only eleven being more than ten acres in extent, and 59 or 46°5 per cent. being under 5 acres. Browne—Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 341 In 1891 there were only nine holdings, with a rating of over £4 to £10, ninety-six with ratings between £2 and £4, and thirty-six at, or under, £2. (c.) Language and Iiliteracy—Language.—All the inhabitants (with the exception of a very few old people, most of whom live in Inish- shark) now speak English, but their vocabulary does not seem to be very extensive. To a very large extent they speak Irish among them- selves, but many of the children and young people have little or no acquaintance with the language. Irish is most spoken in Inishshark, which is less in communication with the outer world than Inish- bofin. It is much to be regretted that, as no return of the Irish-speaking districts by parishes is made by the census authorities, the proportion of those speaking Irish alone, and Irish and English, cannot be given here. Llliteracy.—The population of the parish of Inishbofin of five years of age and upwards was, in 1891, 895, of whom 415, or 46°4 per cent. were illiterate :— Persons. | Male. Female. Number above 5 years, 895 457 438 Illiterate, . : : 415 202 218 Percentage, é é 46°4 44°9 48°6 Of the 480 who could read, 348 persons, 188 males, and 160 females could read and write, the remaining 132, 67 males, and 65 females, or more than a quarter of the whole, could read only. The rate of illiteracy is higher, as might be expected, among the females than the males, and probably is greater in Inishshark than Inish- bofin. (v.) Longevity.—Though the people do not seem to reach any very great age, yet they may be said to be fairly long-lived. According to the census of 1891 there were on the islands 27 persons, 10 males and 17 females of over 75 years of age, of whom there were— Aged 75 and under 80, 1 male and 8 females, SO ae 85, 5 males and 14 females, ?? 85 ry) 90, 4 9 0 9) 342 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. (z.) Health.—Taken as a whole, the people may be said to be a healthy one. Serious diseases, apart from accidents incident to their callings, are but few in number; and the general physique of the people speaks to a healthy active life. Consanguineous Unions.—A large proportion of the marriages come under this heading, including not only those of persons within the prohibited degrees, for which dispensations are obtained, but also. those which take place between people who are related in some recog- nisable but hardly nameable degree. Cases of the first class, or those which require dispensations, are of frequent occurrence, but seldom or never take place between persons nearer of kin than third cousins. The other cases, of course, are the most common of all, as from the size of the population and its isolated position, every family must, after afew generations, become more or less related to every other. Marriages with strangers, though more numerous of late years, are not common. The uniformity of strain does not appear to have produced any effect except the great similarity of appearance already noticed (p. 322); no cases of malformation or congenital disease are ascribed to it. Diseases —For most of the following facts I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. P. J. Hart, the medical officer of the islands, who, besides affording me much valuable information relative to the people and their ailments, the result of his long experience of them, kindly allowed me to look over his notes of cases. The main diseases may be classed as follows :— Insanity.—There is at present no case of this among the natives of the islands, nor has there been one since 1888 when a case which, however, was not of long duration, occurred in Inishshark. Idiocy and Imbecility.—Properly speaking there is no idiocy; but there are two cases in which the persons, though shrewd and sharp. enough about most of their own affairs, yet show signs of mental want in a sufficient degree to amount to sight imbecility. Epilepsy is not common, but two cases are known in one of which the patient is subject to delusions, and always states, after a fit, that he has been with the fairies on the mainland. Of the other no information could be obtained except that the patient had had ‘‘ fits.” Deaf-mutism has not been known for years on either island, but a case of temporary dumbness occurred on Inishshark in 1892. Blindness is equally rare, there being but one case, a man over sixty years of age who acquired it late in life. Browne—Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 348 Malformations are scarce, but as mentioned before (p. 323), arrest of growth of the pinna of the left ear was observed in one instance ; and a boy with talipes equino-varus was seen near Westquarter; but his condition was said not to be congenital, but acquired as the result of an accident. Hermie have been of pretty frequent occurrence of late years, Dr. Hart having seen six cases since 1888, before which date he had no record of having observed any cases of it. Of these six, four were of inguinal hernia, three on the right side, and one on the left, one was a left femoral, and one, in a female child, umbilical. The sudden occurrence of so many cases in succession would seem to indicate some cause of recent origin; what this may be it is-difficult to see, but it is ascribed by some to the new style of work required for the building of the fish-curing station, piers, and other relief work, requiring the lifting of heavy weights. evers.—Measles and scarlet fever have not been seen for some time. Some years ago there was an outbreak of enteric fever in Middle- quarter, when a large proportion of the population of the hamlet were attacked by it, and there were several deaths. “* Constitutional” diseases.—Phthisis, though not common, is some- times met with; and strumous affections, abscesses, &c., are not un- frequently seen, though not very numerous on the whole. The only wonder is that these affections are not more common, as the sanitary state of the houses is not by any means good; and it must be mainly due to their open-air life that they do not suffer more. Malignant disease is said to be unknown. Rheumatism, especially in the form of lumbago, is a very common complaint, but the acute form is rare. Dietetic Diseases.—Vhese, with rheumatism and bronchitis, form the great majority of all the affections met with; the large extent to which fish and potatoes enter into their dietary may have something to do with this, but there can be no doubt that the use, or abuse, of tea must bear a certain amount of the blame. The most common forms of complaint are flatulence and constipation. As might be expected from the fact of fish forming a large part of the every-day food of the people, ento-parasites are among the most common of all troubles, about every tenth case applying for treatment being due to them. Ascaris lumbricoides is the worm most frequently found. Respiratory Diseases.—Phthisis has been before alluded to; bron- chitis and pneumonia are not uncommon in the winter months. Local affections are but few, and those not very serious. Hyes.— Phlyctenular ophthalmia is not very common. The teeth are usually 344 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. very even and white, and seem to last well; even men of over sixty often have good incisors; but many suffer from toothache. Abscess of the alveolus, unlike what is seen in Aran, is not at all common. Skin.—Ulcers due to the friction of ropes and of the thick home- spun clothing when wet, eczema, ‘‘ sea-boils,”’ scabies, and acne, are frequently met with, as is anthrax or carbuncle; but, perhaps, the most common of all skin affections, especially among the younger members of the population, is tinea tonsurans. Alopecia areata, whether caused by the last-mentioned affection or not, seems to be common. Uterine troubles are not at all common. Venereal diseases are practically unknown. Accidents arising out of the surroundings and occupation of the people are, as might be expected, very numerous. These are burns, severe cuts from reaping hooks, injuries inflicted by domestic animals, and, above all, contusions and fractures due in most cases to falls from rocks and ponies. 4, Psychology.—For one who has had only a short experience of the people this very difficult and delicate point is exceedingly hard to deal justly with, but the following description, for the most part obtained from local sources, both on the islands and on the opposite part of the mainland, and to some small degree from personal observa- tion, is believed to be accurate as far as it goes. To strangers, the people are not, at first, attractive, as their manner is shy and not unmarked by suspicion ; but after this reserve is broken through they reveal themselves in a much more attractive ight, and are kindly, courteous, and very communicative. Among themselves they are cheerful and social, given much to gossip and chaff, though their wit is not of a very sparkling character. They contrast strongly with the Aran Islanders in their taste for music and dancing, concertinas and melodions being in common use in several houses. In their dealings with one another they are honest and fair, even a petty theft being an extremely rare occurrence. As to their dealings with the people of the mainland, the usual hostile statements, common with all insular communities, are made by both sides with respect to each others honesty, but much reliance cannot be put in these vague assertions. Crime is almost unknown, and the administration of justice is seldom called into requisition, and then only for small quarrels among neighbours. Browne—Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 345 Begging is practically unknown, and drunkenness, as a habit, does mot exist, the sobriety being very noticeable on holidays, though occasional bouts of drinking are sometimes indulged in when a good take of fish has been made. They are very conscientious in their religious observances, and depend greatly on the advice and control of their clergy, with regard to temporal as well as spiritual affairs. Sexual irregularities are extremely rare, no case of illegitimacy having been recorded from the islands for years. As fishermen they are brave, hardy, and extremely venturesome ; this applies especially to the men of Inishshark, who are reputed in Bofin to be the best and most daring boatmen on the west coast. : Quarrels often occur, but a regular stand-up fight appears to be unknown, the men usually contenting themselves with abusive lan- guage, or at most a sudden blow or stone-throwing. A woman when angered may use very abusive language towards a man, as she would be practically safe from any fear of physical violence on his part, even when she was very provoking. On the other hand, they are not without faults. In their ordinary life they are thriftless, and not too cleanly in many of their habits, and have but little regard for ordinary sanitary laws; their veracity, too, is not altogether unimpeachable, while the people of the mainland allege that they have a very strong aversion to the payment of debts, rent, and cess, for the last-named of which they owe over £13800. The habits and manners of the people of Shark are much the same as those described above. The people are noted for their loyalty to one another; they never tell any stranger anything about their local affairs. They are kindly and civil to visitors, always crowding down to assist them on landing, but are said to be capable of acts of ferocity when roused. 5. Folk-names.—The following list of fifty-one surnames comprises all those now to be met with on the islands. Some of these names, however, are those of families not long established on the islands, while others, formerly common, as Gorham and Halligan, are now without representatives. The Gorhams are still, to some extent, connected with Inishbofin, as one of them is proprietor of the only shop there worth the name, and in addition holds a farm, but he lives on the mainland, and manages them by deputy, only occasionally visiting the place himself. It is possible that, owing to the heavy emigration, other surnames may also have disappeared. In the list of surnames given in the 346 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Aran report there occurs the name Ryder, marked as having originally come from Inishbofin.' Surnames oF IntsHporin—No. or Famiriss, 186. Number | Number Surname. of Surname. of Families. Families. Allies, 1 Lavelle, 14 Baker, 3 Lacy, 5 Barret, + Mannion, 3 Burke, se 6 Martin, 1 Clogherty, .. g) Moran, 6 Cloonane, 2 Melia, 10 Coyne, 1 Madden, t Corbett, 1 Mullen, 1 Concannon, 8 Mogan, 1 Conneely, 4 M‘Cann, 1 Cummins, 1 M‘Namara, 1 Cunnane, di M‘Donagh, 4 Davis, 1 M ‘Kendrick, 1 Darcy, 1 Naughton, 4 Davin, 1 Price, 2 Dimond, 1 Powel, ; 2 Grodan, 1 Prendergast, 2 Halloran, 8 Quigley, 1 Hart, 3 Reilly, 1 Hughes, 4 Scuffle, 22 Joyce, 4 Smith, 1 King, 4 Tierney, iil Kerrigan, 2 Toole, 4 Kenny, 1 Ward, 2 Leenane, 2 Walsh, 1 Surnames oF InisHsHark.—No. or Famriies, 26. T Number _ || Number Surname. of \| Surname. of Families. | Families. | Cloonane, .. sys 6 || Lucy, en ae | 6 Davis, 1 '| Lavelle, 2 Dimond, 2 Melia, 2 Halloran, 2 Murray, | 3 King, 1 Ward, | 1 6. Language.—As I am not competent to speak with any authority 10One of the women photographed at Westquarter was named Browne, a sur- name not given in the list. (See Pl. VIII.). Browne—HLthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 347 on this subject, I shall not attempt the treatment of it myself, but shall quote the opinion of the Rev. Eugene O’Growney, who has an ‘exceptional knowledge of both people and language, and has kindly ‘furnished me with some of his notes relating to them. He says :— ‘‘ The Irish spoken in Boffin has a very poor vocabulary, as far as I heard it spoken. I must say, however, that it was not easy to get the people to speak it, and many children at first refused point blank to utter a word of Irish. In most of the Ivish-speaking districts of the west, the people have preserved a number of old poetic prayers and hymns. Many of these are very beautiful, and some appear to be of great age. I was particularly interested at the time of my visit in these hymns, but was told that the only hymn in use in Boffin and Shark was the ortha Ihuire, or prayer of Mary. I could not find any person in Boftin who could recite it, and the only person in Shark who was supposed to have it in full was out at sea. An old man in Boffin recited for me a portion of a quaint old religious composition in English.” In another place he states that the people speak neither English nor Irish well, their dialect of the language containing many corrupted English words, and at least one curious word. ‘‘I recollect that the cove in which St. Leo’s well is situated is called fuath Leo. I take the word fuath, which is the usual word in Inishshark and Inisboftin for a ‘cove,’ to be a corruption of wamh, which is used by the Four Masters in the year 893 as meaning ‘cave.’ ””! IV. Socronoey. 1, Occupations.—Kvery family combines fishing and farming, and has some share ina boat. The farms are small (see p. 340), about three acres and a-half under potatoes and oats, being about the average amount of tillage per family. All are held direct from the landlord, who resides on Inishbofin, there being no subletting or con-acre. The rents average about £2 per holding, but vary much according to the extent and quality of the land. The holdings are not divided up into small fields, as in Aran, but are often insufficiently fenced, allowing the cattle to stray, which 1 The Rey. E. A. Lavelle has, since the above was written, sent a translation of a curious old Irish litany used on both islands, both in Irish and English, which he obtained from an old man; aged 84, whose father, Peter Lavelle, fought under Nelson at Trafalgar. As the litany is in English and of great length, it is not inserted here, but it is to be hoped that the Irish form will be recorded and pre- served as it may possess the linguistic value wanting in a translation. 348 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. sometimes raises cases of trespass. ‘The fences are the usual dry stone walls of the west, and the fields seldom have gates. The crops most grown are barley, oats, potatoes, and a little rye, and a few turnips. The manures are sea-weed and farm-yard manure, and occasionally old thatch, saturated with peat smoke, and well rotted with age. The agricultural implements employed are the spade and shovel, and the sickle; the use of plough or harrow is not known. Low-lying, damp places are utilized for the growth of osiers for panniers, baskets, and lobster-pots. As is the case in many fishing communities, the fields are not well kept, and have a rather untended appearance, the weeds being let grow rankly in the potato fields, the reason given for which is that without the shelter given by the weeds the crop would be speedily destroyed by the winds; but the most probable explanation is that the amount of attention directed towards the fishing at the most critical periods of the year causes the less important occupation to be to some extent neglected. A family keeps a couple of pigs, some sheep, a cow or two, geese (of which large flocks are kept on the islands), ducks and fowl, but no turkeys. Some sixty families are said to be in very poor circumstances, and of these forty-six have no cattle. The animals are to a large extent supported on the very extensive commonage. The pigs, cattle, and fowl are taken into the houses at night, while the sheep, geese, and ponies get shelter how they can. The pigs are not regularly fed, but have, as the people express it, ‘‘the run of their teeth’ of the island, and by feeding on such provision as they can pick up on the sea-shore, the flesh is often rendered rank and fishy-flavoured. Fuel is supplied either by peat cut from the bogs, or, in a large proportion of cases, by ‘‘ scraws”’ of the thin peaty layer which covers the rocky surface of the higher and wilder parts of the islands, cut into blocks the size of peats, and dried in the sun. The substance thus obtained can be burned, and will throw out considerable heat, but is extremely dirty and wasteful, as it contains a large proportion of earth and small pebbles, which are left in the ash. From repeated cuttings of these ‘‘scraws” the surface of the higher ground has become much deteriorated in value, and this is especially the case on Inishshark, where there are no bogs. In times of scarcity fish-bones and cow-mats (ois de vache) are used as fuel. For light, petroleum lamps and candles are now generally used, Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 349 but a few years ago the ordinary means of lighting the houses was a rude open lamp, filled with oil extracted from the livers of fish, and having a piece of peeled rush for a wick. Kelp-burning' was formerly one of the industries of the islands, but of late years it declined rapidly, and is now practically extinct. As to the cause of this decay of a formerly profitable source of income, very different accounts are given, some alleging the poor quality of the weed; others that they were not fairly treated in selling; and others again that it does not pay as well as the fish-curing. The fish most taken are sea-bream, glassan (a sort of pollock), mackerel, turbot, and plaice, used mostly for home consumption; cod and ling, which are cured at the fish-curing station for exportation, and oil extracted from their livers; also large quantities of crabs and lobsters, which are taken to Ballyvaughan, Co. Clare, from which they are forwarded to the English market. The boat used for conveying them is of peculiar construction, and has a large salt-water tank amidships, in which the lobsters are kept alive. The lobster-pots are. of the usual type. There is nothing unusual about their ordinary method of fishing, except that the Inishbofin men, as mentioned in a footnote to the account of that island in the Memoir of the Geological Survey, already alluded to, do not follow the shoals of fish around the western headland, but carry their boats across the narrow isthmus in which Lough Bofin is situated. The pursuit of the ‘‘ sun-fish,”’ or basking-shark (Selache maxima), was formerly a source of considerable profit to the islanders, but has been almost altogether abandoned of late years owing to the decline in the price of the oil, and partly, it is said, to the loss of several lives on one occasion when a boat was charged and overturned by a wounded fish, also to the partial disappearance for some years of the sharks. The season for this enterprise is from April until the end of June, and in that time large numbers of these fish were taken formerly, and some are still killed from time to time. Mr. G.H. Kinahan, to whom I am indebted for several notes relative to the condition of the islands some years ago, says :—‘‘ The sun-fish fishing was considerable in my time (1870). I have seen strings of seven and nine fish; when caught, they towed them into the harbour, cut out the liver, and left the carcass to rot, or be eaten by the pigs; the stench in the harbour was something to remember.’’ A very full description of the fishing is given by Sir H. W. Gore-Booth in a recent article. He states that the value of the oil (from eight to twelve petroleum barrels full) obtained from the liver of one of these fish has been variously estimated 3590 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. to him by old fishermen at from £30 to £100, so that the loss of this industry must have told considerably on a poor community such as this. The primitive method which he found in use on his visit to the islands he describes in full as it was explained by Michael Halioran, the ‘king’! of Inishshark, a veteran harpooner, who had just killed his nineteenth fish a few days before. ‘‘T had been told that these sun-fish generally took from sixteen to eighteen hours, and frequently longer, to kill; in fact, I have heard it sometimes took two days, so naturally felt considerable interest in the gear used for the purpose. The king brought with him his trusty harpoon, which, to my mind, looked a most antiquated arrangement, especially designed to cut out of a fish, instead of holding it. I could not see a whale-boat or anything like one, so inquired where the boat was, and was shown an ordinary square-sterned boat, about 16 feet in the keel, which had nailed on her starboard bow a piece of wood about 1 foot long, with three small notches, or scores, barely half an inch deep, cut init. Ifound out that these notches or scores were all they had to run the line through, and that when a boat fastened a fish, it was a pulling match between our friend the shark on one hand, and sixteen men on the other, a regular case of ‘pull devil, pull baker’! Such a thing as a bollard head to take a turn of the line round seems never to have entered their heads.” In addition to fishing and farming, the other occupations are fish- curing at the station recently established by the landlord, Cyril Allies, Esq., J.P., who resides on the island, and personally superintends it, and the trades, represented by a boat-builder, a blacksmith, a shoe- maker who imports his leather from the mainland, a tailor, who still adheres to the old method of measuring his clients without a tape, using instead a sheet of paper, on which the several lengths are recorded by ‘‘ snips,” or notches cut with the scissors; there is one weaver who makes use of a rather archaic form of hand-loom, four men who, on occasion, act as sawyers, extemporising a saw-pit in the nearest convenient spot by the aid of trestles, and using to mark their lines a cord blackened with the ashes of straw or shavings, and finally, a fiddler. 1Tn answer to an inquiry of mine relative to the position of king, Mr. Myles Joyce, National Teacher of Bofin, writes:—‘‘ The title of king is not hereditary in the island. There is at present a man removed something beyond his neighbours in the way of education and position, who is, par excellence, the king; and to whom all persons who want any information about the island or its history must apply.’’ Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 351 There are three or four small shops, but only one has a regular counter, and it is also the only public-house on the islands. There is no regular employment for labourers, but occasional work is paid for at the rate of 1s. 6d. a-day. The women, besides attending to the ordinary domestic duties, help the men at field work, at seed time and harvest, and at drawing sea-weed for manure; they card, dye, and spin the wool for clothing, and in rough weather, when supplies from the mainland are short, grind oats or barley in the quern, either for the cattle or for domestic use. This is extremely hard work, and requires two women, one to work at the grinding, and the other to feed the grain from her apron. They also employ part of their time at quilting or knitting. The average annual money handling of a family is from £40 to £50. 2. Family Life and Customs.—The children of a family, who are usually numerous, are sent to school when about four years of age, and at first attend regularly ; but as they grow older their attendance is often very irregular, as they are liable to be kept at home by their parents to assist at field work in times of pressure. They are said to be very smart and intelligent, but their progress is interrupted and checked by this cause. At the age of fourteen or fifteen years, when they have reached the second stage of fifth class, they are taken from school, and then enter into the regular routine of household and farm work until they either marry or emigrate. They marry young, gene- rally for purely family reasons, romance not entering into the case. Courtship as a regular institution does not exist; and if exceptional cases occur they must be rare; as for two young people of opposite sexes to be seen walking together is looked upon as being decidedly wrong. Matches are arranged by the parents from considerations of suitability of families, not, as in many other places, by money bar- gains. As soon as an arrangement is come to between the elders, usually before Shrove, the young man goes and asks the girl per- sonally ; if he be refused, which sometimes, though seldom, happens, he considers himself disgraced, and is often inconsolable. The mar- riages often take place without any rejoicings or social reunions, the young couple going quietly home after the ceremony is over. In some cases they set up house afresh on their own account, but if the bride- groom be the eldest son who usually inherits the parent’s house, &c., the bride goes to live with his family. Mr. Michael Lavelle, to whom I am indebted for much valuable information as to the customs and folk-lore of the people, informs me that he has heard that sometimes, on the occasion of a wedding, 302 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. ‘¢ straw-boys ”’ go round with long straw masks on, and if they do not get either money or liquor will threaten to break the windows and: furniture of the house. The women marry very young, from fifteen years upwards ; and, if not settled in life by twenty or so, they usually emigrate. Infants are given butter immediately after birth, and are carefully watched, lest they should be ‘‘taken away” or changed. For some similar reason a parturient woman has a string tied round the wrist or one of the fingers. All the wood in a house is carefully put outside if the death of one of the inmates is thought to be imminent; and if it should occur the neighbours dread to give wood to make the coffin, as they believe that the person who does so will be the next to die; and if the plank of which the coffin 1s to be made is not taken down from the loft where it generally 1s, before the person dies, no inducement can make them use it for the purpose. The people never bury their dead on a Monday, nor on the day of the week in which the Feasts of the Holy Innocents has fallen for that year. They have a great horror of suicides, and believe that if one were to be buried in the graveyard it would cause the other corpses to turn over on their faces. A wake is held the night before the funeral, on those who have died abroad or been lost at sea, when the news arrives ; but owing to’ the influence brought to bear on the people by the clergy in this matter, it is now only attended by relatives of the deceased, and the character of the ceremony is much altered, most of the old games, the- mock marriage, &c., being altogether obsolete, while the insobriety, formerly common, is now a thing of the past. At the funeral the coffin is carried out the back door, and is followed by the mourners. On reaching the graveyard it is carried thrice round the old church in the: direction of the sun, and as soon as the grave is reached all those attending the funeral scatter and go to pray at the graves of their own relatives, which, having done, they raise the keen, beginning at the person farthest from the open grave. The Rev. E. O’Growney, who has generously placed at my disposal a number of notes taken during a visit to these islands, thus describes a funeral he witnessed in Inishbofin :—‘‘The old Irish funeral caotne is still used in its full perfection. I happened to be engaged in the church of St. Colman, deciphering a peculiar Latin inscription there, when a large number of people, chiefly women, brought the body of an infant for interment. While the body was being interred the women scattered about the churchyard, each going to the grave of her own friends. Those farthest from the newly-made grave began a low Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 353 monotonous chant of three or four lines; the last phrase of each line was very often go deo deo-deo (= for aye, aye, aye), the vowel sound of o easily accommodating itself to the prolonged chant. Another termi- nation was nios-md-md-mdé (=no more, more, more). I still recollect one touching line of the dirge: it was—td mo theachin follamh go deo- deo-deo, ‘my little house is empty for evermore, more, more.’ Un- fortunately, I know nothing about music, but the chant reminded me of the fourth line of the old air of ‘ The Blackbird, ” Owing to the stone of the island not being easily worked the grave- stones are usually rough, shapeless slabs, or are rudely chipped into the form of a cross, while the rest of the grave is covered with flat stones. : A large number of the men formerly went as harvesters to England and Scotland, where some of the young girls still go as servants; but very few do so now, though they say the harvesting paid well. It is more the fashion now to go to America even for a few years; and imstances haye occurred of people shutting up their houses, leaving all their furniture and utensils as they were, going off to the United States for three or four years, and then coming back, resuming posses- sion, and falling into all the old ways and customs as if nothing very unusual had occurred. It is quite a common occurrence for young men to go to America for seven or eight years (generally to the neigh- bourhood of Pittsburg to work at the foundries there), at the end of that time to return home, settle down, and get married. Many of the girls go to Scotland, as servants, for five or six months of the year to assist their parents at home. 3. Food.—The dietary is much- more varied than that of many of the inhabitants of the inland districts; it consists largely of fish of various kinds, potatoes, and home-made bread. Flesh meat is rarely tasted except at Christmas or some other great occasion, when a little mutton may be eaten, but fowl and geese are occasionally used. The fish which forms the staple of the diet is eaten fresh in spring and summer time, and large supplies of it are salted and dried in the sun for the winter’s use ; the kinds cured are mainly ling, sea-bream, and glassan. Butter and cheese are not used; and eggs, though forming part of the regular food, are mostly employed as a purchasing medium for tea, sugar, tobacco, &c., at the principal shop, whence they are forwarded to Westport. Tea has come greatly into use, and is taken in large quantities with R.I.A. PROC., SER. IiI., VOL. Ul. 2B . 354 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. every meal; it is made extremely strong, and, as elsewhere, is the cause of a good deal of dyspepsia. Alcoholic liquors are not much drunk, as illicit distilling has altogether ceased in this district. An ayerage working day’s dietary is as follows :—Breakfast : tea, and home made bread. Dinner: fish, or eggs and potatoes. Supper; the same as breakfast. 4. Clothing.—The homespun and home-dyed woollen fabrics still constitute the bulk of the clothing worn, but are being superseded by imported slop clothes of inferior quality; and the dress on working days is nondescript and often ragged. On Sundays and holidays the proportion of imported clothing seen is greater, and the homespun suits are sometimes very different from the old types, being imitations in cut of the imported goods. The dress of the men consists of a shirt of thick white or chocolate-coloured homespun, with a rather high plain band collar, and large bone buttons, or, in some cases, it is made of imported flannel, purchased in Clifden or Westport. The single or double-breasted waistcoat, with the large collar-flaps buttoned back, is, when worn, generally put on inside the bawneen, or white flannel coat, instead of outside, as was formerly the case. Trousers are of homespun or corduroy. A thick comforter is worn about the neck by many, even in very warm weather. For head-dress, soft felt hats and caps of various shapes, all imported, are now in general use, the old home-made flat, blue bonnet being but little worn, except by the older men. It may be most frequently seen in Westquarter and Inishshark. The men wear thick worsted stockings of dyed or ‘“‘ natural ”’ wool, and very stout boots of native make, as a regular part of their daily attire, but the women and children go bare-footed, except on Sundays and holidays. The dress of the women shows as great changes as that of the men ; it is of the well-known Connemara type. The head is covered by a red kerchief, or small shawl, often a plaid, but so far as seen never by a “‘ mutch” (a cap with white frill), Over the shoulders a small red tartan shawl is folded, half hiding a jacket, or bodice, of homespun, or imported woollen stuff; the petti- coat is short, and dyed a bright red with madder, and sometimes trimmed with a few rows of black braid, and a wide check apron is usually worn. Some women, on Sundays, wear the old large blue cloak with hood and double cape. The small boys wear the kilt-like frock of white, red, or brown Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 355 homespun, buttoned up the back, and reaching well below the knees, until they reach the age of ten or eleven years. The dyes for the homespuns are obtained from plants growing on the islands; the orange used for stockings being got from a lichen (Ramalina scopulorum) ; black and brown from the purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) ; blue from a small cruciferous plant; and red usually from imported madder, but sometimes from water-lily roots. Alum is used as mordant. 5. Dwellings.—A house consists of a kitchen, and one or two bed- rooms; and it is, as a rule, built of dry stones without any mortar, though this is used afterwards for stopping chinks, and plastering the walls internally. Most of the houses are not whitewashed, with the exception of a belt around the small windows, but lime-washed houses are becoming more common than formerly. The house has two doors, front and back, both opening directly into the kitchen; and the windows are situated only on the front of the house ; they are of very small size, and seldom made to open ; yet, often, small as they are, they are nearly filled up, so as to leave only from six inches to a foot square of glazed surface. The chimneys and fireplaces are of the usual type found throughout the rural districts of Ireland, except that in some cases the chimney, after rising perpendicularly nearly to the top of the wall, turns outwards and opens as a square hole in the gable. The roof is straw thatch, laid on over ‘‘scraws” of grass turf, and held down by a net-work of sougans (straw ropes), to the ends of which heavy stones or long pieces of timber are attached. The gable of the house is stepped, so that the thatch when laid on does not project over the end wall, and is sealed down, to prevent water getting under it at this part, by a plastering of clay.1 The thatch is put on fresh every year, a new layer being laid over the older ones, until the lowermost layer is thoroughly saturated with smoke, and quite rotten, when the whole is stripped off and used as manure. The floor is of beaten clay in the kitchen, but the bedrooms are sometimes boarded. The most expensive material used in building a house is wood, which is very scarce, and is usually obtained from drift wood, washed up after a storm, in which way large beams often reach the islands. It is owing to this scarcity of material, and the people haying to build their own houses, that there are so few outbuildings or cattle-sheds, and that the dwelling-houses are so small. The furniture is scanty, and testifies to the poverty of the people. A few 1« Houses thatched in this manner are called on the west coast tighthe croithte, i. e. ‘ shaken houses,’ in contrast to the tighthe fuaighte ‘stitched houses,’ in which the thatch is tied on by ropes or cords.’’—Rry. E. 0’ Grownery. 2B2 356 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. stools, and a rough table or two, with a dresser containing a scanty assortment of coarse earthenware, a spinning-wheel, and a quilting- frame, constitute the furniture of the kitchen. In one corner is a pile of turf for fuel, on which the fowl roost, and above the couples are stored the dried fish, &c., for the winter’s use, and the agricultural and piscatorial implements. The domestic utensils consist of the usual large three-legged pot, slung on acrook over the fire, a griddle, a frying-pan, and, perhaps, a quern, a boran or sieve of sheepskin stretched over a wicker frame, and a couple of skids or shallow, circular wicker baskets. The furniture of the bedroom, or rooms, consists of a couple of tent beds ; afew chairs and, perhaps, a small table. There is very rarely a loft to the house. At night the cattle, fowl, and pigs are taken into the kitchen, the pigs being accommodated in a pen beside the fire-place, while the cattle are fastened at the opposite side of the room. 6. Transport.—The roads are good, and extend over a large part of the islands, but are only used for foot traffic and cattle, as there are no wheeled vehicles. of any description, and all goods are carried either in hampers slung on the back, the usual method of taking home potatoes, &c., or in two wicker panniers or cleaves, slung across the back of a pony or donkey, one or other of which is owned by nearly every family. The harness of these animals is home-made, and of primitive design, the panniers, manufactured from osiers grown on the islands, being slung from pegs on a wooden frame, beneath which, to protect the animal’s back, is a thick straw mat saddle. Both sexes ride on the horses behind the panniers, and both adopt the same position, a side- ways posture, the men not riding astride. The method of taking home the harvest is picturesque; the ponies have cloths hung over their faces to prevent their eating the grain, and are then literally clothed with sheaves, which are hung all round them, and piled up so as to give them the appearance of walking straw stacks. For water transport there are a good many boats of various descriptions, the primaryfuse of which is for fishing; only one, the post-boat, which goes thrice a week to the mainland if the weather permits, being regularly used for transport. The number and classification of the boats are, it is believed, given correctly below, but it was difficult to get any two accounts to agree. There are five hookers, seyen pookauns,‘ fifteen curraghs, one yawl, and about thirty rowing-boats. 1 An undecked sailing-boat, cutter rigged. Brownt-—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 357 Inishshark has about twelve boats of from one to two tons. The natives of this island do not approve of the curragh, for which their coast is too rocky. The ordinary rowing boat is manned by five men, the curragh by three. The curragh is of the ordinary west coast type, consisting of a light wooden frame covered with tarred canvas. V1I.—Fotx-Lore. Of this interesting branch of the subject, I regret to be able to give but little information, as the people are chary of talking upon such matters to strangers, and only a local collector working for a con- siderable time could be expected to gather much. Thanks, however, to the kindness of the Rev. Edward Lavelle, his brother Mr. Michael Lavelle, Mr. Myles Joyce, the schoolmaster of the island, as well as to several of the boatmen and others, I am enabled to give the follow- ing few notes on the subject. The legendary lore of these islands, especially Inishshark, has been very fully dealt with by Lady Wilde, to whose work I must refer the reader. These notes, however, are new. Omens and death-warnings, such as the banshee, the death-watch, and as mentioned previously (p. 352), the giving of wood out of a house to make a coffin foretelling the death of the giver, are fully believed in. Luck.—tThe sight of a red-haired woman or a cat, on starting out in the morning, will bring bad luck to the fishing; and it is stated that people have resorted to the expedient of getting a red-haired girl to lie in wait for a rival, and cross his path as he was starting. To remove from one house to another is also looked upon as decidedly unlucky ; but should a move become necessary, it is always made on Monday to the eastward, and on Tuesday to the westward, according to the Irish saying Luan Soir, agus Mart Siar (Monday, eastward, and Tuesday, westward). Should any addition be made to the dwelling it is always to the east, never to the west. It is extremely unlucky to break a looking-glass; so also it is to mention a priest, or a fox, or a hare while fishing. No man will buy a cow at the New Year without putting some of her milk into his boots, as otherwise she would certainly run dry. People born on Whit Sunday are thought to be exceptionally ill- tempered. The evil-eye, also, is strongly believed in; and if any one praises either a child or a beast belonging to a native without saying ‘‘ God ad 308 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. bless it,” and any evil or illness happens afterwards, the chances are that the blame will be put on the ‘‘bad eye.”” The evil-eye may be rendered harmless by making the sign of the cross in the name of the Trinity. There is an old woman in Bofin who is considered to be a witch, and is said to be in the habit of putting the ‘“‘ bad eye” on people and on domestic animals. There are several beliefs about beasts and birds, such as that the barnacles on the logs of drift wood, which often come ashore, develop into geese, and that a gale of wind may be brought on by the simple expedient of putting a black cat under a pot. Seals are thought to be enchanted men, and will dive if they see a priest or a man in a black coat; their appearance is said to portend bad weather. Who these enchanted men were, and by whom they were placed under the en- chantment, I could not ascertain, but the following mention of this belief is made in a footnote by the late Mr. Hardiman, in his edition of O’Flaherty’s ‘“‘ H’Iar Connaught” (p. 27) :— “Many traditions, connecting these harmless animals with the marvellous, are related along our western shores. Among these there is one of a curious nature, viz. that at some distant period of time several of the Clan Coneelys (Mac Congaile), an old family of Jar Connaught, were by ‘‘ Art magick,’ metamorphosed into seals! In some places the story has its believers, who would no more kill a seal or eat of a slaughtered one than they would of a human Coneely. It is related as a fact that this ridiculous story has caused several of the clan to change their name to Conolly.” Fairies are firmly believed in by many, and one man who is sub- ject to epileptic fits relates long stories of his dealings with them. Many tales are told about them and their doings, but few of them can be collected by a stranger, as the people are very reticent on the subject. They are supposed to exercise a malign influence on infants, especially before baptism, stealing them if good-looking, and supplying their places with puny, wizened changelings. These are got rid of, and the true child recovered by very simple means; it is only neces- sary to light a large fire and put on the pot to boil, and then to threaten the changeling that he will be boiled, when he will vanish, and the lost child be found in his place. Woman who die in childbirth or from puerperal fever are believed to be carried away by the fairies to act as wet-nurses. Mrs. Allies informed me that her baby is regularly spat upon by the people when its nurse takes it out, in order to keep off the fairies Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 359 or the influence of the evil-eye ; and that she had been told by some of the people that they had seen little men, dressed in green, and headed by two others dressed in black, running over the hills. In a recent Paper,! Professor A. C. Haddon gives the following :— ‘In Innisbofin, Co. Galway, the people have a very firm belief in fairies. Mr. Allies, who resides there, informed me that one old man told him that he saw a number of fairy girls, dressed in brown, around him one day when he (Mr. Allies) was shooting rabbits. Mr. Allies offered £50 if a fairy could be shown to him, and £100 if he took a photograph of one. Mr. Allies has not yet paid away any money. Mr. Allies and his brother were quarrying a rock by the side of the harbour, and at last the men refused to work at it any longer, as it was so full of ‘good people’ as to be hot.” It is remarkable that the leprachaun does not appear in any of the fairy tales of these islands, though the fir dearg figures largely in them. 1. Customs.—The old customs kept up here are said not to be numerous. Wakes and funeral observances have been already referred to (p.352). Beltane-fires are lighted on St. John’s Eve, round which the people gather, and, when the fire becomes low, they leap through the smoke over the embers. The custom of chasing the wren on St. Stephen’s Day, so common throughout the greater part of Ireland, is said not to be known here. There are two holy wells on the islands, one, Tober Flannain, in the graveyard close to Tempull Colman, in the townland of Knock, is reputed to have worked many marvellous cures; and the other, Tober Leo, on Inishshark, not far from the cloghan of the saint, is also of great local fame. For the following note on Inishshark, I am indebted to Mr. Michael Lavelle :— ‘There is yet shown a ruin called Cloghan Leo, in which he (St. Leo) is said to have dwelt ; also fourteen stations, to each of which on certain days these people make a holiday, and pray there for the day. There is also a blessed well, called Thobar Leo, at which they pray ; and after praying during the day, they go and sleep in the place mentioned above (Cloghan Leo), but it is now almost to the ground. ‘¢On one of the stations is a granite stone which is hollowed out L« A Batch of Irish Folk-Lore.’’ Professor A. C. Haddon, Folh-Lore, vol. iv., p. 49. 360 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. like a basin ; it contains almost a gallon of water ; it is curious how it came there, for there is not a pebble of granite here.” The people of the same island keep as a special holiday the 11th of April, St. Leo’s day, and will not do any work on it, while the inhabitants of Inishbofin do not observe it at all. 2. Legends and Traditions.—There are many legends and tradi- tional tales about places on the islands, of which the few which could be collected are given below; the main outlines only, in which all versions agree, are related, as each story was heard from more than one person, and the versions differed in detail. Lough Bofin (The Lake of the White Cow).—A very long time ago, so long that nobody knows exactly when, Inishshark was a well- known island, and was inhabited; but Inishbofin was unknown, as, owing to enchantment, it was invisible. One day two fishermen were lost in a dense fog, and drifted on until they found themselves beside a rock, on which they landed and made a fire! As soon as the fire touched the rock, the fog suddenly lifted, and the men found them- selves on the shingly beach (now called the North Beach) of a strange island; on one side of the shingly belt on which they were was the sea, and on the other a lough, and close to them was an old woman driving a white cow down to the water. She drove the cow into the lake, and struck her with a stick, when she was at once turned into a rock. One of the fishermen, who had followed out of curiosity, was very angry at what he saw, and in his rage he struck the woman, and at once both he and she were transformed into stones. The rock and stones may be seen there still. The cow used to rise up out of the lake, and walk about the island when any great event was about to happen, but it is now more than thirty years since she was last seen. It is from this cow that the island takes its name (Inis bo-finne). Carrig Guairim.—An old chief of the islands named Guairim (or Gorham), whose castle was situated just above Bofin harbour, had a dispute with the monks of St. Colman’s Abbey about the payment of tithe, and, not content with not paying, he, with the assistance of a family named Halligan, took the settlement of the dispute imto his own hands by seizing six of the monks, whom he slew by the road- side in Middlequarter, at a spot where their blood is said to be seen still on the anniversaries of the murder. Gorham did not escape unpunished for this bloodthirsty act; he was taken over to Rinvyle 1 Another version is—‘‘ One of them knocked the ashes out of his pipe, for they had pipes then, though we do not know what they used to smoke in them.”’ Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 361 Castle, on the mainland, and tried there; having been convicted, he was put to death, the means of execution being to chain him on a rock, which is left bare at low water, so that when the tide rose again he was drowned. This rock has ever since borne the name of Carrig Guairim or Gorham’s rock. The belief is that ever since a curse has rested on the families connected with the murder, and that, in consequence, no Halligan can ever become a priest; and that several who have tried have all failed from one cause or another. Cromwell’s (or Bosco’s) Castle.—There are many stories related about the old castle on Port Island, at the entrance to the harbour. Tradition says that it was built by a pirate named Bosco, about whose nationality there seems to be much uncertainty: one account making him a Spaniard, another a Dane. He was an ally of Grania Uaile, who had a fort a little farther up along the opposite side of the harbour, and for whom he kept a fleet of boats. He had a chain boom stretched across the harbour’s mouth, from his castle to a place known in Irish as the Cat’s Hole, close to the castle of the Guairim mentioned in the last tale, and to the site of the present R. C. Church, and thus prevented ships from entering or leaving the place without paying heavy dues to him. An embrasure or doorway overhanging the sea is said to have been used by him as a means of disposing of his prisoners ; and just outside the mouth of the harbour, and close under the walls of the castle, is a small rocky islet, called the Gun Rock, on which Bosco is said to have had a heavy gun planted to defend the entrance. During the Commonwealth, the castle is said to have been at first. used as a prison for priests and monks transported thither from the mainland, and afterwards to have been strengthened, provided with a small boat-harbour, and supplied with a garrison, for whom a market was opened in Middlequarter. A large treasure is reputed to be buried somewhere within the castle; and a story is told of a priest who at one time attempted to dig for it, but was ordered to desist by a voice which spoke to him in Irish out of the ground. The Bell of Inishshark.—There once was a marvellous brass bell in Inishshark, which was preserved with the greatest care, as it had at one time belonged to St. Leo, the patron saint of the island, about which the following legend is related. A French ship came to the island, the crew of which plundered the place, and took away the bell; but their theft did not prosper with them, for they had not well got it on board before very rough weather came on, and the vessel 362 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. began to sink.! Suspecting that the bell was the cause of their mis- fortune, they threw it into the sea, and the ship was saved. Next morning, when some of the islanders were searching for sea-weed on the shore, they found the bell lying broken among the rocks. This relic has long ago disappeared, having been cut up into pieces which were worn as amulets, most of which have been taken to America, but it is said that some are still kept as great treasures by some old people in Inishbofin, who refuse to show them to anyone. Richard O’Flaherty, writing in 1684, makes mention of this bell (‘‘H-Iar Connaught,” p. 117). . . ‘* Inisark is of the same property with Bofin and the saint therein worshipped, St. Leo; of whose reliques is a bell there extant.” St. Leo’s Foot-print.—There is pointed out an impression in the rock on which Cloghan Leo is built, which.is said to be the imprint of the saint’s foot, and the people’s explanation of how it came there is, that when he had finished building the cloghan he had to leap down, as he had no ladder, and alighting on the rock he left the print of his foot upon it, where it still remains. There is a tradition on the islands of a large treasure of gold being hidden on Davillaun (a small island of the Bofin group), on which a large vessel of the Spanish Armada was wrecked, and some of the people claim to know exactly where it is. There are also many stories about Lord Nelson, under whom several men from these islands served, and wild tales of the old smugglers; and a very narrow passage between two dangerous rocks through which a daring smuggler once steered his vessel, and thus baffled his pursurers, is pointed out. ARCH ZOLOGY. Though making no pretentions to being an archeologist, yet as an inquiry of this sort would be imperfect without, at least, a partial description of the antiquities of the place, I hope that the notes here- under given may, in some degree at least, supply the want. 1. Survivals.—In these the locality is comparatively rich, a good many old implements and methods of working, which have become extinct in other places, being still common. Such are the continuance of the use of plants and lichens as dyes, and some details of dress, such as the old blue cap, &c., which have been referred to before. 1 One version of the story states that the ship had got as far as the Bay of Biscay ! Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 368 The spinning-wheel and hand-loom are the same as those commonly used on the west coast, the former, as usual, having no treadle. Querns are still in use, and in connection with them the boran, or sieve of sheepskin stretched over a wicker frame, used for screening the meal. Grain is still winnowed by shaking it in a sieve in a strong wind. The method of washing clothes is the same as that customary in Connemara, the clothes being folded, laid in the water of a lake or pool, and beaten with a club or paddle. The tailor, when making clothes, does not measure his customers with a tape, but takes all his measurements on one sheet of paper, marking the lengths by cutting notches out of the edge. The curraghs, which are still in use, are of the usual form; they are rapidly going out of fashion, however. The anchor used for small boats is a stone, not fixed im a wooden clamp, as in Clare and Aran, but having a groove around it for the rope. As mentioned previously, the apparatus used for the shark-fishing is very rude and primitive. 2. Antiquities.— Inishbofin is not very rich in architectural antiqui- ties, and thé few that still remain are being rapidly destroyed; some ruins which were standing in the first half of the present century have altogether disappeared, and the others are much shattered. In Inislishark, also, the buildings have sustained a great injury. It does not lie within my province to enter upon any detailed description of the ruins ; but I desire, in the following notes (extracted almost verbatim from my Field Note-book), to direct the attention of archeologists to the buildings of interest in these islands which are being rapidly blotted out of existence. The number and nature of these have been described by the late Mr. O’ Donovan, Mr. Hardiman, Mr. G. H. Kinahan, and others. In the account of their present condition given below, they are arranged in the order in which they are described by Mr. Hardiman.! Inishbofin.—(1). St. Colman’s church, in Knock townland, built in A.D. 667, is in a very ruinous state, and the interior is filled with rough gravestones and weeds, and in a small recess near the east window is a pile of crania and broken bones. In the enclosure around the church the foundations of the cells (cloghans (?)) of the abbey, or monastic colony, may still be traced, though with difficulty, but the 1 « H-Tar Connaught,”’ p. 116, footnote. 364 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. cells themselves, as well as parts of the church walls, have been pulled down to serve as gravestones, or to build the wall of the enclosure. In the immediate neighbourhood of the church, what is supposed to have been a font, has recently been discovered. (2). Tober Flannain, close to the church, is now surrounded by a wall to keep the cattle away from it. (3). Ait tighe Guairim.—Vhe remains of the building which used to stand on this spot, said by some of the older people to have been of large size, have been cleared away to make room for the parish priest’s residence. (4). Dun Graine, which formerly stood on a large table-like rock a short distance from the entrance to the harbour, has entirely disap- peared, and hardly even the traces of its foundations, can be seen. (5). Dun-mor.—No traces are now left of the earthen fort which formerly stood here. (6). The castle or fort on Port Island, at the mouth of the harbour, known as Cromwell’s, or Bosco’s, castle. This was a small fortified barrack, consisting of a strong wall with four small bastions, enclosing a courtyard of no great size, which was bounded on three sides by buildings capable of lodging a small garrison, and containing a draw- well in the centre. It is daily becoming more ruinous from the exertions of the seekers after stones to burn for lime, who have knocked away all the corner-stones of blue limestone, with the exception of those of one angle which overhangs the sea, and have now extended the same work of demolition to the fine arched doorway. The walls of the inner buildings are also being torn down, to get at any limestones that may be in them, the draw-well has been filled up with rubbish, and a cowshed, constructed of stones torn from the walls, has been built up beside the entrance gate. If it were not for the great tenacity and hardness of the mortar it is hardly likely that any of the building would now remain. Inishshark.—(1). Zeampull Leo.—This old church is now restored, whitewashed, and slated, and is used as the place of worship on the occasions on which the island is visited by the priest. (2). The stone cross, Leac Leo, is now mounted on the east gable of the church ; it is said to have carved on one side of it a chalice, and on the other a human figure, supposed to represent a bishop, with hands extended. Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 365 There is another cross 7m the church which is of much finer workmanship, and is probably the true Zeae Leo. In 1870, when Mr. Kinahan visited the island, the church was in ruins, and was used as a cattle pen, and the cross, or a stone coffin lid, he is not at this time able to say which, was set up on its side, leaving a space between it and the wall to form a trough. (3.) St Leo’s Cave (Uaimh Leo), on the south side of the island. (4.) Thobhar Leo.—St. Leo’s Well is situated, not in the cave, but some distance from the top of a deep and almost precipitous cove, called Fuath Leo. (5.) Cloghan Leo is asmall round cell, now almost completely ruin- ous, built within an enclosure of very little larger area. The saint’s footprint is pointed out in the rock on which the building stands. VII.—Hisrory. As a Paper of this nature would be incomplete without some men- tion of the changes and vicissitudes that the population of the islands has undergone, a slight historical sketch is attempted here. It is not, and does not pretend to be, complete, as unfortunately the material available is very scanty, especially in regard to its earlier history ; for, though the Venerable Bede, the Four Masters, and others make several references to the islands, yet these nearly all relate to ecclesiastical events, which have at most only a secondary bearing on the history of the people, and are not within the scope of this Paper. The annalists record that in the secgnd century a tribe of the Fir- bolgs (Clann Humoir) who occupied that part of the mainland oppo- site the islands were conquered and enslaved by Tuathal Teachtmar, a Scotic or Milesian monarch, and it 1s probable, if the islands were inhabited by members of the first-named people, that they shared the same fate as the rest of their tribe. It is not known whether such was the case, as this is ‘‘the only mention of this teritory while in the hands of the Belgae,” says O’ Donovan in his ‘“ Letters,”’ except that one of their chiefs named Modh, or Modha, gave his name to Inis Modha, or the Clew Bay islands. After the conquest of the Clann Humoir the territory came into the hands of the Milesians, and the records about it relate, at first, to the deaths of their chiefs, and later on in the 9th century to the incursions of pirates (believed to have been Scandinavians), but make no specific mention of Inishbofin or its inhabitants. 366 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. In a.p. 667 (according to the Four Masters, the Venerable Bede, and others), St. Colman, having quarrelled with Wilfridus at Lindisfarne, left that place, where he had been bishop for seven-and-twenty years previously, and taking with him all the Scots (Irish) among the monks, and in addition, some thirty English, he sailed away to Inishbofin, where he settled and founded the abbey in Knock-quarter. To quote the words of the Venerable Bede(given in Hardiman’s Notes on O’ Flaherty’s ‘‘H-lar Connaught’’), ‘‘ Secessit ad insulam quondam parvam, quee ad occidentalem plagam ab Hibernia procul secreta, sermone Scotico Jnés- bofinde, id est, ‘ Insula Vitule Alb’ nuncupatur.”” When they had got settled on the island a quarrel arose between the Irish monks and their English brethren, who apparently did not get the best of the dispute, for St. Colman founded a monastery for them at Magh-eo on the mainland, but seems himself to have lived mostly in Inishbofin, where he died on the 8th of August, 676. From this time forth until the tenth century, when all mention of the abbey ceases, there are several references made by the annalists to the island, but these all relate to the deaths of various abbots or bishops, and no mention is made of any other population than the monastic one. After this there is a large gap in the records. Hardiman says :— ‘‘ From the seventh century to the seventeenth this island was little known beyond the neighbouring shores of lar Connaught and Umhall ui Mhaille; but during the latter eventful century it was considered of importance by the then contending parties in Ireland, and was alter- nately fortified by them.’! The only break in this long period of silence is the traditional account of the possession, for a time, of the islands by a piratical crew, and of the establishment there, in the sixteenth century, of a fort and station for her fleet by the celebrated Grace O’ Malley. On the 14th February, 1652, the islands surrendered to the Parlia- mentary forces, and it was at first resolved to repair the fort, which seems to have been done, for it was occupied for three years after- wards, and in 1655, it was recommended to the Council of State that the garrison should be withdrawn, the works abandoned, and that £600, along with the right to ‘‘sell the barque Elizabeth, of Galway, which was sent to Buffin to carry limestone’ there,’’ should be granted to any undertaker who would block up the harbour. 1 «¢ Hf-Tar Connaught,’’ p. 116, footnote. 2 The limestone referred to was probably the cut stone doorway and corner stoues of the fort. Browne—Lthnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 367 The recommendation was not carried out, however, for in 1656, the fort was repaired and provided with larger guns, instead of some of those formerly in use, of which there were twenty-two. In the same year it was resolved to appoint an ‘‘able pious and orthodox minister of the gospell to be settled in Bofin and paid by the com- pany’’ also ‘‘that Sir Charles Coote do consider of ordering that Colonel John Honnor, the governor there shall suffer no Irish to keepe any boats upon any part of that coast of Ir-conaght the co. of Mayo, or ad- jacent islands” also to exclude all ‘ill affected Ivish”’ from the island, and to remove from the same all dangerous persons, to appoint a magis- trate and make good highways towards the islands. During the Commonwealth the island, as well as the Aran Islands, was used as a prison for priests and monks deported thither from the mainland, and allowed sixpence a-day for their maintenance. The garrison is said to have been kept up for protection against the Dutch, who had formerly made use of the fisheries there, and for whose ships the harbour would have offered a safe place of retreat. Richard O’Flaherty, writing im the reign of Charles II. (1684), makes no mention of the history of the islands beyond stating that they had formerly belonged to ‘‘ this countrey of Conmacny-mara (Connemara) in old times,” but had for three hundred years belonged to ‘the Owles,” the Anglicized form of Umhall, or Umhall Ui Maille, the ancient territory of the O’Malleys, which comprised the modern baronies of Murrisk and Burrishoole, in the County Mayo, which were formerly named Umhall uachtrach, and Umhall iochtrach, or Upper and Lower Umhall. In the reign of James II. the island gave the title of Baron Bophin to John, ninth Earl of Clanricarde. Whether the garrison was regularly kept up after the restoration is uncertain, but it was so during the war in the reign of James IT., for we learn that Colonel O’ Riordan, who held the place for that mon- arch, surrendered to a detachment of the Williamite troops after the capitulation of Galway. The victorious party now garrisoned the place for a while to keep off the French privateers, who would other- wise have made use of Bofin Harbour, as a secure station. The islands are but seldom mentioned after this, indeed they seem hardly to have been known to the outer world. In Seward’s ‘“‘ Topo- graphica Hibernia” (1795), Inishbofin is barely mentioned, and Car- lisle’s ‘‘ Topographical Dictionary of Ireland” (1810) speaks of it as supposed to contain 1200 acres, and to be situated at the distance of about a mile and a-half from the mainland ; its valuation in the King’s 368 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Books was at that time ten shillings sterling. In neither of these works is Inishshark mentioned. The islands seem to have remained in the possession of the Clan- ricarde family until early in the present century, when they passed, by exchange into the hands of the then Marquess of Sligo, from whont they came into the possession of the Wilberforce family, and from them into the hands of the present proprietor, Cyril Allies, Esq. The islands were transferred on 1st February, 1873, from the barony of Murrisk, County of Mayo, to the barony of Ballynahinch, County of Galway, by an Order in Council. The establishment of the fishery station and the construction of new piers at Knock, and at the landing-place at Inishshark, by the Government in 1892, are the latest occurrences in the history of the islands. VILI.—Eranotoey. In the present condition of Irish ethnology, it would be vain to. attempt to propound any theory or form any exact conclusion as to what race or admixture of races gave origin to the present inhabitants of the islands. Their own traditional history speaks of the inter- marriage of some of the islanders with members of the Cromwellian garrison, and of an earlier introduction of a foreign element (some say French, others Danish or Spanish) by a piratical colony; and I am informed by Mr. G. H. Kinahan that he has heard that ‘‘a good sprinkling of foreigners remained in Bofin, that went there while the mine was working.’ Judging from the list of surnames given on a preceding page, it would appear that the amount of foreign blood introduced must be considerably exaggerated, as an analysis of the list shows that a great majority of the names are those of old Connaught families. If the name of the proprietor of the islands, who is English, be left out, there are just fifty surnames on the islands, and thirty-three of these are distinctively Irish, and most of them are to be found in the account of the tribes of Hy Fiachrach, compiled by Duald Mac Firbis (though nearly all in Anglicized forms), eight are Welsh or Anglo- Norman, but of old standing in Connaught, dating back to the 13th century, two are Scotch (Naughton and M‘Kendrick); one, Scufile, is asserted by the people to be of Scandinavian or other foreign origin, and may probably be a corruption of Scholfield or Scovell ; another, Lavelle, seems to be considered locally to be foreign also, but it is Browne— Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark. 369 stated by some to be an Anglicized form of a well-known Irish tribe name ; the seven remaining surnames seem to be modern English. Of the 212 families now living on the islands 20! have surnames of modern English or Scottish origin—29 Anglo-Norman or Welsh, 22 are Scuffles, 17 Lavelles, and the remaining 134 bear more or less Anglicized forms of old Irish names. It may be concluded from this that the population is, on the whole, not much mixed with any element which might not be expected to be found in western Con- naught. [X.—BIsiioGRAPHy. The literature relating to the islands is very scanty, but the following make some mention of them :— Bootu, Str Henry W. Gore :—‘‘ The Basking Shark.’’—Longman’s Magazine, vol. xix., p. 59, 1891. THe Four Masters (Cf. O’Donovay). Happon, Pror. A. C. :—‘‘A Batch of Irish Folk-Lore.’’—Folk-Lore, vol. iy., p. 849, 1898. Hazpimay, J. (Cf. O’Franerry). Mac Firsts, Duarp (Cf. O’ Donovan). Lewis :—‘‘ Gazetteer of Ireland,” 1837. O’ Donovan, JouN : ““MS. Letters to the Ordnance Survey of Ireland.” Now in the Library of the Royal Irish Academy. ‘The Annals of the Kingdom of Iveland,” by the Four Masters. Translated and annotated by Joun O’ Donovan, LL.D. “The Genealogies, Tribes, and Customs of Hy Fiachrach, commonly called O’Dowda’s Country. From the Book of Lecan in the Royal Irish Academy, and from the Genealogical MS. of Duald Mac Firbis, in the Library of Lord Roden.”—Dublin, 1844. O’Franerry, R. : ‘A Chorographical description of West or H-Jar Connaught,” 1684.—Edited in 1846 by James Hardiman. ! Including the landlord’s. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. Ill. 2C 370 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. OFFICIAL : ‘¢ Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland.’””—Dublin, 1846. ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland. Explanatory Memoir of Sheets 73, 74, 83, 84.””"—Dublin, 1876. Wie, Lavy Francesca : ‘‘ Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland, with Sketches of the Irish Past.’?—London, 1887. EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII. AND IX. Prats VIII. Fie. 1.—James Joyce, aged 48 years, No. 5, Middlequarter. Fics. 2 anp 3.—Anthony Lavelle, aged 35 years, No. 2, Knock. Fie. 4.—Group of men, Inishbofin. Taken in order from left to right, the names are, re- spectively :— Back row.—John Burke, boatwright ; Michael Halloran, king of Shark; John Tierney, postman; Mick Kerrigan, weaver ; Redmond Toole, fisherman. Front row.—Martin Baker, John Malia (or Malley), Ned Burke, Redmond Toole, all fishermen. Fie. 5.—Group of women, Westquarter, Inishbofin. Taken in the same order as the other group, the names are—Margaret Ward, Nancy Browne (first cousins), Nelly Holloran, Mary Holloran (daughter of last), Brigid Concannon. Prats IX. Fie. 1.—Quern still in use in Middlequarter, Inishbofin. Fie. 2.—Spinning wheel in Middlequarter. Fie. 3.—Method of washing clothes, Church Lough, Knock. Mazar ohy XVIII. ON TWO MONASTIC SEALS THAT HAVE LATELY COME INTO THE POSSESSION OF THE ACADEMY. By run REV. DENIS MURPHY, S.J. [Read January 22, 1894.] Two seals have lately come into the possession of the Academy : one by purchase, the other by gift. The first is the seal of the abbot of the Monastery of Canons Regular of Premontré, in Trinity Island, Lough Cé, Co. Roscommon. This Order, the members of which are usually called Premonstraten- sians, took its name from Premontré, in Picardy, where its first house was established in 1120 by the founder of the Order, St. Norbert, after- wards Archbishop of Magdeburg. Several of its houses were dedicated to the B. Trinity; hence it is sometimes confounded with the Trini- tarian, a totally different Order, established by St. John De Matha ’ for the redemption of Christian captives from the hands of the Moors. Of this Order, too, there were several houses—priories and hospitals they were called—in Ireland. The Premonstratensians had nine houses, either abbeys or priories, in Ireland. Their great benefactor seems to have been Clarus Mac Maoilin, Archdeacon of Elphin; he founded four of their abbeys, this among the number. The date of its foundation, according to De Burgo, is about 1215. An abbot of this house, probably the last, Eugene O’Mulchiran, was put to death in Dublin in 1580, together with his neighbour, the Cistercian Abbot of Boyle, as may be seen at p. 255 of Triumphalia S. Crucis. This seal was found on the strand, near Galway, many years ago, and was kept by the finder and his family as a sort of relic. It has been lately purchased for the Museum, from Mr. Lynch, Mainguard- street, Galway. The legend round the edge facing inwards is : S ABBATIS SCE TRITATIS. DE LOCH QU E. In the field of the seal there is a standing figure, over the head of which is a star, but this may be put in only to mark the end of the legend; he holds in his left hand a book (it may be the Rule 202 372 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. of the Order), or perhaps the model of a church. The outlines of the figure are so indistinct that it is not easy to say whom it is meant to represent. I am inclined to think it is the founder of the Order ; for Fie. 1. he wears a mitre, and in his right hand he has a pastoral staff, the crook of which is turned outwards, which usually betokens episcopal jurisdiction as distinguished from that of an abbot, which does not extend beyond his own monastery and its dependencies. The second seal is that of the Cistercian priory of Athlone. The houses of this Order are usually abbeys; but when the members of the house are few, or for a short time after its establishment, it is but a priory ; the authority of the Pope raises it to the rank of an abbey, and gives him who is at the head of it certain privileges which do not belong to the Superior of a priory. The date of the erection of this monastery is uncertain ; nor do we know of what house it was an affiliation. It stood on the Connaught side of the river, on or close to the site of the castle. In 1216 King John gaye the abbey four carucates of land in exchange for the site on which he wished to erect the Castle of Athlone. In the ‘‘ Annals of Clonmacnoise,’’ under the date 1216, we read: ‘‘The English Bushop that was Deputy (John De Gray, an interesting sketch of whose career in Ireland has been given by Professor Stokes, in his ‘Anglo-Norman Church in Murenuy—On Two Monastic Seals. 373 Treland’), and Richard Tuite founded a stone castle in Athlone, wherein there was a tower of stone built ; which soon after fell and killed|the said Richard Tuite, with eight Englishmen. My author Fie. 2. sayeth that this befell by the miracles of St. Queran, of St. Peter and St. Paul, upon whose land the said castle was built.” Nothing whatever remains of the monastery; but the name of the patron is retained in the parish of St. Peter. The legend round the edge of the seal is: ee S PRIORIS SCI PETRI DE ATHLOYN. In the upper part of the field the B. V. Mary supports with her left arm the Child Jesus, whose right hand is raised in blessing : his head is surrounded with a nimbus. In the lower part, under a canopy, a priest fully vested, wearing the wide chasuble, more in use in former times than now, stands at an altar, saying Mass. His left hand holds a chalice covered with the pall. His right is raised, making the sign of the cross over it, with only the two first fingers extended, a manner of blessing now used only by bishops. A tall cross is on the altar in front of him. This seal came into my possession some years ago, having been given me by the person who found it, on what was formerly abbey land, near the Shannon. I have given it to the Museum. he 374s XIX. ON AN OGAM MONUMENT, RECENTLY FOUND IN COUNTY KERRY. By THE RIGHT REV. DR. GRAVES, LORD BISHOP OF LIMERICK. [Read Frpruary 12, 1894.] THE Ogam Monument which I am about to describe was discovered in the end of April, 1893, in the townland of Ballinyoher (Barony of Corkaguiny, Co. Kerry, O. 8. Sheet 45), in the neighbourhood of which many other Ogam inscriptions have been found.! It was visited a few days after by the Rev. Patrick Sweeny, who furnished me with an accurate drawing and a well-made rubbing of the inscription, which is quite perfect. It reads— COIMAGNI MAQI FITALIN. No doubt can be entertained as to any of the characters. Dealing with inscriptions which are perfect and complete, we can speak with confidence as to the mode in which they are to be read. The conclu- sions of Ogamists, when they comment on imperfect inscriptions, and are obliged to eke out their readings and explanations of them by means of conjecture, cannot be thoroughly depended upon. They may mislead us by the ingenuity with which they are stated, and thus retard the progress of this branch of epigraphy. Besides its perfect legibility, there is yet another reason why this inscription deserves special notice. It contains a Proper Name which, so far as my knowledge of Ogams extends, is absolutely unique. After recelving the rubbing, I lost no time in trying to find the name Firatry in Irish hagiological and historical documents. I looked in vain in the Annals and Martyrologies, and in the different copies of the Sanctilogium Genealogicum. At last, in the treatise De Hatribus Sanctorum Hibernieé (ascribed by Colgan and others to Aingus the Culdee), I lighted upon a name, Fdlin, which, as the hard 7 of the ancient Ogam would be softened into p in the more modern mss., can safely be identified with that which appears in the inscription. This 1 E.g. those discovered at Ballynahunt, Brackloon, Lougher, Rathduff, Ballin- tarmon. Most of these bear crosses. Graves—An Ogam Monument found in Co. Kerry. 375 name occurs in two passages of the treatise De Hatribus, as given in the Book of Leinster :— (1). Bochra was the mother of the three sons of Fidlin, viz. Laidcend, and Cainnech, and AMdchobran.! (2). Bochra was the mother of the three sons of Irlamain, viz. Fidlin, and Liadnain, and Dulechain.? The Book of Ballymote*? and Book of Lecan‘ agree with the Book of Leinster as to (2); but in (1) they read “‘ Bochra was the mother of the three sons of Bochra,”’ the names of the sons being the same. Laidhgenn, Cainneach, and Accobran, the three sons of Bochra, are commemorated on November 28, in the Martyrologies of Donegal and Tallaght, and by Marianus Gorman. In the Felire,® ‘“‘the sons of Bochra” are celebrated in the text on that day, while the Commen- tator in the Lebar Breac gives their names as above. They are described as ‘‘ of Achad Raithin in Ui-mic-Caille in Deisi Mumhan.” Assuming, as I am warranted in doing, that the Latin V corre- sponds both with the Irish F and the Welsh GU or GW,° I may safely compare Fitalin with Vitalinus and Guitelin or Gwythelin. As for the second vowel in /vtalin, it is so obscure in sound and unaccen- tuated, that it matters little whether it is written as 4a, é, or 0. Let us take the Welsh analogue first. We find in Nennius’ the following pedigree, which presents to us a Guztolin as great-grand- father of Vortigern, and therefore a person who may have lived in the middle of the fourth century :— “¢ Hee est genealogia illius [Guorthigirni] que ad initium retro currit. Ferni- mail, ipse est qui regit modo in regione Guortigirnianum, filius est Theudubr; ipse Theudubr est rex Buelth regionis; Theudubr filius Pascent, map Apguocan, map Moriud, map Eldat, map Eldoc, map Paul, map Mepric, map Briecat, map Pascent, map Guorthigirn, map Guortheneu, map Guitaul, map Guitolin, map Gloui: Bonus, Paulus, Mauron, Guotolin, quatuor fratres fuerunt, filii Gloui qui edificavit urbem magnam super ripam fluminis Sabrine, que vocatur Britannico sermone Cair-Gloui, Saxonice autem Gloucestre.”’ 1 Book of Leinster, p. 372, col 2. 2 Ibid., p. 372, col. 3. 3 Book of Ballymote, pp. 212, 213. 4 Book of Lecan, f. 34 b.b. ° Stokes, Fel., pp. clxv., clxxiii. ® Todd (Liber Hymnorum, p. 105, n.), speaking of the identity of the names Futurna and Whithern, says:—‘‘ This pronunciation of the aspirated W as F is still common in many parts of Ireland, where the peasantry still pronounce the word white nearly as fight ; and the author of Capgrave’s Life of St. Finnian tells us that in Wales his name was pronounced Winnin.’’ * Hist. Nennii, ch. liv., p. 71, in Monumenta Historie Britannice. 376 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. In the same work,! we read of a later Guitolin :— ‘¢ A regno Guorthigerni usque ad discordiam Guitolini et Ambrosii anni sunt xii, quod est Guoloppum, id est Catguoloph.”’ To the last word a note is appended— ‘*Scilicet Pugna Guoloppi: de qua apud alios nil occurrit.”’ In the Irish version of Nennius? we find the following :—‘“ Gor- tigern, son of Gudal, took the chief sovereignty of Britain, and he was oppressed by the fear of the Cruithnians and Gaels, and by the power of Ambrose, King of France and Letavian Britain.”’” Dr. Todd adds a note :—‘‘ Aurelius Ambrosius, with his brother Uthyr Pendragon, are said to have taken refuge in Britanny, and to have sailed from thence to Totness, where they declared against Vortigern. But Aurelius is not elsewhere described as having any sovereignty in Gaul. The Latin has merely ‘ Necnon et a timore Ambrosii.’ ” The passage in the Latin Nennius® stands thus :—‘‘ Guorthigernus regnavit in Britannia: et dum ipse regnabat, urgebatur a metu Pictorum Scottorumque, et a Romanico impetu, necnon et a timore Ambrosi.” We also find in the Genealogies and Families of the British Saints in the Iolo MSS. mention made of Gwythelin, Saint and Bishop, the son of Teithyalch, the son of Nynniaw, of the family of Bran the Blessed. It is added: ‘‘ It is not known where he was Bishop of.” But in the Book of Llandaff,® the name Gwythelyn occurs in the enumeration of Chorepiscopi of Llandaff prior to St. Dubricius, and the Editor adds that he may be recognised among the Archbishops of London in Godwin’s list in the form Guitelinus. As Ninian is sup- posed to have died in the year 4832, this Guitelin must have lived about the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. I have met with one other reference to a person of this name. St. Ambrose, in one of his sermons,® mentions a Vitalinus along with his brother Marianus, as deserving praise for their generosity in con- tributing towards the work of building a church. For the present, I am not to be regarded as endeayouring to identify the Fitalin of the Ogam with any one of the persons mentioned above. I only remark that the designation Mag: Fitalin, used, as I suppose it is, to denote a descendant, might refer to a pro- genitor belonging even to the fourth century. 1 Toid., p. Ul. 2 Todd’s Ed., p. 78. 3 Chap. xxviii. 4 Page 541. 5 Page 623. © Serm. xiii. 6. Graves—An Ogam Monument found in Co. Kerry. 377 Coimagni, which gives us the name of the person commemorated in the inscription, is the genitive of Cocmagnus, the Ogamic form of Coiman, Coeman, Caeman, Caoman. Of these spellings the first is the most ancient. We have examples of it in the Book of Armagh—(1) latinised as Coimmanus,’ (2) asin the simple form Covman.? The termination -agni, as representing the genitive of names ending in -an, is common in Ogam inscriptions. Thus Artagni (Artan), Colomagni (Colman), Talagni (Talan). The name Cozman appears to have been essentially an ecclesiastical one. Ido not remember to have met with any instance of its having been borne in ancient times by a layman. On the other hand in Colgan’s Trias and Acta Sanctorum we meet with it as the name of different individuals about twenty-four times.* It is probable, nay almost certain, that this number might be reduced to about fourteen, which is that of the Coemans named in the Martyrology of Donegal. Ofthese the following appear to deserve especial mention :— I. Coeman Brec, better known as Aingus MacNissi, founder of the See of Connor. He died September 8, 514. A full account of lim, based on the life in the Bollandist AA.SS. and on notices in the Tripartite Life, and elsewhere, is given by his distinguished successor, whose recent loss we all deplore.‘ IT. Coeman of Airtne Coeman (Ardcavan) near Lough Garman (Wexford Harbour), was the son® of Talan, son of Cathbad, of the race of the Gregraide, of Loch Techet, and brother of Atracht. In the Felire® on June 12 is commemorated ‘‘ the pious Coeman, who was named vehement Sanct-lethan.”? He was so called after a queen with whom he had been in bondage as a little gillie. A curious story is told of his having been carried off from the queen by Bishop Ibair, in spite of her opposition. The Martyrology of Donegal (June 12) identifies Caomhan of Ard- Caomhan with Sanct-Lethan, and adds that ‘‘ he had the same mother as Caoimhghin and Natcaeimhe, of Tir-da-ghlas, 7.e. Caoimell, daughter of Cennfhionnan, son of Cis, son of Lughaidh. He was of the race of Corb Uloim, son of Fergus, son of Ross, son of Rudhraighe.” This would make him brother of St. Kevin of Glendalough. But it 1 Fol. 9, b. 2; Stokes, Trip., p. 305. * Fol. 19, a. 1; Stokes, Trip., p. 350. 3 See especially Trias, p. 177, note 88. 4 Reeves, Eccl. Antiq. of Down and Connor, pp. 237-9, ° Stokes, Trip., p. 108. 5 Stokes, Fel. xciil., ci., cil. 378 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. may be doubted whether the brother of St. Kevin, who is said to have died in 617 at the age of 120, could have taken away the monks of Bishop Ibair, who died in 500. Many of the Kerry families, be it observed, were descended from Corb Uloim. IIT. Coeman of Killchoeman “‘in regione Gesill,’’ son of Brecan, King of Britain, and Dina, daughter of the King of the Saxons. In the Martyrology of Donegal (under Dabheog, January 1), he is called ‘‘the pilgrim.” In the Treatise ‘‘ De Matribus,” he is described as the ‘pilgrim of Kilchoemain in the region of Geshil, and other places.” His father Brecan, Bracan, or Brychan was probably the son of the captain of a-band of Irish rovers; his reign is computed to have begun about a.p. 410. There is hopeless confusion as to the names of his children and grandchildren in the Irish and Welsh hagiographical records.1_ The British parentage of this Coeman is noticeable in connection with the name /’talin. Colgan is disposed to identify him with Coeman the Deacon, and with Mochoemog, commemorated on the same day (November 3) as Coeman of Enach- truim (vi.). TY. Coeman of Sendomnach, the Deacon. In the Tripartite Life,* we read: ‘ Patrick founded at Ardlicce a church, named Sendom- nach, and he left there Deacon Coeman’’; and in the Book of Armagh,’ “ Diaconus Coimmanus carus Patricio, qui fuit im cecclesia magna Airdlicce.’’? Colgan is disposed to identify him with Coeman the Pilgrim, son of Brecan. V. Coeman of Kill-Ratha. We are also told in the Tripartite Life,* of a man of Patrick’s household, Coeman of Cella Rath. Probably this is the same as® Coeman of Kill-Riada, Patrick’s ‘* Maccoem”’ (literally, youth: Colgan calls him Cubicularius, cham- berlain), spoken of as one of ‘‘the twenty-four persons who were in orders with St. Patrick.” All the above belong to the Patrician period. Out of the Coemans of later death, we may select for special notice the two who are commemorated in the Felire. 1 See especially Rees, Essay on Welsh Saints, p. 112, &c.; Colgan, AA. SS., Life of St. Canocus, Feb. 11. 2 Stokes, Trip., p. 105. 3 Fol. 9, b. 2; Stokes, Trip., p. 305. * Stokes, Trip., pp. 200, 350; Book of Armagh, fol. 19, a. 1. 5 Stokes, Trip., p. 264; Book of Leinster, p. 353, col. 4; L. Breac, p. 220, col. 2. Graves—An Ogam Monument found in Co. Kerry. 379 VI. Coeman of Enach Truim in Leix.! He was commemorated on November 3, and is said by Marianus Gorman to have been the brother of St. Caoimhghen of Glendalough, probably on the authority of the commentator on the Felire in the L. Breac. He flourished in the middle of the sixth century. VII. Coeman Bree of Ros-each in Meath.? He was of the race of Conaire, son of Mogh Lamha. He died, according to the Four Masters, in 614, and was commemorated on September 14. I have not attempted to identify the Coeman of the inscription with any of the Coemans enumerated above. But I have gathered these notices in the hope that some Irish hagiologist, more sanguine than I am as to the possibility of disentangling the confused mass of Coemans, may light upon some clue to a connection between one of them and the race of Fitalin. I only claim to have shown that this monument, rude as it is, and bearing on it no Christian emblem, presents evidences which, far from denoting a pre-Christian antiquity, accord with the views of those who believe, as I do, that these monu- ments belong to the Christian period—in fact, for the most part to a time between the fifth and the seventh century. 1 Mart. Don., Noy. 3; Stokes, Fel. clxii., clxviii. 2 Mart. Don., Sept. 14; Stokes, Fel. cxxxvii., exly. 3 Notices of some of the Coemans will he found in Shearman’s Loca Patriciana, pp- 160-162, and 178. Though some of his identifications appear to me very doubtful, his remarks upon the intercourse between the ecclesiastics settled near Wexford and their brethren in Wales are interesting in connection with the inscrip- tion now before us. eS SONe | XX. A DESCRIPTION OF TWO LARGE SPINEL RUBIES, WITH PERSIAN CHARACTERS ENGRAVED UPON THEM. By VY. BALL, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Science and Art Museum, Dublin. (Puare X.) [Read January 22, 1894.] Axout a year ago I was informed that Lady Carew possessed a precious stone, with inscriptions in Persian characters engraved upon it. Some months later I wrote to her ladyship on the subject, and she was so kind as to furnish me with sealing-wax impressions of the Persian characters, and she subsequently afforded me an opportunity of examin- ing the stone itself, which proved to be a spinel ruby; she also per- mitted a careful model of it to be prepared. It was at the same time weighed, but, being mounted with gold attachment, the actual weight could only be estimated, and the specific gravity could not then be ascertained. Though polished superficially, it is quite uncut, and is of an irregular pear shape. Upon four of its surfaces, respectively, the names or titles of four of the Mogul Emperors are engraved. These facts led me to make a preliminary communication on the subject to the Atheneum (No. 3454, 6th January, 1894). I now propose to re- capitulate the facts with the further detail and illustration which such an opportunity as the present affords. The history of the stone is, that it was purchased by Lady Carew’s grand-uncle, Mr. Charles Alison, c.s., H.M. Ambassador in Persia, from ~ a merchant at Teheran, before the year 1870, say some twenty-five years ago. Having been brought to England, it was for a time placed in the hands of Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, the well-known jewellers of Bond-street, and by them I have been informed that its true weight is 1833 carats, and they have fully confirmed the view that it is a spinel, by a further examination. Its dimensions are as follows :— length, 1°62 inches; maximum breadth, -9 inches. As was the case with many other rubies and other precious stones of the period to which it belonged, it was bored through from end to end, to admit of ERRATA. Page 389, line 4 from bottom, for ‘ Six-latch’ read ‘ Six-lakh’. >, 390, ,, 10 from top, omit ‘in the year 1880’. oe > 9» Ll ,, 4, after the word ‘ Persia,’ insert ‘in the year 1880’. R.I.A. Proc., Vol. IIl., 3rd Ser., No. 2. i ” TA Arlene! * 2 ‘ a me : : : ie + — 1 a : a ; f rn / A ‘ jk rr iy wy - a a 7 - = [ ; ; ane, alk wh ne Me # taal Fie at st ieee a if Bees OHO Papa e OIE ie? Gar uli Yonks Yay ty mA Nt ih) f = tah 2 4 = H > ing x f ae a oat _ 7 t ie ’ : t ‘ S i \ i al ’ - ' 1 " ' 7 \ \ \ i i Batt—Description of two large Spinel Rubies. 38t its being strung on a chain or suspended as a pendant,! and this means: of suspension has been made use of in its present mount as a pendant from a necklace. The four engraved names, to which reference has just been made, are as follows :— (1). Akbar Shahi? (2). Shah Akbar, Jahangir Shah, 1021 (= a.p. 1612). (3). Sahib Kiran Sani, 1039 (= a.p. 1629). Salib Kiran Sani signifies Second Lord of the (auspicious) con- junction (of the planets Venus and Jupiter). It was a title assumed by the Emperor Shah Jahan, having been borne first by his ancestor Timur. As we shall see, it was also used by Nadir Shah.? (4). Alamgir Shah 1070 (= a.p. 1659). Alamgir, or Lord of the Earth, was the title which Aurangzeb, who reigned from 1658 to 1707, conferred upon himself. In this case the last figure of the date is obscure or was never engraved, only the figures 107 can be read with certainty; but the smallest mark being the dot, for cipher, it has been adopted as the most likely figure to have been either obliterated or perhaps even taken as understood. My thanks are due to Professor Mir Aulad Ali for the assistance he has given me in reading these inscriptions. Without his aid I should not have ventured on my own authority to publish them. Before proceeding further with an account of this stone it will be convenient to describe another spinel ruby, which my inquiries from Messrs. Hunt and Roskell have, so to speak, drawn from previous oblivion. Not only was this firm so good as to send me a leaden model of it, which showed some indistinct traces of an inscription, but on the occasion of a visit which I subsequently paid to London they placed in my hands sealing-wax impressions taken from the original, which are perfectly legible and of considerable interest in themselves ; but they possess an additional value from the fact that, about the year 1 The custom of boring precious stones was common in the East; it is referred to by Tavernier ; and Manouchi mentions that Akbar sent some splendid rubies to Goa, on which he desired to raise money for the expenses of the war in Gujarat ; but, as these rubies were bored, no purchaser could be found for them. 2 Shahi is the possessive form of Shah. 3 According to the Tuzwh-i-Jahangiri, translated by W. H. Lowe, Calcutta, 1889, pp- 90, 91, the title was even used occasionally by Jahangir. As Shah Jahan claimed to be the ‘second,’ and Timur was admittedly the ‘first,’ Jahangir’s use of it must haye been ignored by his son. 382 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 1861, after the impressions were taken, the stone itself was cut down to form a rectangular-shaped jewel, and there is no other record of the original form and engraved characters at present extant. The weight of the stone, before cutting, was 197 carats, and in its reduced form it may, perhaps, be only about one-third of that amount. Its present possessor is not known. Messrs. Hunt and Roskell state that this stone was also a spinel.? There were five separate inscriptions on it as follows :— (1). Akbar Shahi, 1009 (= a.p. 1600). (2). Shah Akbar, Jahangir Shah, 1016 (?) (= .p. 1607). This date is doubtful as regards the 6. (3), Sahib Kiran Sane (t.e. Shah Jahan), 1044 (= a.p. 1634). (4). Alamgir Shah (t.e. Aurungzeb), 1069 (= a.p. 1658). (5). Bazgu-band* Shah Shahan. Sultan Nadir Sahib Kiran. Muntakhb Jawahir-Khana Hindistan. ‘* Armlet of the King of Kings, Sultan Nadir, Lord of the Con- junction. A selected piece from the Jewel-treasury of Hindustan.”” There is no date to this triplet; it must, however, have been engraved between 1739, when Nadir looted Delhi, and 1747, when he was murdered at Khorassan. The similarity in the titles on the two rubies has been made apparent above, in addition to which it may be mentioned that there is a considerable degree of similarity in the style of the engraving of the names, respectively, excepting only Akbar’s. This is suffi- ciently apparent in the transcripts (see Plate X.), although the two sets were reproduced by somewhat different methods—one by tracings from photographic enlargements, and the other by hand-copies. In making the former, as well as in the ingenious reproductions of the inscriptions on the models, from which he took the photographs from which the Plate has been prepared, I had the assistance of Mr. A. M‘Googan, Technical Assistant in the Science and Art Museum. 1In order to estimate the sp. g. of the original stone, I have compared its weight with that of the leaden model, and its sp.g. The ruby weighed 197 carats, or 40°66 grams, from which it may be deduced that the stone was most probably spinel, thus— 40°66 x 8:928 (sp. g. of model) \ ~ 3-37 ( rather low, indeed, for spinel, + 107°10 (weight of model) ? \ but far too low for corundrum. 2 In Persia, the Bazu-bdand or armlet often contains a talisman. Batu Description of two large Spinel Rubies. 383 Historica ENGRAVED Ruprss. With the object of, if possible, tracing the past history of the two rubies under notice, it is necessary to consider some of the state- ments as to rubies in the Mogul’s and in the Shah’s treasuries and elsewhere, which have been recorded by writers. An early notice of a monster ruby is to be found in ‘‘ Elliot’s History of India,” vol. u. App. 454. Haji Muhammad states that one weighing 450 mishkals (=say about 10500 carats), the like of which had never been seen before, was obtained in the plunder of the temples of Thaneswar by Mahmoud of Ghazni, in the year a.m. 405 (A.D. 1011). This sounds lke a fabulous weight. I do not think it worth while to refer here to the exaggerated stories by Varthema, Marco Polo, and others, as to monster rubies in Burmah, Ceylon, &c., as they have no direct connection with the present subject. The term ‘‘balass,’’ often used in the accounts of rubies, was derived originally from Balkh, in Badakshan, where there are ancient spinel-ruby mines. In my edition of Tavernier’s ‘‘ Travels” I have dealt with the ascribed origins of this name, which is now applied by jewellers to rubies of a particular hue, not, exclusively at least, to spinels. There is reason for thinking that many of the large historical spinels, both of the East and Europe, may have come from the locality in Badakshan, or possibly even from Afghanistan, rather than from the better known localities of Ceylon and Burmah. The following extract! is one of the earliest references by a European to this region :— Timur ‘caused all the Meerzas and nobles in the land of Samarcand to come to this festival; amongst whom was the lord of Balaxia, which is a great city? where rubies are procured, and he came with a large troop of knights and followers. “‘The ambassadors went to this lord of Balaxia, and asked him how he got the rubies, and he replied that near the city there was a mountain whence they brought them, and that every day they broke up a rockin search of them. He said that when they found a vein, - they got out the rubies skilfully, by breaking the rock all round with 1 Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de Clavigo to the Court of Timour at Samarcand, A.D. 1403-6. See Hak. Soc., p. 162. * In the remote mountains of Badakshan there are the richest known mines of rubies and lapis-lazuli. 384 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. chisels. During the work, a great guard was set by order of Timur Beg, and Balaxia is ten days journey from Samarcand, in the direction of India.” The earliest notice of an engraved ruby appears to be by Josafa Barbaro, who about the year 1472, was shown a number of balass rubies, by the Shah (Uzun Hassan), among them being one fashioned like a date fruit, of good colour, bored through and weighing 100 carats. He also saw a string of twelve balasses ‘‘lyke unto olyves, of a very clene color, between 50 and 80 carrata a pece. Then took he out one sable balasse of two ounces and an halfe of a goodley facon, bigge as a fynger, without any hole and of excellent color, in the one corner thereof were certein Moresco l’res graven which moyed me to aske what l’res they were and he answered me that a certein King had caused them there to be graven, syns which tyme neither his predecessor nor he wolde grave any more, because it shulde deface the whole.’’ Our author on being asked by the Shah the value of the balass ruby said it was worth a city, and he proceeds to. say: ‘‘ This doon he shewed me a rubie of an ounce and an halfe, of the facon of a cheste nutte, rounde, faire coloured, and clene; not bored through and bounde in a circle of gold, which seemed to me a mervallouse thinge, being so great; he shewed me after, many balasses both jewelled and unjewelled, amongst the which there was one in a square table made after the facon of a little nayle, rounde about the which were five other table balasses, the great one in the middest weying 380 carretts or thereabouts, and the next twenty carretts or thereabouts, betwene the which there were certein great perles and turcasses set, not of any great estimasion, for they were olde.” At this time Behlol Lodi was Emperor of Hindustan, and it was not until eighty-four years later that Akbar came to the throne, viz. in 1556. But the facts are of importance, as they show that at this early date there were several large rubies in the Persian treasury. It was probable one of these which Chardin described in 1666 as a monster ruby as big as a hen’s egg, and of the finest and deepest colour. It is said to have had the name Scheek Sephy (sve for Sheik Safvi) engraved upon it.? He flourished in the fourteenth century, and was the progenitor of the Safvean dynasty. 1 <¢Travels to Tana and Persia,’’ edited by E. D. Morgan and C. H. Coote; see Hak. Soc., 1873, pp. 53-60. 2 King, ‘‘ Nat. Hist. Precious Stones,’’ 1870, p. 237; Enault, ‘‘ Les Diamants de la Couronne’’: Paris, 1884, p. 84. Bati—Description of two large Spinel Rubies. 38d In a native account! of the completion of the Peacock throne by Shah Jahan in the year a.H. 1044 (=4.p. 1634), it is stated that, in the jewelled recess intended for the cushion forming the seat of the king, there was set ‘‘a ruby worth a lakh of rupees? which Shah Abbas, the King of Iran, had presented to the late Emperor, Jahangir, who sent it as a gift to his present Majesty, the Sahib Kiran-i-sani, (¢.e. Shah Jahan) when he accomplished the conquest of Dakhin. Onit were engraved the names Sahib Kiran (Timur), Mir Shah Rukh* and Mirza Ulug Beg.* When, in course of time, it came into the possession of Shah Abbas, his ndme was added; and when Jahangir obtained it he added the name of himself, and that of his father (z.e. Akbar). Now it received the name of his Most Gracious Majesty Shah Jahan.” When in the year 1739, Muhammad Shah bestowed upon Nadir Shah, ‘‘ with his own magnificent hand,”’ says another native writer,® the peacock throne there was set in it a ruby upwards of a girth (three fingers) in breadth, and nearly two in length (six fingers), which was commonly called Avraj-i-alam,‘‘ tribute of the world.” Dow,* who obtained his information from native sources, gives the following account :— ‘Tr the year 1635 great rejoicings were made upon the birth of the Prince (Suliman Sheko), and the Emperor, on the occasion, mounted a new throne made of solid gold, embossed with precious stones. The throne had been seven years in finishing, and the expense of the jewels only, amounted to twelve hundred and fifty thousand pounds of our money. It was afterwards distinguished by the name of Takht-i-taus, or the peacock throne, from having the figures of two peacocks standing behind it with their tails spread, which were studded with jewels of various colours to represent the life. Between the pea- cocks stood a parrot of the ordinary size, cut out of one emerald. The finest jewel in the throne was a ruby which had fallen into the hands of Timur when he plundered Delhi in the year 1398. Jahangir, with peculiar barbarity, diminished the beauty and lustre of the stone by 1 Badshah Nama of Abdul Hamid Lahori ; Elliot, History ot India, vol. vii., pp. 44, 46. 2 The value of a lakh of rupees at the time was about £11,250. $ Shah Rukh Mirza, 4th son of Timur, died (aged 71) in 850 a.H. (= 1446 a.p.) *Ulug Beg, son of Shah Rukh and grandson of Timur, born at Sultanieh, 796 a.H. (1898 a.p) Published his Astronomical Tables, a.u. 841 (1437); slain 859 a.H. (=1449 a.p.) See ‘‘ Ain i Akbari,’”’ Calcutta, by Col. Jarret ; 1891, p. 5. 5 Jauhar-i Samsam, Elliot, vol. vii., p. 89. 6 «* History of Hindustan,”’ vol. ili., p. 140. London: 1812. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. II. 2D 386 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. engraving upon it his own names and titles; and when he was reproved for this by the favourite Sultana, he replied: ‘This stone will perhaps carry my name further down through time than the empire of the house of Timur.’ ”’ The statement in this paragraph, and some other evidence which I have recently acquired, tend to show that the usually stated valua- tions of the jewels in the peacock throne are from five to ten times more than they should be; but I cannot enter into that question further on the present occasion. This ‘‘tkrone”’ ruby, as we shall see, subsequently became the property of Ranjit Singh. The periods during which the above mentioned monarchs of Persia reigued were as follows:—Timur, 1402 to 1409; Shah Rukh Mirza, fourth son of Timur, 1409 to 1446; Ulug Beg, son of Shah Rukh, 1446 to 1449 ; Shah Abbas I., 1582 to 1627. The latter was an ally and friend of Jahangir. Even the taking of Kandahar did not, it is said, cause a serious rupture between them. It is uncertain whether the despatch of the ruby by Jahangir to Shah Jahan was in 1617-6 or not until 1625, as on both of these dates there was reconciliation and a passage of presents between father and son. We next have 'l'avernicr’s description and figure of a ruby belong- ing to Shah Abbas IT. of Persia :—‘‘ It is of the thickness and shape of an egg, is bored through, and of very high colour, with the exception of a small flaw at the side. The custodians are unwilling to say what it cost . . . those who keep the registers of the King of Persia’s jewels merely say that this ruby has been in the possession of the King for many years.””! The weight is given, with the figure, as 192 ratis. This would be equal to about 161;*; English carats. Apart from the discrepancy in the weight, the figure alone would suggest that this was the stone referred to by Barbaro above. A figure of what may probably have been the largest of the stones mentioned by Barbaro, and subsequently by Chardin, has recently been made to do duty as the ‘‘ Mogul’s diamond.”? It certainly does not represent a facetted stone, but a huge cabuchon, probably a ruby. Sir William Jones records that Ali Kuli Khan, afterwards called Adil Shah, the immediate but only temporary successor of Nadir Shah, before Shah Rukh was installed, had the treasures left by Nadir tran- sported from Kelat to Meshed, where he distributed a portion of them to great and small, without limit; he dispensed the purest silver like common corn, and the most precious stones like pebbles and 1 Tavernier’s ‘‘ Travels,’’ Eng. Ed. 1889, vol. ii., pp. 127, 449. 2 See Nature, Nov. 5, p. 6; and Dec. 10, p. 126, 1891. Bati—Deseription of two large Spinel Rubies. 387 glass. Subsequent revolutions and thefts served to further distribute them. ! Recent visitors to Persia? mention a large ruby on the crown of Persia as having belonged to Aurungzeb. It may be so, but the evidence connecting it with him is not recorded, and one is tempted to suggest that it may really be one of the stones above mentioned, which date back to two centuries or more before Aurangzeb’s time. Aurangzeb’s name is, however, definitely connected in history with aruby. As I have elsewhere related, Shah Rukh, the grandson of Nadir Shah, was oppressed by Mir Alum Khan, who tried to force him to give up the Koh-7-nur diamond, It passed, however, into the hands of Ahmad Shah, the then King of Kabul, who came to Shah Rukh’s assistance in the year 1751, and he took it with him to Kabul. But Shah Rukh still retained other jewels (including the original peacock throne ?) which had belonged to Nadir Shah, and these (about 1796), excited the eupidity of the eunuch Aga Muhammad Khan, who had already, from various sources, amassed many of the richest jewels brought by Nadir from Hindustan, which had, since his time, fallen into the hands of Lootf Ali Khan and sundry chieftains of Khorassan. Malcolm’ relates that ‘‘The blind Shah Rukh, who had long ceased to exercise power, was yet believed to possess many precious stones of great value, which he had concealed even from his sons. These were demanded by Aga Muhammad Khan; but he denied the possession of them, and took the most solemn oaths to persuade that monarch to credit the assertion; but in vain. Torture in all its forms was applied, and we almost cease to pity this degraded and miserable prince when informed that his discoveries kept pace with the pains which were inflicted upon him. ‘Treasures and jewels were produced which had been sunk in wells and built up in walls; and at last, when a circle of paste was put upon his head, and boiling lead poured into it, he in his agony discovered a ruby of extraordinary size and lustre, which had once decorated the crown of Aurungzeb, and was the chief object of the search of Aga Muhammad. That monarch, we are informed (Persian MS.), the moment he heard that this jewel was found, expressed the greatest joy. He directed the tortures of 1“ Hist. de Nadir Shah,” vol. i1., p. 127-8. 2 Viscount Pollington, ‘‘ Half Round the World,’? London, E. Mason, 1867, p- 281; .Eastwick, ‘‘Journal of a Diplomat,’’ 1864, vol. ii., p. 118; Curzon, ““Persia,’”’ vol. i., p. 316. 3 <* Tavernier’s Travels,’’? Eng. Ed., vol. ii., p. 414 4“ History of Persia,” vol. ii., p. 290. 2D2 388 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Shah Rukh to cease.”’? He died, however, soon afterwards from his injuries. General Cunningham,! in some remarks on the “Aoh-i-nur and Mogul diamonds, refers to a great ruby with Shah Jahan’s name upon it. He gives no reference to the source from which he quotes the statement, merely pointing out that the ruby was not noticed by Taver- nier; but as his suggestion is that Tavernier mistook the histories of two stones, one being the Great Mogul diamond, it seems possible that ‘‘ruby”’ is a slip for diamond, and that the diamond with Shah Jahan’s name, to which reference is made on a subsequent page, was really in- tended in the passage. However, he may have referred to the ruby set in the throne which was presented to Jahangir by Shah Abbas L., and also bore Shah Jahan’s name, as stated above. In the year 1813 Ranjit Singh forced Shah Shuja, then a suppliant for his aid and protection, to deliver up to him the (oh-i-nur; and he also, it is said, took from him many other precious stones and other treasures, and bought up some which the Shah had been forced to dispose of to merchants in Amritsar. It is certain that he acquired, either by this means or otherwise, several of the jewels which had been taken from Delhi to Persia by Nadir Shah. Among the stones in Ranjit Singh’s possession was an oriental topaz, possibly the one described by Tavernier as belonging to Aurangzeb. Murray,? on what authority is not recorded, states that Ranjit had paid 20,000 rupees forit. The same author mentions that Ranjit possessed a ruby of con- siderable size with the names of several kings engraved upon it, in- cluding those of Aurangzeb and Ahmad Shah. Another account of this ruby, which is said to have considerably exceeded two tolas (= say, about 120 carats) in weight, is given in a manuscript history of Kashmir and the countries adjacent by Abdul Qadir of Benares, 1830. According to him the names of five emperors were engraved upon it.® Lastly, Baron Von Hugel‘ gives the following account, which iden- tifies it with the stone set by Shah Jahan in the peacock throne. His quotation from Dow (see ante, p. 835) has suffered in the translation, first into German, and then back again into English :—‘‘ A pommel of 1 « Arch. Survey of India Rep.,’’ vol. ii., 1871, p. 390. 2 ¢¢ A Memoir on the Diamond,’’ 1889, p. 71. 3 See Prinsep, ‘‘ Oriental Accounts of the Precious Minerals,’? Journ. A. S. Bengal, vol. i., 1832, p. 360. 4“ Travels in Kashmir and the Punjab,’’ London, 1845, p. 303. Bati—Deseription of two large Spinel Rubies. 389 one of the saddles struck me as particularly worthy of remark, having a ruby two inches square, bearing on it the name of Jahangir. Dow, in his ‘History of Hindostan,’ tells us that when Jahangir had his name engraved on this beautiful stone, the celebrated Empress Nur Jahan told him that she thought it a pity: to which he answered, ‘This jewel will more assuredly hand down my name to posterity than any written history. The house of Timur, may fall, but, as long as there is a king, this jewel will have its price.’ Many other names are now engraven on it, the best known being Ahmad Shah’s, who found it in the famous peacock throne (Zakht-i-Taus), made by Shah Jahan in 1635 in Agra. This stone was stolen from Timur in the year 1398 at Delhi, and Jahangir repurchased it.” (The statements italicized are mistakes apparently due to a misreading of Dow). The mention of Ahmad Shah (if the King of Kabul is meant) prevents the identification of this ruby with the one wrung fram Shah Rukh by Aga Mahommed in 1796, as described above, for Ahmad could not have possessed that stone, as he died in 1778. Ahmad’s name, as we have seen, does not occur on either of the rubies now described, although Nadir’s does on one of them; but as we have a figure of this ruby of Ranjit’s by Miss Eden,! it may be pointed out that, making allowance for the drawing possibly not being a close representation of the form, there is some resemblance between it and Nadir’s ruby, which has been above described, and has the names of four emperors and of Nadir engraved upon it. Ranjit’s ruby may very possibly have been sold in 1850, when the (oh-i-nur was sent to England, and the publication of this notice may perhaps lead to further information. Miss Eden’s description, which accompanies the figure, merely says that ‘it is an uncut ruby on which some Persian characters were engraved.” Schonberg speaks of an emerald (? mistake for ruby), on which several names were engraved, as being in the treasury at Lahore.’ I have recently been informed that there is a large engraved ruby, called the six-latch ruby, held in pledge for a debt by the Indian Government. It is, or was some years ago, lodged for safety in a bank at Lucknow. The name Sulaiman is said to be engraved on it. 1 «« Portraits of the Princes and People of India,’’ pl. xiv. 2 «¢Travels in India and Kashmir,’’ Lond., 1853, vol. i., p. 322. 390 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Although it is not intended to mention here all the known engraved or carved rubies which are recorded, still it may be of interest to state that there are two small figures of Buddha carved out of a ruby and a sapphire, respectively, in the British Museum. Rubies, too, have been cut into rings, thus :—‘‘ In the second year of his reign, Shah Jahangir was presented by Shaikh Farid-i-Bukhari with an immense ruby made into a ring, which weighed 1 mzsqual, 15 surkhs, and was valued at 25,000 rupees.’’} Lord Auckland possessed an emerald ring engraved with Jahangir’s name in the year 1880. A Burmese ambassador to Persia had a ring with him as a present from the King of Burmah for the Shah. Hoop, collet and all, were cut out of one solid and perfect ruby of the first water.* I do not propose to enumerate here the large rubies which in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, found their way to Europe; but there are many references to rubies of exceptional size in the writings by native authors, and among them the following :— ‘Raja Ram Chand Bhath of Chunagarh presented Akbar (? 4.x. 991) with a most valuable tribute of 100 rubies and other precious stones. The value of one of the rubies exceeded 50,000 rupees.’’® ‘In the year 1015 a.n. (1606 a.p.) Asaf Khan presented a ruby to Jahangir (which his brother Abu-l-Qasim had bought for 40,000 rupees, and sent to him), as a pesh-kash, on his appointment as Wazir.’”* ‘In the year 1015 a.u. (1606 a.p.) Jahangir relates that he pre- sented aruby worth 25,000 rupees to his son Parwiz.°? ‘On the 21st of the same month I presented Parwiz with a necklace of four rubies and one hundred pearls.’ ’’® In the year 1616, according to Sir Thomas Roe, the Portuguese offered the Emperor Jahangir a balass ruby, weighing 13 folas, or 54 oz. (= 783 carats), for 5 lakhs of rupees. He would only give one lakh for it." ! See Blochmann, ‘‘ Ain i Akbari,’’ Calcutta, 1871, p. 414. 2 See Wills, ‘‘ The Land of the Lion and Sun,’’ Lond. 1883, p. 376. 3 ¢¢ Tarikh-i-Badauni,’’ Elliot, ‘‘ Hist. of India,’’ vol. v. p. 531. 4 See “ Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri,’’ Calcutta, Lowe, 1889, p. 87. 5 See ‘‘ Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri,” by Lowe, Calcutta, Bib. Ind. p. 63. 6 Td., p. 65. 7 See ‘‘ Travels,’’ London, Trubner, 1873, p. 32. Bati— Description of two large Spinel Rubies. 391 EnGravep Dramonpbs. Not only were rubies engraved under the directions of the Mogul Emperors, but there are records of three diamonds having been marked with their owners’ names. The first was a diamond which weighed, it is said, about 116 carats, and was bought in Constanti- nople in the year 1866. It was recut, and sold to the late Gaikwar of Baroda for 33 lakhs of rupees. Its weight was then reduced to about 71 or 72 carats. Its original form and the inscriptions have, however, been preserved by models and impressions. The latter read as follows :— . (1.) Shah Akbar, Jahangir Shah, 1028 (a.p. 1618-19). Here Shah Akbar, as in the cases of the rubies, is honorific or expletive, and a prefix to the name Jahangir, within whose reign (1605-28) the diamond was therefore engraved. The style of the monogram is similar to those on the rubies. (1I.) The second inscription is Sahib Kiran Sant, 1089 (= a.p. 1629-80). This means the Second Lord of the Conjunction, a title by which Shah Jahan was known, as has already been explained. At one time I was inclined to believe that this diamond might have been one which it is recorded Shah Jahan, then Prince Khurrum, obtained when he took refuge in Golconda, and sold to his father, Jahangir, for 1,000,000 rupees ;1 but although the weights of both nearly correspond, being about 120 carats, the dates forbid the sup. position, the date of the acquisition of the latter being said to be 1623-24; while that of the first engraving of the former was 1619, as has been just stated. One published account of this diamond? contains an extraordinary misreading of the inscriptions, although copies of the original characters are given with it, which can be easily deciphered. Needless to add, the deductions drawn are wholly erroneous as to the persons named ; and the dates, too, are inaccurately given in a.p. equivalents. The second engraved diamond is that known as the ‘* Shah” which weighs 86 carats. It is in the Russian Treasury, having been presented to the Czar by the Shah of Persia in the year 1829 or 1830, when the son of the Crown Prince, Abbas Mirza, Prince Khusru, the 1 Herbert’s ‘‘ Travels,’? London, 1677, p. 87. 2 «] Remains of a cranium much mutilated, the only parts of any value now remaining being the os frontis to which the facial bones are attached: evidently from a male subject. Glabella and superciliary ridges, large. Face, narrow. Orbits, large, and oblong in shape. Nose, leptorhine, with high, narrow nasal bones. Palate, deep, hyper- bolic. Teeth, all sound, but much worn on crowns. Group II. consists of the following bones :— (1) A right temporal bone, undoubtedly belonging to a male subject. It presents two points of interest, the presence of a paramastoid process, and that lateral bulging of the mastoid process, which has recently been observed in some modern crania from the west coast. (2) The fragments of two scapule, both belonging to the right side. (3) The inner extremity of the left clavicle. (4) Upper extremity of a right humerus and the lower extremity of a left humerus, not perforated. 424 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. _ Group II.—continued. (5) Fragments of ulne of opposite sides, evidently belonging to the same individual. (6) A right radius in a good state of preservation, and fragments of another of the left side. (7) A complete set of lumbar vertebra, and a number of other vertebre. (8) A large number of broken ribs, very massive in character. (9) The lower end of a femur. (10) Lower portions of two tibie of opposite sides, apparently belonging to the same person. (11) An os calcis and a scaphoid. This group evidently consists of the remains of two individuals. It would appear, for the following reasons, that both were males: Ist, the temporal, from its colour, evidently belongs to the larger group, and it undoubtedly is masculine; 2nd, the presence of parts of two scapulee, both belonging to the right side, and both presenting massive muscular markings. The bones in this group, which are useful in giving a clue to the stature and physical build of the owners, are: (1) the right radius, and (2) the lumbar vertebrae. The radius measures 250 mm. in length, which, calculating by the usual canon, would indicate that it had belonged to a man of 1:769 m., or about 5 ft. 9 in. in height. The Lumbar Vertebre. Of these there is, as before stated, a complete set, fortunately in good condition. The measurements are— lst. Lumbar Vertebra— mm. Anterior height, : Nd) Posterior ,, i HO 28 Vertebral Index, : Ey eo) 2nd. Lumbar Vertebra— Anterior height, ; Beatin 4/7 Posterior ,, : Jusin29 Vertebral Index, 5 . 107-4 Cunnincuam & BrownE—Osseous Remains at Bray. 425 The Lumbar Vertebre.—continued. 3rd. Lumbar Vertebra— mm. Anterior height, : a P40 Posterior ,, : . 80 Vertebral Index, 3 alittle 4th. Lumbar Vertebra— Anterior height, , 5 Dy Posterior ,, : DE Vertebral Index, : . 100:0 5th. Lumbar Vertebra— Anterior height, : eh 2h Posterior ,, : 26 Vertebral Index, ? 5 BRS Lumbo-vertebral Index, . 105°3 The lumbo-vertebral index is extremely high. The average indices for various races are’— 76 Europeans, . : 6 | BSS) 17 Australians, . : 5 BOWS 23 Andamans, . : . 104°8 10 Negroes, 5 : . 105°4 In only one European spine yet recorded is the index so high as in the present instance, viz. in an Irish male subject in whom it reached 107-7. It is much to be regretted that no other lumbar vertebree were recovered, as it would be a matter of much interest to ascertain whether this is merely an isolated case, or whether the great flexibility of spine which it indicates is to be regarded as a character- istic of the people to whom these bones belonged. Group III. Contains only a pair of innominate bones and a right femur, all evidently belonging to the same individual, a male. The femur when received had been recently fractured across the middle, it was easily repaired however, and measured 448 mm. in length, it evidently belonged to a young adult of low stature, 1632 mm., or 5 ft. 44 in. in height. 2 Vide ‘‘The Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes,’’ Cunningham Memoirs, R. I. Acad., No. 2, p. 5. 426 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Glabello-occipital length, . ; : 186 | 178 179 Ww Ophryo-occipital length, . . .| 183 | 175 | 176 wv Maximum breadth, . . . . 138 | 139 140 w Minimum frontal breadth, . : : 92 89 97 95 Bi-stephanic breadth, 3 é ; 98 113 113 Ww Bi-asteric breadth, . : : : M1 3 e106 111 Ww Basio-bregmatic height, . . . We wel)= Bl 26 132 Ww Frontal longitudinal are, . : : 120 127 137 138 Parietal longitudinal are, . : : 130 117 123 Ww Occipital longitudinal are, . Ww 110 113 Ww Nasio-opisthial arc, Ww 304 373 Ww Foramen magnum length, . : : Ww Ww 37 Ww Basio-nasial length, . Ww 95 94 Ww Total sagittal circumference, Ww WwW 504 Ww Auriculo-nasial radius, . : : 95 83 90 Ww Auriculo-bregmatic radius, 5 : 119 113 122 Ww Auriculo-parietal radius, . : : 123 126 124 Ww Auriculo-occipital radius, . : A 110 108 105 Ww Auriculo-bregmatic are, . : : 3803 300 316 Ww Horizontal circumference, : : 517 505 512 Ww Cubic capacity, : é : 3 Ww 1378 1520 WwW Facial. Nasio-alveolar length, ; ; : 71 70 66 70 Bi-zygomatic breadth, : : Ww 120 129 Ww Bi-dacryc breadth, 23 18 23 22 Basio-alveolar length, : : ; Ww 91 89 Ww Auriculo-alyeolar, . : F 100 91 91 Ww Bimalar breadth, ‘ : : ‘ 112 101 109 103 Nasal length, . 2 : : : 49 49 46 46 Nasal breadth, . : : : . 23 20 23 22 Orbital breadth, ; ; : : 38 35 37 38 Palato-maxillary length, . é ‘ 51 50 48 50 Palato-maxillary breadth, . S ‘ 61 62 60 60 CunnincHamM & BRowNE—Osseous Remains at Bray. 427 | a | : | 6 | > InpIcEs. Cephalic, . F : : : : 74:2 79°4 78°2 Ww Altitudinal, ; ; : ; : Ww 72:0 13°7 Ww Auriculo-vertical, . ; ‘ : 64:0 64:6 68°2 Ww Fronto-zygomatic, . : : : Ww 93°3 87°6 Ww Gnathic, . : 3 : : 4 Ww 95°8 94:7 Ww Auriculo-gnathic, . . . .{ 105-3 | 109-5 | 101-1 w Upper facial, . : : 3 ‘ Ww 58°3 51:2 Ww Nasal, : ; : : : : 46:9 40°8 50-0 47°8 Orbital, . 5 3 : : 2 89°5 94°3 86°5 76°3 Palatal, . : : . : et S6 124-0 125°0 120-0 [ 428 ] XXIV. ON THE FUNCTION OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN IRISH. By ROBERT ATKINSON, M.A., LL.D., Secretary or Counctt. [Read May 25, 1891.] Te Ir is not intended in the present Paper to exhibit any paral- lelisms with the kindred members of the Aryan family of languages, and still less to enter into general questions of the origin and development of the subjunctive mood itself: the investigation is limited to the one language, Irish, and even therein, to the use of the mood as found in one single verb. But this verb is of constant occurrence, and its forms happen to be singularly clear and precise ; besides which, the number of cases in which it actually occurs in the real life of the literature furnishes a satisfactory proof that the rule here laid down must have been thoroughly realised, as it is constantly obeyed by the various writers from whose works the examples are collected. To make it perfectly definite, I have limited the examples, not only to one verb, but also to its occurrence in one set of printed books,—the four published volumes of the Senchus Mor. To make the investigation as complete as possible, I give here an exhaustive statement of ad/ the forms of the particular verb found in the above four volumes. The instances of the occur- rence and use of the subjunctive mood, will thus be peculiarly significant. The verb is dognim, ‘I do.’ It is not necessary for me to repeat what I have said in the Appendix to my edition of Keating’s Ti Diop-garte on DAir, p. xxvii, as to the general lines of transformation in the root-syllable. The list of forms is followed by a table in which the twin stems of Present, Future, Arxkinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Irish. 429 and Perfect are set forth in such a manner as to enable the distinction in the forms to be easily grasped and readily remembered. ‘The subjunctive mood belongs to the present stem alone, in the present and imperfect tenses. These twin stems, marked [A] and [Z], exhibit, respectively, the independent and dependent forms of the verb, the latter denoting the forms that are found after the negative, the inter- rogative, and prep. cum rel.; e. gr., [A] dogni, ‘he does,’ [Z] nz déine, ‘he does not.’ dorigne, ‘he did.’ nt dearna, ‘he did not.’ dogéna, ‘he will do.’ nt dingne, ‘he will not do.’ [ Analysis of all the Forms. | ACTIVE. Vol. 1. $.M. :— [A] Indte. pres. 3 sg., dogni, 36,8; 152, 23; 170, 21; 178,6; 218,y; 242,2; doni, 52,9; 64,18, 23(!); 56,2; 58,18; 92,24; 116,2; 142,14; 152,5,9; 164,8; 180,12; 206,13; 208,24; 212,27; 242,24; 272, 22; 274,16; 286, 34; 298, 18; nf, 68, 24; 3p/., dogniat, 64, 15 (!); 60,9, 17(!); doniat, 186,24. Study. pres. 3sg., dogne, 22, 14 (!); 28, 28(!); 56, 19; 58, 21; 60,1; 94,x; 180, 28; done, 138,11; 3 pl., dognet, 56,21; 58,2; donet, 88,6; 90,7. Indic. imperf. 3 sg., dognid, 44, 3,5; donid, 66, 30; 3 p/. dognidis, 20, 21 ; dognitis, 46, 19 ; donidis, 20,19. Subj. imperf. 3 sg., doneth, 2,22. Fut. 3 sg., [dodena, 22, 15(!)]; dogena, 138,19; 244,6; 3 pl., dodenat, 62, 20 (°wt) ; dodenuit, 62,3,5,10,16, 18. Perf. 3sg., dorigne, 10, 7, 8, 13; 26,15; 34,19; 68, 3; 154, 6; 180, 4; dorigni, 154, 17 ; 178, x; 180, 1; 200,17; dorinne, [70, 22 prob. -rinned, pass. ]; 76,2; 178, 24 ; [252, 23, pass. ;] 286, 37; dorinde, 2,17; 178, 147,21; [(conid-)rinne, 178,9]; doréne, 34, 11; dogeni, 70, 23; dogein, 72, z]; 3 pl., (8) doronsat, 72, 31. [Z] Imper. 2 pl., denaid, 22,17. Indic. pres. 3 sg., dein, 244, 9, 14; dene, 242, 6; dena 242, 4(!); Hxclitic, denand, 42, y; 92,26, 218, [22 dena(n)d]; 244,14 ; 256, 14; denann, 116,2; 138, 11; denunn, 56, 5 (nd), 9. Subj. pres. 3 sg., dena, 54, z; (8) derna, 10,8; 54, 14; 58,1; 86,16; 138, 24 ; 216, 23, 20; (2 p/., muna derna sib, 252, 14) 3 pl., denaid, 56,10, denut, 56,22; 58,9; denuid, 294, z; (8) dernat, 54, 11,12; 88,1, 12; 90,20; dernut, 58, 27; 62,15,19; 296,4; dernait, 62,5, 10,13. Fut. 3 sg., dingne, 244, 10; 254, 21. Perf. 3 sg., derna, 74, 2; 182, 26; 162, 8; °nu, 76,3; 3 p/., dernsat, 90, 4 (da nd. (!) ; dernatar, 176, 8 (?). Passivz. [A] Indic. pres., donither, 14,6; 44,2; 142,25; 226,26; 274, 31 (ot); 288,13. Subj. pres., dognether, 178, 7; dognethur, 68,14. Jmperf., dognithea, 430 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 44, 11,12; doronta, but H. 3,17 has dorinned[!], 2, 14. Perf., dorigned, 32, 28; 68, 16 ; 76,24; dorinned, 76,10; 80,2; dorined, 68, 4; (8) dordénad, 26, 7, 12; pl. dordnta, 286, 2. [Z] Pres., dentar, 116,19; 118,x; 126,307; 180,13; 192,8; 202, 32- 244,29; 256,16; 280, 3 (tur). Jmperf., denta, 20,16; 44,14. Perf., dernad, 146, 8; derna[d], 34,2; 62,2; 244, 24. Vol. 1. S.M. :— [A] Pres. Indic., dogni, 36,19; 140, note; 258, y; 292, 8, 34; 302, 24; 308, 6,9; 364, 24; doni, 24,2; 38, 27; (54, y; 56, 10 (should be subj.) ; 70,15, 16, 27; 164, 1; 170, 1; 186, 16; 188, 132; 222, 10; 232, 22; 234,7; 236,19; 252,10; 280, x; 284, 28; 290, 6; 292, 7; 294, y; 296, 11,16; 318,17; 320, 24; 328,14; 330, 22; 332, 25; 336,15; 340, 4; 342,25; 398,6; 406, 7,9; dani, 410, 22, 23; dogniat, 62,8; doniat, 88,3; 270, 22; 282, 20; 284, x; 288, 10; 292,30; 294, I; 310,x; 314, 4,34; 316, 13,27; 318,17 (should be swdj.); 322,7; 326, 23; 396,6; 398,7; 402, 7. Sudy., dogne, 88,1; 274,11; 280, 2; 292,22; done, 68, 3, 5; 172, 16; 296,8; 298,12; 302,12; 306,29; 312, 8,9; 392,7; donet, 312, 11; 388, 20. (b) dorona (?), 86y; Imperf. Indic., donitis, 190, 19.1 Sudy., dogneth, 70,13; 306, y; 320, 29; doneth, 292, 24; 312,2. Fut., dodena, 56, 2,8; 70,14; 84,4,5; 94,24; 154,9; 242,9; 358,22; 390,10; dogena, 38, y; 56, 12; 68, 3,6; “nu, 170, 3; 214, 17 ; dodenaig (!), 206, z (cond., -denad?); dogenat, 360,3; 362, 10,y; dodenuit, 82,29; 84,6,8; 86,10; “nut, 358, 24. Perf., dorigne, 36,24; 140,21; 142,11,19; 188,14,17; 268,2; 298, 1,3; 302, 31; 320,28; °gni, 90,6; 142,4; 170,5; dorinne, 6,29; 14,2; 36,5; 54, 22,25; 64, 4,7, 11, 21; 228, 21 (-rine); 290,2; 296, 25,27; 406, 6, 9 (nd); 408, 4,6, 12; doroine, 66,13; 70,4; dorinsiut, 56,13; ma d-rigneset, 198,8; dorignigsit, 214, 12; dordnsad, 296, 21; dorinnadar, 68, 8; doronut, 88, 11 is only an error. [Z] Pres. Indic., dein, 186, 20, 21; denat, 374,x; denuit, 214,3 ; 288, 11 (!); 300 10(!); 314,32; 334, 20; 336,2. Hneclit., denand, 296, 22; denunn, 38, 28; 218, 16; 290, 7; 292, 32. Sudy., dena, 392, 20; (8) derma, 70, 127; 86, 22 (°); 118, 232, 26, 27; 120,4; 288,20; 302,2; 338, 22, 24,27; ‘nu, 274,8; dernat, 86, 28 (-nat); 190, 20, y ; 262, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12; 272,11; 318, 18; 388, 25; dernuit, 150, z; 192,6; 206,12; 302, 2(!); Ind. Perf. 3 sg., derna, 66, 12. PassIveE. [A] Pres., dognither, 46,6; 100, 28; 130, 14; 138, 11 (should be sudj.) ; 158, II; 180, x, y, 300, 20; 198, 5 (on suwdj.); 242,11; °thur, 102,21; 144,15; doni- ther, 12,5; 186,75; 324,85; 352,29; 356, 25, 26, 27 ; 402,20; 404, 20; 406, 24; *thur, 48,13; 54,14; 100,11; 104, 23. (Swdj.), donethar, 374,17; 398, 13. 1 This should either be subjunctive, or the translation is wrong, and should be ‘‘as they used to maintain.” ArTKiInson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Irish. 431 Imperf. Subj., dognetha, 252,25. Fut., dodentur, 302, 8; 398,x, note; dogen- tur, 94, 20; 170,4. Perf., dorinnead, 292,2; dorinded, 242,26; dorigned, 236, 8; doronud, 266, 3. [Z] Pres., dentar, 214, 7; 320,8,22; 344,22; 366, 24; 402,5; 406, 22, 28; “tur, 36, 20, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27 ; 302, 29 ; 334,14, 27. (Subj.) derntar, 352, 13, 14; dearntur, 156,z; 194, 14(cin co dernartur(!); 196, 23, dernar(!); dernaiter, 262, x. Imperf., denta, 391, 8. wt., dingentar, 262, 12 (a n(d)inginter) ; dingnestur (!), 144,12,14. Perf., dernad, 60, note®; (90, 3, 8, derna; 90, 10, 15 dernuid (!)]; 236, 15, 16; 360, 23 (derna!); 408, 13 (!) ; 416, 23. Vol. ur. 8.M. :— [A] Pres. Indic., dogni, 52, 18; 116, y; 354,22; 380, x; 410, 21; doni, 6, 21; Pra C)in 22,22 5 02,22); 68,19; 98,4; 174,95; 208, 1, 45 266,4- 2725 5; 280,12; 284,2; 292,3(5!!); 384,25; 390,2; 410, 19?; 414, 20,25; 416,9; 418, 6; 456, 24; 470, 2; 472,1; dogniat, 6,24; 292, note; doniat, 4,17; 6,27; 142, 19; 194,9; 216, 6; 254, 18; 262, 23 ; 266,17, 18; 290,2; 294,16; (doniad, 192, 10) ; (congniat, 238, 2). [Rel., gnius(?), 226,24]. Swbj., dogne, 108, 16; done,; 12,25; 22,23; 26,18; 164,9,16; 292,6; 294,19; 382, 11,18; donet, 26,22. Imperf. Indic., donith, 226, 25. Subj., doneth, -neith, -neich, 132, 2; 270, 24, y, 272, 3; 412,28; 456,21; 458,9. Hut., dodena, 60,9,12; 64, 12, 68,7; 184,y; 186,1,5; 196,5; 228,14; 254,15; 386,24; 498,17, 22; 500, 2; dogena, 238,23 ; 266,10; 408,3; 420,3; 490,1; 498,13; 502, 20; rogena, 174,x; dogenat, 12,9; 142,22,x; 172,14,17; 268, 16,20; 290, z; 440,9; dodenat, 26,21. (Condit.) dogenad, 282, 11; dodenad, 390, 10,13. Perf., dorigne, 54,12; 84,15; 90,x; 92,4; 194,x,y; 196,18; 202,5; 224,9: 228,17; 846,25; 440,15; 442,10; 500,16; dorine, 92,1; 98, 12,17, 18, 22; 110, 7; 156, 9; 160, 23; 162,2; 196, 20; 198, 5; 216, 14,18; 226,5; 282, 22; 260, 7; 298,17; 318, 13,15; 320,22; 384, 8; 390, 24; 408,5; 450,8; 500, 8; 512, 3,23; 516, 16,17, 20,24; 518, 9,21; 628,7,19; 530,7; dorinne, 58, 15 (nd) ; 64,15; 202,9; 386,13; 408,1 (nd); 520,18; 522,4; doroinne, 122, y; 124, 715, 24 (nd); 156, 10(n); 468, 6 (n); 512, 13, (n); dorinset, 412, 27 ; doron- sat, 68, z. [Z] Imper. 2sg., dena, 472,5; 474,22; deine, 56,25; 3sg., denad, 40, 12; 54, 26,27; 490,1; 3pl., denat, 20,4;;440,x;' 442,18. Pres. Indic., deine (!), 112,9; 3yl., denuit, 54,24. nclit., denann, 274,13; 472,2. Sudj., dena, 52,19; 546, 1,z (mi); derna, 10,6; 48,4; 52,26,28; 56,11, 12; 62,19; 224,53; 228, 13; 266, 9; 384, 4; 388, 6; 502, 19; denat, 354, 23; dernat, 114, 14; 142, 22, 24 (°nad); 144,2; 172,19; 270,2,3; 414,25; 426,10. Imperf. Subj., dernad, 54,17; 226,8; Fut., dingne, 62,9; Condit., dingned, 282, 14. Perf, derna, 108,y; 174,1,2; 194,z2; 224,12; 226,7; 298,11; 304,3; 310,10; 382,13; 408,6; 462,12; 504,7; dernatar, 108, 9, 14; dernsat, 290, 5 ; 386, 25 ; dernsatar, 94, I. 432 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. PASsIvE. [A] Pres. Indic., donither, 142, 5; 152,11 (°ar); 164, 1; 366, ro, 25 ; 400, 1; 424,19; 538,22. Subj., doneither, 36,y; 208, 7; donethar, 492,19. Imperf. Subj., doneithea, 364,3,7. Perf., dorigned, 6,31; 84,11; 110,8; 210,5; 216,15; 316,17; 440,8; 442,1; 500, 20(°nid!); dorined, 98,23; 146,11; 216, 11; 288, 15 (nn); 318, 12; 336, 8, 25; dorinad, 120, 13; dorindad, 216, 10; doronad, 118, 4, 10, 16,19; 120, 8. Fut., dogentar, 76, 9 (tur); 128, y; 202, 23; 204, 2; 210, 21,22; 250, y; 252,2; 254,16; 284,4; 286,18; 402, 11, 16, 19; 510, 24; 540,17; 542, 12; dodentar, 210,19. Condit., dodénta, 62, 21, 22. [Z] Pres. Imper., dentar, 64,6; 162, 26; 400, 4 (derntar). Swiy., dentar, 272, 21; iderntar, 172, 16; 536, 31. Imperf. Subj., dernta, 364, 4. Perf., dernad, 394, 16; 406, 20, 21; 438, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10; 544, 12 (denud !) ; 512, 1 (do derna!}). Vol. rv. $.M. :— [A] Pres. Indic., dogni, 244, 26, z; 246,4; 250,4; 332, 1,2; 352,23; don, 24, 12(?); 54,16; 56,4; 58,7; 154,15, 25; 222, 8 (dani); 230,5; 236,17; 244, 6,14; 376,6; dogniat, 54,26; doniat, 56, 14,17; 90,8; 116,9; 118, 16; 124, 22, 23, 24; 140,15, 16,19; 148,4; 230,13; doniad, 74,8. Swudyj., dogne, 60, 26; 250,93; done, 98,3; (pl.,) donead, 174,30; doned, 162,22. Imperf. Subj., dogneith, 132,10; doneth, 122,21; doneich, 16,14; 56,23; roneich, 16,12. Fut. 2sg., dodena, 20,15; 3sg., dodena, 34,31; 156,26; 292,13; ragena, 16,12; 3 pl., dogenat, 56,2; dodenat, 246,x; dodenuit, 158, z ; [do-|denait, 134,13(q.v.). Condit. 3sg., dodenad, 134,8; 3 pl., dodendais, 54,2. SPerf., dorigne, 46,3; 74,13; 248,2; 256,8; 362,13; dorinne, 38, 3; 72,15; dorine, 60,2; dorinde, 74,21; 134,9; dorindi, 74, 19; doroinni, 250, y; dordine, 10,4; 122,11; dordéin, 180,5; dorona, 220,12; 222,3; dorigniset, 264, 1, 3 (gne), 8; doronsat, 246, 12 ; 254, 18, 21. [Z|] Imperf. 3 sg., denad, 218, 26. Pres., dein, 386,4; dene, 176, 23. Enclit., denann, 46,23. Sudy., derna, 128,19; 250,6,7; 252,21; dernuid, 292, 15; dernat, 122,z; 124,1; 128,22. Perf., derna, 72, z ; 74, 1[15, 16, 19]; 126, 3; 134, 7 (nna); (muna) dernnad, 122,11; dernnaid (!) 122, 12; dernsat (?) 174, y [ dearnosa (!)]. Passive. [A] Pres., dognither, 128, 4 (tear) ; 236, y (ar); 244, y; donither, 62, 22 (tear, subj. P), 70,21; 92,9, 16,22; 96,4; 128, 18; 132,72; 154,26; 220,x; 250,1; 252, 3 (or), 4, 5; 288, 9 (dan°) [! wrong]. Sudy., donethar, 60, 21, 24 (-der) ; 170,12. Imperf. Subj., dognethea, 60,z; doneithea, 64,8; and (apparently) 210, 21 amail do rognitea. Perf., dorinne[d], 252, 6 ; doronad, 28,8: 180, 11. [Z] Pres., dentar, 70, 18, 23 ; 250, 3; 322,22; 352, x. Suby., dentar, 68, 13 ; 156,9; mani denta(r) ruidles de 220, 8. The accompanying Summary gives the third person of each form used in these volumes, this being the person by far the most frequently employed of this verb. 433 Arkinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Irish. “prouep “1d % < pouap “3s @ fnuap “8s 7 [-ouo yt] [-auoyy] : | [-ouoy] | | “ST@JULEp ‘peusep *(1e,U10p) ‘Geusop) yeuep ‘(eusep) euap “aanounlgng “Uunuap OYTPOU eyy pue < gouap “1d ¢ “peurep “ouo ‘(yesutep) 1e}eUIEp ‘eurep Peron] “ASNA YT, LOGaIUag ‘-usgp [Z] ‘-uSt10p [vy] : sWHLS LOTaUTa 8 UeSUIp | “sI}OUSUIp ‘pousurp “ASNT, [IVNOMIGNOD =] TAALA YT -LOTA AAA Wy [-ouo yy] ‘18 UesuIp | Pan ‘youdurp ‘ouSurp “ASNAT, TUALA-LNISTU ‘-usutp [7] ‘-ueSop [y] : sWaLs quALAa "eq u9p ‘sTejuap ‘peuep ‘ASNGT, LOWIUTANT ‘181 Uap ‘reap ‘eutgp “aaunoipUuy “aanauntong [z] (‘7d pun “4s g) ,asnay, LNISTU ‘-uep [Z] “1080p [Vv] ‘swans INasHHa “‘Baqjousop ‘sty9usop “yj9usop “reqjausop ‘y9uSop ‘ausop "ZIM “Gannsaduy OY} FO SULIOJ OY} OSTR Suopeq [Zz] wo}g ywasarz oy) OL—'SL0ON] 1 ‘[peuo10p] pouSti0p “ssvg ‘[aesuo10p ‘ouo.0p] qostustiop ‘austiop ‘yoy “equasop “sry ‘stejuesop ‘peugsop “yoy “IeqUaSop “ssveq ‘yeugsdop “suasop “joy ‘BotyIusop “sse7 ‘sIplugop ‘qy1usop ‘yoy ‘LOyJIUSop “ssvq ‘yetusop ‘1usop “joy “aanuapuy [w] 2G R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. IIL. 434 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Before proceeding to the special topic, attention may be called to a few points in the above Summary, where doubts may be felt. It is not easy to determine what the timbre of the » was in the present tense, [Z| indic. and subj. The forms with 7 (derna) have undoubtedly the hard n, the broad n; and the swj. forms without r are almost always written with following qa, i.e. with the hard », dena, denat. But in the indic., we find even dein, which seems to justify the assumption that these forms, with soft and hard n respectively, are the real representatives of the indic. and subj. moods. We should thus have the parallel deni (= dein): dena = Lat. regit: regat. But the practice of scribes is not uniform, and the analysis given above exhibits a few cases where the two moods have the incongruous vowel. Thus, 1. 244, 9, 14 we have noco dein, ni dein ; 242, 6 ni dene, but 242, 4 ni dena; in 1. 186, 20, 21 we have na dein, co dein ; 111. 112, 9 na deine; 1v. 386, 4 na dein {where the parallel passage 1. 256, 14 has in the Commentary, na denand). But though we have thus generally the soft timbre nin the singular, the plural shows the hard vowel: we get denat, denait, denuit, which can only denote the hard vowel, cf. 11. 374, x; 314, 32, &e. On the other hand, a very rare case of the soft timbre in the subj. would be the passage 1v. 176, 23 cipe inruiret . . . do neoch na dene olcc friu, if we are to press the rule; but it should probably be dena with hard timbre, as almost invariably. But it is evident that the language preferred as its subj. the more definite stem dern-, which certainly occurs more than four times as often as den-. And here the identity of the stem dern- with that of the perfect stem [Z| has brought about a difficulty in deciding whether derna was felt as a pres. subj. or as a perfect by the writer ; probably there was no very pronounced decision, s? faciat or si fecerit may have been felt to come to the same thing. Arxinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Trish. 435 It will be convenient to divide the analysis into two portions, one comprising the [Z] forms, and the second examining the use in the fuller [Aj forms. The Dependent forms. In hypothetic clauses introduced by da, dia,! ‘if’ :— (3sg.) 1. 54,143; 58, 1 dia ndernma maith di-a tochus, ‘if he do good with his wealth’; 86,16 da nderna indliged, ‘if he do injustice’; 11. 392, 20 dia ndena gnimrad, ‘if he perform work’; 274, 8 da ndernu indliged ; 111. 48, 4 da ndearna dochur dib ; 384, 4; 388, 6 dia xderna fogail. - (8 pl.) 1. 56,10 dia ndenaid gait; 56,12; 58, 9 dia ndenut guin; 294, z da ndenuid indliged; 88, 1, 12; 90, 20 da ndernat indlig[ed] athgabala ; 58, 27 dia ndernut innscuchad ; 296, 4 dia ndernut serbus oc airbiurt ; 111. 270, 3 da ndernat ; Iv. 124,1 dia ndernat cinaid. Introduced by mana, ‘if not,’ (nisi), ‘ unless.’ 1. 54, z muna dena maith de, ‘unless he do good with it’; 111. 52, 19 muna dena a gaire; 546, 1 muna dena maith de; 546,z maine deni (sic); 10,6 maini derna a hindarbad ; 52, 26 mana derna® a gaire. i. 272,11 muna dernat na comarba faill; 111. 114,14; 144, 2 muna dernat (maith d’a tochus) ; 142, 24 muna dernad in coindelg ; 172, 19 mana dernat ;—Pass., 11. 156, z muna dearntur in munad uile; ut. 172,16; 536,31 muna derntar; Iv. 68,13 muna ndentar in comaithces; 156, 9 mana dentar. Introduced by acht co, ‘ provided that,’ ‘if only’ :— 1. 10,8 acht co nderna aithrigi, ‘ provided that he do penance;’ ur. 224, 5; 266, 9 acht co nderna urfocra; 270, 2 acht ma dernat imarcraid. In temporal clauses after no co, ‘ till’? :— 1. 54, II, 12 no co ndernat so, ‘till they do it’; 62,19 no cu ndernut pennuit, ‘till they do penance’; 11. 388, 25 no co ndernat imscar; 11. 142, 22 noco ndernat in coindelg; 426,10 no co ndernat cennaigecht ria; 502,19 no co nderna a athchur. Rarely with co alone :— 1. 216, 23 co nderna ; 216, 26 co nderna comtobach friu ; rv. 128, 22 co ndernat ime em choir. 1 The conjunction dia, ‘if,’ seems based on a complex of prep. cum rel., di-a n-, and therefore has the m- sandhi resulting in the modern eclipsis. 2 Perhaps perf., cf. 111. 224, 12 muna derna dliged urfocra, and 9 ma dorigne ; 11. 408, 6 mana derna, and 5 ma dorine. Z2G2 436 Proceedings of the Royal Trish Academy. In final clauses after co na, ‘in order that not,’ ‘lest’ :— 1. 414, 25 co na dernat fogail, 1v. 122, 2; m1. 54,17 co na dernad si in com- logud sin, ‘ne faceret.’ Or the simple na :— 11. 288, 20 na derna nach cunnrud; m1. 56,12 na derna tennruidiud indlig- thech. In the concessive clause after cen co, ‘even though not’ :— 11. 56, II cen co derna imgoin, ‘even though he do not produce a wound’: 52, 28. 62, 19 cin co derna in gaire, ‘even though he do not perform the main- tenance’; Iv. 252, 21 cin co derna comoige ; 1. 62, 5, 13 cinco dernait innscuchad graid ;—Pass., 111. 364, 4 coir, cen co dernta a athchor. On 1. 62,15 it is used after wair na, ‘because not,’ uair na dernut maith di-a tochus, rendered ‘ because they have not done good with their property,’ but dernut, [unless an error for dernutar], is certainly not a perfect. It is also used in the subordinate clause, where the principal clause is negated :— Cf. 11. 338, 22, 24, 27 nocon fuil aice ni d’a nderna a bethamnas, ‘he has nothing of which he can make his livelihood’; as also where the principal is—(a) a ‘ whoever’-clause, or (5) a hypothetic or (c) concessive clause :— (a) 111. 228, 13 cibe inad i nderna arach, ‘whatever be the place in which he effect the tying’; [cf. also the construction in rv. 176, 23 cive inruiret . . . do neoch na dene olce friu;] (4) 11. 354,23 ma[d] daine .. . na denat clann doib, ‘if they be persons . . . for whom they do not make progeny’; (c) 11. 226, 8 is inann ocus na dernad in urscartad, ‘it is the same as though he were not to do the warning-off.’ The above use in the protasis runs tolerably parallel with Latin construction, but it may be noted that the use of the subjunctive in the apodosis, ‘si habeam dem,’ ‘si haberem darem,’ has no parallel in Irish, because the language possesses a proper form for this in its Future present and imperfect, from the lengthened root-stem dogén-, fut. dogéna, ogéanas, condit. [imperf. fut.| dogénad, 005éonov. ATKINSoON—On the Subjunctive Mood in Irish. 437 The Independent Forms. In these the full subjunctive form appears, the distinction being as obvious as in Latin itself, e. gr., Baie 3sg., dognt, facit ; dogné, faciat. : 3 pl., dogniat, faciunt ; dognét, faciant. ieee 3sg., dognid, faciebat ; dognéth, faceret. m3 pl., dognitis, faciebant; dognétis, facerent. P Pres., dognither, fit; dognéthar, fiat. a Imper., dognithea, fiebat ; dognéthea, fieret. It will be seen by inspection that a perfectly definite rule guides the use of the Subjunctive mood, the cases being far too numerous to admit of doubt in its application. The few instances of ‘incuria’ are not sufficiently numerous to invalidate its force. The rule may be briefly formulated as follows :— The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is used in the subordinate clause, where the introductory emphasizing clause is NEGATIVE, HYPOTHETIC, or CONCESSIVE. The concessive includes the clause beginning with ‘ whoever,’ ‘whatever,’ 7. e. clauses introduced by cid, cia, cidbe, secip ; under the concessive come naturally also clauses introduced by amaiil, ‘as if,’ and 7s inann ocus, ‘it is the same as though’; the hypo- thetic, those beginning with mad, damad, corab. The few instances in which the rule is not adhered to, may be safely set down to error of transcription, e. gr. :— 1. 54, 23 cipe dib doni gait; 54,15 cia dogniat; 60,9,17 mad na se grada dogniat ; 1. 158,11 cid dognither; 11. 12,13 cia dani; 22, 22 corab d’a flaith dont; tv. 24,12 mad leis in buar dont; 288, 9 ge daniter. In all these cases the indicative is wrong—not to mention one or two cases where the text is to be altered, e. gr. :—- 1. 292, 5 corwb in inaid dligtig do niad hi sin, rendered, ‘ provided it is ina lawful place she does the act,’ where, of course, do niad is nonsense: the text should be corub . . . done in ni ada hi-sin. 438 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. On the other hand, the subjunctive is once or twice put wrongly, in 1. 22, 14 is edogné. Of. 1. 28, 18. Also, attention should be drawn to the circumstance that mds, as containing the assertive is, is not followed by the sub- junctive, the form being— mas e dogni, ‘if (= when) it is he that does it,’ but mad e dogné, ‘if it be he that doit.’ Cf. 1v. 2380, 1,5 mas . . . doni, doniat. Subjunctive Mood. Present TENSE, 3 sg. dogne, done. Vol. 1. [22, 14 is é dogne (!) confliucht frisna Druide. 28, 28 ocus uide mis dogne (!) in gach pairt. | 56, 19 mad iad-saide dogne. 58, 21 mad guin &c. dogne espuc. 60,1 mad iad-side doghne foghail. 94,x madtuidme .. . dogne. 138, 11 rachaidh a ferand o fine na denann in gaire, do anfine done in gaire. 180, 28 cipe dogne. 11. 68, 3, 5 cidb mor d’indlige done. 88,1 mnocha nfuil aice neach eile dogne e. 172,16 mad . . . ris[?] in fer done in t-altram. 274, 11 ma indligedh eile dogne in flaith resin cele. 280, z cid re fine, cid re ainfine dogne cuir. 292, 22 is inunn ocus dogne in t-innarba. 296,8 cide A, cide B. done in foeghem. 298, 12 secid ceann done in foeghium. 306, 29 munad indarba done in flaith. 312,8 munud ar obhloirecht done in innurbad. 312,9 mochan ar fuach toltunuch done sium in obloirecht. 392, 7 mad he in fer done in foghnum. 111. 12, 25 ce done aithrechus. 22, 23 corad d’a apaid fein done sin. 26, 18 curab and done imdenam orra. 108, 16 mas [should be mad] eisinnraic dogne. 164,9 ctdbe codnach done in toirriachadh. 16 cibe egcodnach done in torriachadh. 292,6 corab im a fer fein doxe in ni ada hi-sin. 294, 19 cid[ bed] cach dib done re ’cheile. 382, II cid re tuaith, cid re eclais, done fogal. 18 cid re tuaith done fogail. AtTKINSoN— On the Subjunctive Mood in Irish. 439 Ivy. 60, 26 cia dogne in bean cinnta. 98, 3 mad tochailt in talmun done. 250, 9 mad mo inda féin in cin dogne. Tuirp PLURAL. dognet, donet. 1. 56,21 cid adultrus dognet. 58,2 ciadognet maith d’a tochus. 88,6 cia donet-sum indliged athgabala. 90,7 cia donet-sum indliged athgabala. 1. 312,12 nochan ar foccul . . . nech eile donet-sium in urfogra sin. 388, 20 mad scarad donet. ee 111. 26, 22 curab do reir chomairle donet he. 162, 22 gia daned fogla. Iv. 174, 30 mad indscuchud donead. Imperr. TENSE, 3 sg. dogneth, doneth, doneith, doneich. I. 2,22 comade X. doneth and. 11. 70, 13 amuil bid é fein dogneth. 292, 24 (is) imwnd do ocus doneth hi. 306, y mad cert dogneth. 312, 2 is inann do ocus doneth he. III. 1382, 2 amuil doneich for a daer-cheile. 270, 24 amail doneth eigem d. t. y amail doneith eigem ind. t. 272, 3 amail doneich eigeam easba. 412, 28 damald] daine donéith fogail ria conaib. 456, 21 is inann ocus doneth in mil c.-c. 458,9 is inand ocus doneich mil 1.-c. Iv. 16, 12 ce ro-neich duine aer do neoch. 16, 14 inand do ocus doneich bodein. 56, 23 tnand do neoch ocus doneich forcongair a denma. 122, 21 mad i fiadnaisi f. b. donéth in cu conluan. 132, 10.cid re dethbirius, cid re hind. dogneith. Tuirp PLURAL. dognetis [does not occur in vols. 1-4]. Passive Suggs. Pres. dognether. 1. 58, 14 cid ar aon-lus dognethur. 178, 7 mad fo fath pudra dognether. 440 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 11. 874, 17 cid do neichaib aile donethar he. 398, 13 cidbed (do fuachtain) donethar ria. ut. 386,y corub do reir cind a. doneither hi. 208,7 mad he a gait doneither. 492, 19 cebe uair dib donethar a timgaire. Iv. 60, 21 mad ar fath dichle donether sin. 24 mad rofidir .. . conad ard. d. dognether. 170, 12 mad ar timeell donethar. IMPERFECT. dognethea. ur. 292, 25 is inann do ocus dognetha [? dogneth] an innarba- 1. 864,3 coir ce daneithea a athchur. 7 coir ce doneithea a athchur. Iv. 60,2 com[ad] ar fath dithle dognethea. 64,8 damad tre na hindeithbirius doneithea. Leary XXVI. ON THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS OF VANDA TERES. By HENRY H. DIXON, B.A., Assistant to the Professor of Botany, Trinity College, Dublin. (Plates XI., XII., XIII., and XIV.) [Read Fesruary 26, 1894.] [COMMUNICATED BY E. PERCEVAL WRIGHT, M.D. | Tue following Paper is an attempt to give an account of some points of interest in the anatomy of the vegetative organs of Vanda teres which have been worked out in the Botanical Laboratory of Trinity College. In its native country this orchid is described as growing to a length of several feet, epiphytic on various trees. The leaves are composed of a cylindrical lamina 10-15 em. long, attached to a tubular petiole, measuring 2°5—4cm., which surrounds the stem, fitting it closely, and which completely, or nearly completely, covers the internode, above the insertion of the leaf; so that usually none of the stem of an uninjured plant is to be seen; or, if any is visible, it is only the top of the older internodes. The plant climbs over the supporting trees by means of its adventitious roots, which arise in the stem, just above the insertion of the leaves. Unless the direct growth of the main stem is checked by injury to the apex, Vanda teres does not frequently branch, its lateral branching being almost confined to the production of flower-bearing shoots. The development of these flower-stems, and of its lateral branches in general, is very peculiar. At the base of each internode there is a more or less marked swelling, which is the axillary bud, as may be determined by removing the subtending leaf. This swelling is opposite the lamina of the leaf below the subtending leaf, and on the level of the point of junction between the lamina and petiole of the former. When an axillary bud starts into growth, it first gradually bulges out the base of the petiole of its subtending leaf, and finally, instead of growing up in its axil, it ruptures it and pierces through it. After it emerges from the opening it has forced through the petiole, it turns upwards 442 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. and develops into an inflorescence or leaf-shoot. This mode of deyelop- ment has led to an erroneous idea among gardeners, who very gene- rally regard the lateral branches asarising on the stem opposite the leaves. At other positions round the base of the internodes other swellings, which are the beginnings of adventitious roots, are very usually met with. These, as they develop, have also to pierce through the petiole, and were it not for the difference in their position it would be difficult to distinguish the branches just emerging, after piercing the petiole, from roots in the same stage, so completely endogenous do the former at first sight appear. The similarity between root and shoot is increased by the fact that these aerial roots of Vanda teres possess chlorophyll as is usual in the aerial roots of orchids. A longitudinal section of a bud still enclosed by the axil (PI. x1., fig. 7) shows that it is raised slightly above the axil, and its axis 1s perpen- dicular to the main axis. The young leaves of the bud form domes covering over the apex, which are only perforated by narrow slits, inconspicuous even in sections cut at right angles to the axis of the bud (Pl. xr., fig. 3). The slight thickening on these domes, seen in longitudinal section (Pl. x11, fig. 7), represent the lamina. The first leaf of the lateral shoot is on its upper side. When such a bud as this develops, the lamina of the lowest visible leaf, even when quite mature, is only a small knob on the distal part of the petiole. Beneath this leaf there are usually two leaves, which remain rudimentary, and which are not evident except when seen in longitudinal section (Pl. xtv., fig. 20). Sometimes the lowest visible leaf is only repre- sented by a short tubular petiole, while the leaf next above it has a knob-like lamina. During the development of a lateral bud, the cells of the petiole of the subtending leaf, opposite the bud, lose their con- tents and collapse. This phenomenon is not altogether due to the pressure exerted by the developing bud, as it seems to take place almost simultaneously on the outer and inner surfaces. The median vascular bundle in the petiole was never found to be severed in this penetration of the petiole, but merely pushed aside (Pl. xtv., fig. 28). A comparison of the apical bud with a lateral bud shows us that although both are constructed on the same plan, the parts of the apical bud are more elongated. Also the thickenings on the domes, representing the laminae, in addition to being more elongated, are, in their early stages, situated centrally over the apex, so that the youngest visible leaf on the apex of a plant of Vanda teres appears, having its base enveloped in the petiole of the next leaf, like a pro- longation of the stem. Tracing, then, this leaf down into the petiole Dixon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 448 of the next leaf which encloses it, we find that its cylindrical base is prolonged into a tubular petiole, which is attached to the stem by a complete annular insertion at the node. At one point where the cylindrical lamina passes over into the tubular petiole, there is a minute passage leading from the exterior into a high dome-shaped chamber, which completely includes the younger leaves. The passage opens at a level considerably below that of the top of the petiole of the outer leaf, which encloses the leaf under consideration. This will be seen by reference to figure 1. As is shown in this figure, there are usually two leaves included in this way by the dome-shaped space formed by the petiole of the youngest visible leaf. The older of these leaves is a short thick cylinder, with a cavity in the base, the chamber formed by the petiole. From this chamber there is a passage leading into the outer chamber, formed by the leaf which arches over this leaf. This passage is diametrically opposite the passage of the outer leaf. This inner chamber shuts in the rounded apex and the youngest leaf. The latter is often seen in longitudinal sections, either as a small prominence placed laterally to the rounded apex, or as a collar (higher at one side) surrounding it. The higher side is imme- diately under the passage of the second leaf. The parts of the young leaves which are covered by the petioles of outer leaves are furnished with glandular hairs, which disappear later on. These hairs are particularly numerous in the passages leading into the chambers formed by the petioles, and on the parts round these passages. The lamina of the developing leaf, which has arisen as a minute protuberance at the side of the apex, and subsequently enlarged so as to form a collar, higher at one side than at the other, evidently assumes its axial position in order to emerge more easily through the passage of the leaf which covers it over. In thus emerging it shoves the lamina of the covering leaf from an axial position, and is, of course, similarly displaced by the succeeding leaf. Transverse sections (Pl. xtv., fig. 22), through the base of the leaves enclosing the apex show how the successive leaves are enclosed by the petioles of their predecessors. The axillary buds formed near the apex are at first small swellings, situated exactly in the axils of the leaves (Pl. x1., fig. 6), and finally their axis-comes to lie almost in a horizontal direction (figs. 5 and 7). During this displacement they develop several leaves, which resemble those of the apex, except that their lamina is not so large. The same peculiar habit of piercing through the base of the sub- tending petiole by the lateral branches is exhibited by many species of 444 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Dendrobium, and of other genera of orchids. I have examined D. war- dianan, D. chrysanthum, and D. Pierardi. In these orchids the buds which form the inflorescences are developed in the axils of the leaves along the fleshy stems. The petioles form thin tubes, coating the stem closely, and on the older stem are of a membraneous texture. The laminae of the leaves are flat, and deciduous from the petiole. The inflorescence may develop while the lamina is still attached, e.g. D. chrysanthum, or after it has fallen away, e.g. D. Pierardi. In both cases the bud which develops breaks its way through the petiole. Pl. x1., fig. 2, represents a lateral bud of D. chrysanthum, before it has started into growth, in longitudinal section. In this section on some of the leaves are to be seen top-shaped glands, which have secreted so vigorously that in some places the spaces between the leaves are com- pletely filled up with a dark substance. In D. Prerardi this substance glues the membraneous petiole to the stem, so that even in the thinnest transverse sections it adheres to the stem. In this last case it seems certain that the axillary bud in breaking its way through the petiole meets with less resistance than if it were to grow up in the axil. The apex of these Dendrobia is by no means so completely shut in by the individual leaves as that of V. teres. However, the great number of leaves which arch over it, and fold across one another, render the contrivance adopted by V. teres, which is eminently suitable where there are but few leaves to cover the apex unnecessary. The curious habit of the bud piercing through the base of the leaves which occurs in these orchids naturally reminds one of the similar behaviour of the lateral branches of the Equisetaceae, and indeed a casual observer might as easily consider the branches of Vanda teres, &c., endogenous as those of the Equiseta. Goebel (Pflanzen biologische Schilderungun, Th. i. p. 106) compares the development of the lateral shoots of Rhipsalis paradoxa to that of the Equiseta. In this plant the subtending leaf fuses with the inter- node above the axillary bud, and the bud, like that of the orchids just described has to penetrate the petiole in developing. &hipsalis paradoxa has, like V. teres, to contend against prolonged droughts. A somewhat similar development of axillary buds is described by Thilo Irmisch (‘‘ Beitrage zur Biologie und Morphologie der Orchi- deen.”” Leipzig, 1853). The axillary bud of Herminum ‘monarchis, during its development into the tuber, which produces the new plant, breaks through the base of the subtending leaf. This it does only after a very curious displacement of its parts, so that it appears that it is not the bud itself, certainly not its apex, but rather a root which Dixon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 445 pierces through the leaf. In fact, the axillary bud is so entirely changed in position relative to the main axis that the direction of its growth, instead of forming an acute angle with the main axis, is displaced by the unequal growth of its parts, into a horizontal plane, v.e. perpendicular to the primary axis, with its apex pointing towards the latter. This vigorous and unequal growth takes place in that part of the lateral shoot which is below the insertion of its first leaf. In this part the growth of the lower side is much greater than that of the upper, and so pushes what is morphologically the inferior side of the bud into a superior position, turning the base of the lateral axis outwards, and its apex inwards towards the mother axis. During this process the subtending leaf is ruptured, while the part of the lateral shoot which is below the first leaf, and is turned outward, swells and becomes the tuber which replaces the old plant next season. The rest of the elongated lower part of the lateral axis persists for some time as a connection between the old and the new tuber. This account of Irmisch of the development of the tubers of Her- minium monarchis is, so far as I know, the only description of the mode of branching which is so frequent among the orchids; and indeed it is doubtful whether, in this case, it is really the lateral bud itself that pierces the leaf. Irmisch himself regards the tubers in H. monarchis as swollen roots, and accordingly we may regard the leaf as broken through by an adventitious root developed from the base of an axillary bud which is formed in order to give rise to a young independent plant. In this way the root not only breaks through the outer tissues of the organ from which it is developed, but also the subtending leaf. Besides in many orchids, I have also observed this rupturing of the subtending leaf by the axillary bud in _ several species of Bambusa; also in some bulbs of Hyacinthus nutans which had been accidentally displaced in the soil, so that their axis lay horizontally, the axillary buds developed and pierced through the fleshy leaves of the bulb. Among the orchids not adopting this method Fernandezia elegans is peculiar. In it the bud arising in the axil of an equitant leaf, which sheaths the stem closely as it develops, turns obliquely round the stem, so that when it emerges from the petiole it is situated opposite the lamina of subtending leaf. STRUCTURE OF THE STEM IN VANDA TERES. If we examine the transverse section of a well-developed inter- node, we see that the bundles lie in an annular space, separated 446 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. from the epidermis by a large celled parenchyma of several layers, and which encloses a central space of parenchymatous tissue. The annular (in transverse section) region of tissue in which the bundles are embedded is lignified. This differentiation into ‘ cor- tical,”? ‘‘ woody,” and ‘‘medullary”’ regions, is seen still more plainly in the main stem of an inflorescence. The members of this ligneous cylinder (seen as a ring in transverse section) preserve their cell character, and often store up starch. Outside the ligneous cylinder there are no bundles, except just below the insertion of a leaf, where the leaf-traces traverse the cortical tissue, and where a lateral root or axillary bud are found. In the last case most of the bundles coming from the lateral shoot pass through a perforation in the ligneous cylinder and enter into the medullary part. Having traversed this central part for some distance horizontally or obliquely, they fuse with leaf-traces which lie close to the medullary part, but not with the leaf-traces of the subtending leaf. A few bundles also coming from the lateral shoots fuse with small leaf-traces lying on the outer portion of the ligneous cylinder. The bundles of the leaf, which are about seventeen in number, are of two distinct sizes as they enter the stem. The larger bundles enter the ligneous ring at a short distance below the node from which the leaf springs, the smaller bundles somewhat lower down (Pl. xt1v., fig. 29). The latter do not ever enter deeply into the stem, but always remain in outer region of the ligneous ring. As we trace the larger bundles downwards we find that in the stem one becomes considerably larger than the rest. This is the median leaf-trace. Two lateral bundles coming from the leaf, and separated from the median bundle by about 120°, are next in point of size. These three bundles are also distinguished by the fact that as soon as they have entered the ligneous cylinder the central ‘‘ medullary” portion becomes triradiate in transverse section, and the three rays of ‘‘ medul- lary’’ tissue reach out to these bundles. As the bundles slope gradually inwards these rays are shortened. Often in the middle of the internode we find the median bundle fairly far advanced into the medulla and surrounded by a ligneous sheath of fundamental tissue, which is in places disconnected with the ligneous cylinder of the stem. During the course of the leaf-traces in the stem they may become connected with other bundles, either by applying themselves bodily to the other bundle and passing over completely into it, or by being connected to it by a small bundle, while both the bundles which are connected by the smaller bundle still preserve a distinct course. The small connecting bundle is distinguished by the fact that it has almost Drxon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 447 no sclerenchymatous sheath. The three large bundles of the leaf are subject to connexions of this last kind only in the first internode. Most, if not all the other bundles, unite completely with other bun- dles in the first internode. Some of these fusions take place, contrary to what is generally stated for monocotyledons, in the inner parts of the stem. The two small bundles at either side of the median leaf- trace are connected with other bundles only near the base of the first internode. The three large leaf-traces which run in the segment of the stem between the two large lateral leaf-traces fuse with other bundles, which are about equal to them in size, shortly after they reach the inner region of the ligneous ring. Sometimes a small bundle in the periphery of the ligneous ring, when traced downwards, comes to an end in the ligneous tissue surrounding it. Pl. x1m., fig. 16, shows a cross section of such an ending, and Pl. xm1., fig. 15, is drawn from the last section in which this bundle was trace- able. The bundles running in the ‘‘ medulla” are limited usually to two or three, and these are generally in connection with the axillary buds. Sometimes, however, one of the large leaf-traces is connected with another leaf-trace by a small bundle, which runs inwards from the latter trace into the medulla, and passes up in this region till it unites with the large trace. In the course of the connecting bundle inwards. towards the medulla it may fuse with a similar bundle coming from another leaf-trace. During the course of the small connecting bundles. they are often subject to a displacement of their tracheal and criblal portions relatively to one another. In this displacement the sieve- portion may traverse 180° in a horizontal circle. The arrangement of the wood of the three large leaf-traces remains in the first internode of their course more or less distinctive. The vessels, three or four in number, are arranged along a radius, the largest being towards the periphery. On each side of the radial plate of vessels there is usually a single layer of wood parenchyma. The bast of these bundles consists of a few sieve-tubes and companion cells. On the outside of the bundle there is a relatively small sclerenchyma- tous sheath, and in this way these are very different in appearance from some of the vascular bundles in the outer parts, which, although com- posed of only one or two sieve-tubes, and a few tracheae, have sheaths which are much stronger than those of these larger bundles. The fibres. which form this sclerenchymatous sheath have often exceedingly thick and pitted walls. Along the outer sclerenchymatous fibres of at least the medium leaf-trace, for some distance below the node, are found 448 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. spherical masses of silica, with a rough nodular surface. These masses are found in small cells lying in the groove between two sclerenchy- matous fibres, and forming a chain along the outside of the sheath. There are several such chains along a bundle. In a mature internode the lumen of the cell in which these bodies are formed is little larger than the mass of silica. Strasburger (Leitungsbahnen in der Pflanzen) describes similar bodies in Chamedorea elatior, Cocos flexuosa, Phenix stlvestris. Pfitzer (‘‘ Flora,” 1877, nr. 16), Link (‘‘ Bot. Zeit,” 1849), and Kohl (‘‘ Anaton. Physiol. Umtersuch. der kalksalze und Kieselsaure in der Pflanze,”’ 1889), also refer to similar structures in various plants. In the stem of V. teres, however, they are only to be found probably in connection with the large leaf-traces immediately after they enter the stem. On the other hand, similar chains of cells, containing these silicious bodies seem to accompany all the bundles in the leaves, and I have found them also in stem and leaves of several succulent species species of Dendrobium. Martin Mobius (‘‘ Ueber den Anat. Ban der Orchideenblatter und dessen Bedeutung fiir das System dieser Familie.” Pringsh. Jahrb. f. Wiss. Botanik. Bd. xvi. Heft. 4) found these silicious bodies in every orchid leaf he investigated. The develop- ment can be easily traced in V. teres. In the young leaves, which are still partly enclosed by the petioles of others, the bundles are represented by one or more series of spirally thickened cells, imbedded in a strand of elongated cells. The bundle sheath in this stage is as yet thin, walled, and its cells are indistinguishable from the elongated cells representing the sieve-tubes, companion-cells, and wood paren- chyma. On the outer surface of this strand is to be seen in longitu- dinal section (Pl. xm1., fig. 17) a chain of small cubical cells, with large nuclei, wholly different in character to the elongated cells of the sheath. The nuclei of these cells are large, and almost fill the cell. As the bundles develop, and the cells of the sheath begin to acquire a sclerenchymatous character, a clear body may be seen imbedded in the protoplasm of these cells (fig. 18), beside the nucleus. Thisis the origin of the silicious body. It gradually increases in size till it finally almost completely fills the cell (Pl. xm, figs. 13 and 14), and displaces the nucleus, so that it renders the latter very hard to see. The development of the vascular bundles of V. teres shows that the sclerenchymatous sheath arises from the same meristematic strand as the bundle itself, and consequently is to be classed along with those sheaths to which Strasburger gives the name of ‘‘ Stelo- lemma,” ¢.e. a sheath developed from the central cylinder, in contra- Dirxon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 449 distinction to those which morphologically belong to the cortex, which he calls ‘‘ Phloeoterma.”” The chains of cells containing the silicious bodies appear to belong to the cortex. LEAVES. The lamine of the leaves of V. teres are almost cylindrical, their cross-section is oval, and they taper off to a fine point. On the upper side there is a slight groove, which is evidently homologous to the V-shaped upper surface of other members of the genus, ¢.g. V. suavis. This groov e disappears at the extreme apex and base of the lamina. In a transverse section of a leaf anywhere about the middle of its length, we see this groove situated at one extremity of the long diameter (PI. x1v., fig. 24). The large bundles of the leaf, about nine in number, lie in the form of a U round the central part of the leaf, with the largest, the mediam, bundle forming the lowest part of the U. The smaller bundles are arranged outside these, and more or less regularly alternating with them. If we trace these bundles down into the petiole we find that as they approach the place of union of lamina and petiole, which is marked by an absciss layer and an annular groove round the leaf, they bend and pass into the petiole with such a curvature that they maintain a tolerably equal spacing from one another throughout their whole course. In some cases fusions occur between the bundles shortly after they pass from the lamina to the petiole; in other cases a single bundle, when traced downwards, is seen to divide into two, and persist as two, for the rest of its course to the stem (PI. xtv., cf. figs. 24 to 29). But, in spite of these variations in the behaviour of the bundles of individual leaves, whatever happens to the bundles on one side of any petiole (7.e. right and left of the midrib), is also found with wonder- ful regularity on the other side, so that transverse sections of the lamina and petiole are beautifully symmetrical. The small bundles which connect two bundles with one another are also usually sym- metrical on both sides of the leaf. Besides these connections and fusions, which vary from one leaf to another, there are also fusions which appear to hold good for every leaf. The small bundles which run along close to the groove (representing the upper surface) of the lamina as they pass into the petiole run along its oblique upper limit, and passing round in it meet at the opposite side of the stem. At this position they fuse together and form one bundle for the rest of their course. This bundle passes down till it runs into a bundle formed ina similar way from the two bundles next beneath these two, R.I.A. PROC., SER. Il., VOL, II. 2H 450 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. which gave rise to the first compound bundle. In this way, diametri- cally opposite the midrib, there is to be found in transverse sections of the base of the petiole, a single large bundle, formed by the union of four to six bundles of the leaf (cf. Pl. xtv., figs. 26 to 29). The bundles pass from the petiole to the stem in a manner before described. Approaching the apex of the leaf the bundles undergo frequent fusions, but these seem to take place symmetrically on each side. Very close to the extremity of the leaf there are but five. These then fuse to form three, and these again unite into one. The parenchymatous tissues of the leaf of V. teres are not differentiated from one another at all so sharply as is usual in flat leaves. All the parenchyma within the epidermis, when viewed in transverse section, appears composed almost solely of thin-walled cells, with rounded outline, containing chlorophyll. There is no differenti- ation into spongy and palissade parenchyma. This is of course what we would naturally expect from the vertical position, and peculiar shape of the leaves, in which the dorsiventral or bilateral symmetry usual in horizontal leaves is modified into a more or less complete radial symmetry. The cells of this parenchyma are oval when seen is trans- verse section with the long diameter of the oval directed perpendicu- larly to the curve passing through the inner larger bundles. The outline of the cells included within the bundles is more irregular than those lying outside. The parenchymatous cells of the leaf appear oval in longitudinal section also, their longest axis lying longitudinally in the leaf. Besides these rounded cells which form the great bulk of the tissues of the lamina there are larger cells with thickened walls containing raphides and slime, which lie irregularly scattered through the parenchyma. These cells do not contain chlorophyll. Apart from this there is very little differentiation of the parenchyma- tous tissues of the leaf; the hypoderma is represented by a layer of cells, somewhat smaller than the inner cells; a cortical bundle sheath or phloeoterma is wanting in accordance with the rule observed by Strasburger, that in those cases where a strong sclerenchymatous sheath morphologically belonging to the vascular tissues accompanies the bundles into the leaf, the radial walls of the cells of the innermost layer of the cortex do not resist the action of H,So,, z.e. are not cuti- cularized, as they do in those leaves where a typical phloeoterma is developed : in other words the function of the endodermisis performed by the vascular tissues, and no endodermis is developed from the cortex. Mobius (doe. cit.) has already noticed the beautiful form of the Dixon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 451 epidermal cells of V. teres. Each cell is roughly cubical. Its outer wall is domed and greatly thickened, and on the highest point of the dome there is a knob (PI. x11., fig. 9); the outer four-fifths of the wall is strongly cuticularized, while the inner fifth gives the reactions of cellulose. The thick cuticle is raised up and forms a circular wall round the stomata. These domed and greatly thickened epidermal cells are found on the lamina and on the outside of the tubular petiole. On the inner surface of the petiole the epidermis is composed of lenti- cular cells, which is uninterrupted by stomata. Through the kindness of Mr. F. W. Moore, keeper of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, I obtained material of Dendrobium tereti- folium, which enabled me to compare the structure of its remarkable cylindrical leaves with those of Vanda teres, and also to make out some points in their development. The manner of growth of Dendrobium teretifolium is quite different from that of Vanda teres. The stem is thin and wiry, and when young is covered with membraneous sheathing scale-leaves, which at first completely cover the internodes, but owing to the subsequent elongation of the stem they persist only as mem- braneous collars round the base of the internodes. At about the ninth node a foliage leaf is formed and not a scale-leaf. This is cylindrical and may attain a length of as much as 60cm., and is placed in such a way as to apparently form a continuation of the stem. When this leaf dies, or sometimes even before, a lateral bud develops, on the stem, which terminates in the foliage leaf. This lateral bud develops some eight or nine internodes, all of which are sheathed with scale-leaves, in the same manner as the parent stem when young, and finally puts forth a cylindrical leaf, which seems in every case to terminate its growth. This bud is usually developed in the axil of one of the last four scale-leaves, but, apparently by subsequent elongation of the stem, is displaced, so that it often seems to spring from near the middle of the internode above. A tranverse section made of one of the cylindrical foliage leaves is almost perfectly circular in outline (Pl. xtv., fig. 23). If the section be made somewhere near the middle of the leaf there are to be found five larger fibro-vascular bundles arranged round the centre of the section; outside these smaller bundles occur more or less irregularly. Occupying the middle of the section is a curious slit-like structure, about 0°15 mm. in length (Pl. xm, fig. 8). By examining a succession of sections it is easy to determine that this structure, which appears like a slit in a transverse section, is in reality a long passage, the opposite walls of which are in close contact. The 2H 2 452 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. walls of the passage are formed by small elongated cells, which in transverse section presenta rhomboidal outline. The wall of these cells, which is next the passage, is strongly cuticularized. The cells adjoin- ing the other side of these lining cells are usually strongly thickened. As we trace this passage downwards in the leaf we find that it opens out towards the base of the leaf into a more or less triradiate appearance in transverse sections, and further down it becomes nearly circular (fig. 12). The similarity of the structure and arrangement of the cells lining this passage to those of the epidermis on the outside of the cylindrical leaf suggest that this passage is in reality part of the epidermis cut off in the interior of the leaf. This surmise is shown to be correct by tracing the passage upperwardsin the leaf. The passage throughout its entire course runs almost axially in the leaf. About 3mm. from the pointed apex of leaf it gradually approaches the surface of the leaf opposite to the large odd bundle of the central five bundles which are continued up to this distance in the leaf. Finally, at a position very close to the apex, it reaches the surface (fig. 21). At this point the bundles of the leaf are reduced to three. Longitudinal sections through the base of the foliage leaf and the apex of the stem which bears it, shows the passage opening out into a funnel-shaped chamber, which covers the apical bud. This latter, in all cases examined, had failed to develop. In order to learn how this peculiar passage in the leaf was deve- loped transverse and longitudinal sections of the axillary buds were made, and after many trials I succeeded in obtaining some sections of buds just at the moment of forming the foliage leaf (fig. 19). From these it could be seen that the apex after the formation of the foliage leaf is depressed and that the leaf itself arises as a collar of tissue round the apex, which grows up round the latter. Simultaneous growth in thickness and in height of the collar over the apex forms a narrow channel leading down the axis of the leaf to the apex. From the anatomy, then, and the development of this peculiar leaf of D. teretifolium we may conclude that this passage running down the leaf represents morphologically the upper surface of the leaf, which we may suppose was derived from a cylindrical leaf like that of V. teres by a continued infolding of the upper surface, which in the latter orchid is represented by a shallow groove. As this groove got deeper the sides fused across, till finally what was originally the upper surface becomes completely cut off from the exterior, except for the small opening at the apex of the leaf. In this connexion it is peculiarly interesting to find that in one orchid, at least, the leaves are permanently in an intermediate Dixon —On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 4538 stage between those of V. teres and D. teretifolium. This orchid is Brassavola Hadwent. The leaves of this orchid resemble those of the other two in being ¢erete. They are cylindrical, and taper to a fine point. The upper surface of this leaf is a very deep, narrow groove running down the leaf, so that in transverse section we see what looks like a deep cut opposite the large midrib (PI. x1v., fig. 32). Near the apex of the leaf this groove grows shallower (fig. 31), and finally at the extreme point of the leaf is absent, so that the outline of the transverse section at this part is quite circular (fig. 30). So far, this leaf represents the stage in which the upper surface has become a deep, narrow groove, the sides of which come into contact towards the base. But in the same leaf we have only to examine sections taken lower down to find the fusion of the edges of the groove to form an enclosed canal (fig. 38). In such a transverse section near the base of the leaf, where it is sheathed by a membraneous scale leaf, we find that there is no longer a deep infolding of the upper surface, but instead a narrow slit deep in the tissue of the leaf. This slit, as we trace it downwards, becomes more and more nearly central in transverse sections. From the examination of these orchids we can form an interesting series of the possible stages passed through, to arrive at such a peculiar structure as that found in the leaf D. teretifolium. The leaf of V. swavis is a flat leaf, the rigidity of which is greatly increased by the strong V-shaped fold. It has no well-defined petiole, and its attachment at the node extends almost completely round the stem. Supposing now that the opposite edges of the petiole met round the stem and fused together, the tubular petiole of V. teres would be attained, and by the V-shaped fold being pressed together and fusing across, and by the leaf becoming simultaneously fleshy, the form of the lamina of V. teres would be arrived at; the small groove repre- senting the folded upper surface of V. suavis. The next stage would be represented by a leaf such as that of B. Hadweni, in which the deep channel-like upper surface dips down, towards the base of the leaf, into the tissue of the leaf and forms a passage con- tinuous with the tubular petiole, shutting in the apex of the stem from the exterior except for this narrow tube. By a continuation of modification in this direction a leaf like that of D. teretifolium might be formed in which a capillary passage passes axially down the leaf to a space included by the petiole over the apex. The history of the development of this last, the extreme case, 1s as 1t were reca- pitulated by the leaf of B. Hadweni, for the apex of a leaf being 454 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. formed first, in a sense represents an earlier stage than the middle, and the middle than the base; and we have seen that in the case of this plant a leaf which is at the apex circular in section when traced downwards becomes grooved, the groove lower down becomes a narrow channel, and finally the channel becomes a closed passage, which as we pass down into the youngest (7.¢. last formed in the ontogeny of the plant) part of the leaf takes up a more and more axial position in the leaf. Root. The aerial roots of Vanda teres exhibit the characteristic structure of the aerial roots of other orchids. They are completely covered by a continuous sheath of tracheides, which have the usual fibrous thicken- ings on their walls. In transverse sections (fig. 11) we can see that this velamen is composed of two layers; the outer, formed of these typical tracheides, is uniformly one cell thick ; the inner is formed of much more strongly thickened tracheides. The walls of this layer have not the fibrous markings of the outer layer, but have pits with rounded out- lines in their thick wall. In the inner layer, seen in transverse section, there are frequent tangential walls, so that it is impossible to say whether it is one or two tracheides deep. Bordering immediately on the velamen is an exodermis composed of a single layer of cells, very strongly thickened on their outer tangential and radial walls, while their inner tangential wall is not thickened. The inner surface of the outer thickened tangential wall is cuticularized. At intervals in the exodermis, are passage cells, the walls of which are not thickened, and which contain protoplasm and a large nucleus. Immediately outside, and covering over the passage cells, is a dome formed of thin-walled cells, which project out into the velamen. These cells also contain pro- toplasm. (Cf. Leitgeb, Denkschr. d. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Wien, math- naturw. Cl. Bd. xxiv. p. 179, 1864). Within the exodermis is the cortex, the cells of which have smooth thin walls and contain chlorophyll. Here and there in this region are to be found cells with peculiar fibrous thickenings (fig. 10). These thickenings are found almost exclusively on that part of the cell-wall which borders on an intercellular space, and would probably have the effect of checking rapid evaporation from these cells into the intercellular spaces, a contrivance which would, no doubt, be of use to this plant. The cortexis bounded on the inside by an endodermis, composed of cells with strongly thickened walls, opposite Dixon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 455 to the groups of sieve-tubes in the central cylinder, while opposite to the xylem-rays there are two or three thin-walled passage cells. Immediately within these passage cells are a number of parenchyma- tous cells belonging to the pericycle, and to these the outer tracheal elements of the xylem-ray adjoin. The xylem-ray ends internally in a large vessel surrounded by thickened wood-parenchyma-cells. The xylem-rays are separated from the strands of bast by sclerenchymatous cells. Each strand of bast between the xylem-rays consists of a few (2-5) sieve-tubes, with companion cells, and is usually separated from the sclerenchymatous cells by a layer of thin-walled parenchyma, so that it is uncommon fora sieve-tube to directly come into contact with a sclerenchymatous cell. The cells of the inner fundamental tissue include small air-spaces, and are strongly thickened. The structure of the root apex seems to agree in its general characteristics with that of other aerial roots (cf. Van Tieghem, Traité de Botanique Edit. 2, p. 695). However, it has one peculiarity which, so far as I know, has not before been described. If a longitudinal section be made of an apex fixed during the resting season of the plant, when its growth is very slow, the outer cells of the root-cap are seen to be covered by a thick cuticle, sothat the whole root-cap very strongly resembles a many-layered epidermis, as it is regarded by Van Tieghem (/.c. 696). If on the other hand the section is made from material fixed in active growth, the outer cells of the root-cap exhibit the usual and collapsed appearance characteristic of this tissue. At the point of union of the root, the stem, the usual re-arrangement ° of tissues found in this position in other monocotyledons is found. If the structure of the root is examined by a series of transverse sections passing up from the apex, this re-arrangement is first found in sections on a level with the outer surface of the petiole through which the root has emerged. Here the cortex is reduced to a few layers in thick- ness, and when traced inwards, is found to merge with the cortical tissue of the stem ; at the same time the endodermis loses its regularity and passes over insensibly into the outer layers of the ligneous cylinder of the stem. The bundles coming from the root, each composed of a single group of xylem and phloem elements, pass into the stem and apply themselves for the most part to the peripheral bundles on that side of the stem in which the root has taken origin. Some of the root- bundles, however, unite with the inner bundles of the stem, and occasio- nally a bundle coming from the root divides into two branches, which fuse with distinct leaf-traces in the stem. In no case did I cbserve a bundle coming from a root to penetrate to the inner or outer bundles on 456 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. the opposite side of the stem, as is frequently found to be the case with the bundles of the axillary buds. In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor EK. P. Wright, who gave me much help in this investigation, not only by his valuable advice on many occasions, but also in bringing under my notice various sources of information of which otherwise I should have been ignorant. I am also indebted to Mr. F. W. Burbridge, curator of Trinity College Botanic Gardens, for his kindness in supplying much of the material needed. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XI. to XIV. Pratt XI. Fre. 1.—Longitudinal section of the apex of Vanda teres. x 20. Fic. 2.—Longitudinal section of an axillary bud of Dendrobium chrysanthum. The subtending leaf, which is ruptured by the developing bud, lies on the left of the section. x 20. Fie. 8.—Transverse section of an axillary bud of V. teres. x 20. Fie. 4.—Transverse section of the stem of V teres, passing longitu- dinally through an axillary bud, the leaves of which are seen as arches over its apex. x 20. Fie. 5.—Longitudinal section of a young axillary bud, near the apex of V. teres. x 20. ——ey Prats XII. Fie. 6.—Same as fig. 5, of a younger bud. x 20. Fic. 7.—Longitudinal section through a much older axillary bud, showing its flat dome-like leaves as arches over the apex. To the right is the petiole of the subtending leaf, which will be penetrated in the development of the bud. x 20. Dixon—On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres. 457 Fre. 8.—Central portion of a transverse section of the cylindrical leaf of Dendrobium teretifolium, containing the axial passage, lined with small epidermal cells. x 160. Fie. 9.—Epidermal cells seen in transverse section of the leaf of V. teres. The upper portion shows the structure of a stoma, with the collar of cuticle standing up round it ; in the lower is seen the dome-shaped outer wall, with its central knob of the cells of the leaf epidermis. x 160. Fie. 10.—A cell from a transverse section of the cortex of a root of V. teres, showing the fibrous thickenings arching over the intercellular passages. x 125. Fic. 11.—Velamen and exodermis of V. teres, seen in transverse section of the root. x 160. Fie. 12.—Similar to fig. 8. Central portion of a transverse section, taken near the base of the leaf of Dendrobium tereti- folium, showing the axial passage triangular in cross- section. x 160. Prate XIII. Fie. 18.—Cells containing silicious bodies on the outside of the sclerenchymatous bundle-sheath of a fully developed leaf, from a radial section. V. teres. x 210. Fie. 14.—Similar to fig. 13, but from a younger leaf. In some of the cells containing the silicious bodies a nucleus can be Seen= mn) Fires. 15 & 16.—Transverse sections of a bundle ending blindly in the lignified parenchymatous tissue of the stem of V. teres. Fig. 15 is drawn from the last section of a series in which it was traceable. Fig. 15 x 280, and fig. 16 x 240. Fie. 17.—Radial section of an immature leaf, showing the cells which give rise to the silicious bodies on the outside of the bundle-sheath of V. teres. The white mass beside the nucleus of some of the cells is the beginning of the silicious body. Fite. 18.—Similar to fig. 17. A later stage. 458 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Prate XIV. Fic. 19.—Longitudinal section of an axillary bud of Dendrobium teretifolium. At the top of the axis is to be seen the rudimentary foliage leaf. Beneath this are 10 scale- leaves. x 10. Fie. 20.—Longitudinal section through the base of a lateral branch of V. teres. In the angle between the lateral branch and the main axis is to be seen part of the ruptured tubular petiole of the leaf which subtended the bud. At the base of the branch are the remains of the two first leaves. x 4. Fie. 21.—Transverse section of the apex of the leaf of Dendrobium teretrfolium, where the axial passage comes to the surface of the leaf. x 20. Fie. 22.—Transverse section of the bases of the petioles of the leaves covering the apex of V. teres. x15. Fie. 28.—Transverse section of the leaf of Dendrobium teretifolium about the middle, showing the position of the axial passage in the leaf. x 4. Fies, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29.—A series of transverse sections passing from the lamina of the leaf to a point in the stem beneath its insertion at the node of V. teres. The figuring of the bundles shows the fusions and divisions which take place in this space. The section from which fig. 28 was drawn passed through the base of an adventitious root (which appears above to the left) and a lateral branch, seen below. x 8. Fig. 30, 31, 32, 338.—A series of transverse sections of the leaf of Brassavola Hadweni passing downwards from the apex to the base, showing the gradual infolding and inclusion in the central tissues of the leaf of the groove-like upper surface. x 8. [ 459 ] XXVI. ON THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN WELSH. By ROBERT ATKINSON, M.A., LL.D., Secrnrary or Counci. [Read Aprin 9, 1894.] In the case of Irish, where the forms are much broken down, and where the function has gradually ceased altogether, I took one special verb, and traced its handling throughout an entire series of related literature. This restriction is here needless, as the usage of the subjunctive mood, throughout all periods of Welsh literature down to the present day patois, is fairly uniform. But to make the matter definite, I have taken one book, the Mabinogion, and examined and quoted every instance of the occurrence of the subjunctive mood found therein. The admirable transcript by Mr. G. Evans of this valuable linguistic ‘document’ has made it possible for students to draw inferences with some confidence that the data given by the printed copy are really so and not otherwise in the MS.; these editions of Old Welsh Texts are quite equal to the very best work I have ever seen. The Mabinogion I have taken as a tolerably central work ; but I have examined all sorts of writings to see if any essential differences could be found, with the general result that the usage is singularly well-established and uniform: the language of the early text of the Laws, of the Black Book of Carmarthen, of the Mabinogion, of Morgan’s Job, of the modern Bible, observes substantially the same rules. Occasionally the modern language differs from the older version, as in Job xxxi. 8— yna hauwyf fi, a bwyttaed arall, ‘then det me sow, and let another eat’ ; where in the old version we have— bwytaed arall yr hyn a hawwyf, ‘let another eat whatever I may sow.’ But it cannot be said that this is incorrect, for though the optative usage in the first person occurs only once in the Mabinogion, it is 460 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. certainly to be found in Old Welsh, cf. BBC. p. 20, 1. 12 [ed. Skene] buyf guas guinwydic, ‘may I become a blessed servant &c.;’ 12, 8 Crist, ny buy-e trist y’th orsset, ‘O Christ, may I be not sad before thy throne.’ Or, cf. p. 804,19 [from RBH.] bwyf derwin y duw diheu, ‘may I be ardently devoted to God’; or the usage in B. Taliessin, p. 200,7, 19 a’m bwyf-i gan Grist, ‘may I be with Christ’; 175,8 hu bwyf y’th rat, ‘may I be bold in thy grace.’ Before citing examples of the use, it will be well to exhibit the endings of the mood. The forms given in Zeuss?, p. 506, are as follows :— Sing. 1. caruim 2. caruit . caro: Passive—car-er . carom . caroch 3. caroint, caront. Plur. bo Foo These are nearly identical with the modern forms: -wyf, -ych, 0; -om, -och, -ont, except in the 2 sg., where we have a notable example of a wrong text, for Ebel has (Zeuss’, p. 512) ‘‘in codice rubro -yt in hoc exemplo, hyn nys gellyt (etsi non id potes), Mab. I., 268”; but the text, which occurs on p. 220,18 in the new edition, has no such portent, but the regular normal form, syn nys gellych. I should further observe that I have not taken into consideration the so-called imperfect tense of the subjunctive, simply because no such form exists: the language of all periods uses the indicative endings, and Welsh idiom says pei a’s gwypwn [si id scirem ], just as French says, s¢ ye Pavais su. It is obvious therefore that the use of the subjunctive can only be investigated from the instances in the present tense, where the forms are quite distinct. Some grammarians of Modern Welsh exhibit a tense which they call the future-perfect tense, but as this is merely an adaptation to the exigencies of Latin grammar, it is unnecessary to make more than mere passing reference to this superfluity of terminology. [1 have not printed the peculiar vowel w, because the press has not got it in its founts, and I did not think it of sufficient importance to have a letter cast specially. 1 Very noteworthy is the singular omission of the formative -o, in the verbs el (eat), ded (veniat), gwnel (faciat), instead of elo &c. But the fuller forms are all found in Morgan’s Job, cf. xiv. 20 fel yr elo; v. 21 pan ddelo; delo, cf. xiii. 13 ; xlv. 14; xxvii. 9; xli. 16 (mod. ddaw) v. 12 fel na wnelo (mod. allo &e.); but XXXvVil. 15 pan wnel efe (mod. y gwnaeth). Arxinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 46] The old-style number 6, which sometimes is made to do duty for it, is a very poor substitute, to which only dire necessity should make anybody have recourse. But even in Mr. Evans’ admirable transcript of Welsh Texts, the use of the letter is not absolutely uniform. For we have, even in the same line, 168, 1, the word kawat spelt in both ways; 51, 15 adopts the consonant, but 46, 18 has the vowel, form of the letter, and so in scores of examples which I have noted down. Again, so far as gw is concerned, when the g is elided the following vocalic w, now become initial, is written as a consonant w; thus, we have, as a rule, with vocalic w, guweith, guwedy, gweleis Ke. with consonant w, weith, wedy, weleis &e. I say, as a rule, but it is certainly not adhered to with absolute accuracy, for we find vocalic w in wnaeth 6, y; but consonant w in wnaeth, 6, x. Or again, at 96, x we find gwedy, with consonant w; so gweith 1, 2 &e. Obviously, irregularity in the use of a letter introduced for the sake of distinc- tion, is not calculated to aid an ignorant student, who would find himself puzzled by the following, with vocalic w: wdost 31,x ; wdam 48,21; 88,13; 240,3 but with consonant w: 18,3; 36,22; 48,3; 129,22 &c.; for here he would have a difficulty in deciding from this text, whether he should say udost or wdost ? So in gwreic, gwney, gwnant, gwnel &c., he would have to be specially directed what to do with the accentuation or not of this vyocalic w, which is written as a consonant when the initial g is elided. However, the matter is not of importance in reference to the present paper, which is concerned solely with the question of function, not of form.] A. In general, the subjunctive mood is really subjunctive : it occurs chiefly in dependent clauses, the use in principal clauses being confined to the expression of the optative, where indeed it is common enough, but mainly in the 3 sg.; cf. such expressions as Fr. a Dieu ne plaise, Dieu soit loué, grand bien vous fasse &e. It occurs in apodosis, at 6,2, ar ny del yn vuud, kymheller, ‘he who will not come obediently, shall be compelled’; 199, 22, ny chatwyf vy wyneb, ot af. Apparently used in the apodosis, with suppressed protasis, of a hypothetic clause: 103, 16, namyn mab brenhin .. . neu y gerdawr a dycko y gerd, ny atter y-mywn, ‘unless [it were] the son of a king ..., or (unless it were granted) to a player bringing his art, nobody would be let in.’ 166,10 a gwr du mawr ..., ny Jo lei o dim no deuwr 0 wyr y byt hwnn, ‘and a big black man who [if he were measured] would not be at all less than two of the men of this age.’ Cf. also 103, 6 a thitheu ny 00 teu dy benn byrr y kyuerchy di, 462 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. (‘is there a porter? yes,) and as to thee, may thy head not be thine, [so | abruptly thou askest,’—if this be the construction. Precisely the same construction occurs in this story, at 126, 13 a thitheu ny 0 teu dy dauawt y’th benn, py rac a kyuerchy di, which is absurdly rendered thus: Said G. G. I., ‘‘is there a porter?” ‘‘ There is. And thou, if thy tongue be not mute in thy head, wherefore dost thou call?” But there is no word to express mute: ‘as for thee, may thy tongue in thy head not be thine!’ OprativE UsaGe. This optative use is very common in Welsh, usually in the 3 sg., though it is not in theory confined to this person, as will be seen from the examples below from the Mabinogion, and from BBC. RBH.—Usually 3 sg., Duw a rodo [rodho] da ytt, 15, 2; 27,12; 35,22; 149,35; 207, 27; 284,21; 259,27; 262,11;—Duw a dalo [dalho] itt, 15,4; 22,4; 24,145 81,93 51, y; 220) 1095) 228%23- 234,26; 253,8; 276,9; 293, 1 ;—Duw a rwydhao ragot, 17, 18 ;— Duw a wo nerth itt, 77,27 ;—ny bo gwaethy X nocy Y, 105, 10; ny 60 didlawt neb o-honaw, 105,13; ny 60 berthach byth (y boch chwi no minneu), 115,15, 16; Duwa’ch nodho, 126,9; Duw a diolcho itt, 225,x; 227,15; ny bo gressaw Duw wrthyt, 240,14; gresso Duw wrthyt, 245,14; Duwa’th gyghoro nu, 270, 8. Introduced by 3 sg. imperat., poet yn gystal y’th deon a’th niuer...y boy gwell hwnn, 105, 11.—Rarely in passive, rydhaer, ‘let them be freed,’ 65, 5 ; gwneler hynny, 259,1; kywetrer y minneu vy march, 208, 2.—In 2 sg.: in the greeting formula hanpych gwell, 35,22; 87,25; 88, x; 105, 9, [(henp.) 15; 118, 16; 245, 12; 286, 5]; with negative, na bev- dych, 80,1; na chollych, 80,4; dos ac erchych hynny idaw, 102,11; dyuot a wnelych gennyf, 118, 2; ny chatwyf vy wyneb, ot af, 199, 22; na disgynnych, 255, y. BBC.—P. 3,10 moch guelher, ‘may it soon be seen’; 7, 10 gorpo, ‘may he overcome’; 10, x ren new a’n voto-ne ran trugaret, ‘may the Lord of heaven give us a share of mercy’; 10, 2 diwyccom-ne a digonhom o gamuet, ‘may we reform and do satisfaction for our transgression’ [cf. 178, 23 diwyccwyf (44, 7), digonwyf ]; 11, 25 a’n eirolve ne M., ‘may Michael intercede for us’; 12, 6 ni’m naccer, ‘ may it not be refused me’; 12,9 hanpich gwell, ‘hail!’ (cf. 18,7); 12,8 ny duv-e trist, ‘may I not be sad’; 12,10 a’th wendicco de, ‘ may it bless thee!’ 14, 3 guledic deduit a’n gunel in rit erbin dit braud, ‘may the happy ruler make us free against the day of doom’; 14, 4 a’n duch i'r gulet, ‘may He bring us to the feast’; 14, 6 a’n gunel iechid, ‘may He do us salvation’ ; 18, 5 kert a ganhwi, ‘a song may he sing’; 20,12 buyf guas guinwydic, ‘may I befa blessed servant’; 35, 19, 20 ny’m ArKinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 463 gunaho douit duy poen, ‘may He not do on me great pain’; 47,7 ry-phrinom-ne di gerenhit, ‘may we buy thy love’ (116, 25); 56, 26 ny’m gwatter, ‘let me not be refused’ ; 57, 14, 20 a’th vo rad, ‘be there grace to thee.’ The 2 sg. occurs a few times, in addition to the expression hanpich gwell, ‘hail,’ e. gr. 44, 14 yscy- thrich fort, ‘make smooth a road’... a Uunhich tagneuet, ‘and (form, cultivate) peace’; 44,17 a chenich golychuid, ‘and sing (thy) devotion.’ But naturally by far the great majority of the cases of its occurrence exemplify the subjunctive mood in its proper function, as the mood of subordination in the cases where the real interest lies in the logical connexion of the chief and the subordinate clauses; for when the statement made in the subordinate clause is guaranteed by the speaker to be the enunciation of an objective fact, the indicative mood of course must appear. I. Sussrantivat Crauses (OBJECTIVE). (a) Here the subjunctive is properly used, in nown-clauses objective to verbs of knowing, thinking, and such like, where positive knowledge of the statement is not categorically asserted :— Aet un... y wybot pwy vo, ‘let one go, to find out who he is,’ 9,2, [ whereas, when the statement of knowledge or ignorance is cate- gorically asserted, the indicative is used, cf. mi a wun pwy wyt ti, ‘I know who thou art,’ 2,11 ; ny wnipwy wyt ti, ‘I do not know who thou art,’ 2,23]; kyt tybyckych di, na 60 hawd, ‘though thou shouldst imagine that it was not hard,’ 120, 26, z &c.; nes gwybot, a allwyf, ‘ till I find out whether I can,’ 233,20; so 185,27 ny wn beth a vynn ac wynt; yny wyper a wo byw, 261,4; yny wypwyf pwy vych, 285, 10. (6) After verbs of wishing, entreating, commanding : llyma a uynnaf, na 0 hut, ‘ this is what I desire, that the charm be no more,’ ac na dotter, ‘and that it be not again put,’ 57, y, z; so 58, 3 Ilyma a vynnaf, na do ymdiala ; a wney di yrofi nat agorych y creu, yny &c., ‘wilt thou grant for my sake that thou open it not, till &c.,’ 78,103; sef y harchaf itt, na mynnych wreic (hyt pan &c.), 100,x; ny mynnafi...namyn na do yma vyth y gware hwnn, 294, 24. (ce) In sentences declaring the purport of an oath: mi a tynghaf dynghet idaw, na chaffo ef enw, yny &c., ‘I swear he shall not get a name, till &.,’ 69,21 ; 71,13; 73,11; mi a tynghaf dynghet itt, na chyflado dy ystlys wrth wreic, hyt pan &c., 102,2; and so 102,8 na chaffwyf wreic, hyt pan &c. O rodweh gret na wneloch gam idi, 464 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. ‘if ye make oath that ye will do her no wrong,’ 117, 15’; cret a erchis .. im, nat elwyf heb y gyghor, 118,5; cret... na wnelych waeth no gwir arnaf, 120,15; dy gret na wnelych gam vyth, 211,3; myn gwrhyt gwyr nyt—a mi yn uyw—yd aho ef y gernyw; 140, 16 kymer gret y mackwy, na dywetto dim or a welas yman, 217, 14. Or an advice: llyma vyg kyghor ... na rodher, yny &c., 258, x; rodwch ym gyghor, pa uorwyn a geisswyf, ‘advise me as to which maiden I should seek,’ 67, z. Or the condition : sef yw hynny, nat elhont y gennyf, yny &c., ‘this is the cove- nant, viz. that they go not &., 61,18; gan dy uot yn gedymdeith, ac nat elych y’m herbyn yr eilweith, ‘on (the terms of) thy becoming friendly, and that thou go not against me any more,’ 283, 12. (d) After edrych &c., ‘to see whether’ &c. edrychwch... na bo goreu y gwedo arnaw y enw 24,8; ny wnn na bo yno y kaffo, 31,22; y edrych a allwyf y dial arnaw, 204, 12. (e) In indirect questions, we have the subjunctive after pa furyf, ‘in what form, how,’ cf. manac .. . y mi pa furyf y gallwyf hynny, ‘ show me how I can do that,’ 3,5; gwybot pa ffuryf y del y angheu, ‘to find out how his death will come,’ 75,11; ny wdost pa dyd pa nos y del chwedleu da attatt, ‘thou knowest not on what day or night good news will come to thee,’ 86, 9; menegi y mi pa furyf y galler dy lad ditheu, 76, 2; the direct question has of course the zndicative, pa ffuryf y kaffaf i, ‘how shall I get it,’ 2, x. (f) After the verb to choose: dewis, ae ti a elych y’r llys, ae titheu a delych gyt a mi, ae minnew a yrro un o’r teulu &c., ‘ choose whether thou wilt go to the court or whether thou wilt come with me, or whether J must send one of the servants,’ 237,9. Especially note- worthy is the construction of the infinitive in one of the clauses of the alternative : dewis, ae mi a agorwyf y porth itt, ae menegi yr neb &c., ‘ choose, whether I must open the door for thee, or [whether thou art] to declare to,’ 205,14; but ef. 150,25 dewis di ae kerdet ae na cherdych, ‘ choose either to go or whether thou shouldst not go.’ Cf. a similar construction 189, 10 auory y mae oet dyd yrof i ac ef—y rodi y uorwyn honno idaw, neu ynteu a Jadho vy meibon y’m gwyd, ‘to-morrow is the day stipulated between us . . . either to give him this maiden, or that he should slay my sons in my presence’; 222, 11 gwnay neill peith..., Arkinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 465 ae diot dy arueu... , ae titheu arodo arueu ereill y mineu, ‘do one or other,—either to lay aside thy armour .. . or that thou shouldst give me other armour’; 225,22 ae mynet yvr llys ..., ae titheu a arhoych yma, ‘ either to go to the court, . . . or that thou remain here.’ So also, cf. 282, 18 mia vynnaf iawn y gennyt, neu uinneu a gaffivyf y gennyt ti diruawr ouut, ‘I will have satisfaction from thee, or that I should get vast trouble at thy hands.’ (g) In the phrase ‘I cannot refrain from,’ we have practically a case-clause [ olyect-clause | ; cf. 274, 26 ny allaf i yr dim, rac blinder na chysgwyf, ‘I cannot at all, through weariness, [keep awake so that] I should not sleep’; in the shorter forms, 277, 4.ny allaf i na chysgwyf, ‘I can’t help sleeping.’ II. ApvERBIAL CLAUSES. (A) The sphere of the subjunctive in adverbial clauses of Time is nearly covered by our conjunctive phrases ‘ up to the time that, till,’ and ‘as long as, while,’ to which correspond the Welsh particles yny, pan, gwedy, tra, as follows :-— 1. After yny, ‘till,’ (but only of future events, for when the past is referred to, the mood is indicative) : yny delych y’m kyuoeth, 3, 26; yny el ef dros y penn yn y got, 14,6; yny vo ryd y wyr y vynet drostaw, 16,17; yny agoroch y drws, 40,17; yny welwyf P. a R. yn ryd gyt ami, 58,8; yny /ilyont eu deu kymeint yn y wlat, 61, 19 yuy kaffo gennytf i, 69, 22; yny welwyfy throet, 70, 24; yny guwisqwyf i ymdanaw, 71, 14; yny gaffwyf chwedleu y-wrth vy nei, 77, 26; yny vwyf i yn y ueill parth y’r creu, 78, 11; yny elwyf iy dywedut y A., 104,8; yny gaffer D., 123, 24; yny debycko pawb, 125,19; yny deloch hyt lle &c., 1380, 13; yny delych y’y coet, 166,6,8. 167,19; yny ve, 185, 8. 286,18; ymgaffwyf, 196, 27. 199,26. 204, 26; gaff- wyf, 200, 13. 219, x; 249,26; caffwyf, 205, 6; wypwyf, 207,23. 285, 10; adeuych, 215,18; delwyf, 2385, y. 287,12. 270,4; wypych, 237,z. 269,24; geffych, 249,25; del 207,17; 256,y. 258,2,y; wyper, 261,4; wneler, 265,23; darffo, 267,23; vwyttao, 289, 18; hyuo, 289, 23. 2. After gwedy, ‘as soon as,’ of futurity: gwedy byryer llawer yndi, 14,1; gwedy delych atref, 96, x; gwedy darffo udunt.. . vlinaw, 97, 6 ; gwedy na welont hwy dydi, drwe vyd gantunt, 173, 17; deuparth dy dewred a geueist, a’r troyan yssyd heb gael; a gwedy keffych yn gwhyl, ny thyckya y neb amrysson a thi, 208, 3; gwedy na'th uynnwyf, 278, 19. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL, III. 27 466 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acaedemy. 8. After pan, ‘as soon as’; often = ‘at whatever time,’ of futurity: pan delych y’th wlat, 6, 10; pan wo ef ar ganawl y digrifvwch, 13, 25 ; pan e/ ef, 14,6; pan wo yn rwymedic yn y got, 14,9; pan glywhont Hef dy gorn, 14, 10; pan agorer y creu beunyd, yd a allan, 78, 7; pan vo kysgu yn treissaw arnat, 97, 21 ; auory pryt anterth, pan agerer y porth, 108,24; pan rannwyf vyn da y ospeit, 105, 19; pan y dech- reuwyf, 105, 20; pan dycko beich, 109, 19; pan edwyf, 119, 18. 120,1; gaffwyf, 120, 16; wo, 121,227. 122,14. 168,4. 225,26. 258,17. 259,153; wynner, 122,15; dotter, 123, 12; geffych, 125, y ; hambwyllont, 173, 15 ; allo, 221, 13 (where the meaning goes over into ‘ seeing that he,’ ‘inasmuch as,’ pa gyfryw wr yw . . . pan allo lleassu pawb uelly ; delych, 223,43 geissych, 224,x; ganer, 248,1; ellynger, 248, 2; dechreuont, 248, 2. Pan is also preceded by other particles; (a) or pann agoroch y drws hwnnw, ‘from the moment that you open that door,’ 40, 19; or pan elych odyma, 255, z. (8) Again, erbyn pan delwyf drachefyn, ‘against the time when I come back,’ ‘till my return,’ 219,19. (vy) Very common is the combination hyt pan, ‘up to the time when,’ ‘till,’ of course only of futurity : O hynn hyt pan de/, 37,11; na mynnych wreic hyt pan welych dryssien .. . ar vym bed i, 100, y; na chyflado .. . hyt pan geffych O., 102, 3; hyt pan gaffwyf O., 102, 8; hyt pan vo parawt bwyt a llyn idaw, 104, y; dygyrch di gennym ni, hyt pan dywettych di nat ydiw ., neu ninneu ae haffom, 113, 23, 24; nat ymchoelwn hyt pann welhom y uorwyn, 117, 9; ka nyt hoedel idaw namyn hyt pan elwyf i gan wr, 118,63; cf. welwyf, 118,213; gaffwyf, 119, 24; wo yn Me teil idaw, 120, 20; 121, 22, ‘to sow the flax in the new land,’ hyt pan wo ef a wo pennlliein gwynn am penn uym merch, ‘till it be it [that flax ] that shall be a white veil on my daughter’s head’; deler, 128, 13; delwyf, 131, 8; gaffer, 137, 24. 4, After tra, ‘as long as,’ ‘whilst,’ of futwrity: hediw apheunyd tra barhao y wled honn, 17, 10; tra barhawyf i, mi a’th gynhalyaf, 24, 19 ; tra allwyf kynnal y meu vy hun, 24, 20; tra vynno Duw itt uot uelly, 51, 23; tra welo Duw, 51, x; tra geissych hynny, 125, y; tra vych vyw, 168,12; tra gudyych ti euo, 178, 14; tra vwyf vyw, ‘as long as I live,’ 192,93; tra vych iach di, 207, x; tra wych yn dywedut ym, (pwy) wyt, 222,18, where also the meaning shades off into a mere hypothetic ‘as soon as,’ ‘if’: ‘thou shalt get mercy on telling me who thou art,’ [though the ‘ pious’ Peredur does not seem to have had any difficulty in breaking his word, as related on the next page, AtTKINsoN— On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 467 223, 15!]. Cf. owyf 253,13. 289,14; uych, 277,53; tra y’th vynnwyf, 278, 19; wom, 278, 21. It has sometimes hyt prefixed, marking the duration ‘wp to the time when,’ ‘during all the period that,’ ‘as long as ever’: hyt tra vont hwy yn y lle kadarn hwnnw, ny daw &c., 97, 13 ; ydym wyr da, hyt tra yn dygyrcher 105, 4; hyt tra y’m gatter yn vyw, 119, 2; hyt tra barhao gennyt ti dy dauawt, 213, 2. 5. The use of yt in the sense of ‘as far as,’ ‘ up to the extent that,’ is rarer, but demands of course the Subjunctive: pa arch bynnac a a erchych di y-mi, hyt y gallwyf y gaffel itti y byd, ‘thou shalt get thy request granted, as far as lies in my power,’ 18,1; cf. PBI Tey 2 278, 9,14; taw, hyt y mynnych, ‘be silent, as much as you please,’ 13, 8. In the older language, we may observe pretty nearly the same facts, as may be seen from the following examples from BBC. : after ban! [pan], ‘ when,’ ‘as soon as,’ (of futurity) :— 4,14? ban brivher, ban foher, ‘as soon as he is wounded, as soon as he flees’; 4,17 ban browher, (‘when it is proved’) ; 11, 29 ban ganhont cogev ar blaen guit, ‘when cuckoos sing on top of trees’ ; 17, 13, 25 pan vo (26, 2 ; 27, 6, y ; 28, 15, &ec.), 22, 24 pan diffon (26,13) dros mor, ‘when they come over sea’; 22, y pan vont ve corforion, ‘when they become corpses’; 23,5 ban diholer (‘when it is re- quired’); 23,10 pan bebillo, ‘when he encamps’; 23,14 ban sorro, ‘when he becomes enraged’ (157, 9); 24,17 ban Ulather, ‘when they are slain’; 24,x ban eistetho (audiat); 25,16 ban diffont (veniant); 26,7 gunelhont (faciant) ; 26,9 pan de/ (veniat) ; [but 43, 2 ban kynodaw)]. after pir, ‘when’ :— 8, 21 gvae vi, pir wuuf (vwyf) ar di kiuolv, ‘ woe is me when I am about to praise thee’ ; after yny, ‘till’ :— 14, 19 yny wuyv y Duw in din digerit, ‘till I become to God a blameless man’ ; 20, 24, z yny del K. ‘till K. come.’ after tra, ‘ whilst’ :— 41, y tra vom, ‘so long as we are.’ But at times also, the exigencies of the metre seem to have overpowered the grammar, for the construction on 43, 2 ban kyuodaw [cyfodaf], ‘when I arise,’ disobeys the rule which prescribes the swljunctive after ban: cf. 114,27 pan vydaf ; 114,26 pan wyf dic. (B) In accessory clauses of Causality, (including causal, conditional, concessive, consecutive, and final clauses,) it is to be observed that alike in causal and in conditional clauses, the Welshman dislikes the subjunctive mood. 1 Not to be confounded with ban = unde, especially where it is repeated idio- matically in answer to a question with the verb ‘ to come,’ cf. 54, 9, 10; 56,2, pan doit, ‘ whence comest thou,’ ban deuaw, ‘I come from &c.’ Z12 468 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. (a) In the causal clause, the subjunctive is not used, save in such sentences as the following, ‘ what is the reason for thy not doing thus’: cf. py derw ytti pryt nat atteppych y neb hediw, ‘ what is the matter with thee, since thou answerest no one to-day,’ 176,20; pa uedwl yw dy teu di pryt na bwyttehych, ‘what thought is thine, to cause thy not taking food,’ 292, y. (6) And in the conditional clause, the Welsh conjunction 9, ‘ if,’ is followed by the indicative mood, just as is the French s7, ‘if,’ so that there is no reason to assume that in the past tense pei a’s gwypwn is in a disguised subjunctive mood: we have ‘si je le savais, si je lavais su.’ And here may be noted a startling parallel to the French con- struction, which introduces the second of two coordinate sentences in the protasis of a hypothetic clause, by gue with subjunctive, though the former had s¢ with indicative, s¢ le roi m’avatt donné . . . et gw’ilme failit quitter &c.; cf. 195, 18 o gwely vwyt a diawt, or byd reit itt wrthaw, ac na bo o wybot a dayoni y rodi itt, kymer dy hun ef, ‘if thou seest food, &c., then, if thou hast need of it, and there be not enough social tact and kindness in anybody to give thee it, take it thyself.’ (c) But in the concessive clause, the subjunctive has its admitted sphere, and appears regularly, as follows: 1. After Ayt,) ‘though,’ [yn before negative ny], kyn nyt ymdialwyf a thi, ‘even though I should not be (thereby fully) avenged on thee,’ 2,20; kyt dbwyfiyno, ‘even suppose I were here (next year),’ 3,14; kyt archo ef ytti yr eil, ‘even though he beg of thee [to give him] the other (blow),’ 3,19; kyt kerych di vot velly, ny’s diodefwn y-gennyt, 18,7: kyt bo gwaratwyd gennyt ti hynny, mwy yw gan U., 29,2; kyt ry-wnelych di sarhaedeu lJlawer, ny’s gwney bellach, ‘though thou mayst have perpetrated &c., thou will do) somo) longer,’ 99,2. .CE tybyckych 120; 25, zal oiemonerex. 122, 3, 12, 17; kyn gwnel gameu itt, ‘tho’ he do acts of injustice to thee,’ 44,10; kyt keffych, 120, 26. 122, 3, 13, 18; kyn ny dycko, 127,13; kyn ny, wypo, 127, 19; kyn ny chevssych 128, 24; 1 Tn precisely the same way, we have in Old Welsh the subjunctive after hyd, kyn, ‘though ’? :— 11, 11 kyn gatter, ‘though he be allowed’; 19, 22 kin duyf aelav hetiv, ‘though I be sad to-day’; 20, 23, y kid keisseer, ‘though it be sought’; 27,17 kyn safont yn y drws, ‘ though they stand in the doorway’; 55, y kyd karhwiu-e morva, ‘ though I love the sea.’ ArTkKinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 469 tydi a’m ewely i, kany welwyf i dydi, ‘thou shalt see me, even though I do not see thee,’ 173,19; or gwely wreic tec, gordercha hi, kyn ny’th uynno, ‘if thou see a pretty woman, woo her, though she will not (have) thee,’ 195,22; kyt gwelych beth a uo ryued gennyt, 201,z; nyt af y-wrthyt, kyny wnelwyf dim oc a dywedy, ‘I shall not leave thee, even though I do not accomplish aught of what thou sayst,’ 207,23; kyn ny’s gellych, 220,18; kyt dywetto ef overed, 222,3; kyn na allom ni, 235,24; kyt caffo E. gouut... gennyt ti, 262,12; kyt cafo clot yndunt, 264,10; kyt ymlado a mi, 270, z; 280, 18 (kyt y’m dado i); kyt mynnych di gwe- let vy angheu 1, 271, 7. But, if the case is stated as an admitted fact, we have the im- perative, boet, ‘let it be,’ cf. kyt boet keuyndyrw y mi, ‘ granting that he is my cousin,’ 44, 12; kyt doet drwe gennyt ti, 69,23; kyt boet lach, 265, 22. 2. The use of yr is rare: kaffel etiued o honat ti, yr nas kaffo o arall, ‘though she may not get an heir from another,’ 101, 23. 3. The construction with the disjunctive sentence, ‘whether X or Y,’ isnot frequent, but it occurs: pan dycko beich, na mawr na bychan uo, ‘as soon as he carries a burden, whether it be great or small,’ 109, 19. This may be expressed otherwise: beth bynnac a wo... , nabyw na marw, ‘in whatever state he be, alive or dead,’ 289, 10; or as in 246, 9, na marchawe na phedestyr y del idaw, ‘be it knight or foot- man that may come to him.’ 4. In sentences which in English begin with a relative pronoun or adverb that is made of general application by the addition of the particle -ever, (whoever, whatever, however, whenever, wherever &c.), the particle -ever is often expressed, viz. bynnac, the predicative word being inserted between the introductory pronoun and bynnac: pa dylyedawe bynnac a e¢stedo arnei, ‘whatever nobleman sit upon it,’ 8, 19; pa arch bynnac a erchych di y-mi, ‘whatever boon thou ask of me,’ 13, 1; pa hyt bynnac y bych yma, ‘however long thou remain here,’ 105, 18 ; pwy bynnac a vynno kanlyn A.,... ac a’r nys mynno, ‘whoever be willing to follow A., and whoever be not willing,’ 160,x,y; pa le bynnac y bwyf i, 199, 24; pwy bynnac a vynno ennill clot, 233, 13; beth bynnac nu a dylyych, 279,16; pwy bynnac a uych, 290, 24. The verb is occasionally inserted between the pronoun and the par- ticle, cf. 104, 7 pa diaspettych di bynnac am gyfreitheu llys A., ‘ how- ver much thou clamour at the laws of A.’s court.’ 5. The limiting phrase ‘however much’ is generally expressed by yr before the relatival a@ and a verb in the subjunctive; cf. yr a 470 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. ymbilio a thi, ‘however much he beg thee,’ 8,19: yr a dotter yndi, ‘however much be put into it,’ 15, 13 ;—but also used in the form, yr y uychanet a wo, ‘ for all its smallness,’ 60, 6 ; cf. 264, 23 yr a del nac o les nac o afles ymio hynny, ‘ whatever come to me—of good or ill—from this’; yr a welych nac yr a glywych, nac ymchoel di, 270,133; yr a ostecker arnat ti ny thewy di byth, ‘however much silence is enjoined on thee, thou art never silent,’ 280,21. Cf. also the use of meint, 221, 9, yr meint wo y gwrthret arnaf yn arhos. (2) Inmere consecution, where the subordinate clause states the result as a simple matter of fact, the indicative mood is of course employed, ef. 167, 24 ar y llech y mae kawe aryant wrth gadwyn aryant, mal na ellir eu gwahanu, ‘so that they cannot be separated.’ (e) But where the action refers to the future, the consecutive in general goes over into the final, the subordinate clause expressing not so much the result secured as the purpose intended: ‘‘ so, that I do &e.”’ becoming ‘‘in order that I may &e.”’ In negative clauses, after an introductory ‘I will cause that ...’, the negative is usually preceded by fAyt, which probably is rather consecutive than final, =‘‘to such an extent, that ...’ Thus, without conjunctive particle, (but of course with the subjunctive negative na,) we have, mia wnat... na bo gwr...a wypo, 3,22; mi a wnaf na chaffo ef viui vyth, 13, 16; mia baraf... na do awnach no chynt, 13,z; mia wnaf, na bych byth bellach [yn ormes], 223,14; perhaps also 80,1, (mi a wnaf)...na beidych ditheu dangos dy wyneb. But in this case hy¢ is also prefixed, gwnaf...hyt na bo gwas ..a wypo, ‘I will arrange so that none shall know &e.’ 3, 10; kymer gedernit y-ganthaw, na $0 amovyn na dial vyth amdanaw, ‘take pledges, zm order that there may not be, &c., [ or perhaps better, ‘to the effect that &c.’ | 16, 10; karchara wynt, hyt nat elont dracheuyn, ‘imprison them, so that they may not go back,’ 34,14; mia dodaf teir diaspat ...hyt na bo agheuach ym penn P., 104,1; mia yrraf letrith ar y ki, hyt na wnel argywed y neb, ‘I shall cast an illusion on the hound so that he may not do hurt to any one,’ 115, 13. Cf. also, a daw hitheu yma y teruyn y gweler, ‘ does she ever come hither, so that she may be seen,’ 117,10; par weithon wahard y llongeu.. . ual nat el neb y gymry, 34, 13. Somctimes we find mal: mal na dont ueichawe byth o hediw allan, 104, 6; mal y crettoch, ‘in order that ye may believe,’ 131, 10; ef a vennyc fford itti, ual y keffych yr hynn a geissy, 166,18; ual y Arkinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 471 haffwyf ymbraw ar marchawe, ‘so that I may get an opportunity of fighting with the knight,’ 249, 23. Also in Modal clauses, where the matter has a purely subjective reference; thus the subjunctive comes after wal in the sense of ‘in accordance with,’ cf. ymgeffylybet bawp o honawch ae gilyd, mal y mynno, ‘just as each likes,’ 223,23; y wneuthur iawn idi ual y barnher, 256, 1; gwnaet lawn, mal y barno goreugwyr y llys, ‘as the nobles decide,’ 261, 5; mia wnaf ual y dywettych di, ‘1 shall act in accordance with thy directions,’ 276, 27. The comparison is more definitely indicated by the use of wrth ual: cf. 2,23 wrth ual y bo dy enryded, ‘in-proportion to what thy dignity may be,’ ‘in a manner befitting thy social rank’; 3, y, ac wrth ual y gwelych y gwassanaeth yndi, yd adnabydy voes y llys, ‘and in proportion as thou seest the service therein, thou wilt come to learn the manners of the court.’ IIL. Apsectivat CLaAvses. In such subordinate clauses as contain not simply the admitted or guaranteed description of the object referred to in the chief clause, but express the desired or pre-supposed possession of some special quality in that object, the subjective nature of the connexion between the clauses necessarily involves the use of the subjunctive mood. The connexion may be perhaps best expressed in English by the phrase, ‘of such a particular kind, that. ..’; here, as often as the whole class of that kind is referred to, the structure falls under the ‘concessive’ category, and is best expressed by an -ever clause, as will be abundantly exemplified in the following :— 1. Cf. y lle y mynnych di, ‘whatever place you please,’ 12, 5; gwnaoet ... y del R. y’th ol, ‘name a trysting-day when R. shall come after thee,’ 17,18; kymer wreic arall, y 40 ettiued itt o-honei, ‘take another wife [of such a kind that] thou mayest have an heir from her,’ 18, 6; Natheu aryant a wo kyvref ac ef e-hun, 30,13; y llun y mynno e-hun, ‘in whatever form he please,’ 30,19; y gwra lader hediw it, ‘whatever man of thine be slain to-day,’ 31,11; y mab a aner, 32,10; yny uann y dont, ‘whatever place they may be in,’ 33,13; yny lle y mynnych, 37,7; atteb a uo gwell att V., 37,17; ty y gemgho ef a gwyr y. k., 87,213; krefft y kaffon yn hymborth, ‘a handicraft [of such a kind that] we can support ourselves by it,’ 47,11; y gwerth a vynnych, ‘whatever price you like,’ 57,4; keis uorwyn a wo is dy draet weithon, 65, 13, [where the predication is 472 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. however on the uorwyn, ‘one who is a wrgin,’ contrasted with 18, ‘gwreie wyf i’|; yn yr amser y bo etiued udunt hwy, 66,11; ’r anyan a wo y’r moch coet, 66,27; y lle y’th gaffont, ‘wherever they catch thee,’ 80,4; y gyueir y mynnoch, ‘ whatever region you like,’ 91,24; y le y hkeffych, a dewissych, 96, y. 103, 26; kerdawr a dycko y gerd, ‘the singer who brings his song,’ 103, 16 ; mabyon gwladoed ereill, nyt ergyttyo kylch yn llys A., 103, 20; y kyfarws a notto dy benn, 105,26; yn y llestyr yd ymolcho, ‘in whatever vessel she wash herself,’ 117,12; lle yd ymwelwyf a thi, 120,11; amaeth a amaetho y tir hwnnw, nac ae digonho, 120, 277; mel a wo chwechach 121, 26; y bwyt a vynno pawb, 122,53; y nos y kysco vym merch gennyt, 122,6; y Ilyn a dotter yndaw, 123,11; y neges yd eloch ymdanei, 129,6; y gymeint a wypwyf i, a gaffer, 1381, 7,22; y lle y gwelych y vrwydyr galettat, 155, 20; y fford yd elwyf'i, 178,21; peth arall ny ellych byth y gaffel, 176, x; milwr a gattwo y ffynnawn, 177,24; lle y gwelych eglwys, 195, 16; beth a wo ryued gennyt, 202, 1; yn y wed y bo da gantaw ef, 206,19; yn y wed y bo hegaraf gennyt, 207, 20; y mar- chawe a geffych yn yr ansawd honno, 213,5; kymer yr arueu a vynnych, 222,15; y dyd y kychwynnych odyma, 223, 1,11; gwruny bo mwy y gyuoeth no thi, 226,27; y lle y mynnych, 234, 5; dyn a wedo withaw ymdidan a’m harglwyd i, 248,27; y gyuanned y kaffwyf i aruecu, 249, 22; gwr ny bo gyt ac ef y wreic vwyhaf a garho, 252, 25; y wise a vynno ymdanei, 256,z; y drugared a uynnych di, 260,2; y niuer a vynnych, 264,x; y geireu...aglywyf y’'th gyueir, 273, 10; estronawl giwtawdoed a gerdo diffeithwch, 273, 11 ; march a uynnych, 276, 8; negesseu a uo da gennyf, 277,z; nyt yttwyf i yn ansawd y gallwyf ymwelet a neb, ‘I am not in a state in which I can visit anybody,’ 285,20; y fford y kerdo, 286,13; y gyueir y mynnych ac y bo hawssaf gennyt, 293,17,18; yr awr y kenych (y corn), ‘in the hour when thou blowest the horn,’ 294, 27. In Old Welsh also the most abundant instances of its occurrence are found in the relative clause (in the -ever clauses, whenever, whatever, whoever &c.) 5,5 ys celuit, ae dehogiho, ‘he is clever, whoever may interpret it’; 5, 6 ni’s guibit, ar nuy gedho, ‘shall not know it, whoever will not hide it’; 5, 9 ae coffaar nuy daltho [which is rendered Vol. I. 497, ‘‘and the remembrance of it will last,’’(!)] ‘* whoever may not seize it’’ 5, 10 i’r neb nuy hatnappo, ‘to the person who does not recognize it’; 5,12 wrth a wo, ‘with whatever may be’; 5,13 a aduo, ‘whatever may happen’; 5, 14 aserlinho [rendered ‘he will be caught,’ which has no construction that I can acknowledge, it seems to be a’s erlinho, ‘ whoever may pursue it,’ but?]; 5,15 ae hamhevo, ‘one who may doubt him’; 5, 17 ar nuy bo, ‘whoever is not [liberal]’; 18,2 (26,2) ae guledychuy, ‘whoever may rule Arkinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 473 it’; 18, 4 ae harhowe, ‘ whoever may await it,’ (26,1 harovy); 22,3 ar ny ereddoe y Dovit, ‘whoever believes not in God’; 31, 10 ae ceisso, ‘ whoever may seek’ ; 35, 25 a gothuy crist, ‘ whoever offends Christ’; 36, 1,2 a goffaho Duw ac ni’s tirmycco, ‘whoever may call upon God and not despise Him’; 36,7 a wnel o pechaud, ‘whatever he commit of sin’; 36, 14 guae ae gunel, ‘ woe to him whoever may do it’; 44,12 ae canho, ‘ whoever may sing them’; 44, 21 ny 4o pur, ‘ what- ever isnot pure.’ After xowns: 11, z pop fort it ether, ‘every road whatever on which it may be gone’; 14, 22 erbin oed y dit y del paup oe bet, ‘against the destined day whenever each one shall come from his grave’ ; 36, 3 y nos y tragho, ‘on whatever night he die’; 18,1 y saer ae gunelwy, ‘ whatever artizan may make it’ ; mynyd vo truin, yd-uit trev, ‘ wherever nose is, will be snorting’ ; 44, 14 fort a delhich ti, ‘ what- ever road thou mayest come’; 49,31 y gur a rithao Duw, ‘whatever man God make free.’ ; The antecedent is often omitted when the word referred to is easily inferred from the rest of the clause, the relative a being con- stantly used in the pregnant construction (= 7s gua) of demonstrative- relative ; cf. aet ae mynno, ‘let him go who wishes it,’ 28,15; a vo penn, bit bont, ‘ whoever is a head, let him be a bridge,’ 36, 25; adel yma, ‘ whoever comes hither (from X),’ 34, 13 (cf. 292,2, 11); a wo mwy, 120,8; avo o merch, ‘whatever there is of horse,’ ‘any horse,’ 247,5; awoyma .. . gwrhaet idaw, ‘ whoever is here, let him do homage to him,’ 257, 23. Occasionally the extent of the ellipse is noteworthy, cf. or byd ae gwarauunho itt hediw, ‘if there is any one who grudges it to thee to- day,’ 253, 21 ; ny thebygaf i ae gwarauuno idi, ‘I do not think (that there is anybody) who will grudge it to her,’ 263, 13. Cf. the following instances :— Keis a’th dadho, ‘seek (somebody) who will (be the person to) slay thee,’ 5, 24; not a nottych, ‘name whatever thou please,’ 106, 2,10, 11 (a notto dy benn); na thwyllaf, a’m eretto, ‘I shall not deceive (any one) who trusts me,’ 117, 15; pan gaffwyf a nottwyf arnat, ‘as soon as I get (that) which I ask of thee,’ 120,16; yssyd na’s keffych, ‘there is (a thing) which thou canst not get,’ 120, 26; 121, 1,5, [9!], 12 &¢.; gwnewch chwi a wnelhoch, ‘do what ye should do,’ 140, 18; a vynno Duw, derffit, ‘God’s will be done,’ 155,21; keis . . . ae kynhalyo, ‘seek one who can defend it,’ 177,19; llyma a wnelych, ‘this is what thou shouldst do,’ 201, 2; y wneuthur a vynnont a thi, ‘to do what they please with thee,’ 206,25; wely di a wnelych, ‘see what thou shouldst do,’ 271,23; tia geffy a vynnych, ‘thou shalt get whatever thou mayst wish,’ 294, 23. The pronoun may appear pleonastically as a suffix in the 474 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. principal clause, kymeint ac a wypwyf i, mi ae dywedaf itt, ‘as much as I know, I shall tell thee 7,’ 237,1; a welych di y uot yn lawn ...miae gwnaf, 265, x; a wynnych di, ni ae gwnawn, 274, 21. Not so common is the omission of the antecedent pronoun in con- struction with a preposition: titheua elly gyfnewityaw yr a wo gwell, ‘exchange it for (that) which may be better,’ 62,9 ; ny ellirdim wrth a uynno Duw, ‘nothing can be done against (that) which God wills,’ 290, y. The antecedent may of course be a pronoun, as rev: gwnaet rei a wo llei noc wynt, 70, 20;—yr hynn: notta yr hynn a vynnych, 120, 18; yr hwnn a wo da gennyt ti, 127,8; yr hynnny allo dyn vyth y waret, 132,23; [but indic., yr hynn a allaf, ‘ what (Z know) I can,’ 65, 21;];—y neb: ni a atwaenwn y neb a dylyer y kymryt y-gantaw, 16, 20; y neb a ymkanlyno ac ymladeu, 193, 5; y neb a del attaw 284, z;—beth, gwylya beth a wnel, ‘ watching (to see) what he will do,’ 184, 11. The class out of which the antecedent is taken, or to which it belongs, may follow the verb in the relative clause : yr honn a mynnych or a wdam ni, 48,20; yr un a orffo o-nadunt, ‘whichever one of them may conquer,’ 134,21; but also cf. ae un o-honawch chwi a’m kymero i, ‘any one of you who will take me,’ 17820: A very interesting problem is presented by this construction, which is not rare, as the examples will show : kymeint ac a ercheist, or a wo y’m medyant i, ti ae keffy, ‘as much as thou hast asked, of that which may be in my power, thou shalt get it,’ 14, 14.; mia atawaf wyrda drossof yma, y atteb y bawp or a’th ovynno di, ‘I shall leave noblemen here, to answer to all of that which thou mayest ask,’ 16, 27; na omed neb hediw or a vynno da, “do not refuse any one to-day, of all those who may desire a boon,’ 17,9; ba hustyng bynnac . . . or y kyfarffo y gwynt ac ef, ef ae gwybyd, ‘any whisper .. . of all that the wind may come into contact with, he knows it,’ 60,7; pob peth or a notto ef arnat ti y gael, ‘whatever thing, of all that he request of thee to get it, (promise him),’ 118,8; a hwnnw a lad pawb or a del y’r llys honn heb y gan- hyat, ‘he slays all who come into this court without his leave,’ 221,113; cf. 223, 7. 224, 21, pawb or a ded; a llad pob aniueil a wna or a gyfarffo ac ef yndi, ac ar nys Jado, marw vydant o newyn, ‘and he slays every animal, of all those that come into contact with him therein ; and those whom he slay not, die of hunger,’ 241, 11 ; paret dyuot ac a wo o uarch or a wedo y wraged eu marchogaeth, ‘let ArKinson—On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 475 him cause to be brought any horse of [the kind] which is fitting to women for their riding,’ 247,6; a uo yma or a dylyho bot yn wr y Y.’ ‘whoever is present of [the class] that ought to do homage to Y.,’ 257,23; diwallrwyd or a allwyf,‘ abundance of all that I can (give),’ 256,11; vyg goreugwyr or a erkyttyo o-nadunt dyuot attaf, ‘my nobles, as many of them as wish to come to me,’ 267, 23. [These examples are enough to show that the explanation of the phrase suggested by Professor Rhys, RBH II. Pref. xxxv., that or a’ is a mere mistake for a ry (where a represents the relative, and ry is the perfect prefix, ro, O. Ir.), is not wholly satisfactory. For the example just given or a wedo, 247, 6, could have no imaginable refe- rence to a perfective ry. It is evident that the discussion could not be thorough without embracing the use of the form ar as often exemplified in the second of two coordinate clauses ; cf. 160, x, y pwy bynnac a vynno kanlyn A., bit heno y ghernyw gyt ac ef; ac ar ny’s mynno, bit yn erbyn A. hyt yn oet” y gygreir, ‘whoever may be willing to follow Arthur, let him be to-night in Cornwall with him; and he who does not wish it, let him be against Arthur even up to the truce.’ Here the negative ny’s apparently obliterates the relatival a, as regularly ; what therefore is the construction of the previous ar? It is quite out of the region of possibility to regard it as containing ry, for ry- is always close to the verb, from which it cannot be separated. Cf. the two pwy bynnac | a vynno, a del 6, 1. ac ar ny-S8 mynno acar ny del. Most certainly ar involves the meaning ‘ he who,’ ‘ whoever,’ and the only point to determine is, how that meaning is to be accounted for. Now let the examples be studied in which or a@ occurs, and it will be manifest that in every case reference is made to a class out of which a selection ismade. Cf., 48,20 yr honn a mynnych or a wdam ni, 1 Tt is not without interest to see the treatment in the Laws [-Anc. Laws and Instit. of Wales, 1841], where the later MS. D very frequently inserts or into the text given by the early A in the Venedotian code; cf. 1. 7, 12 0 pop punt [or] a del y’r brenyn, ‘out of every pound of what accrues to the king’; cf. 1.9, 11; 1. 8, 7 a paup [or] y rodho ef ofrum ydaw; 1.8, 10 pop ynseylagoret [or] rodher, 1.11, 16 pop enat [or] a prouo; 1.12,6 pop march [or] a rodho; cf. 1.15,4; 19,6; 21, 5(?); 24, 5 &c. &e. * This cp. prep. occurs twice in the Job: Cf. Job xxv. 5 wele hyd yn oed y lleuad; xxviii. 3 hyd yn oed y meim &c. 476 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. ‘whichever thou desire, out of | all the class of things] which we know’; 184, 21 yr un a orffo o-nadunt, ‘ whichever one out of [all the class] of them may conquer.’ In precisely the same way is to be con- strued 14, 14 ‘thou shalt get all thou hast asked out of [the class of things] which are in my power,’ &c. Here the parallel then is to be drawn between (a) 118, 8 pob peth or a notto ef arnat ti, (6); 48,20 yrhonn a mynnych or a wdam ni, (134, 21 yr un a orffo o-nadunt. If there is no possibility of explaining or a in the latter sentence (6) as standing for a ry, then there is no need of the assumption in the former case (a). Further, cf. the structure in such cases as— 104, 3 yssyd o wreic ueichawe, 104,4 acarnyt beichawe onadunt. The matter is made perfectly certain by the passage at 218, 3, pawb o’r yssyd y-danaw, ‘every one [ of those ] who are under him,’ for, as surely as yssyd is the relatival form, so surely is ry not prefixed to yssyd.J 2. The subjunctive is also regularly used in the relative clause when the antecedent is qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or the adjective ‘first’: y march kyntafa welych, a wypych, 9, 10, 27; goreu yw gennyfi... bo kyntaf, ‘the sooner the better,’ 12,4; goreu a allo vyth, ‘the very best he can,’ 23,2; goreu y gwedo, 24,8; yr atteb goreu a gaffom, ‘(we shall bring) the best answer we get,’ 37, 13; y gedymdeithas oreu a allwyfi, 45, 43; y nos gyntaf y delher, 61,7; yn gyntaf a allont, 72,19; yn oreu a allom 72,213 goreu yw gennyf i bo kyntaf y kaffwyf iawn, 79,19; kerwy- neit o’r med goreu a aller y wneuthur, 97,1; y lle kadarnhaf a geffych, 97,12; yd yt womwyhaf y kyfarws a redhom, ‘ the more in proportion as we give the greater gifts,’ 105, 5 ; yr meint mwyhaf a allom, 137, 27 ; yr ymdidan goreu a wypom, 168,2; yr hynn odidockaf a wypych, 1638, 11; yn gyntaf y gallo, 168, 9; y gyntaf a yrro, 177, 8; y gofut kyntaf a del, 180, 14; yr anryded goreu a ellych, 204,22; gwnaet... a allo waethat, 205,7; y kyuarwydyt a allwyf, 236,27; ti a gefty oreu a gaffer itt, 250,z; y gwassanaeth goreu a allwyf i, 251,13; ¥ trawsgwyd goreu ac a ellych o vwyt, 251, 18 ; y wreic vwyhaf a garho, 252, 23,25; mwyhaf a gerych o’m fydlonyon, 264,y; y le goreua ATKInson— On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh. 477 wypych, 276, 7; o'r hynn goreu a gaffer, 277, 21; 291, 3. Butwehave the verb in the Jndicative mood when the statement is presented as a matter of fact. Thus in the sentence: ‘none can contest unless he have with him the lady he loves best,’ the verb is in the Subjunctive ; whereas in the sentence: ‘he then begs the lady he loves best to take the hawk,’ the verb is in the Indicative, erchi y’r wreic vwyhaf a gar kymryt y llamhystaen, 253, 19; cf. 11,12; 18,5; 80,13, 16 &; fol NOre2 27.10 5) 228, 20);) 200, 12.5 240, 13° 28%, 21 So also when the antecedent is qualified by wn, ‘ one,’ ‘ single,’ cf. 8,18 un dyrnawt a rodych di idaw, ‘the one single [not a second | stroke which thou givest him.’ : The superlative adjective may be expressed by the paraphrastic construction with o: bric y coet ac a vo o well yn y fforest, ‘the branches such as are best in the forest,’ 241, ro. 3. The Subjunctive is the mood used where the relative clause contains a qualification which limits the universality of the negative in the case of a negated antecedent, ‘‘ there is nobody who knows that,” cf. hyt na bo gwas .. . a wypo, (‘I will arrange) so that there shall be no servant who knows that &c.,’ 3, 10; na bo gwr a wypo, 3, 23; nyt oes yndi neb ny’th adnapo, ‘ there is no one in it who will not recognise thee,’ 3, y; ny thebygaf o’r niuer hwnn oll neb nyt adnappo vot y mab yn uab y P., ‘I do not think that there is anyone of all this company who does not recognise that the boy is P.’s son,’ 24,2; nyt oes neb... ny bo diheu gantaw hynny, 24, 3; nyt oes itta wnelych namyn kyrchu dy longeu, ‘there is nothing thou shouldst do but to’ &c., 29, 12; nyt oes neb a wypo, 35, z; nyt oes lestyr a dalyo y llyn, 121, 2; nyt oes yn y byt ae ¢tynho oe penn namyn O., “none but O.,’ 122, 27; n.o. lestyr a gattwo gwres y llynn, 128, 10; n.o. yn y byt crib... y galler gwrteith vyg gwallt, 123, 20; n.o. kynllyuan a dalyo arnaw, 123,25. 133,10; n.o. torch a dalhyo y gynllyuan, 123, 27; n.o. ... kynyd a digono k. 124,1; a dalhyo, a dycko, 124, 13, 18, 26; ny eypo, 126,7; ny edir neb idi namyn a dycko y gerd gantaw, 126, 11,17; ny wnn i neb ae gwypo, ‘I do not know anybody who knows it,’ 131, 2 ; nat oes deuwr yn y byt ny chaffo eu llwyth yn y ffonn, 166,13; ny byd un dalen ar y prenn ny darffo y’r gawat eu dwyn, 168, 1; nyt oes ar y helw namyn yr unty hwnn ny’s ry-dycko, 184,26; nyt wyt un-enryded di ac y dylyych ymdidan a’m arglwyd i, 249, 10; nyt oes... morwyn yd ymardelwych ohonei, 253, 5; na at neb... namyn ti ath disgyblon ae medeginyaetho, 261, 16; na gweisson na morwynyon a’th wassannaetho, 278,11; na daw marchawe.. . una mynno ef ymwelet ac ef, 281, x. 478 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 4. If the principal clause is interrogative, the construction is the same: a oes o-honawch chwi a adnapo, ‘is there any one of you who knows him,’ 8, z; a oes o-honawch chwi a gymero yr ergit drossof i, 80, 20. 5. And similarly, if the principal clause is put hypothetically : or byd ae gwarauunho itt hediw, ‘ifthere is any one who grudges thee it,’ 253, 21; but this does not apply to o’s, = ‘since it is,’ puisque cest, ef. 88, 15 o’s miui a gar, ‘since Z am the person whom he loves’, 91,14 0o’s wynteu de med hi; nor to o nyt, ‘since it is not’: ef, 122,25 o nyt [ac cf. 124,14] yn vyw y fennir oe penn; but again 128, 10 onyt yn dwym y keffych [but cf. 122, 25]. 124, 14. eo 4 XXVIT. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE IRISH LAND AND FRESHWATER FAUNA. By R. F. SCHARFEF, Pu.D., B.Sc. [Read Novemper 12, 1894. ] In a report on the ‘‘ History of the Irish Fossil Mammals,””! submitted to the Royal Irish Academy, the late Professor Leith Adams made a few remarks with regard to those past geographical conditions of Ireland, which permitted mammals such as the Irish elk, reindeer, wolf, and mammoth to migrate to this country. He says in this report: ‘‘ The probability is, that the migration came from Scotland, and that there was a land communication between the two countries at the close of the Glacial Period, by which the greater portion of the mammals that had found their way to Scotland crossed to Ireland.” He was led to this belief by the fact that all the living and extinct mammals of Ireland, with the exception of the grizzly bear, have been recorded also from Scotland, whilst a large number of the English extinct mammals, such as the lion, spotted hyena, glutton, cave bear, and many others, are absent both from Ireland and Scotland. The method indicated by Professor Leith Adams, by which the fact of the presence of both recent and extinct mammals of an island can be utilized in a research into its past physical geography, has led me to devote some time to a detailed consideration of the origin of some of the more important groups of Irish vertebrates and inverte- brates. I have paid particular attention, in the first place, to the mammals. The existence in Ireland of such large mammals as the mammoth, Irish elk, grizzly bear, and others, proves almost beyond a doubt that they must have found their way to this country by a land communi- cation which united it with Great Britain. From a study of the extinct mammals of England, it is possible to arrive at some satis- factory conclusion as to the particular geological period during which this land connection existed, and also as to when Ireland became separated from Great Britain. Another point of great interest presents 1 Adams, A. Leith, ‘‘ Report on the History of Irish Fossil Mammals,’’ Proc Roy. Irish Acad., vol. iii. (11. ser.), 1883. 480 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. itself in the question whether Ireland was only partially united to Great Britain, as was supposed by Professor Leith Adams, or along the whole of the east coast. To answer the last question by means of the past or present distribution of the British mammals, seems to me almost impossible; but some light is thrown on the subject by an examination of the range of the British fishes. Still more useful in solving this difficult problem are the Land and Freshwater Mollusca. Their distribution is greatly influenced by the geographical conditions of a country, and even a narrow channel of sea water forms an almost impassable barrier to their migration. A minute study of the exact range of the various species inhabiting the British Islands has given me the greatest assistance in attempting to trace the extent of the former land connection. It is evident that for the purposes I have in view, only those species can be made use of whose claim to be considered indigenous cannot be doubted. In commencing the enquiry, therefore, with the twenty-two species of mammals known to inhabit Ireland, a certain number, which may possibly have been artificially introduced, or have arrived by some accidental means, should be eliminated: for instance, all the bats, the rabbit, the rats, &c., so that only ten species remain. Of these ten species it has to be ascertained whether they originated in Ireland or elsewhere. The exact geographical distribution of most of the European species of mammals is well known, so that there is no difficulty in constructing a table by means of which we can see ata glance that all the ten Irish species also occur in Great Britain and on the Continent. Some species even range beyond the boundaries of Europe. That alone, however, does not prove that they did not origi- nate primarily in Ireland, and only subsequently migrated to those parts. How can we ascertain in what part of the world any particular species originated? As probably every species of mammal has the tendency to spread in all directions from its birthplace, the centre of its geographical distribution must correspond approximately with its original home. By determining the extreme limit not only of the present, but also the past range of any species, we can thus approxi- mately ascertain its original home. Let us take, for example, the Irish hare (Lepus variabilis). The fact alone that in most countries its fur changes to white in winter is suggestive of a northern origin, and this view is confirmed by its dis- tribution. As we travel northward in Europe, Asia, or North America we find this hare becoming more and more plentiful, and when we reach the Arctic Circle it is almost the only rodent we meet with. On Scuarrr—Origin of Irish Land and Freshwater Fauna. 481 the other hand, it is absent from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and the Medi- terranean Islands, and although its bones have been found in some Pleistocene deposits of Northern Italy, nowhere else in Southern Europe, or in Africa, has any trace of its former existence been dis- covered. It is unknown in Southern Asia, South America, and the southern part of North America. In these continents the migration of Lepus variabilis has proceeded, therefore, from the north to the south, and in the Arctic Regions, which must be looked upon as its original home, it is still very abundant. From there it has spread southward to Europe, Asia, and North America. We have abundant evidence of its southward march in the numerous fossil remains which have been discovered in the Lowlands of Central Europe. Moreover, we have in various parts of Europe and Asia isolated mountain colonies of Lepus variabilis—a standing testimony of its past wider range. It occurs still in the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Caucasus, although in the plains surrounding these mountain ranges itis unknown. Similarly on the Akita and Mioko-san mountains in Japan this hare is found, whilst it is absent from the plain. In a similar manner, the original home of every species of Irish mammal may be approximately ascertained, and even their principal route of migration may be determined. Comparatively few regions of the earth seem to have given birth to any of the recent species of mammals. I cannot, for instance, discover that a single recent species of mammal originated in Western Europe. The chief birthplace of existing palwearctic species must have been somewhere in Central Asia, the centres of distribution of many of the species lying in the region of the Altai Mountains. Some of the latter species have reached North America, and indicate that in comparatively recent times Asia and America were connected. A geological proof of this conclusion, based on the geographical distribution of animals, has reached us recently by the discovery of mammoth remains on the Pribilov Islands,! which belong to the Aleutian Chain in the Northern Pacific. As the mammoth is known to have been abundant both on the mainland of Northern Asia and America, the Aleutian Islands may be looked upon as the remaining peaks of the land which once united Asia and America, and which probably in Pleistocene times was still used as the highway between the two continents. 1 Dawson, G. M., ‘‘ Notes on the occurrence of Mammoth Remains,” &c., Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 50, 1894. R.I.A. PROC., SER. II., VOL. Il. 2K 482 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. The animals, such as the Irish hare and others of a northern origin, which reached Ireland, might have passed from the Arctic regions to North America, then crossed over to Asia, migrated across that conti- nent and Europe, and then passed over the old land connection to England, and ultimately to Ireland. If they came by a more direct route, the distribution of land and water in Arctic Europe, too, must have undergone some changes within recent geological times. In the English Pleistocene (glacial) deposits, we find the remains of an extraordinary assemblage of animals which at present chiefly inhabit the Tundras of Siberia—a fact which has naturally given rise to the belief that England must have passed through a period of intense cold. As we cross over the Channel into Northern Germany, we again meet with the same species in similar deposits, and with many more whose present habitat agrees with the others. A good many of these Siberian species have also been found in France. But not a single one occurs in the Pleistocene deposits of Ireland, although we have, as I mentioned before, some species, such as the Irish hare, to which may be added the extinct remdeer, which are of undoubted northern origin. I have reason to believe that the latter belong to a different and independent migration, and came to this country by a route which the Siberian mammals were unable to utilize. That Ireland was already severed from England when these vast herds of Siberian immigrants entered England, seems to me certain. It is pos- sible, though, that Ireland was at that time still connected with Scotland, and that some barrier existed which prevented a free migration to the latter country from England. The condition of the British Isles may have been something like that represented by Mr. Jukes-Browne! on a map illustrating Pleistocene geography. A study of the geographical distribution of the British Land and Freshwater Mollusca supports the view just indicated. We can roughly divide the whole of the Irish species into those inhabiting the plain and into the mountain forms. Among the latter we haye some of northern, and others of southern origin, but those of the plain are mostly southern species. Now among the latter, some, such as Helix pisana, occur in England only in the south-west, others such as Helix acuta, Helix intersecta, and Helix ericetorum, are not so much confined to the south of England, but they become much rarer as we go north, and in Scotland they occur in the south-west or west only. Altogether the majority of the Irish species occupy in Great 1 Jukes-Browne, A. J., The Building of the British Isles (Pl. xy.), 2nded. 1892. Scuarrr— Origin of Irish Land and Freshwater Fauna. 483 Britain chiefly the southern and western counties. There are, on the other hand, a number of species in England which inhabit mainly the south-eastern counties, but some of them have spread over most of England and parts of Scotland. Not one of them, however, has reached Treland. We may look upon the western British land and freshwater mollusca as the earlier immigrants which were able to reach Ireland by means of the land connection during Pliocene times. The eastern species, on the other hand, came probably along with the Siberian mammals during Pleistocene times, and, like them, they were not able to reach Ireland, as the southern connection between it and Ireland had already been severed. Dr. Wallace! believes that a submersion of the British Islands during the latter part of the Glacial Period destroyed the greater part of the life of our country, and subsequently, that is to say quite recently, an elevation and reunion with the continent took place. He turther remarks that ‘‘the depth of the Irish Sea being somewhat greater than that of the German Ocean, the connecting land would there probably be of small extent and of less duration, thus offering an additional barrier to migration, whence has arisen the comparative zoological poverty of Ireland.”’ But although we have evidence in Treland of a submersion or of a marine transgression, we have none of an extinction of the native fauna and subsequent immigration. If a land connection existed which allowed such slowly-spreading specie as the badger to cross to Ireland, why did the roebuck, the English hare, the wild cat, and others find it impossible to do so, when they are evidently all supposed to have come to England about the same time ? The slowly-moying mollusca would have had but a poor chance to reach Ireland when the connecting land was not of sufficient duration to allow all the English mammals and reptiles to cross over. But the Trish molluscan fauna is not an impoyerished one, the number of species almost equaling that of England. As I mentioned before, the Irish freshwater fishes also throw some light on the extent of the land connection. A few of the species may have originated in this country, but most of them have no doubt migrated from Great Britain. The peculiar range of some species seems to indicate that the present area of the Irish Sea was to a large extent occupied by a freshwater lake. Let us take for example the pollan ( Coregonus yollan) a freshwater 1 Wallace, A. R., Island Life, p. 3389, 2nd ed. 1892. 7A NE 72 484 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. fish found chiefly in Lough Neagh. It occurs also, but less commonly, in Lough Erne, Lough Derg, and Lough Corrib, and is quite peculiar to Ireland. Two allied species of Coregonus live in the South of Scot- land, the North of England, and in Wales, viz. C. vandesius and C. clupeoides, the former being very closely related to the Ivish pollan. Coregonus vandestus, known as the vendace in England, was formerly believed to be peculiar to some very small lakes situated in the neighbourhood of Lochmaben in Dumfrieshire, in the south-west of Scotland. More recently, however, it has also been obtained in Derwentwater and Bassenthwaitewater in Cumberland. Beyond this very restricted range, the vendace is unknown in any other locality in the British Islands. Coregonus clupeoides, often called the freshwater herring or ‘‘ owyniad,” has a wider distribution than either of the two species just mentioned, though like them its range is confined to the British Islands. In Scotland it has been obtained in the south-west in Loch Lomond. In England itis only known from the lake districts of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. It occurs chiefly in the Ullswater and Haweswater, but it has also been taken in the Red Tarn, a small mountain lake, upwards of 2600 feet above sea-level, near the summit of Helvellyn. In Walesit has only been found in the Bala Lake. The three species are therefore confined to some lakes of northern and western Ireland, southern Scotland, northern England and Wales, almost all of which lakes communicate directly with the Irish Sea. The two most closely related species, viz. C. vandesius and C. pollan have a more restricted range than the third species C. clupeoides. Its range extends as far south as Wales, but it should be noted that it is not found in any of the Welsh lakes which do not communicate directly with the central portion of the Irish Sea. The distribution, indeed, in the British Islands of these three species of freshwater fish is so very peculiar that one cannot help being struck by it, and under the present conditions of land and water it seems to me difficult to conceive how it could have come about. Once, however, we admit that in later tertiary times there must have existed a land communication between Great Britain and Ireland, the cause of the local range of these species becomes more evident. It may be observed that we need not here bring to aid an elevation of vast tracts of country, but merely suppose that the mountain ranges of northern and south-eastern Ireland, 7.e. those of Antrim and Wicklow, were still continuous——as they must have been at a more remote period—with those on the opposite side of the Channel, and that the ScHarFrr—Origin of Lrish Land and Freshwater Fauna. 485 west coast of Ireland was at a somewhat higher level than at present. We should then have between the two countries a deep hollow, into which rivers from both would pour their contents and forma large lake. If the ancestors of the three species of Coregonus had lived in this lake, it is quite conceivable that existence being rendered impossible for freshwater fish after the breaking down of the southern land barrier between Wales and Wicklow and the consequent encroachment of the sea, they were driven to ascend the various rivers which flowed into the newly-formed estuary. They eventually would have settled down in some of the neighbouring lakes communicating with these rivers. Two of the species, at any rate, are separated by such slight differences in structure that a common origin at no very remote period is easily recognizable. There are other forms of freshwater fish besides Coregonus, the range of which in the British Islands can be easily explained by the supposition of the Irish Sea having been the site of a former fresh- water lake. I need only refer to the charrs—the peculiar species of black trout—of which three closely-allied forms occur in Wales, Ire- land, and the North of England. The results obtained from the inquiries instituted into the origin of a portion of the Irish fauna are as follows :—Ivreland was in later tertiary times connected with Wales in the south and Scotland in the north, whilst a freshwater lake occupied the present central area of the Irish Sea. The southern connection broke down at the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, the northern connection following soon after. There is no evidence of any subsequent land connection between Great Britain and Ireland. This report is necessarily a very short one, and is more in the nature of a preliminary contribution. I propose shortly to lay before the Academy a more detailed memoir on this subject, in which I hope to give tables of the general range of the Irish mammals, reptiles, ainphibians, and fishes; also maps illustrative of the geographical changes which affected the British Islands. I hope also to submit my views on the salient features of the physical geography of Europe during recent geological times, based on the distribution of animals. [ 486 ] XXVIII. NOTES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF SPEAR-HEADS OF THE BRONZE AGE FOUND IN IRELAND. By GEORGE COFFEY. [Read, January 22, 1894.] Tue varieties of bronze spear-heads found in Great Britain and Ireland have been fully described by Sir John Evans in his important work, *« The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland.”” He has not, however, attempted to trace the succession of forms in detail, or to distinguish types in general use from those of limited and special manufacture. The same may be said of Sir W. Wilde’s classification of Irish spear-heads (‘‘ Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy’’), and of Dr. Anderson’s descrip- tion of the Scotch spear-heads in his work on the ‘‘ Bronze Age in Scotland.” Spear-heads would, in fact, seem to be regarded as forming a simple subdivision of Bronze Age weapons, within which types are distinguished for convenience of description. It would further seem to be implied that the several types were employed indifferently throughout the period during which the bronze spear remained in use. The ‘following introductory note to the bronze spear-heads in the ‘Catalogue of the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland,” which I extract entire, sufficiently illustrates this statement :— ‘The spear-heads of bronze, which, like the socketed axes, belong to a time when casting over a core was practised, are often very fine examples of the founder’s art. The blade varies from a short to a very elongated leaf-shape. The socket, which is usually round, but sometimes slightly oval, is often prolonged for several inches beyond the base of the blade, and in all cases it extends along the middle of the blade as a midrib, coned almost to the point. In the larger examples there are occasionally segmental and circular openings in the blade on either side of the midrib, and sometimes a system of ornamen- tation of dots and lines is applied to the blade and socket. The socket frequently shows two rivet-holes for the fastening to the shaft, or a Corrry—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 487 pair of loops either in or immediately below the base of the blade. Socketed spear-heads of bronze have never in any well-authenticated instance been found with interments in Britain.” Sir John Evans adopts as the basis of his classification Sir W. Wilde’s classification of Irish spear-heads under four varieties :— I. The simple leaf-shaped, either long and narrow or broad, with holes in the socket through which to pass the rivets to fix them to the shaft. II. The looped, with eyes on each side of the socket below and on the same plane as the blade. These are generally of the long, narrow, straight-edged kind. III. Those with loops in the angles between the edge of the blade and the socket. IV. Those with side apertures and perforations through the blade. To these four classes Evans adds :— VY. Those in which the base of each side of the blade projects at right angles to the socket, or is prolonged downwards so as to form barbs. It will be convenient to adopt the above classification for the pur- poses of description, with the exception of class V.: this latter type has not been found in Ireland, and need not here be further considered. But the order of classification does not throw any light on the suc- cession and development of forms, and will not be adhered to in the present Paper. It should be stated that, following previous writers, no attempt is made to distinguish between the lighter forms, javelins, lances, &c., and the heavier or true spear-heads. They agree so closely in form it is not possible to separate them except by the doubtful method of size. They vary from two inches to thirty-six inches in length. Irish spear-heads may be divided into two well-defined groups, looped and riveted, the second and first divisions of the previous clas- sification. It will be found that the separation of type extends farther than the mode of attachment. The form of the blade of each class is quite distinct. So marked is this difference that, if the socket be covered, it is possible to pick out at a glance which are looped and which are riveted. Further, although the spear-heads of both classes are rarely decorated, the evidence, as far as it goes, supports this broad division. The museum of the Royal Irish Academy contains 188 specimens 488 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. of the looped class, exclusive of transitional forms, and 131 specimens with rivet holes for attachment. It will be found that the latter, with the exception of five examples, are leaf-shaped, the blades plain, and that the form depends for character on the simplicity and decision of its lines, and not on ornament. In typical looped specimens the lines of the blade are 1..—Colloony ‘Day Collection). One-half. 2.—R.1.A. (Petrie Collection). One-half. 3.—(W. 102). straight, and in general the blade presents a more or less lozenge or wedge-shaped appearance. The shoulders of the blade are strongly marked, and the return of the blade on the socket is abrupt. Raised ribs are usual in the blades of the looped type, but, as far as I am aware, are never found on true leaf-shaped examples. These raised ribs give great energy to the angular form of the blade in the CorrEy—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 489 looped class, but would be out of place on the leaf-shaped blade. They require the straight base lines of the former type to mark the springing of the ribs, whereas in the case of the leaf-shaped blade they should follow its curved outline, and would tend to weaken, rather than strengthen, the appearance of the blade. (4) 4.—(W. 234). 5.—Ballymena (Day Collection). One-half. In some instances of the slender form of the looped class (fig. 13), the ribs are absent, and in a few cases the blades are ogeeval in form (fig. 14). I regard these forms, for reasons to be stated presently, as late in the series. Asa rule the ribs are present even in the slender form. In the Academy’s collection about 180 looped specimens show ribs (strongly marked in the majority of cases), or a fluting of the blade 490 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. along the sides of the socket. In some forty to fifty examples the blades are plain. The latter are, as a rule, of small size, in the nature of javelin or lance points, and are frequently of inferior workmanship. In a few instances they are of the long slender form already mentioned. In ten instances the blades are leaf-shaped, most of them like figure 11. In four examples, with blades of lozenge form, the sockets are devoid of loops or rivet-holes. The above figures are given approximately ; it is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of the smaller and not strongly-marked examples. 6.—(W. 221). One-half. 7-—One-half. 8.—(W. 101). The examination of a large number of specimens of the looped form suggested to me the probability that the looped spear-head had been developed from the dagger-blade. This conjecture is supported by an interesting chain of evidence. In figure 1 we an have example of the usual form of riveted dagger- blade. In some examples the character of the blade is marked by fluting ; in others by raised ribs at each side of the central rib; and, again, in others, these ribs are replaced by engraved lines. Corrry—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 491 The adaptation of the dagger-blade to the spear-head is shown in figure 2. It is, in fact, a dagger-blade placed on a socket. The socket does not enter the blade, but is stopped at the shoulders. The V-shaped base of the blade is derived from the dagger, and disappears as the true character of the spear form is developed. A feature of special interest is the survival of the rivet-heads of the dagger, in the form of orna-- mental bosses, at the base of the blade. This specimen is much worn. The inner ribs are ornamented with a double row of dots, now nearly obliterated. The rivet-holes appear to have been drilled, and not formed in the casting. They are evidently a later addition, and do not belong to the original form. The British Museum possesses, also 9.—One-half. 1o.—(W. 19), W.F.W. One-third. 1r.—(W.F.W). One-third. from Ireland, an almost identical specimen. It is thus described by Evans :—‘‘ A beautiful example from Ireland (63 inches), the socket engraved with a double ring of chevrons near the middle, and a single ring near the base, and also ornamented with dotted circles and lines extending down the blade, is in the British Museum. It has two knobs on each side of the socket-simulating rivets” (J. ¢. p. 3825). No examples of this form of spear-head appear to have been found 492 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. in England, and but one is recorded from the Isle of Man, and two from Scotland.! In figure 38 the imitative rivets are reduced to a single boss, and disappear in figure 4. In the subsequent figures we see the socket developing at the expense of the blade, and the transition to the fully developed spear-head begins. The somewhat rounded points of this class of spear-head is noticeable, and forms an additional feature, in which the resemblance to the dagger-blade is traceable. The Academy possesses thirteen specimens of this primitive form. (12) (13) (14) 12.—One-fourth. 13.—Meath (W. 248). One-fourth. 14.—One-fourth. It is possible that this type of spear-head has been derived through the Arreton Down type of tanged blades, or the latter may be a side: derivative from a common original. It is unwise to attempt to lay down positive lines of descent in cases where the influence of special types has probably been operative at many points of the same area. The Arreton Down type is rare. It takes its name from a find of nine tanged blades at Arreton Down, near Newport, in the Isle of Wight, previous to the publication of which the type appears to have been unknown. Isolated examples of this type have since been found | Evans, p. 826, and Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times, Bronze Age, p. 181. Corrry—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 498 in Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Berks, Derbyshire, and Devon.) One has also been found in Scotland. Four are known from Ireland: one closely resembling figure 15, in the collection of Mr. Robert Day, was found in Westmeath: an imperfect specimen, with plain blade, also from West- meath, is in the Academy’s collection ; another resembling Evans’ figure 326is inthe Petrie collection, and the fourth, also of plain type, isin the Grainger collection, Belfast. An example said to have been found in Italy is in the Copenhagen Museum.* Sir A: W. Franks, who de- scribed the Arreton Down find (‘‘Archeeologia,”’ vol. xxxvi.), considers these tanged blades to be spear-heads. Sir John Evans expresses a cautious assent to this view, but points out that in the case of a socketed blade of similar form from the same find (fig. 16) it is difficult to decide whether it should be classed with the daggers or the spear-heads. It should be noted that the Arreton Down exam- | ples, as also that from Preston, ean Devon, were found associated i VN with flanged celts and dagger- SETOT so blades of the usual type; in o ein neither find were looped im- G5) (ie) plements present. I5.—Stratford-le-Bow. One-half. 16.—Arreton Down. One-half. Theresemblance of the spear- heads of the type under consideration to the Arreton Down examples 1 See references in Evans’ Bronze Implements. 2 In Ayrshire. Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times, Bronze Age, p.181. 3 Figured by Worsaae in Mém. des Ant. du Nord, 1873-4, p. 132. 494 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. has been noticed by Sir (then Mr.) A. W. Franks, in his description of the plates to Kemble’s ‘‘ Hore Ferales.”’ Referring to the Arreton Down examples he says :—‘ At first sight these would appear to be dagger-blades ; but with them was found a socket of bronze fitting over a similar blade, and giving it the appear- ance of the small spear-head (fig. 19), which seems copied from such a design, and has imitative rivets” (/. c. p. 152). The spear-head referred to appears to be that in the Academy’s collection (fig. 2); but the deserip- tion does not agree with the drawing given in the plate. Sir John Evans has also noticed the imitative rivets of these spear- heads, and the resemblance to the Arreton Down type. He observes that ‘‘the socket part is made to appear somewhat like a haft to the blade, as in the Arreton Down specimen”’ (/. ¢. p. 325). But though it appears from the preceding extracts that the survival of the rivet-heads in imitative form, andin general the hafted character of these spear-heads has been already noticed. The general question of the relation of certain spear-head types to the dagger-blades has not hitherto been taken up, or a classification based on such relations of types attempted. The evolution of the true spear form appears to have proceeded by the following stages :— 1. The dagger-blade is mounted on a socket or hollow hafting which does not enter the blade but is stopped at the base. 2. The midrib which in the earlier forms is flat and rounded, as in the daggers, become accentuated, and takes the form of a stiffening ridge from socket to point. The transition between the socket and the blade is thus rendered less abrupt, and the haft-form of the socket is less apparent (figs. 5 and 6). At this stage the central ridge of the midrib tends to be prolonged along the socket, marking the unity of the socket and midrib. The central rib so frequently found along the sockets of the looped class appears to be a survival of the ridge of the angular midrib of the earlier forms. It was probably retained as giving a cutting edge or bayonet-like section to the socket, and survives on several of the leaf-shaped class. 3. The socket is now prolonged into the midrib, and the final spear- head form determined (fig. 7). 4. The evolution of the socket being now completed, the tradition of the dagger-form is broken, and the blade which has hitherto pre- served a dagger-like outline, develops in harmony with the conditions of the improved form. In the earlier examples the expanded sides of Correy—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 495: the socket at the junction with the blade really represent the shoulders of hafting. The blade springs in straight converging lines from the socket, which represents the haft of the dagger. A wide expansion of the blade at the base would be a contradiction of the essential lines of the form. But with the development of the socket along the midrib, the relations of the blade to the socket are completely changed. The blade no longer springs from the socket as from a haft, but is attached symmetrically to the sides of the socket, which now forms a midrib in the blade. The springing of the blade from the sides of the socket is now energetically marked (fig. 8). Ultimately the lines of the blade become straighter, and in the longer examples-of the looped spear-head the blade assumes a more or less lozenge or trapezoidal form (fig. 12). The fluting along the sides of the socket (fig. 8) is replaced in the majority of examples of the developed form by raised ribs, which follow the line of the intersection of the fluting with the plane of the blade. It is not clear that the ribs have been so developed, though some of the fluted examples suggest that explanation. It is probable that the ribbed dagger-blades have influenced the form. Figure 9 shows double ribbing. It resembles much in character the dagger- blade (fig. 1). The Academy’s collection numbers four examples with double ribs. A point of interest may be noted in connection with the ornament on the looped class. As a rule decoration is rare on the spear-heads of all classes. But several examples of the preceding form of looped spear-head are richly decorated with engraved and punched ornament. The highly decorated spear-head (fig. 8) is another instance of this class of ornament applied to a looped specimen. The dotted ornament on this type is found on celts of the flanged type (Wilde, fig. 262), on a fine specimen of dagger with bronze haft (Wilde, fig. 334), and on the Arreton Down examples, the imitation rivet bosses of which are surrounded by punched marks in the same manner as the Irish specimens (Evans, fig. 324). It may be added that the loops of the looped form appear to have been cast round at first, as shown by the moulds, and to have then been flattened somewhat against the socket by hammering, producing a lozenge-shaped surface. In several examples this flattened surface is further marked by a lozenge-engraved or punched-in outline. In these examples we see that the ornament closely agrees with that of the dagger-blades, and associates the looped spear-head with that form of weapon. In concluding this section a somewhat exceptional form of the 496 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. looped class may be conveniently mentioned here (fig. 17). The form of the blade resembles some of the rapier blades (fig. 18), and the dotted ornamentation associates the type with the early forms. The Academy possesses five examples of this type, varying from 15 to 20 inches in length. Turning now to the spear-heads with rivet-holes in the sockets, but without loops or openings in the blades (Class I. of Wilde’s and Evans’ classifications), we are struck by the fact that the blade is almost invariably leaf-shaped, and HM i t} H i (18) (20) (19) (21) 17.—(W. 26). One-fourth. 18.—(W. 152). 19.—Lough Gur (W. 76). One-fourth. 20.—Streamstown, Banagher (W. 250). W.F.W. One-fourth. 21.—(W.F.W.) One-fourth. i {) ni ‘devoid of ribs (figs. 19, 20, and 21). Out of a total of 137 examples in the Academy’s collection but six specimens show blades of the angular form of the previous type. Two examples of the leaf-shaped form, not included in the preceding total, are devoid of rivet-holes or loops. The pins or rivets used to secure the spear-heads of this class Corrry—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 497 to the shaft were probably of wood, horn, or bone. Evans mentions, however, a bronze spear-head in his collection from the Seine at Paris, which retains a metallic rivet, and two examples in Mr. Day’s collec- tion still retain bronze rivets. As in the case of the looped class, decorated specimens are rare. But the separation of type extends to the decoration. The ornament on the leaf-shaped spear-heads is usually confined to a number of rings or fillets round the bottom of the socket, either simply incised or, in instances, showing some relief; the spaces between the rings in a few examples are reeded. In the case of the remarkable specimen found at Lough Gur, and now in the Pitt Rivers collection at Oxford, the ornament on the socket is inlaid with gold (Evans, fig. 379). A specimen in the Academy’s collection found at Athenry (fig. 22) is exceptional as regards ornament. In the Academy’s collection, two examples of the plain leaf-shaped form have rings round the mouth of the socket, in one case consisting of a raised double fillet. In addition, one of the examples with rivet- holes and large segmental apertures in the blade is ringed and reeded on the socket like the Lough Gur _ spear-head. In England, rings on the sockets of leaf- shaped spear-heads appear to be more common. They usually consist of a number of engraved or punched bands of three or four rings, sometimes accompanied by vertical lines or dots. Evans records nine examples. 22-—Athenry (W. It is worthy of note that the English examples are Say chiefly from the south-eastern counties. This may point to associations with the Continent, where that form of decoration is fairly common on the sockets of spear-heads. Some examples of the leaf-shaped form found in England show an ornamentation of hatched triangles characteristic of the Bronze Period. Evans records the following :—‘‘ One from Yorkshire has round the socket three bands of triangles alternately hatched and plain, and the blade is ornamented with a single row of the same kind on each side of the central rib.””, One from Somerset ‘‘has a band of hatched triangles above three bands of parallel lines with transverse lines between.’ A third, from Herefordshire, ‘‘ has the blade ornamented in the same way. A row of plain triangles is left on each side of the midrib, while the rest of the blade is hatched, the set of parallel lines in each point between the plain triangles being alternately to the right and to the left (p. 320).”” Similar decoration is found on some of the R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 21 498 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Continental examples... But, if we except the Athenry example, the ornament on which I do not think is strictly characteristic, none of the spear-heads of this class in the large collection of the Academy shows ornamentation of the distinctive triangular or hatched character referred to; nor am I aware of any Irish examples to the contrary. Although, as already stated, ornament is rare on all classes of spear- heads, the evidence in regard to the types, as far as it goes, seems to be reversed in England. In the latter country the peculiar ornamentation associated with the Bronze Period is found on the leaf-shaped and riveted examples rather than on the looped. This fact is not, I think, without significance ; and may be explained by the conjecture that the looped form reached Britain from Ireland at a time when that form had been fully developed and had ceased to bear ornament in the latter country, whereas the leaf-shaped form spread to Britain from the Continent. The number of decorated specimens is too limited to draw a positive conclusion from, but the explanation suggested gains some support from the absence of the early decorated forms of the looped class in England. Classes III. and IV. may now be considered. Class II]. furnishes a transitional form between the looped and rivet-holed examples. The blade of the looped form (Class II.) being abrupt in its return on the socket precludes the attachment of the loop to the blade. But in the case of the leaf-shaped blade the curved flow of the line of the blade is readily carried on into the loop. If, then, the leaf-shaped type were introduced as anew form, and copied by a people accustomed to the loop as a means of attachment, we can readily understand the moving up of the loop on the socket and juncture with the blade. In figure 23 we have an example in which the form of the loop may be still identified, though merged in the blade. This class may therefore be considered as marking the transition from the true looped form to the leaf-shaped and riveted spear-head. In some of the larger specimens the blade is stopped square at the base, and the loop forms a continuation of the line of fluting of the blade, as in figure 26. Sir John Evans suggests that the reason for adopting loops at the base of the blade connecting it with the socket, ‘‘ appears to be that they were, when thus attached to the blade, less able to be broken off or damaged than when they formed isolated projections from the 1 See for instance a spear-head from Laudelles, Brittany, in Pitt Rivers Collec- tion, Oxford. Correy—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in L. reland. 499 socket.” The spear-heads, he adds, ‘‘ were also more readily polished and furbished when the socket was left as a plain tube” (p. 520) I do not think these explanations can be sustained. ; As regards the first, the loops on the socket are rarely found to be injured; and as regards the second, when the loops were moved up, a greater portion of the socket must have been covered by the cording which attached it to the shaft, and polishing would, therefore, hardly have been facilitated. Moreover, if the polishing of the socket was rendered easier, that of the blade would have been interfered with to some extent by the projections of the loops at the base. (23) (24) (25) (26) 23.—Knightstown, Meath. One-half. 24.—One-half. 25.—One-fourth. 26.—(W.18). 26% inches. But a glance at the numerical summaries given in the succeeding pages will make it apparent that utility did not determine the change in the position of the loops. Had it been so, we should have expected that the improved form would have superseded the older type, and have left us a larger number of representatives. On the contrary, spear-heads with loops connecting the blade with the socket are com- Z2L2 500 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. paratively rare. The change in the position of the loops is, I think, best explained by the influence of the leaf-shaped form. The introduction of the new type among a people accustomed to the loop as a mode of attachment would lead naturally to some such com- promise until they had mastered the difficulty of forming rivet holes in the socket. A remarkable specimen of this class is shown in figure 25. The upper portion is restored in the drawing. A similar example is figured in ‘‘ Hore Ferales,’”’ supposed to be from Ireland. It will be observed that the ornament, both as regards the punctulations along the sides of the socket and central ridge, and the rimgs and cheyron at the base of the socket, is identical with that on the rapier-like forms (fig. 17). It suggests that, notwith- standing the association of the dotted ornament with the earler forms, the latter type is to be placed in the transi- tional period. (27) ( 28 ) (29) (30) 27.—(W. 27). One-third. 28.—(W. 27). One-third. 29.—(W. 30). One-third. 30.—Shannon Drainage Works (W. 33). 152 inches Spear-heads of Class III. appear to be rather more common in Eng- land than in Ireland. Evans gives the localities of more than thirty specimens. They are, he adds, ‘‘occasionally found in Scotland”’ (1. ¢. p. 381). Correy— Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 501 There is another form of leaf-shaped spear-head also without rivet- holes which may be transitional, and will be conveniently considered here. Evans figures a unique specimen of the looped class found in the Thames (fig. 399) in which the usual form of the blade appears to be modified by the influence of the leaf-shaped pattern. It preserves the straight lines of earlier type, but the shoulders of the blade are modified after the model of the leaf-shaped type. The raised ribs of the looped form remain, but follow the modified outline of the blade. Another unique example figured by Wilde (fig. 363) shows the modification of the straight-edged type by that of the leaf-shaped, the shoulders of the former being still traceable in the breadth of the blade at the base. The unusual position of the loops shows that the tradition of the original type is broken, and the form, as yet, uncertain. This type of blade naturally lends itself to the incor- poration of the loops in the blade. (See general series, figures 24, 27, and 28.) The loops being once placed within the blade, the transition may be consi- dered as completed, and finish of work- manship will lead to a more balanced disposition of the apertures being found somewhat higher on the socket, and to the greater attention being given to the form and finish of the apertures, lead- ing in one direction to segmental open- ings (figs. 29 and 30); in another to small apertures with side projections, the survivals of the original lozenge form of the loops (figs. 31 and 32). (31) (32) The projections at the sides of the 31.—(W. 249). 133 inches. apertures in the latter form have given 32-Co-na-Mockler, Kildare 5 c (W.F. W.) 224 inches. rise to some speculation. The most reasonable explanation would appear to be that they represent the flattened lozenge-like projection of the loops of the original form, and served to protect the cord of attachment from abrasion. The projections would raise any resisting material through which the spear was thrust over the cord where it passed through the apertures in the blade, and protect it from wear at the most exposed points. 502 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. In several examples of this form the socket is unusually long as compared with the blade. In these cases it seems difficult to understand how the attachment was made, as the apertures are so far up the socket as to render cording a clumsy mode of fixing the head to the shaft. In some of these specimens, as also in the case of some of the slender-looped type, the base of the socket appears to have been hammered in at the mouth, so as to grip the shaft; and in such cases it may be doubted if the apertures in the blade were used for attachment. However, the type of spear-head under consideration is rare ; the col lection of the Academy contains only eight examples, and anomalies in the form may be accounted for on the supposition that the form is transitional, or a side product in which the features of more than one type have been copied or survive. This type is rare in England and Scotland, as wellasin Ireland. Evans mentions four English examples and one Scotch. It is of interest to note that the preceding forms, which have been called transitional are remarkable as including the largest spear- heads known. The tradition of manufacture appears to be broken; and freaks of a more or less exaggerated character would appear to indicate the absence of a governing idea preceding the settled form of the riveted spear-head. This period probably coincides with the introduc- tion of improved methods of casting. Evans mentions a spear-head from Surrey of the leaf-shaped class, 20 inches in length (p. 316). A similar one in the Grainger collec- tion, Belfast, measures 212 inches. Examples of the leaf-shaped form, with rivet-holes of such length, are very exceptional. They rarely exceed 15 inches in length. Of 137 specimens in the Academy collec- tion the longest is 17} inches. It resembles figure 19. Several speci- mens of forms I regard as belonging to the transitional period, exceed these figures, and in proportion to total numbers the unusual length of the spear-heads of this class is very remarkable. The following are the most notable references :— With loops connecting the blade with the socket : Inches. British Museum (longest found in Ireland), . 36 Royal Irish Academy, . : : é . 26% Do; .. ; ‘ ‘ 3 ; «. 23 Do. (Restored length), . . . 20 DOR ae 5 5 : : ; apellii Mr. Robert Day’s collection, Cork, : . 223 Corrry —Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 503 With small apertures in blade protected by projections on outer sides: Inches. Sir John Evans’, found near Lurgan, . . 24 Royal Irish Academy, . : © 22 Elgin Museum, found at Duffus, Mopeuahire . 194 Of the five examples in the Academy’s collection of type (fig. 17) which I place in the transitional period, one measuring 19 inches has lost a portion of the point; it was 20 or 21 inches in length. Another imperfect specimen was probably nearly of the same length. Evans notices a spear-head with segmental openings from Lancashire, 193 inches long. Another of the same type in the Edinburgh Museum, from Forfarshire, measures 19 in. In the fourth class of Wilde’s division (figs. 33, 34, and 35) the apertures of the blade appear to be ornamental, or serve to lighten the blade. The spear-head of this class usually have rivet-holes in the sockets. They are frequently decorated by raised mouldings, sometimes of cable pattern, and are ad- mirable examples of casting. The base of the socket is occa- sionally decorated by rings and reeding similar to the Lough Gur example of the leaf-shaped class. In several instances small circular apertures or eyelets are found in the blade figures. The type appears to be a development from that last con- sidered. As shown, a series may be made of figures (leading up to figures 29 and 30, both of which are devoid of rivet-holes) which seem to indicate the development of the form. The ogee curve of the blade may be accounted for as due to the enlargement of the apertures ; but may be derived from some of the Continental types. There are two forms of this class; one formed on the model of the broad leaf-shaped form, and the other on that of the narrow leaf-shaped form. The eyelet holes seem to be ornamental, and vary greatly in number and disposition. (33) (34) (35) 33-—(W. 36). 34.—Shannon Drainage Works (W. 34). tidin. 35.—(W. 252). ridin. 504 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. One of the most remarkable features about this class is the fact that the raised mouldings are truly decorative in character. It is not a case of applied decoration, of the application of patterns which were in general use, as in the case of the Bronze Age patterns or of the Late Celtic pattern ; but in the instance of these spear-heads the decoration is developed from the form and truly related to it. The Academy’s collection contains fifteen specimens of this class. Two are devoid of rivet-holes. In four instances the sockets are im- perfect and indeterminate. Fine examples of this type have been found in England and Scotland, but in both it is rare. A remarkable spear-head from Knockans is figured by Evans (fig. 411). It has loops, with square returns, formed below the blade by the prolongation of ribs along the sides of the midrib, and in addition a rivet-hole through the socket. A very fine example of this form is in the Grainger collection, and an imperfect one is in the Academy’s Museum. The numerical relations of the varieties discussed in the preceding pages show that two classes only, of the fourfold division of spear-heads adopted by Wilde and Evans, were in general use during the Bronze Period in Ireland; the looped and the riveted leaf-shaped. The following tabular summaries of some of the principal collections will make this clear :— ; Museum Royal Irish Academy (including the Petrie collection) :— Looped (Class II.)— (a) Primitive form, . : 4 ; 13 (6) Developed form, ‘ : : ee GS (¢) Leaf-shaped, 2 : : : 4 10 (d) Rapier type (fig. 17), , : 5 — 194 Transitional (Class III.)— 43 Leaf-shaped, with apertures in blade (Class IV.)— (a) With side projections, 3 8 (6) With larger apertures in blade, but devoid of rivet holes, . 6 (¢) With segmental openings in blade, al generally, rivet holes, . ; : 15 —_.29 Leaf-shaped, with rivet holes (Class I.), . ; 131 Corrry—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 505 Public Library, Belfast, Grainger collection : Looped (Class II.), . : : : ; 32 Transitional (Class III), . : : : 2 Leaf-shaped (Class I.), . 3 : : 20 Belfast Museum : Looped (one primitive and decorated), (Class If.), . ; - : 14 ie Leaf-shaped, : ‘ : ; 1 — 15 Transitional (Class III.), . : : 1 With apertures and side projections (Class IV.), . : 2 With large apertures (Class JO ) F : 1 Leaf-shaped (Class I.), . : : 6 Mr. Robert Day, of Cork, has kindly placed in my hands the MS. Catalogue of his collection, from which I extract the following figures :'— Looped (two primitive) (Class IT. ep 5 : 20 », Leaf-shaped, : ‘ ‘ 5 —- _ 25 Transitional (Class III.), . . : . 3 Leaf-shaped (Class I.), : 12 Leaf-shaped (with segmental apertures), (Classsiive); *: : 2 The Kilkenny Museum contains, according to the MS. Catalogue, but seven spear-heads. Of these I have not particulars. The Catalogue of the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, at Edinburgh, includes 89 spear-heads from Ireland. Dr. Anderson, the curator, has very kindly furnished me with the following details, omitting broken, and therefore indeterminate, specimens :— Looped (Class II.), . : 5 , : 44 Transitional (Class III.), . ° 3 With apertures and side projections ns (Cas IV. ry 1 », Segmental openings, . Leaf-shaped (Class I.), .. : : : 27 1 A fine leaf-shaped spear-head in Mr. Day’s collection, from Ballina, type figure 19, is devoid of rivet-holes. Anotner from Lough Gur, with plain blade of the type of Class II., has neither loops nor rivet-holes. The blade is decorated with punch-marks or scorings. 506 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. I have not been able to obtain the figures for the Irish spear-heads in the British Museum. The localities in many instances are not recorded, and it does not appear possible to separate the Irish from the English and Scotch examples. Summarising the preceding figures, we get the following totals :— Total. Looped (Class II.), . : ; : : SSO Transitional (Class III.), . i d . +) B58 With apertures in blade (Class IV.), . : 5. Ie With segmental openings, and, generally, rivet- holes in socket (Class IV.), ‘ ‘ 6 IS Leaf-shaped (Class I.), : . , 5 CLG 595 The transitional looped type seems to have been speedily super- ceded by the riveted leaf-shaped form, and has left us comparately few specimens. The form with apertures in the blade may be transitional or a ‘‘by-product”’ of the transitional period, and is likewise sparingly represented in our collections. Moulds.—The evidence of the spear-head moulds further enforces the separation of types insisted on in the present Paper. Evans illus- trates two, and mentions in all seven Irish stone moulds for spear-heads, (including those in Wilde’s Catalogue), six of which are of the looped type. The remaining one is for leaf-shaped lance-heads, and is now in the Museum at Edinburgh. In addition Evans mentions three Scotch examples (two looped and one leaf-shaped), and one Welsh, looped. Thus of eleven moulds known to Evans, nine are for the looped spear- heads. In addition to those mentioned by Evans, the Academy possesses one other mould, also looped. One English example is known: a mould for a leaf-shaped spear-head (18 inches) with loops on the socket, found in Cumberland.! But not only are the leaf-shaped moulds few, but, as far as Iam aware, no characteristic example has been found. The three moulds referred to of this type are for small spear-heads, and insignificant when placed beside the fine example of the looped type. Two stone moulds for rapier blades were found at Knightly in England (Evans, 434); and a well-shaped mould for a dagger-blade has been figured from Broughshane in Ireland (Evans, 433). Evans 1 Proc. S.A.8., 1883-4, p. 103. CorrEy—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 507 speaks incidentally of moulds for leaf-shaped swords (p. 481), but does not give the reference. At page 435 he mentions a mould for a short leaf-shaped sword found in Ireland. The reference is to a mould in the Academy’s collection, which has been figured by Worsaaze.!. It cannot, I think, be strictly called leaf-shaped. It partakes rather of the straight-edged form of the rapier types. As far as I am aware no characteristic example of a stone mould for leaf- shaped swords has been found, and certainly not in Ireland. The evidence from the moulds indicates that, with the introduction of the leaf-shaped spear, the older method of casting in stone moulds was abandoned. \ Finds.—The leaf-shaped spear is associated by form with the leaf- shaped sword ; the looped spear with the older types of weapons, the dagger and rapier forms. The records of ‘‘finds” are very incomplete 5. but the association of leaf-shaped spears and swords, to the exclusion of the looped form, is in several instances sufficiently marked to be noted as an additional piece of evidence.’ The particulars of Irish ‘“ finds’? are even more scanty than those published from England and Scotland. Looped and leaf-shaped spear- heads have been noted in Ireland in company with leaf-shaped swords, but there are not materials to frame a numerical summary.? The remarkable find of bronze antiquities at Dowris, in the King’s County, may be instanced, however, as marking a more than accidental separation of the looped and the riveted spear-heads. It is much to be regretted that this find has been scattered. The dis- tinctive quality of the bronze and general character of the objects render it more than probable that they were of contemporary manu- facture, and the large number of objects found—it is said a horse- load*—would, if kept together, have afforded important evidence as to the period of the associated articles. I have not been able to trace, so far, whether any swords were included in the find. But many of the objects—caldrons, socketed leaf-shaped blades, horns, crotals, &c.—belong to the latter part of the Bronze Age. A large number of spear-heads were included in the find. They appear to have been wholly of the riveted class. No example of the looped form was, as far as I can ascertain, included in the find. Of 1 Mém. des Ant. du Nord, 1873—4, p. 142. 2 See Evans, pp. 312-20, and list of ‘“ hoards.”’ 3 See Wilde’s ‘‘ Catalogue.’’ 4 Proc. R.I.A., vol. iv., p. 424. 508 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. eleven examples from this find in the British Museum, ten are of the plain leaf-shaped form, with rivet-holes, and one with segmental open- ings. The Rev. Dr. Robinson described twenty-nine spear-heads from this find in Lord Rosse’s possession, all of the leaf-shaped form, with rivet-holes.1_ Drawings of these are in the Academy’s scrap-book. An objection may be taken to the arguments on which the pre- ceding classification has been based, namely, that inasmuch as the dagger-blade was secured to the haft by means of rivets, many of the dagger-blades still retaining their rivets, it is difficult to account for the development of the looped spear-head with its more primitive means of attachment from the riveted dagger-blade. The explanation of this point is probably the following :—The attachment of a flat blade by means of rivets is certainly one of the earliest methods of hafting of the Bronze Age, and appears to have preceded the knowledge of the socket. We can trace the history of the socket in the series of the stopped and flanged celts, the sides of which were beaten up until the overlapping of the flanges formed side pockets, developing finally into the true socket. These celts were mounted axewise, and secured to the handle by means of the eye or loop at the side of the socket. The loop is found even in flanged examples preceding the true socket. The socket and loop is thus shown to have been developed in the history of a particular form of implement along a distinct line of utility of its own. Having reached the stage at which sockets were brought into general use with a side loop for attachment, the looped and socketed spear-heads are explained by transference of idea. ‘The application of rivets to socketed implements comes in later, and was probably derived from the Continent without reference in development to the earlier riveted blades found in this country. The points of difference in the types of the spear-heads of the looped and riveted classes noticed in the preceding pages seem to justify the following conclusions :— 1. The looped form has been developed from the dagger-blade. If the idea of the spear was introduced into Ireland from without, and in this connection the Arreton Down type should be considered, still, as the history of the development from the dagger-blade to the true spear-head can be illustrated from Irish examples, we are justified in looking on the looped form as of native production. 2. The leaf-shaped and riveted form appears to mark the introduc- 1 Proc. R.I.A., vol. iv., p. 287. Correy—Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland. 509 tion of a new culture, by trade or invasion. The change appears to have taken place rapidly, and the new type to have been introduced in large numbers. A change in the method of casting appears to have taken place at the same time, clay or sand moulds being substituted for those of stone. It is perhaps not right to lay too much stress on this latter point, the number of stone moulds known being small. But the evidence of the moulds is so marked that its cumulative value cannot be overlooked. The small area in Europe to which the looped type is confined is remarkable. Evans states that ‘‘ spear-heads of this class with loops at the side of the sockets are almost unknown out of the British Islands” (p. 827). He mentions one in his collection from the Seine at Paris, and another from Hungary in the museum at Buda-Pesth. Again, at page 481, he writes: ‘‘ When we turn to the spear-heads of these islands, we find that though the leaf-shaped form prevails over the greater part of Europe, yet those with loops at the side of the socket and with loops at the base of the blade are common in the British Isles, while they are extremely rare in France, and almost unknown elsewhere.”’ The looped spear-head is thus one of the distinctive types of the Bronze Age in Great Britain and Ireland. But though common to England and Scotland as well as Ireland, it is more distinctively the Irish type, and has been found in larger numbers in Ireland than in either of the former countries. I cannot give figures for this state- ment. But the looped and ribbed spear-head is generally recognised as an especially Irish type. Evans refers to it (p. 435) as ‘the ordinary Irish type.” And Sir A. W. Franks, in the Description of Plates in ‘‘ Hore Ferales,” remarks (p. 151) that spear-heads with side-loops ‘‘are rather more common in Ireland than in England.” This opens up an interesting question as to whether the centre of origin of this form of spear-head is to be placed in Ireland or in the larger island. A greater number of examples of a particular type might be accounted for on the supposition that the period during which it prevailed was of longer duration in one country than in another. But, apart from the fact that, so to speak, the centre of gravity of the type appears to le in Ireland, we are led further than conjecture by the fact that the series of development is more completely represented in Ireland than in Britain. No spear- heads of the class I have called primitive have been found in England. And Evans mentions but two of this class from Scotland, and one from the Isle of Man. Further, of moulds for looped spear-heads 510 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. found in Great Britain and Ireland the larger number and most characteristic examples belong to Ireland. It would be of interest to compare the figures for England and Scotland with those for Ireland, and if possible trace the distribution of types in reference to, say, the south and east coasts of England, and the north of England and Scotland. ‘his would entail the examina- tion of a large number of provincial museums and private collections in England and Scotland. In concluding this Paper I am tempted to quote the following passage from Sir William Wilde’s Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy (p. 348) :— ‘Tn a great national Collection like this, derived from all parts of the country, and intended to aid history and ethnology, it is important to bring together, and, when possible, to increase antique articles in proportion to the numbers in which they have been discovered. By doing so we learn what things were in common use, and what were scarce. It is only after collecting for many years that anything like a complete topographical arrangement by counties or provinces, even of typical articles, can be attempted.” No one regretted more than Wilde the deficiency of information as to localities in the Catalogue. Opportunities such as the Shannon Drainage Works may occur again, and it is perhaps not too late to direct attention to the subject. We must not assume that it is sufficient to distinguish antiquities as found in Ireland. With fuller knowledge of the localities and circumstances of the finds, we might possibly distinguish lines of culture reaching Ireland from the north and from the south, as well as local types. It would be desirable that a memorandum should be prepared, setting forth in form the information required, in order that when public works are under- taken, such as light railways, drainage, &c., the attention of the engineers in charge might be directed to the importance of obtaining full particulars of finds, and of attaching distinguishing labels to the objects found. Figures 1, 5, 15, and 16 are reproduced by permission from Sir John Evans’s ‘‘ Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain and Ireland.” The rest of the figures are from examples in the Museum of the Royal Trish Academy. Localities are given when known, and references to Sir W. Wilde’s Catalogue are indicated by the letter W. and the num- ber. Figures marked W. F. W. are from drawings by Mr. W. F. Wakeman. The figures not so marked, with the exception of figures from Wilde’s Catalogue, are from my own drawings. : as f : ‘a { a be » me — sal ie, m ~ ‘ y # ~ , ‘ E ‘ >) ee } { : - y ; [ Sik *] XXIX. ON A PANDEAN PIPE FROM TANNA ISLAND, NEW HEBRIDES. By J. P. O’REILLY, Professor of Mining, &c., Royal College of Science, Dublin, anv FOURNIER D’ALBE. [Read NovemBER 30, 1894.] Tue Pandean Pipe, which forms the subject of this Paper, was F brought under my notice last year by Colonel Vigors, of the county -. Carlow, who informed me that he procured it at Port Resolution; | Island of Tanna, New Hebrides, in August, 1850. It is therefore well-authenticated as to its origin, and is taken as representa- tive of the similar instruments in use in the island at the period mentioned. As this class of instrument is not one of universal use, and seems at present to be confined to certain parts of Europe and the East; as moreover it is of extreme antiquity historically, its presence in the New Hebrides presents a certain amount of ethnological interest, and raises the question of whether it is to be considered as being of purely native invention, or to be taken as coming by tradition from the race which originally peopled the islands. In any case it implies a certain capacity for art, and so far there is utility in recording its occurrence, and in estimating its possible relations with other and more remote Eastern countries by determining the tones or notes which the pipes of the instrument represent. As the Pandean pipe is still in use in Kurope, and especially in the south of France and in the Pyrenees amongst the shepherds, that is amongst a very primitive and ancient race of people, I thought that some useful result might be attained by having the exact pitch of the pipes determined, so as to allow of comparison with similar European instruments, either ancient or modern. At my request this was under- taken and carried out by Mr. Fournier d’Albe, then acting as assistant in the physical laboratory of the Royal College of Science, and his tabulated results present determinations so complete and precise as to seem to me to be well worthy of being brought before the Academy R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 2M 012 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. as representing a most interesting contribution to ethnography. It is desirable that similar determinations be made of the instruments in use in the south of Europe, since, in the ease of an instrument of such great antiquity, there is always the probability of some relation being found to exist between the existent European types and instruments, such as that coming from the New Hebrides herein considered. Reclus, in his ‘‘ Nouvelle Géographie,” vol. xiv. p. 922, says of the Polynesians :—‘‘I] est certain que par de traits nombreux de leur genre de vie, aussi bien que par leurs institutions, leurs mythes, et leurs pratiques religieuses, les Polynesiens ressemblent de diverses manieres, 4 leurs voisins occidentaux de toute race, Papoua, Indonesiens Malais, Japonais méme. Ils offrent aussi de nombreux analogies avec les naturels de l’Amérique du Sud et du Nord, et l’on a pu, en négligeant les contrastes et les differences placer 4 coté, les uns des autres, comme fréres de race les Polynesiens et les Araucans.”’ O’ReILLy anp p’ALBE—On a Pandean Pipe. 513 He also shows that the migrations have been far more extended and frequent amongst those races than would at first seem likely; and summing up his conclusions as to the sources of the Polynesian races, he says (p. 924) :—‘‘Il est certain que l’ensemble de faits, langues, ressemblances ethniques, mceurs, et traditions designent les terres occidentales, voisines del’Asie comme le principal lieu d’origine des peuples Polynesiens; c’est en sens inverse du mouvement général des eaux ou des airs que s’est fait le mouvement des nations.” He further gives the conclusions arrived as to the very remote period at which the principal migration took place :—‘‘ A une époque déja fort lointaine, alors que les indigénes des terres voisines del’ Asie, n’avaient pas encore subi l’influence hindoue et que la civilisation malaise ne s’était pas constituée, refoulant les habitants primitifs dans Vintérieur des iles. Aucune trace de sanscrit ne se trouve dans les langues Polynesiennes ; les insulaires de l’Oceanie Orientale descendent done d’aieux qui n’ont pas connu les religions hindoues—p. 926, ces temps sont trés éloignés de nous.” If it be admitted as possible that traces of this very remote origin be still existing in the manners and customs of the Polynesians, their music would be likely to be one of them, so that the object of the present Paper would gather interest from that side also. Mr. Fournier d’Albe’s determinations which follow, speak for themselves; for the general reader his conclusion is that the notes extend over three octaves, with five notes on each octave, the rough sequence being C, D sharp, F sharp, A. Tue Tanna SyRrinx. This instrument consist of a graduated series of fifteen pipes, lashed together like the ancient Pandean pipes. The pitches of the notes given by these pipes were determined— (1) By calculation, dividing the velocity of sound in air at 16° C. by four times the sum of the length and the radius. (2) By experiment, comparing one of the pipes (the fifth) with a standard tuning-fork, and comparing the length of a stretched string in unison with this fundamental pipe with the lengths corresponding to the other pipes. Four strings of different diameters and densities were used for these measurements. The results are given in the following Table. The lengths are given in centimetres, and the pitches in complete vibrations per second. 2M2 514 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Taste I ci Neh U[Rength:| Rating eR | eg | Ee | pin. || cee | Nepean Pipes. if, R. 83 ir found. Diff. ment.2 Aas I. | 80-2 | 0-65 | 30-9] 279 | 284) + 5] 1:8 | C’# 280. II. | 24-2 | 0-6 | 24:8] 341 | 343|+ 2] 0-6 | EY 333 or F’ 352. IIT. | 22-6 | 0-6 | 23:2] 3871 | 378) + 7] 1:8 | F #373. IV. | 18-7] 0-6 | 19-3] 446 | 444]- 2] 0-5 | a’ 44g. Vv. | 16-4] 0:5 | 16-9} 509 | 512]+ 3.| 0-6 | B’ 498 or GO” 528. le WEs,|-15-4:| 0-5), |) 15-9. |, 641 | 642)] 4-1 | 0-2) | Guise ae VII. | 12-7] 0-5 | 13:2] 656 | 647|- 9] 1-4 | D’ #628 ork’ 666. VIII. | 11-7} 0-4 | 12:1] 710 | 711 | +-1]| 0-14) BY 704: IX.| 9:6] 0-4 | 10:0] 866 | 875|+ 9] 1:0 | A’ 888. eeXe ae OaeseO:3 8-4 | 1024 | 990 | —34] 3:4 | BY” 996. | xz. | 7-6| 0-3 | 7-9 |-1090 | 1058) -—32| 31 |G" 1056. NCTE |e Gs4 00-3 6-7 | 1282 | 1278 | — 4 | 0-25 | D’’ #1256. XIII. | 5:3 | 0-2 | 5-5 | 1562 | 1522 | —40 | 2-5 | Fg 1492. XIV. | 4:5 | 0-2 4-7 | 1830 | 1865 | +35 | 1-9 | A’ 1880. XV. | 3-9] 0-2 4-1 | 2098 | 2120 | +22] 1:0 | O”” 2112. The simple relations which occur between some of the notes are given in the following Table. [ Tasze IT. 1The notes thus extend over three octaves. The scale assumed is that of the Society of Arts (Helmholtz’s C’ = 528, whereas modern concert pitch C’ = 540). Tas.e II. O’Rein.y anp pD’ALBE—On a Pandean Pipe. II. III. VI. VII. VIII. IX.| X. 515 XI. | XII. bur xv. | XV. 4th 9/10 érd 5th 3rd 6/5 7th 4th 1/2 || a 6th 8th ? soul a 4th | 5th 3rd | 7/5 8th sth 9/5 3rd 5th 7th 5th 3rd Hence there are four 4ths, seven 5ths, five 8rds, two 2nds, three 7ths, two 6ths, and three octaves ; but the last are impure, and some of the others cannot be regarded as pure intervals. There are five notes in each of the octaves, and the rough sequence appears to be as follows:—C, D sharp, F sharp, A. This sequence, if consistently carried out, would divide the octave into four equal parts of 3 semitones each. ise ws XXX. ON THE CRYSTALLINE FORM OF RIEBECKITE.! By W. J. SOLLAS, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin. [Read January 28, 1895.] RI=BECKITE. System oblique a:6:¢=0°54748 : 1 : 0:29246, B=76°10’. Observed forms 6(010), ¢(001), m(110), (7150), (111), #(201), (021). ie Observed. Calculated. m:m = (110)(110) = 56° — ne 6 = (110) OO) =e ii 50! — m= 0) =, (A10),(010)) = 162 62° b:c¢ = (010)(001) = 89 48 90 Z:b = (150)(010) = 20 39- 2oRsz 2 26 = (021)(00l)) = 129082) SoonsG zs :6 = (021)(010) = 60 28 60 24 2: m.— (021); (10) = 365028 65 282 Z 67 . =4,(021) Gil). ;= 3! Si eemolmee t :¢ = (201)(001) = 54 20 — tim = (201)(110) =,54 42 (omer fi 7. = (201) (11) 27554 5 Qesaes r:m = (111)(110) = 68 3 £68 4 r :6 = (111)(010) = 74 28 74 22 im: ¢ = (111)(001) = 34>.6 saaay mer = (111)(111) = 3t 14) sie 1 Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. SoLtLtas—On the Crystalline Form of Riebeckite. 517 Fragments of a rock similar to the so-called micro-granite of Ailsa Craig are found generally, though sparingly, scattered through the glacial deposits of the east coast of Ireland, from Greenore!, near Carlingford, on the north, to Greystones,? in county Wicklow, on the south. The identification of these fragments with the Scotch rock depends on the presence in both of a characteristic blue hornblende, known as riebeckite ; but for this there is little to distinguish them from much of the granophyre of Carlingford and the Mourne Mountain district, and it is by no means impossible that a riebeckite-bearing granophyre may eventually be discovered as a constituent of the Carlingford complex. Up to this, however, although I have made a prolonged and painstaking search, I have failed to find it. The fragments in the glacial deposits are usually well rounded pebbles, under 6 inches in diameter, and of a remarkably compact texture, which does not prevent them however from occasionally containing numerous drusy cavities, which are tapestried by minute crystals of quartz, felspar, and riebeckite, the chief mineral consti- tuents of the rock. Ina single instance, afforded by a pebble found at Portrane, the cavities are large enough to afford room for well-formed crystals of riebeckite up to 5 mm. in length. Several of these were successfully extricated from the rock and measured by means of a goniometer with a horizontal circle, made by Fuess, and kindly lent me by Professor O’Reilly of the Royal College of Science. Fig. 1. Our knowledge of the crystalline form of riebeckite was previously very imperfect, no other faces than those of the prism and clino- pinacoid had hitherto been observed. Nor is this surprising, for not 1 Cole, Nature, vol. xlvii., p. 464. 2 Sollas, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xiii., p. 118. 518 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. much more than ten years have elapsed since the mineral was first observed by Bonney,' in granite from Socotra; and it was not till some years later that Sauer? first recognised in it a new member of the hornblende series, and gave it its presentname. Its occurrence in the British Isles was first made known by Bonney* and Harker,* who described it from Mynydd Mawr, in North Wales. A description of the Ailsa Craig rock, which has furnished fragments to glacial deposits on both sides of the Irish Sea,*° and the Isle of Man,® we owe to Teale.’ The most recent reference to riebeckite is by Brogger,® who indicates the close relationship of this mineral and crocidolite to arfved- sonite. The association of crocidolite and riebeckite had been earlier pointed out by Lacroix.® A summary of the results of the measurements I have made is given, antea (p. 516), and I now proceed to offer some additional details. Fig. 2. All the crystals afforded by the pebble from Portrane present ‘ Bonney, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. i., p. 278, 1883. * Sauer, Zeits. d geol. Ges., vol. xl., p. 138, 1888. * Bonney, Mineralogical Magazine, vol. vil., pp. 103, 169, 1888. + Harker, Geological Magazine, p. 455, 1888. > Lomas, Report British Assoc., p. 707, 1892. Cole and Sollas (doc. cit.). 6 Cole, Mineralogical Magazine, vol. ix., p. 222,1891. Kendall, Journ. Isle of Man Nat. Hist. and Antiquarian Soc., vol. i., p. 410, 1894. 7 Teall, Mineralogical Magazine, vol, ix., p. 219, 1891. 8 Brégger, Die Eruptivgesteine des kristianiagebictes, p. 38. Kristiania, 1894. ® Lacroix, Comptes Rendu, vol. cix., p. 39. Sottas—On the Crystalline Form of Riebeckite. marked anomalies of form. 519 In none does the angle between the basal plane and clino-pinacoid measure exactly 90°; it is almost always in excess to the extent of from 2’ to 15’, and thus might lead one to imagine that the mineral should be referred to the anorthic system. Further examination shows, however, that the defect of symmetry is as little consistent with the anorthic as with any other system. Thus measurements in the [100] zone gave the following! :— I. 010: 001, 89°41’ 001: 010, 89 55 179° 36° II. Ill. Iv. 89aone 89° 57’ 89° 48’ 89 50 89 37 89 54 179° 47' 179°34' 179° 49 In the zones [110] and [110] :— 1. [110] 110: 001, 77°47’ 001 : 111, 34 10 TU =o TNO, 68 22 180° 19’ In the zone [101] :— 010: 111 111:111 111: 010 In the zone [112]:— 110 : 021 021:111 111: 201 201 : 110 r.[110] 77° 53! 384 2 67 44 179° 39’ I: 74° 14’ 31 14 Ua a 179° 35’ I. 65° 28’ 31 37 27 54 54 42 iOS mt. [110] 78° 15! 110: 34 21 001: G3 6 ill 180° 39’ * The Roman numerals 1. 1., &c., refer to the number of the specimen measured. 520 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. From these observations it is clear that we are dealing with crystals in which the opposite faces are not parallel! This anomaly explains a difficulty encountered in measuring the zone [001 ], due to the impossibility of exactly adjusting the crystals, so that the bright signal should always fall on the cross wires of the telescope; if the adjustment were correct for any five faces it would invariably fail for the sixth. The deviation, though not large, was obvious. The measurements in this zone gave the following :— 1 II. 010 : 110 62° 62° 35! 110: 110 55 55’ 56 1 110 : 010 61 24 61 41 010: 110 } 2 20 eee ies Zt 110: 110 55 29 110 : 010 62 61 54 360° 360° These observations sufficiently illustrate the irregularities by which the crystals are deformed ; if they are inconsistent with the symmetry of the oblique system they are no less so with that of the anorthic system, for even centro-symmetry is absent. A microscopic examination shows striation on the prism faces, whence the train of images that are seen on measurement; and on the basal plane a pavement of polygonal areas, some of which project beyond the others, with an evident tilt. Small as the crystals are they are far from simple, and may be be best regarded as crystal com- plexes, simulating and making a close approximation to a simple crystal form. It might be suggested that unequal contraction or cooling may have helped to produce a deformation, for the attached extremity of the crystals is immersed and rooted, as it were, among the other constituents of the rock, and these extend into its substance for some distance beyond the general surface of attachment. Fizeau gives for the mean coefficient of expansion of hornblende 0:00000866, of orthoclase 0:00000753, and of quartz 0°000011; and it is easy to cal- culate from these data what kind of effect the suggested action would produce. If we suppose the case of a cube consisting for half its height of a mixture of orthoclase and hornblende, and for the remaining half of pure hornblende, it is easy to show that the unequal contraction Sottas—On the Crystalline Form of Riebeckite. 521 produced on cooling through 100° C. could not give rise to a deviation in any of the angles of the cube of more than a small fraction of a minute. The effect is greater if quartz be supposed substituted for felspar, but still quite inadequate. If instead of considering merely the mean coefficient of expansion of these minerals we take into account the coefficients of expansion in different directions a more marked result would, in certain cases, follow; but this would be dependent on a definite orientation of material which could not legitimately be predicated. Strains due to unequal contraction will thus scarcely help us, and the complex growth of the crystals may be admitted to furnish by itself a sufficient explanation. Broégger,in studying Arfvedsonite, encountered similar anomalies to those we have described, and explains them in a similar way. ‘‘ Nach der Mehrzahl der ausgefiihrten Messungen zu schliessen, wiirde der Arfvedsonit dem asymmetrischen Systeme angehdren ; obwohl aber die einzelnen Messungen fiir sich in den meisten Fallen recht voll- kommen schienen, diirfte eine derartige Schlussfolgerung doch gewiss nicht berechtigt sein, denn die erwahnte, tibrigens gewohnlich ver- steckte, subparallele polysynthetische Aggregation mebrerer Individuen erklart geniigend die beobachteten Abweichungen von der monosym- metrischen Symmetrie.”’ Such polysynthetic aggregates would seem to offer a link between homogeneous crystals and radiate fibrous growth. While this communication was passing through the press, I re- ceived, by the kindness of the author, an important Memoir by Professor Brogger,” in which appears (p. 83) a review of those species of hornblende characterised by containing iron and soda. Professor Brogger has shown that they fall into a series in which an increase in the angle of extinction (c:C) is correlated with an increase in the contents of iron and soda. The series is as follows :-— Angle of Extinction. Basaltic hornblende from Bohemia, ‘ 0°-10° Barkevite, . : ‘ : 14° Hornblende of Silndromitis, : : sip yolo= 34? Hornblende of Grorudite, : : . 419-58° Arfvedsonite, ' s z : ‘ On Riebeckite (?), . ’ : ; 86° 1 Brogger, Zeits. f. Krystallographie u. Min. xvi., p. 403, 1890. 2 “Die Eruptivgesteine des Kristianiagebietes.’’ 1. Die Gesteine der Grorudite- Tinguait-Serie von W. C. Brégger. ‘‘ Videnskabsselskabets Skrifter.’’ 1. Mathe- matisk natury. Klasse, 1894, No. 4. 022 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. -I have reduced the results of the chemical analyses given by Broggar to molecular proportions of the various constituents, and expressed their relations by the curves shown in the diagram (fig. 3) S102 S! Oo CAO Al203 Na,O Fe, O3 Ko O j[Eexaennavesc ren] 0°10° 12° 14° 84° 76° Fig. 3 below. It will be seen that silica being taken as constant the con- stituents whose symbols appear only on the right-hand of the diagram diminish as the angle of extinction rises, while those whose symbols appear only on the left-hand correspondingly increase. By means of heavy fluid I was able to separate a sufficient quantity of the riebeckite which occurs in the pebble from Portrane, for a partial analysis, with the following results :— Percentage. Silica, 4 : s ; ; 42°69 Alumina and iron oxide, . , 41°71 Soda, : : : : ‘ 10:002 Potash, . : : : ; *866 It will be seen that the alkalies were present in unusually large proportion; the lime and magnesia were not determined, but it is evident that only a small quantity of these constituents could have been present. If now we turn to Sauer’s complete analysis of riebeckite' we per- ceive what would appear to be an important difference between this 1 Zeits. d. geol. Ges. 1888, vol. xl, p. 139. SotLtas—On the Crystalline Form of Riebeckite. 523 mineral and arfvedsonite, inasmuch as in the latter the iron is chiefly present in the ferrous, and in the former in the ferric state. Konig,? however, has analysed a riebeckite in which ferrous are in excess of ferric molecules; and Brogger is disposed to consider the state of oxidation of the iron as of subordinate significance compared to the total quantity of this constituent present. Lately C. Palache? has linked on glaucophane to riebeckite by the discovery of a new species of amphibole (Crossite) in which one glaucophane molecule (aluminium sodium silicate) occurs in association with two riebeckite molecules (ferric sodium silicate). It is a curious fact, however, that while the new mineral stands intermediate to glaucophane and riebeckite as regards its chemical composition, in its optical characters it departs more widely from glaucophane than does riebeckite itself. To complete the comparison between riebeckite and arfvedsonite the following Table is added :-— CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS. a Sy AOE c B Hornblende, 5 DSSTOX 37/7 USD Arfedsonite, . 0°54957 1 0:29751 oma Riebeckite, . 0°54748 1 0:29246 76 10 AncuLAR MEASUREMENTS. HoRNBLENDE. ARFVEDSONITE. RIEBECKITE. fe Calculated. Calculated. (110) : (110) 55° 49 Goma 56° (110) : (010) 62 6 Bil BEE ey G2 (100) : (001) (3% 75 442 76 10’ (110) : (001) 76 48 lel, yy 77 50 (111) : (001) 34 25 34 392 BG (111) : (110) 68 47 67 53 68 4 (111) : (010) 74 14 UW 74 22 (021) : (010) 60 26 60 2 60 24 1 Grote’s Zeits., vol. i., p. 434. 2 «On a Rock from the Vicinity of Berkeley, containing a New Soda Amphi- bole,’? by C. Palache, Bull. Depart. Geology, University of California, vol. i., p. 185, 1894. [ 524 ] XXXI. NOTE ON DEFECTIVE VISION AND OTHER OCULAR DERANGEMENTS IN CORNELIUS MAGRATH, THE IRISH GIANT. By H. R. SWANZY, A.M., M.B., F.R.C.S.I. (COMMUNICATED BY D. J. CUNNINGHAM, M.D.) [Read DxEcemBER 10, 1894.] In June, 1891, Professor D. J. Cunningham presented to this Academy a paper! on the subject of the skeleton of the Irish giant, Cornelius Magrath (died a.p. 1760, et. 23), in which he gave an exhaustive description of this most interesting museum specimen. Professor Cunningham there also pointed out, for the first time, that Magrath must have been the subject of the disease known as acromegaly. Certain appearances on the interior of the base of the skull caused surprise in Dr. Cunningham’s mind that no mention is made of a defect of sight in any of the contemporary descriptions of the giant now extant, but he does not pursue the subject further. Yet it must be remembered that in these fragmentary accounts of the giant, and which are, for the most part, of the nature of advertisements—Magrath having been exhibited over the Kingdom and on the Continent—the giant is represented as a strikingly handsome person, although a study of the lower jaw and of the other bones of the face, and of those of the general skeleton, demonstrates that he must have had a forbidding countenance, with an ungainly figure, and knock-knees. Hence the omission of a statement concerning any failure of eyesight need not be wondered at ; and my beliefis that his vision was far from good, and that he probably laboured under other ocular derangements. The grounds for this view are as follows :— One of the most remarkable, and, after a certain period, one of the most constant symptoms of acromegaly is that condition of sight known as bi-temporal hemianopsia: that is, loss of power, in the inner, or nasal, half of each retina, with resulting blindness of the outer, or 1 Trans. Roy. Ir. Acad., vol. xxix. (Pt. 16), p. 553. Swanzy—Wote on Magrath’s Defective Vision. 525 temporal, side of each field of vision. Later on one or both eyes may become quite blind. In the early stages of acromegaly, the patient suffers little inconvenience, and it is often defective vision which first induces him to seek medical advice. Now, amongst the post-mortem appearances of the disease none is more striking or more characteristic than a hypertrophy of the pituitary body, or hypophysis, which is situated in the pituitary fossa, or sella turcica, on the inner side of the base of the skull, and it is universally admitted that it is this hyper- trophied pituitary body which, by its pressure on the optic commissure lying in close anterior relation to it, causes the loss of power in the inner halves of the retina, for the commissure contains the crossed fibres of the optic tracts destined for that part of each retina. But in Magrath’s skull, an examination of the sella turcica can leave no doubt that, in his case too, the usual alteration in the hypophysis was present in an extreme degree. This is evidenced by the enormous size of the pituitary fossa, the result of absorption of bone on all sides of it, a condition which is described by Professor Cunningham in the following words :—‘‘ The expansion has been carried to such an extent that it has led to the total obliteration of the sphenoidal sinus, and at one point in the floor there is an elliptical perforation about one quarter inch long, through which the fossa would communicate directly with the cavity of the nose, were it not covered on the under surface by the expanded ala of the vomer bone. The floor of the pituitary fossa exhibits a number of deep depressions or loculi separated from each other by salient smooth ridges. From this we may infer that the under aspect of the greatly enlarged hypophysis was lobulated. The dorsum selle, which forms the posterior wall, is very nearly completely absorbed. Only the basal part remains, and this is reared erect, and is as thin as paper.” Nota trace is left of either of the posterior clinoid processes. In front, and this is the point which, in the first instance, interests us here, ‘‘the olivary eminence is completely gone, and the anterior wall of the fossa, formed by an exceedingly thin lamina, bulges forwards so as to encroach upon the nasal cavity. This portion of the cavity extends below the posterior part of the floor of the anterior cranial fossa. On the left side the fossa is bounded by a thin lamina, on the outer side of which there is the groove for the internal carotid artery. On the right side there is no such limitation, and the appearances are such that I am inclined to believe that the enlarged pituitary body bulged outward so as to enclose the right carotid artery, and even extended forwards through the sphenoidal fissure into the back of the right orbit.” The dimensions of the pituitary fossa Professor 526 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Cunningham finds to be as follows :—Length, 38 mm.; depth, 28 mm.; breadth, indefinite, owing to obliteration of the normal lateral boundaries. Concerning the right sphenoidal fissures he says :— ‘* Looking into the orbital cavities of Magrath’s skull it is seen that the right sphenoidal fissure has undergone a great expansion. This is more marked in its inner wider part. Here it is no less than 11°5 mm. in width, and at least twice as wide as the corresponding part of the left sphenoidal fissure.” : I have myself examined Magrath’s skull, and I can confirm the above quoted description in all respects. There can, I believe, be no reasonable doubt but that the destruc- tion of the olivary eminence here involved the destruction of the optic commissure, which lies on it; and that the least visual defect we can assign to Magrath is the usual one of acromegaly — bi-temporal hemianopsia. The existence of this defect in a person of a low order of intelligence, such as Magrath is stated to have been, and of no education as he probably was, is quite compatible with the absence of any statement as to defective eyesight in the accounts of him that we have; for in this, as in other forms of hemianopsia, the fixation point often escapes completely, owing to overlapping of its supply from each cerebral visual centre; and hence, for objects looked at straight in front, no great difficuity of sight may have been experienced. Objects lying to the left-hand side could be observed with the seeing half of the right retina, while objects lying to the right-hand side could be observed with the seeing half of the left retina, in so far as the bridge of the nose did not interfere. If then bi-temporal hemianopsia was the only visual defect in Magrath’s case, the vision he retained may very well have been sufficient for his limited requirements, and he may even have been so little inconvenienced as to have been himself unaware that there was anything wrong with his sight. But, I think, without carrying conjecture too far, we may conclude that, for some time before his death, Magrath had other, and more serious, loss of sight. From the appearances in the skull it is obvious that the growth of the hypertrophied pituitary body was especially marked towards the right side, and that it must have involved the right optic tract containing, with others, the fibres for the supply of the outer half of the right retina. This would result in loss of function of the outer half of the right retina, and blindness of the nasal side of the right field of vision; or—as we have shown that the temporal side of the field must have been lost from pressure on the commissure—complete blindness of the right eye. If this were so, the giant can only have Swanzy—WVote on Magrath’s Defective Vision. 527 retained sight in the nasal side of his left field of vision, and I think we must grant that he did retain this much vision to the end, for had he been quite blind there would probably have been some reference to the fact in the obituary notice of him, which appeared in two Dublin newspapers of the day. Cases of acromegaly with complete loss of sight in one or both eyes are not uncommon. Furthermore, turning to the motor nerves of the eyeballs, it seems to me not improbable that many of them must have suffered in their functions. Both posterior clinoid processes have quite disappeared, along with the grooves at their bases for the sixth nerves. I should think, therefore, that these nerves were destroyed, and that the muscles they supply, the external rectus in each eye, must have been paralysed. Again, the growth of the pituitary body through the right sphenoidal fissure is likely to have pressed severely on the motor nerves of the eyeballs which pass through it, and to have caused complete loss of power of all the muscles of the right eye, so that it became quite immovable, and ptosis of the upper eyelid was caused. The ophthalmic division of the fifth nerve also passes through the sphenoidal fissure, and, if its functions were interfered with, there was loss of sensation of the front of the eyeball, of the eyelids, &c. Again, and this point is indicated by Professor Cunningham, it is probable that the growth of the pituitary body into the right orbit through the sphenoidal fissure gave rise to a more or less well-marked proptosis of the right eyeball in a direction downwards and outwards as well as forwards. Protrusion of the eyeball from this cause has been observed in other cases of acromegaly; and the fact that in Magrath’s skull the right orbit is markedly larger than its fellow affords additional evidence in this directicn. If the motor nerves of the eyeballs were affected in the manner I have suggested it to be possible that they may have been, and if, as both Professor Cunning- ham and I think, the right eyeball was protruded, Magrath’s personal appearance must have been even less that of an Adonis than is described in Professor Cunningham’s memoir—the right eye protruded and immovable, and its upper lid hanging down and incapable of being elevated; while, owing to paralysis of the left external rectus, the left eye would have been turned in towards the nose. It has been objected to my views that, although the hypertrophied pituitary body gave rise to so much absorption of bone, it does not follow that its pressure on the nerves in its neighbourhood was such as to interfere with their functions. The tumour, it is said, may R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 2N 528 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. have grown round the trunks of the nerves, or slowly pushed them aside without actually causing them injury or interfering with their function. - I do not consider that this objection has weight as regards the optic commissure and optic tract, because it is only reasonable to infer that these structures suffered in this extreme case in the way they usually do in other cases of the same disease. As regards the motor nerves of the eyeball, on the other hand, I am not prepared to say that they may not be less susceptible to damage, and, as a matter of fact, paralysis of the orbital muscles in acromegaly is not very common, although it has been observed. 5290s] XXXIT. THREE POEMS IN MIDDLE-IRISH, RELATING TO THE BATTLE OF MUCRAMA. WITH ENGLISH TRANSLA- TION AND NOTES, AND A SHORT VOCABULARY. By JOHN MAC NEILL, B.A. {Read Junz 11, 1894.] ~ (COMMUNICATED BY REV. EDMUND HOGAN, S.J.) Intropuctory Norte. 1. Summary of the Story of the Battle of Mucrama.’—Sadb, daughter of Conn of the Hundred Battles, had, by Mac Niad, a son Lugaid, also called MacCon. She became wife of Ailill Olom, king of Munster. Kogan Mor, her son by Aiulill, had a dispute with Mac Con, and drove him out of Ireland. MacCon returned with an army of Scottish, British, and Saxon auxiliaries, and took a stand at Mag Mucrama, near the eastern shore of Galway Bay. Art, son of Conn, then ard-ri, came against him, bringing seven of the sons of Ailill, including Eogan, as allies. Mac Con was victorious, and became ard-rz, Art and the seven sons of Ailill having fallen on the field. The night before the battle, Art stayed at the house of Ole Acha, a smith, and the smith’s daughter became by him the mother of a posthumous son, Cormac, called Mac Airt. To Hogan Mor also was born a posthu- mous son, Fiachu, by Moncha, daughter of Dil macci Chreca, a druid. So far the story as given in the Book of Leinster, and edited by Mr. S. H. O’Grady, Silva Gadelica, p. 310. The prose preface to the poem marked A below states that, according to some, the episode of the vision and prophecy took place on the day before Art marched against MacCon. This episode, a Christian interpolation, is found, with a very corrupt version of the accompanying poem, in all the modernized copies of the tale that I have examined. These copies are therefore derived from a source known to the LU. writer as existing in his day. 1“ About a.p. 195,’’ MS. Mat., p. 48. The story must have been popular. Comh marbh le hArt is still the equivalent of ‘‘as dead as Julius Cesar’’ or ‘Cag dead as Queen Anne.’’ Zaz 530 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. For a list of later versions see Essaz d’un Catalogue, &c., by H. D’Arbois de Jubainville. 2. The Texts and Versification.—The poem A is from Leabhar na hUidhre, where, with its preface, it occupies all p. 119 and two lines over. The poems B and C occupy each an exact half-page of the Book of Leinster, 146 8 and 147a. The general type of the metre of A and C is the stanza called dechnad mbecc, consisting of four pentasyllabic verses, each ending in a monosyllable, verses 2 and 4 rhyming. In B the type is rannaigecht mor, four heptasyllabic verses, each ending in a monosyllable, verses 2 and 4 rhyming. In all three poems, however, many of the stanzas are irregular. Twelve stanzas of C are in ‘‘ chain- verse,” the opening part of the stanza being linked to the foregoing stanza by the repetition of one or more of its closing words. Less evident is the linking which will be found in most of the stanzas both of B and C, the closing and opening verses of adjacent stanzas being joined by alliteration. 3. The Matter of the Poems.—The poem A is in effect a Christian interpolation in the epic tale of the Battle of Mucrama, which belongs to the ‘‘ Leinster Cycle.’ Such interpolations may represent efforts on the part of the poets to secure the toleration of the Church for the traditional pagan literature of the country. The vision of angels is manifestly founded on Jacob’s dream. Stanza 27 contains an allusion to a secret burial like that of Moses or of St. Patrick. The poems B and C seem to be the work of one person. They have in common (1) the linking of verses noted above; (2) a number of similar allusions and expressions; B 1-8 =C€ 29, 30; B17, 18 = C 87, 39; B 20 =C 23; B 22, 24 =C 25, 26; (3) both poems con- tain similar precepts of conduct for a prince. These two poems are not without literary merit. One of them, C, has already been ear- marked by Dr. Atkinson in his analysis of the ‘‘ Book of Leinster ”’ prefaced to the Academy’s facsimile. The following points of interest may be noted :— Art keeps a hunting-seat (sudi selca), A 1. Deer are excluded from a sacred enclosure, A 9. Women make pilgrimages to a battle-field (or tomb?), A 11. Corpses are washed before burial, A 24, 27.? The details of a chief’s equipment for battle, B 8, C 29. 1 See O’Curry on this piece, MS. Mat., p. 391. 2 This may account for such font-like stones as are found in the sowterrain of Grange. Mac Neitxr— Three Poems in Middle-Irish. 531 Especially noteworthy are the counsels of government laid down. They are (1) strict control of dependent princes, B 17, 18, C 87, 39, 46; (2) firm exercise of sovereignty—‘‘ countries are not benefited by holding the rein of kingship with the finger-tips,’ B18, C35, 36; (3) no mercy to an enemy, B19, C44; (4) stern punishment of criminals, C 38, 40,41; (5) those fit for arms to be favoured at the expense of the non-fighting population, C 44. This last counsel—‘‘ to every strong man his land’’—contains the germ of a feudal system. It is evident that the idea of ‘‘ State’? was not non-existent in Ireland when these verses were written. Unfortunately, native princes were not found to act consistently on the principles therein laid down. 4. The Language.—In the list of words appended, I have meant to include only such words, forms, or meanings as are not to be found in the principal glossaries already published as instalments of a scien- tific Irish lexicon, or such as are hitherto but slightly authenticated. The extent of the list indicates the difficulty experienced with the text. It contains about 150 words, all taken from two pages of MSS. The following, if correctly read, are, so far as my knowledge of printed matter goes, dag Neyopeva: athan, attail, baethlach, bantharg, bruich- nech, cirbbide, cliu .t. corp, focoidled, cred, cumale, dlaind, dlom, domim, draeth, driamail, faide, fiadig, forscailtech, fuigset, gart, gillchade, gualaire, lamaire, domraifes, smerdnide, trém, trucha, tulerd.} One fact cannot fail to strike the student of unedited early Irish literature—the extent of vocabulary which is not held in common by the two great divisions of Irish literature, ecclesiastical and profane. I have made use of the contractions: Atk. = Dr. Atkinson’s Glossary to the Passions and Homilies; CRnak.= Cath Ruis na Rig, by Rev. E. Hogan, 8.J., Todd Lecture Series, vol. iv,; W.= Windisch’s = Worter- buch; besides other contractions familiar or self-explaining. Vowels marked thus, d, are not marked in MS. The numbers within paren- theses in the text refer to the Additional Notes on pp. 554 e sqq. 1 The LL. text of The Battle of Mag Mucrime is also edited by Whitley Stokes, Revue Celtique, xili., 426. In his glossary are the words—broce, ell, muin (cf bruc, eill, muin, in this text and glossary); also baid-athair (cf. C, 4), and eo (cf. G, 13, 27). 5382 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. A. FASTINI AIRT MZICC CUIND OCUS A CHRETEM INSO. [LU. 119a.] 1. La robof Art macc Cuind ic selga i mbregaib IS and bdi-seom’ na sudi selea oc Duma Derg-ludchra .i. ait hi fail Tredit(1) indiu. Ambai and iarom oc fegad ar ind radaire for cech leth co faca timthi- recht na n-aingel suds 7 anuas and. Dober di’ oid ani sin 7 ro-linad 0 rath in Spiruta Naim fochétoir. 7 tic rath fastini fair. 7 fallsigther do cach ni no-biad dé iartain. 7 a imscar 7 Mevcc Con asin chath ro-bof ar bert oco. ISsed airmit fairend(2) conid ar a barach luid do thabairt catha Mucrama dia-ndechaid in n-echtra(3) do thig (Uile)* Acha in goband diar-chomraic frz Etain (4) dia-ndernad Cormac. Conid and ro- tog-som a adnacol isind inud sin fo déig na cretmi ro-biad iartain. Conid for slicht na fisi sin ro-chan-som na runnu sa 7 ic tairgiri na cretmi. co n-epert. Os Cain do Denna? Den doma addonriacht tias Brega brug® drécht Dergliachra cen uacht. 3. Ni bat fergaib fir(5) con foéfet hi fos imroéfet fri bérla* 6 Roim ditnib doss. 4. Sosod soé concred aithne® aingel ngel comrad clocén bind! ra lind tailcend treb. 5. Tredit tréde fot im thri fotu ind rig (6) in tan bas bec cach and bas mar a-mbrig. « In margin. > Gloss, .1. denna dimor fer grada Airt, Denna Dimor, Art’s favourite. © brug .1. ferann (hence brugaid) Brehon Laws; .i. baile, OC. @ Gloss, .i. imrddfit bérla roémanach, they will speak the Roman language. Translated as if from immrdim, but perhaps imshoefet, impoefet should be read, ‘they will turn to,’ &. Mac Neitt— Three Poems in Middle-Irish. 530 A. THE PROPHECY OF ART SON OF CONN AND HIS BELIEF, THIS. 1. A day that Art son of Conn was hunting in Brega. This is where he was, in his seat of hunting at the Mound of Derg-luachair, 7.e. the place in which Trevit(1) is to-day. As he was there, then, gazing on the sight on every side, he saw the going and coming of the angels up and down there. He gave to his heed (7.e. gave heed to) this! thing and was filled from the grace of the Holy Ghost forthwith, and the grace of prophecy comes on him, and every thing is manifested to him that was to be to (¢.e. befall) him thereafter, and his and Mac Con’s parting out of the battle that was to be fought (?) by him. It is this that some relate,(2) that it is on the next day he went to give the battle of Mucrama when he went the journey (3) to the house of Ole Acha the smith when he made a union with Etain (4) when Cormac was begotten. And he chose his interment [to be] in this place by reason of the Faith that was to be thereafter. And it is on the track of (7.e. following up) this vision he sang these verses and [by way of] foretelling the Faith. 2. Pleasant for Denna Den the mound he has reached Over Brega, the place of songs of Derg-luachair without coldness. 3. They shall not be? truly-heroic (5) till they sleep here, They will go to the language from Rome that protects as a bush. 4. Dwelling of sages with creed (?), acquaintance with bright angels, Converse of sweet bells in the time of the Tailcend-tribes. 5. Trevit, a trio of sods, from the three sods of the king, (6) When all else shall be little, then shall their power be great. e Perhaps aithne should read aittreb, as in the modern version. I have rendered it as if for wichne. f Read clocdin, as in modern version, or else mbind. 1 Vit, that. * Or, ‘thou shalt not be.’ 534 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 6. Basé mar ar this ic Dia digrais gail basa bec biaid air basa mar iartain. 7. Nothogfaind mo chlfu* ma tir uarda band for nim iar mbrath glond don drong con bia and. 8. Ge fiadig fa huir as fir is ni gO la lath aingel ngel dobérthar nem do. 9. Badat ail cach cliain niptar dir na oiss imma duma dess hi tairndfet® do chrois. 10. Ddanatarsind talcind ropad amra in brig* a Dé doni in muir a Dé dont in tir. 11. Messi 7 Mace Con din bat budig brain torsi ac mnéib anfar loing* ac mnaib anair. 12. La Lugaid mo lecht(7) concaband‘ mo fhirt dofoéth Eogan mar do léim Beinne Brit. 13. Temair fail cen rig Kogan cen Chlii Mail(8) bruig Banba for lén ni scél crotha cain. Cain d. 14. Mo duma’ mo din iar scarad ram shludg mo phort idan 4n m’ ilad 7 m’uag. 15. Gid ébind bith sund oc seilg ar cach fiad aébni in maith iar cind ocond flaith find fial. 16. Mo labra ni lim acht fris in flaith find atchither nf cam ra rig richid rind. ile Ticfa in tailcend tend cona muintir maith romnigfea domm ucht ar in phurt in flaith. 2 Gloss, .i. mo chorp, my body. > From dofoirndin. ¢ Cf. ‘is uasal in brig,’’ Regla Mochuta. 4 Gloss, .1. dugaid. © Read /oingst as in modern version, and to rhyme to Zors?. Mac Neititu— Three Poems in Middle-Irish. 535 . Thou shalt be great at first before God excellent in power. Thou shalt be little, there shall be a time,’ thou shalt be great thereatter.* . I should choose my body [to be] under earth, chill its death (?) In heaven, after judgment of deeds for the multitude, that it may be there. Though it decay under earth, it is true and not false, By the power of bright angels, heaven shall be given to it. 9. Every meadow will be pleasing to thee; the deer have not been allowed Around its mound on the south, on which they will plant thy cross. 10. IfI should come to them, the Talcends, glorious would be the import, O God who makest the sea, O God who makest the land ! 11. I and Mac Con, from us ravens will be sated, [there will be | journeys by women from the west, voyages by women from the east. 12. By Lugaid my tomb, (7) he builds here my sepulchre, Eogan Mar will fall by the hand of Beinne Brit.® 13. Tara of Fal without king, Eogan without Cliu Mael, (8) Banba’s lands in grief, it is not a tale of pleasant shape. 14. My mound, my protection, after parting with my army, My pure bright haven, my tomb, and my grave. 15. Though it is sweet to be here hunting for every game, Sweeter the good hereafter with the bright noble Prince. 16. My speech, it is not to me but to the bright Prince, It seems, it is not crooked to the King of heaven of stars.‘ 17. The strong Tailcend will come with his good household ; He will cleanse me to my breast on the spot, the prince. f Read congab and? & Gloss, .1. duma ndergluachra. 1 At a future time. Cf. the modern ‘do bhios i gCorcaigh ¢¢ bliadhain 6 shoin,’ I was in Cork a year ago; and cf. French il y a. 2 Perhaps da-sa = it (their power) shall be; sa emphatic. 3 A British ally of Mac Con, see MS. Mat. p. 43. 4 riched rindmas, Fel. ; rindnem, ib. May 29 ; ri na rind, SnaR, 7424. 536 18. 19: 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Faicfid acom sund* nech da tic mo din (9) bid méti bas trén mo scél hi tig rig. Ic digail ar ened misi 7 mo naém bid mé in tere mor is ma thene? ram thdeb. Maire écén dom sfl asa hole don-ria digéltar co prapp mairg a macc sa ta. Mairg rig co brath brecht gébas eill mo ndim do Themraig in trir(10) atchid ni ba céin. Cain d. Ri Temrach in trir gen Erind na laim co brath ni ba ri no co ti nar ndail. Trosced tréde sund a thol féin rosbia messi leiss com n&em a thol féin rosbia. Mo thonach co tric a tiprait in trir(11) mo chorpan glan gludir isin cnocén cain. C.d. Is mé Art a Dé cen mo macc hi eri is saeth lem in bith cen ith(12) no co ti Bid less d’ Erind tiair da farcbur in main dom echtra hi tech n-Uile rfa crad mo chuirp chain. Cain d. Biaid com fholuch 4n iar tonuch mo thaéeb én co nertaib nual dar dercaib sliag saer® Atlochur dem rig ria tochur ma naém bith dom churp co sdim isin phurt chaid chain. Cain d. Ar co fuin dom rig ferr miin na cach main mo chorp uag i n-udéig cona chloich ch jruaid chain. Cain d. 4 Gloss, .i. i tredit .i. Jonan treoti, in Trevit, Lonan of Trevit. ’ > b] > Gloss, .i. donan. © Gloss, .i. wsce dar suilib saer-cland ocom chainiud, water (= tears) through the eyes of free families bewailing me. But cf. B9. 18. 19. 20. Alle 22. 23. 24, 265. 26. Be 28. 29. Mac Newu— Zhree Poems in Middle-Irish. Dov He will leave with me here one from whom my protection comes ; (9) It will be the more [on that account] that my story will be great in a house of kings. In avenging our wounds, I and my saint, I shall be the great burden,! and my fire by my side. Woe to the youth of my seed who out of evil? will come to us; He shall be punished forthwith, woe to his son and his grandson. Woe to the king till splendid doom who will take an advan- tage of my saint ; ; To Tara of the three, (10) ye see, it will not be pleasant. The king of Tara of the three without Ireland in his hand Till doom he shall not be king until he comes to us. Let him fast three days here, his own will he shall have, I with him, and my saint, his own will he shall have. [ Let ] my washing* [ be done | speedily from the well of the three, | Let | my clean bright body [be] in the pleasant hillock.(11) Iam Art, O God, having no son in the body ; I pity the world without corn till he comes. (12) It will be an advantage to Ireland at a time if I leave the treasure From my journey to Olce’s house before the agony of my pleasant body. There will be burying me splendidly after the washing of my sides A bird with strong cries out of sight of free hosts. I thank my King [that] before meeting my saint My body [is] to be at ease in the pure pleasant place. For till the ending of my King, better filth than any wealth, My perfect body in the grave, with its hard fair stone. 1 eive also = primas. 2 Or, ‘whose evil.’ Cf. isa libair = cujus libri, Todd v., p. 10; a Brigit isa tir atchiu, ‘O B. whose land I see,’ LL. 498. 3 From donigim (cf. 17). Modern tonachadh, the ‘laying out’ of a corpse for burial, Gaelic Journal, No. 55, p. 110. 538 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 30. Luagni(13) cen recht rim cen dola ar fecht lem badé luag ail* trom con-soich bond is chend. 81. Da trichait marc min cen tart do cech taib concert-sa in da sreith cen chleith ni b4 chain. CA4in d. 32. Tiag-sa for cath cdi mor bas bath dom ré. ar cach 1a itt i erf nad sechna tol Dé.° 33. Bas lir(14) fidbad fér fir fuigset mo dind sliag Dé do nim nél co n-etib én find 34. Beth rombéra dréeth mochen amlaid éc¢ mese im 14 m4 rith cid ba bith is bréc 35. Ni nf in-Erind 4in risi tabraim théeb(15) ingi* Athar Mace 7 Spirut Naem. 36. Biafd dom thrucha trém uch uch is manuar na bretha co saeb(16) na hetha na suan. 87. Mo thasi for coi bad masi la Dia a uaig dil fo di moch in ri corria 38. Basa chell mo dind bad lem Erend {ath bruig Temra na tuath contuil fedna fiach 89. Consoifi cruth enéim uds lit mind cach main la hor betha budéin bad buaid cetha c4in. CAain d. 40. Lecht mace Cuind atchfd co tuind dar a thaib for bri in locha lain ni scél crotha cain. Cain do. 4 Gloss, .1. cloch, a stone. b Gloss, .i. ech, of horses. ¢ Read toil nDé? Cf. stanza 10,i. 4 Gloss, .i. acht, but. e Read wasliw? Cf. stanza 29. 1 Cf. B3; 2. 2 Or, ‘on a battle of lamentation.’ ‘Allis vanity.’ Cf. LL. 498, is brée wile iarna thur. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Mac Netttr— Three Poems in Middle-Irish. 539 The Luagni(13) without rule by me, not going on expedition with me, Their reward will be a heavy stone, which reaches sole and head.! Two thirties of smooth steeds without thirst on each side, I have arranged the two ranks; without concealment it will not be pleasant. I go on a path of battles,*? great will be the end to my life ; On every day that I am in the body, may I not shun God’s will. More numerous (14) than the grass of the wood will be the men who have sought my stronghold— God’s army from heaven of clouds with wings of white birds. [It is] life that will make me foolish; welcome therefore death ! I in my day in [full] career, though it be life, it is falsehood.* It is not anything in splendid Ireland that I rely on, (15) But Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. There will be rending me through,—uch, uch! it is woful— The false judgments(16) that go not into their slumber. My remains being lamented will be pleasing to God ; O grave twice dear, soon may the King come ! Thou hast been, O cell, my stronghold. Iveland’s country has been mine, The lands of Tara of the tribes...... Bone shall change form; a relic is nobler than all treasure ; At the end of the lasting world, it shall be the victory of a pleasant shower.* The tomb of Conn’s son ye see, with a wave along its side, On the bank of the full lake ; it is not a tale of pleasant form. Pleasant for. 4 Or, ‘a surpassingly beautiful shower,’ referring perhaps to the battle. Cp. such expressions as fras faebar, and see Glossary, s. v. frais. Also cf. buaid crotha, ‘surpassing beauty,’ buaid laech 7 elérech, principes et sacerdotes digni, Todd Lect. v. p. 24, 3. A comparison may be intended between or betha buain, 39, and bru locha lain, 40. 540 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. B. AILIZLE ULOM CC. 1466.) Pl Beir mo sefath, sceo fri tiath, breo fri bruach bruichnech bedg, cor-raib ar cliu Chormavce Cais, fornairt fri frais flanruad ferg. © 2. Fid focoidled comfhuaim negliaid,* gualaire laich ludite frais ; smerdnide smir guala guirm buale thiug tuirn tulcid ass. 3. Adlaichda a ascin ri fraig, congaib 6m fhodbrond com 6; diambéi Ci Rui na nirt niad, ropad sciath dingbala dé. 4, Ditnid tri chéicir i cath chro-derg aclach cailgg fria fraicc ; talla muce messa a caill chéir, is dlaind dir lenas dia slaitt.(17) 5. Is lamaire laich il-lurg, co ngés badb dia burd(18) dia blai; ri hadart tend tricc, mad truit, ni gabat greim grip guip gai. 6. Mo gai mo chlaideb mo scfath ar cech n-4i ni fiach fir thaiss ni duthracht fir maith-laim meirb dom sheilb for seilb(19) Cormazce Cais. 7. Ro-choise cumu mo chliathaig ni iarfaig Kogan mo chré(20) fer détla cass claidib glaiss bid lais cen co duthras dd. 8. Mo da derg-shleig mo chlaideb mo sciath fo [sciath fo] sceo ewmale ; m’ ech mo charpat mo chath-barr mo gath-land in n-umaide. a Read glad. > Doubtless repeated through the carelessness of the scribe. Mac Neitup— Zhree Poems in Middle-Irish. 541 B. AILILL OLOM CE£CLNIT. Take my shield, thorn (?) against thorn,’ flame against seething bank of rapid movements, till it be on the left of Cormac Cas, strong in the blood-red strife of heroes (?) Wood that used to silence (?) the sound of battle, shield-arm of heroes who work prowess ;? pointed one of marrow, shoulder of blue, a dense ring of thunder breaks forth from it. Hero-like its aspect on a wall, it stretches from my heel to my ear; if Cu Rui were in his hero’s strength, it would be a shield worthy of him. It shelters three fives (of men) in the gore-red battle of warriors, point against shield; a pig devours the fruit of its goodly hazel, it is a plate (?) of gold that clings to its rod.(17) It is the hand-arm of a hero on the track, and a raven cries from its border, (18) from its breast ; on its strong active face, though rapid,’ the quick beaks of spears do not take a hold. My spear, my sword, my shield, to none of them has a spiritless man a claim; they are not the desire of a tender-handed weakly man, [they are (?)] for my possession above the possession(19) of Cormac Cas. . Grief has checked my prowess (?); Hogan does not seek my tent ;(20) a bold ringletted man of green sword, he shall have, though it has not been wished for him. My two red spears, my sword, my shield Be? os akg aes my horse, my chariot, my helmet, my lance-blade, the Brazen. 1 Or, strife against hatred (?) Sceo .i. cangin, ‘MS. Mat.’ p. 481. 2 Or, who speed the shower (of spears). 3 Or, if it be combat, 7.e. when there is combat. 542 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. 9. Uch mo chride is cirbbide m’ fheoil da feche issi om ; is seinm cruitte dar a hamarc(21) sid a charat ri Macc Con. 10. Cluiche tond trethnach. bethir bethrach breo co neim jarthar mna iarthar maire mais gop con gop gai glais fomgeir toeb do thabairt riu is dar timna issé tigba inti dobeir. (22) 11. Dobiur-sa innamail coir tungim noil fom arm dric dron (22) connach coru dia charait toeb do thabairt ri Macc Con. 12. Mace Con mace laechda Lugaid is ar phudair is d’éitchi ; orm-sa imroét ulairt imrubairt ar mo shéitchi. 13. Mo shecht mazece ro-s-marb Mace Con issé a ngol nglechrach ngarg Dubmercon Mug Corp Eogan Lugaid Echaid Dichorp Tade. 14, Temair isathan* cen Art imrualaid bratt dar gréin ro-tharngirset na druide do-s-ficfad tige do chéin. 15. Concicher Cass cluiche maith dofaesat leis laich don leirg acht mad Macc Con 7 Cairpre ni fhuil ar na fairpre a fheirg. 16. Athnascfid Cass coma ngiall bid lais riam,—rad co faide,— 6 inbiur Atha Cliath cruind co Tech nDuind iar nHéirzmd aird. Nie Apair ri Cass cunged smacht noco gnath gart cen sherbe nucu maith ri ac na bit géill noco maith géill cen geimle. 4 Read uchadn, alas; cf. is manuar, A 36. 9. 10. ile 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Mac Ne1tup—Three Poems in Middle-Irish. 543 Uch! my heart is torn, my flesh boiling and yet raw; it is the playing of a harp out of sight,(21) the peace of his friend with Mac Con. Playing of sea-waves, bear of bears, flame with venom, back of woman, rear of beautiful steed, hound’s mouth, green spear’s mouth in my flesh—to place dependence on them, it is contrary to precept, it is the end of him who does so. (22) I give a just similitude; I swear an oath by my fierce strong weapon, (22) that it is not juster for his friend to place dependence on Mac Con. Mac Con, a valiant youth, Lugaid, it is for evil and from spite he had his way with me (?), he practised on my wife. My seven sons, Mac Con slew them, he is (the cause of) their vehement wild bewailing, Dubmercon, Mug Corp, Eogan, Lugaid, Kchaid, Dichorp, Tadg. Tara, alas! (?) without Art; a cloak has passed across the sun; the druids prophesied, a stranger should come to her (Tara) from afar. Cass will arrange good pastime ; warriors will fall by him from (= on) the field; except Mac Con and Cairpre, there is none on whom he wiil not increase his anger. Cass will bind a treaty of hostages, it will be his always,—a . saying (?)—from the estuary of round Ath Cliath to Donn’s House in the west of high Ireland. Say to Cass, let him demand sway; sourness without bitter- ness is not usual; the king is not well who has not hostages, hostages are not well without fetters. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 20 544 18. IW) 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Is gat fas flaith cen giallu ni laech meni trialla treéir nocon-ed chobras na tire naidm na rige ar cind in meoir. Is mairg ances a bidbaid in n-inbaid dochora illén ni hi in chomairle mada iss-ed rodoscara in scél. Tanic Art chuchum d’iasacht mo shecht mace da ternad Kogan ar sét barfhaelsaind éc mo shé mace. Mairg téit ar iasacht i cath i scor anma imod ro-mert-sa dar és mo neirt aithle mo meic is Meic Con. Romthacht-sa cuma Eogain dochuaid ar ciabair* mo chiall orom fadéin ro-thrascrus nachocwm fadéin” ro-thascius cian. Ba @orbba claidib ocut atchluinfet Scuit sceoil a airm nocho bia maith ar détin bad Cass ar écin a ainm. Ar-dom-rulla-sa mo bith atchiu is dom rith dom-raifes dom-ni drfamail cacha tias in cdi chias mo laéiches. Secret rorinn enet nach cinid® sceo fri niad doi fri d6i fenfaid broi beir mo sciath. 4 Read ceobair in assonance with Hogain ? > Omit fadéin. © Read cind to rhyme with rinn. Mac Nettr— Three Poems in Middle-Irish. 545 18. . etha, A 36, na hetha, ‘which go not.’ See ethaim, W. bar-fhaelsaind, B 30, ‘I should rejoice at, welcome’: sec. fut. of forfaelim. Cf. forbdelid, forbdelte, forbailtech, W.; [f lorfadiltius, CRnaR. faide, B 16, in cheville; sad co faide, ‘a... saying.’ fairend, A 1, ‘a section, certain persons’; ”s., with plural verb. fairpre, B15, ‘he wil! increase’ (active); depend. fut. of forbiur, as tibre of dobiur. feche, ds., B 9, ‘act of boiling’; jichim, ‘ich koche,’ W.; mod. jiuchadh. fenfaid, B 25, read fendfaid, ‘will flay’ (?). But fen. .i. fom, O’ Dav. fiadig, A 8, = feodaig, ‘ withers, decays’ (?); conjunet. pres. 3s. of feodaigim. For vowel change, cf. feochuine = fiaich, W.; gleo, gen. gliad, ceo, ciach, &c. Or = ‘ turns to earth, moulders,’ jiad .i. ferann, O’C1. flanruad, B 1, ‘blood-red’ (?), read fri frais flandruaidh ferg, ‘against blood-red strife of heroes’ (?). But cf. flandruad ferci, Sergl. Con. 38; gusfland Jerce, M‘Datho, 15. fornairt, B 1, gs. or adj., ‘of great power, powerful.’ Cf. nirt, C 15. forscailtech, nsm., C17, ‘liberal, generous’ (?). Cf. eroslae, Atk.; fosgaltach, ‘open-handed,’ O’R.; ‘As osguilteach failteach an dit sin Eire,’ ‘Munster Poets,’ 2nd ed., p. 48. Followed here by genitive. fraic, as., B 4, ‘shield’; ‘ceithre hanmonna ar sceith gan fheall, fraic, cobhra, failte, Jimneail,’ ‘ Forus Focal,’ quoted under frag, fraic, O'R. frais, as., ds. B1, 2; C15, ‘a shower,’ connected with feraim, ‘I pour’; hence the secondary meanings ‘ hospitality,’ O’R. (Cf. feraid for n-aigidacht, feraid failti, W.), ‘ valour, prowess, fight’ (?) ; (ferait mor-gled, ita in cath oc a ferthain,’ W.). fuigset, A 33, seems an S-fut., ‘they will seek’ (?); mani digsid, ‘unless they (ye?) come,’ Wind. ‘Gram,’ § 286. Cf. tarma-foich, ni iarfaig Eogan mo chré, B 7. fuin, A 29, co fuin, ‘to the end’ ; fin, ‘astop, the end of a thing,’ O’R.; per- haps better, ‘till it ends, till there is an end,’ conjunct. pres. 3s. of Suinim .i. ertochnaighim no sguirim, O’Cl., used with do, see Atk. Suinim. Fuiniud, ‘sunset’; modern go faoin, ‘till nightfall.’ gart, ns., B17, ‘acidity, sourness’ (?); hence goirt, ‘sour’ ; goirtius, ‘ bitterness,’ Atk. geir, ds., B 10, ¢ flesh,’ lit. ¢ suet.’ gentair, C 32, ‘will be born, will spring up’; here clearly fut. depon. 3 p., but the form is that of the perf., the fut. stem being gign- or genf-. gillchaide, C 38. glinne, C 39, ‘security,’ ar glinne, ‘ secure, fast.’ £0, C29, = gau ap. of ga, ‘ javelin.’ Mac Neitt—TZhree Poems in Middle-Irish. 561 gran, C 32, ‘corn, grain’: pl., inna grin, W. grip-, B 5, ‘swift,’ O’R., W. gualaire, 7s., B 2, ‘a shoulder-arm’ (?). Cf. /dmaire, B5. This is an inorganic formation, from the om. instead of from the stem. iarsna, s., C 46, ‘end, last part,’ perhaps ‘consequence,’ ‘moral (of a tale).’ Cf. iarsma, ‘relic, remnant,’ O’R. ; ainiarsma, * evil consequence,’ ‘ Three Shafts of Death.’ ilad, A 14, ‘ grave, = wlad. im-ro-et, B12, ‘he obtained’ (?) pret. 3s. of im-emaim, -imim. im-ru-alaid, B 14, ‘has surrounded, enveloped’; (?) conidrualaid, ‘ quod id conces- sit, Z?, 456>; immelotar, ‘ circumvenerunt,’ 457>. imscar, A 1, a imscar 7 Meicce Con asin chath, ‘the outcome of the battle for him and M.’ (?). innamail, B11, ‘similitude, comparison’; ionamhuil, ‘an equal’; ni ffuil ion- amhuil Serlus, ‘there is not the like of Charles,’ O’R. hir, as., C 31, ‘anger’ (=ira?); see W. under 77, érach. lamaire, vs., B 5, ‘a hand-arm; cf. gualaire, B2. léitmech, C 33, ‘powerful’: /éidmheach, ‘ strong, robust, brave,’ O’R., CRnaR., p. 257. do-s-lofa, C1, = do-s-lobfa, ‘ will destroy itself.’ lose, C 26, ‘ blind, infirm (= Juseus).’ losfait, C 32, ‘they will increase, multiply’ ; Jos, ‘a growing or growth,’ O’R. ; ‘increase’ (= ‘ produce of live stock’), O’Don. Sup. ludite, B2, ‘who move, act’ (?), luud, lid, lith, * motion.’ mada, sf., B19, ‘vain, sine causa’ (W). ro-mert-sa, B21, Z-pret. 1s. of maraim, mairim, ‘I live.’ mochin, A 37, = mochen, ‘welcome’ (?), or from cinim, ‘may he soon arise’ (?). mod, as., B 21, .i. obair, O’Cl. mitin, vs., A 29, ‘mire, filth’ (?). Cf. meinleach, miilleach, munlach, ‘ mire’ ; poll miunlaigh, ‘cesspool, dungpit of Irish farmhouses’; mn, ‘ urine.’ naidm, B18, ‘bond, tie, rein’; only the figurative sense, ‘ covenant,’ &c., found in various vocabularies. nirt, C 15, ‘strong.’ Ifthis be gen. of wert, not an adj., the use as predicate is unusual. noil, as., B11, ‘an oath,’ O’Don. Sup. (queried by W.). oiss, np., A 9, ‘deer.’ orbba, xs., B 23, ‘inheritance’; ore, W. Cf. comarpe. pudair, ds., B12, ‘mischief’ (masc. in Atk.). ZP2 562 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. dom-raifes, ‘that it will send, carry me(?). Cf. torramh, ‘pilgrimage’ ; foraim, ‘journey,’ O’R.; rdim, immrdaim, W. rail, ns., C 27, ‘ oak-tree’; rail, O'R. ; rail, gen., rdlach: amail rail no ibir, ‘ B. Fenagh,’ O’Don. Sup., i dhiodh achd aon dheare ar an rdlaidh (read ralaig) O’R.; np., railge, CRnaR.; rhymes with fair, therefore rail not rail. rec, C 40, ‘sale, barter’; ar vec, ‘in recompense.’ réli, ds., C17, ‘ brightness.’ rian, gp., C 37, ‘sea.’ richid, gs., A 16, ‘ heaven.’ ro-rinn, B 25, ‘ pierced,’ from rindaim:(?). romra, acc. dual., C 37, ‘tide, billow,’ .i. ro-mara, O’Cl., O’Don. Sup. The modern word for ‘spring-tide’ is ramharta. do-n-rua, A 20, ‘who will come to us (?), is demin donrua, Mann. and Cust. iii. 426; fut. 3s. of doroichim; = do-rd, W. ardom-rulla-sa, B 24, ‘has left, abandoned me’ (?). Cf. atrulla, evasit, W.; imroll, error. ro-do-seara, B19, conjunct. pres. 3s. (?) of (do-)scaraim, issed rodoscara in scél, * it is this that gives rise to the tale (?); searaim, ‘I separate, open, unfold,’ O’R. sceo, B 1, 8, 25 [‘abundance,’ O’R., .i. métaigh, ‘increase,’ O’Don. Sup.’ ; but cf. wath .i. sce, W.; sceo .i. cangin, MS. Mat. p. 481]. ic selga, Al, = 0c seilg, A 15, ‘hunting.’ sliss, C 30, cuibrend co sliss, ‘a share with a slice (added) (?) ; or ‘a share to the side or edge’; i.e. ‘a full share.’ smerdnide, B 2, ‘pointed, the pointed one’ (?); smeirne, ‘spit, brooch, pin’; smeorne, * point of a dart,’ O'R. Cf. inn wnaide, B 8. ro-snass, C 38, ‘was bound’; pret. pass. of snaidim. Cf. claidim, ro-class. soé, A 4, perhaps for gen. pl. swad, ‘of sages.’ ro-thairce, C 29, ‘won, obtained’ (?); do-airei, ‘ efficit’ ; tairced, ‘paret’; oc tairc- iud raith, ‘in efficienda gratia.’ See W. and Atk. under taircim. thaiss, gsm., B 6, ‘cowardly,’ O’R.; commonly ‘moist, soft.’ talla, B 4, ‘eats (from the tree)’ (?); tallaim, ‘I cut off, lop, rob,’ O’R. tarras, C 42, ‘ was arrested, overtaken.’ tecaib, C 9, ‘meets, comes against,’ = tecaim, conjunct. pres. 3s. of tecmaim (mod. teagmhaim): tecmaing, ‘accidit,’ Wb. 9%. See Atk. under tecmat. Perhaps, however, a compound of gabaim. tias, B 24, rel. pres. of tiat or teit (?); cacha tias, ‘everything that comes, happens’ (?). tigba, B10, ‘end, .i. cach dédinach,’ (W.) Mac Ne1tt—TZhree Poems in Middle-Irish. 563 timthirecht, A 1, ‘ going to and fro’; timthirecht bech il-l6 anli, W. tind, ds., C 6, ‘ pain, travail’; tenn .i. ledradh, O’ Dav. tochur, A 28, ‘meeting.’ See do-chora. todiuir, C 25, ‘miserable,’ Stokes (Wind.). toeb, C 43, tucus ri toeb, ‘I left it to the decision of’ (?). toich, (1), C 3, ‘natural, inherent, belonging by right’; (2), C 5, ‘pleasing.’ In Stokes’ Bodl. Corm. Gl. ‘Is gnath-bélra som tra cid indiu la hlar- Mumain maxime, unde dicunt, ‘‘ In fil toich duit?” ‘‘ Fil naire,” ar inti dia n-imcomarcar .i. fil écin’: ‘ ‘Is there anything that is pleasing to thee?’’ ‘* There is indeed,’?’ &c. West Munster is still (cid indiw) the most archaic of Irish-speaking districts. trem, A 36, ‘throughout’ (?). Of. trem- in composition (W.) stands to éré, tria, as riam (rem-) to ré, ria, or iarom (iarma-) to iar; also tar, tairm-, sech, sechma-, co, com-. But perhaps = triwmm, ‘through me.’ trice, C 36, ‘strictly or dexterously’ (?); tric, ‘urgent, dexterous,’ O’R. trucha, A 36, ‘wounding, piercing’ (?); truthaim, ‘I sever,’ &c., O'R. truit, vs., B45, ‘fighting’; mod. ¢troid. Or ‘rapid.’ thubat, C 36, ‘they oppose, or find fault’ (?). tuire, C 35, ‘a lord’; tuir, ‘lord, sovereign, general’; twive, ‘good,’ i.e. maith (= ‘anoble’ (?)), O'R. Cf. aire, ruire. tuleid, B 2, ‘bursts forth’ (?). Cf. tulgadh, ‘breaking’: tole, ‘a wave’; tolg, a breach,’ O’R. ulairt,B 12 (?). O'R. has olart, ‘ahone.? Folortata, ‘sufficiency,’ index Trip. Life. Perhaps we may translate imroet a fhulairt orm-sa = ‘he got all he wanted of me’; a fhulairt = modern a dhothain, a shdith(?). [ 564 ] XXXITTI. THE ORATORY OF GALLERUS. By taz REV. THOMAS OLDEN, B.A. [Read Aprit 22, 1895.] Tue group of buildings at Kilmalkedar in the extreme south-west of Kerry has attracted a good deal of attention since Dr. Petrie brought them into notice in his Essay on the ‘‘ Origin and History of the Round Towers of Ireland.’ The earliest and most curious of them are the Oratories of Gallerus and Kilmalkedar. The naming of one of these buildings after Melkedar, and the subsequent dedi- cation to him of the late Hiberno-Romanesque Church of Kilmal- kedar seem to designate him as the first preacher of Christianity in that district. The ruins which have been vested in the Commissioners of Public Works under the Irish Church Act, 1869, section 25, have been noticed by Lord Dunraven in his work on Irish Architecture, and lately described by Mr. Romilly Allen, in the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (vol. ii., 5th ser., p. 158 and p- 261, 1892), but no light has yet been thrown on their history. I propose now to offer some observations on the subject, especially as regards the history of Melkedar and the origin of the name of Gallerus. The only historical notice of the place appears to be that in “‘The Martyrology of Donegal” which refers to the medieval church there. It is very brief; but, by following up the clue there given, it seems possible to ascertain something of the history of Melkedar. The passage is as follows :—‘‘ Moelcethair, son of Rondn, son of the King of Uladh of Cill Melchedair, near the shore of the sea to the west of Brandon Hill. He was of the race of Fiatach Finn, Monarch of Erin.” From this we learn that he belonged to the important tribe of the Dal Fiatach of Ulster, who were intermingled with the Clanna Rudraige and enjoyed the sovereign power in Uladh at this time. His OLtpEn— The Oratory of Gallerus. 565 pedigree is given in the Book of Leinster and the Lebar Brecc as follows :— Melkedar | Ronan | Eochaidh | Muirdach Muinderg, King of Uladh, a.p. 479. From it we find that the king referred to in the passage quoted was Eochaidh, who, according to the Four Masters, died in 503. Now, if we allow thirty years for a generation, Ronan; his son, would have died about 588, and Melkedar in 563. Melkedar flourished, therefore, about the early part of the sixth century, and died probably a century after St. Patrick. If I am right in these observations Dr. Petrie would seem to have antedated the building of the oratories by nearly a century, as he thought they belonged to a period earlier than 482. Others have erred in the opposite direction by assigning Melkedar to the seventh century, misled apparently by the date (636) which stands above his name in the ‘‘Martyrology of Donegal’’; but this date belongs not to him but to Mochuda, the subject of the preceding entry. The name Melkedar is unique, no other having borne it, and its meaning of “‘ servant or follower of Kedar ”’ does not follow the analogy of such names, as the second member is usually the name of a saint, but there is no saint of the name of Kedar. Turning, however, to the Book of Leinster, which is the earliest authority on the subject, we find his name spelt Moel-Celtair (facsimile p. 349), which is therefore the primitive form. Now, the King of Uladh, in pagan times, resided in the great fortress of Down, originally named Aras Celtchair, from the pre-historic hero Celtchar, son of Uithecar, and subsequently known as Dun-leth-glaise, afterwards Dun-da-leth-glas, on which I shall make some remarks presently, and now termed Downpatrick. I do not think it can be considered a far-fetched derivation if I in- terpret Moel Celtair as the follower of this Celtchar. The only objection I see to it is that it assumes a Christian saint to have been named after a pagan warrior. It must be remembered, how- ever, that his name was chosen by his parents, and we know that his father, Ronan, was brought up under pagan auspices. Ronan’s father, Eochaidh, was a violent opponent of Christianity ; and it is stated, in the ‘‘ Tripartite Life of St. Patrick,” that he ordered two girls to be tied to 566 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. stakes on the sea-shore and drowned for refusing to abjure Christianity. Brought up under such a parent, Ronan would naturally have been imbued with admiration for the great pagan chieftain of his race, and would call his son after him. But in Melkedar’s youth, at the beginning of the sixth century, Christianity was general in Uladh, and Melkedar came under its influence, and, as the event proved, became desirous of devoting himself to the missionary life. Students from the North of Ireland, it is well known, usually resorted for education and ecclesiastical training to the school of Candida Casa in Galloway, founded by St. Ninian, and known as the ‘“‘ Great Monastery.”” Those from the South of Ireland found St. David’s more convenient. We may assume then that Melkedar was educated at Candida Casa, and, going forth like others to seek a sphere of labour, selected this remote corner of Kerry, and set to work to introduce Christianity there. The numerous pagan remains, such as bee-hive houses and forts, seem to show that the place then had a considerable population. The erection of these little oratories would be the outward evidence of the coming of the new faith, and, assuming that they date from the beginning of his labours, they would belong to the early part of the sixth century. One of them bears the name of the saint ; the other is known as Gallerus, the meaning of which we have now to inquire. The first syllable is locally pronounced as in ‘‘ Gallic”; and this being so, the name is obviously Geal-arus—The White House. The “a’’ in ‘arus’ is given as unaccented by Windisch and Stokes, and therefore the proposed derivation corresponds with the pronunciation. But it will naturally be asked why it received this name. In reply to this I will ask you to return with me for a moment to Candida Casa, ‘‘ the White House,’ where I assume Melkedar to have been educated. It is often thought that this name was given to St. Ninian’s Monastery because it was built of white stone, and even Dr. Todd, in his notes to the Liber Hymnorum, fell into this error, though Ussher long ago corrected it. | But Bede, who is referred to, only says it was ‘built of stone,” which was unusual, as British buildings of that age were usually of wattles. The name Candida Casa has therefore nothing to do with the colour of the stone. It is in fact merely a translation into Latin of the British Gwyn-dy ‘‘ White House,” a common name for a church in these regions in early times, of which whitherne (hwit-zrn) is the Anglo-Saxon translation. Instances of it are numerous. Such are a Gwyn-dy in Anglesea, another near Caldecot in Monmouthshire, Gundy or Gwyndy, Teilo at Llandaff, and Ty Gwyn which stood on the site where the Album Monasterum in OtvEN—The Oratory of Gallerus. 567 Carmarthenshire was afterwards founded, and many others. It is evident that the term ‘ white,’ thus applied, had a moral significance and in fact it is commonly employed in Wales in the sense of ‘ holy’ at the present day. It bore the same meaning in Ireland, though this has not been always recognized. In the Brehon Laws the Scriptures are termed “‘the white language of beatitude.’”’ But the most remarkable examples of the usage are those in which it is given as a designation to eminent ecclesiastics. Fifty-six names in the ‘‘ Martyrology of Donegal”’ contain some form of the word finn, white. Of these there are fourteen Finn Barrs, or as the name is sometimes inverted Barr-[{f ]inns, from which comes the Latin form Barrindus or Barrin- thus. Now Finn Barr is not properly a name, but rather a designa- tion, as all those so called have their own names also. The case of St. Finn Barr of Cork illustrates this. According to his life: ‘‘ When he was tonsured an elder said, fair is the hair of that servant of God.” Another elder replied: ‘‘ Thou hast well said, for his name is changed, and he shall be termed Finn Barr, but he shall not be so spoken of but as Barra.” This distinction is observed at the present day, and the Cork people always speak of him as Barra or Barré, while in ecclesiastical language he is Finn Barr. The legendary explanation of the name given in the life is an instance of the habit of taking figurative language literally, so frequent in the ecclesiastical literature of the Middle Ages. The real meaning of Finn Barr is ‘ holy chief,’ or in Latin ‘ sanctus presul.’ It would be a singular fact if all the saints into whose name the word finn enters had white hair! Such being the early usage as to the word ‘ white,’ what could be more natural than that Melkedar should call his oratory, after the place of his education, ‘The White House.’ It may be objected to the derivation I propose that the primitive word arus is not usually applied to Christian buildings, the term most generally used being tech, a loan word from the Latin. Re aesin 1 tanto; in which #, denotes the value of a revolution of the H-screw, Iti ee 54 * V-screw, Aa ,, the difference in R.A. of the two stars, AON +55 » in declination of the two stars, and H, V, the corresponding measures expressed in revolutions of the Screws. 572 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Determining the values of &, and &,; by measures of the second comparison star, for which Aa and Ad are known, we deduce the values of Aa’ and Aé’—the differences in R.A., and declination of the comet from the central star—by substituting them in the same formule. We thus find that the differences in R.A. and declination between the comet and BD + 7°, 4886, are, respectively, on the first plate + 225-1 and + 10’ 20”; and on the second plate, which was taken three-quarters of an hour later, + 19° 4 and + 9’ 56”. We have next to find the position of the comparison star on the night in question. This star was observed by Bessel in his Koenigsberg zones, and is No. 209 of 22 in Weisse’s ‘‘ Positiones Mediz Stellarum Fixarum in Zonis Regiomontanis.”’ Its position for 1825 is there given as 222 23° 1-Sl + 62 53 ol a7. Its mean place for 1894 is therefore 22> 267 29*-09)4 F014 477-7, The corrections necessary to reduce to the apparent place for November 30th are, respectively, + 2°°59 and 18/8, so that we have as the apparent place on that date 2925963 131°668.cria LowGy os Adding the values found above for Aa’ and Aé’, we find the comet’s position— on the first plate, 22265007 oot ee on the second plate, 51-1 3. The middle of the exposures corresponded respectively to 6" 40™ and 7° 25", G.M.T., but no great accuracy was attempted in determining these epochs. It will, accordingly, be best to take the mean of the two, and we find the apparent position of the comet corresponding to 7° 2™:5 G.M.T., November 80th, 1894, to be 22) 26702? -ONeiai Dolor. The corresponding quantities, as found by interpolations from Dr. Backlund’s Ephemeris, published in Wature, November 22, 1894, are 2ONO6= oS Wise) 10D MONDE foe XXXV. ON THE ORIENTATION OF CERTAIN DOLMENS RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN CATALONIA. By J. P. O'REILLY, Professor of Mining, &c., Royal College of Science, Dublin. [Read Aprit 8, 1895.]_ Tue progress of prehistoric research has been, as is well known, very marked during the latter half of this century in Europe generally, but on some parts of the Continent to a much greater extent than in others. Spain, in this particular, has been notably behindhand, although so full of ancient remains of varied and vast extent. Itis, therefore, of interest to note the increase of activity in this branch of study, as shown by the recent works of Spanish authors and scientific bodies. One of the latter, the ‘‘ Real academia de ciencias y artes de Barcelona,” has published, quite lately, a Paper by Don Louis Mariano Vidal, entitled ‘‘ Mas Monumentos megaliticos en Catalufia,’’? which is very interesting from many points of view, and with reference to which I think it worth while to submit some remarks to the Academy. With this object in view, I cannot do better than translate the opening remarks of the author :— ‘Megalithic monuments are found distributed over the territories of the Iberian peninsula with extreme irregularity: in Portugal there exists a great number of tombs composed of large stones usually known as dolmens, and named in that country ‘ Antas.’ But in Spain, with the exception of the district of Andalusia, where many such monuments exist, notably the two crypts of Dilar and Antequera (the latter well preserved) esteemed the finest and most remarkable of Europe, there remain only some isolated dolmens in Estremadura, Galicia, Asturias, &e. In fact Cataluha must be examined before a region be met, showing frequent traces of the remarkable people who built these singular monuments. This region again represents but a very small surface relatively to the great extent of the province, since it is limited entirely to the eastern extremity of the principality, comprising part of the province of Gerona, and a small extent of that of Barcelona. Exceptionally, one is noted as existing in the province 574 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. of Lerida, and as to that of Tarragona, none have been discovered there up to this date (1893). In general terms it may therefore be stated that the known dolmens of Catalufa are to be found grouped in the extreme eastern part of our Pyrenees, the greater number of them lying in the vicinity of Espolla. This limitation of the known megalithic remains to such a relatively small space, must however be understood as merely showing how very little the mountainous part of this broken territory has yet been investigated, since we all remember, how, in the French Pyrenees only a few years ago, very few monuments of this class were known, whilst, at present, we have ascertained the existence of many such, in the country extending between the Gulf of Gascony and Cape Créus. It would indeed seem inexplicable why the people, of whom these constructions are the remains, should have scattered them in great number on the northern slope of the Pyrenean chain, while on the southern only a few should have been left at one of its extremities. ‘‘T have, from these considerations, been impelled to utilize my excursions for the investigations of all such localities, as judging from their names, seemed to indicate the probability of the existence of some example of this class of monument; and at present I have the satisfaction of being able to add 19 dolmens and some menhirs to the total number already known in Catalufia. ‘‘As may be seen from the sketches, all the dolmens, but one, present the same form and the same style of construction; hence, it may be inferred that they are by the one and the same people. ‘In the descriptive notes, I have endeavoured, where possible, to mark the manner of orientation of these monuments. I am quite aware that, although archeologists usually treat this datum as of interest, Nadaillac nevertheless, affirms that, judging from the total evidence available, there does not appear to be any rule having determined the direction of orientation. Although such a conclusion would seem to result from my own observations, I nevertheless mark the direction in each case, since no datum can be considered as useless when treating a question on which the last word has not yet been said.” The author then gives a detailed description of each particular monument, with a sketch, plan, and dimensions; the direction of orientation in each case being referred to the magnetic north, without, however, the equally necessary date of observation and of the amount of declination for the locality. As however it may be assumed that the observations were made before 1892, and probably about that O’Rettty— On the Orientation of Certain Dolmens. 575 date, and as, moreover, the declination for that part of Cataluia may be taken as approximatively the same as that of Foix given in the ‘« Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes,” I have marked out for each case the bearing relatively to true north. Having therefore corrected the data furnished by the author for declination in each case, the following results have been obtained, which show evidence of grouping according to three or four general directions :— Dolmen de Pinafia (p. 5), Termino de Pinafia, prov. de Lerida, N. 58° 30’ W. S. 58° 30’ K. N. 57° W. S. 57° B. N. 56° 30’ W. S. 56° 30’ E. N. 54° 30’ W. La Cabafiade Mosquera (p.8), Termino de Pujol, prov. de Lerida, | Dolmen del Mas Puig (p. 16), Termino de Darnius, prov. de Gerona, Dolmen ‘‘ Llosa de la Jassa”’ (p. 17), Terminode Estrada, prov. de Gerona, S. 54° 30’ E. La Cabafia de Perauba (p. 6), Termino INS ACS WE de Peracals, prov. de Lerida, S. 46° E. | } | | Dolmen de ‘‘ Can Nadal ”’ (p. 19), Ter- | N. 46° W. mino dela Junquera, prov.deGerona | S. 46° E. N. 46° W. S. 46° E. N. 34° 30’ W. S. 34° 30’ E. Noa S. 34° K. N. 36° 30’ W. Dolmen ‘‘ Labarracadel Lladre’’(p.18), Termino de Estrada, prov. de Gerona, La Cabana del Moro (p. 9), Termino de Bescaran, prov. de Lerida, Dolmen del Mas Baleta (p. 20), Termino de Junquera, prov. de Gerona, Dolmen de Quera Famat (p. 20), Ter- minodeCampmany, prov. de Gerona, S. 56° 30’ K. Dolmen de la Vifia Munera(p.18),Ter- ) N. 14° 30’ W. mino deCampmany, prov. de Gerona, S. 14° 30’ E. Practically all the directions are more or less N.W./S.E., the entrances of the dolmens being to the S.E£. Were the drawings of the author completely reliable as regards the direction indicated, the evidence of grouping might be taken as sufficient ; but there being wanting any detail which would enable us to estimate the degree of precision to be attributed to the sketches, it is both advisable and R.I.A. PROC., SER. I1I., VOL. UI. 2Q 576 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. interesting to compare these results with similar data already published. For that purpose, the following extract is taken from Cartaillac’s ‘‘ Monuments primitifs des Baléares,” 1892, p. 38 :— ‘‘Je n’ai point parlé dans la description des édifices, de leur orientation. Il m’a paru bon de reserver ces details et de les grouper. En effet si les directions sont absolument variées il, n’y a aucune observation a présenter, aucune lumiére a recevoir, Si au contraire l’orientation est constante pour chaque catégorie de monu- ments, il y a une explication 4 dégager, un motif a rechercher, et en outre les catégories de monuments sont mieux justifiées.” He then gives a résumé of the monuments examined by him according to the classes in which he has placed them, with the orientations, as follows :— EXXposiITION DE L’ENTREE. Talayots. Edifices en T. Navetas. Cudia Cremada, . Sud. | Binimaymut, . Sud. | Es Tudéns, _ SW. Torre Llafuda, . Sud. | Torre Trecanda, . S.W. | Son Merce, S.S.W. L’ Hostal, . . §.E. | Torre Llafuda, . Sud. | Rafal Rubi, . SW. Son Morell de Baix S.E. | Talatide Dalt, . Sud. | (Autre), . a Sol iYe (Autre), : . S.E. | Son Carla, . S.W. | St Monica, . S Torre nova de Lon- Torred’EnGalmes, 8.W. | Calvia, , Ss. zano, ‘ . Sud. | Torraubade Salort, E. (Autre), . ; S. Trebuco, . . Sud. | Sa Torreta, . S.E. | (Autre), z S. Pou de Torn, 8.8. W. Benigaus Nou, . N.H#. Benietzem, . . Sud. Benicodrell de Da- vant, ; .8.5S.E. Calafi, : . Sud. San Agusti, . asude Algaida, . .9.S.E. Heredat, . .8.8.E. Sa Aguila . . Sud. It will be easily recognised, that of the thirty-two directions indi- cated in these lists, the direction N./S. occurs fifteen times, and more markedly in the case of the Talayots. The two-thirds of the total directions indicated being either S., S.E, 8.S.E. Cartaillac adds, in this respect :— ‘En résumé, la grande majorité de tous ces édifices sont ouverts au Sud. C’est encore la direction de toutes les maisons de campagne ; c’est Vorientation naturelle dans un pays ou régne le mistral vent de N.E. qui souffle en tempéte. O’Re1tty—On the Orientation of Certain Dolmens. 577 ‘¢ T’orientation des monuments n’éclaire pas les questions qu’ils soulevent.” It may be seen that the orientation of the entrances of the Catalunian monuments is also in the main to the S. and 8.E.; and so far there is concordance between them and those mentioned by Cartaillac in this respect. As to the degree of importance to be attached to the matter of orientation and its significance, I do not pretend, in the present Paper, to examine it, since, to doso with any hope of attaining to some tangible conclusion, there should be at hand a very large number of carefully and correctly made measurements, which, so far as T am aware of, is at present wanting. : It may not be out of place to call attention to the local name used in Portugal for the dolmens. The author of the Paper from which I cite, says that they are there known as ‘‘ Antas.’’ Thisis also the name given to them by Cartaillac in his ‘‘ Ages préhistoriques de 1 Espagne et du Portugal.” He cites (p. 147) from the Mémoire of Martinho de Mendonca de Pina on the Antas (1733) as follows :— ‘“¢Le mot Anta ou Antas, au pluriel, comme on a coutume de dire dans la province de Beira, parait propre a Vancienne langue portugaise puisqu’on ne lui trouve de connexion avec aucun mot de la langue qui se parle actuellement chez nous, on de celle qui se parle cher nos voisins. Il entre dans la composition de divers noms de bourgs et de villages existant depuis nombre de siécles, comme Antas de Penalva, Antas de Penadono, et il entre de méme, par suite dans plusieurs noms de famille. ‘‘Mr. Pereira da Costa, en 1868, dans sa ‘ Description de quelques Dolmens ou Antas,’ et Mr. Roulin, en 1869, dans une note lue a Vacadémie des Sciences, ‘ Remarques sur le sens primitif du mot Antas’ ont compulsé la litterature en se fourvayant risiblement au milieu des étymologies. Dans la 6™* Edition du Dictionnaire de la langue portugaise par Moraes on trouve ce mot Antas comme issu du Grec avraw ‘Je chemine’ et avec cette definition, ‘autels anciens distribués dans les routes pour servir comme bornes.’ ‘Trois idées, autant d’ erreurs!” Cartaillac does not give the solution presented by Mr. Roulin in 1869, although his note on the matter is very interesting. Roulin points out that the word, as indicated by Mendonga, is a plural word (antas, not anta) and connects it with the latin ante, a term of architecture which passed into the French as ‘ antes,’’ expiained by the dictionary of the Academy des Beaux Arts as the pillars or quadrangular pilasters which in certain Greek or Roman temples 2Q2 578 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. terminated the lateral walls of the ‘‘ Cella,” and he gives as an example the little temple of Thémis at Rhamnus. Roulin further states that he had presented to the Academy of Sciences, in February, 1829, a Memoir on the Antas of Portugal, and the significations of the word, wherein he showed that more than a century before the voyage of Columbus the words Ante, Anta, Danta, had, in the entire peninsular, the double meaning which, at present, the word Buffe hasin French. That is to say that they were applied to a thick leather prepared in a particular manner, as well also as to the animal, the skin of which was best capable of receiving this mode of treatment. During a very lengthy period there was used, in industry, almost exclusively for this purpose, the hide of a ruminant peculiar to the northern countries, l’Elan (Cervis Alces); but the manufactured pro- duct came from the South in the course of commerce with Germany and the Low Countries, and it is from the name which it bore in the German dialects that has been formed, that which it receives in Spanish and in Portuguese; from the German Elendthier, Ellen, Elendt, or rather the old Dutch Allant, Helandt, there was formed, by separating from the two words, the first syllable (mistaken for an article) Ante or Anta, both still in use, that used in Spain being applied to any sort of leather applicable for equipment purposes. At p. 181 of his work on Spain and Portugal Cartaillac points out the surprising ignorance that seems to reign in Spain as regards the megalithic crypts; he states that in Estremadura they are known as Garitas by the country people, and adds ‘‘that is all they know of them.” Speaking of the term Arca (properly speaking the tombs), he states in a note:—“‘ It is unnecessary to point out the meaning of the words garitas, arcas, as they are synonymous of casa, little house, shelter. Lastly, at p. 186, he givesa very full description of the megalithic tomb of Antequera, of which he says, ‘‘J’arrive au plus célébre des tombeaux mégalithiqués de l’ Espagne certainement 1’ un des plus beaux de toute l’Europe.”” Le nom populaire de cette crypte encore portégée par son vaste tumulus est Ja Cueva de Mengal, on a longuement déserté sur ce nom de mengal sans aboutir 4 aucun resultat. From these citations may not something clear be drawn as to the word Anta, or Antas, or Ante. Ist. That it forms the first half of the name Ante-quera (or Cueva de Mengal) the most celebrated Spanish megalithic tomb existing. 2nd. That in all probability its signification is the same as that O’ Rr1tty—On the Orientation of Certain Dolmens. 579 given to this class of monuments in Spain by the country people, that is garitas or areas, and consequently that it may mean /itile house or shelter. 3rd. That, according to Mendonga, it is not Portuguese, properly speaking, nor does it belong to any of the neighbouring modern languages, and therefore may be attributed to a language still more remote, such as the Celtic. 4th. That inthe name of the other great Megalithic monument cited along with Antequera, z.e. Dilar, the first syllable may be taken as representing the Celtic Zeac or Zig, house, and therefore that the words Anta, Antas, Antequera, and Dilar may all be considered as containing the root Zig, house, or Teac, in one or other form. It may also be noted that a town or locality bearing the name Antas exists in the province of Almeria, towards its 8. Eastern extremity, and would merit examination for these ancient monuments on that account. [ 580 ] XXXVI. QUARTZ, QUARTZ-ROCK, AND QUARTZITE. By GEORGE HENRY KINAHAN. [Read Apri 9, 1894]. Tue classification of these rocks was a difficulty when I began the study of rocks fifty years ago, and, as their classification seems to be still in an unsatisfactory state, it may be allowable to call attention to them, more especially as we are now asked to go back to the theories in vogue many years ago. Quartz, that is the quartz veins, have characters very similar to those of quartz-rocks. Many of them have a lining, so that a hard specimen seems like a sedimentary rock. This is, apparently, due to the fissure, in which one occurs, opening gradually, and to layers being deposited along the walls of the fissure as it opened. This seems to be nearly a certainty, as the films or layers are invariably parallel, or rudely so, to the ‘‘ foot wall”’ of the lode, while they may be oblique to the ‘‘hanging wall.” Some observers have stated that at the two sides of the veins the layers are parallel to the lower and upper walls. This ought to be the case in a lode that filled an open fissure, but in my experience I have not met with an example. The nearest approach was in some of the lodes in the 8. W. Cork district, but even these would, in depth, wedge against the hanging walls. The quartz in some lodes is a regular clastic or fragmentary rock. The reason for this is a puzzle, because if such veins are endogenous, as is generally supposed, such frag- mentary portions are hard to be accounted for, unless, as is possible, during drying and consequent shrinkage, portions of the lode were shivered up, to be subsequently re-cemented by an influx of endo- genous matter.! The writer has tried over and over again to draw a boundary line between quartz, that is vein quartz, and quartz-rock, but has not 1Tn a Paper by T. A. Ricard, Denver, Colorado, Trans. American Inst. Mining Engineers, August, 1893, ‘On the Origin of the Gold-Bearing Quartz of the Bendigo Reefs, Australia,’’ the writer suggests that the clastic portion of the reefs is due to re-construction ; hot springs breaking up parts of the quartz reef, and subsequently re-cementing the materials. KinaHan—Quartz, Quarts-Rock, and Quartzite. 581 succeeded in being able to lay down any law by which one could be distinctly separated from the other. Both are more or less clastic, both have linings like bedding, and both may occur as intrudes or pro- trudes, or between the layers of stratification, the ‘‘ lay and lay”’ of the miner, or as dykes and veins. As far as my knowledge goes Maculloch, the eminent Scotch Petrologist, was a pioneer in separating quartzite from quartz-rock. To my mind Scotchmen ought to be proud of him as the first observer who had any idea of the classification of rocks. On the Continent Cotta and others separated quartz-rock from quartzite, calling the first Greissen. At home Wylie seems to have been the first to sepa- rate quartz-rock from quartzite.! He was subsequently followed by John Kelly and Jukes, and after that by myself. I was led to my con- clusions by the study during some twenty years of the silicious rocks in different places in Leinster, Munster, and Connaught. In a recent most interesting and learned Paper by Professor Sollas the old theory as to the origin of the quartz-rock has been again put forward, that is, that they are only altered or silicified ordinary sandstones and grits. But in support of his statement he has not mentioned any one fact hitherto unknown. That quartz-rock masses are in part, at least, clastic; that they have nearly always a lining or false bedding, and that they occur as protrudes or intrudes, are all facts that were previously known. Furthermore, it was also known and recorded, that some un- altered arenaceous accumulations have very similar characters. Take, as examples, the irregular masses of sandstone in the Cratloe Hills, South Clare; the so-called porphyries in the slate series of Killaloe, counties Clare and Tipperary ; the protrudes of grits in the Slieve Phelim district, county Tipperary ; the protrudes of grits in the slate at Kilcavan, county Wicklow, and other protrudes mentioned in the ‘‘ Economic Geology of Ireland.’”’? These were recorded before the writer imagined that the old theory for the genesis of quartz-rock would ever be reproduced. All these arenaceous accumulations, but especially the ‘‘Mullasawnites” and the ‘‘ book sandstones” of the Manorcunningham group, counties Tyrone, Donegal, and Londonderry, make in very similar masses to the quartz-rocks of Carrick Mountain, county Wicklow, and those of the Forth Mountain, county Wexford. They, occurring in massive and lenticular protrudes, have false 1 From Griffiths’ map it is evident that that eminent geologist observed, in some places, a difference between quartzite and quartz-rock ; but in general he did not separate the one from the other. *Vol. viii. New Series, Journal Roy. Geol. Soc., Ireland. 582 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. bedding, while one or more boundaries may be fault lines, as if such masses had acted as groynes during the thrusting and other move- ments of the associated rocks. Quartz-rock, however, occurs also in places as dykes, while these massive sandstones never do so. The Rev. Professor Blake, in his Paper on the ‘‘ Monians ”’ of Anglesey, mentions the quartz-rocks, there called ‘‘ quartz knobs,” and seems to be inclined to believe that they are eminently characteristic of Cam- brian and Pre-Cambrian groups. This, however, is not the case in Treland, as in the Feakle district, county Clare, quartz-rocks occur at the base of the Lower Carboniferous sandstone. In Slieve Partry, also. near Louisburgh, both in county Mayo, they occur at the base of the Silurians. In the baronies of Kilmacrenan, Boylagh, &c., county Donegal, they occur in the ‘‘ Kilmacrenans,”’ which are, probably, equivalents of the ‘‘ Caradoc sandstone.” In South Wexford, in the Bannow and Taghmon district, they occur both in the Ordovicians and the Oldhamians; and near Greenore, in the same county, at the base of the Ordovicians. In granite they occur at Oughterard, county Galway (of which specimens are in Trinity College, Dublin), also north of Tinahely, near Hackettstown, on the E. and N. E. slopes of Mount Leinster, and at Kiltealy, &c., counties Carlow, Wicklow, and Wexford. This granite of Leinster is newer than the associated rocks, which from their fossils are said to be Ordovicians. The quartz-rocks of Kiltealy and Mount Leinster occur as veins associated with the granite veins, that run rudely parallel to the boundary of the mass of the granite, being in regular courses and having a similar underlie to the granite veins. It is possible that they should be more correctly classed as vein quartz. They have, however, characters similar to those of the intrudes at White Rock, north of Tinahely, and at Eagle Hill, near Hackettstown: being more or less clastic, having false bedding lines, and Professor Sollas’s ‘‘ dirt bands.”” The Eagle Hill intrude is eminently peculiar, as in part it is quartz-rock that graduates into a conglomeritic silicious rock, the latter graduating into a conglomeritic granitic rock. These rocks, associated with granite, have all the characters relied on by Professor Sollas as proofs that quartz-rock is only a silicified ordinary sandstone; yet none of them could ever have been ordinary sandstone ; while such characters would result from their having been deposited by hotsprings, as has been suggested by the present writer in previous publications.' 1 Geology of Ireland ; also ‘‘ Quartzite and Quartz Rock,’’ Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, vol. xiv., part xv., pp. 326, &ec. KinaHan— Quarlz, Quartz-Rock, and Quartzsite. 083 If quartz-rock is only silicified ordinary sandstone, how is it that one class of sandstone has been silicified, while all the other associated sandstones are not so? As in the following places:—In the county Wexford, viz. at Roney’s Rock on the east coast; in the Forth Moun- tains, from Wexford westward to Taghmon, and thence southward to the sea coast of Bannow ; in county Wicklow, in Carrick Mountain, and from that S. W. to Macreddin; also in the Greystones and Bray Head, etc., districts; and in county Dublin, in Howth and Ireland’s Eye. In these several districts the associated rocks into which the quartz-rocks protrude, or intrude, are now, or were, before being metamorphosed, series of grits, sandstones, and shales. How isit that the quartz-rocks were silicified, while the associated grits and sand- stone, often in juxtaposition, are not so? In some of these districts, especially the Forth Mountain, there is a conspicuous difference be- tween the quartz-rock and the associated metamorphosed grits and sandstones. As pointed out in previous publications of the present writer’s, all silicious, calcareous, ferriferous, etc., springs, while in gentle ebulli- tion, deposit the minerals in solution, these to be afterwards partly broken up, whirled round and round in the orifice, and thereby rounded, while, subsequently, when the springs are in violent action, they are ejected and deposited around, where they are cemented into a mass. Necessarily, a clastic rock thus formed is almost entirely made up of the particles of the normal minerals of the spring due to deposition. This, however, may not be always so, because if the spring is deep-seated it may bring up pieces from one of the beds through which it passes. Thus, the large calcareous spring on the east margin of Lough Rea, county Galway, is continually bringing up fine silicious sand. As far as my experience goes clastic quartz-rocks are almost entirely made up of silicious fragments in a silicious, often ferriferous, magma ; decidedly foreign particles only occurring at certain centres, as if they were deposited in the immediate vicinity of the springs. A spring origin for quartz-rock would, necessarily, in- duce ‘‘false bedding,” as each overflow from the orifice would deposit a separate layer. All ordinary arenaceous accumulations have, in general, a con- siderable mixture, whether they be sands or solid rock. Under peculiar circumstances an accumulation may have been silicious or nearly so, as at the present time we have such sands imported from America. But in Ireland a pure silicious sand is rare. At Muckish and in the Lough Salt range, county Donegal, we have such sands, 5084 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. but they are quartzites disintegrated im setu, and out of which the iron has been leached. In places in the same county there are fairly pure, silicious, ferriferous sands, which, if washed and then consoli- dated, would make a good silicious rock. On Achill Island, county Mayo, there is a small tract of pure silicious sand. At Ballydonegan Bay, county Cork, and Bonmahon, county Waterford, there are pure silicious sands, but they are artificial, being crushed rock détritus due to the mine stamps. At Kilmainham Wood, county Meath, and other places in the gravels, there are a few very pure silicious sands; but, in the main, silicious sands are very uncommon in the recent Irish accumulations. It must, however, be allowed that in early times, under circumstances of which we are not now cognisant, nearly pure silicious rocks have accumulated. Take, for instance, the group of rocks extending N. EK. from Ramelton to the shore of Lough Swilly, north of Rathmullen, and we find them to be in places almost purely silicious. Then, again, many of the Coal Measure grits in Munster and Leinster are highly silicious. So that in old times, for reasons with which we are now unacquainted, silicious accumulations may have been more common than they are now. Although I believe that my theory as to the origin of quartz-rock is nearer the truth than any other that has been put forward, yet I feel that inits entirety it is not quite satisfactory. Take, for instance, the quartz pipe-rocks of Sutherland, Scotland; they look very like typical quartz-rock ; but if they are such, how did they accumulate ? And if from hot springs, how did the worms, who have left their in- numerable pipes, get into them? Possibly they were heat-proof like salamanders. In the county Donegal there are two distinct classes of quartzite and quartz-rock. The older are, probably, of Pre-Cambrian age, the newer may, possibly, be equivalents of the Ordovician; but these two quite distinct groups are left undistinguished in the maps and Memoirs of the Geological Survey, sothat their age is at present quite obscured. The newer, belonging to the Kilmacrenans, seem partly to corroborate my theory, but partly the reverse. Some of these arenaceous rocks, as it appears to me, must have been sandstone, while associated with them are rocks that I would call quartz-rock. In some places the latter rocks have well-defined boundaries, and can easily be separated from the others, but in places the quartz-rock seems to graduate into the quartzite. Similarly, in the tracts of silicious rocks of Sligo, Mayo, and Galway, in some places the rocks are decidedly quartz-rock, in others quartzite, but in some places it is hard to say in which divi- KinaHan— Quartz, Quarts-Rock, and Quartzsite. 089 sion they should be placed. It must, however, be remembered that if quartz-rock is sheared, it takes on a character similar to quartzite, as is also the case in regard to granite and gneiss, as granite by shear- ing changes into gneiss. It seems to me, therefore, that when quartz- rock graduates into quartzite it may be due to a mass of quartz-rock haying been subjected to a shearing process which altered its margin or margins, but left the main mass in its original condition. This is suggested by the fact that the alteration is principally found in con- nection with the planes of upthrust.} Dykes of quartzite may occur, they being due to dykes of quartz- rock being sheared, but a normal quartzite, that is, an altered sand- stone or grit, rarely occurs as a dyke. Sometimes, however, such dykes, like rocks, do occur, as has been recorded in the counties Mayo, Galway, and Wicklow, they being due to silicious matter in solution coming up through joint lines and silicifying the adjoining rock. Remarkable triangular patches thus changed into quartzite occur in the Mweelrea grits, county Mayo. SuMMaRY. The following characters are common to quartzites, quartz-rock, and vein quartz:—All are highly silicious, they are more or less clastic, and have a laminated or foliated or bedded structure. Other characters of quartz-rock and vein quartz are the following:— They may occur as “lay and lay,” that is between the natural beds of the country rock, or as intrudes, or as protrudes, or as dykes. Some sandstones and grits make very similarly to quartz rock, they appearing suddenly as massive protrudes, or as lenticular cakes, or as dykesof fault rock. Such sandstones and grits nearly always have false bedding, while often they are margined by faults, as if they had acted as groynes during the different earth movements. The latter is also often a characteristic of quartz-rock masses. Ordinary sandstones and grits nearly always contain fragments of various kinds, due to their constituents being derived from various sources, while normal quartz-rock, on the other hand, is usually made up of silicious particles (vzde Note B, p. 586). 1 In the basal Kilmacrenans conglomerate of the Knockanteenbeg outlier, south- west of Gartan lake, Co. Donegal, the inlying granite blocks and fragments are elongated in the portion of the rock immediately above the upthrust planes, while a little higher up they are not so. 586 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. If quartz-rock was only an ordinary silicified sandstone, it ought, us a general rule, to contain more or less foreign particles. If, how- ever, quartz-rocks are accumulated from springs, they ought to be clastic, but the particles ought to be nearly all silicious, they being derived from the breaking up of portions of the accumulation which are subsequently re-cemented together. Such deposits ought also to have false bedding, as each successive discharge from the springs would be represented by a separate layer of accumulation. NOTES ADDED IN PRESS. A.—In the discussion it was stated that the silicious sinter deposited from recent hot springs was quite distinct from quartz-rock, but an examination of specimens from the hot spring deposits of New Zealand shows that this is not so. My former colleague, Mr. W. W. Watts, now of the English Branch of the Geol. Survey, has taken the trouble to examine the specimens of the sinter from Iceland in the Jermyn-street Museum. He finds the rocks are more or less clastic. They show ‘irregular layers of deposition which, undoubtedly, give rise to the cauliflower-like surface of the sinter.’’ ‘‘ The third slide shows little nests or pockets full of minute angular sand-grain, chiefly of quartz, but also chips of felspar and other minerals. ‘‘ These grains are embedded in opaline silica.”’ B.— Quartz-rocks.—Tf this class of rocks is due to the out-pouring from hot silicious springs, necessarily it is probable that some other mineral or minerals may be present in solution. That this is nearly invariably the case is proved by the minute particles of mica, &c., developed in quartz-rocks by secondary action and by shearing; also by some quartz-rocks in places becoming felsitic. XXXVI. THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE MULLET, INISHKEA ISLANDS, AND PORTACLOY, COUNTY MAYO. By CHARLES R. BROWNE M.D., M.R.I.A. (Prates XV., XVI., anp XVII.) [Read Fesruary 25, 1895.] CONTENTS. PAGE | PAGE 1.—InTRODUCTION, . : . 587 111. —ANTHROPOGRAPHY— continued. 11.—PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE (c) Language and Illi- DISTRICT, . 588 teracy, . . - 610 (p) Health, . t . 611 III. —ANTHROPOGRAPHY :— ee ee | - £sychotogy, . ¢ . 613 Be Cheds, : pee 5. Folk-names, . : . 616 (A) Hair and Eye Colour, 590 (B) Measurements and 1v.—SocloLoey :— Instruments, . 590 1. Occupations, . - 619 (c) Remarks on Methods 2. Family-life and Gusta 621 employed, : r 590 Bic Food, 5 5 6 5 624 (p) Photography, 2 : 591 | 4. Clothing, G 6 O 625 ‘ | 5. Dwellings, . : . 626 2. (a) Physical Characters, 592 6. Transport, . : . 628 (B) Statistics of Hair and Eye Colours, . . 596 | V-—Fox-Lorz, . - 629 (c) Physical Proportions, 599 1. Customs and Beliefs, - 680 (p) Detailed List of Mea- 2. Charms and Leecheraft, . 634 surements and In- 3. Legends and Traditions, 637 dices, . - 600 vI.—ARCHROLOGY :— (p) Analysis of Statistical 1. Survivals, . , . 639 Tables, . : - 606 2. Antiquities, . : . 640 3. Vital Statistics (General vu.—Hisrory, . . , _ 644 and Economic)— (a) Population, 606 | Vii-—Conciupine Remarks, . 646 (Bs) Acreage and Rentals 608 1x.—BIBLIOGRAPHY, . : . 648 I.— Inrropvction. In continuance of the series of local surveys undertaken by the Dublin Anthropometric Committee and carried out as part of the work of the Anthropological Laboratory of Trinity College, the third of these surveys was made by me last August in the western portion of the 588 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. barony of Erris, county Mayo. It was at first intended that only the Parish of Kilmore, including the peninsula known as the Mullet (or Erris proper) and the Inishkea Islands should be undertaken, but unusual facilities for working the isolated district of Portacloy presenting themselves, it also was included in the inquiry. The circumstances under which the work was carried on differed considerably from those experienced on the two previous occasions, the field being wider and the people more scattered ; but the same methods were adhered to as far as possible, and this report has been drawn up on the same lines as its predecessors, in order to facilitate comparison and reference. Il.—PuystoGRaPHy. The district dealt with in this Paper consists of two distinct localities, one clearly defined, the parish of Kilmore, the other more indefinite in its boundaries, being a tract of wild mountainous country around the little hamlet of Portacloy; both form part of the barony of Erris, in the extreme north-west of the Co. Mayo. Kilmore includes the Mullet peninsula, the inhabited islands of North and South Inishkea, Duvillaun and Eagle Island, and a consider- able number of uninhabited islets, the most remarkable of which is Inisglora (Inis Gluaire). The Mullet, or Erris proper, is a long narrow strip of land, nearly cut off from the mainland, as it is bounded on the east or landward side by Broadhaven and the magnificent Bay of Blacksod, some forty-five square miles in area, the only connection with the rest of Erris being by a narrow isthmus, about 200 yards in width. The peninsula runs nearly north and south; its extreme length is about fifteen miles, and its width varies from about seven miles in the northern part to less than half a mile near its southern extremity. The total area of the parish, including the islands, is 29,492 acres, or about 46 square miles. The coast line, in the northern portion, consists mainly of high cliffs, indented by deep coves with precipitous and often overhanging walls, and in places pierced by caves and natural bridges. This pre- cipitous coast extends from Broadhaven, on the north-east, round to Annagh Head on the west, a distance, following the coast line, of about thirty miles, the cliffs rising in many places to above 300 feet, and affording only three inlets of any size. Blind Harbour, on the north (200 acres in area, nearly all dry at low water), and Frenchport and Scotchport on the west, the others are either inaccessible from the land side or only practicable for curraghs. Erris Head forms the Browne—LEthnography of the Mullet, Inishkea, & Portacloy. 589 extreme north point of the peninsula. Off this part of the coast lies Eagle Island, high and rocky in coast and surface, and a lighthouse- station. From Frenchport (or rather Annagh Head, its southern boundary) southward, the coast is sandy beach, shingle, and low rocks, and is backed to a large extent by rolling ranges of sandhills. Off this part of the coast lie Iniskea and Duvillaun, having a sandy or rocky shore, and a surface of no great elevation. The eastern shore along Blacksod Bay and Broadhaven is sheltered and low. The surface of the Mullet does not reach any very great eleva- tion, the highest point in the northern part being 410 feet above sea level, and the rounded granite hill of Tarmon, in the extreme south, 369 feet. It is much diversified, a good deal-of it being fertile land, especially on the east side, but in the north part there is a good deal of bog and moor, and in the south and west rolling sandhills barely held in check by bent. In some of the narrower portions a fertile belt lies between two sandy ones. The district of Portacloy is a wild mountainous region, with a coast of precipitous cliffs of great height, and riddled with caves. Benwee Head, which rises above the sea to the height of 1000 feet, is just outside the mouth of the deep narrow inlet which forms the harbour. The surface of this part of the district is very wild, and consists largely of bog and mountain. The climate is very mild, frost and snow being of infrequent occurrence and not lasting for long, but the rains are heavy and almost constant during the greater part of the year, and storms are frequent and severe. Vegetation flourishes well, but, owing to the storms, trees are very few and only grow in sheltered localities. The whole district is largely cut off from the outer world by the wide stretch of wild and sparsely peopled country through which the mail road from Ballina runs.! II].—ANTHROPOGRAPHY. 1. Methods.—The methods employed did not differ to any great extent from those made use of on the two previous occasions. A few 1 JT am indebted to Mr. G. H. Kinahan, M.R.I.A., for the following note on the geology of the Mullet :—The south rough portion is granite, while the north rough portion is in part Archean (query, the equivalent of the Sutherland Algonkian rocks that have been called Old Bay), and in part of Archean quartzite (query, the equivalents of the Scotch Torridan Sandstone); while the central portion is occupied by schists of an uncertain age that le unconformably on the Archean rock to the northward. 090 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeniy. changes were made to bring our observation form into closer accord with that adopted by the Ethnographic Survey Committee of the British Association for use in England. The new form admits of very rapid noting, and in collecting easily and accurately the main physical characters of the persons examined. It has not, however, any advantage over the old form, of which it is a modification, in the convenience of working up results, in fact it is inferior in this respect as the spaces for indices at the bottom of the page, which are omitted, proved a great help in tabulating the results of the Inishbofin Survey; another defect is that some of the points to be noted are not strictly defined, and leave too much to the personal opinion of the observer. (a.) Hair and eye colour.—No change was made in this part of the work, the method being exactly that used on the two previous occasions. For full particulars the reader is referred to the Report on the visit to the Aran Islands.’ (s.) Measurements and instruments——These were the same as formerly employed, with two additions:—(1) The height of the head ; and (2) height of cranium, both projections, directions for taking which were printed on the observation forms. These measurements were given a trial, as they form part of the series on the English form, but after a time they were abandoned for reasons given below. The same set of instruments as used in Inishbofin was carried, packed in a canvas case. It consisted of compas d’epaisseur, compas glissiére, the portable pattern of Cunningham’s craniometer, Garson’s anthropometer, steel tape, Snellen test types, note books, nigrescence cards, and observation forms, as before. The only new appliance was a Trinity hand camera, made by Messrs. Curtis, Suffolk- street, Dublin, which, though subjected to rather rough treatment, stood the test admirably and did very satisfactory work. When not in use it was carried in a stout waterproof case slung over the shoulder. (c). Remarks on methods employed.—The work had to be carried on under rather different circumstances from those experienced before, as the weather prevailing during my visit to the district was not too well suited for field work, the rains being frequent and heavy, and the wind very strong, besides this, the population is much more scattered than any dealt with before, and long journeys had often to be made for very little result. In some ways, however, the work 1Ethnography of the Aran Islands, Co. Galway, Proc. R.I.A., vol. 11, srd ser., p. 768. - Browne—Lthnography of the Mullet, Inishkea, & Portacloy. 591 was easier, the measuring being, in many cases, done under shelter, instead of on the hills, the roadside, or the sea-shore. As is mentioned above the two new measurements had to be abandoned owing to practical difficulties. It is a matter of experience in work of this sort in Ireland that persons do not come to be measured, they have to be sought out and induced to submit themselves to the process, often no easy matter; there are generally several to be measured in quick succession, but if kept waiting long they will one by one slip off and refuse to allow measurement ; and as the adapting of the anthropometer for these projections takes some time, the instrument having to be unshipped for each, and then fitted up again to measure the next comer, it became evident that these projections would have to be given up if anything like a sufficient number of persons was to be measured. Moreover, accuracy in taking projection measurements is by no means easily obtained, even under the most favourable circum- stances in a laboratory, and the difficulty is increased so much in field work, where it is not at all easy to get the men to understand exactly what position they are wanted to assume, so as to make the results unreliable. ; The noting of the colours of the hair and eyes also presented some difficulties, the chief being to distinguish between those who were natives and strangers from other districts, which was rendered greater by the absence of a distinctive dress (except in the case of the people of Inishkea). In spite of these difficulties, however, I succeeded in noting the eye and hair colours of 494 individuals, on 62 (male adults) of whom the full series of measurements and observa- tions was made. As on the two former surveys precautions were taken against recording the same person twice, as well as against the inclusion of the men measured in the ordinary nigrescence cards. (p). Photography.—Owing to the rain and rough weather as much could not be done in this department as had been hoped, but in spite of the difficulties of cloudy skies and high winds a number of photo- graphs were taken, including, 17 portraits, 14 of them individuals measured, 12 groups, taken in all parts of the district, 30 illustrations of the occupations, modes of transport, and habitations cf the people, also several of the antiquities of the district, and a set of views show- ing surface of land and nature of coast line, &c. Some of these photographs were taken by myself, others by my brother J. M. Browne. The addition of the hand camera to our appliances has proved to be a great advantage, enabling portraits of unwilling subjects to be taken, and adding to the value of the photo- R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 2k 592 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. graphs of occupations by admitting of their being taken when the performers were in motion. It could also be used on occasions when the high winds would not allow the setting up of a tripod stand. 2.—Physical Characters :— (a). The general physical characters of the people are as given below, though some differences exist between the inhabitants of different parts of the district. The people on the whole are good-looking, especially when young; many of the girls and young women are very handsome, but they appear to age rapidly and early become wrinkled. Stature and bulk.—The men of this district are as a rule of fair average stature, very stoutly built, and broad shouldered; while there are few who can fairly be termed very tall, yet many reach a good height, and the proportion of small men is by no means large. The average stature of the 62 adult 1aales measured was 1725 mm., or about 5 feet 8 inches. The extremes were 1628 mm. (5 feet 4 inches), and 1820mm., or about 5 feet 114 inches. The women seem to be more even in height than the men. Limbs.—The hands are usually of medium size, broad and with fingers squarely clubbed at the ends. The forearms (measured from styloid process to the head of radius) are often very long for the stature, and the span is sometimes very great, though in a few cases it is less than the stature, a character also noted in the Aran Islands, though the proportion of cases in which it was observed was much greater there. Head.—The head is generally well shaped and is often of large size. The forehead is broad and upright (rarely receding), rounded away at the sides, and of fair height ; superciliary ridges and glabella of no great size, eye-brows thick and level. The cranial curve rises to a pretty fair height above the ears (height index 65°8), though not attaining the altitude seen in the people of Aran and the men of Inishbofin, and descends in an even sweep to the occipital protuberance as the occipital region does not usually project. In the majority of cases, as will be seen from the table of indices, the head is mesaticephalic, the mean index being 77:4 (when two units are deducted to reduce to the cranial standard). Of the 62 persons measured, 10 were brachycephalic, and 11 dolichocephalic. The extremes were 86:2 and 72:3. Browne—Ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea, & Portacloy. 598 Face.—The face is of medium length, with prominent cheek-bones, and is rather broader in the bigonial region than observed in either Aran or Inishbofin. The nose is short and has nearly always a straight profile; of the 62 men measured, 50 had straight, 8 sinuous, 2 aquiline, and 2 retroussé noses. The wrinkles on the face are very deep, most so about the eyes and at the ‘‘root”’ of the nose, where there is often a raised fold of skin between two deep furrows. The mouth is large, with lips of medium thickness, often kept habitually apart when the face is at rest, but the large hanging lower lip is not so noticeable a character here as in other localities of the west coast. The teeth are usually very short and even. The chin is prominent, but not long, and the angles of the jaw are rather oblique. The eyes, which are placed moderately wide apart, have irides of a light blue or bluish-gray, and being deep set and (in the fishermen) habitually half closed, they present to a casual observer the appear- ance of being small in size. The ears are small, projecting, and rather coarsely moulded. Abnormalities of the lobule are common, and were seen in 38 out of the 62 men on whom observations were made ; of these the lobule was absent in 10, and attached in 23. Absence of the lobule is very common in the northern part of the Mullet, and appears to be a local character there ; in nearly all the men seen at Muingcrena this part of the organ was either of very small size or was absent altogether. Flattening out of the pinna and Darwinian tubercle were observed in several cases. Skin.—Wrinkles, as before mentioned, come early, first appearing about the eyes. The complexion is either ruddy or pale, rarely sallow; on exposure to the sun and wind it becomes a clear red, seldom freckling or turning brown. Hair.—The prevailing colour for the hair is dark brown, next in order of frequency is brown or chestnut, next black; fair and red hair are comparatively scarce. In the case of the Inishkea people, the most usual hair colour seems to be a clear brown, accompanied by reddish-brown beard and blue-grey eyes; in these islands also, there is a larger proportion of fair hair than on the mainland. The hair and beard (when worn) are fairly abundant. Greyness does not appear to set in early. 2R2 594 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Sight and Hearing. —Both these senses are very acute, especially the former, which, in the fishermen, is extremely keen, many of these men can see small objects floating on the water at a distance where, even by the aid of a strong glass, most persons would find great difficulty in seeing them at all. This description being a general one, little mention has been made of the differences which exist between the people of different parts of the district. It appears to be the general opinion on the mainland, that the inhabitants of North Inishkea are taller than those of the South Island, and, also, that the natives of both islands are fairer than those of the mainland, and personal inspection has corroborated these opinions. The islanders are readily distinguishable from the mainland people, not only by their dress of blue homespun, but also by their fairer hair and complexion, and their different cast of features. The men of the district round Portacloy are darker in hair and seem to be of a different type; many of them are exceedingly fine well-built fellows. In no part of the district are the people of small stature, though a large number of them are descendants of dispossessed Ulster people. On the contrary, they appear to be taller and stouter than the inhabitants of the southern part of the country. A statement,’ originally made by an anonymous writer, has somehow gained currency, and has been repeatedly quoted abroad, noticeably by M. De Quatrefages,” and by M. Devay,’ that the descendants of the Ulster people driven two centuries ago into Sligo and Mayo, had dwindled into dwarfs of five feet two inches high, prognathous and pot-bellied. This most certainly does not apply to any section of the inhabitants of this part of Mayo, if indeed it were ever true of any part of the counties named, which repeated inquiries and personal observation agree in denying most positively. The statement is quite unsupported by other writers dealing with this region at the same time. Thus Mr. P. Knight, writing in 1834, says of the people of Erris that ‘ they are generally a good- humoured, good-natured, hospitable, generous race—of middle size— active, intelligent, and, when an opportunity offers of showing it, industrious.”” C.0O.* describes the people as tall. 1 Dublin University Magazine, No. 48, p. 658. 2L’Unité de ’ Espéce Humain, ii., 316. 3 Devay Fr. ‘“‘ Du Danger des Mariages consanguins sous le Rapport Sanitaire.” 4 «¢ Sketches in Erris and Tyrawley.’’ Browne—LEthnograyhy of the Mullet, Inishkea, & Portacloy. 595 CepHatic Inpices, CorrEcTeED FOR CoMPARISON WITH SKULLS. 21 72.5 5 | 72-3 No. Index. A. Corrected Indices. 41 86.2 B. Actual Indices. IL 85.1 i 32 83.4 15 82.8 a ae ea ; 54 82.1 57 81.5 iS : e ee aot 7 | 20 Brachycephals: 7] 79-4 30 79.1 43 79.1 SI 79-1 : 3 78.5 13 78.4 Ig | 78.4 23 78.0 34 78.0 J 2 77-9 7} 35 | 77-9 30 77-9 47 77.6 50 77-6 28 77-4 I | 77-2 18 | 77.0 26 | 77.0 62 77-0 i : 27 76.9 4I Mesaticephalic. 46 | 76.9 | 37 | 76.8 16 76.6 | 22 76.6 | 25 76.5 | 24 76.4 | 42 76.2 | 20 76.1 44 76.1 | 39 Mesaticephals. 49 76.0 52 75:9 | 33 | 75-9 | 29 75-8 | 39 75:8 58 | 75-7 56 75-5 48 75-3 | 38 75.0 | 12 75.0 55 75-0 4 74.8 7} 6 74:5 | 59 74-4 | 40 74-3 74.0 p Die . Dolichocephalic. r0 73:5 14 73-5 | 45 72.7 \ 3 Dolichocephals. 596 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. (3.) Statistics of Eye and Hair Colours :— Aputts.—I. Males. EYEs. RE Totals. | fair Coloses. Light. | Medium. | Dark. Red, i 4 1 es 5 2.48 Fair, vo [oe zi as 14 6:79 | Brown, we 74 7 2 83 40-29 Dark, ol ee Le 3 88 42-72 Black, Sle WG 3 16 777 ji) Aa Oke 19 8 206 100-00 | Tro Canes} | 86-89 | 9:22 | 3:89 | 100-00 =e | Index of Nigrescence, . . 49°04. Aputts.—I1. Females. EYEs. Har. Totals. | grr orage., Tiehte | Medium! | Dark, Red, 5 as ee 5 3:47 Fair, 2 as ts 9 1-39 Brown, .. 52 2 4 58 40-28 Dark, as 33 21 12 66 45°83 Black, Bo uf 2 4 13 9-03 a ee. 99 25 20 144 100-00 iro Coleecs, | 68-75 17°36 13:89 | 100-00 is Index of Nigrescence, . . . 59:08. Combined Index (both sexes), . 54:08. Browne—Ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea, & Portacloy. 597 Curipren.—I. Boys. Eyes. | Ha, : Totals. | Sr Colows. Light. | Medium. Dark. Red, a 4 = = 4 5:40 Fair, x 10 a5 = 10 13°51 Brown, 34 as fem 3a. | aa5co5 Dark, a OB} a 5 1 — 24 32°48 Black, a 2 — — 2 eT Al Totals, A 73 1 — 74 100-00 Percentage | s .9or Salil F ie | ee Colears, | | 98°65 1°35 = 100-00 _ Index of Nigrescence, . . 18°94. Cuitpren.—II. Girls. Eyes. | Harr. Totals. pe erceniae gs Light. | Medium. | Dark. | Red, Ds a = i = ba Fair, ia 10 — — JO 15°87 Brown, Ae 29 1 325 30 | 47-62 Dark, ¥ 16 2 4 22 | 34-92 Black, 5s 1 a EE Wee vie LenS. Totals, 6 56 3 4 63 100-00 Pee euaae \ | 88-89 4°76 6-35 | 100-00 Eye Colours, Tt Index of Nigrescence,. . . . 23°23. Combined Index (both sexes), . 21-09. 598 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acaedemy. Torat.—I. Dales. | EYEs. Har, Totals, | Een Light. Medium. Dark. Red, 5 8 1 se 9 3°21 | Fair, Pa 24 = a 24 8-57 Brown, Be 108 7 2 117 41°79 | Dark, 50 102 7 3 112 40:00 H | Black, sot 5 3 18 6-43 totals; 1) 98) Tene 20 8 280 100-00 Paws Vl go) ; PRK ye Colacea, \ 90-0 714 2:86 100-00 ita Index of Nigrescence, . . 41:08. Torat.—II. Females. Eyes. | Han Toles | pee Light. | Medium. | Dark. Red, ihe 5 — — 5 2°41 Fair, ye 12 — — 12 5°79 Brown, ar 81 3 4 88 42-52 Dark, ae 49 23 16 88 42°52 Black, MSs 8 2 4 14 6°76 | Totals, ae 155 28 24 207 100:°00 CLEA \ 74-88 1353 11°59 | 100-00 ie Eye Colours, Index of Nigrescence, Sola, Aas as Combined Index (both sexes), . 44°46. Browne—Lthnography of the Mullet, Inishkea, & Portacloy. 599 (c.) Physical Proportions.—As in foregoing reports, the proportions borne by the main measurements to the stature (taken as 100) have been calculated, and are given in this paper: they differ consider- ably from those of the people of the districts previously visited. Face. The face is not so long in proportion as met with in either of the other localities. It varies between 6°48 and 8:26, with a mean of 7°36: it is over 8 in one instance, and below 7 in nine out of the sixty-two recorded. j Upper Face.—Mean 4:30, as compared with 4:42 for Inishbofin. Nose.—This is not very constant in its relation to body-height, haying a mean of 3:10 and extremes of 2°65 and 3:98. Thus, on the whole, this feature is much shorter in the Erris people than in the Aran Islanders (3°38) or the natives of Inishbofin, in whom the mean exactly equalled the canon (3°30). Srrrinc Heicut. This measurement was for the first time taken regularly in field- work in this district. The mean of the series is 51°33, but it varies in individual cases between 49°44 and 55:29. Uprer Live. Span.—Several cases are recorded in this series in which this measurement falls short of the stature, a character found to be com- mon in the Aran Islands, where it was met with in more than one- fourth of those measured. The proportion in this case is one in fifteen. Of the four cases, three are from North Inishkea and one from the Mullet. The mean occupies a position between that of Aran and that of Inishbofin, being 104°36 as against 101°94 and 104-95. 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Lavelle, Philip, . Lavelle, William, Cawley, Patrick, Cawley, Michael, Lavelle, Michael, Lavelle, William, Reilly, Michael, . Reilly, John, . Lavelle, Patrick, . Lavelle, John, O’ Reilly, P. T., Gaughan, Wm., . Dunlevy, Anth.,. Gaughan, Michl., Clery, Francis, . Coyle, William, . Geraghty, Michl., Cawley, Patrick, Monaghan, Wm., Gaughan, John, . Reilly, Peter, Barrett, Michael, Barrett, William, Henry, Phelim, Coyle, Michael, . M‘Cormac, Thos., Doocy, Patrick, . | Flannery, Thos., Gannon, Richard,} 2 Dogherty, Wm., Naughton, Michl. Age. | Locality. Gas Calgae Skin. Ears. Inishkea, N. | blue | dark- | ruddy | Outstanding, lobes brown) attached Inishkea, N. | light- | brown ruddy} Outstanding, lobes grey | attached Inishkea, 8. light-| dark | ruddy | Lobes attached grey Inishkea, 8. blue | brown) ruddy | Outstanding, lobes | absent Inishkea, N. | blue | light- ruddy| Flat, lobes de- | brown tached Inishkea, N. | dark- black | pale | Outstanding, lobes grey | | detached | Inishkea, N. | blue | fair | ruddy| Flat, lobes attached Inishkea, N. | blue | brown) ruddy | Outstanding | Inishkea, N. | blue | brown} ruddy | Outstanding Inishkea, N. | blue | brown ruddy _- Carne, Mullet | dark- | dark | pale | Flat grey Emlybeg, dark- | dark | freck-| Flat, lobes absent Mullet grey led Emlybeg, blue | brown ruddy | Outstanding, lobes Mullet | attached Moyrahan, blue | black | ruddy | Outstanding Mullet Belmullet dark- | black | ruddy | Outstanding, lobes grey attached | Shanaghy light-| black | dark | Outstanding | brown | | Mullaghroe blue | dark | ruddy | Outstanding, lobes ' attached Aughleam blue | black pale | Outstanding Crossrenagh blue | black ruddy} Outstanding Gladree blue | dark | pale | Flat, iobes attached Duvillaun (?) | blue | brown ruddy} Flat, lobes absent Drumreagh light- | black tuddy | Outstanding, lobes grey absent Mullaghroe | blue | brown ruddy! Outstanding, lobes ' attached Nameoflocality| blue | brown ruddy , Outstanding, lobes not decipherable | attached Belmullet blue | dark |pale | Outstanding Aughaglass- dark- | dark | dark | Outstanding, lobes heen, Belmullet) grey attached Porturlin blue | dark (pale | Outstanding | Srahataggle light-| dark |pale | Outstanding grey | Carrowboy (?) | light-| black | ruddy’ Outstanding grey Portacloy green |red j|ruddy Outstanding, lobes | attached Portacloy blue dark ruddy Flat, lobes absent FAcIAL. NASAL. AURICULAR HEIGHT. FORELIMB. zs ; | . les | to ; 1 bo aa | 3 cae aa 2) Se 2, ‘ I REMARKS. Ps rae pa [esfomje | aja jelalale Fy | =e 36 | 382 | 130) 101} 99/1775) 9385/1880} 195) 261) ‘* Kine”’ of Inishkea. 34 | 30 | 126) 103} 98/1700} 912)1730} 185 251, Brother of No. 1. 388 | 36 | 180) 96) 94/1780) 9601781] 200] 272, Mother from N. Inishkea. 34 | 36 | 125) 97) 95/1696) 8951652) 185] 254 Brother of No. 3; beard fair. 36 | 34 | 127) 96) 98/1757) 908)1830} 200) 275 Front teeth even. 34 | 32 | 126) 100) 101|1780} 8881865) 206) 275) Beard brown. 34 | 32 | 125) 88) 88)1691] 902/1720) 180} 250] Nose sinuous. 384 | 33 | 129) 95) 88/1766) 9551765} 187| 270) Brother of No. 7; nose sinuous. 382 | 31 | 126) 98) 93/1710} 900)1763} 190} 250 — 33 | 29 | 180) 94} 96/1640} 852/1612| 173} 260] Brother of No. 9; beard fair. | 36 | 26 | 129) 90) 88/1708} 914/1730] 181} 246 — 43 | 382 | 130) 95) 95/1664) 858/1810] 200] 240] Nez rétroussé. 30 | 29 | 120) 95) 91)1660/ 855)1780| 197) 261 —_ 30 | 27 | 126; 88) 89/1757) 925)1777] 210] 272] People _ originally | from Ballycroy. 34 | 33 | 128) 96) 94/1762) 925) — | 200) 266) People _ originally from Donegal, 200 years ago. 38 | 31 | 127} 100] 106/1708| 928/1795| 199] 256 — 33 | 387 | 135} 97) 103)1766) 9301814) 203) 276 — 82 | 29 | 126) 95) 100)1770) 917'1875| 198) 279 — 82 | 29 | 182; 95} 100)1820| 9283/1865) 212) 270) Father’s people | from Ballycroy. 30 | 29 | 125) 96) 104)1723) 921)1793) 200) 288 — 36 | 36 | 128} 96} 94/1716] 905|1870) 204) 271) Beard dark-brown. 88 | 80 | 183) 97) 99)1674] 888|1793) 191| 277) Descended from the Clan Barretts, of ‘the Proud House ot Barret’ in the Mullet. 35] 78 | 140) 124) 55 | 29 | 31 | 129) 97) 95/1687) 952)1775| 198) 286] People originally from Donegal. 13] 67 | 130] 108] 54 | 33 | 30 | 128) 95) 97/1743] 887|)1820) 200] 264 — (22) 74 | 135] 111] 51 | 33 | 381 | 183) 98) 98/1685) 905|1723) 188] 248 as 14) 77 | 182] 106} 57 | 34 | 28 | 125) 95) 9411628} 880|1778} 189] 257] Believes erand- father to have been French. (26) 76 | 130] 109] 55 | 30 | 29 | 127) 92} 98/1701) 880/1712) 193) 267 _— (27) 77 | 142} 105) 58 | 30 | 80 | 180) 91] 89/1820) 942/1850| 198} 271 -— (25) 70 | 144] 121) 53 | 31 29 | 129) 89] 938/1767| 945|1843] 207} 270] Ancestors from Ulster. (82) 72 | 187] 112) 56 | 32 | 29 | 125) 95) 97/1707) 920)1775| 195} 261 — Eye . | Hair No. Name. Age. Locality. Golour| Colour essin- Ears. | 32 | Magrath, Patk., .| 44 | Portacloy blue | dark | pale | Flat 33 | Bourne, William,| 33 | Portacloy light- | brown ruddy | Flat grey | | 34 | Bourke, John, 3 | Portacloy blue | dark | ruddy} Flat, lobes attached 28 | Toole, Thomas, .| 33 | Portacloy blue | dark | ruddy | Outstanding 36 | Hogan, John, 40 | Portacloy blue | dark | ruddy| Flat, lobes attached 37 | Bourke, Domk., .| 21 | Portacloy blue | dark ruddy | Flat 38 | Hevernan, Philip,) 50 | Aughleam, light-| dark | ruddy | Outstanding | Mullet grey 39 | Reilly, James, 35 | Drum, Mullet | hght- | brown pale | Outstanding | grey | 40 | Kane, Richard, .| — | Fallmore, green | brown) — | Outstanding Mullet | 41 ———— | Mullet blue | brown pale &| Outstanding | freck- | | led- 42 | M‘Loughlin, Th.,| 25 | Blacksod, blue | brown) pale | Flat | | Mullet | 43 | Meenaghan, Th., | 18 | Blacksod, light- | brown) ruddy | Outstanding, lobes | | | Mullet | grey | attached 44 | Dixon, —, 50 | Tip., Mullet | blue | dark | dark | Attached lobules 45 | Cafferky, Hugh, .| — | Tip., Mullet | blue | brown ruddy | Attached lobules 46 | Coyle, Francis, 47 | Tip., Mullet blue | dark | ruddy| Flat 47 | Padden, Domk., .| 22 | Tip., Mullet blue | brown pale | Outstanding, lobes | absent 48 | Padden, John, 18 | Tip., Mullet blue | dark | pale, | Flat, lobes absent | | | | freck- | led 49 | Dixon, James, 28 | Tip., Mullet blue | brown! pale | Flat, lobes absent 50 | Lavelle, Anthony,| 24 | Tip., Mullet green | black peceeyy Flat, lobes absent 51 | Meenaghan, M1., | — | Inishkea, S. green | dark |ruddy| Flat, lobes at- | tached 52 | M‘Ginty, Owen, .) 35 | Inishkea, 8. blue | black-| ruddy} Outstanding, lobes | brown attached 53 | Monaghan, M1., .| 59 | Inishkea, S. light- | black | dark | Outstanding | brown! 54 | Keane, Patrick, .| 19 | Inishkea, S. blue | fair | ruddy,} Outstanding freck- | | led 55 | O'Donnell, John, | 24 | Inishkea, S. blue | fair | ruddy,} Outstanding, lobes | \freck-| attached | led 56 | Dixon, Patrick, .| 33 | Aghadoon, blue | brown) ruddy} Flat Mullet 57 | Carey, Martin, 26 | Aghadoon, dark- | black | ruddy | Outstanding, lobes Mullet erey absent 58 | Lavelle, Patrick, | 30 | Aghadoon, blue | dark | ruddy | Flat Mullet | 59 | Dixon, Patrick, .| 30 | Aghadoon, green | black | pale | Flat Mullet 60 | Burke, John, 23 | Belmullet blue | brown) ruddy] Flat, lobes attached 61 | Joyce, Patrick, 18 | Buncrena, blue | fair | ruddy] Outstanding Mullet 62 | Padden, Michael, | 22 | Knockna- blue | brown! dark | Flat, lobes attached | shambo, Mullet Race AURICULAR DANI HEIGHT. FORELIMB. inch. I am indebted to Mr. Nuttall for the accompanying drawings which give a perfect likeness of the animal; they are taken from specimens sent him by me from Westport. £. digitata, Ehrenb. H. and G., Suppl., p. 27, pl. xxxiii., fig. 10. This species is not half the length of Z. elongata; the body is more conical, and the toes are long. I found two examples only in sediment from the neighbourhood of Knappagh Lake, 1894. Sub-Order—Loricara. Family Rarrvrie. Mastigocerca elongata, Gosse. Numerous in the lakes and bog-pools near Castlebar and Westport, 1889, ’91,’92. MM. rattus, Ehrenb. I found a few specimens in the old quarry-pool at Westport in 1892, 794. MW. bicornis, KEhrenb. Fairly abundant in a small lake in the Knap- 684 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. pagh district, and again in a marsh-pool on a hill near Westport,,. 1891, ’92, 94. MM. vernis, Gosse. H. and G., Suppl., p. 35, pl. xxxiii., 26. This: species was described by Mr. Gosse from specimens sent him from county Leitrim by my son. I found a good many specimens in lakes near Castlebar and Westport, in 1889, ’92, ’94. M, bicristata, Gosse. H. and G., Suppl., p. 35, pl. xxxi., 27. This, the largest species of the genus, is by no means scarce in Ireland. I found many examples in the lakes, marshes, and bog-pools, during all my visits to Westport. M. carinata, Ehrenb. Numerous, in similar localities, on all my visits. M. lophoéssa, Gosse. I got afew examples only in a pool ona hill near Westport, associated with Sacculus viridis, 1891. M. stylata, Gosse. Six specimens only occurred in 1889, in a pool two and a-half miles from Westport. Rattulus tigris(Ehrenb.). In bog-pools, near Westport and Castlebar, 1891, ’92. R. calyptus, Gosse. A few examples of this marine species (first found by me in the estuary of the Tay), in the lagoon at West- port Harbour, 1889, and in a tide-pool to the north of the same harbour, 1892. R. bicornis, Western. Journ. Quekett Club, 1893. (Plate XXEE., figs. 4, Ha.) The chief characteristic difference between R. bicornis and R. tigris is that the former has two stout spines on the dorsal frontal edge, where the latter has one only. The toes of the latter are longer than in those of the former species. A large number of examples were got in a bog-pool in 1892. [Since this paper and the accompanying plates were first prepared we have received some interesting additional information concerning this Rotifer from Mr. C. Rousselet. Besides its two unequal toes, it has three small ‘‘substyles” also unequal in length. The dorsal antenna is very small and situtated in front of the eye; the lateral antenne are asymmetrical, the left being very high up, on a level with the middle of the brain, while the right is much lower down, below the middle of the body. The brain is hyaline, pear-shaped, pointed and very large, descending Hoop— On the Rotifera of the County Mayo. 685: to the middle of the body; the large red eye is situated on the anterior dorsal part of the brain. The foot-opening of the lorica is (as correctly represented in our fig. 4) oblique from right to left, allowing the foot and toes to bend only to the right and neither dorsalwards nor ventralwards. The whole lorica has a very slight twist to the right. | Coelopus porcellus, Gosse. A few examples of this plump species occurred in sediment from a lake in the Knappagh district, and in a muddy pool on the face of a hill in the Croagh-Patrick range near Westport, 1891, 792. C. minutus, Gosse. A number of examples of this dwarf Rotifer were found in water collected in a lake at Castlebar in 1891, associated with Volvox globator ; also in the mill-dam at West- port, 1894. Family DivocHaria. Dinocharis pocillum, KEhrenb. A number of examples of this species occurred in a marsh-pool near Westport in 1889, and in Castlebar Lake and bog, 1891. D. tetractis, Khrenb. Many examples occurred in the lakes and bog- pools near Westport in 1891, ’92, ’94. Polychaetus collinsii, (Gosse). Dinocharis collinsii, Gosse, Intell. Observer, x. p. 269, 1866; H. and G., ii. p. 72, pl. xxi. 3. Polychaetus spinulosus, Archer, Quarterly Journal Microscopical Science, viii., p. 72, 1868. (Plate XXII., fig. 5.) A few specimens of this rare species occurred in a small lake two miles east of Westport in 1894. Mr. Archer records it from the Carrig and Callery districts. P. subquadratus, Perty, Z. Kennt. kl. Lebensformen, Bern, 1852, p. 45, pl. i. 6a. Cf. C. Ternetz, Rotat. d. Umgebung Basels, 1892.. Western, op. cit. (Plate XXII., fig. G6.) Mr. Gosse, in the Monograph of the Rotifera, expresses an opinion that his Dinocharis collinsii and Perty’s Polychaetus subguadratus are identical. This view cannot be upheld; there are significant and persistent differences between the two forms. The outline of P. subguadratus is nearly square, and less 686 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. elongated than in P. collinsii: and the dorsal plate of the lorica bears eight spines only in the latter species, but twelve in the former. It is clear, as has already been pointed out by more recent writers, especially by Ternetz, that those two species deserve to be associated together, and removed from the genus Dinocharis. Both species are rare, but widely dis- tributed. Mr. Western has obtained both in England, as I have also done in Scotland; and both have been also taken by German and American observers. A few examples of P. subguadratus occurred in a lake near Westport in 1894. Scaridium longicaudum, Ehrenb. A few examples of this species occurred in sediment from the lake at Castlebar, 1891. S. eudactylotum, Gosse. I found a few examples of this handsome species in sediment from the lake at Castlebar in 1891: this is a rare species. I made a second visit to the lake, expecting to find more of this beautifully transparent creature, but failed to find it again. It is one of the most tantalizing creatures I have met with ; when one isin the field of view sailing gracefully and slowly through the water, and the observer is enjoying the sight of its symmetrical and crystalline form, then, all of a sudden without the least warning, it springs with lightning speed out of the field of view. This species was discovered by me, in 1881, in Perthshire. Stephanops muticus, Ehrenb. I found a number of examples in two small lakes amongst Myriophyllum, and in a marsh-pool, near Westport, 1891, ’92. S. chlena, Gosse. I got a number of specimens in marsh-pools near Westport in 1891, ’92. I am somewhat doubtful as to its generic relations; it is very different from any other species, and probably deserves to be removed from the genus Stephanops. S. tripus, Lord. H. and G., Suppl., p. 36, pl. xxxi., 24. S. leydigzt, Zacharias. In August, 1894, in a small lake in the Knappagh district, I obtained a few specimens, which I refer to this species. They possessed two small red eyes, wide apart; a dorsal spine as long as the whole animal; a two-jointed foot, with a small fine spine at the base of the toes. The total length of the animal was; > inch. This description accords with that given by several German observers to a Stephanops described by them under various specific names. I am of opinion that they have all been describing the same species, and that it is identical Hoop—On the Rotifera of the County Mayo. 687 with that originally described by Lord. In the latter author’s original description, and in the account given on his authority in Hudson and Gosse’s Monograph, the animal is said to be devoid of eyes, the dorsal spine to be ? the length of the body, and the foot to possess only a single joint. The eyes are exceedingly minute and liable to be overlooked, and the other slight discrepancies may likewise be due to error in the first description. Family SaLprnipz. Diaschiza valga, Gosse. Examples of this species occurred frequently in bog and marsh-pools amongst Utricularia, in the neighbourhood of Westport, 1889, 791, 792. D. hoodii, Gosse. Many examples of this species occurred in Castle- bar Lake in 1891; a number also in Knappagh Lake, and ina pool on a hill near Westport, 1891, ’92. Miss Glascott (op. cét., p- 68) notes the abundance of this ‘rare’ species in Ireland, D. peta, Gosse. A number of examples of this species occurred in the quarry-pool near Westport in 1894. D. semiaperta, Gosse. Numerous in Castlebar Lake in 1891. D. fretalis, Gosse. H. and G., Suppl., p. 37, pl. xxxi., 28. I found many examples of this marine species in the lagoon at West- port Harbour in 1891, 792. D. globata, Gosse. H. and G., Suppl., p. 37, pl. xxxi., 30. A number of examples in the old quarry, near Westport, 1892, ’94. Salpina mucronata, Ehrenb. Frequent in bog-pools amongst Utricularia, Westport, 1892. 8. spinigera, Ehrenb. A few examples of this species occurred in the quarry-pond near Westport, 1889, ’92. S. brevispina, Ehrenb. Examples were found frequently in Castlebar Lake and Knappagh Lake, 1891, ’92, ’94. S. eustala, Gosse. A number of examples were observed in water from a ditch beside the Westport Railway, 1892. . bicarinata, Ehrenb. H. and G., Suppl., p. 38, pl. xxxiii., 80. A few specimens in vegetable débris from the lake at Castlebar, 1891. . pertyt, Hood. Salpina bicarinata, F. R. Dixon-Nuttall, J. R. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOU, I. 22 R R 688 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Microse. Soc., October, 1893, p. 639. uchlanis bicarinata, Perty. H. and G., Suppl., p. 40, pl. xxxii., 31. I found two examples of this species in a marsh near Westport in 1894; in April, 1893, I obtained it near Dundee; and so far as I know, these remain the only records of its occurrence in Britain. Mr. Nuttall’s description and figures of this species are very accurate and life-like, and far superior to the drawing in Hudson and Gosse, which is incorrect in several particulars. I agree with Mr. Nuttall that this species deserves to be transferred from Euchlanis to Salpina, and that, as that writer has already suggested, it must receive a new name, the specific appellation bicarinata, being already preoccupied by Ehrenberg’s species. Diplois daviesi@, Gosse. I found a number of examples of this hand- some species in the lake at Castlebar, 1891; and in a small lake east of Westport, 1892. Family EventanipZ. Euchlanis lyra, Hudson. Many examples of this, the largest member of the genus, occurred in a marsh to the east of Westport, 1891. E. hyalina, Leydig. H. and G., Suppl., p. 389. A number of specimens from a small lake on the Knappagh road, 1894. Eckstein (op. cit., p. 45) takes this species to be a variety of E. triquetra, Khrenb. E. triquetra, Ehrenb. Fairly plentiful in the small lakes near West- port, 1892. E. macrura, Ehrenb. A few examples from the lake at Castlebar, 1891; and a few more from two lakes to the east of Westport, 1892. Family Catuypnipz. Cathypna luna, Ehrenb. Common. C. rusticula, Gosse. Numerous in a few marsh-pools, near Westport, and in vegetable débris from Castlebar Lake; 1891, ’92, 794. C. dionis, Gosse. H. & G., Suppl., p. 41, pl. xxxi., 38. This species is easily identified by the dome-shaped posterior end of the lorica and by the sharp-pointed toes. I got a few examples only in a small lake on the Knappagh road, Westport, 1892. C. latifrons, Gosse. H. & G., Suppl., p. 42, pl. xxxi., 37, This species can be readily identified by the geometric form of the Hoop—On the Rotifera of the County Mayo. 689 lorica, and by the symmetrical toe. A few examples in a moss- pool, high up on a hill, near Westport, 1891, ’92. Distyla gissensis, Eckstein (op. cit., p. 41). I found the species rather abundantly in two lakes, near Westport, associated with Conochilus unicornis; 1892, ’94. D. flexilis, Gosse. I met with this corrugated species frequently in bogs, near Westport and Castlebar, 1891, ’92. D. bipara, Gosse. H. andG., Suppl., p. 43, pl. xxxi., 39. A number of examples occurred in the mill-pound, at Westport, 1894. Monostyla cornuta, Ehrenb. More or less abundant all round West- port. NM. mollis, Gosse. H. and G., Suppl., p. 44, pl. xxxi., 41. micropus, lg ? longiseta, 70L Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Glascott. Glascott = Proales orthodon, Ehrenb. | Glascott. Glascott = ? N. torulosa, Duj. Glascott. Glascott. (Ehrenb.). Gosse. Gosse. Collins. Gosse. Hudson. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Glascott = Ehrenb. Furcularia spherica, Gosse }. Notommata cylindriformis,,. Glascott. ll (Ehrenb.). Bolton. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. 702 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. *+ Furcularia aequalis, et * *% * * x be ee ee *1 Distemma i ¥ % % * T 9) 9? Triphylus Kosphora 99 99 99 spherica, lophyra, molaris, boltoni, marina, gracilis, caeca, gibba, sterea, semisetifera, megalocephala, rigida, forcipata, aquila, suillia, pachida, silpha, eiraffa, catellina, biraphis, permollis, grandis, circinator, caudata, uncinata, inflata, revolvens, elongata, rugosa, hudsoni, dromius, raptor, platyceps, lacustris, elongata, digitata, aurita, striata, + Mastigocerca scipio, t 2? rattus, Ehrenb. Gosse, = Proales inflata, Glascott. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Duj. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Glascott =F. eva, Gosse. Glascott = F. lactistes, Gosse. Glascott = ? Proales coryneger, Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. (Milne). Glascott = ? Furcularia inflata, Gosse. Glascott. Glascott = ? Furcularia silpha, Gosse. Glascott. Glascott. Glascott = ? Furcularia uncinata, Milne. Gosse. Gosse. (Ehrenb.) Ehrenb. Ehrenb. (Ehrenb.). Glascott = ? E. naias, Ehrenb. Gosse. (Ehrenb.). Hoop—On the Rotifera of the County Mayo. 703 *1 Mastigocerca bicornis, (Ehrenb. ). 7) - bicristata, (?) Gosse. i 55 brachydactyla, Glascott. “S i elongata, Gosse. ce <3 lernis, Gosse. os at carinata, Ehrenb. a # lophoessa, Gosse. 2 as stylata, Gosse. *+ Rattulus tigris, (Ehrenb.). * 5s calyptus, Gosse. 5 bicornis, Western. il 5 helminthodes, — Gosse. 17 *; cimolius, Gosse. *t Coelopus porcellus, Gosse. Sai) a minutus, Gosse. ii 5 tenuior, Gosse. iT a brachyurus, Gosse. tT aS cavia, Gosse. *t Dinocharis pocillum, Ehrenb. cai 3 tetractis, Ehrenb. * Polychetus collinsii, (Gosse). *. $3 subquadratus, Perty. *t Scaridium longicaudum, Ehrenb. eudactylotum, Gosse. 99 * Stephanops muticus, Ehrenb. ce 33 chloena, Gosse. oe ae tripus, Lord. T lamellaris, Ehrenb. tT %, unisetatus, Coll. *t Diaschiza valga, Gosse. cat; se hood, Gosse. eli 55 peta, Gosse. a 5 semiaperta, Gosse. oe $3 fretalis, Gosse. = _ globata, Gosse. iT 5 exigua, Gosse. *+ Salpinia mucronata, Ehrenb. ei + spinigera, Ehrenb. ati a brevispina, Ehrenb. oS BS eustala, Gosse. 0 bicarinata, Ehrenb. R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 34 704 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. * Salpinia * Diplois * Euchlanis i 99 ier ae ah 3? ines t 99 t 9? *t Cathypna hi 99 = 9 Ss oP) * Distyla a} 99 % 2? *t Monostyla % 7 % 99 rt Pr) jee: t 99 *t+ Colurus % 29 ne % 99 % 99 % 7) % 9? % 3? % 99 Metopidia * * al. Se % pertyi, daviesiz, lyra, hyalina, triquetra, macrura, dilatata, defiexa, pyriformis, subversa, luna, rusticula, dionis, latifrons, gissensis, flexilis, bipara, cornuta, mollis, bulla, lordii, lunaris, quadridentata, deflexus, uncinatus, caudatus, dactylopus, ccelopinus, dumnonius, grallator, dicentrus, micromela, obtusus, pachypodus, tessellatus, lepadella, solidus, oxysternum, triptera, ovalis, cornuta, (Hood). Gosse. Hudson. Leydig. Ehrenb. Ehrenb, Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Bryce. (See Note in Press.) Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Eckstein. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Glascott. Glascott. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Schmarda. Hoop—On the Rotifera of the County Mayo. * Metopidia Hl ” *+ Monura oe ) * Mytilia s 9? cs >) if 9) *t Cochleare * Pterodina If ” = ie) ai 9 ali ” *t Brachionus “ay ” = 9 = 9? = 9? Ti 9) T 9 * Noteus * Anurea a 9? ss 9 eS 9) ce 99 “3 9? * ?) % x ) *. Notholea = 9) = 9) eS 9) a ) Pe 9) a 9? vs is eS 9? * Pedalion pysmea, bractea, colurus, loncheres, teresa, tavina, peecilops, producta, turbo, bidentata, patina, truncata, clypeata, valvata, urceolaris, rubens, miulleri, pala, angularis, bakeri, serrulata, quadricornis, curyicornis, hypelasma, aculeata, cochlearis, serrulata, biremis, testudo, schista, brevispina, longispina, acuminata, scapha, spinifera, thalassia, rugosa, heptodon, labis, hoodii, mirum, Gosse. (Ehrenb.). Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Gosse. Ternetz. Ehbrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Hudson. Ehrenb, Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Gosse. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Ehrenb. Gosse. Gosse. Kellicott. Ehrenb. Gosse. Hood. Gosse. Gosse. Perty. Gosse. Western. Hudson. 342 705 706 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. d.a., . . dorsal antenna. F.D.N., . Drawn by Mr. F. Dixon- d.s., . . dorsal spine. Nuttall. CON DO 10. lateral antenna. W., . . Drawnby Mr. Western. lateral knob. Shyla Be eas >> 5, theauthor. lateral spine. OERIS ses >» 9, Mr.C. Rousselet. frontal horns. WeLcC.. ws » 9», Mr. W. T. Cal- man. Prate XXI. Anarthra aptera, Hood. Lateral view. 1a, dorsal view. 16, do. in the contracted state. Figs. la, 10, are taken from my paper in the Journ. of the Quekett Club., October, 1893 (Chih) Cyrtonia tuba, = Notommata tuba, Ehr. Ventral view. 2a, lateral view (f.D.N.). Eosphora elongata, Ehr. Dorsal view. 3a, lateral view. 36, diagrammatic transverse section. 3c, mastax, dorsal view. 38d, do., lateral view (2.D.N.). Pratt XXII. Rattulus bicornis, Western. Dorsal view. 4a, lateral view. Polychaetus collinsti, Gosse. Dorsal view (J.H.). Polychaetus subquadratus, Perty. Dorsal view (J./.). Pterodina bidentata, Ternetz. 1.k., lateral knobs on lorica (J.Z.). Notholea spinifera, Hood. Dorsal view. 8a, dorsal antenna (d.a.) in front view, highly magnified. 84, do. in side view. .s., lateral spines, folded (/.D.N.). Ploésoma lenticulare, Herrick. Lateral view. 9a, Dorsal view. r.h., retractile fleshy horns (C.2.). The hexagonal sculp- turing present over the whole lorica is shown only on a portion of the lateral view. Euchlanis subversa, Bryce. Dorsal view. 10a, Lateral view (WelCs). enor 4] XL. ON THE CHROMOSOMES OF LILIUM LONGIFLORUM. By H. H. DIXON, B.A., Assistant to the Professor of Botany, Trinity College, Dublin. (Prate XXIII.) [COMMUNICATED BY DR. E. P. WRIGHT. | [Read Novemper 11, 1895.] Tne following is a short account of some observations on the nuclei of Lilium longiflorum, which were made with the special object of deter- mining accurately the number of the chromosomes formed by the nuclear thread in mitosis both in the sexual and asexual cells. The preparations were obtained from material fixed in alcohol, the sections being made by a microtome using the ordinary paraffin- embedding process (vzde Zimmerman, Bot. Mikrotechnik). No fixative was used, but the sections in paraffin were spread on the slide floating in water and after the evaporation of the latter they adhered to the glass and kept their position for succeeding manipulation. Staining was carried out either en bloc by immersing the small portions of the plant to be examined in dilute stain for several days previous to embedding, or after the sections were cut and fixed on the slide. With Delafield’s Hematoxylin, the first method gave the clearest nuclear staining, although by the second scarcely inferior results are obtainable, when great care is taken to free the sections thoroughly from all traces of paraffin, xylol, and alcohol before putting them into the dilute stain. In the preparations obtained by staining ex bloc the chromatin elements only of the nuclei are stained ; but if staining is carried out after sectioning, the cell-walls are stained. ‘the latter, when the sections are thin, do not obscure the structure of the nuclei. The chromosomes of the dividing nuclei of the vegetative cells are usually most easily counted in series of sections, each of which is 5p or 10 thick. Often, however, when dealing with the large nuclei in the pollen-sac or embryo-sac, it is useful to cut some sections 15 or 20 » in thickness. 708 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. In a series of sections cut to 10 » asingle dividing nucleus of a vege- tative cell may appear on two or even three successive sections, and when the poles of such a nucleus lie in a plane parallel to the surfaces of the sections, the disposition of the chromosomes is very readily followed. This occurrence, which is by no means exceptional, renders the counting of the chromosomes, which is, ordinarily, in free hand preparations a difficult and tedious task, perfectly simple. Thus, fig. 1, Pl. XXIII., represents the portions of dividing nuclei found on successive sections. In fig. 1 eight chromosomes are to be seen in the upper aster, and seven in the lower, in the first section, and in the next eight above and nine below. In these examples the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is sixteen (or thirty-two after fission), and I found this number to occur in the majority of the nuclei of the cells of the growing region, but there were also other nuclei in which the number was larger; in many instances twenty-four. In some cases only twenty or twenty-two could be seen. The smaller numbers may be due to the fact that a few chromosomes were in these cases extravasated by the action of the knife, although I think it probable that some of the nuclei may possess these numbers of chromosomes which are intermediate between the extremes sixteen and twenty-four. Numbers greater or less than these were not found. The cells containing the twenty-four- or sixteen- valent nuclei did not appear to occupy any definite position im the plant, nor is the one or the other kind of nucleus characteristic of the cells belonging to any definite tissue-system, e.g., nuclei with twenty- four chromosomes were found in the dermatogen of the stem and young leaves, in the cortex, in vascular strands of the leaf, in the central medullary tissue of the stem, in the mesophyll, in the subepidermal layer of the young anther. The nuclei with sixteen chromosomes are about twice as numerous as those with twenty to twenty-four, and they are found in the same organs and systems of tissue as the latter. The possibility that the number of chromosomes may vary in the asexual cells of a plant has already been expressed by Strasburger (Ann. of Botany, vol. vii. No. xxxi, 1894), and Guignard (‘‘ Nouv. Etud. s. 1. Fécondation,” p. 246), and from my observations on L. longiflorum it appears not to be an accidental occurrence but rather the rule in this plant. Strasburger, however (Joc. cit.), is inclined to believe that such variations do not occur in the embryonic tissues or in the growing region, but it was in these latter positions in which most of my countings were made, and from my preparations I can hardly doubt but that the number is in this case, at least, variable. Drxon— On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. 709 It also results from these observations that the number of chromosomes is not constant for the whole genus Lilium ; for while twenty-four is the most general number in Z. Martagon (cf. Guignard, loc. cit.) sixteen is more usual in ZL. longiflorum, although twenty-four also occurs. The meaning of the variation in number is difficult to explain. It suggested itself that this difference among the nuclei might be due to hybridisation, especially as L. longiflorum is so highly cultivated a form, but I could obtain no record of its being a hybrid, and when I compared the nuclei of the variety ‘‘ Harrisii”’ with the “type’’ I found that the variation occurred in a similar manner in both. Development of the Pollen. The nuclei of the young stamen may contain sixteen or twenty-four chromosomes ; these two numbers are found even in the cells of the archesporium up to the formation of the special mother-cells of the pollen; however, those with twenty-four are rarer than those with sixteen. Preparatory to the first mitosis of the special mother-cells of the pollen the nuclear thread breaks up into half the number of chromosomes. In this stage—the prophase as well as in the diaster— I have found nuclei with eight chromosomes and others with twelve. In these stages and in the subsequent divisions to form the nuclei of the pollen grains I have counted twelve chromosomes in drawings made from about forty nuclei as well as eight in similar drawings from about forty more. Besides these nuclei there are also others present which contain ten chromosomes, and I haye seen one or two with thirteen and fourteen, but these latter are very rare. From these numbers it follows that each kind of asexual nucleus, 7.e. those with twenty-four and sixteen chromosomes and, perhaps, even those with intermediate numbers have representatives in the mother-cells of the pollen, some of the nuclei of the latter possessing twelve, some eight, and some ten. Thus, not only is the number of chromosomes in the asexual nuclei of this lily variable, but even the number found in the nuclei of the pollen mother-cells also varies within the limits stated. With regard to the form of the nuclear figures of the divisions, previous to the formation of the pollen grains, it may be noticed that in the pollen mother-cells the nuclear thread, before being distinguish- able into individual chromosomes, is a complexly coiled delicate thread. The granules of which it is composed, even with high powers, appear to form a single row in the filament of linin; at this time there are 710 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. from two to three nucleoli present. The next stage entered into by the nucleus is that which is conveniently called the ‘‘ synaptic” stage by Moore? in which the linin aggregates together into a spherical mass. in the nuclear cavity drawing with it the chromatin granules. To judge from the precision and clearness of the nuclear figures in surrounding tissues of preparations containing the nuclei of the pollen mother-cells in ‘‘synapsis,’”’ we may infer with the last-mentioned writer and Farmer that this appearance is not due to defective fixing ; although it is quite conceiveable that methods which are adequate to fix the other nuclei are not suitable for these nuclei in this particular stage. The spherical mass, formed in the synaptic nucleus appears to be a . ball formed of an extremely closely wound-up delicate thread. The thread is beaded with very minute chromatin granules. In some cases a looped portion of the delicate thread is not wound into the mass but extends from it to the nuclear membrane. Again, in some cells a number of granules (six to twelve) instead of the single mass are to be observed, formed by the nuclear thread. I have not been able to discover whether this latter appearance is a definite stage occurring in all the pollen mother-cells or whether it represents a state which may occasionally replace the more general condition. In the next stage I observed the nuclear thread had the form of a loosely coiled skein. It was still very delicate. In numerous places along the thread portions were so folded on each other as to lie for some distance parallel to one another (fig. 2); this appearance is not probably due to the fission of a single thread, but rather to the approximation of two distinct portions, as may be concluded from the occasional wide separations and crossings of the parts of the thread, as well as from the fact that the approximated portions come to le more nearly parallel to one another in the latter stages* (fig. 3.) This coiled thread next breaks into a number of portions consisting of two more or less parallel and comparatively long portions, which certainly, by their appearance, suggest the idea that each pair has arisen by the approximation of two thread-like portions rather than by the cleavage of one thread (fig. 5). Sometimes one may lie across the other or may be bent so as to cross it twice or three times, or again, the two may be united by one pair of ends while the other ends diverge from one another. At this time 1 Ann. of Bot., vol. ix., p. 431, September, 1895. 2 Farmer (Ann. of Botany, September, 1895) calls attention to a similar appearance in the nuclei of the Liverworts, but concludes that it is brought about by fission. Dixon—On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. 711 there are one to three large nucleoli in the nucleus, and in each is usually to be recognised a large vacuole. In one preparation, at this stage, I saw a chromosome bent into the form of a ring surrounding a nucleolus. Sometimes the chromosomes are bent into the form of a V, but this appears to be the exception. During this period they are not very susceptible of the usual nuclear stains.1 The slender parallel portions of each of the chromosomes gradually grow shorter and thicker (fig. 4), so that they appear roughly quadrate, triangular, or ring-shaped (fig. 5). This latter form arises probably from the more complete approximation of the two portions at the ends than in the middle.? In each case the distinction into two portions is more or less completely preserved. When the chromosomes, having these forms, re-arrange themselves after the solution of the nuclear membrane to form the nuclear plate, they dispose themselves in such a manner that when viewed from the poles the division between the two portions is apparent ; at least I believe that the division one sees under these circumstances corresponds to the division in the slender chromosomes, between the approximated portions of the thread, as this division alone is visible at the first formation of the nuclear plate (fig. 7). But as each of the chromosomes forming the nuclear plate appears, in most cases, divided longitudinally into four portions by two planes at right angles to one another, it is difficult to decide which of these two planes of division corresponds to the space separating the two portions of each chromosome which have come together by the approximation of different parts of the thread. If the horizontal plane of division corresponds to this space, it is evident that the division might be a ‘* reduction division.” Often the shape of the chromosome, seen in profile, seems to support this view; but I think on the whole that it is more probable, for the reasons already given, that the vertical plane of division corresponds to the space separating the two portions of the nuclear thread. In this latter case there could be no ‘“ reduction division.”’? At a slightly later period, inspection from the equatorial plane shows these bodies (the short thick chromosomes) beginning to undergo horizontal longitudinal fission (fig. 6) which commences at the 1 The nucleus of the pollen mother-cells in this stage present a remarkable simi- larity to the corresponding stages in the development of the nucleus of the ovum figured by V. Hacker (Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., 1895). 2 Cf. Farmer, Ueber Kerntheilung in Lilium-Antheren; Flora, 1895, : Belajetf also notices other peculiar forms assumed by the chromosomes in the division of the nucleus of the pollen mother-cells of Larix europea; I lora, 1894. 712 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. inner end and passes outwards to the peripheral end of the chromosome and causes it to assume the characteristic humped form, and later the T-shape. In the latter stage the horizontal bar of the T is represented by the imner ends of the dividing chromosomes which part asunder from one another and bend up directly to the opposite poles, the vertical bar corresponds to the still united peripheral portions of the chromosome. Often before the inner ends are bent up towards the poles a more transparent line may be seen dividing the chromosome horizontally and along which the horizontal fission will take place. Judging, then, from the appearance of the chromosomes from these two aspects—the polar and equatorial—we may conclude that each chromosome at the beginning of the formation of the nuclear plate is composed either of four short straight rods with their axes lying more or less exactly along the radu of the equatorial circle (quadrate chromosomes), or they may be united one with another at their inner ends in such a manner that their four free ends lie towards the peri- phery, while the angle included by the united ends is towards the centre (triangular chromosomes). In some cases the peripheral ends of each come into contact with one another, and so the annular chromo- some, composed of two annular halves in apposition, 1s formed. In fine, whether the chromosome in the equatorial plate is triangular, quadrate, or annular, it is divided more or less completely into four rod-shaped bodies by cleavages taking place in the vertical and horizontal plane; more strictly speaking, the division in the vertical plane represents an incomplete fusion. From Strasburger’s ‘‘ Practical Botany,’’ chap. 32, and Guignard’s figures (doc. cit., figs. 13 and 14), it is evident that they also have observed this structure in the chromosomes of the equatorial plate in the pollen mother-cells, since they figure the chromosomes as double when seen from the polar as well as from the equatorial aspect, but so far as I am aware they have not fully described it. Farmer (Flora, 1895) also describes and figures the four free ends directed towards the periphery, but these are in the case of LZ. longiflorum only occasionally to be made out with distinctness. More recently Strasburger (‘‘ Karyokinetische Probleme,” Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 1895) describes this process as a double longitudinal fission taking place to prepare the chromosomes for this as well as the following division in which he denies that longitudinal fission of the chromosomes takes place. It is to be noticed that he has not, in this last-mentioned work, re-examined the origin of the double thread, but bases his belief of its origin by fission on previous descriptions. The observations already described are against Drxon—On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. 713 this view, and as I have also observed the chromosomes of LZ. chalce- donicum and L. Martagon in the nuclear plate of the succeeding division undergo longitudinal fission, there is additional reason to believe that the process observed in the nucleus of the mother-cell is not a double longitudinal fission. (Figs. 13 a, 13, 14.) Before leaving the description of this stage I would like to direct attention to an appearance which frequently presents itself when the nuclear plate is regarded from the poles: the strands of the achromatic spindle (at all events the larger ones) seem to alternate with the chromosomes and do not appear to be attached to them (fig. 7). The halving of the chromosomes, which takes place in the equatorial plate, divides each chromosome in a horizonal sense, and it begins at that part of the chromosome which lies towards the axis, while the free ends lying towards the periphery remain in contact with one another for a short time longer. The horizontal parts of the mother-chromosome, which originally lay towards the centre, become bent abruptly towards the poles, while the peripheral portions of these parts, which are still in contact with one another, remain in the equatorial plane; the result is that when the whole chromosome is seen in profile from the equatorial plane it is T-shaped, the vertical bar of the T lying in the equatorial plane with the lower portion towards the periphery, while the horizontal bar extends towards the poles. Just before this horizontal cleavage has reached the peripheral end of the chromosome, this end undergoes cleavage along the line of separation between the two rods proceeding from the periphery in a vertical plane, so that the peripheral ends of the rods part asunder from one another horizontally. This cleavage, however, is never complete while the chromosome remains in the equatorial plate, for while at the equator the inner ends of the rods remain united. This double cleavage results in the formation of two V-shaped chromosomes touching one another by their ends while the apices are parted asunder and point towards the poles. The legs of each V include at first a very small angle, and lie almost parallel and in contact with one another (cf. fig. 8, and Belajeff, Flora, 1894). In this formation of V-shaped chromosomes for the daughter nuclei, it is to be noticed (as Belajeff, Joc. c’t., has already pointed out for Larix, Lilium, and Fritillaria), that there is no bending over of originally rod-shaped bodies through the intermediate S- and J-shaped bodies, but they are formed by the direct fission of V-shaped mother chromosomes.1 _ | Belajeff (/oc. cit.) considers that this is the case in all cases of karyokinesis in plants, but this, I think, is not borne out by observation. 714 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. As the V-shaped chromosomes moye away from the equator, the distance between each leg of the V increases, and at the same time they begin to exhibit a distinctly beaded appearance, each leg being formed of two to four bead-like masses of chromatin (fig. 9). At the angle of the V the space between the bead-like masses becomes greater than along the legs, and. finally, at the poles, or before the V-shaped chromosomes have reached the poles, they each break into two portions lying parallel to one another, and representing the legs of the V (fig. 10); each of these straight chromatin bodies is composed of two to four chromatin granules. In the daughter nucleus, even before it is provided with its membrane, each of these chromatin bodies breaks up into its constituent granules, so that these nuclei are composed of a large number of spherical granules apparently unconnected with one another (figs. 11 and 12). Judging from the appearances just described, I think it probable that each of the chromosomes into which the nuclear thread of the pollen-mother-cells breaks, prior to karyokinesis, corresponds to two chromosomes of previous divisions. These two chromosomes in the early stages of division may be united end to end, and at first bend loosely on one another or le across one another in various ways. Later on they come to lie side by side and present the appearance of being formed by the longitudinal fusion of one chromosome. If this view is correct, the doubling of the chromosomes previous to entering into the nuclear plate does not correspond to the division of the chromosomes which takes place in the equatorial plate of other cells ; this latter cleavage, however, takes place in the pollen-mother-cells when by means of the horizontal fission the two V-shaped daughter chromosomes separate one from another. The double nature of the chromosome in this karyokinesis is not only thus shown by their mode of origin, but also their appearance in the nuclear plate points to the same fact; and, finally, when the daughter chromosomes approach the poles they sever themselves more or less completely into two parts, again suggesting, as they do so, their compound nature. In this way these observations seem to bear out the view expressed by Strasburger,! that the reduction in number of the chromosomes is effected by the union of the chromosomes of previous divisions in pairs end to end. Unfortunately none of the material of Lilium longiflorum was fixed at the right time to catch the division of the daughter nuclei to form 1 Annals of Botany, September, 1894. Drxon—On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. 715 the pollen-tetrads. I supplemented this deficiency by observing this division in Lilium chalcedonicum and L. Martagon. In the former, as Farmer has observed for Z. Martagon, the second division of the pollen- mother-cell conforms to the normal type of plant karyokinesis, ¢.¢., the chromosomes do not appear double before the nuclear plate is formed, but in the nuclear plate they undergo longitudinal fission (figs. 18 and 14); the daughter chromosomes become V-shaped, by passing through J-shaped stages and the chromosomes are not so short and thick as in the preceding division. A point that may be noticed in this division is the fact that very often two of the daughter chromosomes remain in contact with one another by one end, after their other end and the other chromosomes have been gathered into the daughter nuclei. Again, during even the later stages of division, fragments of the nucleolus remain in proximity to the achromatic spindle and daughter nuclei. Development of the Embryo-sac. In nuclear divisions in the very young ovule nuclei are to be found with sixteen and with twenty-four chromosomes. In the earliest stages I examined the embryo-sac was only distinguishable from the surrounding cells of the ovule by its very slightly larger size, and by its more granular protoplasm, but it is not uncommon to find two to four cells in the axis of each ovule, all of which, at this stage, are larger than their neighbours, and their protoplasm is distinguished by its more granular appearance. In a division of one of the large cells lying beside that which eventually becomes the embryo-sac, I have counted sixteen chromosomes. The primary nucleus of the embryo-sac, ike that of the pollen- mother-cells, passes through the ‘‘ synaptic” stage, prior to entering into the earlier stages of division, and its behaviour is similar in all the stages of karyokinesis and the stages leading up to it, which I have examined, to that of the nucleus of the pollen-mother-cells. Naturally, so many preparations of this nucleus could not be examined as of the nucleus of the pollen-mother-cells and, consequently, the changes were not followed in such detail. Before the nucleus becomes “synaptic,” the embryo-sac has enlarged considerably and the nucleus usually lies towards its basal end. Above the nucleus in the protoplasm, fibres of great distinctness become apparent, forming a spindle in the finely granular protoplasm, the axis of which is at right angles to the axis of the embryo-sac (fig. 15), The appearance and position reminds one strongly of I’. Herman’s 716 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. fig. of Sperm-mother-cell of Salamandra maculata, preparing for division (Archiv f. mikros. Anat. 37). I have figured somewhat similar spindles in the oosphere of Pinus selvestris (Ann. of Bot., 1894). The presence of this spindle seems to be constant, for it occurred in every embryo-sac of a young ovary examined by means of a series of sections, and in other ovaries at the same stage of development. Sometimes, however, when the nucleus has approached the distal end of the cell, the spindle lies beneath it. This spindle is also to be seen in embryo-sacs of the same stage in L. Martagon. I have not observed the fate of this spindle. The nuclear filament of the primary nucleus of the embryo-sac, before the individual chromosomes can be distin- guished, resembles that of the pollen-mother-cells; it is delicate and complexly coiled, and often two portions of the thread run parallel to one another for some length. After the chromosomes have become separate from one another, each is seen just as in the pollen-mother- cells to be composed of two longitudinal portions, lying more or less closely in apposition to one another, but often bent across one another, or forming a loop together. The nuclear plate is formed of short thick T-shaped chromosomes, like those of the pollen-mother-cells. I did not observe the complete division of these, and the formation of the diaster, but owing to the similarity of the earlier stages, and the form- ation of the nuclear plate with these stages in the nuclei of the pollen mother-cells, we may conclude with probability that the later processes are similar. In the short stages of rest preceding the next divisions of the nuclei of the embryo-sac I have never seen the nuclei in “‘ synapsis,”’ nor have I seen any of the other phenomena which are characteristic of the first division of the primary nucleus, and of the nucleus of the pollen-mother-cells, in the divisions of the lower groups of nuclei in the embryo-sac. These characteristics, ¢.e., doubling of the thread, before the formation of the nuclear plate and fission into V-shaped daughter chromosomes, are not, as a rule, to be observed in the divisions ocurring in the upper group, although, m two cases, I have seen the equatorial plate, formed of humped chromosomes, in the first division, taking place at the upper end. In the great majority of cases the plate is formed, even in this division, of slender bent chromosomes, and in all the other divisions this latter form obtains (figs. 16 and 17). It may be seen that these observations do not lend support to the assumption that the so-called ‘‘ division with reduction” takes place either in the formation of the nucleus of the pollen grains, or in the Dixon—On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. CAUey development of the oosphere. And while the division of the nucleus of the pollen-mother-cells and the primary nucleus of the embryo-sac may very possibly conform to Professor Hacker’s’ scheme, designed to illustrate the formation of the first polar body; yet there is probably nothing in the succeeding divisions which could correspond to his scheme of the distribution of the chromosomes between the egg-nucleus and second polar body, for in all the later divisions observed the normal longitudinal fission of the chromosomes occurred at the equator. The variation of number of nuclear segments found in the dividing nuclei of the vegetative cells and in the divisions which take place, prior to the formation of the pollen-grains in the pollen-sacs, is also found in the mitoses which occur in the embryo-sac. As is well known from Guignard’s and Overton’s researches, the upper nuclei of the embryo-sac possess a smaller number of chromosomes than the lower; this disparity in number is very plainly seen in the mitoses taking place in the embryo-sac of Lelium longiflorum. But what is of special interest in the present case is the fact that the number of chromosomes found in the upper nucleus of one embryo-sac, is not always the same as that found in another embryo-sac taken from the same ovary; one may possess twelve, the other only eight. In three or four cases the number of chromosomes in this nucleus was found to be ten. In these embryo-sacs the number of chromosomes in the lower nuclei was usually, in those cases where it could be made out with certainty, twenty-four, but also sixteen occurred. In the subsequent divisions to form the four nuclei at the upper and the four at the lower end of the embryo- sac, the upper nuclei were found to possess eight to twelve nuclei, and the lower twenty-four or sixteen, with occasionally intermediate numbers. So far as I am aware variations in the number of the chromosomes have not before been found, and pointed out as occurring in the game- tophyte of flowering plants prior to the differentiation of the sexual cells. Strasburger and Guignard first showed that the number in the nuclei of the endosperm of lilies was variable, and I myself found that the nuclei in the endosperm of Pinus sylvestris differed from one another in the number of their chromosomes. Again, Strasburger notices, apparently as an anomaly, that he found some pollen-mother-cells of Chlorophyton sternbergianun,* which contained fourteen, while the normal number of chromosomes in that plant is twelve. More recently Farmer? 1 Ann. of Bot., 1x., xxxill., 1895. 2 Kern- und Zelltheilung, p. 49. 3 Ann. Bot., vol. ix. p. 488, September, 1895. 718 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. describes variations in number occurring in the nuclei of the game- tophyte of Pellia epiphylla, e.g. nine and seven instead of the normal eight. It appears to be quite uncertain how these differences in number arise as all the nuclei of the plant must be derived ultimately from one nucleus formed by the union of the male and female nuclei. Stras- burger suggests (Ann. of Bot., Sept. 1894) that the variability in number of the chromosomes of the nuclei of the endosperm of the Liliceze is due to the fusions which take place between the nuclei of the endosperm. It may also be brought about by the formation of multi- polar karyokinetic figures when two or more of the poles unite, and the majority of the chromosomes pass to the polar area formed of the union of two or more poles, leaving but very few for the single pole which remains independent. This process I have observed in the endosperm of Lritillaria imperialis. But neither of these methods of variation, nor the variation which might follow from the direct nuclear fission can be assumed as having probably caused the discrepancy in the numbers observed either in the embryonic or the sexual nuclei. In the hopes of being able to observe mitoses in the embryo and the endosperm I pollinated a large number of the stigmas of flowers of Lilium longiflorum with pollen from different or the same flowers. In no case however was the embryo formed, although in several sections the pollen-tubes were seen penetrating the micropyle, and one preparation showed one male nucleus passing into the embryo-sac, while the other apparently remained behind in the pollen-tube. In these cases, immediately after fertilisation, the three antipodal-cells become placed in such a position as to form a hollow cone round the large endosperm- nucleus. The sac at the same time collapses laterally and elongates downwards, and the endosperm nucleus travels deep into the nucellus, and carries the three antipodal cells in front of it in the form of a cap. The nucleus of these latter gradually becomes indistinct while the whole protoplasm of the cells becomes more highly refractive, and stains very deeply. A similar fate overtakes the other nuclei of the embryo-sac, but usually somewhat later. When no pollen-tube reaches the embryo-sac, a peculiar phenomenon is sometimes observable. The central portion of the embryo-sac becomes filled with a large number of nuclei formed by direct division (fig. 18). From my sections it is impossible to say with certainty whether these arise from division of the lower polar nucleus, or from the endosperm nucleus, formed from the fusion of the upper and lower polar nuclei, but from the preparations the former seems the most Dixon--On the Chromosomes of Lilium longiflorum. 719 probable. They are of various sizes, and are budded off from the originating nucleus in a manner resembling the budding of yeast cells. Fig. 18 shows one of these nuclei being formed from the large central nucleus, It may be noticed that this form of direct division is not uncommonly to be seen in the nuclei of the endosperm of Pritillaria impervalis, and is very unlike in appearance the typical direct division found in Tradescantia and Characee, &c., where the resulting nuclei into which the original nucleus divides are about the same size. Protoplasmic strize radiate from the products of this direct fission, just as they do from nuclei formed by mitosis, into the surrounding protoplasm. : EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII. Fies. 1-12, Lilium longiflorum. Fic. 1.—Diaster in the 5th cell from the surface of the apex, appear- ing in two successive longitudinal sections of a bud. Fie. 2.—Pollen mother-cell. Nuclear thread is seen doubled in places. x 500. Fie. 3.—Pollen mother-cell, after the differentiation of the chromo- somes. x 500. Fie. 4.—Same as Fic. 3; later stage. Fic. 5.—Diagram illustrating the forms assumed by the chromosomes of the pollen mother- cells prior to their arrangement in the nuclear plate. x 1000. Fic. 6.—Pollen mother-cell, nuclear plate seen from the equatorial plane. The horizontal division of one chromosome is nearly complete, which is also indistinctly divided vertically. x 500. Fie. 7.—Nuclear plate of pollen mother-cell seen from one of the poles. The short thick chromosomes appear more or less distinctly composed of two approximated portions. Fibres of the achromatic spindle are seen between some of the chromosomes. x 500. Fre. 8.—Nuclear plate in pollen mother-cell seen from the equatorial plane. The chromosome on the right is dividing horizon- tally into two V-shaped daughter chromosomes. x 900. K.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 3B 720 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Fie. 9.—Pollen mother-cell. Daughter chromosomes leaving nuclear plate. Each is seen breaking into two portions. x 500. Fie. 10.—Diaster in pollen mother-cell. x 500. Fie. 11.—Diaster in pollen mother-cell seen from the pole. A later stage than Fig. 10. The chromosomes are breaking into chromatin granules. x 500. Fic. 12.—Later stage than Fig. 11. Granules formed by the chromo- somes before the formation of the complete daughter nucleus. x 500. Fies. 18, 14, 15, Leliam chalcedonicum. Fries. 138, a and 6.—Nuclear plate of the second karyokinesis of the pollen mother-cell appearing on two successive sections, The chromosomes are undergoing longitudinal fission. x 400. Fie. 14.—A similar preparation to Figs. 13 @ and 6. The whole nuclear plate is contained in one section. x 500. Fries. 16-19, Leliwm longiflorum. Fie. 15.—Embryo-sac showing the formation of the spindle in the protoplasm outside the nucleus. x 400. Fias. 16, 17.—Two successive sections through the same embryo-sac, showing the second karyokinesis. The chromosomes are slender and longitudinally cleft. Fic. 18.—Upper portion of an unfertilized embryo-sac, showing the direct nuclear fission occurring in the central portion. x 260. All the figs. are copies of drawings made by means of a camera lucida. XLI. NOTE ON THE NUCLEI OF THE ENDOSPERM OF FRITIL- LARIA IMPERIALIS. By H. H. DIXON, B.A. (Pirate XXIV.) [COMMUNICATED BY DR. E. P. WRIGHT. | [Read NoveMBER 11, 1895.] Tue multinucleate protoplasmic lining of the embryo-sac of Pritillaria imperialis has long been known as a very suitable object in which to study the normal changes taking place in the nucleus during karyo- kinesis. It is, however, not less remarkable for the variety of extraordinary forms of nuclear division which present themselves in it, especially before the formation of cell-walls in the protoplasm surrounding the nuclei. As a rule, these nuclei are remarkable for their size, and vary from :05 mm. to ‘025 mm. in diameter; but among these nuclei there are others which stand out conspicuously, even in contrast with them, owing to their enormous dimensions. Fig. 1, Pl. xxiv., represents one of these giant nuclei, which measured "3mm. in length. ‘The position in the sac of these nuclei does not appear to be constant, though they seem to occur more frequently at the distal end than at the proximal, and they are also usually found in groups together. Their mode of division is generally direct, and the phases they pass through during fission are often so peculiar as to appear grotesque. Sometimes the whole enormous nucleus is seen to break up into a number of small nuclei of very irregular shapes and dimensions. These smaller nuclei remain connected together for some time by narrow filaments formed by portions of the mother nucleus which have become drawn out into thread-likeforms.! Fig. 2 is drawn from such a specimen. This figure also illustrates a peculiarity of these direct divisions, namely, the occurrence between the severed portions of the nucleus of regular strie in the protoplasm similar to the spindle which persists for some time between two daughter nuclei formed by karyokinesis. 1 W. Flemming (Archiv f. Mikrosk. Anatomie., 37, 1889) describes similar connecting filaments between the daughter nuclei formed by direct division in the leucocytes of the Salamander. 722 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. In another form of division, which I have observed in these nuclei, a number of (fig. 8) bud-like protuberances are formed on and project from the surface of the large nucleus. These protuberances may swell into a bag-shaped form and be cut off from the parent nucleus, or they may branch and form two such bag-like appendages to the large nucleus, which become cut off from it by the attenuation of the connecting stalk. ach of the fragments thus severed from the parent nucleus has all the appearance of a small nucleus. The number of these fragments so cut off may be considerable, so that in the protoplasm round a nucleus, budding in the manner I have described, as many as ten to fifteen of them may be seen. Again, in direct division, the nucleus may become ring-shaped (fig 4), and by the gradual attenuation of the annular nucleus in two places it becomes parted into two nuclei. In some cases the ring attenuates in three places and so the nucleus is divided into three nuclei. Fig. 5 furnishes an example of both processes.! In the simplest form of direct division the giant nucleus elongates and becomes constricted about the middle, it then assumes the shape of an hour-glass, and finally breaks into two fairly equal portions (fig. 13). In the smaller nuclei also of the embryo-sac I have noticed irregulari- ties of division. The most interesting of these are those forms of nuclear fission which are intermediate* between normal karyokinesis and direct division. In one of these forms before direct division the nuclear thread breaks into a number of shorter pieces and the nucleoli disappear. Without the nuclear membrane, however, dissolving or the formation of the nuclear plate, the nucleus becomes constricted across the middle so that it appears dumbell-shaped (fig. 6). The connecting piece between the two ends of the dumbell is usually situated more to one side than the other, and beside it in the protoplasm fibres arise, which present the appearance of a normal spindle. The fact that even in these forms of direct division, where the nuclear membrane does not 1 Ring-shaped nuclei and their direct fragmentation are described by W. Flemming (Arch. f. Mikros. Anat., 37, 1889) as occurring in the leucocytes of the Salamander; cf. also Arnold (Archiv f. Mikrosk. Anatomie, 1889) and Goéppert in the same journal, 1891. 2 W. Flemming (doc. cit.) says: ‘Kin bestimmter Unterschied zwischen directer und indirecter Fragmentirung will mir tiberhaupt nicht recht durchtthrbar erscheinen.”’ Hess also (Ziegler’s Beitrige z. pathol. Anat. u. z. allg. Pathol., Bd. viii.) found nuclear figures in the spleen of the mouse, which he regards as intermediate forms between direct division and mitosis. 3 W. Flemming (oc. cit.) found that the centrosomes lay usually at the one side of the narrow connecting filaments between the nuclei undergoing direct division. Dixon—WNuclei of the Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis. 28 dissolve, the nucleoli disappear prior to the formation of the spindle points undoubtedly to, at least, a partial nucleolar origin of the latter structure ;1 this view finds further support from the fact, in those cases of simple direct fission in which the spindle is not formed (fig. 13), the nucleoli usually persist during the process of fission. However, the dimensions of the nucleolus, before division, appears to bear no relation to the distinctness of the spindle formed during division ; for often during normal karyokinesis in the embryo-sac, before the protoplasm is partitioned into cells, the spindles of the dividing nuclei are very indistinct, while, before division, ne nucleoli of these nuclei were both large and numerous. Very often the connecting neck between the two daughter nuclei is so delicate (fig. 7) that it is difficult to distinghish it from a retarded chromosome of normal karyokineses (fig. 8). However, in those cases, where retarded chromosomes form a connection between the daughter nuclei, the latter do not reconstruct themselves completely (e.g. do not form their nuclear membrane) till all the chromosomes in connection with them are retracted. Whereas in the other case the daughter nuclei, while still in connection with one another by means of the narrow neck, resemble resting nuclei except for the fact that they possess definite protoplasmic radiations and the spindle lies between them. During these divisions portions of the nuclear thread (chromo- somes?) protude from the daughter nuclei and project into the surrounding protoplasm (figs. 6 and 9). In no case was I able to detect longitudinal fission of the chromosomes during direct division. However, the manner in which two pairs of chromosomes, shown beneath the connecting neck in figure 6, are in contact with one another, suggests the thought that they have been formed by longi- tudinal fission. Tripolar and quadripolar nuclei are frequently to be found in these preparations, and in many cases these multipolar nuclei divide into three or four daughter nuclei (figs. 10 and 11). Usually one of the poles appears to have feebler attractive powers than the others, and consequently the nucleus formed at it is small, since but few chromo- somes are drawn to form it from the common nuclear plate. Again, cases are found in which two of the poles coalesce, and round them the majority of the chromosomes assemble, leaving for the other pole or poles, but very few (sometimes only two to four). The variation in the 1 Of. Strasburger, Karyokinetische Probleme, Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 1895. 724 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. number of the chromosomes of the nuclear plate of cases of normal karyokinesis in the endosperm very probably often arises in these multipolar divisions; for it is easily seen that in this way nuclei con- taining abnormally large and abnormally small numbers of chromosomes would be formed. Doubtless nuclear fusion is also often responsible for the nuclei with large numbers, as Strasburger has pointed out. A curious case of this latter process is figured in fig. 14, where two of the daughter nuclei formed by the fission of two neighbouring nuclei have united together immediately after division. In the multipolar nuclear divisions the same transition forms between direct and indirect nuclear division have been observed (fig. 12). It not infrequently happens that apparently without any formation of a third pole a few chromosomes fail to attach themselves to either of the daughter nuclei of a division, but take up a position at the edge of the rudiment of the cell-plate, and towards them the fibres of the achromatic spindle appear drawn (fig. 15). The portions of the nuclear thread which in the abnormal divisions protrude from the daughter nuclei as well as the fragments of the thread which remain external to them after the completion of division become vacuolated so as to remind one of Van Beneden’s and Neyt’s figures of the reconstruction of the daughter nuclei in Ascaris megalo- cephala by the vacuolation of the chromosomes of the diaster (Nouvelles recherches sur la fécondation et la division mitosique chez l’ascaride megalocéphale. Leipzig, 1887). The ultimate fate of the daughter nuclei formed by direct division I have not been able to ascertam.! It seems probable, since these divisions are found in such early stages of the growth of the endosperm, e.g. before the formation of the cell-partitions, that these nuclei con- tinue to divide either by direct division or by karyokinesis. It is, however, quite possible that neither they nor their descendants ever divide by karyokinesis unless they unite with other nuclei. In conclusion it may be noticed that the abnormal divisions 1 Ziegler (Archiv f. Mikrosk. Anatomie, 30), concludes that direct nuclear fragmentation only occurs when nuclei take on a specialized function and then disintegrate. Again the same author (Biol. Centralb. 11) notices that nuclei which divide by amitosis are exceptionally large ; that direct fission occurs chiefly (perhaps exclusively} in the nuclei of cells in which the secretory and assimilatory processes are very intense. Von Rath (Zool. Anzeiger, 1891) believes it probable that nuclei which haye once divided directly never divide by mitosis; that direct division cannot be repeated indefinitely ; that regenerative growth never takes place by amitosis. Dixon—WNuclei of the Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis. 725 described in this note take place in the embryo-sac simultaneously with normal examples of karyokinesis, and their successive stages are to be found side by side with successive stages of the latter process, so that it seems probable that the same stimuli give rise to these ab- normal divisions as bring about karyokinesis. In fixing the material from which the above descriptions were made, the fertilized ovules were taken from fresh ovaries, and dropped immediately into a large volume of alcohol. This material gave excellent examples of normal karyokinesis and of resting nuclei, which exhibited no traces of imperfect fixing, so that I think it improbable that the abnormal divisions can be ascribed to this cause. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV. All the figures are camera lucida drawings of nuclei found in the endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis. Fig. 1.—Giant nucleus. x 55. Fie. 2.—Nucleus breaking into a number of parts. Strize are seen in the protoplasm connecting the severed portions. x 250. Fie. 3.—Nucleus dividing by budding. x 250. Fie. 4.—Annular nucleus. x 250 Fie. 5.—Portion of the lining of the embryo-sac after the formation of cell-walls, showing two annular nuclei, the upper one of which is dividing into three, and the lower into two, mucler, x75. Fie. 6.—Form of nuclear division intermediate between direct and indirect division. Between the two portions of the nucleus a spindle is easily seen. x 350. Fie. 7.—Similar to Fig. 6. Showing a very slender connecting piece between the two nuclei. x 350. Fie. 8.—Karyokinesis with retarded chromosome. x 350. 726 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Fie. 9.—Direct nuclear division with thread-like projections from the daughter nuclei. x 400. Fies. 10, 11.—Successive stages in tripolar karyokinesis. x 350. Fie. 12.—Quadripolar direct nuclear division accompanied with the formation of achromatic spindles. To the right is seen a case of abnormal karyokinesis. x 500. Fie. 13.—Simple direct nuclear division. x 320. Fie. 14.—Nuclear division immediately followed by nuclear fusion. x 320. Fic. 15.—Nuclear division in which several chromosomes have failed to be reincluded in the daughter nuclei. I a ea 1 a : ; = _- West, Newman Laren, ae! New York Academy of Sciences Rec’d. 28 July--12 Sovt. 1896 XLII. PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS AT PORTNAFEADOG, IN THE PARISH OF MOYRUS, CONNAMARA. By FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A. (Prates XXV., XXVI., XXVII.) [Read NovemBer 30, 1895.} THe importance of a careful investigation of all our prehistoric settlements had been so fully brought home to me by my friend W. J. Knowles, m.n.1.4., who has himself done such valuable work in this direction, that I took advantage of a visit to Roundstone last July, during the excursion to Galway of, the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, to make an examination of the sandhills at Portnafeadog. The district is peculiar, two strands, with an intervening ridge, form two crescents, back to back, connecting the mainland with an outlying peninsula. The water to the west is called Dog’s Bay, and that to the east Gorteen Bay. The western point of this peninsula is called Earawalla, meaning the place behind the town. Dog’s Bay is evi- dently a contracted form of the name Portnafeadog, the port of the plover, and should not be used, as it now bears in English quite a different meaning. The root word is fead, a whistle, so the name would bear to be translated the port of the little whistle. Gorteen means the little tilled field, and may refer to the small sweet grass patches on the sandy ridge, or the little cultivated fields on the side of Errisbeg overlooking the bay. This early settle- ment is situated in the townland of Errisbeg West, in the parish of Moyrus (Magh-ros, the plain of the rocky peninsula), and close to the most interesting and beautiful village in all Connamara, Roundstone. The walk from Roundstone to the sandhills is along the base of Errisbeg, that bare and rugged mountain with its jagged summit, by far the finest in the district for its scenic beauty and varying effects, surpassing any of the more exalted peaks of the Twelve Bens or the Mamturk, that tower along the sky line to the north, forming the feature of the district. The sandhills extend for about two miles, levelling down to the water’s edge where the sea line forms a perfect segment of a large circle, even and unbroken. Here R.I.A. PROC., SER. III., VOL. III. 3¢ 728 _ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. along the ridges the winds and the waves have broken into the hearths and refuse heaps, covering about three or four acres of what must have been a very considerable settlement (see Plate XXV.). Just as one emerges into Gorteen Bay, on a slightly raised bank of sand, is a small graveyard still in use. Certainly no more lonely site could be chosen for anyone to enjoy their last sleep. All around are the sandhills where the plovers’ whistle and the sea-gulls’ scream alone are heard, whilst close beneath the Atlantic waves splash along the strand. I can find out nothing as to the age of this place, no. vestige of a building remains, and the spot is quite unenclosed. Many large natural imported stones mark the graves amongst the more modern erections which make one wonder if this spot was. not a former Pagan burial-ground whose use has been continued without any formal Christian adoption. The most curious feature about the settlement is the evident exclusiveness of the food used by these primitive people. An almost continuous Lent they seemed to have enjoyed, judging by. the great quantities of shells which abounded close to the hearths of what were their homes, if not permanently, then for a season, the latter being the most likely. True, we found a few bones of mammals—such as horse, sheep, cow, pig, and dog—all broken, and some teeth, and we also found on the surface an old caudal vertebra of a whale which may have been modern, but fish bones of all sorts were met with. Shells, however, abounded on every side, im- pressing one in a most remarkable manner by their quantities and the way in which one kind is found in one place; in fact, the finding of these old kitchen heaps composed entirely of shells is quite a record, as W. J. Knowles informs me that he never found shells even plentiful, and never found any broken as described in such places. In one heap there was nothing but limpets (Patella vulgata) (see Plate XXY.); in another periwinkle (Littorina littorea) alone were found (see Plate X XVI.) ; whilst in a third the dog whelk (Purpura lapillus) held sway (see Plate XXVII.). Several, however, contained samples of all these together with the common whelk (Succinum undatum), the oyster ( Ostrea edulis), and the mussel (JZytilus edulis). It certainly was a distinctive feature in the case of the three first heaps that only one species of shell was found, thus proving that the different shell-fish had been gathered separately and so used, haying been brought from the outlying rocks and neighbouring islands. In the case of the Littorinas, many of them have a ‘crackled’? appearance, as if they had been laid upon a hot sur- BiaGEerR— Prehistoric Settlements at Portnafeadog. 729 face. If they had been cooked in this manner the animal would easily surrender itself to be eaten or used as bait. The Purpura lapillus affords the most interesting heap by far :— all the shells are broken, and broken with a method. Get a perfect specimen, lay it mouth downwards, hold the apex with finger and thumb, and with one of the ‘‘hammer-stones”’ give the shell a smart tap, and you get a fracture like the old-time ones, and can easily extract the animal. Purpura is extremely difficult to extract from its shell. Even with the aid of boiling water and dexterous use of a pin in the hands of an experienced conchologist, extraction is not easy. Littorina is just as easy as Purpura is difficult to extract, and it must be remembered that the living mollusk cannot be drawn intact from a univalve shell like Purpura or Littorina. Then as to why these three species were specially collected in such quantities: were they for food or bait? Patella and Littorina may have been used for either, but Purpura seems too insignificant to be so used; anyone who took the trouble to break a sufficient number to satisfy his hunger alone would have an arduous task, and the animal would make a poor bait. In the colouring of the cloaks of the ancient Irish they used certain dyes; it may be that the Purpuras were broken to obtain the animal for the rich, fast purple dye it affords! The colouring matter of the Purpura is contained in a sac which lies in such a position as to admit of its easy extraction if the shell is broken as in the specimens found. Close by these heaps of cast-away shells were numerous layers of ashes through which were quantities of burnt stones, such as had evidently formed the basis for the fires or were banked around them, including numerous small, round, burnt pebbles of granite and quartzite. In one case a complete hearth was found 7 svtu, and a rubbing stone of granite. There were also some quartzite stones that had been broken by fire; in fact, there was evidence of fire every- where around. These remains were in the blown sand above what was the old land surface. What was the fuel used it would be difficult to say unless wood from the neighbouring mountain of Errisbeg. The stone foundations of what may have been a circular hut were traceable in one place, and near them was found the top of a quern for grinding corn made of mica schist, and portion of another top made of quartzite. Twelve rude hammering-stones were found, in each case having the striking part well defined, and in some cases fractured. Not one particle of flint, nor anything in the nature of a AG 2 730 Proceedings of the Royal Lrish Academy. flint implement, was discovered, nor any metal of any sort, nor any fragment of pottery. It is quite possible that a storm might expose something we could not find; but the search made was pretty exhaustive, assisted as I was by Dr. D’Evelyn, of Ballymena, my brother F. C. Bigger, R. J. Welch, of Belfast (to whom I am obliged for the accompanying photographs then taken), R. Standen and KE. Collier, of Manchester, to whom I am indebted for conchological information. In placing on record some details in regard to this settlement of an unknown people, I feel I am fully rewarded in pointing out one more feature that cannot fail to add to the interest of all visitors to Connamara in general, and Roundstone in particular. On looking further into the subject of dyes, I find that purple robes were in frequent use in Ireland during ancient times. In the tale of Eithne and King Cormac, quoted by Whitley Stokes in his introduction to the Irish ‘‘ Tripartite Life of St. Patrick,” — I., p. Xxxvill, fifty maidens in purple mantles are mentioned. In the ‘‘ Book of Rights,” p. 65, cloaks trimmed with purple are noticed; at p. 87, the King of Ara is said to be entitled to six purple mantles from the King of Erie; at p. 147, the stipend of the King of Ui Breasail includes three purple cloaks. We are told that Medb presented Ferdiad with a girsat cocra or purple waist scarf to induce him to fight Cuchulaid. It will thus be seen that ~ purple was a royal colour and was much prized. May not the Purpura lapillus of Portnafeadog have been used for such a purpose? Both the works of Pliny and Aristotle contain accounts of shell-fish being employed for dyeing purposes, and of the processes by which the dye was extracted. These observations have been quoted m Fab. Columna’s De aquatilibus aliisque nonnullis animalibus, Romae, 1616, and some critical remarks added. In 1710, Reaumur (Mem. de |’ Acad. Royale des Sciences, 1711) found the Purpura lapillus on the coast of Poitou, and made numerous experiments on the formation of the purple colour. The observations of Reaumur and others proved that the colour-producing secretion, resembling pus in appearance, was con- tained in a small vessel lying in contact with the shell close to the animal’s head. This matter when applied to cloth and exposed to sunlight rapidly changes its colour from yellow to green and then to purple, which is remarkably stable and scarcely destroyable. Den Antonio de Ulloa, in his ‘‘ Physical and Historical Account of Southern and North-Eastern America,” describes how dyeing from shell-fish is still carried on. He says:—‘‘On the coasts belonging Biegeur—Prehistoric Settlements at Portnafeadog. 731 to the province of Guayaquil the finest purple is found. The animals from which it is derived are contained in shells about the size of walnuts, and live on rocks washed by the sea. They contain a juice or humour, which is taken out, and yields the true purple. This humour to all appearance serves the animal instead of blood. Cotton, thread, and other delicate materials, are dyed with it. It gives a lively and durable colour which does not lose its lustre by frequent washing, but is rather improved thereby, and does not fade through long-continued use and exposure. Near the port of Nicoya, in the province of Guatemala, the same kind of shell-fish is found, and is used for dyeing cotton. In both places-the dyed yarn is employed in making ribands, lace, and other articles, which are afterwards skilfully sewn and embroidered. All such articles are highly prized on account of their fine and rare colour. Various processes are em- ployed for extracting the juice or humour. Some kill the animal. They take it out of its shell, and, having laid it on the back of the hand, press and squeeze it with a knife from the head to the tail, and then separate the expressed juice, the rest of the animal matter being thrown away. They treat in this way a number of animals until they have a sufficient quantity of juice. They then draw through the thread which they wish to dye, and no more is required. But the dyed threads do not show at once the purple colour they should have. This is not perceived until the whole is thoroughly dry. At first the colour is milk-white, then it becomes green, and finally purple. Others express the juice without killing the animal. They do not take it entirely out of the shell, but only press it so as to cause a certain quantity of humour to be ejected, with which the threads are dyed. The shells are then laid again on the stones from which they were taken. They recover, and after some time give a fresh quantity of juice, but not so much as the first time.” Although I can produce no positive proof to show that the Purpura at Portnafeadog were used for dyeing purposes, yet the facts that such dye was in common use amongst the ancients, and that the animal was poor food or bait, and yet the shells were found in large quantities, go a long way to substantiate my theory that this shell- fish was gathered and broken for the dye it contained. The following note from Bede has an interesting bearing upon the subject :— Bepa, ‘‘ Historia Kccrrstasrica GEntIs ANGLORUM.”’ ‘Optima frugibus atque arboribus insula, &c. . . . Sunt et cochleae satis superque abundantes, quibus tinctura coccinei coloris 732). Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. conficitur, cujus rubor pulcherrimus nullo unquam solis ardore, nulla valet pluviarum injuria pallescere ; sed quo vetustior est eo solet esse venustior.” Lib. 1.,¢. 1, § 5, p. 8, Stevenson’s edition (the best), London, 1838, published by the English Historical Society; or, p. 26-27, Chifflet’s edition, Paris, 1681. LireRALiy. ‘¢ Britain is an island rich in grain and trees, &c. . . . There are also shells in superabundant quantities, from which a dye of a purple colour is made, the most lovely ruddiness of which, neither by heat of the sun, nor from injury by rain, is ever apt to pale, but the older it is the more beautiful it is.” Nore ADDED IN PREss. Since the above paper was read, my friend, Professor E. P. Wright, M.D., has brought under my notice some references to the Tyrian dye that I was unaware of, written by the late Sir William Wilde in his ‘‘ Narrative of a Voyage to Madeira, Teneriffe, and along the shores of the Mediterranean.”’ Dublin, 1852. At page 629, the writer gives the substance of a paper on the subject, read before this Academy in May, 18389, which, however, was not printed in the Proceedings. This paper deals exhaustively with the references in the classics and ancient historians to the Tyrian or purple dye, its collection and uses, the investigation of which was incited by his dis- covery of some ancient dyeing-pots at Tyre. There is, however, little of Irish application in the remarks given. He quotes Walker, in his ‘‘ Irish Bards” (vol. 11, p. 261), where that writer states ‘There is a beautiful crimson obtained from the periwinkle. . The fish is laid with its mouth downward on some solid body, and the shell broke, but so as not to bruise the fish.”” . . . . — a 2 ; & CyppP AA W Aq Ydessojoygq & wos) ‘(MIAHA-DO(T) 8ATIIAV1 Vu a awa J 10 axnoK TIaHYg Binzeental XLII. NOTES ON THE COMPOSITION OF ANCIENT IRISH GOLD AND SILVER ORNAMENTS. By ERNEST A. SMITH, Assoc. R.S.M., F.C.S., Royal School of Mines, London. | COMMUNICATED BY PROFESSOR J. P. 0’REILLY, M.B.I.A. | [Read Jung 24, 1895. | In a very interesting Memoir! on ‘‘ The Chemical Examination of Antiquities from the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,’ pre- sented to this Academy on April 11, 1853, Mr. J. W. Mallet gives the results of the examination of a number of ancient Irish gold and silver ornaments, which was undertaken in the hope that more exten- sive and accurate chemical information might be found of value in elucidating the history of the ancient arts by which these objects were produced. As no other country in Europe posseses so much manufactured gold belonging to early and medieval times as Ireland, an investigation of this description is of special value and interest. The memoir appears to be the first record of any analyses of this class of Celtic antiquities. The main object sought in the investigation, in connection with the gold and silver antiquities, was to ascertain, as far as possible, whether the ornaments were manufactured from native gold, or from alloys artificially produced. From the results obtained by the analysis of eight gold ornaments, carefully selected from the valuable collection of the Royal Irish Academy, Mr. Mallet concluded, that ‘‘if these ornaments presented no appearance of determined composition and, on the whole, contained less silver, it might be supposed that they were made of native gold, merely fused, and worked into the required shapes; but, from the results actually obtained, although they are by no means conclu- sive on this point, it appears more likely that, on the contrary, these articles were made from alloys artificially produced, and 1Trans. of Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi., p. 313. 734 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. perhaps, from determined quantities of the constituent metals. If this supposition is correct, no information can be derived from these analyses as to the geographical source of the surprising quantity of gold found in the manufactured state in Ireland.’ In order to decide this question, of the addition of other metals to the gold for the production of the ornaments, with any degree of accuracy, it is evident that more numerous analytical results are indispensable. If the admixture of other metals by the early Irish gold-workers took place, as suggested, it would be a matter of interest to discover whether the amount and quality of the alloy was fixed for any parti- cular variety of ornament; but as yet a sufficiently extensive series of assays and analyses have not been made to determine this point. The results obtained and published by Mr. Mallet appear to be the only record of any analyses of ancient Irish gold and silver ornaments. In the present Paper, the author, therefore, submits to the Academy the results of the analyses of a few gold and silver ornaments exhibited in the Museum of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, as a small addition to the analytical results already published. The specimens examined, which were lent by the kind permission of the museum authorities, were purchased from Joseph Huband Smith, Esq., July 16th, 18538, for the Museum of Irish Industry (now the Royal College of Science Museum). The ornaments appear to have been complete when purchased, but some years later the majority of the gold articles in the collection were stolen; small fragments of some of the articles, however, being left behind. It is to be regretted that the localities in which the ornaments were found are unknown. The fragments examined, and the analytical results obtained, are as follows :— GoLp ORNAMENTS. Number 1.—Fragment of one of the twisted ‘‘TorquxEs’’ supposed to have been worn round the neck. These ornaments consisted of a narrow strip, or band of thin plate gold, twisted so as to form a spiral, and then bent into a circle. The band was broad in the centre, and tapering gradually towards the ends where it terminated in small hooks, by means of which the torque was clasped. The part examined consisted of one of the end hooks; when entire the circle must have been from five to six inches Smitua— Ancient Trish Gold and Silver Ornaments. 735 in diameter. The colour of the gold was somewhat pale yellow. An analysis of the fragment gave the following result :— ANALYSES OF ‘‘ TORQUES”’ IN- SERTED FOR COMPARISON.* Fragment of ‘“Torque.” x No. I. No. II. Gold, per Cent., .. oe 71:01 71:54 79°48 Sil venaesiss a et » 24509 23°67 18°01 Copper, ,,_,, ive a 4°67 _ 4:62 2°48 Mead spy sto 55 we se Ve Le Trace. MP7 99°83 QO Fineness in Carats, 90 17:04 ePilel | 19°07 Specific Gravity, .. $4 15°692 15-377 | 15°444 | Number 2.—One end of an armuer or Braceter. ‘The simplest form of bracelet, found amongst the Irish antiquities, is that of a plain ring, round or oval in shape, about two inches and three-quarters in diameter, to fit the wrist, and either flat or circular in section, unclosed at one side, and having the ends separated for about an inch, for greater facility of adjustment. In most instances, the extremities of the latter are enlarged or dilated into conical bulbs with flat cymbal-shaped faces, or hollowed into cups, varying from slight, shallow, saucer-like concavities, to those resembling a goblet or the calyx of a flower. Most of these rings are thick in the centre, and become gradually thinner towards their bulbous ends. The fragment examined, differed from the generality of these ornaments in not being cylindrical, but presenting a semi-circle in section. The extre- mity was enlarged, being five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and shghtly cupped. * Trans. of Royal Irish Acad., vol. xxii., p. 315. Analyses Nos. I., II. It will be seen that the result of the analysis agrees very closely with the results of the analyses of ornaments of the same desceplion, obtained by Mr. Mallet, which are inserted for comparison. No. I. is the analysis of two end hooks of one of the twisted “torques.” The colour of the gold was a pale, rather sickly yellow. No. II.—Fragment of a torque similar to No. I. This specimen, which was of a rather deeper yellow colour than the other was from the middle of the torque. 736 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. This specimen was a deeper yellow in colour than the last. The percentage composition of the fragment is as follows :— Gold, per cent., . : . 15°55 Silver, ,, : A . 18:08 Copper, ,, : 4 - 11-6 Iron, A : ! . trace. 100°19 Fineness in carats, = ike pile} Specific gravity, = 15502 Number 3.—Specimen marked ‘‘ Gotp Frnter FRoM THE HANDLE OF A Sworp.’’—This consisted of a band or riband of thin gold plate one- fourth of an inchin width, ornamented with a row of small raised studs on each edge produced by punching from behind. The band was only about three inches long, but probably formed part of a much longer fillet, as the ends were somewhat ragged, and had the appear- ance of having been torn. It is well known that golden hilted swords were used in ancient times in Ireland, and remnants of the gold decorations of sword handles have been found in various parts of the country, but these are chiefly in the forms of fragments of thin gold plates which probably covered the handle-plates. The specimen, therefore, appears to have been mislabled as it corresponds very closely with a number of gold bands or fillets in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy, in the Science and Art Museum, Dublin. Some of these are plain, others decorated, some long and narrow, and others short and broad. One fillet in the collection, about four feet long, is the same width as the specimen examined but perfectly plain. Another shorter band (Museum Number 1185) nearly twice the width, is ornamented with the same pattern. With reference to these fillets, Sir W. R. Wilde, in his Catalogue of the Gold Antiquities of the collection (p. 38), remarks that the use of these has not with certainty been determined, but in all likelihood the elongated specimens were employed as fillets or forehead bands for confining the hair as hair-bands were not uncommon in Ireland.t I think, therefore, it is more than probable, that the specimen is part of a hair-band and not a fillet, from a sword handle, as labled. The 1 For further information on these articles see Catalogue of Gold Antiquities. Wilde, pp. 38, 39. = !-— ee SmirvH—Anecient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments. 737 colour of the specimen was a very rich golden yellow. It weighed 17:5 grains. Its analysis shows it to consist of— Gold, per cent., . : : : 98-02 Silversea (by diff.), . F 1:98 Copper, _,, : é : trace 100-00 Fineness in carats, . ; = 23°52 Specific gravity J ; = 19°108 From the results obtained it is evident that the article is made from gold of a very high standard. As none of the fillets in the Royal Irish Academy collection have been subjected to analysis, their composition is unknown; it is impossible, therefore, to compare the above results with any articles of a similar kind, but one of the specimens examined by Mr. Mallet! approaches very closely in composition the fillet examined and, considering the high standard of the gold, is of interest for comparison. It was part of a twist of wires (museum number 188), of about one-tenth of an inch in diameter each, the whole length of the twist, which is straight, being about six inches. Mr. Wilde (in his Catalogue of the Gold Antiquities of the Royal Irish Academy collection, p. 76) describes the specimen as ‘‘a portion of a torque, formed of four wires, twisted together, and encircled at the end by a decorated collar.’ The locality in which the specimen was found is unknown. The colour is a very deep rich golden yellow. The specific gravity 18°593. When analysed its composition proved to be as follows :— Gold, per cent., . : F : 96:90 Silver, ,, : ; : : 2°49 Copper, _,, ‘ 2 : ‘ trace 99°39 This is equal to a fineness of 23°25 carats. Mr. Mallet makes the following remarks in connection with this specimen.? ‘‘ From its workmanship and from its being wire-drawn in the ordinary way through a draw plate, itis probably not nearly so ancient as the other 1 Trans. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxii., p. 315. Analysis No, III. 2 Tbid., vol. xxii., p. 316. 738 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. specimens examined.”’ ‘‘ It is of a much higher standard than any of the others and approaches fine gold.” Number 4a and 4b. Two small ornaments described as ‘‘ BossEs.” These consist of small circular discs of thin gold plate stamped into a shallow cup-like shape, and grooved all round with eleven circular indentations and elevations, a form of decoration somewhat frequently seen on ancient Irish ornaments. A small ornamental piece of solid gold is soldered to the top of each of the specimens and also a small gold ring on one side of each, the presence of which would appear to indicate that the ornaments were pendants, and formed part of a neck- lace or ear-rings, the rings being used for the purpose of suspension. The total diameter of the bosses is five-eighths of an inch. In one of the specimens the gold solder used for its manufacture had been imperfectly fused; the shape of the strips of solder being distinctly seen. The colour of these ornaments was similar to Vumber 2. Number 4a weighed 10°93 grains. The specific gravity 15-429 Number 4 6 weighed 10°45 grains. The specific gravity 15°536 Number 4 a was submitted to analysis with the following re- sults :— Gold, per cent., . : 74°69 NILVery ena ; ‘ 3 6°22 Copper. 5... : : 19-09 100-00 Fineness in carats, : : 18:92 This specimen contains the highest percentage of copper found in any of the ancient Irish gold ornaments submitted to examination up to the present. In the eight examples! analysed by Mr. Mallet, to which reference has been made, the proportion of copper varied from 5-94 per cent. in analysis number 6, to 0°12 per cent. in analysis number 4, the former being a fragment of very thin plate gold which formed part of a boss or convex ornament very like the ends of the diadems, and the latter, two fragments of a lunette-shaped ornament. 1 For further details of these analyses see Trans. Royal Irish Acad., vol. xxii., p. 814. Analyses Nos. i.-viil. SmirH— Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments. 739 From the apparently superior workmanship and from the fact that the various parts are joined by soldering it is probable that these or- naments Wumbers 4 a and 4 b belong to a period more recent than the majority of the ancient Irish gold ornaments as the art of soldering appears to have been introduced ata later period. In many of the gold diadems or tiaras in the Royal Irish Academy collection, which are composed of several parts, the various pieces of which the parts are made are usually connected by means of what may be termed wire- sewing, fine gold wires or threads being used for the purpose ; not the slightest trace of soldering can be perceived, and it may fairly be pre- sumed that, if that art was known to the early Irish gold workers, it would have been employed instead of the wire-sewing. In connection with the small ‘‘ bosses” or ‘‘ pendants’’ it may be remarked that no ornaments of a similar kind are to be found in the Royal Irish Academy collection in the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, or in the collection of Irish gold antiquities in the British Museum, London. ConcLUSIONS. The results of the analyses of the gold ornaments examined appear to support the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Mallet that the articles were not manufactured from native gold but were made from alloys artificially produced. The comparatively large quantity of silver and of copper found in some of the ornaments, submitted to analysis, excludes the supposition that they were produced from natural alloys. It is well known that natural alloys are found, and that ‘ elec- trum,”? which includes pale-yellow or amber-coloured alloys of gold and silver,! containing from fifteen to thirty-five per cent. of the latter metal, which occurs in the native state, was much used for ornaments and coins by the Greeks and Romans, and by the nations which acquired their arts; but when we consider the very high percentage of silver and of copper found in the articles examined it cannot be reasonably suggested that the ornaments were manufactured from natural alloys. An artificial electrum as well as the natural electrum was also used by the ancients, the former, according to Pliny, contain- ing as much as twenty per cent. of silver. The Greeks and Romans, after electrum had fallen into disuse, employed the purest gold they could procure, viz. that from 990 to 997 fine. Under the Roman Emperors, however, copper was intentionally added ; and in the two centuries preceding the fall of Rome very base alloys were used, some 1 Historia Naturalis, lib. xxxill., c. 238. 740 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. containing only two per cent. of gold, or even less.! These facts help to remind us that the manufacture of alloys was known at a very early period. It may be suggested that the admixture of other metals to gold for the production of alloys by the early Irish gold-workers would show an extraordinary amount of metallurgical knowledge and point to a high state of civilization in the artists by whom it was employed; but when we remember that ‘“‘in the ancient annals and histories of Ireland, relating to the most historic periods down to the fifteenth century, we find more numerous references to gold than in the records of any other country in north-western Europe,’” it is con- ceivable that the early gold-workers possessed this knowledge. These records show that gold both in the crude and manufactured state was in frequent use in Ireland in ancient times. Gold is described as ‘‘red”’ or ‘‘ yellow” according to the amount of copper or of silver with which it may be alloyed. From the cir- cumstance, therefore, of red gold being frequently specified in ancient Trish manuscripts, 1t would seem to have had a special value attached to it; but whether this ‘‘ red gold” was obtained from any particular locality, or was produced by the admixture of a reddening material, such as copper, 1s unknown at present. The results of the analyses present great variety as to the amount of pure gold found in the antique manufactured gold, but on compar- ing the figures obtained it will be observed that there is a certain connection between the various analyses of the same kind of articles, which would lead somewhat to the supposition that alloys of approxi- mately the same composition were used for certain particular varieties of ornaments. Mr. Mallet also draws attention to this apparent connection in the concluding remarks of his Memoir. He states that ‘although the analyses differ much from each other, yet we find some traces of con- nection between the composition of the alloys and the form into which they were manufactured.’”’ The number of analyses made up to the present is not sufficiently extensive to form any definite conclusions on this point ; but attention may be drawn to the similarity between the analyses of the ‘‘ torques ”’ given on page 735 (antea). In connection with the two analyses by Mr. Mallet, he points out that they ‘are greatly below the standard of the other articles examined, and these are both specimens of the same kind of ornament, 1Ta Monnaie dans l’Antiquité. Paris, 1878. 2 Catalogue of Gold Antiquities. Wilde, p. 6. Smitu— Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments. 741 the torque, and the only specimens examined.’”’ He further remarks that ‘‘they do not differ much from the composition of the ‘ electrum’ of the ancients as given by Pliny and others.” ! When we bear in mind the fact that these three ‘‘ torques’? were obtained at totally different times, and from different localities, it is not a little remarkable that they should agree so closely in composition. The results of the analyses of two gold rings,” supposed to be Celtic ring-money, examined by Mr. Mallet, are also of interest in relation to this question. The results are as follows :— No. 7. No. 8. Gold, per cent., 3 5 85°62 Silver, 55 L214 12°79 Copper, ,, ‘ fe aAllG 1°47 Lead, Pe ‘ . traces. _ Iron, re : . traces. — 100:02 99°88 Fineness in carats, . . 20°81 19°55 Specific gravity, . Se 258 16-896 Number 7 was a gold wire, three-quarters of an inch long and one-eighth of an inch in diameter, bent into a circle, with the ends quite close. Number 8 was a little larger than Number 7, but composed of thinner wire. : It not only appears more than probable that the early Irish gold- workers possessed the knowledge of preparing alloys of somewhat definite composition, but that they were also familiar with the fact that by the addition of copper to gold a series of alloys can be pro- duced which become harder as the percentage of copper is increased. This is indicated by the fact that the ‘‘ armlet,”’ which being worn on the arm or wrist, would be subjected to more friction and wear than the torques, contains 11°6 per cent. of copper, while the torques and similar articles only contain sufficient copper to harden or ‘stiffen ”’ the gold, and thus help them to retain their original shapes. 1“ Ubicunque quinta argenti portio est, electrum vocatur.’’—Plinii Hist. Nat. lib. xxxili.,c. 4. ‘Alia (species electri) ex partibus auri tribus et una argenti conflatur.’’—Margerit. Philos., 1523. 2 For further details respecting the analyses see his Memoir. Trans. Royal Irish Acad., vol. xxii., p. 316. 742 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. As Mr. Mallet has pointed out, ‘‘no information can be derived from these analyses as to the geographical source of the surprising quantity of gold found in the manufactured state in Ireland.” ‘It has been asserted! that the gold of which the ornaments are com- posed, was brought from India by the nomad Kelts, who finally settled in Ireland; by some it is supposed that it was procured from Gaul ; and by others that it was imported from Spain by the Milesian colonists. Others, again, imagine that it was derived from Africa; in fact, the manufactured gold has been assigned to every gold- producing country in the world of ancient times, but Ireland.” When, however, we remember that considerable quantities of gold have been found in Ireland, in no less than seven localities, and if we assume that the supposition relating to the addition of other metals to the gold for the production of alloys is correct, it is not unreasonable to suppose that some, at least, of these alloys were produced by the addition of certain quantities of other metals to native Irish gold. From all the assays and analyses which have been made at various times, it would appear that Irish native gold is either up to or above standard. SILVER ORNAMENTS. | A much smaller number and variety of antique articles of silver have been found in Ireland, and throughout the north of Europe, than those of gold. Gold is invariably found in the native state, while in the case of silver there exists great diversity in the associates of the metal which is much less frequently found in the native condition, especially in Europe. The extraction of the silver, under these conditions from the ores from which it is most abundantly obtained, necessarily requires the application of much metallurgical knowledge. ‘‘ Apart, however, from the initial difficulties connected with the smelting of its ores silver is not so malleable or so easily worked as gold,” as it becomes more or less brittle by hammering and requires much more frequent annealing than gold under the same conditions. These circumstances in some degree accuunt for the comparatively small number of silver articles found and the somewhat rude workmanship of very many of the Celtic antiquities of this metal. The ancient silver ornaments examined were as follows :— Number 1. Part of a flat silver BRACELET OR ARMLET, ornamented ‘Catalogue of Gold Antiquities. Wilde, p. 100. Smira—Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments. 7438 with the peculiar indentations, so common on the silver ornaments of Celtica and Scandinavia, and probably produced by hammering with a punch or die. When complete the armlet was probably a penannular shaped article about two and a-halfinches in diameter. Similar brace- lets, ornamented with the same design as that on the portion examined, are exhibited in the Royal Irish Academy Museum ; museum numbers 62 and 64, are examples. The part of the ieee examined was three-sixteenths of an inch thick and five-eighths of an inch in the widest part, but gradually tapered, the original ends being probably about five-sixteenths of an inch wide. It was a little tarnished by superficial sulphide of silver. 4 The specific gravity was 10148. The percentage composition has been found to bé as follows :— Silver, per cent., : : ; 91°50 Coppertat).ne- 5 : : 6°83 Gold, Aaa ; é : 46 Lead, oe 5 ; ‘ 1:03 Iron, Sheath , ‘ : trace 99°82 Number 2. This consisted of a PLAIN BAND OF SILVER, one-eighth of an inch in thickness and three-eighths of an inch in width, bent into the form of a circular ring about one inch in diameter with the ends slightly overlapping. A series of eight similar rings, connected so as to form a rude chain, are exhibited in the Royal Irish Academy collection. The middle ring of this series is about one inch and a-half in diameter, the others in the series gradually decreasing in size, the smallest being about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The exact use of these plain rings has not been ascertained with certainty, but they are said to have been used as money in Ireland in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries, the Viking period. An analysis of the ring gave the following result :— Silver, per cent., : : ; 95°26 Coppetiiag souiil« : : : 4:08 Gold, Bi ses : : “50 Lead, we ist é 3 ; trace Tron, el ae ‘ j , trace 99°84 Specific gravity, : ; : 10°430 R.I.A. PROC., SER. Ill., VOL. II. 3D 744 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. CoNncLUSIONS. From the results of the analyses of these silver articles the compo- sition does not seem so varied as in the case of the gold ornaments, nor is there the same agreement between the analyses of the particular specimens destined for the same use. Two of the silver armlets in the Royal Irish Academy collection were examined by Mr. Mallet, but their composition varies somewhat from that given above. The results were as follows:— No. 3. No. 5. Silver, per cent., . : 37°05 94°01 Copper, ue : j 60:26 4°34 Gold, esti Sa Lei’) een Lead, a : B 10 06 Tin, os) : : ‘61 — 99°13 99°72 Specific gravity, . ‘ 8:°770 =10°335 Number 3, was the end of a taper bangle or penannular bracelet of very rude workmanship, also, perhaps, occasionally, used for money. It was very hard, and rather brittle, Pregine with a finely granular fracture of a yellowish white colour. Number 5.—Fragments of a flat armlet, broken across at the ends, P : : 486 and stamped with small square indentations. | Museum mark, —— C ) There were traces of silver chloride upon the surface, which was much worn.’ After examining eight of the silver ornaments of the Royal Irish Academy Collection, Mr. Mallet found ,that, with the exception of two of the articles (analyses No. 2 and No. 3), the whole set con- tained from 92 per cent. to 96 per cent. of silver, with from 7 per cent. to 8 per cent. of copper, and a little gold; it will be seen, therefore, that although there is no apparent agreement between the analyses of the same kind of articles, yet the results obtained for the two articles examined come within the above limits. 1Tt may be remarked here that Mr. Mallet also examined a counterfeit flat bracelet or armlet composed of a core of iron covered with a thin plate of silver, which, on being analysed, was found to have the following composition per cent. :— Silver, 94:69; Copper, 3-11; Gold, 1:80; Iron, -04; Sulphur, trace; Specific Grayity, 10°379. See Trans. Royal Irish Acad., vol. xxil., p. 319. Analyses No. 4. (Museum Mark, *@?). Smitu—Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments. 745 Considering the quantity of copper present in the silver articles, Mr. Mallet concluded that this metal was, in all probability, inten- tionally alloyed with the silver. The analyses of the two silver ornaments, from the Royal College of Science Museum, help to support that conclusion. As in the case with the gold ornaments, it is impossible to derive, from these analyses, any information with regard to the source from which the metal was obtained for the manufacture of the silver articles. Although native silver may have been used for the preparation of the alloys, it cannot be suggested that the metal was derived from Treland, as only extremely small quantities of native silver have been found in the British Isles. The small number of silver ornaments found in Ireland, and the fact that a much larger number of similar silver articles have been found in Norway has led to the conclusion that these ornaments were very probably derived from that country. Under these circumstances it is conceivable that native silver was the source of the metal from which the articles were manufactured, as silver occurs frequently in the native state in Norway, and is some- times found in considerable quantities, as is shown by the fact that the Museum at Copenhagen contains a mass of native silver, found at Kongsberg, in Norway, which weighs a quarter of a ton.1 Native silver is rarely found perfectly pure, but usually contains also gold, copper, platinum, and other metals, in larger or smaller proportions. The small quantities of lead found in the ornaments might, however, lead to the suggestion that the silver was extracted from argentiferous galena, as it is well known that, owing to the facility with which silver may be concentrated in the lead, and subsequently separated by the process of cupellation, this mineral has been the subject of general treatment for silver from very early times.? If the silver were derived from galena, as suggested, we must conclude that the copper was intentionally alloyed with the silver, as the process of cupellation would remove the copper. In order to draw more definite conclusions with regard to the manufacture of the ancient Irish gold and silver ornaments, a much more extensive examination must be undertaken, yet the analyses 1“ Treatise on Chemistry.’’—Roscoe and Schorlemmer, vol. ii., part i., under ‘¢ Silver.”’ 2 Excoqui non potest nisi-cum plumbo nigro, aut cum vena plumbi. Galaenam vocant, quae juxta argenti venas plerumque reperitur.’’—Plinii. Hist. Nat. lib. xxxili., c. 6. 3D2 746 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. and experiments above described are not, perhaps, barren in results of interest, as they, at least, tend to confirm the results obtained by Mr. Mallet, which have been inserted for comparison. The various analyses made up to the present certainly seem to prove that the ornaments were manufactured from alloys artificially prepared, and in some cases according to a fixed standard. BIBLioGRAPHY. For fuller information on the work which has been somewhat briefly referred to in this Paper, the original Memoirs must be con- sulted, of which the titles are as follows :— J. W. Matier.—‘‘ Report on the Chemical Examination of Anti- quities from the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy.’’ Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. Volume xxii., pages 313 e¢ seg. Pre- sented April 11th, 1853. W. R. Witpr.—“‘ Catalogue of the Antiquities of Gold in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy.” Dublin: 1862. (This Catalogue contains many useful references to the literature relating to Irish Gold Antiquities.) paran 5 XLIV. ON A DOUBLE-CIST GRAVE AND REMAINS RECENTLY DISCOVERED AT OLDBRIDGE, CO. MEATH. ByGEORGE COFFEY, B.E. [Read May 13, 1895.] In the month of December, 1894, Colonel Coddington, when preparing the ground for the purpose of planting a tree on the top of a small mound in the back lawn of Oldbridge House, came on a large flag- stone. Thinking there might be a grave of some kind beneath the stone, instead of raising it, he excavated the mound at the west side. 21 —t> LMM Mes Il Several supporting stones were uncovered, and were found to enclose a double-cist, of which the top flag formed the covering stone. The mound is situated a short distance above the bridge at Oldbridge, on the southern bank, overlooking the river Boyne. Tn its present state it measures about 60 feet in diameter, and 6 feet in height ; originally it was probably higher. The covering stone of the cist measures 7 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, by 1 foot 3 inches at the thickest part. The chambers are practically of equal size. They measure each, allowing for slight differences due to the irregularities of the stones, 4 feet by 2 feet, by 2 feet 8 inches in depth. They are flagged at the bottom. The middle, or dividing stone, does not touch 748 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Acadeniy. the covering stone, but is short of it in height by from 2 to 4 inches. (See figs. 1 and 2.) When ‘the stones at the west side were uncovered, it was found possible to see into the southern chamber, where the stone closing that end of the chamber did not fit closely against the dividing stone of the cist. This chamber was apparently empty. Colonel Coddington then caused the corner of the corresponding stone of the northern chamber to be broken off, and, on looking into Fie. 2. that chamber an urn was seen resting partly on its side in the eastern corner of the chamber. The urn was taken out ona spade, without damage. The floors of both chambers were covered to a depth of a. few inches with loose gravelly earth, and with the exception of the urn the second chamber appeared to be also empty. On taking out, however, a spadeful of the earth from the floors of each of the chambers, the earth was found in both cases to be mixed with particles of decomposed bone. At Colonel Coddington’s invitation I examined these interesting remains in March last. The urn is a remarkably fine example of the Fic. 3. class of urns frequently found in cists with unburnt interments through- out Ireland. It measures three and three-quarter inches in height, the diameter at the mouth is four and a-half inches, that at the base three and a-half inches, while the greatest diameter is six inches: CorrEy— Double-Cist Grave and Remains in Co. Meath. 749 all these are outside measurements. When found, with the exception of some fine mould partly caked towards one side, it was empty. No trace of fire was apparent in the cist or on the inside of the urn. The greater part of the bone mixed with the earth taken from the chambers was so completely decomposed as to be indistinguishable save by its colour; a few particles picked out crumbled away in the fingers. Owing to the fact that the covering stone had not been raised—it being Colonel Coddington’s desire to preserve the cist intact as found— Ge 4. it was not possible to get inside the chambers to make a hand search. But on searching some spadefuls of earth from the floors of the chambers, LT obtained the enamel crowns of several human teeth from the northern chamber—that in which the urn was found—and the crowns of two teeth from the southern chamber. The bone of the teeth in both cases had decomposed, leaving the enameled parts as cup-like shells. These I submitted to Dr. C. R. Brown of the Anthropological Department of Trinity College. Having compared them with sets in the Anthro- pological Museum of the College, he was of opinion that the teeth from the north, or urn chamber, were those of a male of about forty years of age, and those from the other chamber, of a young female. Dr. Browne further submitted the specimens to Mr. Gerard Black, L.D.S., without saying what he thought of them. Mr. Black inde- pendently confirmed Dr. Brown’s opinion. These matters are mentioned in detail, lest it might appear that a 750 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. bead necklace, afterwards found in the southern chamber, had influ- enced their opinions. It is, I believe, impossible to determine with certainty sex from teeth. But opinions formed by trained eyes from the general look of the specimens are of some weight. Subsequently Colonel Coddington had a further search made of both chambers. Additional teeth were obtained from both sides. I append a detailed report, kindly prepared for me by Dr. Brown and Mr. Black, on all the specimens, including those first collected. I should add that the teeth from the north chamber were stated to have lain more or less towards the east end, and those from the south chamber towards the west end. The teeth from each chamber were kept carefully separate. It appears from the report on the teeth that three individuals were interred in this double grave—two males in the north chamber, and a female in south chamber. I thought at first that it was possible to infer from the position of the teeth that the bodies had been placed in opposite directions in the two chambers. But inasmuch as two bodies were interred in the north chamber, and the teeth which I obtained from that chamber on the occasion of my visit, came from about the middle of the floor, I do not think the evidence is sufficiently clear to pronounce upon. In the case of the southern chamber, there is no reason to doubt that the head lay to the west end. In the course of the search in the latter chamber, a number of jet beads and a triangular jet pendant were found towards the west end. They had no doubt been strung as a necklace; though usually called jet, the substance appears to be a fine lignite rather thantruejet. The beads comprised 13 cylindrical beads from half an inch to seven-eighths in length, by about two-eighths in diameter; they are slightly swelled at the middle: 55 flat discoidal beads varying from something oyer an eighth to nearly two-eighths of an inch in diameter, and from a sixteenth to an eighth in thickness. The triangular pendant measuresan inch and a quarter along the base. It is pierced transversely near the base, so that it hangs with the apex of the triangle down. A restoration of the necklace is shown, figure 8. The beads and pendant are precisely similar to jet beads and pendants found in England and Scotland. Although ornaments cannot be said to be common in Stone and Bronze Age interments, when compared with the number of barrows opened, numerous examples of jet or lignite rings, buttons, beads and necklaces, the latter sometimes of elaborate design, have been found in England and in Scotland. Such objects are occasionally associated with bronze, and have been found with burnt as well as unburnt Correy—Doudle-Cist Grave and Remains in Co. Meath. '751 interments. They are ascribed to the time when stone was already being superseded by bronze for cutting purposes.? In Ireland, jet ornaments appear to be rarer. A number of jet beads of characteristic form are in the Academy’s collection, fragments of necklaces with decorated connecting plates; others have been noted from time to time, including some large beads of from four to six inches in length? but as far as I have been able to ascertain, the present necklace is the only one definitely associated with an interment. The presence of beads in a graye is generally presumed to indicate a female interment. Jet rings and buttons, or studs have been found with male interments, but where beads or necklaces have been found with skeletons, the sex of which was determined, it would appear from the instances recorded by Mr. Bateman, Canon Greenwell, and the Messrs. Mortimer, that the interments were Fie. 3. female. Sir John Evans thinks that Mr. Bateman may possibly have erred in some instances, but this would not apply to Canon Greenwell, who adoptsin his most recent reports the presumption that the presence of beads indicate a female interment.° 1Evans—Stone Implements, p. 406. 2 Journ. Kilkenny Archeological Society, vol.i., p. 32, 4 ser., vol. vi., p. 69. 3 Stone Implements, pp. 411-16. 4 Ibid., p. 412. 5 Archeologia, vol. 52, p. 41. 752 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. It may be well to state, that since the barrow was opened, Colonel Coddington has marked off the mound by placing a number of large stones round it. Unless recorded they might at some future time be mistaken for portion ofthe monument. I should like to add that Irish Archeology is indebted to Colonel Coddington for the interest he has shown in these and other remains found on his property, and for the are he has taken to secure the preservation of the monuments. Report on THE TEETH: BY Dr. Brown anp Mr. Grerarp Brack. The teeth submitted to us are all in a very advanced stage of decomposition from long interment, only the caps of enamel being left as material from which to form a judgment; many were thickly coated with lime salts fromthe urn. They are contained in the boxes numbered from one to five as received, and clearly belong to three individuals, two males and one female: all adults; these facts being shown not only by the duplication of several of the specimens, but also by the differences in the markings of the teeth and in the colour of the enamel. A. The boxes marked | and 2, contain the following teeth which in their general structure and markings appear to have belonged to a young adult female: wpper yaw—right 2nd bicuspid, right 3rd molar (box 2), left 1st bicuspid, left 3rd molar: lower yaw—right 1st molar, left Ist bicuspid, left 1st molar. B. The teeth in the other boxes are mingled together but evidently belonged to two individuals ; they were all more or less marked by a dark stain from the soil and were coated with lime salts; the charac- ters are very similar and the existence of two individuals is mainly proved by the duplication of some of the teeth, but it is not possible in every case to decide which to assign to each of the two—(a) or (0), so the arrangement is arbitrary : (@) upper yaw—right 1st molar, right 2nd molar, right 38rd molar, right 1st biseupid, right canine, right lateral incisor, left lateral incisor, left 2nd bicuspid, left 2nd molar, left 3rd molar: lower yaw right 3rd molar, right 2nd molar, right 2nd bicuspid, right canine, right central incisor, left canine, left 1st molar, left 2nd molar, left 3rd molar : (6) wpper yaw—right canine, left canine, 1st biscuspid left, 2nd left biscuspid, 1st left molar, left 2nd molar : lower jaw—right 2nd molar, right central incisor, left 1st biscuspid, left 2nd bicuspid, left 1st molar. [ee75s oy] XLY. ON TWO NEW SPECIES OF PHYCOPELTIS FROM NEW ZEALAND. By A. VAUGHAN JENNINGS, F.L.S., F.G.S., Demonstrator of Botany and Geology in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. Prarzes XXVIII. anv XXIX. (COMMUNICATED BY DR. E. P. WRIGHT.) [Read DecEMuER 9, 1895.] Tue Trentepohliacee are a family of aerial alge, better known to English Botanists as Chroolepidex,! characterized by the possession of a yellow colouring matter (Hematochrome),” in addition to the Chlorophyll. They possess sporangia which are sometimes enlarged cells of the filaments (kugelsporangia of Karsten), at other times carried on special pedicels (hakensporangia). Swarm-spores with two cilia are developed in these sporangia and give rise to new plants after conjugation. The greater part of the species are small filamentous forms, of a yellow, yellowish green, or red colour, growing on rocks or trees, in all parts of the world. The common Trentepohlia aurea of our own country presents a striking appearance on the granitic rocks of Dartmoor or North Wales and grows in greater luxuriance among the hot springs of Rotorua; * while the bright red patches of TZrentepohlia tolithus, with their characteristic smell of violets, are equally familiar to the tourist in the Black Forest and the coach-passengers from Greymouth to Reefton. These filamentous forms may all be included in the single genus Trentepohlia, of which numerous species haye been described by Agardh, Kiutzing and others. It is only recently that botanists have recognised the existence of 1The name Chroolepus was introduced by Agardh (Systema Algarum, Lundae) in 1824; but the genus Trentepohlia had been previously established by Martius (Flora Cryptogamica Erlangensis, Norimbergz, 1817). + «¢Chlororufin’’ of Rostafinski. 2 Kirk—Trans. New Zealand Inst., vol. v., 1872. 754 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. a series of forms belonging the same family but having the form of cell-plates instead of filaments. These types have been little studied till lately ; in part owing to the fact that they are almost entirely tropical in distribution, and in part because many specimens being in a sterile state their affinities could not be determined. During a short stay in New Zealand some years back, I collected the two species which form the subject of the present Paper, and which seem to me to constitute a not unimportant addition to our knowledge of the group. Considering, however, that this group of plants is so little known to English botanists; that the literature is scattered and the nomenclature already confused, I have thought it advisable to give a short summary of previous observations before proceeding to describe these species in detail. In 1870, Millardet? (3), gave the name of Phycopeltis epiphyton to small yellow discs, not more than 0°1 mm. in diameter, found on leaves of Abies pectinata near Freiburg. They consisted of radial rows of cells containing heematochrome, as in Trentepohlia. Certain cells of the disc not otherwise differentiated were observed to contain swarm- spores; but no pedicellate sporangia werefound. Karsten (16), states that the form is not uncommon near Allerheiligen, but he has also been unable to find the second sporangium form. As far back as 1849, a very similar form had been observed by Montagne on reeds in Algeria. This is the Phyllactidium arundina- ceum of Kiitzing (4), but as the genus Phyllactidium has since been absorbed in Coleocheete by Pringsheim (9) it will now be found under Phycopeltis as Ph. arundinacea.2 It may perhaps be identical with Millardet’s plant, but neither of them show any characteristic fructifi- cation, on which alone a species can be safely founded. The Chromopeltis of Reinsch (5) found on leaves of mosses (Leskea) in the Vosges in 1875, includes also discoid alge of the same kind but similarly sterile. Mettenius (6) had observed similar alge on leaves of Hymenophyl- laceee in South America, but in this case I believe no special name was given. Bornet (7) also in 1873, described a yellow plate-like alga on leaves in Brazil as forming the algal element of Opegrapha filrcina. 1J may add that I have myself looked for it frequently round Freiburg and in the Black Forest generally, but without success. * De Toni—Sylloge Algarum, I., 1889. JENNINGS— Two New Species of Phycopeltis, New Zealand. 755 In 1877, Cunningham (10) gave the name of Wycoidea parasitica to an alga growing on leaves of Camellia and other plants in India. In early stages this forms a simple cell-layer on the leaf-surface. Like Phycopeltis it is entirely epiphytic. Later on, however, it is said to push its way under the cuticle and to send down rhizoids into the parenchyma, becoming half endophytic, and effecting destruction of the leaf-tissues. Numerous vertical multicellular filaments rise from the disc and bear at the apex groups of sporangia with curved pedicels closely similar to those of Trentepohlia pleiocarpa. Marshall Ward in 1884 (11) described an alga common on leaves of Michelia and other plants in Ceylon, which resembled Mycoidea in general characters and in form of fructitication. He states that it is epiphytic in growth (occasionally sub-cuticular, but never sub-epider- mal), and does not seem to have observed endophytic rhizoids. He figures, it is true, certain sinuous lines regarded as rhizoids developed on the under side of the alga and spreading horizontally so as to hold down the disc on the leaf-surface. These have not been observed by any other writer, and were perhaps an appearance due to the outlines of the underlying epidermal cells. On the other hand, the observations of M. M. Hariot and Karsten confirm the presence of the endophytic rhizoids in examples of ‘‘Mycoidea”’ (= Cephaleuros v. infra, page 756) from various localities. In his Flora of Bohemian alge, Hansgirg (12) includes an epiphyl- lous alga, found on leaves in hot houses, under the name of Mycoidea. It was not, however, in fruit, and being purely epiphytic, should have been classed with Phycopeltis, as he subsequently acknowledged (18). Mobius, however, describing (14) a closely allied or identical form, revived the name of Phyllactidium, and in the species P. tropicum in- eluded several varieties, with different forms and sizes of cells. They all have a flabellate or radiately-lobed mode of growth; and some bear numerous multicellular sterile hairs of a nature entirely different from the sporangiferous filaments of Mycoidea. Sporangia in the disc were observed, but none on pedicels. In his Sylloge Algarum, de Toni (15) includes most of Mobius’ type in Phycopeltis as P. tropica. Some of the figures in Mobius’ paper, however, he regarded as belonging to a distinct genus and species which he named Hansgirgia flabelligera. This appears in the ‘“‘Sylloge”’ in a distinct family widely separated from Phycopeltis. No subsequent writers have been able to follow this unfortunate 756 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. arrangement; M. M. Hariot, Karsten, and Hansgirg having all agreed in absorbing it in Phycopeltis.! The question was reviewed subsequently in a very valuable paper by M. Hariot (17). He points out that the Mycoidea of Cunningham is identical with the genus Cephaleuros of Kunze established as far back as 1827, and that Mobius’ Phyllactidium tropicum and de Tonis’ Hansgirgia flabelligera should both be included in Phycopeltis. Lastly, Karsten (16) in summarizing the whole family agrees with Hariot in substituting the name Cephaleuros for Mycoidea. He pro- poses to use this generic term for all those peltoid Trentepohliacese which sometimes consist of more than one cell-layer; which have usually rhizoids penetrating the leaf, and which bear several sporangia on long filaments. The name Phycopeltis, on the other hand, is eee to those in which the thallus consists of one cell-layer aly and is entirely epi- phytic: the sporangia are borne singly on short stalks. A third type is also raised to the rank of a genus, for which very unfortunately the name of Chroolepusis revived. It has a thallus like that of Phycopeltis, but bears long slender hairs with lateral sessile protuberances. These are regarded by the author as sporangia. So far then as the genus Phycopeltis is concerned, we have well- defined the three species described by Karsten which may be sum- marized as follows :— 1. Ph. treubti—Thallus radially lobed at the margins, with red- brown Hematochrome. JDisc-sporangia elongate and terminal. Spo- rangia on pedicels of two to six cells. 2. Ph. maritima.—Thallus small, discoid, with red-brown Hema- tochrome ; sporangia at the ends of cell-rows slightly raised, but without any definite pedicel. 3. Ph. aurea.—Thallus yellow; crenately lobed at the margin; Disc-sporangia elongated and terminal; sporangia carried erect on unicellular sinuous pedicels longer than the sporangium. In addition to these, there are the European species which have in no case any definite form of stalked sporangia, and which must there- fore be left for the present as species ‘‘ incertz sedis.” These are Phycopeltis epiphyton, Mill; Ph. arundinacea, Mont; and Ph. flabelligera, de Toni, sp. (= Phyllactidium tropicum, Mob.) and Hansgirgia flabelligera, de Toni. 1See also De Toni, ‘‘ Intorno alla indentita del Ph. tropicum con la Hansgirgia Jlabellata de Toni, Notarisia, 1889, No. 1, p. 703; and De Toni and Saccardo— Nuova Notarisia, 1890. JenNINGs—Two New Species of Phycopeltis, New Zealand. 757 Our knowledge of the group is in fact in much the same position as. that of older botanists with reference to such genera as Conferva. Classification on characteristics of the vegetative part of the plant only has always proved unsafe. Through the whole range of cryptogamic botany experience has shown that there is so safe ground for the dis- crimination of genera and species outside the study of fully developed plants with their characteristic fructification. It may certainly be urged by some systematic botanists that the measurement of cells is of great importance in specific distinctions. It is true that this method has been widely and valuably used in the species of Trentepohlia; but the conditions of growth in a cell-plate are very different from those in a cell-filament ; and the measurement of cell-dimensions, even if a true average can he struck, is of still less value. Moreover it is quite certain that in such species as Ph. tropica, Mob, and in the Ph. nigra of this paper, the same species may appear on the same leaf in several varieties differing only in the size of the cells. Following then on the lines of Karsten and Hariot we may thus define the Genus Phycopeltis. Trentepohliaceze with a thin plate-like thallus of varying shape, consisting of one layer of cells only, growing epiphytically on the surface of leaves, without endophytic rhizoids. True sporangia solitary on a pedicel (commonly uncinate) borne above the disc on a reduced filament of shortened cells. Barren hairs may or may not be present. In this generic definition, in addition to the species described by Karsten from Java, and independent of the sterile European forms above referred to, should be included two species collected by the present writer in New Zealand, which may be shortly described as follows. A. Phycopeltis expansa, sp. nov. Thallus thin, pale yellow, forming at first flabelliform or circular plates, which later on spread into wide expansions, covering a great part of the leaf. Margin always entire, never lobed, and never tend- ing to break into filaments. Cells rectangular, with an average size of 01 x ‘007 mm. Sporangia of two kinds—(a) Disc-sporangia, or enlarged cells intercalated in the cell-rows, not terminal ; (4) solitary sporangia on 758 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. unicellular uncinate pedicels, carried above the disc on a single basal cell. Habitat.—On leaves of Nesodaphne Towa, Hook, f., near Picton (Marlborough County, South Island), and at Rotorua (North Island), New Zealand. B. Phycopeltis nigra, sp. nov. Thallus forming «a thin cell-plate, growing in band-like, radiate, or irregularly-spreading lobes; never forming circular discs. Margin more or less irregular, sometimes breaking into short cell-filaments. Disc-sporangia present; but no true sporangia on pedicels as yet known. Colour black (by reflected light); by transmitted light a dark olive-green. Several varieties are distinguishable, differing in the size of the cells, and in the presence or absence of vertical, multicellular, barren hairs, rising from the cells of the disc. Habitat.—(1) On pinne of Asplenium falcatum, Greymouth, New Zealand. (2) On leaves of Mesodaphne Towa, Hook, f., from Picton (Marlborough, South Island), and Rotorua (North Island), New Zealand. The first species is characterized by the compact and regular structure of the disc, and its even undivided margin. In its young stages it is very like the P. epiphyton of Millardet, and the P. arundi- nace of Montagne; but later it spreads out widely over the leaf surface, forming what appears often to be a continuous sheet; a peculiarity which suggests the specific name here given to it. Among the East Indian species described by Karsten, the nearest is his Phycopeltis aurea; but in that case the margin of the disc is lobate, the disc-sporangia elongate and terminal, and the thallus- cells of very different size and relative proportions. Moreover, the stalked sporangia (‘‘ Hakensporangia”’ Karsten) in that species are on unicellular stalks longer than the sporangium, without the hooked form characteristic of the one now under consideration, and without the equally constant basal cell. It is interesting to note that though the growth on any particular leaf starts from many different points, yet the appearance, under low magnification, of a continuous layer is produced. This is due to the fact that the separate discs never overlap; when one growing cell- plate comes into contact with another, the margins fit accurately JENNINGS—Two New Species of Phycopeltis, New Zealand. 759 together, and the growth of the plant proceeds in some other direction where there is no resistance. The youngest plants observed are minute circular discs in which a trace of four radial walls is distinguishable. At an older stage these radial divisions may be seen growing from the margin inwards, sometimes again in multiples of four, but more often irre- gularly. Tangential divisions appear later, but the disc is distinctly divided into radial segments before the cross-walls divide them into cell-rows. Some botanists speak of these plate-like alge as composed of approximated cell-rows, as if the filament were the primitive type. If this were so, we should expect the earliest stages of development to be in the direction of forming cell-rows, as in the germinating spore of filamentous alge generally. It would not perhaps be safe to argue that the ancestors of the trichoid Trentepohlias were peltoid, but at least the developmental phenomena do not favour the converse hypothesis. The second species occurred, as above mentioned, in one case alone, in two other localities together with Phycopeltis expansa. Tn both instances the thallus presents all the main characters of the Phyllactidium tropicum of Mobius, but all specimens appear black by reflected light, and a dark blackish-green by transmitted light. The colour is entirely different from that of all species of Cephaleuros and Phycopeltis, and resembles that of many fungi. It is similarly different from all the filamentous Trentepohliacee, except the doubtful 7. ebenea, which, with its lichen form Cystocoleus, has so often been rejected by the authorities on fungi, and again denied a place among the alge. In the present case it would be impossible to class the cellular plate-like thallus with the fungi, and if we regard it asa Phycopeltis there may be no reason why JZ. ebenea should not also be restored to a parallel position among the filamentous algal forms. The commonly observed interchange of green and yellow in other members of the Trentepohliacex, according to conditions of light and moisture, is an entirely different phenomenon, as the green in that case is a chlorophyll green, not the dark colouring of the black moulds. The colour in this instance is no question of desiccation or de, as the organism is in active growth; neither have the atmospheric conditions anything to do with it, as the plants are on the same leaves as the bright yellow Phycopeltis capansa. B.I.A. PROC., SER. Il., VOL. III. 35 760 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. A long and careful examination of the New Zealand specimens has found no sporangia carried above the disc; but sterile hairs, like those described and figured by Mobius, are present as a rule in great numbers, though in some cases entirely absent. The form of the thallus is in marked contrast to the broad- spreading, smooth-edged plates of Phycopeltis expansa. In all cases it consists of radiating branching bands, spreading from a centre. The margin of the lobes is usually clear and defined, but occasionally the thallus breaks into a network of filaments. This, however, only happens rarely on a very small scale, and seems to be an accident, due to some interference with the normal growth, rather than a distinct habit of the species. Examination with a lens shows that some plants present a dull opaque black surface, others a brighter appearance. This difference is due to the absence of hairs in the former case, and the minute size of the cells. The cells are normally of rectangular form, but in parts, where the thallus assumes the reticulate mode of growth, they tend to become rounded and form more or less moniliform rows. In other parts the cells become irregular and sinuous, as described by Mobius, though there is no apparent cause for this curious effect. In size also there is considerable variation, as in the specimens described by Mobius, and the varieties with different forms of cells, may grow adjacent to one another. The type-form has cells which may reach a diameter of -01 mm., and possesses numerous barren hairs. In the atrichous varieties the cells are commonly less than a quarter as large. The hairs are about °15 mm. long and consist of 10 to Z0 cells. At the base they are slightly narrowed and rise from a dome-like eleva- tion of one of the disc cells. The free end terminates in an ob- tuse or sub-acute cell which sometimes bears a minute hyaline knob such as is commonly seen in certain species of Trentepohlia, as JZ. tolithus for instance. Branching never occurs; nor is there any trace of the forma- tion of terminal or lateral outgrowths of the nature of spores or sporangia. JenNINGs—Two New Species of Phycopeltis, New Zealand. 761 SPECIES OF PHYCOPELTIS. (a) Colour: black. (1) P. nigra, Jennrnas. (a) Heematochrome red-brown. Thallus lobed ; disc-sporangia elon- gate-oval, terminal; sporangia on pedicels of 2-6 cells. (2) P. Treubii, Karsten. Thallus discoid ; sporangia terminal on cell-rows of the disc, without pedicel. (3) P. maritima, Karsten. (6) Heemotochrome, yellow. Thallus radially lobed; disc-sporangia terminal, elongated ; sporangia on long slender sinuous unicellular pedicels. Fertile Forms. (4) P. aurea, Karsten. Thallus discoid, then spreading, margin entire, never lobed; disc- sporangia intercalary, barrel-shaped : sporangia on a short, wide, uncinate pedicel, carried on a basal cell. (8) Colour: yellow, orange, or red brown. (5) P. expansa, JENNINGS. Small circular discs on leaves in Central Europe. (6) P. epiphyton, Mri. Smail circular discs on reeds in Algeria. (7) P. arundinacea, Ktrz1ne. Thallus forming radial flabellate lobes, sometimes with barren hairs. (8) P. tropica, Moz. = P. flabelligera, DE Tont. Sterile Forms. a eee — — There remains still to be considered the relation of these algal forms to associated fungus hyphe. In the historical summary given above, attention has been called to the alga only, but in most cases the observers there mentioned found their studies complicated by the presence of fungus hyphe or of completely developed lichens. Thus Cunningham found that the discs of Mycoidea passed into the condition of a lichen with lecideine apothecia and Marshall Ward showed that the same or a similar alga formed the gonidial element of the lichen Strigula complanata, Fee. Bornet also observed that a yellow plate-like alga growing on leaves in Brazil passed into the lichen Opegrapha Jilicina. More recently it has been pointed out by Hariot that the 3E2 762 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. association of the Cephaleuros of Kunze with the lichen Strigula had been described long ago by Montagne, who regarded the alga as a degenerate form of the lichen. Berkeley in his remarks on the tea blight, indicates that he had observed a similar connection ; while Fries, Nylander, and Saccardo have commented on the peculiar variability of the lichen Strigula and its frequent association with other epiphyllous organisms. In the case of Phycopeltis expansa we have an interesting example of the connection of a peltoid alga with both fungus hyphe and lichen- forming hyphe. When examined with a lens, the greater part of the Phycopeltis appears to give rise to a number of slender brown hairs, the arrange- ment of which often renders the growth-zones of the alga very distinct. On careful examination it is found that these hairs do not rise from the cells of the disc but apparently from the radial walls. They do not in fact belong to the alga at all, but rise from fungoid hyphe, which run between the adjacent cell-rows of the disc. These hyphe are sometimes colourless and extremely fine so as to be almost invisible between the cell-walls ; but in older parts they are brown, repeatedly septate and often moniliform. In this stage they often give off lateral outgrowths following the transverse cell-walls and anastomosing with the next radial hypha. The aerial hyphae are always brown, but with a truncated hyaline extremity from which, in a few cases, I have observed a colourless fusiform sporidium in course of abstriction. Both Cunningham and Marshall Ward observed similar brown hyphae in association with ‘Mycoidea.’ The latter author attributed to them the formation of the lichen Strigula, though his figures do not seem to support this view. In that described by Cunningham, the lichen-forming hyphe were quite different from the brown ones ; and in that now under conside- ration I cannot discover that the brown fungus has any effect on the algal growth. There occur also in parts brown hemispherical gelatinous masses enclosing radiating moniliform filaments. Similar bodies were also observed by the writers just mentioned, but I believe their connection with any of the other organisms was not shown. I am of opinion that they are quite separate plants, unconnected with the hyphe ; not only because no connection is traceable but also because they occur on the pinnee of Asplenvum falcatum, where no hyphe are to be found. JENNINGS— Two New Species of Phycopeltis, New Zealand. 763 It seems that the conditions, whatever they may be, which favour the growth of Phycopeltis and Cephaleuros are also suitable for several forms of fungi. This is only what might have been expected, but it is remarkable that these associated forms should be so similar in India and Ceylon, on the one hand, and New Zealand on the other. When the alga is attacked by a true lichen-forming fungus the effect is very different. In the present instance the result is not only the formation of a well-developed and fertile Strigula, but of one S. complanata, Fée, specifically identical with that which in Ceylon develops in connection with Cephaleuros mycoidea. On many of the leaves of Nesodaphne covered with Phycopeltis expansa, the opaque white thallus of Strigula with its black perithecia appears in patches, usually at the margin. Examined with a lens, a narrow green band may usually be ob- served bordering the thallus and separating it from the yellow alga. Under the microscope this green zone is seen to consist of a spreading network of hyphee penetrating the algal disc, causing its cell-contents to separate, become green and rounded, and with or without division pass into the condition of gonidia. The process is similar to that observed by Cunningham and Mobius. In the case described by Marshall Ward the algal disc appears to remain fairly continuous within the lichen thallus. In the younger parts, it is true, the gonidial layer may be thin and appear in section as a row of somewhat quadrate cells, but I believe in the fully developed lichen there is always division and rounding off of the cells as they become green. With respect to the relations of Phycopeltis nigra with fungus hyphe, the results of my examination are entirely negative. When associated with Phycopeltis expansa and when the latter is full of the brown intercellular hyphe mentioned above, the dark-coloured species is never affected by these filaments or by any other fungoid elements. 1The genus is common through the Tropics, but I believe has not been recorded from New Zealand. It is not included in Nylander’s Synopsis of New Zealand lichens, published in 1888. Some so-called species have been founded on different stages of development in connection with Cephaleuros. The British Strigula Babingtoni is stated by M. Hariot to contain no gonidia, and the speci- mens I have seen certainly appear to be fungi, not lichens. 764 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. This being the case there is, of course, no question of lichen for- mation. In the areas where the growth of Strigula is going on and the spreading lichen is incorporating the yellow cells of Phycopeltis expansa it sometimes lifts up the thallus of P. nigra and separates it from the leaf, but has no physiological effect upon it. In parts it is true there occur circular dark areas with a central aperture such as were observed by Mébius and Cunningham, and regarded by them as possibly pycnidia. In the New Zealand speci- mens, however, they are scarcely raised above the level of the thallus; the aperture is irregular, not like a true ostiole, and the surrounding cells have no definite relation to it. I have not observed any contents in these bodies, and am of opinion that they are only regions in which the thallus has separated from the leaf surface, and the cells in the centre have separated from each other and give the appearance of an aperture. They have certainly a strong resemblance to the conceptacles of simple forms of Melobesia; but no structures of this kind have been seen or are likely to occur in any form of terrestrial alge : while the absence of hyphe prevents one from regarding them as the pycnides of some fungus form. This absence of associated hyphe in the case of Phycopeltis nigra should be looked upon not only asa mere negative characteristic of the species, but as associated in some way with its peculiar colour. It may seem incredible that a plant of such a distinctively algal type of structure should have a fungoid physiology ; but the fact that its exceptional colour is associated with immunity from the attacks of hyphe points to some great physiological difference between it and the yellow species. BrsrioGRAPHy. 1. Acarpo.—Systema Algarum. Lunde, 1824. 2. Marrivs.—Flora cryptogamica Erlangensis Norimberge, 1817. 3. Mittarpet.—Mem. Soe. Sci. Nat. Strasb., vi., 1870. 4. Kurzine.—Spec. Alg. Lipsiz, 1849. 5. Rernscu.—Cont. ad. Algologiam et Fung. Lipsie, 1875. 6. Merrentus.—Abhandlung iiber die Hymenophyllaceen. 7. Borner.—Ann. Sci. Nat. (‘‘ Gonidies des Lichenes”’), 1878. 8. Montacne.—Flora Algérienne. 9. PrinesHeIM.—Jahrbuch. Wiss. Bot., 1., 1860. 10. Cunninenam.—Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot., ser. 2, vol. 1., 1877. JenNINGs—Two New Species of Phycopeltis, New Zealand. 765 . MarsHatt Warp.—Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot., 1884. . Hansatre.—Prod. Algen. flora Bohmens, 11., 1886. . Hansetre.—Flora. Neue Reihe 47, 1889. . Mozrus.—Hedwigia, vol. 27, 1888. . Dre Tont.—Sylloge Algarum, vol. 1., 1889. . Karstey.—Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, x., 1891. . Hartor.—Journ. de Botanique (Morot), 111., 1889. . Kunzz.— Weigelt Surinam exsic. . Montaenz.—Flora de Cuba, p. 133. . Frins.—Syst. Myc., u1., p. 327. . NyzanpEr.—Exp. Synopt. Pyrenocarpeorum, 1859. . BerxeLEy.— Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc., 1875. . Saccarpo.—Syll. Fung., 1, p. 60. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Pratt XXVIII. . Leaf of Nesodaphne, showing the yellow patches of Phycopeltis expansa passing into the lichen Strigula. . A young fan-shaped disc of Ph. expansa, showing sporangia and the brown intercellular fungus hyphe. . Cells of Ph. expansa, magnified 500, showing an empty dosc- sporangium. . Vertical section through the leaf, showing the superficial nature of the Phycopeltis. On the right, some of the brown hypha are shown, one of them bearing a sporidium. In the centre is a ripe sporangium on the characteristic hooked pedicel ; to the left is shown a pedicel after the fall of the sporangium ; and on the right, a young sporangium. . Cells of the disc, showing the intermediate hyphe. . Part of the disc attacked by the lichen hyphae, showing the cell- contents separating and passing into the condition of green gonidia. . Section through leaf and a peritheciwm of the lichen Strigula complanata. 766 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Prare X XIX. . Pinnule of Asplenium falcatum, showing patches of Phycopeltis nigra. . End of one of the radiating lobes of the thallus, showing the barren hairs. . Part of a wider plant, showing two disc-sporangia. . Portion of a disc, showing a round dark area, with a central aperture (similar to those regarded by Mobius and others as probably pycnidia or spermetia, but here apparently acci- dental and due to separation of the thallus from the epidermis, with accompanying decay). . Part of a small-celled plant, with a tendency to break up into Jilaments. . Section of a leaf with the hair-bearing form of Ph. nigra growing on the upper surface. a Senet XLVI. NOTE ON THE ROLE OF OSMOSIS IN TRANSPIRATION, By HENRY H. DIXON, B.A., Assistant to the Professor of Botany, Trinity College, Dublin. [COMMUNICATED BY DR. E. P. WRIGHT. | [Read January 13, 18967] Ty a paper’ on the Ascent of Sap, read before the Royal Society, the joint publication of Dr. J. Joly and myself, we attribute the raising power of the sap, when root-pressure is not acting, either to surface- tension forces developed in the substance of the walls of the evaporating cells, or to the osmotic action of the cells adjoining and im proximity to the upper terminations of the water conduits. The present note is occupied with a discussion of this question regarded both from an experimental standpoint and also from a structural point of view. From various considerations we think it most probable that under normal conditions the force which establishes the tension in the sap in water-conduits is to be referred to the osmotic properties of the cells of the leaf, while we do not deny that under certain conditions the raising force is to be attributed to the evaporation proceeding at the surface film formed in the evaporating cell-walls. Firstly, with regard to the experimental evidence: In transpiration experiments in which colouring materials (¢.g. eosin) or other sub- stances poisonous or non-poisonous (e.g. copper sulphate, picric acid, tartaric acid,? sodium bicarbonate, ferricyanide of potassium, &c.), are supplied in watery solution to the cut surface of a transpiring branch, it is found that the rate of transpiration continues without much diminution till the solution can be detected in the leaves, but then suddenly falls off. This may be seen either by direct measurement? of the water taken up or by the fact that the leaves of these branches usually remain fresh until the arrival of the salt solution in them, 1 Phil. Trans. of Roy. Soc., London, vol. 186 (1895), B. 2 Cf. Annais of Botany, Sept., 1895. 3 Of, Strasburger, “ Ueber das Saftsteigen,”’ p. 12. 768 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. but then rapidly lose their turgescence and flag and finally become dry and crisp.1. These experiments are easily explained if we may assume that at first the solution is drawn up in the conduits under the tension set up by the osmotic forces of the cells of the leaves, but afterwards, when the upper portion of comparatively pure water has been eliminated from the plant by transpiration, the solution comes in contact with the osmotic cells and modifies or destroys their osmotic properties. These latter soon lose their turgescence, and the leaf droops. That the loss of turgescence will necessarily be attended by a diminution of the amount of water evaporated from the leaf will appear evident when it is considered that: Firstly, the transpiring surface of the evaporating cells will be diminished owing to the con- traction of the cells when they cease to be turgescent. Secondly, the diffusion of the water-vapour from the inner tissues of the leaf will be hindered by the collapse of the intercellular passages caused by the drooping of the leaf; and, finally, the evaporating films which on the surface of the wall of the turgescent cell may be supposed to be bulged outwards, will under the new conditions tend, by retreating inwards into the substance of the cell-walls, to form a series of more concave menisci from which as is known evaporation will proceed more slowly. However, as the walls of these cells are imbibed with water, and a continuous column of water extends back from the outer evaporating walls down through the conduits into the plant hanging from the surface film formed on the outside of the evaporating cell- wall, a slow movement upwards will take place of the solution in the conduits even after the loss of turgescence by the osmotic cells. The supply is in most cases inadequate to prevent the drying of the leaf.” To the evaporation at the surface film formed on the cell-walls must also be referred the ascent of water in pieces of dead wood which have been soaked and injected with water, as described by Strasburger ;? for in this case, of course, the intervention of osmotic forces is excluded. It is to be noticed that in this experiment also the wood dries downwards from above. It may be suggested that in the case of the experiments with solutions just referred to, the changes in the rate of transpiration was 1Strasburger, ‘‘ Ueber den Bau und Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen.’? Dixon and Joly, ‘‘On the Course of the Transpiration Current,” Annals of Botany, September, 1895. ? Strasburger, ‘‘ Ueber den Bau,’’ &e. 3 Strasburger, Joc. cit., p. 662 ff. Drxon—Wote on the Role of Osmosis in Transpiration. 769 due to an alteration in surface-tension owing to the presence of the salt. To investigate this question experiments were made in which the turgescence of the cells was destroyed without introducing any foreign salt but by the action of heat. A small branch of Helianthus multiyflorus was immersed in water at 75°-80° for ten minutes, and then in a very flaccid condition set with its lower end in a vessel of water and exposed to conditions favourable to transpiration. Quickly the surfaces of the wetted leaves dried, and within an hour the edges began to roll up owing to the loss of water, while a control branch of similar dimensions and under the same conditions except that it had not been exposed to the high temperature remained turgescent and fresh. At the expiration of an hour the lower ends of both branches were transferred into a watery solution of eosin. After ten minutes the eosin was plainly visible in all the veins of the leaves of the control branch, but not soin the other. The control branch soon began to flag, and two hours afterwards when the branch which had been immersed in the heated water was examined it was found that the eosin had risen only a short way up the stem and penetrated only into the lower leaves, while in the control branch even the uppermost leaves showed the eosin in the finest veins. In order to avoid the contact of the liquid water with the surface of the evaporating cells other experiments were made in which the branches to be experimented were kept, while their cut ends were supplied with water, in a damp chamber raised to a temperature of 80°-90°. After they had remained 10-20 min. in the heated chamber they were taken from it, and their rate of transpiration measured and compared with that of a similar control branch. The rate of transpiration was estimated by allowing them to draw the transpired water from a weighed vessel of water from which evapo- ration was prevented by means of a cork fitting closely round the base of the branch and the neck of the vessel. At the end of a certain time the vessel was again weighed, and the difference in the two weighings gave approximately the amount of water tran- spired. From a number of experiments it appeared that the control branch as long as it remained fresh and turgescent transpired twice to four times as much water as the branch which was raised to the high temperature ; both branches being of course as far as possible similar. If however the experiment is prolonged it is found that when the control branch becomes drooped, it transpires only about half as much water as the other. This sudden diminution in the amount of water 770 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. transpired is doubtless due to some action of a protective nature in the living branch checking the transpiration when the leaves droop, which does not occur in the branch killed by the high temperature. From these experiments it is probable that the change in the rate of transpiration after the introduction of various solutions into the upper terminations of the tracheal tissue is due to a diminution of the turgescence of the cells which adjoin these terminations, rather than to an alteration in the surface tension of the evaporating films. The fact that branches, even when the cells of their leaves have lost their turgescence owing to exposure to high temperatures, are still able to draw up water in diminished quantities, is to be explained by assuming that the raising of the water in these cases is due simply to the tractional forces developed by evaporation taking place at the surface-films of the evaporating cells. In this case and in the case of the raismg of water in the pieces of dead wood as described by Strasburger,! the process is strictly analogous to the raising of water by evaporation at the surface of a porous vessel. Again the fact that the leaves even of the highest trees remain turgescent during the time of transpiration may, taken in conjunction with the foregoing observations, be used as an argument in support of the view that it is the osmotic properties of the cells of the leaf which directly put the water in the tracheal system in tension. For unless water was suppled by osmotic pressure through the walls of the evaporating cells as quickly as it evaporates from their outer surface, it is evident that instead of a pressure being maintained in the cells a tension would be set up by the evaporation, and the cells would no longer remain turgescent and the flagging of the leaves would result. This amounts to saying that if the tension set up by evaporation tend- ing to collapse the cells, which intervene between the evaporating surfaces and the upper terminations of the water conduits, be not opposed by a greater force exerted by the turgescence of these cells, the leaves will become flaccid, and as we know the leaves do not normally become flaccid during transpiration we may conclude that during normal transpiration the tractional force is exerted by the osmotic properties of the turgescent cells in the leaf. It appears quite warrantable to assume that the osmotic attraction of the cells of the leaf is capable of exerting a tension in the conduits adequate to raise the sap in the highest trees; for osmotic pressures 1 Strasburger: ‘‘ Ueber den Bau und Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen.”’ Dixon—Wote on the Role of Osmosis in Transpiration. 771 varying from 3—21 atmospheres have been demonstrated in various positions in plants by different experimentors.' Besides the arguments deduced from experimental evidence, there are also reasons to believe that the raw sap is drawn out of the upper extremities of the water conduits by the osmotic action of the neigh- bouring cells, founded on anatomical considerations. The elements of the tracheidal system in the leaf and elsewhere have their walls strengthened by thickening layers, in addition to the fact that their walls are of a more resistant material and thicker than that composing the walls of the neighbouring cells. We may argue almost with certainty that if the cells of the mesophyll had to withstand the same internal tension or tendency to collapse as tlie elements of the trachei- dal tissue that they would have equal provision to protect them from collapsing. On the other hand, their highly elastic and flexible membrane unfurnished with any form of rigid support is just what is suitable to take up the internal pressure generated by the osmotic activity of the cell. For the sake of comparison a few measurements are given here, made on the cells and the tracheidal elements of the leaf of Helianthus multiflorus :— Thickness of wall. | Diameter of lumen. Cell of mesophyll, .. a 1:0—0°du 10u Cell of bundle-sheath, .. 1:0-0°5u 10-204 Tracheidal element of a fine ramification of a bundle, .. 1:2—3°0u 6-8 From these measurements we see that the strength of the trache- idal element to resist collapse is much greater than that of the cells of the leaf both by its thicker wall and by its smaller internal diameter, and consequently we may with confidence conclude that the cellular elements of the leaf are not exposed to the same crushing forces as those of the tracheidal system. Of course ultimately, even under normal conditions, the inflow of heat causing the evaporation from the surface films formed in the cell- membranes of the transpiring cells is what supplies the energy needed to raise the water of the transpiration-current, for it is by this that 1Of, H. de Vries, Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. xiv.; Wieler, Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. xviii. ; Westermaier, Berichte d. deutsch. Bot. Ges., 1888, p. 371. 772 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. the concentration in the sap of the turgescent cells necessary to attract the water from the conduits is maintained. ‘This consideration also explains the fact that the conditions favourable to rapid evaporation are those fayourable to rapid transpiration. This fact, namely, that the upward movement of the transpiration- current is ultimately due to the evaporation taking place at the sur- faces of the cell-walls in the leaf, leads us to consider what advantages are obtained by the intervention of the osmotic-cells between the evaporating surfaces and the conduits. In the first place it is probable that without the internal pressure set up by the turgescence of the cell, that the cell-wall would dry back and cease to be able to draw up water from below, as is found to be the case in those experiments in which the osmotic action is elimi- nated: in addition to this, the arrangement as it is found in the leaf, is a most beautiful automatic mechanism, by which in times of excessive evaporation the osmotic power of the cell is increased by the greater concentration of the sap contained in it. This simultaneously increases its attractive forces on the water on the conduits, and tends to diminish the rate of the loss of water from it due to evaporation ; since evaporation takes place more slowly from concentrated solu- tions. Another advantage derived from the presence of the turgescent- cells is the great rigidity which they confer on the leaf. It is indeed wonderful to see how completely a stiff leaf collapses and hangs flabby after it has been robbed of its turgescence by exposure for a few minutes to steam. The cells of the leaf acting like minute Bourdon tubes, keep the leaf expanded as long as they are turgescent, but when their turgescence is destroyed, are no longer able to support its weight. Not only is the distension of the cells due to turgescence favourable to transpiration by exposing greater external leaf-surface, and conse- quently stomata, to the air, but also when the leaf is held out rigidly by turgescence, the internal air-passages and smaller intercellular spaces are kept open, and a free circulation of vapour is permitted to take place through them. In this relation of turgescence to trans- piration, we have again an automatic contrivance of extreme beauty. For if it should come to pass that the external conditions were so favourable to evaporation that the leaf should lose more water than it can derive from the conduits, it is evident that the turgescence of the transpiring cells will be diminished. ‘This will, by the mechanism described, bring about a diminished freedom in the passage of water- vapour through the spaces in the leaf and through the stomata, owing Dixon—Wote on the Role of Osmosis in Transpiration. 773 to the collapse of the leaf. The result of this will be that the loss of water by transpiration will be lessened. That this mechanism is very perfect, may be seen from the experiments quoted above, by which it is shown that leaves killed in steam lose about twice as much water by evaporation as leaves which have drooped owing to a partial loss of turgescence, although the external surface exposed for evaporation by the steamed leaves must be very much less, owing to the way in which they fall together, than the leaves which have simply drooped. It may be urged that if the osmotic attraction suffices to draw water from the conduits into the osmotie cells, the same attraction will prevent its escape from the surface of an osmotic cell which is exposed to the atmosphere, and there is no reason to suppose that the membrane _ formed by the protoplasm in these cells is semipermeable on the side towards the conduits and not so towards the atmosphere. Although it seemed probable that when the pressure rose in the cells that it would force pure water through the membrane while the salt in solution would be retained in the cell, experiments were made to test this. A semipermeable membrane was formed in the walls of a porous pot by rinsing it out, first, with copper sulphate solution and after washing it with water, with a second solution formed of Ferrocyanide. of potassium in water. The porous vessel, so furnished with a semi- permeable membrane, was next filled with a saturated sugar solution and a capillary tube one metre in length sealed hermetically into it so that the end in the vessel was almost in contact with the bottom. To the upper free end of the tube-a small thistle-funnel was attached. The pressure in the vessel could now be raised by pouring mercury into the funnel. The downward motion of a small bubble of air in the capillary tube showed that liquid must be leaving the vessel, and since the outer surface remained dry to the touch it is evident that the loss was due to evaporation taking place in the pores of the vessel. The experiment was repeated with a solution of sodium nitrate replacing the sugar solution.'. In these cases a pressure of about an atmosphere and a-half was sufficient to bring about evapo- ration of the outer surface of the semipermeable membrane; so that we may safely assume that evaporation can take place from the osmotic cells of the leaf. We may diagrammatically represent the action of an osmotic cell in the leaf by the following arrangement. A small porous pot A, in the walls of which a semipermeable membrane has been formed, is sealed 1(p. Oswald, ‘‘ Outlines of General Chemistry,”’ p. 127. 774 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. on to the upper end of a fine glass tube (see diagram). The porous pot is enclosed in a bladder B, the narrow opening of which is bound closely round the glass tube below the pot, so as to be water-tight. The pot and tube are filled with water and the lower end of the latter dips into a vessel of water, while the space between the bladder and the pot is filled with a solution of potassium nitrate. Itis evident that in such an arrangement the potassium nitrate in the bladder will attract water from the inside of the pot, and consequently give rise to an upward motion of the waterin the tube. After some time the bladder will become distended and tense and water will diffuse through its wall and evaporate into the surrounding space. This evaporation will maintain a certain con- centration of the solution in the bladder, so that a state of equilibrium will be attained in which the amount of water evaporated from the surface of the bladder will equal the amount which passes from the pot into the solution, and at the same time the bladder will remain distended or turgescent. The transference of water across the bladder will be due to the difference of the state of satura- tion obtaining inside the porous vessel at the top of the tube from that obtaining outside the bladder. We may suppose that a certain num- ber of water molecules pass from the pot through the semipermeable membrane into the bladder and a certain number back from the bladder into the pot, but that the latter number will be less than the former owing to the attraction of the potassium nitrate for water ; similarly at the outside of the bladder a certain number of water molecules are leaving the bladder and a certain number are passing from the surrounding water-vapour into it, and when evaporation is taking place the former number will be greater than the latter. This constant loss of water from the outer surface of the bladder would be competent to set up a tension in the water in the tube if the latter contained no free gas in it, and thus aconstant current upwards in the tube might be maintained even if the reservoir into which its lower extremity dipped were cut off from atmospheric pressure. In this experiment it is seen that the porous pot and tube, which correspond to the upper portions of the tracheidal system of plants, must be able to withstand the tendency to collapse due to the weight of the long Dixon—WNote on the Role of Osmosis in Transpiration. 775 column of water depending from them, while the bladder has no such tendency to collapse and corresponds to the evaporating cells of the leaf. In this apparatus it is evident if the turgescence of the bladder were removed either by destroying the osmotic properties of the semipermeable membrane in the walls of the pot, or by supplying an isotonic solution to the lower end of the tube, and if no change was introduced altering the porosity of the membrane, that evaporation from the collapsed bladder would still maintain a feeble current upwards in the tube similar to the upward current in branches, the leaves of which have lost their turgescence. In addition to the tension set up in the manner described by the osmotic cells of the leaves in the water-conducting system of plants, it seems very probable that under all circumstances the cells of the medullary rays must draw the water needed in their metabolism by their osmotic properties from the water conduits ; for these cells are not connected directly with any large evaporating surfaces, and conse- quently cannot depend on the tensile force which might be generated by such evaporation to procure for them fresh supplies of water. In conclusion, I wish to thank Dr. J. Joly, Trinity College, Dublin, for many valuable suggestions in writing this Paper. R.I.A. PROC., SER. IIT., VOL. U1. 3F [776 4 XLVII. ON FIVE GOLD FIBULA LATELY DISCOVERED IN THE SOUTH OF IRELAND, AND ON THE ART PROCESSES USED IN THEIR MANUFACTURE. By DR. W. FRAZER, Hon. Member, Society of Antiquaries, Scotland, and MR. EDMOND JOHNSON. (Prare XXX.) [Read NovemBer 11, 1895.] Ir is admitted as beyond doubt that gold was known and valued in Treland, from remote ages, but what that period exactly means is a question still to be decided. If we refer to Ancient Chronicles which are supposed to contain legendary histories and traditions, faithfully transmitted from prehis- toric times such as the ‘“‘ Annals of the Four Masters’ we are assured that in a.m. 3872, which would represent about 132 years before our era, assuming Ussher’s Chronology to be correct. ‘‘Muineamhon first caused chains of gold (to be worn) on the necks of kings and chieftains in Ireland” and in the ‘“‘ Annals of Clonmacnois”’ it is said he ‘‘ devised gold to be wrought in chains, fit to be worn about men’s necks and rings to be put on their fingers.” A few years later King Faildeargdoid derived his name from the red gold rings then worn on the hands of Irish chieftains. All this can be read in Sir William Wilde’s invaluable catalogue of the gold ornaments contained in our museum in the year 1862. He continues to state that 1300 years later when written history had commenced to replace tradition, gold was valued and sought after. A few notes from the records of about 200 years of this medieval period in Irish History may suffice. a.p. 989. O’Melaghlin vanquished the Danes of Dublin, and they agreed to give him one ounce of gold ‘‘ for ever,” for every garden they held. ‘To be paid on Christmas night. a.p. 1029. Anlaff the Dane when captured by the Lord of Bregia, agreed to pay for his ransom 1200 cows, seven score British horses, and three score ounces of gold, and the sword of Carlus. A.D. 1151. Turlogh O’Brien took into Connaught ten ounces of gold. A.D. 1162. When peace was concluded with the Danes, they gave FRAZER AND JoHNSON—On Five Gold Fibule. TA7C2/ 120 ounces of gold to O’Lochlainn, King of Meath, and five score ounces were paid by Diarmid O’Melaughlynn to Rory O’Conor for West- meath. A.D. 1168. Dermod Mac Murrogh gave one hundred ounces of gold to Tiernan O’ Rourke for his ‘‘ Einach”’ or atonement. A.D. 1169. Donough O’Carroll, Lord of Airghialla, died, having bestowed 3800 ounces of gold upon clerics and churches. (See the “Annals of the Four Masters”’ and ‘‘ Wilde’s Catalogue.’’) When Wilde’s catalogue was published thirty-three years ago, it embraced fifteen specimens of Minns or Lunule, thin semicircular gold ornaments considered to be intended for wearing as head decorations, which resemble the ornaments found on statues and sculptures of early date found in Greece and Asia Minor, and have also been some- times compared to the Nimbi painted around representations of saints. I mention these Minns, as their mode of ornamentation is similar to that found on Irish gold fibule, and Mr. Johnson has kindly permitted me to exhibit one of them which he owns. We have at present in our museum thirty of these Minns, double the number the printed catalogue contained. A similar increase has taken place in our collection of fibula, including all the varieties, Mammillary fibule, Brooches, and Armille, large and small. We own about 120 specimens instead of 70, and this causes me to suggest that as the Academy possesses an available manuscript list of all our gold ornaments with correct weights of every specimen, it ought, I think, to be published for the use of students of Irish Antiquities. 3 I fear the numerous tales related of discoveries of vast treasures of rings and other gold articles in Ireland, are not always historically or strictly correct. The discovery of the gréat Clare find is beyond question, but the great amount of gold then unearthed was never ascer- tained, and of course is now impossible to conjecture. Through the exertions of Dr. Todd, Mr. Halliday, and other Members of this Academy, we obtained possession of upwards of 174 ounces of gold from this source; some pieces passed to the British Muscum, others into private hands, still the sum of £3000, at which its value has been guessed is based on mere surmises. I have memoranda of a great Wicklow find contained in some notes of the late Mr. Clibborn; it is said the discoverer obtained £7000 for the gold, and the goldsmith who melted it, resold the ingots for £11,000. This is a tradition for which I can produce no confirmation whatever, and I cannot even say that I believe it. Bia B 778 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. There can be no reason for doubting that numerous gold articles were melted down in former times, especially during the last century. Under the present regulations in Ireland of Treasure Trove, all finders of ancient gold become absolute owners, for if deposited by them with the police or forwarded direct to this Academy, it will be purchased at a price above its standard value and commensurate with its antiquarian interest or else returned to the owner for his benefit. AIl goldsmiths throughout the country are perfectly aware it is more to their advan- tage to sell us these objects uninjured and not melt or break them up ; still mistakes are liable to occur. The finder of a piece of golden bronze sometimes supposes he has the good fortune to get a quantity of gold, and is correspondingly disappointed at the result, or an orna- ment of pure gold may be mistaken for brass and find its way to decorate a pig’s snout, or into the satchell of a wandering ragman. Gold ornaments have been dug up over all Ireland; apparently the finds are more numerous in the south and west of the country, as compared with the north, in other words, in the more fertile and therefore better populated districts. The present exhibits were obtained on the confines of Wexford and Waterford. If the Norsemen carried off great treasures of Irish gold which I believe they did, it may be asked why in the present day are such ornaments so seldom found in Scandinavian countries. To this query I would offer a simple solution. Norsemen were skilled workers in metals and used up the gold they obtained for purposes of personal decoration, inlaying with it even the handles of their swords, instead of hoarding it up in the form of rings and fibule as the Irish did, hence their gold plunder gradually disappeared, and circulated in other ways. It is somewhat otherwise respecting the great quantities of silver coin they levied in England. Much of this must have fallen into the hands of private soldiers, and was in many instances on their return homewards hoarded and buried by them in the earth. Certain it is that any collector desirous of obtaining Anglo-Saxon silver coins will have no difficulty in purchasing them, not in England, but in Scandinavia, where to this day finds of such coins are made with exceptional frequency. Ireland had no gold coinage at any time, and our silver coins originated with the Danish kings of Dublin and Waterford, therefore there was no inducement to melt ornaments of gold for commercial purposes in these early ages. In England and all Continental lands the most destructive enemy of golden antiquities was the mint. The frequent recoinages of British gold has in addition to absorbing the FRAZER AND JoHNSON—On Five Gold Fibule. 779 recent finds of California, Australia, and the Cape, melted up again and again almost all the gold issues of our early English kings, with rare exceptions now principally to be found in the cabinets of Numismatists. I know it will be considered by some an errot if I say I do not believe that our Irish gold ornaments were all, or even in great part, obtained from native Irish gold. If we once had in Ireland such very productive gold mines or river washings that they could yield gold in great quantities, how did the memory of these facts die out from men’s minds, to be rediscovered late in the last century in the Co. Wicklow (for as to any other alleged gold districts they are not worth speculating about)? Surely our Annals ought to contain numerous traditions or undoubted records of these vast mineral treasures if they were ever in existence. We have, I admit, a record of a solitary worker in gold in the Airthir Liffe, who worked for one of the earlier Milesian chiefs. His presence in the district through which our river Liffey ran, has been conjectured to be due to his using this Wicklow gold. It may be, with more probability, ascribed to the district affording suitable sup- plies of charcoal. It would require many skilled workmen, and many large manufacturing establishments, to turn out the gold ornaments found in Ireland, whether the metal was got from Wicklow gold or foreign sources. This would require a far more exhaustive inquiry than is possible in the present Paper. It may, however, prove of some interest to those desirous of following up the subject, if I suggest one result of modern geographical studies. Of late years, amongst other important sources of gold in former ages, attention is called to the great quantities afforded by Eastern Russia. For many centuries past it has supplied the world with vast treasures, and the fabulous wealth of Colchis, the land of the Golden Fleece, is well known. Our earlier Irish colonists were, besides Fomorians, the De Danaans, Milesian, and Celtic tribes. It may prove merely a coincidence, still, Greek races, Danaans and Mile- sians—the latter of Ionian origin, coming from Caria—were primitive settlers and colonists in that rich gold land of Colchis, and founded cities there. In subsequent ages they were driven out by other races, and are in part, at least, the parents of our very mixed Irish people. On the north-west of the Euxine also, for a time, settled the Cymbni, before they travelled northwards and westwards, expelled by succeed- ing invaders, the alleged ancestors of the Celtic people, and perhaps of the Gauls. Tradition tells, also, of gold reaching Ireland from 780 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Spain ; but enough for my purpose if I indicate other sources of gold besides the Co. Wicklow, whence it may have reached us. In later times, no doubt, much came from Britain, when Irish warriors, on the decline of the Roman Empire, attacked the west of England and Wales, bringing batk on one occasion that great Apostle St. Patrick, of greater value to us than much barbaric gold. We are indebted to W. G. D. Goff, Esq., of Glenville, Co. Water- ford, for the opportunity of seeing these very interesting gold fibule, weighing in all 28} ounces. They were purchased by him from a jeweller in Waterford ; and there is reason to believe they were dis- covered early this summer in the bed of a small river near New Ross. When found they were covered with portions of the soil in which they had long been concealed. Mr. Goff has since deposited the Five Gold Fibule in the Museum of the Academy, and it is hoped he may be induced to cede them to us permanently. As the mode of manufacture of these and other gold ornaments, whether made in Ireland or elsewhere, has never been explained by an expert, Mr. Edmond Johnson has supplied me with the following valuable information :— Mr. Jonnson’s Description oF THE Maxine oF ANCIENT Gotp Work. I have been asked by Dr. Frazer to try and give a peep into a jeweller’s workshop some two or three thousand years ago, more especially as to the production of the five fibule now under considera- tion. Granted, that the jeweller is supplied with a certain quantity of gold, either in nuggets, or possibly in some money form, the next operation is to melt it; and this is by no means an easy matter when it is in its natural state and almost pure. The melting-pot, or cruci- ble, must have been formed of blue clay, as that stands the highest heat, and would be the same as we use at the present day, and easily procured The next point would be the fire. I don’t think that with the poor appliances they must have had at that period, sufficient heat could be obtained from coal, or even anthracite, without a tall stock chimney, of at least fifty feet high, to produce the required draught. Charcoal generates a greater heat than either of these, especially if made from birchwood ; and it is within my own memory when birch charcoal was used for melting in my father’s workshop. Therefore I think charcoal was the fuel used in ancient times, and a furnace of about one foot cube internal measurement would answer for FRAZER AND JoHNSON—On Five Gold Fibule. 781 fusion. It would be necessary to have a small orifice at the base for the purpose of applying a bellows of considerable power in order to get up the required heat for the fusion of fine gold. The crucible would be buried in the centre of the glowing mass, covered on all sides with charcoal ; and it is necessary to add a *‘ flux,”’ such as salt- petre or borax, in order to make the gold flow. The next stage was the casting of the ingot. An indentation cut in stone or the pressure of a piece of wood of the required form into the soft blue clay would, when baked, answer the purpose. Into this the gold was carefully poured, and they would thus have pieces of metal somewhat near the required shape. Mere castings would not do, for in this stage gold is of a porous and spongy nature ; it then requires to be well hammered, as all these ancient gold articles have the strongest evidence of beg very close in the grain. Fibula marked A, the largest one of the five, weighs 17 oz. 10 dwt. 10grs., and is made of five separate pieces (figs. 1,2, Pl. XXX.). The bow shown in figure 3 is a solid bar of gold which has been hammered from the ingot, and finished by the process known as swaging, as follows :—A tapering hollow cut in a stone is finished to a nice smooth surface ; this would act as the anvil, and a corresponding hollow cut in asmallerstone would form the swage. The gold would be put between those grooves and the swage struck with the hammer repeatedly while the gold was turned at every blow ; thus it would obtain a smooth | surface and be quite circular. Some such method must have been adopted in making this bar as it shows no hammer marks, the ingot being forged straight and afterwards bent. More difficult forgings are the two cups for the ends of the fibula as shown in fig. 4: these would require two or three different kinds of ‘ belchering tools” or shaped anvils to form them: the socket fitted accurately the end of the bow and was ‘“‘ sweated” on to it. This ‘‘ sweating ”’ is in fact surface melting, and gold has this peculiar property that under a high temperature the extreme surface becomes molten so that two surfaces like the bow in the socket when so treated join together and in fact weld ; nothing of the nature of solder (7.¢. inferior gold that melts at a lower temperature) is ever found in any of these fibule. Gold of inferior quality cannot be sweated together ; when it arrives at the fusing point it suddenly collapses into the molten state. A slight projecting of the collar of these cups beyond the line of the bow shows conclusively that they were “‘ put on” in the manner described and were separate pieces. Now, the edge had to be attached, and one 782 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. might naturally ask why did he not ‘‘sweat’’ that on also and thus make the fibula one piece and a better job. I quite agree with this ancient jeweller that he adopted the only course open to him, for had he attempted to sweat the edge on he would have fused the cups, as the heat from so great a mass of metal always runs to the thinnest parts first, and a disaster would have been the result. The following is the method that was adopted. The extreme edge of the cup piece was left thickened and a flat piece of gold of an annular form, as shown in fig. 5, was very neatly bent round and brought down tight to both surfaces, thus enclosmg the thickened edge, and in fact it becomes riveted on; see section, fig. 8. The next stage is the ornament :—The ornamentation on these gold articles has hitherto been alluded to as engraving or lines cut out by a sharp tool. This is not so, as all the ornament is produced by hammer and chisel. I have examined many of these gold ornaments under the microscope, and small imperfections or chips in the work- man’s chisel are reproduced continually throughout the wholeornament. This fibula also will prove this in another way. The internal orna- menting of the cups has produced a bulge on the outer surface which would be brought about by the numerous smali taps of the hammer ; if this were engraved the line of the outer surface would not be altered. Fibula B weighs 4 oz. 11 dwt. 18 grs.; the bow is solid and ham- mered from an ingot same as already described in A; the cups are then sweated on, but left quite thick to prevent their melting: they are then hammered out thin, and bell-shaped. There is a thickened edge and a beautiful moulded ornament on the outer side only, which quite puzzles me as to how it was produced without suggesting what are considered to be modern tools. Fibula D weighs 2 oz. 1 dwt. 17 grs.; the bow is solid; the cups are well splayed out and ornamented with three concentric rings which have all the appearance of being done on a lathe, the lines are so true. It could be done by a piece of bone with those sectional marks in it twisted round and finding its centre in the hollow of the cup, while the other side rested probably on leather. Fibule C and E:—These weigh 2 oz. 4dwt. 20 grs. and: 2 0Z. 1 dwt. 12 grs. respectively, and they differ from the others from the fact that their bows are hollow. This was undoubtedly done with a view of saving the gold. Then I should say they were made as follows :—A piece of gold plate was hammered out, slightly tapering at Proce. RIA Vol.3. | | | | eee a | Geo Wee Sone hth et inp wi FRAZER AND JOHNSON—On Five Gold Fibule. 783 either end; this was worked round a piece of wood the shape of the bow. This piece of wood could not be drawn out as it was thick in the centre, but was probably burnt out: then they had a straight tube tapering to both ends. Next, they joined the edges by the ‘sweating’ process before alluded to; then it had to be bent round into its present form. This could not be done while the tube was empty for fear of collapse, soI should say they filled it with sand and bent it into the required shape, which is a system adopted at the present day. The cups are then attached as before described. The tools and appliances necessary for the production of these gold ornaments are :—Furnace, charcoal, crucible, mould for ingot, flux, bellows, several hammers, anvils, swage anvil, swages, chisels for ornament, sectional tool for producing concentric rings. The worn parts on Fibula A (which may give some clue to the use of these fibula) have completely obliterated the ornament which was deeply impressed and would take some centuries of wear to obliterate. It also shows ancient markings on one side of the cup and on its corresponding opposide side as if it knocked against accoutrements or weapons. Specific gravity 18 90, or something better than 231 carat gold. Total weight of gold ornaments, 283 oz. 5 grs. Peay XLVIII. THE PATEN OF GOURDON, ILLUSTRATED FROM THE BOOK OF ARMAGH. By Tuer REV. T. OLDEN. [Read 10th Fesruary, 1896.] Ty the article on Patens, in Smith’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Christian Anti- quities,” several engravings are given of specimens preserved in museums or elsewhere. Amongst these is one which is peculiar in being of rectangular shape instead of the circular form with which we are familiar. This was found at Gourdon in the South of France, and the writer of the article although he includes it among the patens does so with some hesitation as he entertains doubts as to whether it really is one or not. The reasons for thinking it is a paten are that the centre is occupied by a cross in slight relief, which would seem to be incon- venient, if it were a vessel for domestic use, and further it was found together with a chalice. On the other hand, it is replied that the argument from the existence of the cross is of no weight as it is known that the early Christians were in the habit of decorating their domestic utensils with crosses and other religious symbols. But the chief argument relied on for its secular character by Padre Garucci who is referred to as an eminent authority, is that no instance is known of a paten of this. shape. No doubt, the ecclesiastical literature of England and the Con- tinent may contain no notice of them; but it is otherwise in Ireland, for they are mentioned in the Tripartite life of St. Patrick and in the Collections of Tirechén in the Book of Armagh. At p. 96 of the Roll’s edition of the Tripartite the following passage occurs :-— ‘‘The holy bishop Assicus was Patrick’s coppersmith, and he made altars and quadrangular patens and quadrangular book-covers in honour of Patrick.’ I have changed one word in this extract. It is the translation OtpEN— The Paten of Gourdon. 785 of the Irish word massa which Mr. Whitley Stokes here renders ‘‘tables,’”’ but I have altered to patens. I called Mr. Stokes’s attention to the mistake in his version, and he agrees with me that it ought to be patens. The Irish word mas cognate if not derived from the Latin mensa, is used for table, or paten, or dish; but that it should be paten here is perfectly clear, as the passage is translated word for word from Tirechén by the author of the Tripartite, and there the corresponding word is patinos. The circumstance then that quadrangular patens were made in Ireland in St. Patrick’s time shows that Padre Garucci’s objection is unfounded, and it establishes the interesting and important fact that the Book of Armagh preserves the knowledge of a kind of early Christian art-work of which no trace is found elsewhere in European literature. Tirechan, writing in the middle of the seventh century, evidently considered the fact of the manufacture of these patens in St. Patrick’s time so curious as to need some further proof ; for he goes on to say “Three of those patens I saw,” and he also tells his reader where they were. One was at Armagh, as we might expect ; another at Elphin which was founded by St. Patrick who placed Assicus there ; the third was at Domnach mor maige Seolai, otherwise known as Domnach Padruig or Patrick’s Church at Lough Hackett in the county of Galway. Thus they were all preserved in churches founded by St. Patrick, and were evidently bestowed on them by him, and were the work of his artist. The angular form would thus appear to have been the earliest in use, and this may be accounted for by the circumstance that the vessels used for Eucharistic purposes in the beginning were either such as had served for domestic uses, or were formed on the same models. In the present instance the paten of Gourdon corresponds in shape with the Roman silver vessels of, probably, the fifth century, now in the British Museum. It seems to be of about the same date, as, with it was found a hoard of coins of the early part of the sixth century, and the vessel may be assumed to be somewhat older. Assicus could only have learned his art abroad when patens of this form were in use, and he as St. Patrick’s artist introduced them into Ireland. The angular form seems to have been abandoned for the circular everywhere at ap early period, though naturally later in Ireland than 786 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. in the great religious centres abroad in consequence of the remote situation of this country. But even in Ireland we have a very early instance of the round kind in the Mias Tigernain which is described by Sir William Wilde in Vol. xxi. of the Academy’s Transactions. It is popularly known as ‘‘St.Tigernan’s Dish,’’ but as he says, more cor- rectly, ‘‘ St. Tigernan’s paten.”’ It was found in St. Tigernan’s grave at Errew, a promontory in Lough Con, and consists of a circular disk of copper slightly dished, one-eighth of an inch thick, thirty-four in circumference, with a silver cross in front. The class of ornament on it belongs to an early period of Celtic art, and resembles that found on pagan monuments. St. Tigernan’s date is not recorded, but it has been inferred from his pedigree that he flourished at the close of the fifth century. Ifthe angular patens had then gone out of use or were ceasing to be made at this early date, we seem in this to have some evidence of the truth of Nennius’ account of St. Patrick’s having come to Ireland in 405, and the further inference that he died about 465. For we cannot suppose the pattern he used was superseded during his lifetime, but this would be so if he were alive when the Dias Tiger- nain was made. However this may be, we have proof that St. Patrick gave away many of these angular patens, for in the annonymous note following the life of S. Patrick, by Muirchu Maccu Machtheni in the Book of Armagh, it is stated that when he went across the Shannon he took with him and gave away many presents to new congregations, and amongst them ‘‘ fifty patens’’ which of course must have been of this angular shape. They were evidently manufactured im considerable numbers by his artists, and the question arises, what became of them, as none have been found in Ireland as yet. The depredations of the North- men cannot be held responsible for their disappearance, as even in 650, when 'lirechan is supposed to have written, he knew of only three remaining. This was more than a century before the first inroad of the Northmen. There is, however, a passage in the Additions to Tirechan, which appears to me to throw some light on this question. It refers to the purchase of land, and mentions the consideration given. This, according to Mr. Stokes’s translation, was ‘‘a necklace of three ounces of silver with a circlet of gold with old dishes with old vessels.” But the translation requires to be amended, for the word here rendered dishes, is mesavb miasa, and must be translated patens, and atrotib ‘‘ vessels”? should be ‘‘ covers,” the paten, being used as a cover for the chalice, so in modern Irish mullach means both a paten O._pEn— Zhe Paten of Gourdon. 787 and a cover, but the expression, ‘‘ with” old vessels, does not convey the meaning, for while the silver is defined as a certain number of ounces, the patens or covers are left undetermined, which could not have been the author’s intention. The two words mes?) and arotib are either instrumental cases, and may be translated “ made of,” or ablatives requiring a preposition of this meaning to be supplied. The circlet, or torque of gold, must have been of a definite weight, as was the case with all gold ornaments in those ages, when they were used as money before coinage was known. Amending the translation then, as I propose, the passage would run thus, ‘‘a necklace of three ounces of silver with a circlet of gold made of old patens, or old covers.’’ The specification as to the source from which the gold was to be derived seems to have been added, because there were three kinds of gold known in Ireland, 6r buidhe or yellow gold, which was natural gold; 6r derg, or red gold, which was gold alloyed with copper; and ban dr, or pale gold, which was gold alloyed with silver! The purchaser secured that the gold of this torque should be of the best, by ordering that it should be made of old patens which may be presumed to have been of the purest kind. I do not see how those old patens could be any other than those which were disused and out of fashion, being superseded by the newer kind. This would probably be largely due to foreign in- fluence, and also to the fact, that the round were convenient for cover- ing the chalice. The angular patens would continue in use while St. Patrick’s influence was dominant, that is during the time of the Frst Order of Irish saints, who looked to him as their leader. But a decided change would take place, especially after 543, when the Second Order came in, who drew their teaching from the Welsh Church, as represented by David Gildas and Docus, by whom the fashions prevalent abroad would be introduced. Then the round would become general, and the old would be melted down and dis- appear as they have done. Some further particulars about Assicus, which are of some interest, are given by Tirechén, and may be added as a conclusion to this Paper. St. Patrick placed him at Elphin with his nephew Bite, and Cipia Bite’s mother. Those two witha third, Essu, who is occasionally mentioned, were Patrick’s artists, and the two former, at least, were also bishops. Assicus was the head of a monastic establishment at Elphin, but one day he disappeared and his monks were unable for 10’Donovan, in ‘‘The Journal of the Kilkenny Archeological Society,’’ vol. i., New Series. 1846-7, p. 350. 788 Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. seven years to find where he had gone. They then discovered that he had fled to the county of Donegal, and had taken up his abode in the island of Rathlin O’Birne, off the coast of that county, where he was living in complete seclusion. The cause of his sudden flight, according to the Tripartite, was ‘‘shame at a he told by him.” In relating the events of his life the author of the Tripartite follows the account of Tirechaén. But there is reason to think he has mis- understood his authority on this point, which is not surprising, as the Irish-Latin of that age does not easily submit to translation. It would appear from Tirechan, not that he told an untruth, but that he was charged with it, and no doubt falsely. The words are, ‘¢Quia mendacium ab illo dixerunt,”’ which I take to mean, ‘‘ They said a falsehood was told by him.’ This wounded him so deeply that he left the place, and took refuge in a solitude where detraction could not reach him. When his retreat was discovered, he appears to have been engaged in his art work, and apparently directing some workmen which, perhaps, may be the meaning of the words, ‘“‘juxta laborem artificiorum.”? His monks induced him to come away with them, but they were unable to persuade him to return to Elphin. He stopped at the Church of Racoon in Donegal, one of those churches in which seven bishops resided together. There he died and was buried, and his nephew, Bite, was afterwards laid there with him. So high was the esteem in which he was held at Racoon, that the chieftain of the place made a grant to him and to his monks after him of the grazing of a hundred cows, with their calves, and the grazing of twenty oxen, as an offering in perpetuity. In the Hymn of Fiacc there is a passage which seems to have a reference to the charge brought against Assicus— Tassach remained after him [i.e. after Patrick] When he had given the communion to him. He said that Patrick would soon go [die]. Tassach’s word was not false. As though the author meant to vindicate the artist’s character, and to affirm that he was a man of truth. It should be mentioned that the Martyrology of Donegal, as well as Lanigan, treat this Tassach as distinct from Assic or Assec, but in this they are evidently wrong. Assach becomes Tdssach by the prefixing of the pronoun do ‘‘ thy,” as a term of affection, Do. Assach being pronounced Tassach. And St. Patrick’s three artists are in- OxtpEN—The Paten of Gourdon. 789 differently called Assach, Bite, and Essu, and Tassach, Bite, and Essu. Tassach as we have seen administered the Holy Communion to St. Patrick when he was dying, and after his death he was the artist who covered the Bachall Isa, or Staff of Jesus, that is, he encased in metal work the simple staff, or wooden crook, which St. Patrick carried as an emblem of his dignity, and which became so famous after- wards. He evidently stood in an intimate relation with the saint, and he is described in high style as follows in the Calendar of Aengus :— The Royal bishop Tassach Gave, when he came, the Body of Christ, The truly strong king, At the communion to Patrick. Nore ADDED IN THE PREss. There are numerous instances of patens which form the covers of Chalices. Two of this kind are at St. Audeon’s Church, Dublin, and others at Celbridge Church. With regard to the cross in relief, on the Gourdon paten, it may be mentioned that a paten with a raised design is figured in “‘ Antiquitates Mannie,’’ published by the Manx Society, London, 1868, p. 107. The centre is occupied by a face, supposed to represent St. Lupus, Bishop of Troyes; while round the circular margin is the inscription — SANCTE-LUPE-ORA-PRO-NoBIS. The writer of the paper, Rey. E. Barnwell, assigns this paten to the early part of the fifteenth century. There were also patens inlaid with jewels. We read in the ‘¢ Liber Pontif.” that Pope Sergius (4.p. 687-701) gave to the Vatican Basilica ‘‘ patinam auream majorem habentem gemmas albas et in medio ex hyacintho et smaragdo crucem.”—Smiru, Dict. Antig. END OF SER. III., VOL. III. ere eee Creo Tyres t NVTd GNNOWS ‘LYOW YaENnG -deoat IU FUG 7 Ise 09H PP ete9q Nn soul, yyy Ny DMN! GAH NE a (88F lady, ; Sh ymmin svn ys tientnogany yy Qui = i NW pa = une Zyl | MIN Z, AN COEEIN| GT LL Sn wo NNT A> a9ssog Mil) Yhy UM yy, Bs As ww 99880 e9ssoq eae I auenbs zh \\ MIQurey yd { 6 neal oe Sg ae a sina 6428 ELA VIE 904g oe (al ee ie HDixon del. Geo.West & Sons lith.et imp. roe > Plate IL. RIA.V0o1.8. Ser 3. ee ZR yf . Se i; as Proe. RIA. Vol.8. Ser 3. Plate IIT. Ze gy) te W.N. Allen ad nat. del. Geo.West & Sons lith.et imp. Peace LA Vol 3. Ser 3. Pilate VE W.N.Allen ad nat. del. Geo.Wesat & Sons lith.et imp. ee Plate V. Proc. RIA. Vol.3. Ser 3. Geo.West & Sons lith.et imp. JED. del. “Ly me WA ny si} * Paes rite Proc. RIA. Vol.3. Ser. 3. Plate VI. x . End of passage seen : Plan and section 20% to an inch, ‘. from inside chamber. jo Bee psn doorway 4#*' to an inch. alh~ i 5 cL i 4 ! $ Figs. 2&3 1076 to aninch. E.C.R. del. Geo,West & Sona lith.et imp. Fig.l KNOCKRATH CAVE, SLIEVE NA CAILLIAGH Figs. 2&3 BALLINLOUGH. eae eye a Nee a 3 { y i i Ye , 5 , a a Proce. RIA. Vol.3. Ser 3. Plate VII. Fig.4 STONEFIELD Fig.5 MILLBROOK Fig.6 LOUGHCREW. ProemRemA, Vol. 3, Ser. 3. Plate VIII. Proc: elem Olas Seka ae Plate IX. pee Plate X. Proce. RIA.Vol.3. Ser 3. eo.West & Sons lith.et imp. G Proce. RIA.Vol.3. Ser 3. Plate XL i lh Geo West & Sons lith.et imp. ted Plate XII = GLE Yas) S ~— ———_ = Geo.West & Sons lith.et imp aNerltoyy 6) Mel SSS= a y x DAS Proe. RIA. Vol.3. Ser 3. Plate XIII E 2 s g 2 a ° uw 2 3 = 6 a o Proce. RIA. Vol.3. Ser. 8. Plate XIV Proe.RIA.Vol.3. Ser 3. Geo West L Sons lith.st imp. Plate XV. ROCHNMIeAL. Vol. 3, Ser. 3. AL >” a PROC wReAY, Viol. 3, Ser. 2. Plate XVI. 9g (a) 7 (a) mero. NA, Vol. 3, Ser. 3. Plate XVII. Di a — Proce. RIA. Vol.3. Ser 3. Scale One half linear Plate XVIIL. Geo.West & Sons hith.et imp. Proce. RIA.Vol.3. Ser 3. Iles DAD, Scale:— One half linear Geo.West & Sons lith.et imp Proce. RIA.Vol.3. Ser 3. Plare BZO<, PTR TH THE LOT LET CELTS AVE | i teo.Wew Sons lith.et im: | Scale One half linear. Geo/West & Sons hth mp ——— West, Newman sc. > ioe) 46 Qu Plate XXIL. gyihllay, j A Ne \ WestNewman sc. Proce. RIA. Vol.3. Ser 3. Plate XXIII. H.Dixon del. Geo.Weut kSons lith.et imp. Minutes of Proceedings. 145 Monpay, Aprit 10, 1898. Dr. J. K. Inara, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Henry Gordon Dawson, m.a.; George Edward Joseph Greene, L.R.C.8.I., L.R.¢.P.1. ; Professor Thomas Johnson, p.sc., F..s.; James Patrick Johnston, m.a.; Asutosh Mukhopadhy4y, M.a., F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.: and Michael M. Murphy, were elected Members of the Academy. The Secretary read the following letters :— ‘¢ NEWNHAM GRANGE, ‘¢CamBripgE, March 25, 1898. a Sir, ““‘T beg leave to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, announcing my election as Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, together with the Diploma of Membership. ‘¢T shall be obliged if you will convey to the President, Council, and Officers of the Academy the assurance of my high sense of the honour conferred upon me. *‘Tt seems almost needless to tell you that I am proud to bea Member of an Academy which such men as Hamilton, the Lloyds, Jellett, Salmon, and many others have adorned by their brilliant discoveries. ‘«T have the honowr to be ‘¢ Your obedient servant, “G. H. Darwin. ‘(Tae Secretary Royat [risa Acapemy.”’ ‘‘ Bertin, W., ‘* KURFURSTENSTRASSE, 117, “¢ March 25th, 1898. So SiR, ‘‘T am deeply gratified by the distinction conferred upon me by the Royal Irish Academy in electing me an Honorary Member. Your letter of March 22nd, which reached me this day, together with the diploma, recalls to my memory the splendour and enjoyment of the truly grand festive days I had the good fortune to witness at R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1893-’94. [15] 146 Royal Irish Academy. Dublin in July last. Although their agreeable recollection could never be effaced from my mind, it will be deeper rooted through the tie which is to connect me henceforth with the eminent scholars of the Irish capital, with many of whom, adorning the chairs of Trinity College, I have already had the honour and the pleasure of personal intercourse. ‘* Will you kindly be the interpreter of my feelings of very sincere gratitude towards the illustrious body in whose name you obligingly addressed me. eG IE aban, tSyae: ‘‘' Yours very respectfully, ‘(h. vy. RicHTHOFEN. ‘© 7) Epwarp PrrcevaL Wricut, Ese., M.D., ‘‘ Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy, “* Dublin.” ‘‘ Bertin, W., AHORNSTRASSE, 4, “695th March, 1893. ‘“‘Drar Sir, ‘“*T duly received the letter dated Dublin 22nd March, 1893, informing me that the Royal Irish Academy elected me an Honorary Member, and also the Diploma of Membership therewith sent to me. “IT beg to say that I accept the honour conferred on me with feelings of sincere gratitude. I hope to complete within the next year my former collection of Christian British Inscriptions, and so to join in a certain manner, and within narrow limits, the great work of elucidating the Celtic antiquity of the British Islands, in which the labours of the Royal Irish Academy from its beginning take so prominent a part. ‘© Will you, dear Sir, kindly forward to the President and Mem- bers of the Royal Irish Academy the feelings of sincerest gratitude and highest esteem above expressed. ‘¢T remain, dear Sir, ‘¢ Yours truly, ‘Dr. E. Husyer, Prof. ‘¢Epwarp Prrcrvat Wrieut, Esa, ‘‘ Secretary R. I. A., Dublin.” Minutes of Proceedings. 147 ‘©48, Manor-prace, Eprvpuren, ** March 24th, 18938. 66 Sir, ‘“T beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter, intimating that, on the 16th inst., I was elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, the Diplomaof Membership thereof being received at the same time. For the distinguished honour thus conferred on me, I can only express my warmest thanks, and assurance that it will be my constant effort in the future to advance, according to the humble means at my disposal, the scientific researches in the prosecution of which your Academy is so justly celebrated. CON ame SU, ‘« Your obedient servant, ‘¢ Ropert Munro. ‘<< Epwarp Prercevat Wricut, Esa., M.p. ? 5) 3 ‘* Secretary.” Mr. Frederick W. Moore, F.u.s., read a Paper by Mr. David M‘Ardle ‘‘ On the Hepatice of the Hill of Howth.” Professor J. P. O’Reilly, c.n., read a Paper ‘‘On the Occurrence of Lithothamnion in the bed of the Liffey.” Dr. Benjamin Williamson, r.r.s., read a Paper on ‘A Problem connected with the Theory of Elastic Beams.” Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.s., read the first Todd Memorial Lecture for the present session. Subject, ‘‘ The Linguistic Value of the Latin Lives of the Ivish Saints.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, Aprit 24, 1898. Rey. Dr. Havenron, F.r.s., Vice-President, in the Chair. Mr. Robert Russell, u.a., F.r.c.p.; Prof. Thomas Johnson, p.sc., v.t.s.; Mr. James P. Johnston, m.a., and Mr. Michael Murphy signed the Roll, and were admitted Members of the Academy. [15*] 148 Royal Irish Academy. The Secretary read the following letter :— ‘* Bonn, 19th April, 1898. ‘¢ Dear PRoFEssor WRIGHT, ‘Tt is only to-day I came home after a journey of five weeks ; it is thus I can only to-day express my sincerest thanks for the high honour the Royal Irish Academy confers upon me by electing me Honorary Member. I esteem highly this great distinction, and beg you to express my profound gratitude to the Royal Academy. ‘“‘ With the utmost esteem ‘“‘ Faithfully yours, ‘¢ H. STRASBURGER.”’ The Treasurer read, for the Right Rev. Dr. Graves, Bishop of Limerick, a Paper ‘‘ On a Passage in Tirechan’s Collections in the Book Armagh.” Mr. Robert Russell, m.a., F.t.c.p., read a Paper ‘‘ On the Geometry of the Cubic.” Mr. Robert Russell, u.a., F.1.c.p., read also a Paper ‘‘On Ruler Constructions in connexion with Cubic Curves.”’ Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.s., read his second Todd Memorial Lecture. Subject, .‘‘ The Linguistic Value of the Latin Lives of the Irish Saints.” Dr. William Frazer read a Paper ‘‘On an Anglo-Saxon ‘ Bird- Brooch’ of Bronze, found in Dublin Excavations.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, May 8, 1893. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.D., President, in the Chair. Mr. Henry Chichester Hart, 3.a., r.u.s., was elected a Member of the Academy. Prof. W. J. Sollas, 11.p., F.R.s., read a Paper ‘‘On the Relation of the Granite to the Gabbro of the Mourne Mountain District as displayed at Barnavave, Carlingford.” Minutes of Proceedings. 149 By permission of the Academy, Mr. J. EK. Duerden read a Paper ‘*On some new or rare Irish Polyzoa and Hydrozoa.” Rey. Edmund Hogan, s.s., read his third Todd Memorial Lecture. Subject, ‘‘The Linguistic Value of the Latin Lives of the Irish Saints.” Prof. Atkinson, t1.p., read ‘*A Review of Professor Rossi’s published South-Coptie Texts.” The Secretary read the following letter :— *¢ Aw pig Royat Irisn AcADEMy, ‘¢7u DuBLIN. = ‘‘SEHR GEEHRTE HeRREN, “Von einer langeren Reise Zurtickgekehrt finde ich die Ernennung zum Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy vor und beeile mich fiir die hohe Auszeichnung, welche mir durch diese Ernennung zu Theil geworden ist, meinen ergebensten und tief- geftihltesten Dank auszusprechen. ‘* Hochachtungsvollst und ergebenst, ‘‘Dr. K. Bruemann. “ Lurpzie, 22 April, 1893." Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, June 12, 1893. Dr. George E. J. Greene signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Rey. Dr. Haughton, r.z.s., read a Paper ‘‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas: No. VIII.—The Tides of Lady Franklin Bay.” By permission of the Academy, Mr. J. EK. Duerden read a Paper “On the Hydroids collected during the Royal Irish Academy Ex- peditions, 1885, 1886, and 1888.” Rey. Edmund Hogan, s.s., read his fourth Todd Memorial Lecture. Subject, ‘The Linguistic Value of the Latin Lives of the Irish Saints.” 150 Royal Irish Academy. Mr. George Coffey, B.a.1., read a Paper ‘‘On the Cairns on the Loughcrew Hills—Sliabh na Caillighe.” The Secretary read a Paper for Mr. E. C. Rotheram “On Rath Caves in the County of Meath.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Treasurer laid on the table the audited Abstract of Accounts for the year ending 31st March, 1898, and the estimate for the year ending 31st March, 1894, and read, in accordance with By-Law 8, chap. 11., the List of Members in arrear. Monpay, June 26, 1893. Dr. J. K. Ineranm, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Rev. J. H. Bernard, p.p., F.1.c.p., read a Paper ‘‘On the Frag- ments of the Latin Gospels contained in the Domnach Airgid.”’ A collection of Irish Antiquities, Gold, Silver, and Bronze, &c., recently acquired for the Academy’s Museum, was exhibited. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following Science Grants, recommended by the Council, were passed :— £30 to Professor Rambaut, for some additions to the Star Photo- graph Measuring Apparatus, for the purchase of which a grant of £85 was made February 24th, 1890, to Sir Robert Ball. £20 to Professor Cunningham, Rev. Dr. Haughton, and Professor Haddon, to assist in prosecuting Ethnological Investigations in the remote parts of Ircland. £25 to Dr. W. H. Thompson, to assist him in his Investigations into the Intra-cranial Course and Cerebral Connexions of certain Cranial Nerves. £50 to a Committee, consisting of Dr. Scharff, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mr. A. G. More, Mr. R. M. Barrington, Mr. Greenwood Pim, Mr. H. Dixon, Dr. M‘Weeny, Mr. G. H. Carpenter, Professor Johnson, Mr. R. J. Ussher, and Dr. Wright, to enable them to Minutes of Proceedings. 151 continue their Researches on the present state of our Knowledge of the Flora and Fauna of Ireland. £25 to the Economy Committee, towards the purchase of a Lantern for use at the Meetings of the Academy. Monpay, NovemsBer 13, 1898. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Rey. Dr. Haughton, r.z.s., read a Paper ‘‘On Newtonian Chem- istry. Note V. Recapitulation of the Newtonian Principles contained in the four preceding Notes, with a Memorandum on the Law of Avogadro.” Professor R. Atkinson, Lu.p., read a Paper ‘‘On South-Coptic Texts. No. II.—A Criticism on M. Bouriant’s ‘Eloges du Martyr - Victor, Fils de Romanus.’ ”’ Professor A. C. Haddon, m.a., read a Paper, ‘‘ Studies in Irish Craniology. No. I].—Inishbofin, Co. Galway.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following Parts of the Zransactions, Vol. xxx., were laid on the table :-— Part 6. ‘‘ Ruler Constructions in Connexion with Cubic Curves.” By Robert Russell. u.a., Fellow and Tutor, Trinity College, Dublin. Parts 7, 8.—Pt. 7: ‘‘On the Domnach Airgid MS.” By Rev. J. H. Bernard, p.p. Plate XX. Pt. 8: I. ‘‘ On the Stowe St. John ;” and II. ‘‘On the Citations from Scripture in the Leabhar Breac.”’ By Rev. J. H. Bernard, p.p. Part 9. ‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas: Part VIIJ.—On the Tides of the Lady Franklin Sound.” By Rey. Samuel Haughton, M.D., F.R.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Cunningham Memoirs. Part IX. ‘“‘On the Flinders Petrie Papyri.” (Part II.) With Transcriptions, Commentaries, and Index. (With Eighteen Auto- types.) By Rev. John P. Mahaffy, p.p., F.1.c.p. 152 Royal Irish Academy. Tuurspay, NovemBer 30, 1893. - (Sratep MErEErrve.) Dr. J. K. Ineran, s.F.7.c.p., President, in the Chair. The Ballot was opened for the election of a Member of Council in room of the Right Hon. Sir Patrick J. Keenan, c.s., K.c.m.¢., resigned, — and subsequently, on the Report of the Scrutineers, the President declared Lord Walter Fitz Gerald duly elected a Member of Council of the Academy. Dr. Charles R. Browne read a Paper ‘‘On the Ethnography of Inishbofin, Co. Galway.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The President, under his hand and seal, nominated the Most Rey. N. Donnelly, p.p., Bishop of Canea, as a Vice-President, in the place of the Right Hon. Sir Patrick J. Keenan, resigned. Monpay, Drcemper 11, 18938. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.D., President, in the Chair. Professor Samuel J. MacMullan, m.a., and Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.sc., F.R.s., were elected Members of the Academy. The Secretary read a Paper by Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer, ‘‘ On Micrometric Observations of Nebule, made at the Armagh Obser- vatory.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Minutes of Proceedings. 153 Monpay, January 22, 1894. Dr. J. K. Iyeram, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Rev. D. Murphy, s.s., read a Paper ‘‘On two Monastic Seals that have lately come into the possession of the Academy.” The Secretary read, for Sir Robert Ball, ut.p., r.z.s., a Paper ‘On the Theory of Pitch Invariance and the Theory of Chiastic Homography ; being the Tenth Memoir on the Theory of Screws.” Dr. VY. Ball, c.z., F..s., read a Paper ‘‘ On two large hitherto undescribed Rubies, upon which the Names or Titles of four of the Mogul Emperors were engraved.” Mr. George Coffey, B.a.1., read ‘‘ Notes on the Classification of Spear-heads of the Bronze Age, found in Ireland.”’ Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, Frepruary 12, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.D., President, in the Chair. Francis Joseph Bigger and Frederick T. Trouton, p.sc., were elected Members of the Academy. Dr. Frazer, read a Paper ‘‘ On Irish Swords of Iron previously undescribed.” The Secretary exhibited, for H. T. Knoz, Esq., a Collection of Stone Implements, found in British India, presented by Mr. Knox to the Academy’s Musenm, and read the following notes thereon :— ‘The Paleolithic tools bear no marks. They were found among the hills to the N. W. of Madras. The Neolithic tools are marked in vermilion 1, 2, 3. ‘1. These were found on or at foot of the Fort Hill of Bellary where it faces the south end of the North or Human Face Hill. ‘¢2. These were found on the 8. E. and E. face of the Peacock Hill, and in the fields below. “¢3. These were found in the North or Human Face Hill of Bellary. 154 Royal Irish Academy. ‘‘The Fort Hill and North Hill are close together; the Peacock Hill is part of a small group of hills about five miles east of Fort Hill. For purposes of classification they may be treated as ‘ Bellary.’ There is no apparent distinction between the settlements ; in all three, the ashes and platforms for houses among the rocks and the character of relics are identical. These hills are of granitic gneiss. But the Peacock Hill is remarkable because in it crops out a huge dyke of coarse diorite, presenting a mass of broken blocks and small cliffs, on many of whose flat surfaces occur various figures, whose existence was brought to notice by Mr. F. Fawcett in a paper read before the Oriental Congress of 1891. ‘¢ Though the figures do not seem to have been known to Europeans, the neolithic settlements have been known for years, and stone tools have been collected in great quantities. When I went to Bellary these sites had been well searched; but previous collectors had contented themselves with finely-finished and polished tools. Notic- ing the ashes and house-sites, and the abundance of rough tools, it occurred to me that these rough tools were the household tools, the tools of everyday life in neolithic villages. I therefore collected rough as well as fine tools. Of the latter comparatively few re- mained; of the former I found quantities. It was very evident that for everyday use very roughly chipped stones answered. But they all approximate more or less to the types of finished instruments. ‘‘ The collections of Mr. R. B. Foote and Mr. H. Gompertz show that the polished tools were much the same in variety and shape as those of Europe, with the exception of the great perforated axes and great hammers of Europe. Perforated tools are vere rare. I found only one, which I gave to Mr. Foote. He Tp iKenoxe ‘‘ BEECHEN, LyNDHURST, ‘13th January, 1894.” A special vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Knox for this donation. The Secretary exhibited, for R. Clarke, Esq., a large Stone Celt and a Ball of Dark Coral Limestone found near Portaferry, Co. Down. Read Recommendation from Council, that the mvyitation of the Minutes of Proceedings. 155 Committee of the International Congress of Orientalists be accepted, and that Professor R. Atkinson 11.p., be appointed as the Academy’s delegate, at the meeting to be held in Geneva, in the month of September of the present year. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, Frsruary 26, 1894. Dr. J. K. Iveram, s.¥.1.c.D., President, in the Chair. The Secretary read a Paper by the Right Rev. Dr. Graves, Bishop of Limerick, ‘‘ On a recently-discovered Ogam Inscription on a stone found about the end of April, 1898, in the County Kerry.” By permission of the Academy, Mr. Henry Dixon, B.a., read ““Some contributions to the Anatomy of Vanda teres.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Srarep MeEErrne. Fripay, Marcu 16, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. The President declared the Ballot open for the election of President and Council, and appointed Mr. James F. Lombard and Surgeon- General King as scrutineers. The President also declared the Ballot open for the election of Honorary Members, and appointed Dr. E. P. Wright and Dr. J. T. Gilbert as scrutineers. The Secretary of the Council read the following Report oF THE CouNcIL FOR THE YEAR 1892-938. Since the date of the last Report, the following Publications of the Academy have been issued :— Transactions, vol. xxx. Part 5. ‘On a Block of Red Glass Enamel said to have been found at Tara Hill.’”’ By V. Ball, c.z., uu.p., F.R.s. With ‘Observations 156 Royal Irish Academy. on the Use of Red Enamel in Ireland.” By Margaret Stokes, Hon. Member, R. I. A. Plate XIX. Part 6. ‘‘ Ruler Constructions in Connexion with Cubic Curves.” By Robert Russell, a1.a. Parts 7 and 8. Part 7: ‘“‘On the Domnach Airgid MS.” By Rev. J. H. Bernard, p.y. Plate XX. Part 8: I. ‘‘On the Stowe St. John’; and II. ‘“‘On the Citations from Scripture in the Leabhar Breac.”” By Rey. J. H. Bernard, p.p. Part 9. ‘‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas: Part VIIJ.—On the Tides of Lady Franklin Sound.” By Rey. Samuel Haughton, m.p., F.R.S. Part 10. ‘‘On a Syriac Ms. of the New Testament in the Library of the Earl of Crawford.” By Rev. John Gwynn, D.D. Plate XXI. Cunningham Memoirs. No. rx. ‘On the Flinders Petrie Papyri.”” (Part Il.) With Transcriptions, Commentaries, and Index. (With Eighteen Auto- types.) By Rev. John P. Mahaffy, p.p. The following Papers are in the Press ( Zransactions, vol. Xxx.) :— Part 11. ‘On the Geology of Torres Straits.” By Professors A. C. Haddon, W. J. Sollas, and G. A. J. Cole. (Plates XXII. to DORN) Part 12. ‘On the Volcanic District of Carlingford and Sleve Gullion. Part I. On the Relation of the Granite to the Gabbro of Barnavaye, Carlingford.” By Professor W. J. Sollas, L1.D., D.sc., F.R.S. Plates XXVI., XXVII. Proceedings. Of the Proceedings, Third Series, Part 4 of Vol. m. was published in May, 18938, and Part 5, completing the volume, was published in August, 1898. The First Part of Vol. uz. of this series was also Minutes of Proceedings. 157 published in 18938, in the month of December. The Papers contained these several parts of the Proceedings are as follows :— In Science (Mathematical)— D d Haughton, Rev. Dr., ‘‘Notes on Newtonian Chemistry. No. IV., Quimary Compounds.” (Vol. m, Part 4.) Note V., ‘‘ Recapitulation of Newtonian Principles and Memorandum on the Law of Avogadro.” (Vol. m1., Part 1.) Johnston, J. P., m.a., “‘On Initial Motion.” (Vol. mr., Part 1.) Russell, R., u.a., ‘On the Geometry of the Cubic.” (Vol. 11., Part 1.) Tarleton, F. A., tn.p., ‘On a Problem in Vortex Motion.” @iolt mr. Party4:) Science (Biological) — Bell, A., ‘‘ Correlation of the Later- and Post-Pliocene Ter- tiaries on either side of the Irish Sea.”’ (Vol. 11, Part 4). Browne, C. R., m.p., ‘“‘Some Crania from Tipperary.” (Vol. 1., Part 4.) Duerdin, J. E., ‘‘ New or Rare Irish Polyzoa and Hydroida.”’ @iolsum, arta) Frazer, W., F.R.¢.s.1., ‘‘On a Skull from Lincoln and on Irish Cranias? = (Vol™am., Part) 4>) Friend, Rev. H., ‘‘ New Irish Earthworms.” (Vol. 11., Part 4.) Haddon, A. C., w.a., ‘‘ Studies in Irish Craniology: the Aran Islands, Galway.’ (Vol. 11., Part 5.) Haddon, A. C., and Browne, C. R., ‘‘ Ethnography of the Aran Islands, Galway.” (Vol. 1., Part 5). M‘Ardle, D., ‘‘The Hepatice of the Hill of Howth, Co. Dublin.” (Vol. m1., Part 1). O'Reilly, J. P., ‘‘ Note on Lithothamnion met with in Deep Cuttings at the Mouth of the River Liffey.” (Voi. ur., Part 1.) Thomson, J., ‘On the Genera Calophyllum and Cam- pophyllum.” (Vol. 1., Part 5.) 158 Royal Irish Academy. In Literature— Atkinson, Robert, tu.p., ‘‘On Professor Rossi’s Publication of South-Coptic Texts,” and on M. Bouriant’s “ Eloges Du Martyr Victor, Fils de Romanus.” (Vol. u., Part 1.) Ball, V., ru.p., ‘‘ Volcanoes and Hot Springs of India, and the Folk-Lore connected therewith.” (Vol. m1., Part 1.) Graves, Rt. Rev. Charles, p.p., ‘‘ On the Lignum Contensionis.”’ (Volum, Parti.) O’ Looney, B., ‘‘ On an Old Irish MS. found in Co. Clare.” (Vol. m1., Part 1.) O’Reilly, J. P., ‘‘On Captain Cuellar’s Narrative of his Ad- ventures in Ireland, 1588-1589.” (Vol. m., Part 1.) Ray, 8. H., and Haddon, A. C., m.a., ‘‘The Languages of Torres Straits, with Vocabularies and Notes.—Part I.” (Vol. 1., Part 4.) In Antiquities— Deane, Sir T. N., ‘‘ Report on Ancient Monuments in the County Kerry.” (Vol. 111, Part 1.) Olden, Rev. T., m.a., ‘‘On the Burial Place of St. Patrick.” (Vol. 11., Part 5.) The Second Volume of the Annals of Ulster, edited by the Rev. Dr. Mac Carthy, has been recently published, and Dr. Mac Carthy expects that the following volume will be issued during the ensuing Academic year. Of the Zodd Lecture Series, Vol. v. is in the Press; and it is hoped that the Rev. Edmund Hogan will deliver the third series of Lectures during the incoming session. The Council regret that, owing to the illness of the photographer employed on the work, the Yellow Book of Lecan is not quite completed ; but there remain now only twelve pages to be photographed, and the early publication of the work is confidently anticipated. An old copy of some of the Irish language compositions of Dr. Keating, author of the ‘‘ History of Ireland,” has been liberally presented to our Library by the Treasurer of the Academy. The Committee appointed by the Council to Report on the Con- dition and Arrangements for Exhibition of the Academy’s Collections Minutes of Proceedings. 159: in the Museum of Science and Art held their Annual Visitation on the 15th January, 1894. The Council have reason to regard the Committee’s Report as satisfactory. The following Grants in aid of the preparation of Scientific Reports have been sanctioned by the Academy :— £30 to Professor Rambaut, for some additions to the Star Photo- eraph Measuring Apparatus, for the purchase of which a grant of £85 was made, February 24th, 1890, to Sir Robert Ball. £20 to Professor Cunningham, Rey. Dr. Haughton, and Professor A. C. Haddon, to assist in prosecuting Ethnological Investigations in the remote parts of Ireland. £25 to Dr. W. H. Thompson, to assist him in his investigations into the Intra-Cranial Course and Cerebral Connexions of certain Cranial Nerves. £50 to a Committee, consisting of Dr. Scharff, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mr. A. G. More, Mr. R. M. Barrington, Mr. Greenwood Pim, Mr. H. Dixon, Dr. M‘Weeney, Mr. G. H. Carpenter, Professor T. Johnson, Mr. R. J. Ussher, and Dr. E. P. Wright, to enable them to continue their Researches on the present state of our Knowledge of the Flora and Fauna of Ireland. And a sum of £25 was placed at the disposal of the Economy Committee, towards the purchase of a Lantern for use at the Meetings of the Academy. The following Members have been elected since 16th March 1893 :— Francis Joseph Bigger. Henry Gordon Dawson, m.a. George Edward Joseph Greene, L.R.C.s.1., L.R.C.P.I. Henry Chichester Hart, B.a., F.L.s. Professor Thomas Johnson, D.sc., F.L.S., James Patrick Johnston, m.a. Professor Samuel J. Macmullan, m.a. Asutosh Mukhopadhyay, M.a., F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E. Michael M. Murphy. Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, u.p., F.R.s. Frederick T, Trouton, pD.sc. 160 Royal Irish Academy. At the Stated Meeting, on the 16th March, 1893, George H. Darwin, Baron Ferd. von Richthofen, Edward Strasburger, were elected Honorary Members in the Section of Science; and Karl Brugmann, Emil Hubner, Robert Munro, in the Section of Polite Literature and Antiquities. The Academy has lost by death within the year three Members :— John Hill, c.z., elected February 11, 1867. His Grace the Duke of Leinster, m.a., elected February 14, 1876. George Gerald Tyrrell, elected April 10, 1876. The Academy has also lost by death two Honorary Members in the Section of Science :— Jean Martin Charcot, u.p., elected March 16, 1883. Alphonse De Candolle, ¥.n.s., elected March 16, 1876. The President read the following statement :— With respect to inquiries made by Dr. J. J. Digges La Touche relative to the work done by the Irish scribes, and to the need of a Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Academy’s Library, the Council have taken both matters therein referred to into consideration, and have directed the following statements to be placed in the hands of the President to reply to Dr. La Touche :— “As to the preparation of a Catalogue of Mss., such as is sug- gested by Dr. La Touche, the Council regret that there are no funds at present available for such a work, however desirable it might be. ‘“As to the work done by the help of the Ivish scribes, the Council state as follows, in the words of the Irish Mss. Committee, who have charge of the matter :—‘ The work of the scribes employed by the Committee is now deposited in the Treasurer’s Office, where it can be seen and examined, and includes—(i.) transcripts of nearly all Minutes of Proceedings. 161 the Medical Mss. in Irish in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin, and also of the more important of the other Mss.; and (ii.) slips taken from Irish literature of the later period, as well as special glossaries of many of the printed works in Ivish.’”’ The motion for the adoption of the Report was then put and passed. On the Report of the Scrutineers, the President declared the fol- lowing elected as President and Council :— PRESIDENT, Joun Kutts Iyeram, 11.0. CounciL. Committee of Science. Edward Perceval Wright, m.p. V. Ball, 1-b., FeR-s., 6.3: Francis A. Tarleton, L1.p. Benjamin Williamson, D.sc., F.R.s. J. P. O'Reilly, c.x. George L. Cathcart, m.a. George Henry Kinahan, c.z. Rey. Samuel Haughton, M.p., F.R.s. William J. Sollas, p.sc., F.R.s. Robert F. Scharff, B.sc., pH.p. The Earl of Rosse, K.P., F.R.s. Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Robert Atkinson, Lu.p. Rev. Maxwell H. Close, m.a. P. W. Joyce, 11.p. John R. Garstin, M.a., F.s.A. John T. Gilbert, LL.p., F.s.A. William Frazer, £..¢.s.1. Rev. Denis Murphy, s.s. Louis C. Purser, M.A., LITT.D. Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.v. Lord Walter Fitz Gerald. R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1893-’94. [16] 162 Royal Ivish Academy. On the Report of the Scrutineers, the President declared Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.¢., PH.D., F.R.S., Michael Foster, u.D., F.R.s., duly elected as Honorary Members in the Section of Science. The Ballot was then opened for the election of Officers, and the following were subsequently declared duly elected :— TreasurER—Rey. M. H. Close, m.a. SrcreTaRY—Edward Perceval Wright, m.p. SECRETARY oF THE Counc1t—Robert Atkinson, 11.p. SecRETARY OF Foruicn CorrEsPonDENcE—Joseph P. O’Reilly, c.z. Liprarian—John T. Gilbert, Lu.p. CLERK oF THE AcapEmy—Robert Macalister, 1.8. The President, under his hand and seal, appointed the following Vice-Presidents for the year 1894-95 :— Rev. Samuel Haughton, M.p., F.R.s. John R. Garstin, M.A., F.S.A. Most Rey. Bishop Donnelly, p.p. Right Hon. the Earl of Rosse, x.P., F.R.S. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Academy adjourned. Minutes of Proceedings. 163 Monpay, Aprin 9, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Joseph Smith signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Gerald E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, 3.a., Nathaniel Colgan, and Linneus Greening were elected Members of the Academy. The President received, on behalf of the Academy, a Portrait of the late Sir William Rowan Hamilton (President of the Academy, 1837 to 1846), presented by Mr. John Rowan Hamilton O’Regan, and a portrait of the late Rev. Thomas Romney Robinson, p.p. (President of the Academy, 1851 to 1856), presented by his widow. It was proposed by Professor O’Reilly, seconded by the Rev. M. H. Close, and carried unanimously :— ‘¢That a warm vote of thanks be given to Mr. John Rowan Hamilton O’Regan for his donation to the Academy of the Portrait of the late Sir William Rowan Hamilton.” It was proposed by Professor Atkinson, seconded by Professor Wright, and carried unanimously :— ‘That a warm vote of thanks be given to Mrs. Robinson for her donation of the portrait of her husband, the late Rev. Dr. Thomas Romney Robinson.” Professor R. Atkinson, Lu.p., read a Paper ‘‘On the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh.” Mr. G. H. Kinahan, c.z., read a Paper ‘“‘On Quartz, Quartz rock, and Quartzite.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Dr. J. J. Digges La Touche handed in the following Notices of Motion :— “That the Council are respectfully requested to report to an early meeting of the Academy the names of the documents already copied by the Ivish scribes, and of those proposed to be copied in the future, c cd R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1894—’98. [1 (| 164 Royal Irish Academy. and to state when the work for which these transcriptions are being made is expected to be completed.”’ ‘That when allocating the Funds of the Academy the Council do bear in mind the importance of cataloguing the mss. at present unindexed, and, if possible, afford the Academy an opportunity of applying to this most important work some of the money hitherto devoted to other purposes.” Monpay, Aprit 28, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Nathaniel Colgan signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Read the following Letter :— ‘‘Nine WELLS, Great SHELFORD, ‘‘CampBriper, April 16, 1894. °CISIR, ‘““T beg leave to return my best thanks to your Academy for the great honour they have done me in electing me an Honorary Member. It is a distinction which, for many reasons, I estimate very highly. ‘‘ Your obedient servant, “6M. Foster. “Dr. KE. Percevat Wricut.”’ Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.s., Todd Professor, read the first Todd Memorial Lecture for the present Session, ‘‘ On certain passages from the Leabhar na h-Uidhri.”’ Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following Science Grants recommended by the Council were approved :— £10 to Professor G. F. Fitz Gerald and Mr. E. Cullum, to assist them in carrying on a Series of Magnetic Observations at Valentia., Minutes of Proceedings. 165 £20 to a. Committee, consisting of Rev. Dr. Haughton, Professor D. J. Cunningham, Professor A. C. Haddon, and Dr. C. R. Browne, for the purpose of prosecuting Ethnological Investigations in the remote parts of Ireland. £50 to a Committee, consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mr. A. G. More, Mr. R. M. Barrington, Mr. Greenwood Pim, Mr. H. Dixon, Dr. E. J. M‘Weeney, Mr. G. H. Carpenter, Professor T. Johnson, Mr. R. J. Ussher, Mr. F. W. Moore, Mr. D. M‘Ardle, Mr. J. Duerden, and Dr. E. P. Wright, to assist them in continuing their researches into the Fauna and Flora of Ireland. £25 to the Economy Committee, towards the cost of a Lantern for use at the Meetings of the Academy. Dr. J. J. Digges La Touche moved the following Resolution, which was seconded by Judge Kane, and passed :— ‘¢That it be referred to the Council to give a list of the documents already copied by the Irish scribes, and of those proposed to be copied in the future ; also to state when the work for which these transcrip- tions are being made is expected to be completed.” Dr. La Touche also moved the following Resolution, which was seconded by Master Pigot, and passed :— ‘“‘That it be referred to the Council, when again allocating the funds at their disposal, to consider the importance of cataloguing the mss. at present unindexed.” Mowpay, May 28, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.¥.7.c.p., President, in the Chair. Frederick T. Trouton, p.sc., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. By the permission of the Academy, Mr. R. J. Ussher read a Report by himself, Mr. A. G. More, and Mr. R. Warren, ‘On the Breeding Range of Birds in Ireland’’; and a ‘‘ Report of an Orni- thological Exploration of the Counties Donegal, Fermanagh, Sligo, and Roscommon.’ [17*] 166 Royal Irish Academy. Mr. Ussher also read, for Mr. R. Warren, ‘‘ Reports on the Birds breeding at Loughs Carra and Mask, and on the Coast of the Counties Sligo and Mayo.” Rey. Edmund Hogan, s.s., Todd Professor, read the second Todd Memorial Lecture for the present Session, ‘‘On certain passages from the Leabhar na h-Uidhri.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Treasurer read (in accordance with By-Law 3 of Chapter IIT.) the List of Members in arrear, and laid on the table the audited accounts for 1893-94, and the estimate for the years 1894-95. The following were laid on the table :— Transactions, Vol. xxx. Part 11. ‘‘On the Geology of Torres Straits.” By Professors A. C. Haddon, m.a., W. J. Sorzas, Lu.D., D.sc., F.R.s., and G. A. J. Cole. Plates XXII. to XXV. Part 12. ‘‘On the Volcanic District of Carlingford and Slieve Gullion. Part I.—On the Relation of the Granite to the Gabbro of Barnavave, Carlingford.” By W. J. Sollas, tu.p., p.sc., F.R.s. Plates XXXVI. and XXVII. Monpay, June 11, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.¥.1.0.D., President, in the Chair. By the permission of the Academy, Mr. John Mac Neill read a Paper ‘‘On Three Middle Irish Poems, relating to the Battle of Mucrama, taken from the Leabhar na h-Uidhri, and the Book of Leinster.’? [Communicated by the Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.z. | Dr. Charles R. Browne read a Paper by himself and Professor D. J. Cunningham, F.R.s., ‘‘On Some Osseous Remains found at Old Connanght, Bray.” Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.s., read the third Todd Memorial Lecture for the present Session, ‘‘On certain passages from the Leabhar Breac.” Minutes of Proceedings. 167 Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Secretary of Council read the following Report from the Council, which was adopted. The following Resolutions were sent to the Council from the Academy :— 1. ‘‘ That it be referred to the Council to give a list of the documents already copied by the Ivish scribes, and of those proposed to be copied in the future ; also to state when the work for which these transcriptions are beimg made is expected to be completed.” 2. ‘That it be referred to the Council, when again allocating the funds at their disposal, to consider the importance of cataloguing the mss. at present unindexed.” 1. The Council submit the following list, drawn up by Dr. Atkinson, of the mss. which have been transcribed with a view to the compilation of the Irish Dictionary :— (a) Dictionary of the Irish Language, with English explanations, now in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. 28 volumes. (6) Latin-Irish Dictionary, also in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. 18 volumes. (c) The mss. in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin, known as— H 2. 16, 958 columns, Hig. 1S uSGSia H 2. 15, 391 pages. db ee Og OD Ree omy H 5. 26, H 2. 25, H5.3 Keating’s ‘‘ History of Ireland” "© and ‘Three Shafts of Death.” H 4, 13, Hes 2 168 Royal Irish Academy. Medical Manuscripts— H 3.15, 57 pages. 1g, 1, Oe) Hes) 22 1970 Hiss aaey loi 3220; s11y of Ho) See le os, TS QB LEE Tigw OIL ye E)3..80).2750 0 Wit lees Oe. es (d) Astronomical Manuscripts in the Academy Library, and in Marsh’s Library. Many bundles of slips of words excerpted from modern Irish mss. and printed works. Almost all the required transcripts have been completed; only a few mss. in the King’s Inns Library, and, possibly, in the Bodleian and the British Museum, still remain to be copied. The main work will, for the future, be the preparation of slips for the Dictionary. The Council find it impossible to fix with any degree of accuracy the time at which the Dictionary could be published, but tue mode of proceeding to be adopted with the object of accelerating its completion is engaging the earnest attention of the Council. 2. With respect to the second Resolution, the Council resolved to report that they will, at the next allocation of the funds at their disposal, take the matter referred to into their consideration. Monpay, June 25, 1894. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Gerald KE. H. Barrett-Hamilton, B.a., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Philip Argall was elected a Member of the Academy. Rey. T. Olden, m.a., read a Paper ‘On the Consortia of the First Order of Irish Saints.” Minutes of Proceedings. 169 Professor G. F. Fitz Gerald, F.r.s., read a Report by himself and Mr. E. Cullum, ‘On Magnetic Observations at Valentia, 1889-98.” Rey. J. P. Mahaffy, p.p., read ‘‘ Notes on a Personal Narrative of a Soldier on active service in Syria, as given in a Flinders Petrie Papyrus.” The Secretary read a Paper by Rev. W. Darley, m.a., ‘‘ On a Visit to the Cistercian Monastery of Chiaravalle, near Milan.” Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.3., read the fourth Todd Memorial Lecture for the present Session ‘‘On Certain Passages from the Leabhar na h-Uidhri.” A A Collection of Stone Implements from Berbice, British Guiana, was exhibited for Charles Grove Young, m.p., and, on his behalf, presented to the Academy. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following Science Grant recommended by the Council was approved :— £20 to the Rev. J. P. Mahaffy, p.p., towards defraying the cost of investigating some of the Petrie Papyri. Read Letter from Baron Ferdinand von Mueller :— ‘‘ MetBourne, 21st May, 1894. “¢ Sir, ‘¢ With emotions of the greatest appreciation, I received your announcement that the Royal Irish Academy had conferred on me the high distinction of election to one of its Honorary Memberships. Pray express to the President and Members my profound homage. If anything could add to the honour it is the thought that I am called to a position once occupied by one of the most distinguished Phyto- graphers of all ages.* ‘* Very sincerely yours, ‘¢ Purp. von MUELLER. ‘¢ Dr. Ep. Percevat Wricur.”’ * [Alphonse De Candolle. ] 170 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, NovemBer 12, 1894. Dr. J. K. Incraw, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Rev. Dr. Haughton, r.r.s., read a Paper ‘‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas. Part [X.—The Tides of the N. W. Entrance of Robeson Channel, Grinnell Land.” Dr. R. F. Scharff read a Report ‘‘On the Origin of the Land and Fresh-water Fauna of Ireland.” Dr. W. Frazer read a Note ‘‘ On the Early Discovery of Gold in Australia.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Fray, NovemBer 30, 1894. (SrateD MEETING.) Dr. J. K. Iyeran, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Dr. V. Ball, c.B., F.R.s., read a Paper ‘‘On Reputed Luminous Medicinal, and Poisonous Oriental Precious Stones.” Professor J. P. O’Reilly, c.z., read a Paper ‘‘ On a Pandean Pipe from the Tonga Islands.” Monpay, Drecemper 10, 1894. Dr. J. K. Lyeram, s.¥F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Thomas Johnson Westropp was elected a Member of the Academy. Professor D. J. Cunningham, m.p., F.R.s., read a Paper “On a Modification of the French Craniometer by E. R. Henry, 1.c.s.” By the permission of the Academy, Mr. H. R. Swanzy, m.a., F.R.C.8.1., read a Note ‘‘On the Vision and Certain Ocular Derange- ments of Cornelius Magrath, the Irish Giant.” [Communicated by _ D. J. Cunningham, m.p. | By permission of the Academy, Mr. C. J. Joly, M.a., F.7.C.D., read a Paper ‘‘ On the Theory of Linear Vector Functions.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Minutes of Proceedings. leva Monpay, January 14, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1,c.D., President, in the Chair. Rey. William F. Falkiner, m.a. ; Charles Jasper Joly, m.a., F.1.c.D., and Rey. Denis O’Donoghue, P.P., were elected Members of the Academy. The Secretary read for Dr. Charles Grove Young, Notes ‘‘ On Indian Relics from the Ozark Mountains, Missouri.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. : The following was laid on the table :— Cunningham Memoirs. No. x. ‘The Decorative Art of British New Guinea: A Study in Papuan Ethnography.” By Alfred C. Haddon, m.a., Professor of Zoology, Royal College of Science, Dublin. Monpay, January 28, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Rev. William F. Falkiner, u.a., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Professor W. J. Sollas, D.Sc., F.p.s., read a Paper ‘‘ On the Crystalline Forms of Riebeckite.” Dr. V. Ball, c.B., F.R.s., read a Paper on “Further Notes on Engraved Rubies.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following recommendation from the Council was adopted :— *¢A sum of £485 7s. 4d., Government 22 per Cent. Consols, having been transferred to the Royal Irish Academy by the Trustees of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland on trust to expend the interest of 172 Royal Irish Academy. same in illustrating Papers on Geology and Mineralogy thought worthy of publication by the Council of the Royal Irish Academy : “The Council recommend that the President and Treasurer be empowered to affix the Seal of the Academy to an authorization to the Chief Transfer Officer of the Bank of Ireland to lodge the interest on the above Stock (now standing in the Books of the Bank of Ireland in the name of ‘The Royal Irish Academy, Account C’) from time to time to the current Account of the Royal Irish Academy. “The Income arising out of this Fund, and its Expenditure, will be kept as a separate Account in the Books of the Academy.” Monpay, Fesrvary 11, 1895. Rey. Dr. Haveuton, F.z.s., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Secretary read for Mr. W. J. Knowles his ‘‘ Third Report on Prehistoric Remains from the Sandhills of the Coast of Ireland.” The Astronomer Royal (Dr. A. A. Rambaut) read a Paper ‘On the Position of Encke’s Comet,” from Photographs taken by W. E. Wilson, M.R.1.A. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. A special vote of thanks was passed to the Trustces of the British Museum for their Donation of Antiquities from the excavations at Amathus, Cyprus, which antiquities form an important addition to the Comparative Section of the Academy’s Museum. Part 15 of Vol. xxx. of the Transactions of the Academy ‘‘ On the Tides of the Arctic Seas,”’ Part ix., by Rey. Dr. Haughton, F.z.s., was laid on the table. Minutes of Proceedings. 173 Monvay, Fresrvuary 25, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineray, s.F.1.c.D., President, in the Chair. Charles K. Browne, u.p., read a ‘‘ Report on the Ethnography of the Mullet and of Iniskeen, Co. Mayo: being a Third Report from the Anthropometrical Laboratory of Trinity College.” His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant (Lord Houghton), Visitor of the Academy, said :— *¢ Mr. PResmpent AND GENTLEMEN, ‘JT have been asked to say a few words, and I am glad to take this opportunity of expressing my thanks, and, I am sure, the thanks of all present, to Dr. Browne for his interesting and instructive Paper. In doing so, I ought to mention that never having had an opportunity—or, as perhaps I should have said, not having taken advantage of the opportunities which I might have had—of mastering even the elements of the science of anthropology, I am but poorly qualified to judge of its application to any particular instance. Speaking, however, from a different standpoint, I can say that the subject of the Paper appeals particularly to my sympathies ; because the economical condition of that poor district of Erris, so remote and so poverty-stricken, is one which always engages the sympathy, and sometimes, I am sorry to think, the anxious concern, of those responsible for the administration of the country. So far as I can judge from a very limited experience—an experience of a single visit—backed as it is by the information which I have had at my command, I can bear out everything Dr. Browne said of the good humour which characterizes these people, and, I may add, of the patience with which they endure the hardships of their lives. Upon the general question of these reports and inquiries, and of their merits as a contribution towards the formation of a social science in the direc- tion indicated principally, I think, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, I feel it is presumptuous for a layman to speak. It suffices that those men of science, who are best qualified to judge, have recognized, although somewhat tardily, the importance of these close local inquiries. It is evident that if such inquiries are to be of real value there is no time to be lost. Every day, before our eyes, as it were, old local traditions, 174 Royal Trish Academy. old customs, and old stories are fast disappearing before the inroads of civilization. The very institutions of which we are most proud, our improved education, our methods of access and communication, are responsible for most of the devastation in this direction. Of course I am aware that a great deal has been done by folk-lore societies, and by dialect societies, but these reports differ from the work of such societies in treating, as it appears to me, the life of the people and their past as one organized whole. I have been reminded by Dr. Wright that the current report of the British Association speaks of these Papers of Dr. Browne as excellent types of how such work should be done. I am sure we are always glad over here to set a good example to the other partner, who in this matter does not appear to be the predominant one. ‘“‘In the matter of dialects it has frequently struck me as curious that we owe perhaps more to a foreigner, Prince Lucien Bonaparte, than to any other one man, but I believe there are those who have taken up and are energetically carrying on the work which he started. One singular evidence of the increased interest taken in the study of dialects which comes under our notice is the improvement we may observe in the way in which the provincial dialects are treated on the stage. Some years ago it was not an unusual thing on the stage to hear a supposed Yorkshireman using expressions peculiar to White- chapel in the intonation which belongs to the inhabitants of Somer- setshire. I think that would hardly happen now; but I fancy the stage Irishman still leaves much to be desired in speech, in address, and in the way in which he comports himself in society—a manner which, I am bound to say, J have never observed during my stay in this country. One feels that if a day comes, as I suppose it will, when everybody, high and low, rich and poor, Irish, Scotch, and English, will all speak the language of the morning newspaper in the accents of the counting-house, the happy inhabitants of those days will be glad to know the language their poor ignorant forefathers used when expressing their ideas. But, after all, one cannot but feel that the general support of work of this kind must depend not only on its curiosity—scientific curiosity—but on its practical value, and I venture to think that the other sciences, many of them, owe a great deal to inquiries such as those undertaken by Dr. Browne. Minutes of Proceedings. 175 I can fancy that these reports might set the biologist on the track of discoveries of prime importance to the welfare of mankind. I can fancy the historian might discover in some apparently trivial survival of an old custom or tradition the secrets of past actions and motives which might baffle those who depend on written records alone. I can fancy that the social reformer may learn from those reports that the success of remedial measures must largely depend on special circum- stances, and on the idiosyncrasies of those to whom they are to be applied, and I can well fancy that by means of these data the states- man may be able to solve some part of the present problems of govern- ment. It is in this belief that I express the hope that so far as possible, and as soon as possible, these inquiries may be carried on through all parts of Great Britain and Ireland in which the disturbance of the old characteristics of the people has been so slight as to enable. information so interesting and useful to be gathered as that which we have heard in Dr. Browne’s Paper.” The President, addressing the Lord Lieutenant, said that the visit of his Excellency afforded pleasure to the Members of the Academy, not merely by his presence, but because of his taking part in the pro- ceedings of the Academy. His Excellency was not content merely with the title of Visitor to the Academy—a title which belonged to his high position—nor with his inspection in our Museum of the valuable objects of interest to antiquarians, but came and saw the manner in which they conducted their proceedings, thus practically reeognising his relation with the Academy, and manifesting the interest which he took in their work. On the part of the Academy he tendered to his Excellency their respectful thanks. Satrurpay, Marcw 16, 1895. (Stated Meeting.) Dr. J. K. Ineraw, S.F.T.C.D., President, in the Chair. The President declared the ballot open for the election of President and Council, and appointed Mr. George L. Cathcart, m.a., and Mr. John E, Gore, F.R.A.s., as Scrutineers. 176 Royal Irish Academy. The President declared the Ballot open for the election of Honorary Members and appointed the Treasurer and Secretary as Scrutineers. The Secretary of Council then read the following :— Report oF THE Councit For THE YEAR 1894-95. Since the date of the last Report the following Publications of the Academy have been issued :— Transactions, vol. Xxx. Part 11. ‘On the Geology of Torres Straits.” By Alfred C. Haddon, u.a., W. J. Sollas, tu.p., p.sc., F.R.s., and G. A. J. Cole. Plates XXII. to XXV. Part 12. ‘‘On the Volcanic District of Carlingford and Sheve Gullion. Part I—On the Relation of the Granite to the Gabbro of Barnavave, Carlingford.” By W. J. Sollas, t1.p., D.sc., F.R.s. Plates XXVI. and XXVII. Part 13. ‘‘Micrometric Observations of Nebule made at the Armagh Observatory.” By J. L. E. Dreyer, pu.p. Part 14. ‘‘The Period of Pitch Invariants and the Theory of Chiastic Homography, being the tenth Memoir of the Theory of Screws.” By Sir Robert S. Ball, i1.p., F.R.s. Part 15. ‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas. Part I[X.—On the Tides of the North-Western Entrance of Robeson Channel, Grinnell Land.” By Rev. Samuel Haughton, m.p., F.R.s. Cunningham Memoirs. No. rx. Appendix. ‘‘On the Flinders Petrie Papyri.’”’ By the Rev. John P. Mahaffy, p.p. With Autotypes I. to III. No. x. ‘‘The Decorative Art of British New Guinea: a Study in Papuan Ethnography.” By Alfred C. Haddon, m.a. With twelve Plates, Map, and Numerous Woodcuts. The Todd Lecture Series. Vol. v., octavo. Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.3., F.R.U.I., M.R.LA.: “The Latin Lives of the Saints as Aids towards the Translation of Irish Texts, and the Production of an Irish Dictionary.” Minutes of Proceedings. 177 Proceedings. Of the Proceedings, Third Series, Part 2 of Vol. mr., was published in May, 1894, and Part 3 of the same volume in December, 1894. The Parts contained the following Papers :— In Scvence :— “The Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inishshark, Co. Galway.” By Charles R. Browne, B.a., m.p. Plates VIII. and IX. ‘¢On some Osseous Remains found at Old Connaught, Bray, Co. Dublin.” By D. J. Cunningham, m.p., F.z.s., and C. R. Browne, M.D. ‘On the Vegetative Organs of Vanda teres.” By Henry H. Dixon, B.a. Plates XI., XII., XIII., and XIV. ‘Studies in Irish Craniology. 2. Inishbofin, Co. Galway.” By Alfred C. Haddon, m.a. “On the Origin of the Land and Fresh-water Fauna of Ireland.”’ By R. F. Scharff, Ph. D., B. Se. ‘‘Report on the Breeding-range of Birds in Ireland.” By R. J. Ussher. in Interature :— “On the Function of the Subjunctive Mood in Irish.” By Robert Atkinson, M.A., LL.D. “On the use of the Subjunctive Mood in Welsh.’? By Robert Atkinson, M.A., LL.D. “A Description of two Large Spinel Rubies, with Persian Characters engraved upon them.” By V. Ball, c.3., .p., F.R.8. Plate X. ‘On an Ogam Monument recently found in Co. Kerry.” By the Right Rev. Dr. Graves, Lord Bishop of Limerick. “*On the Consortia of the First Order of Irish Saints.” By Rev. T. Olden, m.a. In Antiquities :— ‘Notes on the Classification of Spear-heads of the Bronze Age found in Ireland.’”’ By George Coffey., B.a.1. ‘On two Monastic Seals that have lately come into the possession of the Academy.” By the Rev. Denis Murphy, s.J., 11.p. “On some Caves in the Slieve na Cailliagh District, Co. Meath.” By E. C. Rotheram. Plates VI. and VII. 178 Royal Irish Academy. The following publications are in the Press :— Transactions. ‘‘The Cytology of the Vegetative and Reproductive Organs of the Saprolegniacee.”’ By Professor Hartog. ‘“The Theory of Linear Vector Functions.” By C. J. Joly, m.a., F.T.C.D. The Todd Lecture Series. Volume vr., “The Irish Nennius of the Leabar na hUidre and Three Texts from the Leabar Breace.’ By Rev. Edmund Hogan, s.z., Todd Professor. The following Science Grants, recommended by the Council, have been sanctioned by the Academy :— £10 to Professor G. F. FitzGerald and Mr. E. Cullum, to assist them in carrying on a Series of Magnetic Observations at Valentia. £20 to a Committee, consisting of Rev. Dr. Haughton; Professor D. J. Cunningham; Professor A. C. Haddon, and Dr. C. R. Browne ; for the purpose of prosecuting Ethnological Investigations in the remote parts of Ireland. £50 to a Committee, consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff; Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger; Mr. A. G. More; Mr. R. M. Barrington; Mr. Greenwood Pim; Mr. H. Dixon; Dr. EK. J. M‘Weeney ; Mr. G. H. Carpenter ; Professor T. Johnson; Mr. R. J. Ussher; Mr. F. W. Moore; Mr. D. M‘Ardle; Mr. J. Duerden, and Professor E. P. Wright; to assist them in continuing their researches into the Fauna and Flora of Ireland. £25 to the Economy Committee, towards the cost of a Lantern for use at the Meetings of the Academy. [A similar sum had been allocated for this purpose in the preceding Session, but not having been expended before the close of the financial year, 3lst March, 1894, it lapsed into the general funds of the Academy. | £20 to the Rev. J. P. Mahaffy, p.p., towards defraying the cost of investigating some of the Petrie Papyri. Minutes of Proceedings. 179 The following Members have been elected since 16th March, 1894 :— Philip Argall. Gerald E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, 3.a. Nathaniel Colgan. Rev. William F. Falkiner, m.a. Linneus Greening. Charles Jasper Joly, M.a., F.1.¢.D. Rev. Denis O’ Donoghue, P.P. Thomas Johnson Westropp, M.a. At the Stated Meeting, on the 16th March, 1894— Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, Michael Foster, were elected Honorary Members in the Section of Science. The Academy has lost by death within the year six Members :-— Right Hon. William, Baron Emly, elected 12th April, 1841. Right Hon. Sir Patrick J. Keenan, k.c.M.c., o.B., LL.D., elected 14th November, 1864. William R. LeFanu, c.£., elected 10th ieuetany 1845. Daniel O’Sullivan, Ph. D., elected 8th January, 1866. Gilbert Sanders, elected 10th January, 1853. John Chaloner Smith, c.z., elected 13th January, 1868. The Academy has also lost by death four Honorary Members in the Section of Science :— Charles Edouard Brown-Séquard, elected 16th March, 1869. Arthur Cayley, elected 16th March, 1873. Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz, elected 16th March, 1864. | Karl Joseph Hyrtl, elected 16th March, 1864. And four Honorary Members in the Section of Polite Literature and Antiquities :— Heinrich Brugsch, Pasha, elected 16th March, 1882. Commendatore Giovanni Battista De Rossi, elected 16th March, 1867. Sir Charles Newton, x.c.B., elected 16th March, 1878. William Dwight Whitney, elected 16th March, 1875. R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1894—’95. [18] 180 Royal Irish Academy. The Third Volume of the ‘‘ Annals of Ulster,” edited by the Rev. Dr. MacCarthy, is now in the press, and the editor expects that it will be published before the end of the present month. The Rey. Edmund Hogan, s.3., the Academy’s Todd Professor of the Celtic Languages, whose tenure of the office expired in 1894, has been re-elected for a further period of three years; and it is hoped that the first series of his second Course of Lectures will be delivered before the close of the present Session. The Council regret that the publication of the photolithograph of the ‘Yellow Book of Lecan”’ has been unavoidably delayed, owing to circumstances which have necessitated the transfer of the remaining portion of the work to another firm of lithographers, but this portion is now being reproduced with all possible expedition, and the Council therefore hope that the work will be completed shortly. Steady progress has been made in the preparation of slips for the Irish Dictionary by Mr. W. J. Purton, 8.a., who during the past year was appointed Assistant to the Editor of the Dictionary, and who entered on his duties at the beginning of September, 1894. During the past year the Library has received many valuable additions to the series of English and Foreign literary and scientific publications. Some progress has been made in the preparation of a draft catalogue of the printed books in the Library relating to Ireland and Irish subjects, which it is believed will be found of much practical value to persons who consult the Academy’s Collections. On the 23rd of January the Committee appointed for that purpose held their Annual Visitation of the Academy’s Collection of Antiquities in the Museum of Science and Art, and their Report was duly pre- sented to the Council and adopted. A sum of £435 7s. 4d., Government 23 per Cent. Consols, was during the year transferred to the Royal Irish Academy by the Trustees of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, on trust to expend the interest of same in illustrating Papers on Geology and Mineralogy thought worthy of Publication by the Council of the Royal Irish Academy. The additions to the Academy’s Museum during the year consist chiefly of various bronze and stone implements found in different places in Ireland, an interesting bone and bronze bird-shaped object found at Innisfallen, and presented by the Board of Works, and a Minutes of Proceedings. 181 collection of antiquities from the Excavations at Amathus, Cyprus, presented by the Trustees of the British Museum. The Report was adopted. Read the following letter from Dr. V. Ball, o.3., F.z.s. :— ‘©2928, WATERLOO-ROAD. “13th March, 1895. ‘‘Drar Sir, ‘¢ The family of the late Mrs. Robert Ball desire to present, herewith, a portrait of their father to the Royal Irish Academy, of which he was for some years the Treasurer. «The portrait belonged to Mrs. Ball, and the family think that in thus offering it to the Academy, they are adopting a course which accords with her expressed wishes. ‘¢ Yours sincerely, SONS ley ana ‘(THE SECRETARY, ‘Royat Ipish AcADEMY.”’ Resolved that a special vote of thanks be given to the family of the late Robert Ball, tu.p., for the presentation of his portrait. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. On the Report of the Scrutineers, the President declared the following duly elected as President and Council for 1895-6. PRESIDENT. Joun Ketrts Iyeram, LL.D. Covuncit. Committee of Science. Edward Perceval Wright, m.p. Vi Dalles ran ese CBs Francis A. Tarleton, Lu.D. Benjamin Williamson, pD.sc., F.R.S. J. P..O’Reilly, c.x. George L. Cathcart, m.a. George Henry Kinahan, c.£. Rey. Samuel Haughton, m.p., F.R.s. William J. Sollas, p.sc., F.R.s. Robert F. Scharff, B.sc., PH.D. Arthur A. Rambaut, m.a., D.sc. 182 Royal Trish Academy. Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Robert Atkinson, LL.D. Rey. Maxwell H. Close, m.a. John R. Garstin, M.A., F.S.A. John T. Gilbert, Lx.p., F.s.A. William Frazer, F.B.c.s.1. Rey. Denis Murphy, s.J., L1.D. Louis C. Purser, M.A., LITT.D. Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.p. Lord Walter Fitz Gerald. Rey. J. H. Bernard, p.p. The President declared the following duly elected as Honorary Members :— In the Section of Science. Karl Weierstrass, Berlin. Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond, Berlin. Eduard Suess, Vienna. In the Section of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Adolph Erman, Berlin. Eduard Zeller, Berlin. Lieut.-General A. H. Pitt-Rivers, Salisbury. Samuel Rawson Gardiner, Bedford. The President, under his hand and seal, appointed—. Rey. Samuel Haughton, mM.D., F.R.s., John R. Garstin, M.A., F.S.A., Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.p., Vi Ball, ces LEsD.,18oR:S:, to be Vice-Presidents for the year 1895-6. The Ballot was then opened for the election of Officers, and the following were subsequently declared duly elected :— TRrEASURER—Rev. M. H. Close, m.a. SrecreTarY—Ed. Perceval Wright, m.p. SECRETARY OF THE Councir—Robert Atkinson, LL.D. SecrETary oF Forercn CorrrsponpencE—Joseph P. O’Reilly, c.z. Lrpranran—John T. Gilbert, tx.p. Asststant SecrETARY—Robert Macalister, LL.B. The Academy then adjourned. dopal Srish Acaden. GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE A€COUNTS FROM Ist April, 1894, te 31st March, 1895. RECEIPTS. BHulance from last Year, PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS :— General grant in aid, [For Treasure Trove Account see below.] MEMBERS’ PAYMENTS :— Entrance Fees, Annual Subscriptions, - ‘ 3 Life Membership Compositions, PUBLICATIONS SOLD :— Transactions and Cunningham Memoirs, Proceedings, . é Todd Lectures, and Irish MSS. Series, : ANNALS OF ULSTER :— Refund by Government, INTEREST ON INVESTMENTS :— Life Composition—23 per Cent. Consol. Stock, Cunningham Bequest—22 per Cent. Consol. Stock, Geological Illustration F und—22 per Cent. Consol. Stock, ROYAL” IRt GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNT OF REY. MAX FOR THE YEAR E 1500 289 476 99 70 10 £2744 16 ooo 19 4 1} al Total of each Class. 9 a 744 9 11 TREASURE TRO Balance from last year, . Grant 1894-4, . Guess ae 193 0 11 100 0 0O £293 0 11 TODD MEMORI: Balance from last year, . Interest on investments, 25 CA 85 17 3 3) ali 7/ £125 8 10 I certify that the above account is correct, according to the best of m ADEMY. CLOSE, TREASURER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, or MARCH, 1895. Total of PAYMENTS. ora Glass 2 & Gh a5 Uh For SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY PURPOSES :— Scientific Reports, . 100 0 0 Library, gt dae 293 7 11 Trish Scribes, . : 170 16 38 Photo- lithographing Yellow Book of "Lecan, : 153 13 9 Printing Irish Texts, . 75 10 O Do. Transactions and Proceedings and Cunningham Memoirs, Si Rs On iGe Moa eae won re 609 11 9/ 1402 19 8 » ESTABLISHMENT CHARGES :— 5 Salaries, : 369 0 0 Wages and Liveries, 215 17 3 Furniture and Repairs, eo a iE Fuel and Gas, ¢ 66 15 6 Insurance, 8 2 6 Stationery, U 8 FY Printing (Miscellaneous), 40: 94 Postage, 5 3 21 4 6 Freights, Incidentals, and Contingencies, Ma TEN Be 5, ANNALS OF ULSTER :— Paid on Account of Editing and Printing Vols. 11.and1., | 367 0; 367 8 0 » INVESTMENTS (CAPITAL) :— | Bought, | Description. | och, Life Membership pon Lees ads Paes cee positions, . - 1154 15 3 Gov: 2? Stock, 3878 o 44 16114 O 161 14 0O Cunningham Fund, o|| = I Dey do. |2653 9 9 Geclogical Illustration 5 | lean CakO = == Do. do. 435 7 4 Todd - Memorial Fund,|— - —| Do. do. |1567 2 3 », Balance to Credit, le eh ke 4b @ £2744 9 11 | 2744 9 11 COUNT. ae hb) Oh Treasure Trove purchased, ZL LOMO Balance to credit, 2 LOU £293 0) IL COUNT. £3 OL Salary of Todd Professor, . eels arent eo. lo psa bubnee 40 0 0 Purchase of £80 14s. Government 2% per Cent. Consol. Stock, . 85 8 10 £125 8 10 nowledge and belief.—Maxwetu H. Cuosz, Treasurer, R.I.A.— [For Auditors Report see next page. AUDITORS’ REPORT. We have examined the above General Abstract, and compared the Vouchers for the details of the several heads thereof, and find the same to be correct, leaving a Balance to the credit of the Academy’s General Account of Seventeen Pounds Four Shillings and Eight Pence, and to the Treasure Trove Account of Two Hundred and Seventy-one Pounds Ten Shillings and Eleven Pence, making in all a Balance of Two Hundred and Highty-eight Pounds Fifteen Shillings and Seven Pence. The Treasurer has also exhibited to us Certificates in respect of the invested Capital, showing that the amounts of Stock standing in the name of the Academy were Two Thousand Six Hundred and Fifty-three Pounds Nine Shillings and Nine Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account A, being the Capital of the ‘‘Cunningham Fund’’?; Three Thousand Hight Hundred and Seventy-eight Pounds and Four Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account B, being Capital derived from Life Compositions; and Four Hundred and Thirty-five Pounds Seven Shillings and Four Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account C, being the Capital of the Geo- logical Illustration Fund. Like Certificates have been exhibited to us showing a sum of One Thousand Two Hundred and Nine Pounds Eighteen Shillings and Four Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, in the Court of Chan- cery, and a sum of Three Hundred and Fifty-seven Pounds Three Shillings and Eleven Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, standing in the names of Trustees, which together form the Invested Capital of the “Todd Memorial Fund.” z W. REYNELL, ; (Signed), Auditors. HENRY KING, 22nd April, 1895. Minutes of Proceedings. 183 Monpay, Aprit 8, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.D., President, in the Chair. Mr. Charles J. Joly, m.a., F.1.c.D., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Ramsay Colles and Hubert Thomas Knox were elected Members of the Academy. : Professor J. P. O’Reilly read a Paper ‘‘On the Orientation of certain Dolmens recently discovered in Catalonia.” Dr. R. F. Scharff read for the Fauna and Flora Committee of the Academy—Report I.—‘‘ On the Rotifera of County Mayo,” by John Hood, F.R.M.S. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Read the following letters from recently elected Honorary Members :— ‘¢ RIDGEWAY, ‘¢ KIMBOLTON-ROAD, BEDFORD, “ Varch 26th, 1895. ‘¢ DEAR Sir, ‘“‘T have to thank you for your letter of the 22nd, informing me of my election as an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Ishall be much obliged to you to convey to the Members, on the first opportunity, my warm appreciation of the honour con- ferred on me. “¢ Believe me, ‘¢ Yours faithfully, ‘¢SamueL R. Garprver.” R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1895-96. [19] 184 Royal Irish Academy. ‘¢ RusHMORE, SALISBURY ? 5] ‘“* March 27th, 1895. COTS a0 ‘‘T have the honour of acknowledging the receipt of your letter of the 22nd inst. informing me that the Royal Irish Academy have paid me the compliment of electing me an Honorary Member in the section of polite literature and antiquities, and beg to thank you for the same. ‘“‘Tam glad to become an Honorary Member of your valuable Society, and hope, if my state of health permits of it, to be able at some time to be of use to it. *T remain, Sir, ‘* Your obedient servant, ‘¢ A. Prrt Rivers, Lt.-General. ‘Hh. P. Wricut, Esq., SoS EC eye Ace ‘Vienna, 31st March, 1895. ‘Sir, ‘¢T have had the honour to receive your letter dated March 22nd, and the Diploma as an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Deeply touched by the high and hardly merited distinction which your illustrious Academy has bestowed on me, I beg leave to say the most respectful and cordial thanks to Mr. President and to every single Member of the Royal Irish Academy. ‘‘T beg you also, Sir, kindly to accept my thanks for your com- munication as well as the marks of highest esteem of your ‘* Very obliged, ‘¢ Kpu. Sunss. “KR. P. Wricut, Esq., “lis Acad.” Minutes of Proceedings. 185 Monnay, Apri 22, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.¥.17.c.p., President, in the Chair. Mr. G. H. Kinahan read a Paper on ‘‘ Possible Land Connexions between Iveland and Great Britain.” Rey. T. Olden, m.a., read a Paper on ‘‘ The Oratory of Gallerus.” Rey. E. Hogan, s.s., F.R.U.1., read his First Todd Memorial Lecture for the present Session on certain Texts from the Leabhar Breac. Mr. Lavens M. Ewart presented to the Academy an early portrait of the late Right Rev. William Reeves, p.p., Lord Bishop of Down and Connor and Dromore, President of the Academy, 1891-2. Resolved that a special vote of thanks be given to Mr. Lavens Ewart for this Donation. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Read the following letter :— ‘¢ SUDENDE BEI BERLIN—ANHALTER BAHN ‘* Bann-Str, 21. “16, April 1895. ‘¢ Sppr GEEHRTER Herr! ‘‘Bei der Riickkehr von einer langeren Reise erfahre ich heute, dass mich die Royal Irish Academy zu ihrem Mitgliede ernannt hat. ‘« Thre Korperschaft hat einst durch Hincks in die Entwicklung der Aegyptologie entscheidend eingegriffen und auch in neuerer Zeit wieder ist von Dublin aus sehr wichtiges fiir die Kenntuniss des spate- ren Aegypten geleistet worden. ‘‘Tch rechne es mir daher zur besonderen Ehre, Ihrem Kreise angehéren zu diirfen und bitte Sie, der Academy meinen tiefgefitihlten Dank aussprechen zu wollen. ‘* Hochachtungsvollst ‘‘ Thr sehr ergebener ‘Ap. Erman, ‘< Herren E. P. Wright, ‘“‘ Secretar der R.I.A.” [19 *| 186 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, May 13, 18935. Dr. J. K. [veraw, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Mr. G. Coffey, a.1.B., read a Paper on ‘‘ A Donble Cist Grave, and an Urn, and other Remains, recently discovered by Colonel Codding- ton, D.L., at Oldbridge, Drogheda.”’ Dr. W. Frazer read a Paper ‘‘ On Vitrified Forts.” Rey. E. Hogan, s.s., read his Second Todd Memorial Lecture, Subject :—Irish Tales from the Leabhar Breac, ‘‘The Murder of Zachary.” Read the following letter : — ‘¢ PuystotoaiscHes Institut DER Untversirir Berwin. ‘‘ Bertin, N.W., DororHEEenstrassE 35. ‘¢ GESCHAFTSZIMMER DES DiREcToRS, 10th April, 1895. “ Dear Sir, ‘‘T have with the highest satisfaction received the news of my having been elected an Honorary Member of the Royal Ivish Academy in the section of Science, and the accompanying Diploma of Membership. I feel extremely flattered at being thus deemed worthy of closer association with so many illustrious names in every depart- ment of science. May I ask you to transmit to the Academy the assurance of my most sincere gratitude for the honour they have bestowed upon me, and will you, dear Sir, in particular accept my best thanks for the part you have so kindly taken in the transaction. ‘¢T am, dear Sir, “Faithfully yours, ‘¢ K. pv Bots-Raymonn, ‘ Prof. of Physiology, Berlin University. “ Professor E. P. Waricut, “Dublin.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Treasurer laid on the table the audited Accounts for 1894-5, and the Estimate for 1895-6. The Secretary presented a copy of the List of National Monuments vested in the Commissioners of Public Works up to Easter, 1895. Minutes of Proceedings. 187 Monpay, May 27, 1895. Dr. J. K. Iyeram, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Mr. Ramsay Colles signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Prof. D. J. Cunningham, F.n.s., read a Paper on ‘‘ Head Injuries inflicted by Stone Weapons, illustrated by Crania from the Haddon Collection.” The Secretary read for W. T. Calman, z.sc., a Paper on “ Species of Phoxocephalus and Apherusa. [Communicated by Prof. E. P. Wright, up. | - Rev. E. Hogan, 8.3., read his Third Todd Memorial Lecture on certain Passages from the Leabhar Breac. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following Science Grants recommended by Council were con- firmed :— £45 to a Committee consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff, Dr. E. J. M‘Weeney, Professor T. Johnson, Messrs. R. L. Praeger, R. M. Barrington, G. Pim, G. H. Carpenter, R. J. Ussher, F. W. Moore, D. M‘Ardle, A. R. Nichols, and Professor E. P. Wright, to assist them in continuing their Researches into the Fauna and Flora of Ireland. £20 to a Committee consisting of Rev. Dr. Haughton, Professor D. J. Cunningham, Professor A. C. Haddon, and Dr. C. R. Browne, to assist them in carrying on the work of the Anthropometrical Labora- tory, and the Ethnographical Survey of the remote districts of Ireland. £20 to Dr. J. T. Gilbert, to assist in the preparation of a Biblio- graphy of the Works of Irish Authors, from the 15th to the 18th century, especially of many rare and valuable Works published on the Continent. £10 to Mr. G. Coffey, to assist him in a Systematic Investigation of the Irish Sepulchral Urns. £5 to Professor W. J. Sollas, and Mr. R. L. Praeger, to assist them in investigating the Glacial Deposits of Central Ireland. The Treasurer read, in accordance with By-Law 3 of chapter III, the List of Members in arrears. 188 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, June 10, 1895. Dr. J. K. Iyeram, s.F.7.c.D., President, in the Chair. Patrick J. Barry, 1.z.c.s.1. ; Samuel W. Percy Cowan, m.a. (Dubl.) ; Lieut.-Colonel Thomas Ainslie Lunham, m.a. (Dubl.); and Rey. James Edward Harnett Murphy, m.a. (Dubl.), were elected Members of the Academy. Professor Sollas, F.x.s., read a Paper on ‘A Tertiary Volcanic Neck near Bunown, Clifden, Co. Galway.” Rev. E. Hogan, s.3., read his Fourth Todd Memorial Lecture on certain Passages from the Leabhar Breac. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, June 24, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.¥F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. The President announced the death, since the last meeting of the Academy, of Dr. Valentine Ball, c.B., ¥.z.s., a Vice-President of the Academy. The following resolution was proposed by Sir John Banks, «.c.z., seconded by Master Pigot, m.a., and unanimously adopted :— ‘That the Royal Irish Academy has received with deep regret the announcement by the President of the death of Dr. Valentine Ball, c.B., a Vice-President of the Academy, and desires to record its sense of the loss sustained by Science as well as by the Academy in his untimely death. ‘“The Academy hereby tenders to Mrs. V. Ball and her children its sincere sympathy and condolence with them in their bereavement.” The Secretary read for Mr. Ernest A. Smith, r.c.s., a Paper on ‘‘The Metallic Composition of some Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments.’ {Communicated by Professor J. P. O'Reilly, c.z. | Mr. G. Coffey, 3.a.1., exhibited Photographs and Rubbing of an Early Christian Gravestone recently found at Duleek, county Meath. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Minutes of Proceedings. 189 Monpay, November 11, 1895. Dr. J. K. Iyeram, 8.F.1.0.D., President, in the Chair. Mr. S. W. Percy Cowan, m.a., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Dr. W. Frazer read a Paper by himself and Mr. Edmond Johnson ‘‘On some Irish Gold Ornaments, illustrated by the exhibition of a considerable find of large Fibule in the South of Ireland, and a description of the Art Processes used in their manufacture.” Mr. George Coffey, 4.1.B., read a final report on the Sepulchral Remains of the Lough Crew Hills. ; By permission of the Academy, Mr. Henry Dixon, B.a., read a Paper on ‘‘ The Nuclei in Lilium and Fritillaria.”’ Read the following recommendation from Council :—‘‘ The Council recommend the Academy to lend their Mace (properly insured) to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition.” On the motion of Master Pigot, seconded by Professor Johnson, it was resolved that this recommendation be referred back to the Council to take into consideration the desirability of having the Mace returned to the officers when required. Read the following letter from Mrs. V. Ball :-— ‘628, Wartertoo Roan, “ July 9, 1895. ‘‘ Dear Dr. Waicut, ‘‘T have received the copy of the resolution passed by the Royal Trish Academy at the meeting on the 24th of June, relating to my late husband. Will you kindly express to the Academy how grateful I feel to them for this recognition of his services both to the Academy and to Science. ‘“‘ It was, I know, a great gratification to him to have been named as a Vice-President, for he always took the greatest possible interest in the Academy and its proceedings. It was a great pleasure to him to serve on the Council and to attend the meetings, and his most intimate and valued friends were among the members of its body. ‘‘T remain, yours truly, ‘6 Many Batt.”’ 190 Royal Irish Academy. Read the following letter from Dr. Zeller :— “Srurreart, Rernspurestr. 56. ‘629. Marz 1895. ‘Die hohe Royal Irish Academy hat mir durch die Wahl zu Ihrem Ehrenmitglied, deren Urkunde mir gestern zugekomen ist, eine Auszeichnung erwiesen, fiir welche ich Derselben meinen tiefsten und verbindlichsten Dank ausspreche. Je weniger ich mich bei meinem vorgeriickten Lebensalter der Hoffnung hingeben darf, der Wissenschaft noch weitere erhebliche Dienste leisten zu konen, um 60 erfreulicher ist es mir, diejenigen, welche ich ihr bisher zu leisten versucht habe, von eimer so angesehenen wissenschaftlichen Korporation so giitig und anerkenend gewiirdigt zu sehen. Es gereicht mir zur hohen Ehre, mich fortan dieser Korperschaft zu- zihlen zu diirfen, und ich bitte Sie, mit meinem lebhaftesten Danke fiir Ihre Giite zugleich der ausgezeichneten Hochschaetzung Ausdruck geben zu diirfen, mit welcher ich bin ‘¢ Kiner hohen Academie, ‘¢'Verehrungsvoll ergebener, ‘© Dr. E. ZeLver.” The following was agreed to as an Address of welcome to His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant :— To His Excellency, Groner Henry, Hart Capoegan, K.G., Lord Lieutenant-General and General Governor of Ireland. May rr prease Your ExceLiency, We, the President and Members of the Royal Irish Academy, desire to offer to your Excellency our respectful congratulations on your appointment to the high office of Viceroy by Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen. More than one hundred years ago the Royal Irish Academy, founded by His Majesty George III. through the influence of the then Earl of Charlemont, received its Royal Charter for promoting the study of Science, Polite Literature, and Antiquities. The record of our labours in these great departments will, we trust, show how earnestly we have sought to promote the study of each. Minutes of Proceedings. LOT In the various branches of Science, the Academy may claim to have fully performed her part in the past, and is still actively engaged in the work of original research. If Literature did not present so large a field for our endeavours, we are still able to point to important work recently done in the subjects of ancient Greek Papyri and Manuscripts of the Early Fathers as a proof that this portion of our duty is not neglected. In our Museum of Irish Antiquities, now in part displayed in the New Museum of Science and Art, will be found a collection of great value as illustrating the past history and early civilization of this country. : By the publication of a series of Facsimiles of the old Irish Texts in our Library, we have placed the unique Manuscripts we possess within the reach of all scholars. In this latter expensive work we gratefully acknowledge the assistance given to us by Trinity College, Dublin. We have also superintended for Her Majesty’s Treasury the publication of some of the ancient Annuals of Ireland, and have taken a part in the investigation of the Ethnography of the people of our Western Isles. Your Excellency by virtue of your office is Visitor of the Academy. We hope to have the opportunity of showing you our Collection of the Antiquities of Ireland—stone, iron, bronze, silver and gold, and we would further hope that you may be graciously pleased to visit our Library to inspect some of our old Irish Manu- scripts and Books. Signed on behalf of the Royal Irish Academy, J. K. Incram, President. E. P. Wricut, Secretary. Royat Irtsh Acapremy Hovss, Dawson-street, Dosiin. It was resolved that the marked thanks of the Academy be given to W. G. D. Goff, Esq., of Glenville, Waterford, for his liberal offer to deposit for the present, in the Academy’s Museum, the collection of Irish Gold Ornaments, now exhibited, on the condition that his name shall be attached to the deposit. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. 192 Royal Irish Academy. Sarurpay, Novemper 30, 1895. (Starep MEretrNG.) Dr. J. K. Iyeran, s.¥.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Mr. John Vinycomb and Mr. Francis J. Bigger signed the Roll, and were admitted Members of the Academy. A ballot was opened for the election of a Member of Council. Deputy Surgeon-General King and Dr. Joyce were appointed Scruti- neers. Mr. Francis J. Bigger read a Paper on ‘ Prehistoric Settlements at Portnafeadog, in the parish of Moyrus, Connemara.”’ Mr. F. J. Bigger also exhibited some photographs of early Chris- tian antiquities at Inishmacdarragh, off Roundstone, not apparently hitherto exhibited. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks voted to the Donors. On the report of the Scrutineers the President declared the Karl of Rosse, K.P., F.R.s., elected a member of Council on the Committee of Science. The President, under his hand and seal, nominated the Earl of Rosse a Vice-President of the Academy. The following recommendation from Council was adopted :— ‘The Council recommend the Academy to lend their Mace (properly insured) to the Arts and Crafts Exhibition, subject to having it returned to the Academy at such times as it shall be demanded by the Treasurer.”’ Monpay, DrcemBer 9, 1895. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Francis Elrington Ball and Rev. William Spotswood Green, M.a., were elected Members of the Academy. Mr. Charles J. Joly, m.a., r.r.c.p., read a Paper on “‘ The System of Scalar Invariants of two Linear Vector Functions.” By permission of the Academy, Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings, F.L.s., read a Paper on ‘‘ Two new species of Phycopeltis from New Zealand.” Part 17 of Transactions, vol. xxx., ‘‘On the Cytology of the Minutes of Proceedings. 195 Vegetative and Reproductive Organs of the Saprolegniee,” by Marcus Hartog, m.a., p.sc., Professor of Natural History, Queen’s College, Cork, was laid on the table. The President mentioned that he had, in company with many of the Members of the Academy, presented to His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant the Address voted by the Academy, and that His Excel- lency was pleased to give the following reply :— Mr. Presipent AND GENTLEMEN, I thank you very heartily for your congratulations on my appointment to the high office of representative of her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen in Ireland. The record of the labours of the Royal Irish Academy in the various branches of science, polite litera- ture, and archeology to which you allude is known and appreciated, and the conspicuous success which the Royal Irish Academy has achieved merits recognition. Your researches in the subjects of ancient Greek papyri and manuscripts of the Early Fathers have been most beneficial, and your publication of fac-similes of old Irish texts and manuscripts has brought them within the reach of scholars, and has fostered and developed our knowledge of the early literature and annals of Ireland. I am proud of the office of Visitor of the Academy, which I hold by virtue of my position as Viceroy of Ireland, and I am gratified by the expression of your wish that I should visit your collection of Irish antiquities and your valuable library of old Irish manuscripts and books. It was moved by Master Pigot, seconded by Judge Kane, and resolved :— ‘¢ That the attention of the Council be called to the importence of having the notice relating to Treasure Trove forwarded to the various Constabulary Barracks and National Schools in Ireland, as formerly.’ Monpay, January 13, 1896. Dr. J. K. Incram, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Mr. Francis Elrington Ball signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member cf the Academy. Rev. Hugh O’Reilly was elected a Member of the Academy. 194 Royal Irish Academy. By permission of the Academy, Mr. E. EK. Fournier d’Albe, B.sc., read a Paper on ‘The Identity of Energy.” [Communicated by Prot. J- PO Reilly.¢:n: || By permission of the Academy, Mr. H. Dixon, 3.4., read a Paper on ‘‘ Role of Osmosis in Transpiration in Plants.” [Communicated by Prof. E. P. Wright, .p. | Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, January 27, 1896. Dr. J. K. Ineram, 8.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, p.z., read a ‘‘ Report on the Raised Beaches of the North-East of Ireland.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Mownpay, Frepruary 10, 1896. Dr. J. K. Iveram, s.F.7.c.D., President, in the Chair. Rey. Wiliam Spotswood Green, m.a., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Mr. Caesar Litton Falkiner, u.a., and Lieut.-Colonel George T. Plunkett, Royal Engineers, retired, were elected Members of the Academy. Rey. T. Olden, m.a., read a Paper on ‘‘ The Paten of Gourdon, illustrated from the Book of Armagh.” Dr. W. Frazer read a Paper on ‘‘Chambered Tumuli, and their Construction,” and also exhibited some remains of a wooden house recently discovered by Mr. Thomas Drew, x.u.a., at St. Michael’s Hill, Dublin, on the site of the old hazel forest and bog. The President received from the Subscribers, on behalf of the Academy, an Oil Portrait (by Miss Purser) of the late Sir Robert Kane, Lu.d., F.R.s., President of the Academy (1877-82). Minutes of Proceedings. 195 Mownpay, Fepruary 24, 1896. Dr. J. K. Ineran, s.F.1.c.p., President, in the Chair. His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, Earl Cadogan, x.¢., Visitor of the Academy, having arrived, The President delivered the following Address :-— Ir was formerly the practice of the Council of the Academy to award, from time to time, medals on the Cunningham foundation to the authors of papers in our ‘‘ Transactions,” and occasionally even of independent publications, which were considered to possess eminent merit. An arrangement was afterwards made by which the available fund is usually devoted to the printing and the often costly illustration of certain selected papers, of such excellence that, under the previous system, medals would fitly have been awarded to them. These are published as ‘“‘Cunningham Memoirs.” This change in our mode of honouring some of our most valued contributors does not, I am advised, discharge me of the duty which the President performed in bestowing the medals—that, namely, of explaining in a general way the objects of the several memoirs, the mode of treatment followed in them, and the principal results arrived at. I am not at all disposed to evade this obligation ; far otherwise: it is a pride and pleasure to me to dwell thus on some of the best intellectual products of the Academy. Accordingly I now proceed! to speak of three of what may be called our Mémoires Couronnés, which have been either read, or distributed to our members, during the period of my Presidency. lie The first of these is the Memoir by Professor Cunningham, entitled, ‘‘ Contributions to the Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres.” Though the study of the brain—rather, however, from the physiological (or functional) than the anatomical side—has always had a special fascination for me, I am, of course, incompetent to 1 Part of the following Address had to be omitted in the delivery, in consequence of the limitation of time. 196 Royal Irish Academy. pronounce an independent judgment on any disputed point respecting it. If I venture to indicate the range of Dr. Cunningham’s researches and some of the most important conclusions at which he has arrived, it is because the excellence of his method and the luminous nature of his exposition have made it possible for me to follow him, where with a less able guide I should have failed to make my way. As Dr. Cunningham says at the outset, ‘‘ the descriptive anatomy of the adult human cerebrum is now very nearly complete,” and *‘what still remains to be done is the establishment of our know- ledge on a proper morphological basis.”’ Now the higher research to which he thus points embraces two studies—first, that of the develop- ment of the surface of the human cerebrum from the early embryonic stages up to mature life ; and, secondly, the comparison of the human cerebrum both in its constituent parts and in their gradual modifications with the simian cerebrum, especially in the anthropoids; in. other words, the study of evolution and of anatomical comparison—or, as they are now sometimes called, ontogenetic and phylogenetic research. Neither of these studies, of course, isnew; but to both, Dr. Cunningham has made large contributions. Taking some of the most important cere- bral fissures, first those which are temporary, and afterwards, in suc- cession, the Sylvian, the Rolandic, the intraparietal, and those of the frontal lobes, he examines the history of their formation, and, as illustrated thereby, the growth of particular areas of cortex ; and then the change of position on the surface which those fissures, or some of them, undergo after they have been once laid down. The special features of his mode of investigation are these :—1, the brain is hardened 2” situ, instead of being first removed from the cranial cavity ; and 2, the measurements he makes on the surface are not absolute, but relative to the mesial length of the hemisphere, and he is thus enabled to fix corresponding points in brains of different sizes and at different stages of growth. In man, except in abnormal cases, the complete fissures on the outer faces of the hemisphere have, in general, only a temporary existence during an early period of development ; as the cerebral growth proceeds, they are obliterated, and leave the surface again smooth. Some of the complete fissures on the mesial face of the hemispheres are retained, in whole or part, in the adult cerebrum; there is much interesting matter in the Memoir relating to these, on which, however, Minutes of Proceedings. 197 I cannot dwell. The transitory fissures result from deep infoldings of the thin cerebral wall. The influence at work in their production appears to be purely mechanical—a restraint placed on the longitudinal growth of the hemispheres. Most anatomists have regarded the occipital lobe as a secondary formation—a local out-growth from the hinder part of the hemisphere, the early condition of the brain present- ing only the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. From this view Dr. Cunningham dissents. He holds the occipital lobe to be an original formation which arises from the general growth of the brain, and whose shape is determined by the restricted space it has to occupy above the cerebellum. Now, the appearance and the obliteration of the transitory fissures seem to be closely related to the mapping-out of the occipital lobe. Those fissures are due to a difference between the rate of growth of the hemisphere wall and the skull capsule contain- ing it. The development is initiated in the brain, and the changes involved in it are resisted by the enclosing cranium. When the primate brain is in the quadruped stage, there is an effort towards the formation of a distinct occipital lobe; but there is a pause in the growth of the cranium, and hence a temporary pressure which gives rise to infoldings of the cerebral wall. (It would seem to follow that, as Benedikt of Vienna has asserted, not only in the primates, but in the mammalia generally, there is an occipital lobe; this, however, cannot yet be stated with certainty.) As the lobe is formed, the foldings disappear, part of the agency in their obliteration being, however, most probably, in addition to the extension of the surface, the absorption of the folds. The transitory fissures have, with two exceptions, disappeared when the corpus callosum is fully formed, and its development may possibly have something to do with their disappearance. Dr. Cunningham next proceeds to the study of the fissure of Sylvius, that important sulcus which separates the frontal and parietal lobes above from the temporo-sphenoidal lobe below, and which, with the exception of the great longitudinal, is the most conspicuous sulcus in the brain. It is sometimes, but wrongly, described as a complete fissure ; the projection into the cavity of the hemisphere corresponding to it, is not the result of afolding in of the mantle wall, but is an elevation of the floor of the prosencephalon. The three limbs usually recognised as com- posing the fissure, namely, the anterior ascending, the anterior horizon- 198 Royal Trish Academy. tal, and the posterior horizontal, are formed by the meeting of the contiguous lips of the four opercula—the temporal, the fronto-parietal, the frontal, and the orbital. Sometimes the two anterior limbs are fused into one by the absence of a frontal operculum ; sometimes they have a common stem and assume a Y-shape; this occurs when the apex of the frontal operculum or pars triangularis does not meet the temporal operculum. In consequence of a growth-antagonism between the fronto-parietal and temporal opercula, the posterior limb of the Sylvian fissure descends on the outer surface of the hemisphere up to the ninth year of life. Under the opercula lies the island of Reil. There is a close correspondence, which is plainest in the fetal cerebrum, between the furrows and the convolutions on the insula and those on the outer surface of the hemisphere. It has three radial furrows similar in position to, and contemporaneous in origin, respec- tively, with three fissures of which I shall presently speak, namely, the Rolandic, the inferior preecentral sulcus, and the vertical portion of the intra-parietal sulcus. It is a curious fact that in the develop- ment of the sulci and gyri, the right insula is usually in advance of the left. Before birth the anterior end of the island is very nearly fixed in relation to the anterior end of the cerebrum, while the posterior end moves rapidly towards the occipital pole. After birth the posterior end remains fixed, while there is an oscillation in the position of the anterior end, which at first approaches, and afterwards moves back from, the anterior end of the cerebrum. Very interesting are the results arrived at by a comparison of the fissures in the two sexes, and in the human and primate brain. Rid- inger asserted that all the convolutions of the cerebrum in the female foetus are backward in their growth as compared with those in the brain of the male foetus. Dr. Cunningham has not been able to satisfy himself of this ; but, so far as relates to the insula, he recognises it as true. In male adults, the antero-posterior length of the island is relatively greater than in the female. The gyri and sulci on its surface are very poorly developed in the anthropoids, the orang being nearest to man in this respect. There is no frontal or orbital operculum in those apes. This constitutes one of the most striking differences which exist between the convolutionary arrangement of the ape and that of men. The submerged portion of the insula in the ape corresponds in reality with little more than the posterior two-thirds of the insula in Minutes of Proceedings. 199 man. The anterior part of the insula in the ape is on the surface exposed to view and uncovered by opercula. When we compare the insula in man with the submerged portion in the apes, the latter is found to be much smaller in proportion. In the lower apes, the insula is very narrow, while the longer axis is greater relatively than in the anthro- poids. In the human female, as well as in the anthropoids, the point at which the trunk of the Sylvian fissure appears on the outer surface of the hemisphere is slightly further back than in the male, and this is a retention of the infantile character. The left hemisphere has an average length slightly greater than that ofthe right. But the Sylvian fissure is considerably longer in the left hemisphere; and this is true of all periods of growth, and attains its full accentuation in the adult brain. There is apparently no appreciable difference in the length of the fissure in the two sexes, though the contrary has been asserted ; in the ape the fissure is relatively longerthan in man. What is called the Sylvian angle is wider, both in the apes and in man, on the left side than on the right ; and this constitutes at every stage of growth a marked difference between the hemispheres. Dr. Cunningham next passes to the fissure of Rolando, which, if it were named after him who first described it, ought rather to be called the fissure of Vicq-d’Azyr. It would best be called the ‘‘ central” fissure, if that epithet be interpreted as indicating its approximate equidistance from the frontal and occipital poles of the hemisphere. One of the most remarkable points brought out by Dr. Cunningham in relation to the Rolandic fissure in man is the stability of its position on the surface at all stages of growth. It is usually formed in two portions, a lower and an upper, which appear independently, and afterwards unite.t In the lower apes acontinuous, not an interrupted form of development seems to obtain. 1 Since this Address was written, Dr. Cunningham has sent me the following interesting note in relation to what I have said on the formation of this fissure :— ‘ 9 0.0) 6 oll = = Do. do. 435 7 4 Todd Memorial Fund,| — - -]| Do. dos 1567/23 », Balance to Credit, 9 8 6 9 8 6 £26528) ib |N2602) Sed COUNT. a5 5 CK Treasure Trove purchased, 42 11 0 Balance to credit, : 328 19 11 ager 1d) ail COUNT. nS CUS Salary of Todd Nae 40 0 0 Balance, j a2 6 £41 2) 6 lowledge and belief.—Maxweti H. Crosz, Treasurer, R.I.A.— [For Auditors’ Report see next page. AUDITORS’ REPORT. ‘We have examined the above General Abstract, and compared the Vouchers for the details of the several heads thereof, and find the same to be correct, leaving a Balance to the credit of the Academy’s General Account of Nine Pounds Hight Shillings and Six Pence, and to the Treasure Trove Account of Three Hundred and Twenty-eight Pounds Nineteen Shillings and Eleven Pence, and to the Todd Memorial Account of One Pound Two Shillings and Sixpence, making in all a Balance of Three Hundred and Thirty-nine Pounds Ten Shillings and Eleven Pence. : The Treasurer has also exhibited to us Certificates in respect of the invested Capital, showing that the amounts of Stock standing in the name of the Academy were Two Thousand Six Hundred and Fifty-three Pounds Nine Shillings and Nine Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account A, being the Capital of the ‘‘ Cunningham Fund’’; Four Thousand One Hundred and Twenty-four Pounds Twelve Shillings and Six Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account B, being Capital derived from Life Compositions; and Four Hundred and Thirty-five Pounds Seven Shillings and Four Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account C, being the Capital of the Geo- logical Illustration Fund. Like Certificates have been exhibited to us showing a sum of One Thousand Two Hundred and Nine Pounds Eighteen Shillings and Four Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, in the Court of Chan- cery, and a sum of Three Hundred and Fifty-seven Pounds Three Shillings and Eleven Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, standing in the name. of Trustees, which together form the Invested Capital of the “Todd Memorial Fund.’ : W. REYNELL, i (Signed), Auditors. HENRY KING, 17th April, 1896. Minutes of Proceedings. 231 Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Robert Atkinson, Lt.p. Rev. Maxwell H. Close, m.a. John T. Gilbert, i1.p., F.s.A. William Frazer, F.R.¢.s.1. Rey. Denis Murphy, s.J., 11.p. Louis C. Purser, M.A., LITT.D. Most Rey. Bishop Donnelly, p.v. Lord Walter FitzGerald. Rev. J. H. Bernard, p.p. _ John Kells Ingram, 11.p. On the Report of the Scrutineers, the following were declared duly eiected as Honorary Members :— In the Section of Sctence. William Ramsay, F-.R.s. Rey. Thomas George Bonney, F.R.s. Sir William Flower, k.¢.3., F.R.s. And Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., President of the Royal Society, was proclaimed an Honorary Member under By-Law 14, Chapter II. The ballot was opened for the election of Officers, and, on the Report of the Scrutineers, the following were declared duly elected :— TreasuRER—Rey. M. H. Close, m.a. Secrerary—Kd. Perceval Wright, m.p. SECRETARY OF THE Councrt—Robert Atkinson, LL.D. SEcrETARY oF Foreren CorresponpEnce—Joseph P. O’Reilly, c.x. Liprartan—John T. Gilbert, 11.p. Assistant SecRETARY—Robert Macalister, LL.B. The Academy then adjourned. R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1896-797. [ 22] 232 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, Aprit 13, 1896. Masrer Pieot, m.a., in the Chair. Right Hon. Christopher Talbot Redington, v.t., Rey. Henry William Lett, .a., John Merrick Head, F.r.4.s., Wilham Alexander Craig, Rey. Joseph McKeefry, Edward John Gwynn, M.A., F.7.¢.D., Alexander Charles O’Sullivan, m.a., F.7.¢.D., were elected Members of the Academy. Mr. F. W. Moore read a Paper by Mr. David McArdle on ‘A further List of Hepaticee from the Hill of Howth.” Mr. T. J. Westropp, m.a., read a Paper on ‘‘The Mound of Magh Adhair, Co. Clare.” Dr. Frazer exhibited illustrations of croziers, decorated with ‘¢ Limoges enamel,”’ Irish and foreign. Read the following letters :— 12, Park CrEescENT r] ? ‘¢ PoRTLAND-PLACE, ‘(95th March, 1896. ‘¢ Drar Sir, ‘“‘T have received your letter and the” accompanying certi- ficate. I beg you to express to the Royal Irish Academy my gratification at the fact that my position as President of the Royal Society involves the high distinction of the Honorary Membership of the Academy. ‘eT am, ‘* Very sincerely yours, “Josrpu Lisrmr. ‘‘ Professor PercrvaL WRIGHT, M.D., &c.” Minutes of Proceedings. 233 ‘693, DENNING-ROAD, Hampstead, N.W., March 26th, 1896. “¢ Sir, ‘“‘To be elected to the Honorary Membership of a body so eminent as the Royal Irish Academy is a distinction of which any man might well be proud. It is one of which I cannot presume to think myself worthy, and I feel that I owe it more to the lenient judgment of friends than to my own deserts. It shall, however, incite me, during the time that may remain for work, to do all that I can to show myself less unworthy of it. ‘May I ask you to convey to the proper quarter my very grateful thanks for and acceptance of this most unexpected but most welcome honour. COlPam), Sir ‘¢ Your obedient servant, com. G. BONNEY. ‘¢ Prof. PERcEVAL WRIGHT, M.D., SAS OC abv ellinAtre ‘612, ARUNDEL GARDENS, ‘¢ Lonpon, W., “¢ March 28th, 1896. “My Dear Sir, “‘T have to acknowledge, with thanks, your letter of the 24th March, informing me of my election as Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy in the Section of Science. Would you be go good as to convey to the Academy my deep sense of the honour they have done me, and my warm thanks. Such a recognition should be, and I hope it will be with me, an incentive to future work. ‘Yours faithfully, ‘¢Wirtram Ramsay. ‘Ep. Percevat Wricut, Esq., M.D., “¢ Dublin.” [22*| 204 Royal Irish Acadeniy. ‘“¢ Britise Museum (Narvurat History’ }? “¢ CROMWELL-ROAD, ‘¢ Sourn Kensrneton, S.W., ‘“‘ 31st March, 1896. “My Drar Wricut, ‘‘T have much pleasure in acknowledging the receipt of your letter of the 24th instant, informing me that the Royal Irish Academy has elected me an Honorary Member in the Section of Science, and enclosing the certificate thereof. “May I ask you to take the first opportunity of assuring your colleagues in the Academy that the distinction they have thus con- ferred upon me is one that I value very highly indeed; and that I feel deeply their great kindness to me in thus rewarding, in such a marked way, the small services that I have been able to render to Science. “Tt is an additional pleasure to have had the intimation of this honour conveyed to me by the hand of such an old friend as yourself. ‘¢ Believe me to be “‘Most truly yours, ‘CW. H. Frowrr. “To Dr. E. Percevat Wricut, ‘“‘ Secretary to the Royal Irish Academy, &c.”’ The names of Vice-Presidents nominated under the hand and seal of the President, on 23rd March, were read :— Tue Rev. Samvret Haveuton, u.p. Tuer Most Rev. Nicnotas Donne ty, D.D. Joun Ketts [neram, LL.D. BengAMIN WILLIAMSON, Sc.D. Donations to the Library were announced and thanks were voted to the Donors. a _— 235 Minutes of Proceedings. Read the following letter :— ‘‘ JUBILEE oF THE Ricur HonovraBLe ProFessor Lorp Ketyiy. ‘¢Graseow, 10th arch, 1896. ‘¢ Srr, ‘In the autumn of this year the Right Honourable Lord Kelvin completes the fiftieth year of his tenure of the Chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. An event so rare in academic history naturally calls forth the-heartiest congratulations of the University and the City ; but, in view of his pre-eminent position as a man of science, it has been thought fitting that other bodies, who have already testified their appreciation of Lord Kelvin’s distinction by enrolling his name among their members, should be invited to take part in the proceedings with which it is proposed to celebrate the Jubilee of his Professorship. ‘‘ We are desired by the Committee charged with the arrangements to intimate that the University and the Municipality would be gratified by your appointing a representative to take part in the celebration to be held here on the 15th and 16th of June next. Be so good as send to Professor Stewart, Clerk of Senate, The University, Glasgow, not later than 10th April, the name and address of your representative, in order that a formal invitation may be forwarded to him. ‘¢ We have the honour to be, Sir, “¢ Your obedient servants, ‘¢ Joun Carrp, ‘« Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University. ‘James Bett, Barr., “* Lord Provost of Glasgow. “ Toe SECRETARY, “ Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.” Resolved: That the President (Tue Eart or Rosse, K.P., LL.D.) be invited to represent the Academy on this occasion. 236 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, Aprit 27, 1896. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.D., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Right Hon. C. T. Redington and W. A. Craig signed the Roll and were admitted Members of the Academy. The following were elected Representatives of the Academy on the Board of Visitors of the Science and Art Museum, &c., Dublin, for the next five years :— JoHN Riston GARsTIN, LL.B. Rey. Dr. Havexton, F.R.3. Dr. E, Percevat WeicHt. Dr. W. Frazer read a Paper on ‘‘ Gold Lunule found in Ireland.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Treasurer laid on the table the audited Accounts for 1895-6, and an Estimate of the Receipts and Expenditure for 1896-7. Monpay, May 11, 1896. Dr. J. K. Ingram, s.¥.17.¢.p., Vice-President, in the Chair. Rev. Daniel F. M‘Crea was elected a Member of the Academy. Dr. Charles R. Browne read a ‘‘ Report on the Ethnology of Ballycroy, county of Mayo.” Part 20 of Volume xxx. of the Transactions, ‘‘On Species of Phoxocephalus and Apherusa’”’: by W. T. Calman, B.sc., was laid on the table. Monpay, June 8, 1896. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., Vice-President, in the Chair. Thomas George Hennis Green was elected a Member of the Academy. Mr. Charles J. Joly, u.a., F.1.c.D., read a Paper on ‘‘ Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions and Quaternion Deter- minants.” Minutes of Proceedings. 237 By permission of the Academy, Mr. H. H. Dixon, B.a., read a Paper on ‘‘ The Osmotic Pressures in the Cells of Leaves.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The following Science Grants, recommended by the Council, were sanctioned by the Academy :— £40 to a Committee, consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff, Dr. E. J. Mc Weeney, Professor T. Johnson, Messrs. R. L. Praeger, G. Pim, G. H. Carpenter, F. W. Moore, A. R. Nichols, G. E. H. Barrett- Hamilton, R. J. Ussher, and D. McArdle, to assist them in continuing their Researches into the Fauna and Flora of Ireland. £25 to a Committee consisting of Rev. Dr. Haughton, Professor D. J. Cunningham, Professor A. C. Haddon, and Dr. C. R. Browne, to assist them in carrying on the work of the Anthropometrical Labora- tory, and the Ethnographical Survey of the remote districts of Ireland. £20 [as a supplemental Grant] to a Committee consisting of Mr. R. M. Barrington, Professor A. C. Haddon, Rev. W. 8. Green, Mr. R. Ll. Praeger, and Professor E. P. Wright, to assist them in investi- gating the Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Island of Rockall, and to dredge in its vicinity. £10 to a Committee consisting of Messrs. W. J. Knowles, R. LI. Praeger, W. H. Patterson, and F. J. Bigger, to assist them in investi- gating the Prehistoric remains in the neighbourhood of Roundstone, and on the sea-shore along Mannin and Ballyconneely Bays. £5 to Professor G. F. FitzGerald, and Mr. E. Cullum, to assist them in carrying on a series of Magnetic Observations at Valentia. The Treasurer, in accordance with By-law 3, Chapter III., read a List of Members in arrear. Count Plunkett handed in the following Notice of Motion for the next meeting of the Academy :— “To move that: Inasmuch as it is inexpedient that the Academy should commit itself to certain expressions of opinion contained in pages 38 and 4 of the Preface to the Yellow Book of Lecan, Dr. Atkinson be requested to cancel these passages. “¢ GrorcE Nosie PLunKetr.”’ a cr er ee a’ 238 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, June 22, 1896. Right Hon. Tur Hart or Rosse, x.p., F.z.s., President, in the Chair. The President announced that he had, on behalf of the Academy, attended at the celebration of the Jubilee of Lord Kelvin’s Professor- ship of the Chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. Rey. John Hammond, p.p., was elected a Member of the Academy. Rev. W. 8. Green, m.a., gave a short account of the expedition to Rockall—made during the present month. Professor J. P. O’Reilly, c.z., read a Paper on ‘‘ The Orientation of Three Cromleachs in the vicinity of the city of Dublin.” Dr. J. T. Gilbert read ‘‘ Notes on Irish Bibliography: notices on Books by Irish writers, or in connexion with Ireland, printed before a.p. 1600.” Dr. W. Frazer read a ‘‘ Note on some Roundells of the time of Elizabeth, lent for exhibition by Sir Frederick Shaw, Bart.” Donations to the Library and Museum were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Visitors having withdrawn, Count Plunkett moved the following, of which he had given notice :— ‘‘That, inasmuch as it is inexpedient that the Academy should commit itself to certain expressions of opinion contained in pages 3 and 4 of the Preface to the Yellow Book of Lecan, Dr. Atkinson be requested to cancel these passages.” This was seconded by Dr. Douglas Hyde. The following Amendment was moved by Dr. E. P. Wright, and seconded by Dr. P. W. Joyce :— “That the following be printed and affixed to each copy of the Yellow Book of Lecan :— ‘©<¢The Academy desire it to be understood that they are not answerable for any opinion, representation of facts, or train of reason- ing that may appear in any of the Academy’s publications.’ ” The Amendment was carried, and subsequently put and carried as. a substantive Resolution. Minutes of Proceedings. 239 Monpay, NovemsBer 9, 1896. Right Hon. Tur Hart or Rosser, «.P., F.R.s., President, in the Chair (and afterwards Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.p., Vice-President). Dr. R. F. Scharff read a Paper on ‘‘ The Origin of the European Fauna.” Professor G. F. Fitz Gerald, r.x.s., read a Paper by Mr. Ralph Cusack on ‘‘ The Melting Points of Minerals.” A Paper by Sir Robert Ball, r.x.s., ‘‘ Further Development of the relations between Impulsive Screws and Instantaneous Screws; being the Eleventh Memoir on the Theory of Screws,” was taken as read. Dr. W. Frazer read a Paper on ‘ Trish Gold.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, NovemBer 30, 1896. (Sratep Merrrrne.) Right Hon. Tue Eart or Rosst, .P., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. Mr. John Ribton Garstin, M.A., B.D., F.s.A., was elected a Member of Council in the room of Rev. Denis Murphy, s.s., deceased. Professor O’Reilly read a Paper ‘‘On the Orientation of the Cromleachs of Mount Venus, Larch Hill, and Shankill, co. Dublin.” Rev. W. S. Green, u.a., read an account of the two Expeditions made to Rockall in 1896. This was accompanied by the following supplemental Reports: “On the Previous History of the Rock and Shoal,” by Professor Rupert Jones, r.z.s.; “On the Petrology of the Rock,” by Professor J. W. Judd, c.z., r.z.s.; ‘‘On the Pebbles dredged near the Rock by ‘Professor Grenville A. J. Cole, r.¢.s.; ‘On the Winds and Currents in the neighbourhood of the Rock,” by R. H. Scott, r.z.s.; ‘On the Surface Water near the Shoal,” by H. Dickson; ‘‘On the Birds,” by J. Harvie Brown, F.z.s.; and R. M. Barrington, t1.B., F.1.s.; ‘¢On the Mollusca,” by A. R. Nichols; ‘‘On the Crustacea,” by W. T. Calman and Dr. E. P. Wright; ‘‘On the Annelids,” by Professor M‘Intosh, F.z.s.; ‘‘On the Echinoderms,” by Percy Sladen; ‘‘ On the Polyzoa, Actinozoa, and Hydrozoa,” by Miss Thornley and Professor A. C. Haddon, p.sc.; ‘‘On the Sponges,” by Dr. Lindenfeld. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. 240 Royal Irish Academy. The following Notice of Motion was handed in :— “* Professor G. F. Fitz Gerald to move :-— ‘That it be recommended to the Council to consider the advisability of altering By-law 2 of Chapter 1X., so that the days on which ordinary General Meetings of the Academy shall be held shall be Wednesdays, instead of Mondays, as at present.” Monpay, DrecemBer 14, 1896. Right Hon. THe Kart or Rosse, «.P., F.R.s., President, in the Chair. Mr. Charles J. Joly, m.a., F.t.c.p., read a Paper on “ Vector Expressions for Curves.”’ By permission of the Academy, Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings, F.1.s., read a Paper on ‘‘A new genus of Bacteria, showing Longitudinal Fission (Astrobacteria).”’ Professor George F. Fitz Gerald, sc.p., F.x.s., moved the following, of which he had given notice :— ‘‘ That it be recommended to the Council to consider the advisability of altermg By-law 2 of Chapter IX., so that the days on which ordinary General Meetings of the Academy shall be held shall be Wednesdays, instead of Mondays, as at present.” The motion was seconded by Earl Belmore, ¢.c.m.¢., and adopted. Monpay, January 11, 1897. Mr. Joun Riston Garstrn, M.A., F.S.A., D.L., in the Chair. Edmond Johnson and Thomas Preston, M.A., F.R.U.I., were elected Members of the Academy. The Secretary read ‘“‘ A Note on the Death of Dathi, King of Ireland.”’ by Mr. H. T. Knox. Mr. OC. J. Joly, m.a., F.t.c.D., read a Paper, ‘‘ Note on Spherical Nets.” Mr. G. Coffey exhibited some recent Finds from Portstewart and Whitepark Bay. The Secretary exhibited a Collection of Bronze, Iron, &c., Objects, recently acquired for the Museum. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Minutes of Proceedings. 241 Monpay January 25, 1897. Deputy Surcron-GeneraL H. Kine, u.a., M.s, in the Chair. Professor A. C. Haddon, m.a., p.sc., read a Paper, ‘‘ Studies in Trish Craniology: ut. A Neolithic Cist Burial near Drogheda.” The Secretary read a ‘‘ Note on Crannoges in the County of Mayo,” by Mr. H. T. Knox. Monpay, Fresruary 8, -1897. Rieut Hon. Tue Kart or Rossz, k.p. F.k.s., President, in the Chair. Rey. G. T. Stokes, p.p., read a Paper, ‘‘ On an original Indulgence issued by Cardinal Wolsey, and certain other Literary Finds lately made in Marsh’s Library.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, Fesruaryr 22, 1897. Rey. Dr. Haveuton, u.p., F.R.s., Vice-President, in the Chair. Sir John Banks, x.c.B., M.p., in presenting to the Academy on behalf of the Subscribers an oil: portrait (by Miss S. H. Purser, Hon. z.w.a.) of John Kells Ingram, 11.0., s.F.1.c.p., President of the Academy, 1892-6, said—Sir, on the 24th February of last year a vote of thanks was proposed by his Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, our Visitor, to our retiring President, Dr. Ingram, for the able address which he that day delivered. I had the honour of seconding that vote ef thanks, and I then took the liberty of throwing out the suggestion that some memorial of Dr. Ingram’s presidency should be effected, and that probably the best form would be a portrait to take its place with those of some of his illustrious predecessors. Owing to that sug- gestion a Committee was formed of afew of Dr. Ingram’s personal friends, and a circular was sent round to the Members of the Academy asking them to subscribe. So ready was the response that ample funds were forthcoming before the Academy closed for the recess. The next step was to request Dr. Ingram to sit for his portrait, and he was also asked to name the artist. You have now before you the 242 Royal Irish Academy. work of that accomplished artist, Miss Purser, and it is my very pleasant duty on the part of the subscribers to offer the portrait to the Academy through you. It is not my intention to speak of the distinguished career of Dr. Ingram, but I think I may be permitted to say a few words with regard to his connexion with the Academy, to the admirable work he has done in the Academy, and to the great benefits he has conferred on it. In the year 1847 Dr. Ingram became a Member of the Academy, and it may, sir, possibly have escaped your memory that you were one of his proposers. In 1856 he became a Member of the Council, a position which he has held, I believe, almost without intermission from that time to this. In 1860 he was elected to the important office of Secretary of Council—an office so important that I believe the Secretary of the Council is considered the brains- carrier of the Council—and the mouthpiece of the governing body. 1847, the year in which Dr. Ingram entered the Academy, was a year disastrous to the country, but rich in gain to this Academy; for then M‘Cullagh, the Lloyds, Rowan Hamilton, and Petrie were at the height of their fame, soon to be followed by younger men, by Graves, by Salmon, by Haughton, by Kane, by Ferguson, and others. Now, in proposing that this portrait of Dr. Ingram should be painted, I said it was desirable that it should be painted from the living man, and not from photographs, as some others have been painted, and that we the present men should not leave it to our successors to have it painted from photographs. It is a great justification to us to have the opportunity of contrasting the living man with his likeness. Passing from the present to the future, I may say it will be a great matter of interest for those who succeed us, as they gaze on the lineaments of these distinguished men, to have an opportunity of thus seeing what manner of men they were on whom we delighted to confer honour. In the name of the subscribers I beg to present this portrait to the Academy, and desire, in conclusion, to express the hope, which is shared in by all present, that Dr. Ingram may contiuue long amongst us and adorn the Academy of which he has so long been a distinguished member. The Chairman said Lord Rosse had expressed his regret that he was not able to be present on this occasion, and therefore it fell to his lot as senior Vice-President, to take the chair when this presentation was being made. It was quite unnecessary for anyone —e ee) ee ee ee Minutes of Proceedings. 243 occupying the chair of the Academy on such an occasion to make any lengthened remarks on their ex-President, Dr. Ingram, and he was quite sure they would unanimously receive with pleasure the presen- tation of this portrait. He was glad to be reminded by Sir John Banks that he had the honour of proposing Dr. Ingram, originally, as a Member of the Academy. Personally, his relations with Dr. Ingram through life had been of the most intimate friendship and affection, and in asking their hearty acceptance of this portrait of their ex-President, he was quite sure that the Members of the Academy would join heartily with him in a warm and cordial acknowledgment of the services which he had rendered to the Academy. It afforded him the greatest possible gratification to ask them to accept by their applause the portrait now placed before them. It afforded him great pleasure to accept in their name the gift of this portrait of their ex-President, Dr. Ingram. He felt greatly struck and gratified with the success of the distinguished artist in executing the picture. A collection of antiquities recently acquired for the Academy’s Museum was exhibited; including an ecclesiastical ring of gold, a piece of gold ‘“‘ring money,” a number of bronze swords, rapiers, spear heads, fibule, pins, various stone objects, querns, celts, &c., flint arrow heads, medizval ecclesiastical tiles, wooden ‘ otter traps,” and ancient beads. Turspay, Marca 16, 1897. (Srarep Merrie.) Rieut Hon. Tue Hart or Rosse, K.p., F.R.s., President, in the Chair. The President declared the ballot open for the election of Presi- dent and Council for the ensuing year; also for the election of Hono- rary Members, and appointed Mr. G. Coffey and Mr. F. W. Moore as scrutineers. 244 Royal Irish Academy. The Secretary of Council read the following :— Report oF THE Councit FoR THE YEAR 1896-97. Since the date of the last Report the following Publications of the Academy haye been issued :— Transactions, vol. xxx. Part 18. ‘‘On a Volcanic Neck, of Tertiary Age, in the county of Galway.” By Professor Sollas, p.sc., F.n.s., and A. M‘Henry, m.x.1.a. Part 19. ‘‘On Scalar Invariants of two Linear Vector Functions.’” By Charles J. Joly, M.a., F.T.C.D. Part. 20. ‘‘On Species of Phowxocephalus and Apherusa.” By W. T. Calman, B.sc. Transactions, vol. XxXx1. Part 1. ‘On Deep-Sea Crustacea from the South-west of Ireland.” By W. T. Calman, B.sc. Part 2. ‘‘ Notes on the Prehistoric Cemetery of Loughcrew, with a Fasciculus of Photographic Illustrations of the Sepulchral Cairns.’” By George Coffey, 3.x. Proceedings. Of the Proceedings, Third Series, Part 5 of Vol. m1., was published in May, 1896, and contained the following Papers :— ‘‘Prehistoric Settlements at Portnafeadog, in the Parish of Moyrus, Connemara.’ By Francis Joseph Bigger, m.R.1.a. ‘‘Notes on the Composition of Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Orna- ments.”’ By Ernest A. Smith, Assoc. r.s.M., F.¢.s. ‘¢On a Double-Cist Grave and Remains recently discovered at Old- bridge, county Meath.” By George Coffey, B.n. ‘On Two New Species of Phycopeltis from New Zealand.” By A. Vaughan Jennings, F.L.S., F.G.8. ‘Note on the Role of Osmosis in Transpiration.”” By Henry H. Dixon, B.A. ‘©On Five Gold Fibulee lately discovered in the South of Ireland, and on the Art Processes used in their Manufacture.” By Dr. W. Frazer, and Mr. Edmond Johnson, m.R.1.A. “The Paten of Gourdon, Illustrated from The Book of Armagh.” By the Rey. T. Olden. Bx, Minutes of Proceedings. 245, And Part 1 of Volume rv. in December, 1896, containing the following Papers :— ‘“¢Quaternion Invariants of Linear Vector Functions and Quaternion Determinants.” By Charles J. Joly, m.a. ‘¢ Prehistoric Cenotaphs.”’ By George Coffey, B.z. ‘Report upon the Raised Beaches of the North-east of Ireland, with special reference to their Fauna.’ By R. Lloyd Praeger, 3.x. “‘Magh Adhair, County Clare. The Place of Inauguration of the- Dalcassian Kings.” By Thomas Johnson Westropp, B.A. “On the Osmotic Pressure in the Cells of Leaves.” By Henry H. Dixon, B.A. “The Ethnography of Ballycroy, County Mayo.” By Charles R. Browne, M.D. ‘‘ Additions to the Hepaticee of the Hill of Howth, with a Table showing the Geographical Distribution of all the Species known to grow there.” By David McArdle. “CA Study of the Languages of Torres Straits, with Vocabularies and Grammatical Notes.” (Parti) By Sidney H. Ray, and Alfred C. Haddon, m.a. The following Publications are in the Press :— Transactions, XXX1. Part 3. ‘Report on the Expedition to Rockall.” By Rey. W. S. Green, and others. Part 4. ‘‘ Further Development of the Relations between Impul- sive Screws, and Instantaneous Screws, being the Eleventh Memoir on the Theory of Screws.” By Sir Robert Ball, tu.p., F.r.s, The following Science Grants, recommended by the Council, were. sanctioned by the Academy :— £40 to a Committee, consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff, Dr. E. J. Mc Weeney, Professor T. Johnson, Messrs. R. Ll. Praeger, G. Pim, G. H. Carpenter, F. W. Moore, A. R. Nichols, G. E. H. Barrett- Hamilton, R. J. Ussher, and D. Mc Ardle to assist them in continuing their Researches into the Fauna and Flora of Ireland. 246 Royal Irish Academy. £25 to a Committee consisting of Rev. Dr. Haughton, Professor D. J. Cunningham, Professor A. C. Haddon, and Dr. C. R. Browne, to assist them in carrying on the work of the Anthropometrical Labora- tory, and the Ethnographical Survey of the remote districts of Treland. £20 [as a supplemental Grant] to a Committee consisting of Mr. R. M. Barrington, Professor A. C. Haddon, Rev. W. 8. Green, Mr. R. Ll. Praeger, and Professor E. P. Wright, to assist them in investi- gating the Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Island of Rockall, and to dredge in its vicinity. £10 to a Committee consisting of Messrs. W. J. Knowles, R. LI. Praeger, W. H. Patterson, and F. J. Bigger, to assist them in investi- gating the Prehistoric remains in the neighbourhood of Roundstone, and on the sea-shore along Mannin and Ballyconneely Bays. £5 to Professor G. F. FitzGerald, and Mr. E. Cullum, to assist them in carrying on a series of Magnetic Observations at Valentia. The following Members have been elected since 16th March, 1896:— William Alexander Craig. Thomas George Hennis Green. Edward John Gwynn, M.A., F.T.C.D. Rey. John Hammond, p.p, John Merrick Head, F.R.«.s. Edmond Johnson. Rey. Henry William Lett, m.a. Rev. Daniel M‘Crea. Rev. Joseph M‘Keefry. Alexander Charles O’Sullivan, M.A., F.T.c.D. Thomas Preston, M.A., F.R.U.I. Right Hon. Christopher Talbot Redington, p.1. At the Stated Meeting, on the 16th March, 1896— William Ramsay, F.R.s., Rey. Thomas George Bonney, F.R.s., Sir William Flower, «.c.B., F.R.s., Minutes of Proceedings. 247 were elected Honorary Members in the Section of Science, and The Right Hon. Lord Lister (then Sir Joseph Lister, Bart.), President of the Royal Society, was proclaimed an Honorary Member under By-Law 14, Chapter IT. The Academy has lost by death within the year two Members :— Rev. Denis Murphy, s.J., 1.p., elected 12th May, 1884. General John Meredith Read, elected 14th January, 1867. The Academy has also lost by death four Honorary Members in the Section of Science :— Gabriel Auguste Daubrée, elected 16th March, 1869. Emil Heinrich Dubois Reymond, elected 16th March, 1895. Baron Ferdinand yon Mueller, K.c.u.e., elected 16th March, 1894. Karl Weierstrass, elected 16th March, 1895. A statement of the facts relating to an anticipated contribution to the funds of the Academy, in aid of the progress of the Irish Dictionary, was laid before the Council in due course, but the Council report that, after full consideration of all the circumstances, there do not seem to be sufficient grounds to hope that the expected gift will be forthcoming. The Council also regret that they have not yet been able to secure the co-operation of a competent scholar in the preparation of the Dictionary. The funds at command are so small, and the position being naturally of a temporary nature, and involving special quali- fications, the number of persons from among whom a suitable assistant could be selected is limited, and does not permit a selection at will. But considerable progress has been made in the translation and study of Medical literature in Irish, which will in due time be laid before the Academy. The fourth volume of the ‘ Annals of Ulster,” containing the Introduction and Index, has not yet been published, but the Editor, Rey. Dr. Mac Carthy, has been steadily at work upon it, and expects that the Index will be printed off before the end of the present Academic session, and the Introduction shortly after, so that the volume will, it is hoped, be published at the beginning of the autumn, thus completing the entire work. R.I.A. MINUTES, 1896—97. [23 | 248 Royal Irish Academy. The Rey. Edmond Hogan, s.s., Todd Professor, has resigned the Professorship, in consequence of other pressing duties rendering it impossible for him to devote to it the requisite time. The election of his successor will devolve upon the new Council at an early date. The reproduction, by photolithography, of the ‘‘ Yellow Book of Lecan,”’ having been completed, the work was published during the past year, it being the fifth of the Academy’s facsimiles of the more important Irish Manuscripts. During the past year a large number of Antiquities have been acquired for the Museum. These include many bronze weapons and implements, swords, dagger-blades, celts, etc., and two exceptionally fine specimens of rapiers; also some fibule, rings, pins, and portions of bridle-bits, ete. The Academy has also acquired a collection of upwards of 700 flint objects, including flint knives, some very perfect specimens of a rare form of tanged knife-blades, and a representative collection of flint arrow-heads from the north of Ireland. This is the most important acquisition in this department which the Academy has made for some years. In addition to the foregoing, some fine specimens of querns, and over 200 other stone objects, have been obtained; also two excellent collections of beads, and 9 wooden objects, known as ‘‘ otter traps.” Two additional rooms in the Museum Building will shortly be made available for the display of the Academy’s collections. The western gallery of the large central court has been for some months occupied by Ogam inscribed stones and other large stone objects, which had been at first placed in the Crypt. The Council regret to say that they have not yet had any com- munication from the Government as to the filling of the post of Curator of the Academy’s Museum, which has remained vacant since November last. Major Robert Mac Eniry was appointed Curator of the Academy’s Museum in April, 1872. The entire collection was transferred to the New Science and Art Museum Building under an Agreement between the President and Council of the Royal Irish Academy, and the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, of June, 1890, when Major Mac Eniry became a member of the Civil Service. The Council, at the time, understood that he would rank for pension as an ordinary Civil Servant from the date of his first appointment. Minutes of Proceedings. 249 In November last he was retired by the Science and Art Department without any pension, though with the offer from the Treasury of one half-year’s salary as a gratuity. The Council, remembering Major Mac Eniry’s long and valuable services, petitioned the Treasury, through His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, on this subject, but without effect. The Report was adopted. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. . On the Report of the Scrutineers, the President declared the following elected as President and Council for the ensuing year :— PRESIDENT. Rieut Hon. THe Kart oF Rosse, K.P., LL.D., F.R.S. Councrt. Committee of Science. Edward Perceval Wright, M.p. Francis A. Tarleton, L1.D., D.sc. Benjamin Williamson, D.sc., F.R.s. Joseph P. O’Reilly, o.z. George L. Cathcart, m.a. George Henry Kinahan, c.n. William J. Sollas, D.sc., F.R.S. Robert F. Scharff, B.sc., p.p. Arthur A. Rambaut, m.a., D.sc. Greenwood Pim, m.a. Grenville A. J. Cole, F.a.s. 250 Royal Irish Academy. Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Robert Atkinson, LL.D. Rev. Maxwell H. Close, m.a. Sir John T. Gilbert, tu.p., F.s.a. William Frazer, F.R.¢.s.1. Louis C. Purser, M.A., LITT.D. Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.p. Lord Walter Fitz Gerald. Rey. John Henry Bernard, p.p. John Kells Ingram, 11.p. John Ribton Garstin, M.A., F.s.A. On the Report of the Scrutineers, the President declared the following elected as Honorary Members :— A. Michel Lévy. Albert Von Kolliker. The President, under his hand and seal, nominated and appointed The Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.p., John Kells Ingram, t1.p.," Benjamin Williamson, sc.p., Sir John Gilbert, tx.p., to be Vice-Presidents of the Academy for the year 1897-8. A ballot was opened for the election of Officers. Dr. Browne and Mr. Coffey acted as Scrutineers. The following were declared elected :— TREAsSURER—Rev. M. H. Close, m.a. Srcrerary—Kd. Perceval Wright, m.p. SECRETARY OF THE Councit—Robert Atkinson, LL.D. SEcreTARY oF Forrren CorresponpeNceE—Joseph P. O’Reilly, c.z. Lisrartan—Sir John T. Gilbert, L.p. Asststant SecRETARY-—Robert Macalister, Lx.B. The Academy then adjourned. doval Irish Acadewp. GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNTS. FROM Ist April, 1896, to 21st March, 1897. GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNT OF REV. MAXW RECEIPTS. ROVAEE UR FOR THE YEAR EN Total of each Class. Dulance from last Year, PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS :— General grant in aid, [For Treasure Trove Account see below. ] MEMBERS’ PAYMENTS :— cot S on 1600 0 O Entrance Fees, . . . 63 0 0 Annual Subscriptions, . 273 0 0 Life Membership Compositions, 64 1 0 PUBLICATIONS SOLD :— Transactions and Cunningham Memoirs, 36 17 6 Proceedings, 4 210 Trish Facsimiles, : : 50 15 0 Todd Lectures, and Irish MSS. Series, : 12 4 3 ANNALS OF ULSTER :— Refund by Government, LIS RIG 16 INTEREST ON INVESTMENTS :— Life Composition—2? per Cent. Consol. Stock, 103 @ Cunningham Bequest—2# per Cent. Consol. Stock, 70 10 8 Geological Illustration Fund—2# per Cent. Consol. Stock, 11 le 4 TREASURE T Balance from last year, . Grant 1896-7, Balance from last year, Interest on investments, I certify that the above account is correct, according to the best ADEMY. CLOSE, TREASURER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, or MARCH, 1897. Total of PAYMENTS. each Class. 2 85 Gh & 8 d. For SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY PURPOSES :— Scientific Reports, . . . ae 100 0 0 Library, © 3388 6 4 Trish Scribes, . ee ne OM 0) Printing Preface and Index of ‘Annals of Ulster, . a a 208 9 8 Wome vellowsBook of Iecan; <9 5 0-1 a) 4 a - 98 210 Purchase of Irish Manuscripts, . sy Aa) Printing Transactions and Proceedings and Cunningham Memoirs, .. SS eee es Ce 497 10 3] 1885 16 7 ,» ESTABLISHMENT CHARGES :— Salaries, . . 2 Bey ho G. ides 10) A-Be deal Memeo e (0) 0) Wages and Liveries, 6 PEA emmy: hel 28) EDO ATOR TG Hurmijuneyandwhepairs,) -) i ie sel ls ee 910 9 Fuel and Gas, . Se Sina Ts ESE a) 16 60 10 3 Insurance and Law Expenses, RR eee ee fer s.*% 20 14 6 Stationery, . CN eee ty) Cees acon rete tt! F 10 2 4 Printing (Miscellaneous), Gee ins Mia tae is oe ee Aelee a5 Postage, : at koh cee ily) zi! Freights, Incidentals, and Contingencies, Beret is: 34 18 8 | 786 16 9 », ANNALS OF ULSTER :— Paid on Account of Editing and Printing Vol. iv... .| 11317 6] 11317 6 » INVESTMENTS (CAPITAL) :— “Bought. Description. aoe Life Membership Com: L5G) IS @ positions, -| 57. 5 5| Gov. 2} Stock, |4181 17 11 64 1 0 64 10) Cunningham Fund, | = =] De | Gos [Be © @ Seole cal Illustration LOM eee -- Do. do. 435 7 4 Todd Memorial Fund, a5 15 3 Do. do. |160217 6 Pe alancewOnGmeditye ors tre) Hill fea bel Gee SOS Lente be lara 16 17 0 1617 0 £2317 8 10 JOUNT. fh oh AINA TOIUIES DORM IG SUNG E Sc oo 6 6 oo 6 pl lo ot o “Gule) al EL EGee (O GG, - (eS rcarmCrUnTT Mrs iol) roles 5) 9 18 11 £428 19 11 COUNT. £5 fh oh Purchase of £35 15s. 8d. Government 22 per Cent. Stock, . . . . . . 40 0 O Balance, ee MaRS sin cys Meise Galette) nes, th ROME eet os ee 215 10 £42 15 10 mowledge and belief.—Maxwetui H. Crosz, Treasurer, R.I.A.— [For Auditors’ Report see next page. AUDITORS’ REPORT. We have examined the above General Abstract, and compared the Vouchers for the details of the several heads thereof, and find the same to be correct, leaving a Balance to the credit of the Academy’s General Account of Sixteen Pounds Seventeen Shillings, and to the Treasure Trove Account of Nine Pounds Eighteen Shillings and Eleven Pence, and to the Todd Memorial Account of Two Pounds Fifteen Shillings and Ten Pence, making in all a Balance of Twenty-nine Pounds Eleven Shillings and Nine Pence. The Treasurer has also exhibited to us Certificates in respect of the invested Capital, showing that the amounts of Stock standing in the name of the Academy were Two Thousand Six Hundred and Fifty-three Pounds Nine Shillings and Nine Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account A, being the Capital of the ‘‘ Cunningham Fund’’; Four Thousand One Hundred and Fighty-one Pounds Seventeen Shillings and Eleven Pence, 2$ per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account B, being Capital derived from Life Compositions; and Four Hundred and Thirty-five Pounds Seven Shillings and Four Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account C, being the Capital of the Geo- logical Illustration Fund. Like Certificates have been exhibited to us showing a sum of One Thousand Two Hundred and Nine Pounds Eighteen Shillings and Four Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, in the Court of Chan- cery, and asum of Three Hundred and Ninety-two Pounds Nineteen Shillings and Two Pence, 2? per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, standing in the names of Trustees, which together form the Invested Capital of the “Todd Memorial Fund.”’ W. REYNELL, Signed (Signed), HENRY KING, Auditors. 10th May, 1897. Minutes of Proceedings. 251 Monpay, Aprit 12, 1897. Sire Jonn T. Giipert, Lu.p., a Vice-President, in the Chair. George Bryers, Rev. Michael P. Hickey, and Edward Parnall Culverwell, m.a., F.1.c.p., were elected Members of the Academy. Professor O’ Reilly, c.z., read a Paper ‘‘ On the constitution of the ‘Calp’ Shale of the neighbourhood of Dublin.” The Secretary read for Margaret Stokes, Hon. u.z.1.4., 2 Paper ‘‘On some typical examples of the High Crosses of Ireland.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Read the following letters :— ‘¢ Wtrzpure, the 20th March, 1897. ‘To the Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy. | ‘¢ Str, ‘“Your Academy has done me the great honour to elect me as an Honorary Member in the Department of Science. ‘‘T take the liberty to ask you to present to the Academy my warmest thanks for this election, and to add at the same time, that ] I shall always be proud to range amongst the Members of your distinguished scientific Corporation. “‘T am, dear sir, “‘ Your most obedient servant, «¢Pror, ALBERT VON K6LLIKER.”’ ‘¢ Parts, le 22 Mars, 1897. ‘¢ MonsrEuR, ‘Vous avez bien voulu me faire part de ma nomination comme membre honoraire de la Royal Irish Academy, Section des Sciences. ‘Je suis profondément flatté et honoré de cette marque d’estime R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1897-98. [24] 252 Royal Irish Academy. pour mes travaux et je vous prie de bien vouloir étre, auprés de vos collégues, l’interpréte de mes sentiments de profonde gratitude. ‘¢ Veuillez agréer, Monsieur, l’expression de mes sentiments de haute consideration et de dévouement. “A. Micuet Lévy, “¢ Uembre de Institut.’ Monpay, Aprit 26, 1897. Pror. J. P. O’RErtty, c.F., in the Chair. Mr. Edmond Johnson and Mr. George Bryers signed the Roll, and were admitted Members of the Academy. The Secretary read a Paper by Mr. R. J. Ussher, ‘‘ On a discovery of Human and other Remains, with materials similar to those of a Crannog, high above the present valley of the Blackwater, between Tismore Castle and Cathedral.” Dr. C. R. Browne read a Paper by himself and Prof. Cunningham, ‘(On some Human Remains lately discovered in Lismore by Mr. Ussher.” The Secretary read for Mr. Ralph Cusack the following Papers :— (1) ‘‘On Human Locomotion—Variety of Velocity when walking” ; (2) ‘On the effect of change in temperature on Phosphorescent Substances.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, May 10, 1897. Sire JoHn GrBert, LL.D., a Vice-President, in the Chair. Edwin William Lovegrove, u.a., was elected a Member of the Academy. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. The Treasurer laid on the table the Accounts for 1896-7 as audited; also the Estimate of Income and Expenditure for 1897-8. Minutes of Proceedings. 2593 Monpay, May 24, 1897. Sm Jonn GiBert, LL.p., a Vice-President, in the Chair. Mr. Thomas Preston, m.a., signed the Roll and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Mr. T. J. Westropp, m.a., read a Paper on ‘‘ The distribution of Cromlechs in the County of Clare.” Dr. Frazer exhibited a Silver Cup lent for Exhibition by Mr. Waterhouse. Mr. Coffey exhibited a Spear found near Enniskillen by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, m-R.1.a. The following Science Grants, recommended by the Council, were sanctioned by the Academy :— £100 to a Committee consisting of Lord Rosse, Dr. G. F. Fitz Gerald, and Mr. E. Cullum, to assist them in carrying on the Magnetical Observatory at Valentia. £35 to a Committee consisting of Rev. Dr. 8. Haughton, Dr. D. J. Cunninghan, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and Dr. Charles R. Browne, to assist them in carrying on the work of the Anthropometrical Labora- tory, Trinity College, Dublin, and the Ethnographical Survey of Treland. £12 to Mr. Henry Dixon, to assist him in carrying on his investi- gations of the Physics of the Transpiration Current, and the Problem of the Ascent of Sap in High Trees. | £6 to a Committee consisting of Dr. E. P. Wright, Messrs. F. W. Moore, and D. M‘Ardle, to assist them in the investigation of the Irish Hepatice. £35 to a Committee consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff, Messrs. G. H. Carpenter, A. R. Nichols, G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, R. J. Ussher, R. Lloyd Praeger, and H. Lyster Jameson, to assist them in continuing their researches into the Fauna of Ireland. £12 to Mr. Thomas Plunkett to assist him in exploring a large Cairn a short distance from Enniskillen. The Treasurer, in accordance with By-law 3, Chapter III., read a List of Members in arrear. Donations to the Library were announced and thanks were voted to the Donors. [24*] 254 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, June 14, 1897. Most Rev. Dr. Donnetty, Lorp Bisnop or Canna, a Vice-President, in the Chair. Thomas Frederick Cooke Trench, p.t., was elected a Member of the Academy. Sir John Gilbert, tu.p., read a Paper, ‘‘ Notes on Irish Biblio- graphy—Notices on Publications by Irish Authors, or in connexion with Ireland, printed in the 17th Century.” Dr. C. R. Browne read a Report by himself, Mr. G. Coffey and Mr. T. J. Westropp, ‘‘ On a prehistoric burial near Newcastle, county Wicklow.” Dr. Frazer exhibited a silver chalice from Carrickmacross Church, by permission of Rey. B. W. Moffett. Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. On the motion of Mr. John Ribton Garstin, p.., seconded by Mr. F. Elrington Ball, it was resolved :—‘‘ That an address of Congratula- tion to Her Majesty the Queen, Patron of the Academy, on the completion of the Sixtieth Year of Her Reign, be drawn up by the Officers of this Academy for adoption by the Academy.” The following draft was accordingly submitted :— To Her Most Gractous Masesty Queen Vicrorra. May 17 presse Your Maszsty, We, the President and Members of the Royal Irish Academy, beg to offer to Your Majesty our most Loyal and Hearty Congratu- - lations on the completion of the Sixtieth Year of Your Reign. Since His Majesty George III. founded our Academy in 1786, each Reigning Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland has been our Patron. Established in the Kingdom of Ireland for the study of Science, Polite literature, and Antiquities, we and our predecessors have Minutes of Proceedings. 205 now, for over a Century, devoted ourselves to this task, and we are gratified to know that the published Records of our Labours are in Your Majesty’s Library at Windsor. We tender to Your Majesty the assurance of our Loyal Devotion, and we pray that You may be long spared to occupy the Throne of these Realms. Signed on behalf of the Royal Irish Academy, Rossr, President. EK. Percevan Wrieut, M.D., Secretary. Acaprmy Hovsz, Dawson Street, Dustin, June 14th, 1897. On the motion of Master Pigot, seconded by Dr. Frazer, it was — resolved :—‘‘ That the Address to Her Majesty the Queen, just read, be adopted, and that the President and Secretary of the Academy (accompanied by the Mace) do present the same, on behalf of the Academy, at whatever time and place shall be appointed.” Monpay, June 28, 1897. Siz Joun GitBerv, iu.p., a Vice-President, in the Chair. The Very Rev. Hugh O’Reilly signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. John Joly, sc.p., F.R.s., was elected a Member of the Academy. Mr. C. J. Joly, m.a., F.7.c.., read a Paper ‘‘On the Associative Algebra applicable to Hyper-Space.” Dr. C. R. Browne read a ‘‘ Report on the Ethnography of Clare Island and Innishturk, Co. Mayo.’ Mr. G. Coffey, a.1.B., read a ‘‘Note on a recently discovered ‘Ship-marking’ at Dowth.” 206 Royal Irish Academy. Donations to the Museum and Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Read letter from the Secretaries of the International Congress of Orientalists, inviting the Academy to be represented by a Delegate. It was resolved :— ‘‘That the invitation of the International Congress of Orientalists to attend the meeting to be held in Paris between the 5th and 12th of September, be accepted, and that Professor R. Atkinson, 1u.p., be appointed as the Academy’s Delegate, and that this appointment be made under the Seal of the Academy.” Monpay, Novemser 8, 1897. Dr. J. K. Iyeram, s.¥.1.c.D., a Vice-President, in the Chair. Mr. Thomas Frederick Cooke-Trench, p.u., signed the Roll, and was admitted a Member of the Academy. The Secretary read a letter from the President (The Earl of Rosse, K.P.), stating that he, accompanied by Lord Powerscourt and Mr. John Ribton Garstin, had presented to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, on behalf of the Queen, the Academy’s Address to Her Majesty on the completion of the sixtieth year of Her reign, and that His Royal Highness had handed him the following reply :— ‘“‘On behalf of the Queen, my dear mother, I thank you for your loyal and dutiful Address, and for the affectionate congratulations which you tender on the completion of the 60th year of Her reign. ‘“‘Tt is a source of profound joy to the Queen to receive the expressions of devotion to Her Person and Family, which are offered by Her subjects throughout the Empire; she is gladdened by the thought that the sixty years of Her reign have been years of progress in knowledge and of increase in prosperity ; and she prays that, by the blessing of Almighty GOD, she may always live in the hearts of Her loving and beloved people.” Minutes of Proceedings. 257 The death of the Rey. Dr. Haughton was announced, whereupon Dr. F. A. Tarleton, F.1.c.p., moved, and the Earl of Belmore, G.C.M.G., seconded :— ‘That the Academy hereby places on record its deep sense of the great loss which it and Science have sustained by the death on the 81st of October last, of the Rev. Samuel Haughton, m.p., t1.p., p.c.z. ‘“‘Hlected a Member of the Academy fifty-three years ago, Dr. Haughton was, in 1848, awarded a Cunningham Medal for a Memoir “On the Equilibrium and Motion of solid and fluid Bodies.’ ‘¢ He served for over thirty years on the Council, and was elected President in 1886. ; ‘‘ The Academy tenders to the Members of his family its sincerest sympathy in their bereavement.” It was resolved that, ‘‘ Sir Robert Ball’s Paper ‘On the Theory of Screws,’ be taken as read, and that the Academy as a mark of respect to the memory of the late Rev. Dr. Haughton, do now adjourn.” Turspay, NovemBer 30, 1897. (Stared Mezrrre.) Rr. Hon. Tue Eart or Rosse, K.P., F.R.s., President, in the Chair. The Secretary read a letter from Sir William Kaye expressing the regret of His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant that, in consequence of urgent official business, he found himself unable to be present at the Meeting. Rev. J. E. H. Murphy, m.a., Rev. S. Hemphill, p.p., and Rev. J. P. Mahaffy, p.p., r.r.c.p., signed the Roll, and were admitted Members of the Academy. The President then delivered his Address :— In accordance with the custom which prevails in the Royal Trish Academy, that the President should at some time during his term of office deliver an Address, I have put together a few observa- tions which seem to be appropriate to the present occasion. 258 Royal Trish Academy. This year may, I think, be considered to have been an eventful one for the Academy; not because of its being the sixtieth year of Her Majesty’s reign, in which they felt it to be their duty, in common with other Bodies of Her subjects, to adopt an address of congratula- tion, which I, in conjunction with Mr. Garstin and Lord Powerscourt, presented to the Prince of Wales, on behalf of the Queen, but rather because the Academy’s rich collection of Irish Antiquities has passed under the care of a new keeper, after too long an interval since the retirement of Major M‘Eniry, who had grown old in the service, and had for some time past been indisposed. It is to be hoped that the arrears of work, which are by this time very large, will now be gradually overtaken, and that in the future the collection, properly accommodated, may be put into such a condi- tion for the instruction of those who have made archeology their special study, and for examination by the general public, as its importance demands. It is to be hoped, also, that there will always be an adequate staff for the proper arrangement and classification of such objects as are continually coming to hand for addition to the col- lection. This collection, being unique and of great interest not only to persons from various parts of Ireland, but also to visitors to Dublin, and to Celtic scholars from various parts of the world, deserves to have full justice done to it in the National Museum. It is satisfactory to find that the field for work on Irish Antiquities is by no means exhausted, and that there is still a hope of unveiling some of the mysteries in which the remote periods of ancient Irish history are involved, and into which many of us much desire to penetrate. In the late president’s address, in 1892, I notice the statement that ‘“‘only sixteen out of seventy-six ronnd towers were illustrated by Lord Dunraven, and about twenty out of a very large number of sculptured crosses by O’Neill. Though much progress may have since been made, yet here there may still be an abundant field for the industrious photographer. Should not all these structures as well as those ancient Irish churches and buildings which have not been properly photographed be taken and printed by some ‘‘ permanent”’ process ? Last summer a movement was started in London by Sir Benjamiu Stone, u.p. for East Birmingham, an enthusiastic photographer, in Minutes of Proceedings. 259 this direction, and an association was formed under the name of the ‘‘ National Photographic Record Association.” It is proposed that ‘¢permanent”’ prints of all objects of interest, especially those whieh are likely to be swept away by the advance of our manufacturing and commercial civilization—if I may use the expression—shall be stored up in some suitable place. I attended the first meeting, when the association was duly formed, as the representative of an English body, but I was informed that it was not proposed to limit the movement to England, and I was asked to consider myself as representing Ireland, and particularly this Academy. Though we are not likely to be affected in the same way by the results of a large increase _ of population and of commercial activity, still there may be cases where the ‘‘ permanent” paper print may survive the object which it portrays. If papyri survive, and can be more or less read after having been in a position of neglect for 2000 years, should not these photo- graphs be equally enduring in proper and safe keeping? The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland have already made a considerable collection of permanent photographs of our Irish antiquities which it strikes me is not as well known as it deserves. There is reason to believe that, notwithstanding all efforts to make known the readiness to receive articles of antiquarian interest for the Academy Museum, and to give full value for anything of interest which may be found, this information fails to reach all those who may be fortunate in their finds, and I think that we should seek to spread more widely the laws and regulations about Treasure Trove. I would also wish that there were more of the true spirit of patriotism among our collectors; for then the last wondrous find of gold ornaments in the north of Ireland would probably have added to the glories of our collection, and not have found its resting- place among the riches of the Antiquarian Department of our British Museum. While in the department of Irish antiquities the Royal Irish Academy holds a field which it can well call its own, in science more cosmopolitan considerations much affect it. Science is now widely diffused, and the workers in every line are so numerous, that naturally the earliest opportunity is taken to put before the world all new facts and discoveries. There is a hot rivalry in pushing forward each step between individuals, institutions, communities, and countries ; also the 260 Royal Lrish Academy. accumulations of communications is so great that many are easily overlooked, and the periodicals which have the widest circulation and possess the highest standard of reputation are often selected in preference to the publications of a local society. Still, notwithstanding the facilities for travelling to a great scien- tific centre, and the rapid communication through the post, which yearly becomes more marked, there is yet room for much profitable work and discussion on the spot, and the free and rapid interchange of ideas face to face and in a university town, in the metropolis of this island, where there is much literary and scientific activity seems likely long to hold its own as an effective means for the advancement of knowledge. One of the difficulties under which a scientific society labours is the want of a continuous supply of communications of adequate inte- rest for reading and discussion at its meetings. If there be too much to get through within the time available at one meeting there will be too little at others, and the temptation is strong to send in work rather to supply the deficiency and to fill up the hour or hour and a half than because, in the opinion of the author and others a communi- cation is of sufficient interest to bring forward. It occurs to me that the desired material might often be supplied, as has been done elsewhere, by verbal communications of recent work which has been already published, which can be afterwards discussed by those present, and further information asked from the communicator as desired. From the recently published ‘‘ Record of the Royal Society of London,” it appears that in the early days of that distinguished body ‘«Papers were read then, as now; but the reading of Papers formed only a part and by no means a great part of the business of the meeting. Much time was spent in discussing the bearings of such experiments as were shown, and in devising other experiments to be shown at some subsequent meeting, or in instituting investigations to be carried out in divers places and under various circumstances.” Now whatever this may mean, there can be little doubt that many things must have been gone into which were not entirely new, which, though very recent, may have seen the light before. These meetings seem to have been something intermediate between those intended solely for the reading of original Papers and the formal lecture, Minutes of Proceedings. 261 generally partaking more or less of a popular character as intended for a larger and more mixed audience, such as that at the Friday evenings of the Royal Institution in London or the afternoon lectures of the Royal Dublin Society. At the evening meetings of the Royal Dublin Society in recent years, abstracts of Papers in current periodicals have sometimes been given and experiments shown, I think, with advantage, and have, I believe, given increased interest to the meetings. I commend these facts to the consideration of the Royal Irish Academy. Probably no body has suffered more from competition than the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which meets only once a year. People cannot wait so long for the bringing out of their results. But the loss of original work has, I think, been in great measure compensated for by bringing forward again communications, already published, for discussion before a larger audience in one of the sections, or even before the united audiences of two sections. Perhaps it may not be out of place for me to interpose here a few remarks on the position of various archeological, literary, and scien- tific societies in Ireland. One cannot but feel that with our small population relatively to that of other places, and the greater part of that small population of that class which, engaged in agricultural pursuits, far removed from contact with literary or scientific circles, and taking little interest in the advance of knowledge outside of its own immediate requirements, we may very easily spread our efforts among too many societies and too many small meetings. It is one thing to classify our work, so that Papers in each line, or in cognate lines of research, may be col- lected together for reading before, and discussion by, an audience specially competent to discuss those subjects. It is another to include Papers dealing with a wide range of questions, and read them before a very mixed scientific audience, few of those present being qualified to discuss each effectively. You are aware that there are other antiquarian Societies in Ireland working in their respective spheres and localities, but the Academy is on friendly terms with them, and gives them all the assistance in its power, and they are probably able to cover ground in their respective neighbourhoods in a way that the Academy is not 262 Royal Irish Academy. so well able to do. It may, however be open to question whether, some of the work might not be more effectually done by greater con- centration of effort. I leave this matter to those members who have specially pursued their studies in this direction, and pass on to the scientific side. It so happens that I am in the unique position of having been elected in turn to the office of President of each of the two leading scientific Societies in Ireland. Very many are members of both the Royal Irish Academy and the Royal Dublin Society, and are therefore in a good position to look upon both sides of a question which has become more or less of a controversy, from the necessity of authors. selecting one or the other body before which to read their communi- cations. But as President I have had the matter thrust more promi- nently before me on both sides and in all its bearings. One cannot but be struck by the fact that, in so small a community as Dublin—for persons living in the country share very little in the work of its scientific Societies—there should be two institutions over- lapping so much of one another’s field of work. The Royal Dublin Society, established as it was more for the applications of science to the Arts and Industries, has more concern with, and is more widely known by its connexion with, what is now and is ever likely to be in the future by far the largest industry in Ireland—I mean that of Agriculture. Still it has its scientific side, the popular or lecture department and the sections for the reading and discussion of Papers, for demonstrations of an informal character and abstracts of recent Papers. These communications are in some cases of a practical character, on the application of scientific principles to practical and commercial questions; but others are on matters of abstract science, and so cover some of the ground which is embraced by the Academy. On the side of the Academy it is said that here is the proper and legitimate place for the discussion of abstract and theoretical ques- tions. On the side of the Dublin Society, attention is drawn to the fact that they have had in the past and at least equally so in their present Lecture Theatre facilities for illustration and experiment which we do not yet possess; also that the interest of a considerable sum of money is available to defray the cost of the publication of such of the papers read at their meetings as may be suitable. The Minutes of Proceedings. 263 appliances, however, needed for illustrations can, most of them, be easily supplied. In these days most societies have their lime-light lantern, and even an electric lantern can be worked with facility from a town supply, and a gas supply for chemical and physical experiments can easily be brought to the table. However, it seems likely that the two Societies will still co-exist as scientific institutions. It is not always easy to set right the errors and oversights of our forefathers; but cannot there be some more concert in their efforts with a view to more effective work ? It appears to me that more might be done in this Academy to keep the antiquarian and the scientific side distinct. Two separate series are now in some cases brought out; but could not more be done to have antiquarian evenings and scientific evenings, though the convenience of authors might still be carefully con- sulted. In a society where a large range of subjects is treated of, there cannot be a general interest. Where Physics and Physiology may be discussed, the physicists or the physiologists, as the case may be, are unable to follow, fall asleep, or go away; and the case may be even stronger where so distinct matters as Antiquities and Natural Science are intermingled, though, nevertheless, here there appears generally to be a fair attendance. Again, a country member recently drew attention to the inconve- nience arising from the meetings of the Academy and the Dublin Society being on different days. He would like to attend the Academy in the afternoon and the Dublin Society in the evening. As a country member I have much sympathy with his view. Haying been on the Council of the Academy for several years, I would beg leave further to remark on the inconvenience of the meetings of Council and of the Academy taking place on different days. In the Physical Society of London the Council and the Society meet once a fortnight on the same day ; and the Astronomical Society has its monthly councils and general meetings on the same day, and its country members take a large part in its proceedings. On the Antiquarian side, it may be worthy of remark that the preparation for the press of the ‘‘ Annals of Ulster,’’ entrusted to the Academy by the Government, who also provide funds for the purpose, is making satisfactory progress, though slower than had been antici- pated. The Academy will be further glad to know that Miss Stokes 264 Royal Trish Acadeniy. is engaged upon an interesting work on Irish High Crosses, which is intended for a monograph to be published by the Academy. It is probable, however, that some time will elapse before it will be ready. In the department of Science we may notice the second expedi- tion to Rockall, the cost of which was partly defrayed from the funds. at the disposal of the Academy, and which was organized and taken part in by some of its members. They had a vessel placed at their disposal by the Government for the purpose. It is to be regretted that, though the expedition succeeded in collecting a good deal of in- formation relative to the island, the state of the weather did not allow them to effect a landing during the several days that the vessel lay off it. The chances of this being possible on a future occasion do not seem very great. Early in this year my attention was called to a probability that the Magnetical Observatory at Valentia, or rather Caherciveen, might have to be closed. The Academy has at various times voted sums towards this Observatory : the temporary building was erected by them, but the instruments were lent for a time by Trinity College, and the obser- vations have been made gratis by the Observer of the Meteorological Council. This arrangement obviously lacks the permanent character which the importance of the geographical situation should command. With the view of placing the Observatory on a more permanent footing, it is proposed to purchase instruments to replace those now on loan—£100 to £120 will be required for this—and to raise such a sum as will furnish £25 per annum as a salary for the Observer. It is only the fortunate circumstance of there being on the spot a meteoro- logical establishment under an intelligent and competent head that renders such a scheme possible for so moderate an outlay. One would think that the capital sum required to provide a permanent endowment of £25 per annum—say £900—should be easily raised in Ireland : that Ireland might say, Let us do our share of the world’s work in terres- trial magnetism, by keeping so commanding a station as that of the Valentia Observatory in an efficient state. Though contributions come in but slowly, I feel confident that somehow or other the required funds will be found.’ The Academy, as a body, has already recog- 1 Subscriptions will be gladly received by Professor Fitz Gerald, F.R.s., or myself, towards this object. Minutes of Proceedings. 265: nized the importance of the object by a substantial vote towards it. From Dublin, in the past, I may remind you, important contribu- tions to our knowledge of the subject have come through the labours: of the late Provost Humphrey Lloyd, a former President of the Academy, who established the Observatory in the Fellows’ Garden of Trinity College, in which work was carried on until its continuance appears to have been considered scarcely necessary. The Dublin. Station is obviously far inferior in importance to that at Valentia. In vol. 1, p. 221, of the third series of our Proceedings will be found a short account of the present temporary observatory, and of the instru- ments at present in it, by Professor Fitz Gerald of Trinity College. Although notice has already been taken by the Academy of the recent death of one of its former presidents, the late Dr. Haughton, I cannot refrain from some allusion to the great loss which we have sustained by his death. Having begun life with a most distinguished university career, followed by the unusual, if not unprecedented, feat of obtaining a Fellowship in Trinity College only a few months after his Bachelor’s degree ; he continued to work hard all his life at an extended and extending range of subjects. He was a frequent contri- butor to the publications of the Academy and to other Journals. He formed, perhaps, the only remaining link with the past, when M‘Cullagh, Robinson, Lloyd, and others contributed so much to the work and life of what has been looked on as a brilliant era of the Academy. His Papers in all were very numerous (the number of entries in the Royal Society Catalogue of scientific papers, from 1846 to 1882, is 173), and he worked on steadily almost to the end. As Professor of Geology in Trinity College he had his thoughts particularly directed to that subject, and his Geological Papers are very numerous. He also wrote on the theory of the tides, the crust of the Earth, the wave theory of light, and animal mechanics. In 1862 he took out the degree of M.D. in Trinity College, and was appointed Registrar of the Medical School. He devoted his usual energy to the reorganization of the School, and during the visitation of cholera about that time was active in promoting reforms in the Dublin hospitals. He wrote also for a time on medical subjects in various publications. He brought out, as you know, a Manual of Geology, also some other educational works in conjunction with the late Professor Galbraith. He received the honorary degrees of D.C.L. from Oxford, 266 Royal Irish Academy. LL.D. from Cambridge, LL.D. from Edinburgh, and M.D. from Bologna. He was for twenty years Secretary of the Zoological Society of Ireland, and did much by his energy and tact to bring the Society into its present state of comparative prosperity. He had been a member of this Academy since 1845, had been on the Council for many years, and was President from 1886 to 1891. He received the Cunningham Medal for his Memoir on the ‘‘ Equilibrium and Motion of Solid and Fluid Bodies.”” He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1858. His energy appears to have remained with him almost to the last, and quite recently on our Council, he took an active interest in the proceedings. He was looked on by all who had the advantage of his acquaintance as a most pleasant and genial friend. One cannot but be struck with the wide range of the branches of Science treated of in our Proceedings and Transactions, embracing nearly all branches of Natural knowledge, and it would be out of place here to give more than a cursory glance at them. In fact, the recent numbers include Astronomy, Chemistry and Molecular Physics, Geology, Paleontology, Mathematics, Physics, Physiology and Biology. Still the total amount of matter, though as much as might be ex- pected under the circumstances, is comparatively small. In Astronomy we are much hampered by our climate. In com- mon, more or less, with observers in other parts of the British Isles, we are often disheartened by the cloudiness of the sky, and, above all, by the uncertainty of the weather, so that effective work is altogether incompatible with any other fixed occupation. We have not the immense extent of country and variety of climate, nor the far greater range of elevation possessed by our friends on the continent of America, where, through the expenditure of large sums of money upon instruments superior to anything of their kind hitherto existing, and specially suited for the purpose, the two satellites of Mars and the fifth of Jupiter have been for the first time detected ; but the quality of recent photographic work on astronomical objects from European observatories—from England, France, and Germany— in recent years, shows that there is still room for successful rivalry in the Old World. In recent years the Academy has, I think, done its part in bringing out astronomical work. I might particularise Dr. Dreyer’s Minutes of Proceedings. 267 supplementary catalogue of Nebule, and the catalogue of Red Stars, edited by Mr. Espin, and the work of Mr. Birmingham, of Tuam, who suddenly came from his retirement in the co. Galway, and became celebrated as the discoverer of the variable star, 7. corone, which was the first object of the kind that was brought under the examination of the spectroscope. Both these Papers appear, for the present, to cover all that is worth recording in their respective subjects. I should not omit to make mention here of the International conference on a catalogue of scientific literature, which by means of index slips of all scientific papers, is preparing the way for a great international catalogue of scientific work. The conference was held last year in the rooms of the Royal Society of London. A London committee has been appointed, and your secretary, Dr. Wright, and Dr. Tarleton, ¥.1.c.p., have been asked to represent Ireland upon it. In Chemistry and Physics we are at a disadvantage as compared with English Societies. We have not with us the manufacturer, ever looking to the theoretical worker for the improvement of the processes employed in his works, and the theoretical worker on the other hand stimulated in his researches by the prospect of combining profit from patents and from practical advice to the manufacturer, with the steady acquirement of ‘‘ Natural knowledge” in the comprehensive words of the title of the Royal Society of London. The progressive manufacturer is often in a position to give important aid to philo- sophical inquiry. But in the presence of large Medical Schools in Dublin, the place to which more than four millions of people look for relief from the ills to which flesh is heir, when local assistance has failed, we should have a very considerable stimulus to philosophic inquiry. Physics, Chemistry, and Physiology go hand in hand with medical practice, and perhaps the most striking examples in modern times which may be cited, of the assistance which philosophic inquiry has given to practical medicine, are, first, the steady work of many physicists on the electric discharge in vacuo, especially of Sir William Crookes, their labours seeming to show nothing beyond a purely scientific interest, until a foreign worker, Professor Rontgen, put the last small stone in the edifice, and brought to light the pos- sibility, even the great probability, on the electric discharge in R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1897—’98. [25] 268 Royal Irish Academy. vacuo becoming one of the daily implements of the surgeon. And to go just a little further back, have not the labours on another and essential part of the apparatus, the induction coil, the work of Ruhmkorff, Ladd, Apps, and many others, or we might even go so far back as that distinguished countryman of ours, the late Dr. Callan, of Maynooth College, which have gradually vastly improved that instru- ment, contributed to this result; and are we not aided much by the labours of Planté and others, who have transformed an interesting instrument, the secondary cell, into a practical commercial instrument ready at a moment’s notice to provide the needed electrical energy ? Again, have not the theoretical labours of physiologists opened up a new method of treatment which has been called preventive medicine? For many years their philosophic labours had been pursued, and no practical result was apparent until Pasteur showed in a way which seems to have convinced all leading physiologists that these inquiries admitted of practical applications. Philosophical inquiry and applied science go hand in hand, and feel that they may be working one for the other. The Oxford University Observatory was largely assisted in its foundation by the late Mr. De la Rue, who devoted much of his leisure in the intervals of business to the cause of science. The late Mr. Gassiott, also a busy man in the commercial world, on the discontinuance of the annual grant from the British Association, came forward and permanently endowed the magnetical work of Kew Observatory, and, more recently, the Davy-Faraday research laboratory has been founded and attached to the Royal Institution, being housed, furnished, and equipped for work through the munificence of a gentleman (Dr. Mond) who was in a position to do so through the successful application of the principles of chemistry to a chemical manufacture. Such instances might be multiplied; but in most parts. of Ireland we have one art and industry only—that of agriculture. Will it always be so? May we not look for some measure of success from the efforts of those who are doing their best to find some means for establishing Arts and Industries in Ireland? Progress in such a direction must necessarily be slow; but should some of the manu- facturing life and energy which exists in many districts of England, and in a measure in some parts of Ulster, spread to other parts of this island, may we not look forward to the retention at home of some Minutes of Proceedings. 269 of that energy, which, not taking to agriculture, now finds more congenial spheres of work in other parts of the world, and to this energy reacting and giving fresh life to our scientific societies. May we not look forward to the more extended use of the National Museum of Art well arranged and classified as an aid in a revived art industry. In conclusion, let me thank you for the honour which you have done me in electing me to the distinguished position of President of your Academy. I feel that I must ascribe it rather to the fact that it is my earnest desire, by the promotion of science, to contribute to the progress in prosperity and happiness and_varied interests of the people of this island, than from any sufficient claims to have contributed sub- stantially to that progress, that I have received that mark of your favour. I only regret that the distance of my home from Dublin and other circumstances beyond my own control have prevented me from giving that attendance at your meetings which may be reasonably expected of the holder of the office. A vote of thanks to the President for his Address was moved by the Rev. Dr. Mahatfy, seconded by Judge Kane, and carried by acclamation. Read the following letter :— ‘(12, Norruproox-roap, November 15, 1897. ‘To THE SECRETARY, “¢ Royan Trish AcaDEmMy, ‘¢ Dear FRrenp, ‘We desire you to convey to the President and Members of the Royal Irish Academy our sincere gratitude for their warm appre- ciation of the value of the Rev. Dr. Haughton’s life-work in the Academy, and their grief for his loss expressed in their Resolution of the 8th instant. “The kind sympathy expressed towards ourselves has touched us very deeply, for well we know how he prized his companions there, and how true was his love for the Royal Irish Academy. ‘It was there he received his earliest Honor, and there in his — [25*] 270 Royal Irish Academy. later years was elected its genial President, and though a lifetime stretched between, it was one of earnest effort and faithful attachment to his beloved Academy. ‘¢ Yours in grateful remembrance, ‘¢TsaBEL HAvGHTon, ‘ Wittram §. Haveuton.”’ Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Monpay, December 13, 1897. Mosr Rey. Dr. Donnetty, Lord Bishop of Canea, a Vice-President, in the Chair. Rev. Michael P. Hickey signed the Roll and was admitted a Member of the Academy. Rev. T. Olden, m.a., read ‘‘ Some Notes Supplementary to Dr. Joyce’s Paper ‘On the occurrence of the Number Two in Irish Proper Names.’ ” Rey. Dr. Mahaffy, F.1.c.p., read a Paper ‘‘On Papyri, recently discovered in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.”’ The Secretary read for Mr. H. T. Knox, ‘“ Notes on the Chrono- logy of St. Patrick.” On the motion of Sir John Gilbert, t1.p., seconded by Ven. A. Tait, p.p., 11.p., Dr. Frazer was elected a Representative of the Academy on the Board of Visitors of the Science and Art Museum, &c., Dublin, in the room of the late Rev. Samuel Haughton, up, 8.F.T.C.D. Monpay, January 10, 1898. Dr. J. K. Ineram, s.F.1.c.p., a Vice-President, in the Chair. Mr. Edwin Lovegrove, m.a., and Professor J. Joly, M.A., F.RB.S., signed the Roll, and were admitted Members of the Academy. The Rey. Thomas Mills, m.a., was elected a Member of the Academy. Minutes of Proceedings. 271 Dr. H. H. Dixon read a Paper on ‘“‘ Effects of various Gases on Transpiration of Plants,” and on ‘“ Transpiration into a Saturated Atmosphere.” Mr. F. W. Moore read a Report by Mr. D. M‘Ardle, ‘‘On the Musci and Hepaticae of the County Cavan.”’ Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited some specimens of a Cyclamen from Tunis, and a map showing the distribution of the known species of the genus, and read the following note :— On the 18th April, 1895, Mr. G. Cathcart and I found ourselves at Constantine, having journeyed eastwards from Oran. We were a day’s journey from Tunis, two days’ from Algiers; there was a choice of a steamer from either port to Marseilles; we determined to take the one from Tunis. Spending a day at Hammam Meskoutine, to see the Boiling Springs and the Calcareous Cascades, we left it on the morning of the 19th April for Tunis. The railway crosses over a spur of the Atlas Range, the Mountains of Medjerdah, and then descends to sea- level at the town of Tunis. A great portion of this mountain is forest, and little is known about its flora. The steamer was not to leave the port until the 22nd. The 20th was devoted to a visit to Carthage ; it was a showery, blustery day, cold for the time of year, but earlier the spring had been fine, and the first spring flowers were over. I had been at Tunis in January, 1870, and the difference between the aspect of the country around the lake as then and now was very great. In 1870 the Port was some seven miles from the town; the route thereto was a mere track along the margin of the lake; immense flocks of birds, the most conspicuous of which were flamingoes, quite thronged the sea margin ; now the new canal, cut through the lake, enabled the steamers to come almost to the walls of the city. The birds, moreover, have deserted the place, and during the whole day I saw only a few plover and dotterel. Though there is a railway to Marsa, with a station at Carthage, we went by the new and excellent road. This road runs near the margin of the lake, bordered by land in culti- vation, being for some miles but little above sea level. It is swampy, and immense patches of that strange wandering plant, Cotula coronopi- folius, were growing most luxuriously, seemingly preferring brackish water, and were well in fruit. The day following was bright and warm; we tuok the train to Hammam el Enf, a village on the Gulf of 272 Royal Irish Academy. Tunis, with a north-east aspect. It is situated at the foot of Djebel Bou Kournein, a hill rising from the sea, and attaining a height of 589 metres. Its slope promised to give a good notion of the plants of the district, while a fine view of the surrounding country could be had from the summit. A mule-path was found mounting by many a zig- zag from the village to the top; the slopes were not very steep; and the greater portion was covered with herbage. The ground was in many places deeply scored by water courses, the result of heavy rains, which left large blocks of stone exposed. The most striking plants were shrubs of Pistacra lentiscus, Cistus incanus, Myrtus communis, Erica arborea, Jasminum fruticans, Rosa canina, while Melilotus Indica, Psoralea bituminosa—this latter quite a handsome plant—were inter- mingled. Carpeting the surface between all these were Zhymus capitatus, Hedysarum Spinossissima and Tordylium apulium, the two latter very striking from their fine fruits. About the summit of the first knoll, colonies of Cynomorium coccineum gave a pink tinge to the ground. But the most remarkable find was about half way towards the summit, where some lovely plants of Cyclaminus Persica Mill (C. lati- folium Sibth. & Sm., C. Punicum Doum.), were found growing in shady nooks. The flowers were pink, with a darkcr zone at the throat of the corolla. Some were almost pure white ; the leaves were as fresh as the flowers. The first specimen trowelled up showed the flower stalks straight, not rolled, and there could be no doubt that the specimens were those of the Persian Cyclamen. The flowers were delicately perfumed. I do not think that it would be possible to con- found this species with Cy. Africana Boiss., which I had collected when in Algiers in 1870. This latter is an autumn flowering form (October-January), the flowers appearing before the leaves. Thinking that I had found an addition to the flora of North Africa, I took some specimens for the Trinity College Herbarium; but on my return I found the record of Cy. Punicum Pomel (Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 1889, p- 354), which by Battandier (‘‘ Flore de l’Algérie,”’ 1890, p. 720) was placed as a synonym of Cy. latifolium Sibth. & Sm., and Cy. Persvcum Hort, from ‘‘Frontiére tunisienne.’? The description left no doubt but this was the plant I had found. No specimen, however, is to be found in Cosson’s Herbarium, from Tunis, so his record must remain uncertain. When going over the species of Cyclamen Minutes of Proceedings. 273 in the British Museum last October, Mr. E. G. Baker called. my attention to the ‘‘ Catalogue raisonné des plantes vasculaires de la Tunisie,” par Ed. Bonnet et G. Barratte. Paris: Imp. Nationale, 1896, which had quite recently come to hand. Here Cy. Persica is recorded not only from Dj. Bou-Kournein, but from other localities near ‘unis. Many interesting details about this species and its geographical distribution are also given, and the reasons assigned for adhering to the specific name of Persica, and for adopting the generic form of Cyclaminus, appear unanswerable. The following Recommendation from the Council was adopted :— ‘“¢That £35 be granted to Professor-A. C. Haddon, sc.p., to assist him in his Investigation of the Decorative Art of Borneo.” Donations to the Library were announced, and thanks were voted to the Donors. Transactions, Vol. xxxt., Part 5, ‘‘The Twelfth and concluding Memoir on the ‘The Theory of Screws,’ with a Summary of the Twelve Memoirs.”” By Sir Robert 8. Ball, tx.p., F.R.s., was laid on the table. Monpay, January 24, 1898. Mr. Joun Risron GarstIn, D.L., F.S.4., In the Chair. Professor J. P. O’Reilly read a Paper ‘‘On the old Black Tower of Chambles, near St. Etienne (Loire).”’ Mr. George Coffey, B.a.1., read a Report by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, M.R.L.A., and himself, ‘‘On the excavation of Topped Mountain Cairn, County Fermanagh.” Mr. George Coffey read also a ‘‘ Report on Mr. Thomas Plunkett’s Exploration of a Cairn on Belmore Mountain, County Fermanagh.” The objects obtained in excavating Topped Mountain Cairn were on exhibition. The objects obtained on excavating the Cairn on Belmore Moun- tain, and a portion of a Clay Mould found in Coal Bog, were exhibited and presented to the Academy’s Museum by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, M.R.I.A, A special vote of thanks was given to Mr. T. Plunkett for his presentation to the Museum. : 274 Royal Irish Academy. Monpay, Fresruary 14, 1898. Dr. J. K. Ineram, Vice-Provost of Trinity College, a Vice-President, in the Chair. The Secretary read a Paper by Mr. R. A. Stewart Macalister, m.a., ‘““On an Ancient Settlement in the South-West of the Barony of Corkaguiney, in the County of Kerry.” Monpay, Frsruary 28, 1898. Most Rev. Dr. Donnetty, Lord Bishop of Canea, a Vice-President, in the Chair. Dr. Frazer exhibited and described— 1. Some Flint Implements from Antrim, and made some remarks on their probable use. 2. Some arrow points from South America in Jasper, Obsidian, &e. 3. A series of rare historical medals. Mr. George Coffey called attention to a number of Antiquities either purchased for or recently presented to the Museum. A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Thomas Plunkett and Mr. R.~ Clark for their donations to the Museum. Wepnespay, Marcu 16, 1898. (Stated Meeting.) Str Joun Gitperr, 1u.p., a Vice-President, in the Chair. The Vice-President in the Chair declared the ballot open for the election of President and Council for the ensuing year; and appointed Mr. G. Walpole and Mr. Colgan as Scrutineers. A ballot was also opened for the election of Honorary Members, and Dr. Scharff and Mr. Craig were appointed Scrutineers. Minutes of Proceedings. 275. The Secretary of the Council read the following :— Report oF THE CouNcIL FoR THE YEAR 1897-8. Since the date of the last Report the following Publications of the Academy have been issued :— Transactions, vol. xxxi. Part 3. ‘‘ Notes on Rockall Island and Bank, with an Account of the Petrology of Rockall, and of its Winds, Currents, &c.: with Reports on the Ornithology, the Invertebrate Fauna of the Bank, and on its previous History.” By the Rev. W. 8. Green, m.a., and others. Part 4. ‘‘ Further Development of the Relations between Impul- sive Screws and Instantaneous Screws, being the Eleventh Memoir on the ‘ Theory of Screws.’”” By Sir Robert 8. Ball, t1.p., F.R.s. Part 5. ‘The Twelfth and Concluding Memoir on the ‘ Theory of Screws,’ with a Summary of the Twelve Memoirs.” By Sir Robert Ball, t.p., F.R.s. Proceedings. Of the Proceedings, Third Series, Part 2 of Vol. 1v., was published in April, 1897, and contained the following Papers :— “A Study of the Languages of Torres Straits, with Vocabularies and Grammatical Notes.” (Part 2). By Sidney H. Ray, and A. C. Haddon, m.a., p.se. (continued from last Part). ‘Vector Expressions for Curves.’’ By Charles J. Joly, m.a., F.1.¢.D. Part I.—‘‘ Unicursal Curves.” “On the Melting Points of Minerals.”’ By Ralph S. Cusack. **Concerning Marsh’s Library and an Original Indulgence from Cardinal Wolsey lately discovered therein.” By Rey. George T. Stokes, p.p. And Part 3 of Vol. 1v. in July, 1897, containing the following Paper :— ‘On the Origin of the European Fauna.” By R. F. Scharff, pu.p., B.SC., F.Z.8. 276 Royal Irish Academy. And Part 4 of Vol. rv. in December, 1897, containing the follow- ing Papers :— *On the Homographic Divisions of Planes, Spheres, and Space, and on the Systems of Lines joining Corresponding Points.” By Charles Jasper Joly, M.a., F.T.c.D. ‘‘ Human Locomotion: Variation of Velocity when Walking.” By Ralph 8. Cusack. ‘* The Effect of Change in Temperature on Phosphorescent Substances.” By Ralph 8. Cusack. *“‘The Distribution of ‘Cromlechs’ in the County of Clare.” By Thomas Johnson Westropp, M.A. ‘Discovery of Human and other Remains, with Materials similar to those of a Crannoge, high above the present Valley of the Black- water between Lismore Castle and Cathedral.’”’ By R.J. Ussher. ‘On some Human Remains recently discovered near Lismore.’’ By D. J. Cunningham, m.p., ¥.z.s., and C. R. Browne, m.p. * Report on a Prehistoric Burial near Newcastle, County of Wicklow.” By George Coffey, C. Browne, u.p., and T. J. Westropp, M.a. ‘On the Constitution of the Calp Shale of the neighbourhood of Dublin.” By Professor J.%P. O'Reilly, c.z. “Studies in Irish Craniology: III. A Neolithic Cist Burial at Old- bridge, County of Meath.”” By Alfred C. Haddon, m.a., p.sc. **On Stone Markings (Ship-Figure) recently discovered at Dowth, in the County of Meath.” By George Coffey, B.a.1. The following Publication is in the Press :— Transactions, vol. xxxi., Part 6. ‘On New Papyrus-Fragments from the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.” By Rev. John P. Mahaffy, p.p. The following Science Grants, recommended by Council, were sanctioned by the Academy :— £100 to a Committee consisting of Lord Rosse, Dr. G. F. FitzGerald, and Mr. E. Cullum, to assist them in carrying on the Magnetical Observatory at Valentia. Minutes of Proceedings. 277 £35 to a Committee consisting of Rey. Dr. S Haughton, Dr. D, J, Cunningham, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and Dr. Charles R. Browne, to assist them in carrying on the work of the Anthropometrical Laboratory, Trinity College, Dublin, and the Ethnographical Survey of Ireland. £12 to Mr. Henry Dixon to assist him in carrying on his investi- gations of the Physics of the Transpiration Current, and the Problem of the Ascent of Sap in High Trees. £6 to a Committee consisting of Dr. E. P. Wright, Messrs. F. W. Moore, and D. M‘Ardle, to assist them in the investigation of the Irish Hepatice. £35 to a Committee consisting of Dr. R. F. Scharff, Messrs. G. H. Carpenter, A. R. Nichols, G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, R. J. Ussher, R. Lloyd Praeger, and H. Lyster Jameson, to assist them in continuing their researches into the Fauna of Ireland. [ This Grant was subsequently returned by the Grantees. | £12 to Mr. Thomas Plunkett to assist him in exploring a large Cairn a short distance from Enniskillen. £35 to Prof. A. C. Haddon, p.sc., to assist him in his investigation of the Decorative Art of Borneo. The Secretary of Council reports that he has again secured Mr. Purton’s assistance in the preparation of slips for the Irish Dictionary. The Council regret that they have not been able to appoint during the past year a Todd Professor of the Celtic Languages; but they hope that before long the vacant post will be filled up. With respect to the Annals of Ulster, the Editor, Rev. Dr. MacCarthy reports that the Index is nearly printed off, and that he anticipates the publication of this the final volume of the Annals, con- taining Introduction and Index, in the autumn of the present year. The attention of the Council having been drawn to the publication of a paper in Archeologia, describing a valuable find of gold ornaments and other objects in the north of Ireland, they deemed it right to bring the question of the finding and the sale in London of these objects, which seemed to come under the category of treasure trove, 278 Royal Irish Academy. before the notice of the Irish Government; they accordingly drew up and forwarded a Memorial to His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant, stating the details of the case as far as at present known to them, and requesting His Excellency’s aid in procuring the transfer of this find to the Academy’s museum. They have received an acknowledg- ment of the receipt of the Memorial, which, they are informed, is under consideration. (Vide Appendix p. 287.) Two additional rooms in the Museum Building have been, as was anticipated in the last Report, made available for the Academy’s col- lections ; the arrangement of which on a more systematic basis is now being carried out, and an improved system of lighting the Long Room, in which portions of the Academy’s collections are exhibited, has been introduced. The Curatorship of the Academy’s Museum having for some time remained vacant, the Council was in May, 1897, requested by the Lord President of the Committee of Council on Education to make a selection from a limited number of candidates, submitted to them, for the office. They accordingly selected Mr. George Coffey, B.a.1, and he was appointed by the Lord President with the title of ‘‘ Superinten- dent of the Collection of Irish Antiquities in the Science and Art Museum.”’ During the past year several important donations have been made: to the Library of the Academy. Among these were the following :— From The Earl of Crawford, his privately printed works on Procla- mations. From Rey. M. H. Close, Treasurer of the Academy, a set of valuable geological drawings by the late G. V. Du Noyer, m.n.1.4. From Edward Perceval Wright, m.p., Secretary of the Academy, a collection of autograph letters of the first Earl of Charlemont, Presi- dent of this Academy (1785), addressed to Alexander Haliday, m.p., of Belfast. This collection is specially valuable here, as it supple- ments the series of Charlemont correspondence presented to the Academy by James Molyneux, third Earl of Charlemont. From the representatives of the late Thomas Coats, Esq., of Ferguslie, a copy of the valuable and elaborately illustrated work, in three quarto volumes, on the ‘‘ Coinage of Scotland.”” By Ed. Burns, F.S8.A., SCOt. Minutes of Proceedings. 279 The Geological Survey of Ireland has presented such of their maps as were requisite to complete the set already in the Academy Library. A copy has been secured for the Academy of the very important work in many volumes, entitled ‘“‘1 Diarii di Marino Sanuto,” recently printed at Venice, and of which there is no other set in Ireland. Among the objects added to the Academy’s Collection since March 16th, 1897, the following are deserving of mention :— (1.) A Gold Unclosed Ring (called ring money) from the County Cavan. ‘ (2.) A Gold Medizeval Brooch, with settings of coloured stones, found in the excavations of the Dublin Main Drainage Works. (3.) Nine Wooden Traps, known as Otter Traps, from the County Fermanagh. (4.) A Bronze Ring-Brooch ; presented by Edmund Johnson, Esq., M.R.I.A. (5.) The Upper Stone of a Quern (decorated) ; presented by F. M. Olpherts, Esq. (6.) A small collection of Bronze Antiquities; purchased from T. Rothwell, Esq. (7.) A small collection of Bronze Antiquities; purchased from Colonel Beresford Knox. The following Members have been elected since 16th March, 1897 :— George Bryers. Edward Parnall Culverwell, M.a., F.7.0.D. ; Rev. Michael P. Hickey. John Joly, D.sc., F.R.S. Edwin William Lovegrove, M.A. Rey. Thomas Mills, m.a. Thomas Frederick Cooke Trench, p.t. At the Stated Meeting, on the 16th March, 1897— A, Michel Lévy, Albert von Kolliker, Hon. F.R.S., were elected Honorary Members in the Section of Science. 286 Royal Irish Academy. The Academy has lost by death within the year twelve Members :— William Archer, F.r.s., elected 10th January, 1870. Right Hon. Chichester, Baron Carlingford, x.p., elected 12th May, 1873. Rey. Joseph Carson, p.p., Vice-Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, elected 12th February, 1838. James Colthurst, m.a., Lu.D., elected 9th February, 1885. William James Doherty, o.z., elected 9th June, 1879. Rey. Samuel Haughton, m.p., F.x.s., elected 24th February, 1845. Deputy Surgeon-General Henry King, m.a., m.s., elected 9th April, 1888. George James Knox, m.a., elected 13th February, 1837. Rey. David Mulcahy, p.p., elected 13th February, 1888. Edward Stamer O’Grady, u.B., M.cu., elected 8th January, 1866. John Frazer O’ Reardon, elected 18th November, 1882. Henry Thomas O’ Reilly, F.2.c.s.1., elected 12th April, 1886. The Academy has also lost by death two Honorary Members in the Section of Science :— Julius von Sachs, elected 16th March, 1889. James Joseph Sylvester, elected 16th March, 1885. And three Honorary Members in the Section of Polite Literature and Antiquities :— Sir Edward Augustus Bond, x.c.s., elected 16th March, 1882. Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks, x.c.s., elected 16th March, 1875. Don Pascual Gayangos y Arce, elected 16th March, 1869. William Archer was born the 6th May, 1827. He was the eldest child of the Rey. Richard Archer, B.A., Dublin, Vicar of Clonduff, Rathfriland, in the county of Down. He came of an old Wexford family. His grandfather was William Archer, of Wexford, and his great-great-grandfather was Henry Archer, of Ross. In the early forties Archer obtained a Bank appointment in Dublin, where, on his father’s death, in October, 1849, the family settled. There seems no doubt that most of Archer’s youth was spent in the pleasant and pic- turesque country about Rathfriland, Hilltown, and Rostrevor; on his taking up his residence in Dublin, he began to work at microscopic forms Minutes of Proceedings. 281 and all his holiday time was spent in an investigation of the Flora and Fauna of the Dublin hills. About 1854 there was a small group of students in Trinity College, Dublin, who, on the invitation of Dr. R. Ball, the then Curator of the Natural History Museum of the University, met at short intervals for the practical study of Zoology. At first their studies were confined to preserved specimens; but, under the influence of Professors Allman and Harvey, microsco- pical work upon living forms formed the greater part of their investi- gation. The ponds in the Phoenix Park were their happy hunting grounds. In kindred study in the Zoological Gardens Archer met with the College workers. To their delight. he told them more about the forms met with than ever they had known. He had at this time an excellent knowledge of the Dublin Desmids, and a wonderful power of diagnosing the species. Professors Allman and Harvey were de- lighted with their extra-academic pupil, and he was made very wel- come within the College walls. His brother Richard was at this time a College student in the Law School, but neither he nor his brother Holt ever developed any special taste for biological studies. With all his diffidence Archer was no misanthrope. Nothing delighted him more than excursions made in company of some chosen friend, and it seemed quite natural that a brotherhood should be started with the object of combining a study of natural history, from a practical point of view, with a thoroughly social reunion. The Dublin Microscopical Club was the result. It was limited to twelve members. Each should be a practical worker with the microscope. The meetings were held at the houses or rooms of the members. On an election one vote against excluded. This club, founded in 1857, preserved its original code of rules and method of work until 1897 with excellent results so far as science went, and with no little advantage to its members. In 1870 Archer was elected a member of this Academy. He filled the office of Secretary of Foreign Correspondence from 1875 to 1879. In this latter year he was awarded the Academy’s Cunningham Gold Medal. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1875. In 1877 he was elected to the Librarianship of the Royal Dublin Society. For years he had served on its Library Committee, and his qualifica- tions for the office were strongly testified to by W. B. Carpenter, Thomas H. Huxley, W. Thiselton Dyer, and Ray Lankester, to 282 Royal Irish Academy. mention only those of his supporters not resident in Ireland. When in 1890 the greater portion of this Library was, by an agreement, transferred to the Committee of Council on Education to form the National Library for Ireland, Archer became the Principal Librarian, in which position he remained until, under the superannuation clause, he retired in 1895. At the time of his retirement Archer was in a precarious state of health, from which condition he never quite recovered; he died on the 14th of August, 1897. Of his work as Librarian of our National Library this is not the place to speak ; but scme brief account of his scientific work, by which his name will be known to all future workers, is called for. His first important work was a catalogue of the Desmids found near Dublin, which was communicated to the Dublin University Zoological and Botanical Association in January, 1857, and which was the result of investigations carried on during 1854-56. Supplements to this were published in 1858, and then, for the first time, several new species were described and figured by him. These memoirs brought Archer into correspondence with M. de Brébisson, of Falaise, and led to his being intrusted by Andrew Pritchard with the revision of the group of Desmids for his ‘‘ History of Infusoria,’’ published in 1861. From this time Archer’s contributions to our knowledge of the fresh-water Chlorophycez were numerous. All were based on personal observation, carried on over considerable periods of time. Archer was never in a hurry to describe an apparently new form ; on the contrary, he often exhibited interesting species at the meetings of the Micro- scopical Club without describing them, resting in the hope of getting more details. One result of this reticence has been that all such not published are now lost to science; for Archer, however good as a collector and observer, did not properly preserve his specimens, and has left no named series behind him. It was almost impossible to investigate the minute forms of Algze without constantly encountering the minute forms of animal life. In 1868 he discovered Stephanosphera pluvialis Cohn, on Bray Head, and made the amceba-form stage of this Alga a special study. For this purpose he plunged into the whole subject of amceboid bodies, with the result that his name will be for ever associated with the life-history of the fresh-water Rhizopods and Heliozoa. The first of a remarkable series of contributions to our knowledge of these forms began in 1869, Minutes of Proceedings. 283 in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (vol. ix., n. s.), ‘¢On Fresh-water Rhizopods, new or little known,” and culminated in his splendid Memoir, published in our own Proceedings (vol. ii., ser. 2, Science); ‘‘On Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides, nov. gen. et spec., a new fresh-water Sarcodic Organism.’”’ The beautiful illus- trations to these memoirs are all from Archer’s original drawings, which he elaborated with a delicacy of touch that left it difficult to reproduce them. The period of Archer’s life in which he made and published these brilliant researches was that in which he had most leisure, and in which he was freest from the ordinary cares of life. Days were spent by the flooded grounds near the Westmeath lakes, or in Connemara, or on the shores of Bantry Bay, and such excursions were ever attended by fresh discoveries; but in 1876 his whole time was devoted to his library work. Gradually the combined factors of increasing work and increasing years became too onerous for him, and for some years before his death his once favourite pursuits were completely abandoned. The Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers enumerates 59 of his memoirs. Rev. Joseph Carson, D.D., had a long and distinguished career in Trinity College. He obtained a Scholarship in 1833 and a Fellow- ship in 1837, and was co-opted as a Senior Fellow in 1866. In 1878 he was eiected to the Professorship of Hebrew, and became Vice- Provost in 1890. He was an active and zealous member of his Uni- versity, and faithfully served its interests. His counsel was always valued, and he had in particular a high reputation for ability asa financial administrator. Having become a member of this Academy in 1838, he was elected a member of Council in 1857, and Treasurer the same year; this office he continued to hold during the ten follow- ing years. By the death of Dr. Samuel Haughton, on October 31st, 1897, the Academy has lost one of its most highly valued Members; one, moreover, of the oldest, as he joined on February 25th, 1845, now fifty-three years ago. His family belonged to the Society of Friends, and were natives of Carlow, in which town he was born in 1821. He displayed very early the intellectual abilities R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1897—98. [ 26 | 284 Royal Irish Academy. which made him so distinguished in after-life. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1838, and after a very successful under- graduate career, he was, in 1844, elected Fellow thereof, at the early age of 23, and on his first appearance as a candidate for the office. Having attained this position chiefly by mathematics and mathematical physics, he allowed his early interest in Natural History to reassert itself; and when, by the appointment of Professor Oldham to the Directorship of the Geological Survey of India, in 1851, the Chair of Geology in the University became vacant, Dr. Haughton was elected thereto as the most suitable person for the post. During the thirty years of his occupation of it, besides the instruction of his classes, he did a large amount of original work in Geology, in the form of nume- rous Papers which have appeared in the publications of the Royal Society of London, the Royal Irish Academy, and the Journals of the Geological Societies of London and of Ireland, &c. The composition of the granites of Ireland and of Scotland especially engaged his attention. He wrote also on various paleontological and minera- logical subjects. His knowledge of mathematics and physics enabled him to attack sundry questions in Physiology and in Cosmology, some of which latter are still under discussion. We may here note his ‘‘ Manual of Geology” (first edition, London, 1865), and his ‘“‘ Lectures on Physical Geography”? (in the Dublin University Press series) ; both books being marked with his usual originality and versatility. His studies in Paleontology suggested to him to take up the sub- ject of human anatomy and physiology, and for this purpose he entered the Medical School and followed out its course as a young student might do, and took the degree of M.D. in 1862. He after- wards wrote various Papers in medical and other publications on physiological and pathological subjects. One result of his anatomical studies was his book on the ‘Principles of Animal Mechanics” (London, 1873). This work occupied his attention for a long time; it consisted principally of many Papers written on the subject during a period of ten years. This undertaking was of special imterest to him; as it opened to him a new line of discovery by the application of mathematics to the structure and mode of working of the muscular system of the vertebrate animals. He obtained, in many cases, illus- trations of the Principle of Least Action in the vertebrate organization. Minutes of Proceedings. 285 This name was taken from that of the other well-known principle in dynamics and physics, which was pointed out originally by Mauper- tuis. The instances of this in organic and in inorganic nature, though not identical in character, are analogous, and both may be included under the head of the principle of Economy in the working of nature. Dr. Haughton showed in various instances that the arrangement and mutual position of the muscular fibres, the bones, and the joints was such as to produce the required effect with the least demand on the muscular tissue ; thereby allowing the amount of that tissue, absolutely necessary for the purpose, to be at a minimum. He believed that the operation of this- principle was, in certain cases, modified by other requirements, e.g. that of beauty of form. This subject had a particular attraction for Dr. Haughton, not only from its purely scientific, but also from its teleological aspect, as indicative of the operation of mind and purpose in nature. This work cost him great and long-continued labour for its completion. It was that on which he himself looked with most complacency, and by which, especially, he hoped to be remembered in after-time. We may here allude to his exposition in that book of the Law of Fatigue, from experiments on others and on himself. It seems natural that he should wish to learn more about a condition, of which, if we may judge from his indefatigable activity, he must have had in himself but an imperfect conception. We need not do more than mention the numerous elementary works, some of which were written by him- self, singly, and others with the collaboration of his lifelong friend, the Rey. Professor Galbraith. These had a large circulation. On obtaining the degree of M.D. in Dublin University he was appointed the Medical Registrar, and as such he applied himself with his usual determination and energy to the reformation of the School of Physic, and to the improvement of the management of Sir Patrick Dun’s Hospital, which is connected with that School. It may well be imagined that this wasa work of no little difficulty, and calculated to rouse opposition from those long accustomed to the old order of things ; but his strenuous efforts were successful, and were the means of raising the School to its present condition of high efficiency. He was, moreover, largely instrumental in the organization of the School of Engineering. He was co-opted Senior Fellow of Trinity College in 1881. 286 Royal Trish Academy. His activities were by no means confined to the circle of his College duties. When Dublin was visited by cholera, in 1866, he organized a system of provision against it for the poor, and invited and obtained the co-operation of the students, many of whom still live to remember his noble and inspiring speech at the inauguration meeting in the Examination Hall of Trinity College. He was repre- sentative of the University on the General Medical Council, and took a prominent and useful part in the deliberations of that body. His latest attendance at a meeting of the Council in London was ata time when his health and strength were barely sufficient for the effort. He was an active manager of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, in the capacities of Secretary, President, and Treasurer, successively, for many years. He undertook the Secretaryship of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland with its Zoological Gardens in 1864, at atime when some such leader as he was sorely needed to guide it through its difficulties. He worked in his usual style in that office for twenty-one years, and by his assiduity, energy, and resource he carried the Society through crises which, but for him, would probably have been fatal. He was then President of the Society for five years. He was for thirty years, from time to time, a member of the Council of the Royal Irish Academy, and President of it from 1886 to 1891. He loyally communicated most of his principal scientific papers to the Academy, which appear in the Zransactions and Proceedings thereof. In 1848 the Academy presented him with its Cunningham Gold Medal for his paper in the Zransactions ‘‘On the Equilibrium and Motion of Solid and Fluid Bodies.” The Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers enumerates 173 of his memoirs on a great variety of subjects, besides a few written in conjunction with others. If we add his papers published by the Academy since 1883, the year to which the above Catalogue comes down, there results a total of, at least, 186. Special attention may be drawn to his discussion, in 1854 and 1864, of the Diurnal, and of the Semidiurnal, Tides on the coasts of Ireland, founded on the tidal observations made at various stations, in 1850 and 1851, under the direction of the Academy—a very laborious and important work. He calculated also, in the publications of the Royal Society of London, the Tides of the Arctic Seas, from the observa- tions made by various voyagers. Minutes of Proceedings. 287 Dr. Haughton was a man of very remarkable personality and of unusual versatility of powers, as shown not only by his activity in so many diverse lines of science, but also by his efficiency as a man of affairs, and, we may now add, by the interest evinced by him in certain lines of literature. His brightness and hopefulness contri- buted largely to carrying him successfully through many of his under- takings. He was always ready to show generous encouragement to younger students in science who were carefully doing their best. His social qualities and lively humour made him always welcome to his friends; while those who were more intimate with him could prize the deeper moral qualities which underlay those by which he was recommended to outsiders. His merits were widely recognized outside of Ireland. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1858. The Univer- sity of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. in 1868, and the Universities of Cambridge and of Edinburgh that of LL.D., in 1880 and 1884, respectively ; and the University of Bologna that of M.D. in 1888: all honoris causa. [ APPENDIX. | Copy of Memorial referred to in the above Report :— To His Excrettency Guorct Henry, Hart Canoean, x.c., Lord Lieutenant General and General Governor of Ireland. Tur Memoria oF THE Councit oF THE Royat IrtsH AcapEMy SHOWETH THAT— 1. Tue Royat Irish AcapEMy was incorporated in 1786, by Charter of the 28th January, in the 26th year of George III., for the promotion of Science, Polite Literature, and Antiquities. 2. Since the period of its foundation, the Academy has applied itself earnestly to the advancement of these studies, and in the depart- ment of Antiquities it has specially devoted itself to the Antiquities of Ireland. 3. Owing to the constant exertions of the Academy so many 288 Royal Lrish Academy. valuable Relics of Antiquity have been saved from destruction and placed in a safe and accessible position for the gratification and instruction of the lovers of ancient art, that this collection is admitted to be now one of the most important in Europe, and is all put unique in the department of prehistoric gold objects. 4. In 1859 and following years the special attention of the Govern- ment was called, both in Parliament and otherwise, to the importance of improved methods being adopted for the preservation of objects of antiqnity—especially those coming under the denomination of Treasure Trove—and in 1861 the President of the Academy received a letter (2812), dated 20th April, in which Sir Thomas Larcom, Under Secretary, said :— ‘‘ Referring to the correspondence with the Royal Irish Academy, and the Report of the Council of that body on the subject of Treasure Trove in Ireland, I am directed by the Lord Lieutenant to state that the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury have been pleased to sanction the expenditure of one hundred pounds a year in the recovery of Relics of Antiquity, to be carried on upon a plan submitted by His Excellency, through the instrumentality of the Constabulary of the several counties. And I am directed to transmit for the information of the Academy a copy of the Instructions which have been issued for the purpose. ‘¢ His Excellency feels assured he may count upon the assistance and co-operation of the Academy in a measure so useful to the public, and calculated to add to the valuable collection already deposited in the Museum of the Academy.” [The printed documents referred to in the above letter were Circular No. 35, headed ‘‘ Treasure Trove,” and signed ‘“H. J. Brownrigg.’’ Notice dated, Dublin Castle, 20th March, 1861, and signed ‘‘ T. A. Larcom’’—also the Forms of receipt and Certificate of finding. | 5. The Academy willingly agreed to assist to the utmost of its power in carrying out the wishes of His Excellency, and since that time a large number of antiquities, including many torques, rings, and other gold ornaments, have been collected together; the Academy on various occasions haying by special private subscriptions supple- mented the funds granted by Parliament. Minutes of Proceedings. 289 6. When Her Majesty’s Government, in 1868, purchased, along with the entire Petrie Collection of Antiquities, the famous ‘‘ Tara Brooch,” the Government of the day was so deeply impressed with the fact that the Academy was the appropriate place of exhibition of these objects that they ordered them to be deposited with the Academy. 7. In like manner, on the acquisition in 1874 of another object, which for beauty of execution takes its place beside the Tara Brooch, viz. the ‘‘ Ardagh Chalice,” it was deposited among the collections of which the Academy is the guardian. 8. Again in 1884, when the Science and Art Department in London purchased, at the Fountaine Sale, the Reliquary of St. Lachtin, the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury sanctioned the transfer of £452 3s. 6d. from the Civil Contingencies Fund to the credit of the vote for the Science and Art Department in repayment of the amount expended in the purchase of the object, and deposited the shrine in its natural place with the other historic Trish antiquities. 9. From these facts it is obvious that successive Governments have felt that the Royal Irish Academy is the fitting depository of these monuments of early Irish Art. - 10. On the 21st January, 1897, a Paper* was read before the Society of Antiquaries of London, by Mr. Arthur J. Evans, on a remarkable hoard of gold objects recently acquired by Mr. Robert Day, of Cork, and in the Paper Mr. Evans states that ‘‘ the objects were found together by a ploughman, who turned them up in sub- soiling. . . . The spot where the treasure was found is near the sea on the north-west coast of Ireland.” Mr. Evans proceeds to describe the various objects in the “‘ find,” and coming to the consideration ‘‘ whether it contained relics of different periods, or that the treasure itself had been collected from more than one source by its original modern possessor,’’ adds :— “With regard to the last possibility, Mr. Robert Day has made most caretul investigations, and has completely satisfied himself as to the bona fide character of the find, and that all the objects were brought to light at the same place and at the same time. . . . The fine brown * Published in Avche@ologia, second series, vol. v., p. 391. 290 Royal Irish Academy. clay with which all the objects were more or less covered also bore out his statement as to their place of discovery.” 11. It is obvious, therefore, from the above particulars that the find is Zreasure Trove, and should have been forwarded by the finder to the Chief Secretary, or to the Academy, or delivered to the Con- stabulary of the district. 12. The first information which the Council of the Academy had of the matter was the report of the meeting at which the above Paper was read, which appeared in the Atheneum of January 30th, 1897. This report was laid before the Council at its meeting on Ist February, and the matter was referred to the Museum Committee to take such action as was possible with a view to securing the objects for the Museum, and with power to communicate with the Crown Solicitor is necessary. ‘The Committee carefully considered the circumstances of the case as published, and both the Secretary of the Academy and the Secretary of Council had interviews with the Chief Crown Solicitor, and brought under his notice the report of the above-mentioned meet- ing before which the objects were laid. - 18. The objects were subsequently purchased by the British Museum. . 14. It appears therefore to the Council of the Academy that there has been a distinct breach of the regulations regarding treasure trove found in Ireland, and that it is a matter calling for the strictest inves- tigation, how objects of treasure trove found in Ireland have been acquired by a museum in England without having been submitted to the Chief Secretary directly or to the Royal Irish Academy. 15. The Council feel strongly that, although the British Museum is one of the public museums of the United Kingdom, yet the proper place in which these objects should be deposited is the Royal Irish Academy’s Collection in the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin, and that the Treasury should be urged to take steps for the transfer of these objects to the Museum in Dublin similar to the steps taken in 1884 for the transfer of the Shrine of St. Lachtin referred to in paragraph 8. Your memorialists therefore respectfully request that Your Excellency may be pleased to use your influence with Her Majesty’s Government with a view to having these objects, found im Lreland, placed along with the other Irish antiquities in the National Collection Minutes of Proceedings. 291 deposited in the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, where, but for the evasion of the usual method of dealing with gold objects found in Ireland, they would already have taken their place. In making this earnest appeal to Your Excellency the Council are not only actuated by their sense of duty with regard to the interests of the National Collection, but also feel strongly that the interests of _ archeology will be best served by placing these antiquities in what is admitted to be the most important collection of kindred objects, which it is desirable to render as complete as possible for the purposes of comparative study. Signed on behalf of the President and Council of the Royal Irish Academy. M4 N. Downetty, Bishop of Canea, Vice-President. Rosert Arkinson, Secretary of Council. The Report was adopted. On the Report of the Scrutineers the following were declared duly elected as Honorary Members :— In the Section of Science. Paul Heinrich Groth. Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, Bart. Luigi Cremona. In the Section of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Friedrich Blass. Antonio Ceriani. Louis Duchesne. Oscar Montelius. On the Report of the Scrutineers, the Vice-President declared the following duly elected as President and Council for the ensuing year :— tig PRESIDENT. Rieut Hon. THe Ear or Rossz, K.P., LL.D., F.R.S. CouncIL. Committee of Scrence. Edward Perceval Wright, m.p. Francis A. Tarleton, 1x.D., D.sc. Benjamin Williamson, p.sc. R.I.A. MINUTES, SESSION 1897—98. [27] 292 Royal Irish Academy. Committee of Science—continued. J. P. O’Reilly, c.z. George L. Cathcart, m.a. George Henry Kinahan, o.x. Robert F. Scharff, B.sc., PH.D. Greenwood Pim, m.a. Grenville A. J. Cole, F.a.s. Charles J. Joly, m.a. F. W. Moore. Committee of Polite Literature and Antiquities. Robert Atkinson, Lt.D. Rey. Maxwell H. Close, m.a. Sir John T. Gilbert, r1.p., F.s.4. Louis C. Purser, M.A., LITT.D. Most Rev. Bishop Donnelly, p.v. Lord Walter FitzGerald. Rev. J. H. Bernard, p.p. John Kells Ingram, L1.p. John Ribton Garstin, M.A., F.s.a. Thomas J. Westropp, M.A. A ballot was opened for the election of Officers. Count Plunkett and Mr. George L. Cathcart were appointed as Scrutineers, The following were declared elected :— TreasurER—Reyv. M. H. Close, m.a. Srcretary—Ed. Perceval Wright, m.p. SECRETARY OF THE Counctr—Robert Atkinson, Lu.D. Sxcrerary or Forrren Corresronpence—Joseph P, O’Reilly, c.z. Lisrartan—sir John T. Gilbert, tx.p. Assistant SecrETARY—Robert Macalister, Lt.z. The Academy then adjourned. Aopal Srish Academp. GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNTS FROM Ist April, 1897, to 31st March, 1898. ROVYAI IRES GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE ACCOUNT OF REV. MAX RECEIPTS. FOR THE YEAR EN Total of each Class. Bulauce from last Year, PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS :— General grantinaid,. . [For Treasure Trove Account see below. 7 Refund by Government, on account of Annals of Ulster, SCIENCE GRANT :— Returned by Grantees, MEMBERS’ PAYMENTS :— Entrance Fees, : Annual Subscriptions, . PUBLICATIONS SOLD :— Transactions and Cunningham Memoirs, Proceedings, . Lets Trish Facsimiles, . Todd Lectures, and Irish MSS. Series, INTEREST ON INVESTMENTS :— Life Composition—22 per Cent. Consol. Stock, Cunningham Bequest—22 per Cent. Consol. Stock, Geological Illustration Fund—23 per Cent. Consol. Stock, th ic} on DOr w wmNow w 11 11, Saoz ety a3 ! \£21387 13 5 TREASURE TR Balance from last year, . Grant 1896-7, . £109 18 11 Balance from last year, Interest on investments, I certify that the above account is correct, according to the best of CADEMY. st or MARCH, 1898. PAYMENTS. CLOSE, TREASURER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, For SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY PURPOSES :— Scientific Reports, . : Library, . . Trish Seribes, &e. 5 for ‘Dictionary Work, : : Printing Preface and Index of Annals of Ulster, . : Printing Transactions and Proceedings and Cunningham Memoirs, and Memon, in folio, on “Irish High Crosses,”’ Sena eA St pee ” ESTABLISHMENT CHARGES :— - Salaries, : Seta apts Wages and Liveries, Furniture and Repairs, Fuel and Gas, : Insurance and Law Expenses, : Stationery, Printing (Miscellaneous), Postage, Freights, Incidentals, and Contingencies, INVESTMENTS (CAPITAL) :— ” Ene Description. Gens Life Membership Com: Sas ¥ L ey positions, . .| — - —| Gov. 2% Stock, |4181 17 11 Cunningham Fund, =| = = =|. Do. do. |2653 9 9 Geological Illustration ao 6 6a 09 ol Se} 1Dhe do. 435 7 4 Todd Memorial Fund, | 38 18 7 Do. do, |164116 I >, Balance to Credit, £3 Ge Gh 235 0 0 3803 8 6 1K) ff) 43 12 0 DOOMROM ETO, 871 10 0 217 4-6 (o) 6) Ul O2ie (eel Sie 2ieeO 13 12.3 iG 0) Py 348)! UG G2 25 16 5 Total of each Class. 1328 16 4 783 0 8 25 16 5 £2137 138 5 SS ee SS CCOUNT. 25) & Ch Antiquities purchased, . 109 18 11 £109 18 11 3 fh) Uh Purchase of £38 18s. 7d. Government 2? per Cent. Stock, 43 8 6 Advertisements of Vacant Todd Professorship, . 115 0 £45 3 5 knowledge and belief.—Maxwrtu H. Cros, Treasurer, R.I.A.— [For Auditors’ Report see next page. AUDITORS’ REPORT. We have examined the above General Abstract, and compared the Vouchers for the details of the several heads thereof, and find the same to be correct, leaving a Balance to the credit of the Academy’s General Account of Twenty-five Pounds Sixteen Shillings and Five Pence. The Treasurer has also exhibited to us Certificates in respect of the invested Capital, showing that the amounts of Stock standing in the name of the Academy were Two Thousand Six Hundred and Fifty-three Pounds Nine Shillings and Nine Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account A, being the Capital of the ‘‘ Cunningham Fund’’; Four Thousand One Hundred and Eighty-one Pounds Seventeen Shillings and Eleven Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account B, being Capital derived from Life Compositions ; and Four Hundred and Thirty-five Pounds Seven Shillings and Four Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, Account C, being the Capital of the Geo- logical Illustration Fund. Like Certificates have been exhibited to us showing a sum of One Thousand Two Hundred and Nine Pounds Eighteen Shillings and Four Pence, 2% per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, in the Court of Chan- cery, andasum of Four Hundred and Thirty-one Pounds Seventeen Shillings and Nine Pence, 22 per Cent. Consolidated Government Stock, standing in the names of Trustees, which together form the Invested Capital of the “'Todd Memorial Fund.”’ 3 WILLIAM FRAZER, (Signed), Auditors. WILLIAM REYNELL, 28th May, 1898. , aaa i rs ee Ds stil ie ads ie Dake Coe = ley re —_ A ah j , ‘ $ > 34 47 \ Os Nae } eu3 go AMNH LIBRARY